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MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
KENT COUNTY

MARYLAND
GEOLOGICAL SURV

BALTIMORE
THE JOHNS HOPKINS PRESS
1926

ADVISORY COUNCIL

RAYMOND A. PEARSON Executive Officek

PRESIDENT UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND

FRANK J. GOODNOW - - - - - - Ex-officio Member

PRESIDENT JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY

ROBERT W. WILLIAMS Baltimore

JOHN B. FERGUSON

Hagerstown

SCIENTIFIC STAFF

Edward Bennett Mathews State Geologist

SUPERINTENDENT OF THE SURVEY

Edward W. Berry Assistant State Geologist

B. L. Miller Geologist

J. T. Singewald, Jr. Geologist

Also with the cooperation of several members of the scientific
bureaus of the National Government and Carnegie Institution.

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

To His Excellency Albert C. Ritchie^ Governor of Maryland,

Sir: — I have the honor to present herewith a report on The
Physical Features of Kent County. This volume is the eighth of a
series of reports on the county resources, and is accompanied by
large scale topographical, geological, and agricultural soil maps.
The information contained in this volume will prove of both eco-
nomic and educational value to the residents of Kent County as well
as to those who may desire information regarding this section of
the State. I am,

Very respectfully,

Edward Bennett Mathews,
State Geologist.

Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore, February, 1926.

CONTENTS

PAGE

PREFACE 17

THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF KENT COUNTY. By Benjamin L.

Miller 19

INTRODUCTION 21

DEVELOPMENT OF KNOWLEDGE CONCERNING THE PHYSICAL

FEATURES OF KENT COUNTY, WITH BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . 25

Introductory 25

The Upper Cretaceous 27

The Eocene 28

The Miocene 29

The Pleistocene 29

Bibliography 30

THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF KENT COUNTY. By Benjamin L. Miller. . 45

Introductory 45

Topographic Description 46

Tidal Marshes 47

Talbot Plain 48

Wicomico Plain 48

The Drainage of Kent County 50

Stream Divides 50

Tidewater Estuaries 51

Minor Streams 53

Topographic History 54

The Wicomico Stage 55

The Talbot Stage 55

The Recent Stage 56

THE GEOLOGY OF KENT COUNTY. By Benjamin L. Miller 57

Introductory 57

The Cretaceous System 57

Lower Cretaceous 58

The Potomac Group 58

Upper Cretaceous 58

The Raritan Formation 58

Areal Distribution 58

Character of Materials 59

Paleontologic Character 61

Strike, Dip, and Thickness 61

Stratigraphic Relations 61

CONTEXTS

PAGE

The Magothy Formation 61

Areal Distribution 62

Character of Materials 62

Paleontologic Character 64

Strike, Dip, and Thickness 64

Stratigraphic Relations 65

The Matawan Formation 65

Areal Distribution 65

Character of Materials 66

Paleontologic Character 67

Strike, Dip, and Thickness 67

Stratigraphic Relations 68

The Monmouth Formation 68

Areal Distribution 68

Character of Materials 69

Paleontologic Character 70

Strike, Dip, and Thickness 71

Stratigraphic Relations 71

The Tertiary 71

The Eocene Formations 71

The Pamunkey Group 71

The Aquia Formation 71

Areal Distribution 71

Character of Materials 72

Paleontologic Character 73

Strike, Dip, and Thickness 73

Stratigraphic Relations 74

The Miocene Formations 74

The Chesapeake Group 1'4

The Calvert Formation '''4

Areal Distribution "4

Character of Materials "5

Paleontologic Character 75

Strike, Dip, and Thickness 76

Stratigraphic Relations 76

The Pleistocene Formations 76

The Columbia Group 76

The Wicomico Formation 79

Areal Distribution 79

Character of Materials 79

Physiographic Expression 82

Paleontologic Character 82

Strike, Dip, and Thickness 82

Stratigraphic Relations S3

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 13

PAGE

The Talbot Formation 83

Areal Distribution 83

Character of Materials 84

Physiographic Expression 84

Paleontologic Character 85

Strike, Dip and Thickness 85

Stratigraphic Relations 85

The Recent Deposits 86

Interpretation of the Geological Record 86

Sedimentary Record of the Lower Cretaceous 87

Sedimentary Record of the Upper Cretaceous 88

Sedimentary Record of the Eocene 90

Sedimentary Record of the Miocene 90

Sedimentary Record of the Brandywine Formation 91

Sedimentary Record of the Pleistocene 92

THE MINERAL RESOURCES OF KENT COUNTY. By Benjamin L.

Miller 97

Introductory 97

The Natural Deposits 97

The Clays 97

The Sands 97

The Gravels 98

The Marls 98

The Bog-iron Ore 99

The Water Resources 99

Surface Waters 100

Underground Waters 100

Artesian Waters 100

Non-artesian Waters 106

Springs 106

Shallow Wells 106

THE SOILS OF KENT COUNTY. By Jay A. Bonsteel Ill

Introductory Ill

The Soil Types 115

The Sassafras Loam 116

The Sassafras Gravel Loam 118

The Susquehanna Gravel 119

The Norfolk Sand 120

The Elkton Clay 122

The Meadow 125

The Swamps 126

The Agricultural Conditions 127

Transportation 129

CONTEXTS

PAGE

THE CLIMATE OF KENT COUNTY. By RoscoE NuxN 131

Introductory 131

Climatologicai, Stations 132

Data Available . . . .■ 133

Climatic Features 134

Conclusions 139

THE HYDROGRAPHY OF KENT COUNTY. By N. C. Grover 155

THE MAGNETIC DECLINATION OF KENT COUNTY. By L. A. Bauer 157

Introductory 157

Meridian Line 158

Description of Stations 159

THE FORESTS OF KENT COUNTY. By F. W. Beslet 161

Introductory 161

The Character of the Woodlands 164

The Forest Types 165

Mixed Hardwood Type 166

Mixed Hardwood and Pine Type 167

Pure Pine Type 167

The Native Trees 168

Conifers 168

Hardwoods 168

Important Tree Species 169

White Oak 170

Spanish Oak 170

Willow Oak and Pin Oak 170

Red Gum 170

Yellow Poplar 170

Pine 171

Lumber and Timber Production 171

Lumber 171

Railroad Ties 171

Poles 171

Fencing Material 172

Fuelwood 172

Wood-using Industries 173

Forest Management 174

Management of Mixed Hardwood and Pine 176

Management of Pine Stands 177

Tree Planting 178

Forest Protection 178

Chestnut Blight 179

Summary 179

INDEX 181

ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATE FACING PAGE

I. Fig. 1— View of the Chester River at Millington 32

Fig. 2. — View showing bluff cut in Cretaceous and Pleistocene

deposits by Chesapeake Bay at Betterton 32

II. Fig. 1. — Bay shore at Worton Point showing bluff of Raritan and

Pleistocene materials 48

Fig. 2. — Bay shore at mouth of Lloyd's Creek showing Matawan

formation with ferruginous nodules 48

III. Fig. 1. — View showing cross bedding in the Wicomico formation

near Betterton 56

Fig. 2. — View showing ice-borne boulders in Wicomico loam, %-

mile south of Betterton 56

IV. Views of characteristic Cretaceous fossil shells from

Kent County 64

V. Views of characteristic fossil shells from the Aquia for-
mation of Kent County 72

VI. Views of characteristic Miocene fossil shells of the south-
eastern part of county 80

VII. Fig. 1. — View showing hillside erosion at upper edge of the

Wicomico-Talbot scarp in Kent County 88

Fig. 2. — View showing hillsides with hardwood forests, bordering

marsh land near Still Pond 88

VIII. Fig. 1. — View showing Wicomico-Talbot scarp, Talbot surface in

the foreground, one mile east of Sandy Bottom 104

Fig. 2. — View of same locality from Wicomico plain looking down
on the Talbot plain, the scarp may be seen running
across the middle of the illustration 104

IX. Fig. 1. — View of sand pit at the mouth of Fairlee Creek 112

Fig. 2. — View showing the harvesting of wheat 112

X. Fig. 1. — View showing loblolly pine saplings 160

Fig. 2.— Loblolly pine forest near Rock Hall, at its northern limit

of growth in the United States 160

ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATE FACING PAGE

XI. Fig. 1. — View of destruction of a thrifty stand of young timber

by fire— the worst enemy of the forest 164

Fig. 2. — View showing poles for fish pounds at Rock Hall.

Straight spruce-pine trees are the ones generally used 164

XII. Fig. 1. — View showing mismanaged stand of hardwood near
Howell's Point. Worthless trees should be eliminated

by cutting 172

Fig. 2. — View showing fuel wood cut from thinnings in a loblolly

pine thicket 172

FIGUKE PAGE

1. Section of the Deep Well at Chestertown 103

2. Diagrams showing variations in the length of the growing season

at Coleman and Rock Hall 135

3. Diagrams showing variations in the length of the growing season

at Chestertown and Millington 136

PREFACE

This volume is the eighth of a series of reports dealing with the
physical features of the several counties of Maryland.

The Introduction contains a brief statement regarding the loca-
tion and boundaries of Kent County together with its chief physical
characteristics.

The Physiography of Kent County, by Benjamin L. Miller, com-
prises a discussion of the surface characteristics of the county, to-
gether with a description both of the topographic forms and of the
agencies which have produced them.

The Geology of Kent County, by Benjamin L. Miller, deals with
the stratigraphy and structure of the county. An historical sketch
is given of the work done by others in this field to which is appended
a complete bibliography. Many stratigraphical details are pre-
sented, accompanied by local sections.

The Mineral Resources of Kent County, by Benjamin L. Miller,
deals with the economic possibilities of the various geological
deposits of the county. Those which have been hitherto employed
are fully discussed, and suggestions are made regarding the em-
ployment of others not yet utilized.

The Soils of Kent County, by Jay A. Bonsteel, contains a dis-
cussion of the leading soil types of the county and their relation to
the several geological formations. This investigation was con-
ducted under the direct supervision of Professor Milton Whitney,
Director of the Bureau of Soils of the U. S. Department of
Agriculture.

The Climate of Kent County, by Roscoe Nunn, is an important
contribution to the study of the climatic features of the county.
Mr. Nunn had the benefit of a manuscript prepared some years ago
by Mr. Wm. H. Alexander when Section Director in Baltimore of

PREFACE

the U. S. Weather Bureau, and also Meteorologist of the Maryland
State Weather Service.

The present report has been entirely rewritten and is based
upon the more extended meteorological records now available.

The Hydrograpluj of Kent County, by X. C. Grover, gives a brief
account of the water supply of the county, which, as in the case
of the other Coastal Plain counties, afford but little power for
commercial purposes. The author of this chapter, formerly the
Director of the U. S. Reclamation Service, is now chief of the
Division of Hydrography of the U. S. Geological Survey.

The Magnetic Declination in Kent County, by L. A. Bauer, con-
tains much important information for the local surveyors of the
county. Dr. Bauer has been in charge of the magnetic investiga-
tions since the organization of the Survey and has already published
two important general rei)orts upon this subject. He is the Director
of the Department of International Research in Terrestrial Magnet-
ism of the Carnegie Institution.

The Forests of Kent County, by F. W. Besley, is an important
contribution and should prove of value in the further development
of the forestry interests of the county. Mr. Besley is State Forester
of Maryland.

The State Geological Survey desires to extend its thanks to the
several national organizations which have liberally aided it in the
preparation of several of the papers contained in this volume. The
Director of the U. S. Geological Survey, The Chief of the U. S.
Weather Bureau, and the Chief of the Bureau of Soils of the U. S.
Department of Agriculture have granted many facilities for the
conduct of the several investigations and the value of the report
has been much enhanced thereby.

THE

PHYSICAL FEATURES

KENT COUNTY

THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF
KENT COUNTY

INTRODUCTION

Kent County lies between the parallels of 39° 1' and 39° 23' north
latitude and between the meridians of 75° 46' and 76° 17' west
longitude. It forms a part of the Eastern Shore of Maryland and
has an area of 281 square miles. The county is bounded by water
on the north, west, and south sides; it is separated on the north
from Cecil County by the Sassafras River; the waters of Chesa-
peake Bay wash its shores on the west side; and on the south
Chester River separates it from Queen Anne's County. As the
estuaries of the Sassafras and Chester rivers extend almost to the
Delaware line the county is bounded on three sides by navigable
water. On the east side the Delaware-Maryland line, which was
surveyed by Mason and Dixon about 1765, separate it from the
Delaware counties of Kent and Newcastle. The extreme length of
the county measured from the Delaware line to the extreme south-
west corner is about 40 miles while the average width is less than
10 miles. This means that scarcely any part of the county is more
than five miles distant from navigable water. In the early history
of the region these streams played a very important part in the
development of the region and by means of them the inhabitants
of the county were brought in close communication with the resi-
dents of the western shore counties of St. Mary's and Anne Arundel.

The history ' of Kent County is a long and interesting one. The
county was named for Kent County, England, the name, however,

' For a more extended account see "The Counties of Maryland, their
Origin, Boundaries, and Election Districts" by Edward B. Mathews. Md.
Geol. Survey, vol. vi, pp. 419-572, 1906.

THE PHYSICAL FEATURKS OF KENT COUNTY

being first applied to Kent Island where a trading post was estab-
lished by William Claiborne in 1631. The earliest known reference
to Kent County was made in 1642 and it is supposed that at that
time the county was intended to include all the settlements on the
eastern shore of Chesapeake Bay just as St. Mary's County in-
cluded the entire inhabited portion of the western shore. In 1659
part of the county on the north was taken off to form Baltimore
County and in 1662 Talbot County was organized and a large area
on the south was set off from Kent. Baltimore County probably
included a portion of what is now Kent County, viz.. the settle-
ments on the south shore of the Sassafras River. Later in 1671
when Cecil County was erected out of Baltimore County, this same
region was made a part of the new county. In 1671 Kent Island
was removed from Kent County and annexed to Talbot though a
considerable part of what now constitutes Queen Anne's County
still formed a part of Kent. In 1707 the boundaries of the county
were established approximately as they are at the present time
though the eastern boundary was not definitely fixed until 17.50 and
the survey was not made until about 15 years later.

The indefinite character of the boundaries of the county in early
colonial times is explained by the history of its development. The
whole region was covered with dense forests and with no roads
crossing the peninsula, all the first settlements were made along
the larger water courses and communication was effected solely by
water. Consequently the inhabited and unexplored divides made
more satisfactory boundary lines between the counties than did the
streams which divided settlements whose interests were more
closely united. It was not until almost a century after the first
settlement of the region that the divide between the Chester and
Sassafras rivers became inhabited sufficiently to unite the settlers
on the two sides of the county.

Agriculture is the principal occupation of the inhabitants of
Kent County and has been during almost the entire period since
its earliest settlement by the white men. Claiborne's first settle-

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SUKVEY

ment on Kent Island, prior to the fonnding of St. Mary's City, was
mainly for the purpose of trading with the Indians but witli the
increase of settlers, farming soon became the chief pursuit. Trior
to the coming of the wliite men the region was inhabited by Indians
as is evidenced by the great accumulations of oyster shells found in
various places along Chesapeake Bay. These shell heaps maik the
sites of old Indian villages and usually are found on lathcr elevated
points commanding good views of the surrounding country. One
on the high land near Howell Point is probably the most northerly
Indian kitchen midden of Chesapeake Bay.

During the time that has elapsed since the settlement of the
region probably every acre of land in the county has been under
cultivation and at the present time there is very little land that is
not being cultivated. No doubt there are many farms throughout
the county that have been under practically continuous cultivation
for over 250 years.

There are no large towns in the county, Chestertown, the county
seat, being the largest ; Millington, Sassafras, Galena, Kennedysville,
Stillpond, and Fairlee are small hamlets situated in the midst of
thriving farming communities and supported by them ; while Better-
ton, Tolchester Beach, and Rockhall are popular summer resorts on
Chesapeake Bay much frequented by residents of Baltimore.

Two branches of the Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington
Railroad enter the county, bringing the region into direct communi-
cation with the principal cities of the Atlantic seaboard, while sev-
eral lines of steamers ply between various points along the Chester
and Sassafras rivers and Baltimore and other points on Chesapeake
Bay, while the boats between Baltimore and Philadelphia make
regular stops at Betterton. In this way the whole county is in
close communication with adjoining regions and facilities for trans-
portation of the farm products to market are excellent. Much grain
is shipped to Baltimore at a minimum of expense on small sailing
vessels that are able to pass far up the Chester and Sassafras river
estuaries.

THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF KENT COUNTY

In recent years the State Roads Commission has built improved
highways connecting Chestertown, the county seat, with Rock Hall
and Tolchester on the Chesapeake Bay with the spur line into
Crosby on Lankford Bay. To the north an improved roadway runs
to Georgetown by way of Galena, connecting with the Cecil County
system. A spur line runs from this road into Betterton on the
Sassafras River. An improved highway crosses the county from
Galena to Millington where it connects with the Queen Anne's road
system. Another good road extends from Galena to Lambson. To
the south a highway is built paralleling the water front of the
Chester River from Chestertown to Pomona. Chestertown is con-
nected with the county seat of Queen Anne's County by an improved
highway.

DEVELOPMENT OF KNOWLEDGE CON-
CERNING THE PHYSICAL FEA-
TURES OF KENT COUNTY,
WITH BIBLIOGRAPHY

BENJAMIN L. MILLER

Introductory.

Since 1608 when Captain John Smith explored the upper portion
of the Chesapeake Bay the Coastal Plain of Maryland has attracted
the attention of explorers, travelers, and geologists, many of whom
have published their observations.

In this review no attempt is made to include all who have ^vrit-
ten on the geology of the region but only those who have rendered
most service in advancing our knowledge of the geology of the
area, consequently investigators are mentioned rather than collabo-
rators. The bibliography which follows gives the names of both.

Maclure in 1809 was the first geologist in this country to attempt
to separate the different kinds of rocks on the basis of lithologic
diflferences. These divisions were termed formations. He noted the
wide difference in the characters of the rocks composing the Pied-
mont Plateau and the Coastal Plain and on the basis of these dif-
ferences established two formations. He called the crystalline rocks
of the Piedmont Plateau the "Primitive formation," and the uncon-
solidated deposits of the Coastal Plain the "Alluvial formation."
His conclusions, accompanied by a colored geologic map on which
these divisions were represented were published several times, but
most fully in 1817. The work of Maclure served as a great incen-
tive to geological research in this country outlining as it did the

THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF KENT COUNTY

methods of work which have been followed since his time and which
have yielded such important results.

Ducatel, State Geologist of Maryland from 1834 to 1840, was
the first person to publish any definite information of value con-
cerning the geolog}' of Kent County. In his first report, published
in 1834, he refers to the fossiliferous deposits at "Frederick ferry"
on the Sassafras River and three miles below Chestertown on the
Chester River and discusses the economic value of the marls of the
Coastal Plain. He elaborates upon the same subjects in his report
for the year 1835 and in his 1836 report (published in 1837), he
again calls attention to the shell and greensand marls occurring
within the region, which he thinks might prove valuable as ferti-
lizers. In his 1837 report (published in 1838), he discusses the
physiography and geology of Kent County in a more detailed
manner.

In 1892 Clark in his article on "The Surface Configuration of
Maryland," gave many facts pertaining to the topography of Kent
County. In the following year Williams and Clark brought to-
gether in the volume, "Maryland, its Resources, Industries, and In-
stitutions," all that was then known in regard to the physical feat-
ures, geology, and mineral resources of the State, while in 1897
Clark in Volume I of the Maryland Geological Survey, and in 1906
Clark and Mathews, contributed more detailed reports on the same
subjects. These reports contain brief descriptions of all the
geological formations of the State and county then recognized, and
much information regarding the physical features and economic
resources.

Another important publication is "The Dover Folio" of the
United States Geological Survey by Miller. The area described
includes the greater portion of Kent County and is the most com-
plete work on the general geology of the region published up to the
present. The Systematic Reports, especially those on the Upper
Cretaceous, Eocene, Miocene, Pliocene and Pleistocene describe the
formations and their fossils in greater detail.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

The work on the various geological foiniations found in Kent
County may be summarized as follows :

The Upi-er Cretaceous.

In 1830 Morton described some fossils from the greensand strata
of the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal and stated that they were
pre-Tertiary in age. Eaton had previously claimed that the New
Jersey greensands belonged to the Tertiary. Ducatel in 1836 was
the first writer to mention definite localities in Kent County where
greensands occur. He included all the Potomac, Marine Cretaceous,
and Eocene deposits of the county in his "ferruginous sand forma-
tion." The lithologic characteristics of the strata are accurately
described and mention is made of the occurrence of several Creta-
ceous fossils in Kent County. The strata ai"e correlated with the
greensands of New Jersey which are said to belong to the Secon-
dary period.

In 1865 Conrad described the lignitic beds now included in the
Magothy formation, and supposed that they represented the base of
the Eocene. Darton in 1893 proposed the differentiation of the
Magothy formation and described its lithologic characteristics and
distribution. Roberts in 1895 gave detailed descriptions of several
localities in Kent County where he obtained Cretaceous fossils.

In 1895 Clark presented a paper before the Geological Society
of America in which the Upper Cretaceous deposits of the entire
state were discussed. A map showing the distribution of the strata
accompanied the article. White, in 1891 in a correlation bulletin
of the United States Geological Survey, and Clark in 1897 in
Volume I of the Maryland Geological Survey summed up all exist-
ing knowledge concerning the Upper Cretaceous formations of the
State in which there are references to Kent County localities. Some-
what more detailed information covering a large portion of the
county is contained in the Dover Folio by Miller published in 1906.

THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF KENT COUNTY

The Eocene.

The Eocene deposits of Kent County have received little atten-
tion in the published literature. Only two localities have been
mentioned many times. These are the fossiliferous deposits at
Fredericktown on the Sassafras River, and a few miles below
Chestertown on the Chester River. The fossiliferous greensand
deposit at Fredericktown has generally been correlated with the
Cretaceous greensand deposits of New Jersey because of the
presence of fossils formerly supposed to be confined to the Creta-
ceous. Ducatel in his 1834 report refeired to these deposits and in
his succeeding report correlated them with the New Jersey green-
sand. The same writer mentioned the fossiliferous strata along the
Chester River, below Chestertown, and in his 1837 report correctly
referred those deposits to the Tertiary period.

In 1834 Lea first applied the term Eocene to the Lower Tertiary
deposits of America but it was not until Tyson published his an-
nual report in 1860 that it was definitely stated that Eocene strata
occur on the Chester River, From that time until 1901 the various
published articles on the Eocene were mainly discussions of the
correlation of the Northern Atlantic Coastal Plain strata with
those of the Gulf states and Europe. Conrad, Heilpin, Uhler, Bar-
ton, and Clark contributed to these discussions.

Since 1888 Clark has been the principal investigator of the
Eocene deposits of Maryland and in several of his published articles
he has referred to the Eocene strata of Kent County. He proposed
the classification of the Eocene adopted in this report. The most
complete article is by Clark and Martin in the Eocene volume of
the Maryland Geological Survey published in 1901. In this volume
the fossils of the region are fully described by specialists and each
recognized species is illustrated. In 1906 Miller in the Dover Folio
of the United States Geological Survey also gave much detailed
information concerning the Eocene deposits of Kent County.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

The Miocene.

The Miocene strata, although extremely fossiliferous elsewhere
in Maryland, are practically barren of fossils in Kent County, con-
sequently there are few references in the literature to the Miocene
deposits of the region. The Miocene deposits of Kent County
present few good exposures and have a rather limited distribution
in the southeastern pai-t of the county. In 1842 Conrad, who called
the Miocene the Medial Tertiary, referred to deposits of this age
in the vicinity of Chestertown and this is almost the only reference
to the Miocene deposits of the county until within recent years.
W. B. Rogers in 1836 was the first to announce the presence of
Miocene deposits in Maryland. Conrad later accepted Roger's con-
clusion and between 1830 and 1869 laid the basis for exact correla-
tion through his paleontological work on the molluscan fauna while
Bailey, Ehrenberg and Johnston studied the microscopic forms
which are so abundant in the diatomaceous earth of the Calvert
formation.

The Pleistocene.

Although the Pleistocene deposits cover such a large portion of
the Coastal Plain they received little attention by the early geol-
ogists. This is mainly due to the fact that except in a very few
places, fossils are either extremely rare or entirely absent. Occa-
sional mention is made of the surficial sands and gravels but the
references are brief and indefinite. Chester in 1885 published the
results of his study of the sands and gravels of the peninsula of
Delaware and the Eastern Shore of Maryland. He attributed their
origin to the Delaware River while tha large boulders were said to
have been carried by icebergs. McGee in 1887 and 1888 published
several papers on the Columbia deposits in which he described the
deposits in detail and gave many sections along the shores of Kent
County. He described the deposits as constituting a series of
deltas and terraced littoral deposits. The ice-borne boulders

THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF KENT COUNTY

brought down by the Susquehanna are said to have been fifty
times as large as those carried at the present time.

Darton in articles published in 1891, 1893, and 1901 made valu-
able contributions to our knowledge of these formations. In an
article published in 1901 Shattuck described the gravel deposits of
the North Atlantic Coastal Plain, reviewed former ideas and classi-
fications of these late formations, and proposed the classification
adopted in this report. The latest and most complete discussion is
contained in a recent volume, issued by the Maryland Geological
Survey in 1906, on the Pliocene and Pleistocene Formations of
Maryland. It contains a full discussion of the deposits and also
the fauna and flora which they contain

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1624.

Smith, John. A Generall Historic of Virginia, New England,
and the Summer Isles, etc. London, 1624. (Several editions.)

This work contains many interesting notes on the physiography of Chesapeake Bay
and its tributaries, and briefly described the clays and gravels along their shores. For
a reproduction and discussion of Smith's map see Md. Geol. Surv., Vol. II, pp. 347-360.

1817.

Maclure, William. Observations on the Geology of the United
States of America, with some remarks on the effect produced on the
nature and fertility of soils by the decomposition of the different
classes of rocks. 12 mo. 127 pp. 2 pis. Philadelphia, 1817. Is
an elaboration of an article published in 1809 in Trans. Amer. Phil.
Soc. O.S., Vol. VI, pp. 411-428. Republished in Trans. Amer. Phil.
Soc. N.S., Vol. I, 1818, pp. 1-91.

This work is classic as it was the first attempt to treat the geology of the entire
country and it contains the first published geological map of the United States. In
this work the whole of the Coastal Plain sediments constitute the "AUuviaP' forma-
tion and the Piedmont Plateau the "Primitive."

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

1824.

Finch, John. Geological Essay on the Tertiaiy Formations in
America. (Read before Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., July 15, 1823.)
Amer. Jour. Sci. Vol. VII. pp. 31-43.

Objection is made to the term "Alluvial formation" of Maclure and others on the
ground that the deposits are for the most part not of alluvial origin and also that, as
used, it includes a number of distinct formations that can be correlated with the
"newer secondary and tertiary formations of France, England, Spain, Germany, Italy,
Hungary, Poland, Iceland, Egypt, and Hindoostan. " The writer makes some provi-
sional correlations with European formations which are now known to be incorrect.
He admits, however, that the data are insufficient for accurate correlation.

182G.

Pierce, James. Practical remarks on the shell marl region of
the eastern parts of Virginia and Maryland, etc., extracted from a
letter to the Editor.

Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. XI, pp. 54-59, 1826.

Mentions the occurrence of shell marl of marine origin in the "alluvial" district of
Maryland on both sides of Chesapeake Bay and discusses its value as a fertilizer in
the renovation of exhausted soils.

1830.

Morton, Samuel G. Synopsis of the Organic Remains of the
Ferruginous Sand Formation of the United States, with geological
remarks.

Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. XVII, pp. 274-295; Vol. XVIII, pp. 243-
250, 1830.

The writer describes fossils from the greensand marls of New Jersey, from the
Deep Cut of the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal, and from Maryland. The author
contends that the greensands are pre-Tertiary in age and should be correlated with
the Lower Chalk of England. Eaton had claimed that the beds were of Tertiary age.

1834.

DucATEL, J. T. and Alexander, J. H. Report on the Projected
Survey of the State of Maryland, pursuant to a resolution of the
General Assembly. 8 vo. 39 pp. Annapolis, 1834. Map. Several
editions.

THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF KENT COUNTY

Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXVII, 1835, pp. 1-39.

Fossiliferous deposits occurring at "Frederick ferry" on the Sassafras River and
three miles below Chestertown on the Chester River are described and the statement
is made that "these spots may perhaps be indicated as the commencement of the fos-
siliferous deposits of the Eastern shore of Maryland."

1835.

CoxRAD^ J. A. Observations on the Tertiary Strata of the United
States.

Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXVIII, pp. 104-111, 280-282.

He considers the Miocene absent in this region, the Older Pliocene resting directly
upon the Eocene. The beds containing Perna maxiVata are referred to the Older
Pliocene and the St. Mary's river beds to the Medial Pliocene.

DucATEL^ J. T. and Alexander, J. H. Keport on the Xew Map
of Maryland, 1834. Annapolis, 1835 (?). 8 vo. 59+i pp. Two
maps and one folded table. Contains Engineer's and Geologist's
Reports which were also issued separately. Md. House of Dele-
gates, Dec. Sess. 1834.

Oyster shell heaps near Worton Point are mentioned and their value as fertilizers
suggested. Shell marl is described and Ducatel says that he believes it underlies most
of the Eastern shore though not exposed south of the Choptank river. He says that
it has a dip of 5° to the southwest, while the surface of the marl undulates.

1836.

DuCATEL, J. T. and Alexander, J. H. Report on the new Map
of Maryland, 1835. 8 vo. 84 pp. Maps. Annapolis, 1836.

Md. Pub. Doc, Dec. Sess. 1835.

Engineer's Report, pp. 1-34, Geologist's Report, pp. 35-84.
Both reports also published separately.

Ducatel states that greensand of the age of "the New .Tersey marl has been satis-
factorily ascertained to occur at the head of the Sassafras River in Kent and Cecil
counties and seems to underlie nearly the whole of Kent County. It forms a part of
the ferruginous sand formation." The greensand at one place on the Sassafras River
is said to be filled with shells of terebralulne. The "ferruginous sand formation" is
said to be "very variable, consisting of local and circumscribed deposits of clay, snnd.
and gravel, most of them highly ferruginous and varying in color from deep red,
yellow, gray and green, to black and bluish black." Besides the greensand the "mica-
ceous black sand" is described in detail. It is said to contain in many places, iron
pyrite, spicules of selenite, and fossils, usually in the form of casts. The best

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY KENT COUNTY. PLATE I

Fig. 1. — VIEW of the Chester river at mii.i.ington.

Fig. 2. — view showing bluff cut in citETAcEui s and pleistocene deposits by

CHESAPEAKE BAY AT BETTERTON.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

preserved fossil is Ostrea falcata. At the liead of Churu Creek tlie material was
found to contain "a species of TurriteUa, tlie Cucullea vulgaris of Dr. Morton, claws
of Crustacea, teeth of a saurian animal, fish bones, wood perforated by marine insects,
etc." The micaceous blaclt sand is also noted at Fairlee where it contains iron pyrites
and seienite, and is overlain by a gravel and boulder deposit. Its value as a fertilizer
is doubtful, as both beneficial and injurious results have been given by farmers who
have applied it to their lands. Analyses of greensand, micaceous black sand, clay,
ochre, siliceous sand, and shell marl are given, (p. 83).

1837.

DucATEL, J. T. Outline of the Physical Geography of Maryland,
embracing its prominent Geological features.

Trans. Md. Acad. Sci. and Lit., Vol. I, Pt. I, pp. 24-55. 1837.
With map.

A general description of the physiography and geology of the entire state is given
with many details of lotal features. It is a general summary of information pre-
viously published in various places. Mention is made of the covering of boulders and
coarse gravel near the inner edge of the Secondary (Cretaceous) rocks while farther
out the sands and clays of the Secondary and Tertiary formations are said to be
uncovered.

The secondary rocks are said to cover practically all the county except along the
Chester River. In the greensand the fossils are Terebratulae and Gryphaea vomer and
"in the micaceous black sand there have been found the Exogyra, Ostrca Jalcato, casts
of Cucullaea mortonii, fragments of Ammonites, the tooth of a saurian reptile, claws
of a species of crab, lignites, with other undetermined organic bodies, and in some
localities pyrites and crystals of seienite."

1838.

DucATEL, J. T. Annual Report of the Geologist of Maryland.
1837. Annapolis, 1838. 8 vo. 39 pp., 2 maps.

Md. Pub. Doc, Dec. Sess. 1837.

A good general description of the physiographic features of the county is given.
The soils of the different portions are described and the adaptability to various crops
discussed. "In reference to its geological constitution, the northern and middle por-
tions of the county are based upon deposits of the secondary period, referable to what
in our country has been termed the ferruginous-sand formation, and embracing
extensive beds of greensand containing as characteristic fossils terebretula and
gryphacn, and beds of a micaceous black sand with belemnites, ammonites, exogyrae,
etc. The superincumbent deposits of clay, sand and gravel, that occasionally present
themselves, have very little depth, and belong doubtless to a much more recent epoch,
which it is difficult to assign with precision. The only fossil known to have been
found in them, is the grinder of a mastodon. They are probably of diluvial origin."

Deposits belonging to the Tertiary period are said to occur in the southwest por-
tion of the county along the Chester River. At Farley there is a lignltiferous clay
of this age containing nodules of pyrite and "detached and grouped crystals of
seienite." It is overlain by "a thick stratum of boulder and gravel composed of
coarse and fine-grained sandstone, green stone, micaceous and argillaceous slates,

THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF KENT COUNTY

quartz-rock and quartz, from several hundred pounds weight down to ordinary sized
gravel, the whole covered by a clayey-loamy soil upwards of three feet in depth."
The writer advises the use of greensand, black micaceous sand and oyster shells from
the Indian oyster shell heaps as fertilizers and cites instances where they have been
used with beneficial effects.

Bog-iron ore of good quality is reported at the head of a branch of Worton Creek
on the farm of Mr. Levy Wroth.

1842.

CoNKAD, T. A. Observations on a portion of the Atlantic Ter-
tiary Region, with a description of new species of organic remains.

2d Bull. Proc. Nat. Inst. Prom. Sci., 1842. pp. 171-192.

The Miocene and Eocene are said to not be connected by a single fossil common
to both periods while three forms found in the Upper Secondary are found in the
Eocene.

The Medial Tertiary (Miocene) is said to appear near Chestertown.

1843.

DucATEL, Julius T. Physical History of Maryland.
Abstract, Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc, Vol. Ill, 1843, pp. 157-158.

"The Eastern Shore is shown to consist of something more than arid sand-hills
and pestilential marshes ; and the Western Shore not to depend exclusively upon the
rich valleys of Frederick and Hagerstown for its supplies."

1850.

HiGGiNS, James. Report of James Higgins, M. D., State Agricul-
tural Chemist, to the House of Delegates. 8 vo. 92 pp. Annapolis,
1850.

Contains detailed descriptions and many analyses of the various kinds of soils
found on the Eastern Shore of Maryland. The greensand and shell marl deposits of
the counties lying north of the Choptank River are discussed at length and many
references made to localities in this county where they occur.

1852.

Fisher, R. S. Gazetteer of the State of Maryland compiled from
the returns of the Seventh Census of the United States. New York
and Baltimore, 1852. 8 vo., 122 pp.

Contains numerous brief descriptions of the geography and geology of different
portions of the State.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

1860.

Tyson, Philip T. First Report of Philip T. Tyson, State Agri-
cultural Chemist, to the House of Delegates of Maryland, Jan. 1860.
8 vo. 145 pp. Maps. Appendix. Mineral Resources of Md. 20 pp.
Annapolis, 1860.

The report is accompanied by a colored geological map which shows the distribu-
tion of the various formations. The Coastal Plain formations represented are the
Cretaceous, Tertiary, and Post-Tertiary, while the iron-ore clays of the Cretaceous
are separated from the other Cretaceous deposits. A brief description of each forma-
tion is given.

Greensand marl of Eocene age is reported to occur along the Chester River.

1867.

HiGGiNS, James. A Succinct Exposition of the Industrial Re-
sources and Agricultural Advantages of the State of Maryland.
8 vo., 109+III pp.

Md. House of Delegates, Jan. Sess., 1867, (DD).

Md. Sen. Doc, Jan. Sess., 1867, (U).

Contains a description of the soils and physiographic features of each of the
counties of the State.

1883.

Smock, J. C. The Useful Minerals of the United States.

Min. Resources of the U. S., 1882. Washington, 1883. pp. 690-
693.

The following minerals are reported from this county : greensand marl from head
of Sassafras River, and lignite occurring sparingly in clay.

Wilbur, F. A. Marls.

Mineral Resources U. S., 1882. Washington, 1883, p. 522.

Greensand marls of Cretaceous age said to occur in Ivent, Cecil, and Prince
George's counties.

1884.

Chester, Frederick D. The quaternary Gravels of Northern
Delaware and Eastern Maiyland, with map.

THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF KENT COLXTy

Amer. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., Vol. XXVII, 1884, pp. 189-199.

The author believes that the peninsula of Eastern Maryland and Delaware was
covered with gravels, clay and sand brought down by the Delaware River during the
Ice Age and deposited in an estuary.

1885.

Chester^, Frederick D. The gi*avels of the Southern Delaware
Peninsula.

Amer. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., Vol. XXIX, 1883, pp. 3644.

The gravels, sands, and clays of the entire peninsula of Eastern Maryland and
Delaware are said to have been brought down by the Delaware River and spread out
by estuarine and marine currents. In the northern part the materials were deposited
in an estuary but in the southern part in the open ocean. Boulders carried by icebergs
are found throughout the entire area, some of which are of large size.

1888.

McGee, W. J. The Geology- of the Head of Chesapeake Bay.
7th Au. Report U. S. Geol. Surv., Washington, 1888, pp. .537-616.
(Abst.) Amer. Geol., Vol. I, 1887, pp. 113-115.

Contains a general discussion of the Potomac and Columbia deposits. Many sec-
tions along the Sassafras River are described in detail.

McGee^ W. J. The Columbia Formation.

Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Vol. XXXVI, 1888, pp. 221-222.

The Columbia formation overlying unconformably the Cretaceous and Tertiary
deposits of the Atlantic Coastal Plain is said to consist of series of deltas and ter-
raced littoral deposits. It is said to pass under the terminal moraine to th? north-
ward. The Columbia materials are supposed to have been laid down during a period
of glaciation long preceding the glacial epoch during which time the terminal moraine
was formed.

Three Formations of the Middle Atlantic

Slope.

Amer. Jour. Sci., 3d ser.. Vol. XXXV. 1888. pp. 120-143, 328-331,
367-388, 448 466, plate II.

The three formations discussed are the Potomac, (now divided into four forma-
tions), the Appomattox (Lafayette), and the Columbia, (now divided into three
formations). These are described in far greater detail than had ever been done before
and the conclusions reached vary but little from the views held at the present time.

MARYLAND GP:OLOGICAL SURVEY

UiiLEU, P. R. Observations on the Eocene Tertiaiy and its Cre-
taceous Associates in the State of Maryland.

Trans. Md. Acad. Sci., Vol. I, 1888, pp. 11-32.

Many details concerning tlie distribution, litliologic ctiaracteristics, and fossil
content of the Eocene and Cretaceous deposits of tliis county are given.

1889.

UiiLER, P. R. Additions to Observations on the Cretaceous and
Eocene formations of Maryland.

Trans. Md. Acad. Sci., Vol. I, 1889. pp. 45-72.

This paper contains many descriptions of Cretaceous and Eocene strata in this
county together with a general description of these formations as represented in the
entire state. A list is given of all Eocene fossils recognized up to that time.

1891.

Clark^ Wm. B. Correlation Papers — Eocene.

Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv. No. 83. Washington, 1891. 173 pp.
2 maps.

(Abst.) Johns Hopkins Univ. Cir. No. 103, Vol. XII, 1893, p. 50.

Contains a discussion of all the literature concerning the Eoceno of the United
States published up to that time. The distribution and characteristics of the Mary-
land Eocene deposits are briefly described.

1892.

Clark, Wm. B. The Surface Configuration of Maryland.

Monthly Rept. Md. State Weather Service, Vol. IT, 1892. pp.
85-89.

General summary of the physical features of the State.

ScHARP, J. Thomas. The Natural Resources and Advantages of
Maryland, being a complete description of all of the counties of the
state and the City of Baltimore. Annapolis, 1892.

This paper contains general information concerning this county.

THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF KENT COUNTY

1893.

Clark^ Wm. B. Physical Features (of Maryland).

Maryland, its Resources, Industries, and Institutions. Balti-
more, 1893, pp. 11-54.

Contaius short descriptions of the topography, climate, water supply, and water
power of the diflferent portions of the State.

DartoX;, N. H. The Magothy Formation of Northeastern Mary-
land.

Amer. Jour. Sci., 3d ser.. Vol. XLV. 1893. pp. 407-419. Map.

The Magothy formation is differentiated from other Cretaceous strata with which
the deposits had previously been included. The distribution and characteristics of the
formation are discussed and many local details described. A map showing the dis-
tribution of the formation is given.

Whitney, Milton. Description of the Principal Soil Fomia-
tions of the State (Maryland).

Maryland, its Resources, Industries, and Institutions. Balti-
more, 1893, pp. 181-211.

Contains descriptions of the soils of the State, their distribution, origin, and
adaptabilities.

Whitney, Milton. The Soils of Maryland.

Md. Agi'ic. Expt. Sta., Bull. No. 21, College Park, 1893. 58 pp.
Map.

The principal soils of the State are described and their adaptability to different
kinds of crops discussed. A map is given showing their general distribution.

Williams, G. H. and Clark, W. B. Geology of Maryland.

Maryland, its Resources, Industries, and Institutions. Balti-
more, 1893, pp. 55-83.

The different geological formations recognized at that time are briefly described.
Several important Eocene and Cretaceous localities in this county are mentioned.

1894.

Anon. General Mining News — Maryland.
Eng. and Min. Jour., Vol. LVIII, 1894, p. 61.

Note concerning a deposit of amber in the Cretaceous beds on the Bay Shore
above Still Pond In Kent County.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Darton, N. H. Artesian Well Prospects in Eastern Virginia,
Maryland, and Delaware.

Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., Vol. XXIV, 1894. pp. 372 397,
pis. I and II.

Contains a general description of the Atlantic Coastal Plain formations with
records of some of the Important artesian wells of eastern Virginia, Maryland, and
Delaware, with a discussion of artesian water conditions in those areas.

Maryland State Weather Service. The Climatology and
Physical Features of Maryland.

1st Bien. Rep. Maryland Weather Service for years 1892-1893.
Baltimore, 1894.

a general discussion of the topography, geology, soils, and climate of the State.

1895.

Roberts, D. E. Note on the Cretaceous Formations of the
Eastern Shore of Maryland.

Johns Hopkins Univ. Circ. Vol. XV, 1895. pp. 16-17.

The Redbank formation of the Cretaceous is said to occur at Frederlcktown (north
end of bridge) where it contains the following fossils: Ostrea larva, Lam.; Exogyra
costata. Say.; Dentalium falcatum. Con.; and TurriteUa encrinoides, Mort.

The Kancocas formation is said to occur on Jackson's Farm, Herring Creek, where
it contains the fossils, Terehratula harlani ; Mort. and Gryphea vesicularis. Lam.

1896.

Clark, W. B. The Eocene Deposits of the Middle Atlantic Slope
in Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia.

Bull. 141, U. S. Geol. Surv., 167 pp. 40 pi.

An exhaustive study of the Eocene in which the stratigraphy and paleontology of
the deposits are discussed in detail.

Darton, N. H. Artesian Well Prospects in the Atlantic Coastal
Plain Region.

Bull. 138, U. S. Geol. Surv., 232 pp., 19 pis.

Contains a brief description of the Coastal Plain formation of the State with a
discussion of their water bearing qualities. Records are given of many deep wells
in this State but none from Kent County.

THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF KENT COUNTY

1897.

Clark^ W. B. Outline of the Present Knowledge of the Physical
Features of Maryland, Embracing an Account of the Physiography,
Geology, and Mineral Resources.

Md. Geol. Survey, Vol. I, 1897, pp. 141-228, pis. 6-13.

Contains a description of all the geologic formations of the State recognized at
that time.

Clark, W. B., (with R. M. Bagg and G. B. Shattuck). Upper
Cretaceous Formations of Xew Jersey, Delaware and Maryland.

Bull. Geol. Soc. of America, Vol. 8, 1897, pp. 315 358, pis. 40-50.

Contains a full description of each of the marine Cretaceous formations of the
Northern Atlantic Coastal Plain.

1898.

Bagg, Rufus Mather. The Occurrence of Cretaceous Fossils in
the Eocene of Maryland.

Amer. Geol., Vol. 22, 1898, pp. 370-375.

A Cretaceous shell layer is reported to "occur on a branch of the Sassafras River
called Swan Creek on Mr. Jacob's farm."

1899.

Abbe, Cleveland, Jr. Genei*al Report on the Physiography of
Maryland.

Maryland Weather Service, Vol. 1, Baltimore, 1899, pp. 41-216,
pis. 3-19, figs. 1-20.

Contains a full description of the physiographic features of the State.

WooLiiAN. Lewis. Artesian Wells in Xew Jersey.

Geol. Surv. of Xew Jersey. Annual Report for the Year 1898,
pp. 59-144. Trenton, 1899.

Contains descriptions and records of four artesian wells at and near Rock Hall
ranging in depth from 175 to 400 feet. A list of 40 species of diatoms determined
by Charles S. Boyer from the well samples is also given.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

1900.

Abbe, Cleveland, Jr. The Physiographic Features of Maryland.
Bull. Amer. Bur. Geog., Vol. I, pp. 151-157, 242-248, 342-355, 2
figs. 1900.

A concise stat-ement of tlie important iili.vsical features of each of the three
physiographic provinces of the State.

WooLMAN^ Lewis. Artesian Wells.

Geol. Surv. of New Jersey. Annual Keport for the year 1899.
pp. 53-139. Trenton 1900.

Contains a short description of an artesian well at Kennedy ville. (p. 81).

1901.

BoNSTEEL, Jay A. Soil Survey of Kent County, Md.

Field Operations of the Division of Soils, 1900. pp. 173-186,
1 map.

Contains descriptions of the various kinds of soils recognized in the county.

Clark, W. B., with collaborators. Systematic Paleontology, —
Eocene.

Md. Geol. Surv. Eocene. Balto., 1901, pp. 95-215, pis. 10-64.

Contains descriptions and figures of all Eocene fossils known to occur within the
State.

Clark, W. B. and Martin, G. C. Eocene Deposits of Maryland.
Md. Geol. Surv., Eocene. Balto., 1901, pp. 21-92, 14 pis.

Describes the general stratigraphic relations, distribution, characteristic origin of
the materials, and the stratigraphic and paleontologic characteristics of the Eocene
strata of the entire State.

SnATTucK, George Burbank. The Pleistocene Problem of the
North Atlantic Coastal Plain.

Johns Hopkins Univ. Circ. Vol. XX, 1901, pp. 69-75.

Amer. Geologist, Vol. xxvii, 1901, pp. 87-107.

The views of McGee, Darton, and Salisbury concerning the Pleistocene deposits
are summarized and compared with the writer's views. The wave-built terrace
deposits are referred to four different formations, the Talbot. Wicomico, Sunderland,
and Lafayette, the first three of which constitute the Columbia group. These forma-
tions are said to be separated by erosional unconformities.

THE PHYSICAL rEATUnES OF KENT COUNTY

1903.

RiES, Heixrich. The Clays of the United States East of Mis-
sissippi River.

U. S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper No. 11, pp. 134-149. 1903.

Describes the clay bearing formations of the county and gives analyses anrt
physical characteristics of the most important clays.

1901.

Case, E. C, Eastman, C. R., Martin, G. C, Ulrich, E. O., Bass-
LER, R. S., Glenn, L. C, Clark, W. B., Vaughan, T. W., Bagg, R. M.,
Jr., Hollick, Arthur, and Boyer, C. S. Systematic Paleontology
of the Miocene Deposits of Maryland.

Md. Geol. Surv., Miocene, pp. 1-508, pis. 10-135. Balto., 1901.

Contains descriptions and illustrations of all Miocene fossils recognized in Mary-
land up to that time.

Clark, William Bullock. The Matawan Formation of Mary-
land. Delaware, and Xew Jersey, and its relation to overlying and
underlying formations.

Amer. Jour. Sci., 1th ser.. Vol. IS, pp. 435-140, 1904.

Johns Hopkins Univ. Circ, 1904, Xo. 7, pp. 28-35.

The Matawan formation as it occurs throughout New .Jersey, Delaware, and Mary-
land is discussed as well as the Magothy and Monmouth formations with which it is
in contact. A table giving the approximate correlation of the Atlantic Coast Creta-
ceous formations and their European equivalents is also given.

Clark, William Bullock, Shattuck, George Burbank, and
Dall, William Healey. The Miocene Deposits of Maryland.

Md. Geol. Surv., Miocene, pp. XXIII-CLV, pis. 1-9. Balto., 1904.

Contains a full account of the Miocene strata of the State, accompanied by a map
showing the distribution of the different formations.

1906.

Miller, Benjamin L. Description of the Dover Quadrangle
(Delaware-Maryland-XcTv Jersey) .

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

U. S. Geol. Survey, Geol. Atlas of U. S., Folio No. 137, 10 pp.,
1 fig., 2 maps. 1906.

The Dover quadrangle includes tbe greater portion of Kent County. The writer
describes the physiographic features, the occurrence, character, and relations of the
Cretaceous, Tertiary, and Quaternary formations, the geologic history, and the eco-
nomic geology of the quadrangle.

Shattuck, George Burbank. The Pliocene and Pleistocene De-
posits of Maryland.

Md. Geol. Surv., Pliocene and Pleistocene, pp. 21-137. Plates.
Baltimore, 1906.

Contains a full description of the surficial deposits of the State with many local
details.

Berry, Edward W. Fossil Plants along the Chesapeake and Del-
aware Canal.

N. Y. Bot. Garden, Jour., Vol. VII, pp. 5-7, 1906.

Clark^ Wm. Bullock, and Mathews, Edward B. Report on the
Physical Features of Maryland (with map).

Maryland Geol. Survey, Special Publication, Vol. VT, pt. I, Bal-
timore, 1906.

1907.

Berry, Edward W. New Species of Plants from the Magothy
Formation.

J. H. U. Circ. n. s., No. 7, pp. 82-89, 1907.

Clark, Wm. Bullock. The Classification adopted by the U. S.
Geological Survey for the Cretaceous Deposits of New Jersey, Del-
aware, Maryland, and Virginia.

J. H. U. Circ. n. s., No. 7, pp. 89-91, 1907.

1910.

Berry, Edward W. Contributions to the Mesozoic Flora of the
Atlantic Coastal Plain. IV. Maryland.

Torrey Bot. Club, Bull., Vol. XXXVII, pp. 10-29, 1910.

44 THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF KENT COUNTY ,

1911.

SiNGEWALD, Jos. T., Jr. Ecpoi't Oil the Iron Ores of Maryland.

Maryland Geol. Survey, Special Publication, Vol. IX, pt. Ill,
Baltimore, 1911.

1914.

Berry, Edward W. Contributions to the Mesozoic Flora of the
Atlantic Coastal Plain. X. Maryland.

Torrey Bot. Club, Bull., Vol. XLI, pp. 295-300, 1914.

1916.

Clark, W. B., Berry, E. W., and Gardner, J. A. The Upper
Ci'etaceous Deposits of Mainland.

Maryland Geol. Survey, Upper Cretaceous, 2 vols, 1916.
1918.

Clark, AVm. Bullock. The Get)graphy of Maryland.

Maryland Geol. Survey, Special Publication, Vol. X, pt. I, Bal-
timore, 1918.

Clark, Wm. Bullock, Mathews, Edward B., and Berry, Ed-
ward W. The Surface and Underground Water Resources of Mary-
land, including Delaware and the District of Columbia.

Maryland Geol. Surv-ey, Special Publication, Vol. X, pt. II, Bal-
timore, 1918.

THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF KENT COUNTY

BENJAMIN L. MILLER

Introductory.

In that portion of the United States that slopes toward the
Atlantic Ocean there are three physiographic provinces, each of
which has certain distinguishing characteristics. These are known
as the Appalachian Region, the Piedmont Plateau, and the Coastal
Plain. These three provinces form bands of somewhat varying
width that extend in a northeast-southwest direction roughly par-
allel to the shore line from New England to the Gulf of Mexico.
All of these provinces are typically represented in Maryland.
Garrett, Allegany, and Washington counties lie within the Appa-
lachian Region province ; Frederick, Carroll, Montgomery, Howard,
and the northern and northwestern portions of Baltimore, Harford,
and Cecil counties fonn a part of the Piedmont Plateau province;
while the remaining ])ortion of the State constitutes a part of the
Coastal Plain province.

The elevations, the characteristics of the streams, and the lith-
ologic character and structure of the rocks serve as criteria for the
separation of these three provinces. In some places, however, there
is such a gradation from one to another that some difficulty is en-
countered in drawing the exact boundary line. The Coastal Plain
bordering the ocean is comparatively low and flat with few points
rising more than 400 feet above sea level ; the Piedmont Plateau is
a higher-lying plain, some points rising to more than 1,000 feet
above sea level ; while the Appalachian Region, embracing the Appa-
lachian Mountains is a much more rugged region lying at a consid-
erably greater altitude.

THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF KENT COUNTY

The streams of the three provinces are essentially ditterent.
The tide-water estuaries of the Coastal Plain, occupying broad open
valleys, form a striking contrast to the swift streams of the other
two provinces which flow in steep, rock-walled gorges; while the
superimposed meandering streams of the Piedmont Plateau are
markedly unlike the Appalachian streams which flow in structural
valleys. But probably the greatest distinction between the three
provinces is due to the characters of the rocks. The unconsolidated
sediments of the Coastal Plain, dipping gently toward the ocean,
are sharply separated from the contorted, metamorphosed and
igneous intruded strata of the Piedmont Plateau, while these in
turn can be readily distinguished from the unmetamorphosed Appa-
lachian Eegion limestones and sandstones that have been thrown
into broad open folds, forming longitudinal ridges and valleys with
a northeast-southwest trend.

Kent County is entirely ^\^thin the Coastal Plain province,
though the Piedmont Plateau lies only a few miles to the northwest.
The adjoining counties of Cecil in Maryland and Newcastle in Del-
aware both contain portions of the Piedmont Plateau.

TOPOGRAPHIC DESCRIPTION

The most prominent features of the topography of Kent County
are the numerous tide-water bays, creeks, and rivers that indent its
shores and extend, in some cases, many miles inland.

The relief of the county is slight, there being only a little more
than 100 feet difi'erence between the lowest and highest portions of
the county. From mean sea level, to which the land descends on
the north, west, and south sides there is a gradual ascent to the
uplands forming the stream divides, where the greatest elevations
occur. As shown on the topographic map there are two areas with
an elevation slightly exceeding 100 feet above sea level. One of
these is located on Stillpoud Xeck and the other a short distance
southwest of Kennedyville. The greater portion of the county forms

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

the broad divide between the Sassafras and Chester River estuaries
and a portion of the divide separating the Delaware and Chesapeake
Bay drainage basins. This divide rises to a height a little more
than 60 feet in the eastern part of the county and to about 80 feet
in the western portion.

Within Kent County three different topographic features worthy
of especial attention may be distinguished, namely, the tidal
marshes, the Talbot plain, and the Wicomico plain. These vary
greatly in the areas which they occupy but are principally unlike in
the elevations at which each is found.

Tidal Marshes.

The first of these topographic features to be described consists
of the tidal marshes Avhich border the estuaries and are especially
abundant in the southwestern portion of the county. They lie at
a level so low that they are sometimes inundated by unusually high
tides. Many of these marshes were formerly embayments from the
larger estuaries or of Chesapeake Bay but in time have been so
filled with material washed from the adjoining land surfaces and
by the accumulation of vegetable debris that they have been con-
verted into marshes. Many instances of marshes of this kind in
process of formation can be seen at manj places in the county.
Small sand bars attached to one shore grow out across the mouths
of these embayments until they finally meet the opposite shore. In
places these barrier beaches impound considerable bodies of tidal
water which, when finally filled to sea level, form extensive marshes.
The accompanying illustration (Plate IX, Fig. 1) shows one of
these bars which has formed across Lloyd's Creek and which in
time may convert that estuary into an inland lagoon and finally
into a marsh. Similar bars occur at the mouths of Churn, Worton,
and Fairlee Creeks, while along the Bay shore in the vicinity of Tol-
chester Beach there are several lagoons that no longer have any
surface connection with the waters of Chesapeake Bay.

THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF KENT COUNTY

These tide-water marshes are filled with a growth of sedges and
other marsh plants, which aid in flDing up the depressions by serv-
ing as obstructions to the mud carried in by small streams and by
causing the accumulation of vegetable debris.

In a few places it would be possible to drain some of these
marshes, as has been done in the vicinity of the Delaware River, but
most of them lie too low to make drainage possible A^nthout an
expenditure of money in excess of the probable returns.

Talbot Plain.

The term plain is used in this discussion in a somewhat special-
ized sense, to include the terraces along the stream valleys and their
continuations over the interstream areas, where they are true plains.
The Talbot plain is defined on the geologic map as the region over
which the materials constituting the Talbot formation have been
spread. It borders the tidal marshes and extends from tide to an
elevation of about 45 feet. This plain borders the larger streams
and extends along the shore of Chesapeake Bay where it is best
developed in the vicinity of Tolchester Beach and Rockhall with a
width varying from 3 to 6 miles. It there exhibits its prominent
characteristics of low relief and a general plain like character. For
miles there is apparently no difference in elevation whatever, the
whole region being so flat that it would seem to be not well drained.
In general, however, it is drained throughout; there is scarcely a
marshy area in it. In places the waves of Chesapeake Bay and the
estuaries have cut low cliffs from 3 to 15 feet in height in it.

The Talbot plain extends up the valleys of the Sassafras and
Chester rivers, becoming gradually narrower as it reaches farther
inland. It has, however, been greatly dissected by tributary
streams so that it is seldom continuous for any considerable
distance.

Wicomico Plain.
The Wicomico plain lies at a higher level than the Talbot, from
which it is in many places separated by an abrupt rise or escarp-

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

KENT COUNTY. PLATE il

SllOKIC AT MOl'l'll (II lld-llls ( Kl.l.K SHOWl.Ni; MATAWAN llll! .M Al' 1 0 .N
WITH KIOKKLGINOUS KODULES.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

ment varying in lieiglit from a few feet to 10 or 12 feet which is
especially well develoi)ed near Melitota, Sandy Bottom, and Lang-
ford. This escarpment is often wanting, so that at some points
there seems to be a gradual passage from the Talbot plain to the
Wicomico. It is found, however, at so many places that there is
little difficulty in determining the line of separation between the
two plains. The base of the escarpment stands at an elevation of
about 40 feet. From that height the Wicomico plain extends up-
ward to an elevation of about 100 feet. At this higher elevation
in adjoining regions it is separated from the next higher plain by
another escarpment.

The Wicomico plain is the best developed of the three different
topographic divisions mthin the region. It occupies the greater
portion of the county and forms the broad divide between the Del-
aware and the Chesapeake Bay drainage systems. The Wicomico
plain is very similar to the Talbot plain with the exception that it
occupies a higher elevation. Along its borders it slopes very notice-
ably toward the lower plain, but in the interior it is exceedingly
flat and monotonous. Over large areas and for distances of several
miles there will not be a difference in elevation of more than 5 or b
feet between any two of its portions. This is especially the case
in the eastern half of the county. In the western part of the county
through the cutting back of the small streams it is much more roll-
ing, so that in some portions of that region its plain-like character
is not preserved. On the necks of land in the northwestern portion
of the county the plain has been so modified by stream erosion that
a rather irregular rolling surface has been produced. In the main
portion of the county the Wicomico plain is continuous and forms
the divides between nearly all of the larger streams and many of
the minor tributary streams. Elsewhere in Maryland a plain called
the Sunderland is situated above the Wicomico and bears the same
relation to the Wicomico as that plain bears to the Talbot. The

THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF KENT COUNTY

Sunderland plain extends from about 100 feet to about 180 feet
above sea level.

THE DRAINAGE OF KENT COUNTY

The drainage of Kent County is comparatively simple, as a
result of the simple structure of the formations and the contiguity
of the region to the Delaware and Chesapeake bays. Except in a
few parts all of the county is naturally drained, some areas prin-
cipally by underground drainage, as is the case with the district
bordering Delaware midway between the Sassafras and Chester
rivers. All of the western half of the county is well drained by
streams, for in that region the estuaries of the Chesapeake Bay
extend inland a number of miles and the side tributaries cut back
to the crests of the divides. In the eastern half, however, in the
vicinity of Massey and Golts, streams are entirely absent over con-
siderable areas, and were it not for the porous character of its
soils this upland would be covered with marshes. During the rainy
season water does stand on the surface, and in some places it has
been necessary to dig series of ditches to connect with the natural
streams. In other places, however, no ditches have been dug and
there the water escapes slowly underground. The sandy surface
soil is underlain by a gravel bed, so that conditions are very favor-
able for underground drainage.

Stream Divides.

As Kent County lies between Chesapeake Bay and Delaware
Bay, both of which are at sea level, it would naturally be expected
that the watershed between the two drainage systems would divide
the peninsula into two symmetrical parts ; yet, notwithstanding the
fact that there is little in the character of the materials, the posi-
tions of the beds, or the comparative proximity to tide water to
cause the streams emptying into Chesapeake Bay to cut more
rapidly than those emptying into Delaware Bay, the water i^arting

MARYLAND fJIOOLOGICAL .SITRVRY

is considerably nearer Delaware Hay and tlie entire drainage of
Kent County passes into Chesapeake Bay.

The asymmetrical character of the divide is much more pro-
nounced in areas farther south, where the streams tributai'y to
Chesapeake Bay extend to within a few miles of the ocean.
The cause of this asymmetry is believed to date back to a period
when the whole region stood at a higher level, when Susquehanna
River emptied into the ocean a considerable distance east of Cape
Henry and Cape Charles, when the mouth of Delaware River lay
east of Cape Henlopen and Cape May, and when the peninsula was
much wider than it is now, comprising land on both sides now
submerged by the waters of Delaware River, Delaware Bay, the
Atlantic Ocean, and Chesapeake Bay. The old channels of Susque-
hanna and Delaware rivers can still be traced throughout a great
portion of Chesapeake and Delaware bays, notwithstanding the fact
that recent deposition has in many places obliterated the depres-
sions. An examination of the soundings in the two regions indi-
cates a deeper channel in Chesapeake Bay, and presumably before
the recent submergence of this region the waters of the lower coiirse
of the Susquehanna flowed in a channel considerably lower than
that occupied by the waters of the lower course of the Delaware.
This permitted the streams tributary to the Susquehanna to extend
their headwaters much more rapidly than the Delaware River tribu-
taries and thus gradually shifted the divide to the eastern portion
of the peninsula.

Tide-water Estuaries.

The lower courses of almost all the larger and many of the
smaller streams emptying into Chesapeake Bay have been converted
into estuaries through submergence which has permitted tide-water
to pass up the former valleys of the streams. In the early develop-
ment of the country these estuaries were of great value, since they
are navigable for several miles from their mouths and thus afforded

THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF KENT COUNTY

the means of ready transport of the produce of the peninsula to
market. Even the advent of railroads has not rendered them value-
less, for much grain and fruit are still shipped to market on steam-
ers and small sailing vessels which pass many miles up these
estuaries. Steamboats from Baltimore pass up Sassafras River as
far as Fredericktown, while freight sailing vessels go ^Wthin a short
distance of the town of Sassafras. Chester River is similarly navi-
gable almost to the town of Millington. The estuaries also furnish
good fishing grounds and during certain seasons are frequented by
wild water fowl in such numbers that Chesapeake Bay and its
tributaries have long been known to sportsmen as among the finest
hunting grounds in the country.

The Sassafras and Chester rivers are the most important estu-
aries of the county though many of the smaller estuaries are navi-
gable for a distance of several miles from their mouths. Among
these are Worton and Grays creeks and Langford Bay. Sassafras
River is the deepest of these estuaries. The maximum depression
in this stream lies just west of Ordinary Point, where recent charts
of the Coast and Geodetic Survey show 50 feet of water. Another
depression near Cassidy wharf, has a depth of 48 feet. Exclusive of
these deep places, the channel as far up as Fredericktown has an
average depth of about 14 feet. Beyond this point its depth gradu-
ally decreases. Because of the channel of the Sassafras River
estuary being so deep it has been investigated frequently by Federal
commissions appointed to examine and report upon a waterway to
connect the waters of Chesapeake and Delaware bays. In Chester
River there is a dredged channel 8 feet deep from Spry Landing to
Crumpton, and 6 feet deep from Crumpton to the mouth of Mills
Branch.

Sassafras River and its tributary estuaries are bordered by
nearly vertical bluffs 10 to 60 feet in height, or by slopes which
rise rapidly to the height of the broad upland within the distance
of half a mile from the river. That the present estuaries have not

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

carved the bluffs that border them is very evident, since they are
now doing little erosive work themselves. The small waves that are
produced at times of strong westerly winds are the only notable
agents of erosion. Such waves are frequently able to remove the
finer debris that accumulates as talus at the foot of the cliffs,
especially in the early spring, but are not strong enough to do
much undercutting. The present cliffs represent bluffs that bor-
dered the valleys of streams whose flood plains as well as channels
are now covered by the estuarine waters.

The water in the estuaries is fresh or very slightly brackish and
ebbs and flows with the tide. There is seldom any distinct current
to be noticed and such as is seen is due to the incoming or outgoing
tide and appears to be nearly as strong when moving upstream as
when moving in the opposite direction.

At Turkey Point, the southern extremity of Elk Neck, in Cecil
County, the average height of the tides above mean low water is
2 feet.

MixoR Streams.

Besides the estuaries which form so prominent a feature of the
county there are numerous minor streams which drain into these
estuaries. At the head of each estuary there is a small stream
which, in almost every case, is very much shorter than the estuaiy
itself. Some of the estuaries, particularly that of Sassafras River,
continue as such almost to the sources of the tributary streams.
Further, those streams w'hich flow into the estuaries from the side
are seldom more than a few miles in length.

Although nearly the entire region lies less than 100 feet above
the sea, and although these minor streams descend gi'adually from
the divides to sea level, yet they furnish considerable water power.
This is utilized by numerous mills that are located on various
streams which empty into the estuaries. The map shows these
numerous millponds and also indicates their relatively large size.

THE rHYSI()(;RAPHY OF KENT COrXTY

Because of the gentle slope of the stream channels, a dam of ordi-
nary height may form a pond that extends for a mile or more up
the stream.

An inspection of the county topographic map shows that the
tributary streams of Chester River present different characteristics
than those flowing into the Sassafras River. The former have broad
valleys with gentle slopes while the latter are more numerous and
flow in deep narrow valleys. These differences are accounted for
partially by the dip of the strata which is toward the southeast but
mainly by the fact that the Cretaceous strata which outcrop along
the Sassafras River are worn away much more readily than are
the Tertiary strata that outcrop along the Chester River. Still
another reason is that the waves can do more effective work in
Sassafras River because of its greater depth and because it is more
exposed to the northwest winds. All along the eastern shore of
Chesapeake Bay there are evidences of much greater erosion being
accomplished by the strong northwest winds of the winter season
than by winds blowing from any other quarter.

TOPOGRAPHIC HISTORY

The history of the development of the topography as it exists to-
day is not complicated. The topographic featui*es were formed at
several diffei-ent periods, during all of which the conditions must
have been very similar. The physiographic record is merely the
history of the development of the two plains already described as
occupying different levels, and of the present drainage channels.
The plains of Kent County are primarily plains of deposition which,
since their formation, have been more or less modified by the
agencies of erosion. Their deposition and subsequent elevation to
the heights at which they are now found indicate merely successive
periods of depression and uplift. The drainage channels have
throughout most of their courses undergone many changes ; periods
of cutting have been followed by periods of filling, and the present
valleys and basins are the results of these opposing forces.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

The Wicomico Stage.

When the Coastal Phiin had been above water for a considerable
time after the close of the Sunderland deposition a gradual sub-
mergence again occurred, so that the ocean waters once more en-
ci'oached on the land. This submergence seems to have been about
equal in amount through a large portion of the district, showing
that the downward movement was without deformation. The sea
did not advance upon the land as far as it did during the previous
submergence. At many places along the shore the waves cut cliffs
into the deposits that had been laid down during the preceding
epoch of deposition. Throughout manj^ portions of the Coastal
Plain at the present time these old sea cliffs are still preserved as
escarpments, ranging from 10 to 15 feet in height. Where the
waves were not sufficiently strong to enable them to cut cliffs it is
somewhat difficult to locate the old shore line. During this time
all of Kent County was submerged. The Sunderland deposits were
largely destroyed by the advancing waves and redeposited over the
floor of the Wicomico sea.

Although the Wicomico submergence permitted the silting up
of the submerged stream channels, yet the deposits were not thick
enough to fill them entirely. Accordingly, in the uplift following
Wicomico deposition the large streams reoccupied their former
channels, with perhaps only slight changes. New streams were also
developed and the Wicomico plain was more or less dissected along
the water courses, the divides being at the same time gradually
narrowed. This erosion period was interrupted by the Talbot sub-
mergence, which carried part of the land beneath the sea and again
drowned the lower courses of the streams.

The Talbot Stage.

The Talbot deposition did not take place over so extensive an
area as was covered by that of the Wicomico. It was confined to
the old valleys and to the low stream divides, where the advancing

THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF KENT COUNTY

waves destroyed the Wicomico deposits. The sea cliffs were pushed
back as long as the waves advanced, and now stand as an escarp-
ment that marks the boundaries of the Talbot sea and estuaries.
This is the Talbot-Wicomico escarpment, previously described. At
some places in the old stream channels the deposits were so thick
that the streams in the succeeding period of elevation and erosion
found it easier to excavate new courses than to follow the old ones.
Generally, however, the streams reoccupied their former channels
and renewed the corrosive work which had been interrupted by the
Talbot submergence. As a result of this erosion the Talbot plain
is now in many places somewhat uneven, yet it is more regular than
the Wicomico plain which has been subjected to denudation for a
longer period.

The Recent Stage.

The land probably did not long remain stationary with respect
to sea level before another downward movement began. This last
subsidence is probably still in progress. Whether this movement
will continue much longer cannot, of course, be determined, but
with respect to Delaware River there is suflflcient evidence to show
that it has been in progress within very recent time and undoubtedly
still continues. Many square miles that had been land before this
subsidence commenced are now beneath the waters of Chesapeake
Bay and its estuaries, and are receiving deposits of mud and sand
from the adjoining land.

THE GEOLOGY OF KENT COUNTY

BENJAMIN L. MILLER

Introductory.

The geologic formations represented in Kent County range in
age from Cretaceous to Recent. Deposition has not been continuous,
yet none of the larger geologic divisions since Cretaceous time is
entirely unrepresented. Periods when deposition occurred over
part or the whole of the region are separated by other periods, of
greater or less duration, in which the entire region was above water
and erosion was active. The deposits of all the periods, except
those of the Pleistocene, are similar in many respects. With a
general northeast-southwest strike and southeast dip, each forma-
tion disappears southeastward by passing under the next later one.
In general also the shore during each successive submergence evi-
dently lay a short distance southeast of the line it occupied during
the previous submergence. There are a few exceptions to this,
however, which will be noted in the descriptions that follow. Thus,
in passing from the northwest to the southeast one crosses succes-
sively the outcrops of the formations in the order of their deposition.

TABLE OF GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS.

System

Series

Group

Formation

Quaternary-Pleistocene ,

Columbia

Wicomico

Tertiary

Chesapealse.
, Pamunlcey .

Calvert
. Aquia
f Monmouth

Matawan

[ Lower Cretaceous

Potomac

THE GEOLOGY OF KENT COUNTY

THE CRETACEOUS SYSTEM

Lower Cretaceous.

the potomac group.

The Potomac group of the Coastal Plain consists of highly col-
ored gravels, sands, and clays which outcrop along a sinuous
line that extends from Delaware to Virginia, passing near the
cities of Philadelphia, Wilmington, Baltimore, and Washington.
The Potomac deposits are of great value because of the excellent
brick clays which they contain. Of the three formations that have
been recognized as composing the Potomac group in Maryland, the
Patapsco, the Patuxent, and the Arundel, none is represented within
the county. The Patapsco and Patuxent formations outcrop a short
distance to the northwest of Kent County and probably underlie
this entire county though they do not appear at the surface.

Upper Cretaceous.

THE RARITAX FORJIATIOX.

The formation receives its name from Raritan River, Xew
Jersey, in the basin of which it is typically developed. The name in
its present usage was proposed by W. B. Clark in 1892 (Ann. Rept.
Geol. Survey N. J. for 1892-93, pp. 169-243), although the term had
been loosely applied to these deposit.s by earlier writers. It in-
cludes the deposits long called the Plastic or Amboy clays by the
Xew Jersey Geological Survey.

Arcal Distribution.

In its wider distribution the Raritan formation has been traced
from Raritan Bay, Xew Jersey, to the basin of the Potomac River.
In Kent County the outcrops of the Raritan are entirely confined to
the extreme northwest corner of the county where almost eveiy bluflf
along the Bay and creeks, between the mouths of the Sassafras

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

River and Worton Cieek contains exposures of tliis liorizon. (Jood
sections can be seen about one-half mile below Harris Wharf, at
Kinnairds Point, Rockj' Point, and Worton Point.

Since the Raritan dips to the southeast it seems probable that it
underlies the entire county. At Middletown, Delaware, about G
miles northeast of the northeast corner of the county, the formation
was reached in an artesian well at a depth of 425 feet.

The materials of the Raritan are extremely variable in character.
Variegated clays, horizontally stratified, and cross-bedded sands
and gravels, and occasional ledges of sandstones and conglomerates
are all represented within the formation.

The character of its materials changes at many places very
abruptly, both horizontally and vertically. Iron in some form,
chiefly as an oxide, is commonly present and forms the cementing
material for the locally indurated layers of sandstones and con-
glomerates. The loose sands intei'bedded with impervious plastic
clays form important water-bearing beds and in several places
furnish artesian water, as described later.

The following sections illustrate the general character of the
Raritan formation in this county.

Character of Materials.

CLIFF SECTION, 1 MILE EAST OF HOWELL POINT.

Feet

Wicomico.

Stratified sands, clays, and gravels, coarsest mate-
rials at base

Raritan.

Very fine white to light-drab colored sand contain-
ing small flakes of mica

Coarse red sand, poorly exposed because of cliff
talus perhaps in thickness as much as

THE GEOLOGY OF KENT COUNTY

SECTION 1/2 MILE BELOW HARRIS WHARF.

Feet

Wicomico. Cross-bedded sands and gravels 18

Magothy. Laminated black clay containing fragments of

white sand 5

Raritan. Loose buff to iron-yellow stratified sands, exposed 16

Total 39

SECTION 1% MILES BELOW HARRIS WHARF.

Feet

Wicomico loam 6

Variegated pink and yellow clay 5

Gravel band 3

Yellow clay %

Gravel band 2%

Variegated clay pink and light green 3

Coarse gravel and sand 12

Raritan. Very coarse light-yellow sand 4

Indurated ferruginous sand 1

Yellow sand 4

Pink clay %

Pure white sand 1

Concealed by detritus to water's edge 10

Total 51

SECTION AT ROCKY POINT.

Feet

Talbot. Stratified loam, sand, and gravel exposed in near-

by area.

Raritan. Stratified coarse red sandstone firmly indurated by

iron oxide (see illustration), exposed to water's

edge 12

SECTION AT WORTON POINT.

Feet

Talbot. Loam 6-8

Coarse gravel 8

Raritan. Pink to red fine textured compact plastic clay,

exposed to water's edge 12

Total 26-34

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Palcontologic Character.

The fossils of the Raritan formation consist largely of plant
remains which have been recognized at many different localities in
New Jersey and Maryland. The known flora of the formation in-
cludes ferns, conifers, cycads, monocotyledons, and dicotyledons.
There is a wide range of genera and species, especially of the dicoty-
ledons, many of which belong to living genera. The known fauna
is very limited, consisting of a few pelecypods, a plesiosaurian bone,
and possibly an insect.

Strike, Dip, and Thickness.

The thickness of the Raritan formation at its outcrop in Kent
County, where it has been subjected to excessive erosion, does not
exceed 40 feet at any point. Elsewhere in Maryland where the
contact with the next younger formation is shown, the thickness is
over 200 feet. It thickens gradually southeastward, down the dip.
The author believes that at least 500 feet of the materials penetrated
by the Middletown, Delaware, artesian well should be referred to
this formation. The strike is northeast and southwest and the dip
is about 30 feet to the mile.

Stra tigraph ic Relations.

The Raritan overlies the Patapsco formation, where the lower
contact has been observed, with which it is unconformable. It is
separated from the overlying Magothy deposits by another marked
unconformity. In the region of its outcrop Pleistocene deposits of
the Talbot, Wicomico, and Sunderland formations overlie the edges
of the formation and generally conceal the deposits from view
except where erosion has removed these later beds.

THE MAGOTIIY FORMATION.

The Magothy formation takes its name from the excellent ex-
posures of the beds of this age along the Magothy River in Anne
Arundel County.

THE GEOLOGY OF KENT COUNTY

Arcal Distribution.

The Magothy formation outcrops in the extreme northwestern
portion of Kent County in a narrow band 2 to 3 miles in width that
extends from Betterton to Worton Creek. Over the divides it is
concealed by the loam, sands, and gravels of the Pleistocene, thus
limiting its exposures to the cliffs cut by the waters of Chesapeake
Bay and tributary streams. The best exposure in the county occurs
at Betterton, while other good sections can be seen near Harris
Wharf, on the south shore of Stillpond Creek and at Worton Point.

Character of Materials.

The Magothy formation is composed of extremely varied mate-
rials and may change abruptly in character both horizontally and
vertically. Loose sands of light color are the most prominent con-
stituents. These sands usually show fine laminations and locally
considerably cross-bedding. The sand consists of coarse, rounded to
subangular quartz grains which vaiT in color from pure white to a
dark ferruginous brown. At many places lenses or bands of brown
sand occur within the lighter colored sands. While normally the
deposits of sand are loose, yet locally the iron derived from this and
adjacent formations has firmly cemented the grains together to
form an indurated iron sandstone or conglomerate. Small pebbles
are apt to be present near the base of the deposits.

The argillaceous phase of the Magothy is very prominent in some
localities, although it is usually subsidiary to the arenaceous phase.
The clay commonly occurs in the form of small pellets in the sand
or as fine laminae alternating with the sand layers. Drab is the
characteristic color of the Magothy clay, but occasionally the
presence of considerable vegetable remains renders it black. The
vegetable material may be finely divided or may occur in the form
of large pieces of lignite. The lignite is in many places impregnated
with pyrite and marcasite which are also found associated with the
lignite in the form of oblong to spherical concretions several inches
in diameter.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY G3
SECTION 1/2 MILE WEST OF BETTERTON WHARF.

Feet

Wicomico. Loam 4

Coarse red argillaceous sand 3

Coarse gravel containing limonite concretions.. 4

Coarse red sand 6

Gravel band 1

Light-colored clay %

Light-colored sand 1

Dark-colored sand V4,

Light-colored sand V2

Very coarse light yellow cross-bedded sand con-
taining many solitary pebbles and lenses of

gravel 18

Coarse gravel 2

Very coarse light-yellow cross-bedded sand con-
taining thin gravel bands 13

Coarse gravel ^

Very coarse pebbly light-yellow sand 6

Coarse gravel %

Coarse gravelly light-yellow sand 9

Ironstone conglomerate %

Magothy. Black sandy clay filled with lignite. In the larger

fragments of lignite there is considerable pyrite
and marcasite which impregnates the lignite or
forms nodular concretions about the stems.

Exposed to water's edge 19

Total SSV4,

At Betterton the Magothy is only about 9 feet above sea level
while it disappears beneath tide water in less than i/^ mile east of
the Betterton wharf. Westward from the locality where the above
section was taken the lignite and pyrite become less abundant in
the Magothy while the sandy clay becomes light-drab in color.
The flakes of mica likewise gradually become more numerous. In
one place a thin lens of small pea gravel composed of white vein-
quartz was observed near the top of the Magothy. The strata rise
to the westward and at a point 11/2 miles east of How'ell's Point
they disappear by erosion. From that point westward the Rari-
tan outcrops at the base of the clififs beneath the mantle of Pleis-
tocene materials.

THE GEOLOGY OF KENT COUNTY

At Worton Point the Magothy is well exposed though it is only
a few feet thick. It there overlies the Karitau anconformably and
the contact between the two formations can be readily seen to
descend from about 10 feet above sea level to tide in a distance of
about 1/8 mile, and this descent is approximately parallel to the
strike of the formations. At this place the Magothy contains much
lignite, marcasite, and pyrite. Beautiful concretions of pyrite and
marcasite can be picked up along the beach or dug out of the plastic
clay.

The arenaceous phases of the Magothy, which elsewiiere are
most common, are exhibited in several exposures in the vicinity of
Stillpond Creek. In a bluff just above the mouth of Stillpond Creek
there is an exposure of about 6 feet of Magothy materials. These
consist of drab and dark-colored clays containing pyrite and mar-
casite interbedded with finely laminated buff to white sands. On
the south side of Stillpond Creek there is an exposure of about 12
feet of light-green and yellow-brown mottled sand, which in a few
places contains small pockets of glauconitic sand.

Pa leontologic Character.

No organic remains have thus far been recognized in the
Magothy formation, in this county, although a considerable flora
has been described from it at Grove Point in Cecil County.

Strike, Dip, and Thickyiess.

In Kent County the Magothy formation is less than 40 feet
thick, but in its wider extent its thickness is extremely variable,
reaching a maximum of about 100 feet. This variability is due to
greater deposition in some regions than in others and also to the
removal of considerable material in certain areas. It dips south-
eastward at about 30 feet to the mile and disappears at tide level
near the mouths of the estuaries tributary to Chesapeake Bay in
the northwestern corner of the county and does not again appear

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

KENT COUNTY. PLATE IV

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

at the surface in this region. In all probability it underlies the
remainder of the county and should be recognized in detailed deep-
well sections in the central and eastern parts. The strike is
roughly parallel to that of the other Coastal Plain formations —
from northeast to southwest.

S / ra ti graph ic Relations.

The Magothy formation is included between the Raritan and
Matawan formations and is separated from each by an uncon-
formity. The line of contact between the Magothy and the Rari-
tan is very irregular, indicating a considerable erosion interval
between the times of their deposition. In many places the Magothy
deposits fill pockets and old channels in the Raritan. The uncon-
formity between the Magothy and the Matawan is not so plainly
marked.

THE MATAWAN FORMATION.

The Matawan formation received its name from Matawan Creek,
a tributary of Raritan Bay, in the vicinity of which the deposits of
this horizon are typically developed. The name was proposed by
Wm. Bullock Clark in 1894 (Jour. Geol., vol. 2, pp. 161-177) and
replaced the term Clay Marls, previously used by the New Jersey
geologists.

Areal Distribution.

In Kent County it is rather poorly developed at the surface,
appearing only in places where stream erosion has removed the
overlying Pleistocene. Its outcrops are confined to the north-
western portion of the county in a narrow belt, 2 to 3 miles in
width, extending from Lloyd Creek southwest to Fairlee Creek.
The best exposures occur in the steep bluffs about Lloyd Creek,
especially near its mouth, and at the head of Stillpond Creek estu-
ary. It undoubtedly underlies all that part of the county that is

THE GEOLOGY OF KENT COUNTY

southeast of its line of outcrop. In its broader distribution through-
out the Coastal Plain the Matawan formation outcrops as a con-
tinuous series of deposits from Raritan Bay to Potomac River.

Character of Materials.

The Matawan consists chiefly of glauconitic sand intimately
mixed with dark-colored clay, all quite micaceous. In some places
the deposits consist almost entirely of black clay; in others, par-
ticularly where the upper beds are exposed, the arenaceous phase is
predominant and the beds may consist entirely of sands that vary
in color from white to dark greenish-black. When the glauconite
in the beds is decomposed the iron oxidizes and the materials are
stained reddish brown and may even become firmly indurated by the
iron oxide. Iron pyrite is locally a common constituent and a small
layer of gravel is sometimes found at the base of the formation.
The character of the formation as developed in this county is
shown in the following section.

SECTION AT MOUTH OF LLOYD CREEK
2% MUes East of Betterton.

Wicomico. Numerous gravels, boulders, fragments of ferru-
ginous conglomerate in matrix of loose white
to yellow sand

Monmouth. Rich, brownish-yellow sand, containing numer-
ous exceedingly irregular ironstone concre-
tions roughly arranged in layers. In certain
places the sandy matrix is gray

Matawan. Mottled dove-colored to brown sand in places
dark and light sands mixed resembling pepper
and salt, containing small pebbles about the
size of a pea in the upper portion. In the
lower 3 % feet exposed there are numerous
oblong concretions consisting of very hard
brown to black sandstone, many having the
shape of an hour-glass. In size they range
from 1 to 4% feet in height, about 1% feet
thick, and 1% to 4 feet in width. Exposed to
water's edge

10-12

Total 58-60

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

A concretion obtained at this locality is on exhibition at the U. S.
National Museum in Washington.

About 1 mile northeast of Stillpond, where the road crosses a
small stream, there is a good exposure of Matawan dark micaceous
sand, while just below the mill dam on Stillpond Creek there is an-
other good exposure. In the latter locality the changes whicli take
place on weathering are well shown. The line between the weath-
ered and unweathered portion is so distinct that it suggests a strati-
graphic break. The upper part is yellowish-brown to gray in color
and contains many indurated bands of ironstone, resulting from
the segregation of iron oxide formed during the decomposition of
the glauconite, while the lower unweathered portion is a dark-
colored compact micaceous argillaceous sand.

Palcontologic Character.

The- Matawan formation has yielded few fossils in Kent County.
At the milldam on Stillpond Creek a few Exogyra shells and a frag-
ment of a crab's claw were found. In New Jersey, and elsewhere
in Maryland the formation has yielded a varied fauna of forami-
nifera, pelecypods. gastropods, scaphopods, and ammonites.

Strike, Dip, and Thickness.

In its northern extension the formation has a thickness of about
220 feet, but it thins to the south and in the vicinity of Potomac
River is only 20 feet thick. At its outcrop in Kent County it is
about 40 to 50 feet in thickness. Like many other Coastal Plain
formations, the beds thicken as they dip beneath later deposits,
but the records of wells Avhich have penetrated the formation east
of line where it disappears from view are too general to permit a
determination of the amount of thickening. The strike and dip do
not differ from those of the preceding formation.

THE GEOLOGY OF KENT COUNTY

Stra tigra pli ic Relations.

An uucouformity separates the Matawan from the underlyiug
Magothy formation, but the Matawan is conformably overlain by
the Monmouth. The separation between the Matawan and Mon-
mouth is made chiefly on the basis of change in lithologic charac-
ter, but in part on fossil content. Although some organic forms
range through both the Matawan and Monmouth, yet each forma-
tion has a few characteristic ones, the assemblages in each being
on the whole quite distinctive.

THE MOXMOUTH FORMATION.

The name Monmouth Avas first proposed by Wm. Bullock Clark
in 1897 (Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. 8, pp. 315-358) when it Avas
decided to combine in a single formation the deposits formerly in-
cluded in the Xavesink and Redbank formations. This name was
suggested by Monmouth County, X. J.^ Avhere the deposits of this
horizon are characteristically developed. It was employed for the
term Lower Marl Bed of the earlier workers in New Jersey.

Arcal Distribution.

The Monmouth formation outcrops along the stream valleys in
a belt about 3 to 5 miles broad, which extends across the north-
western portion of the county in a northeast-southwest direction.
Over the divides the Monmouth deposits are concealed from view
by the materials of the Wicomico formation, while near the streams
they are often covered by the Talbot loam. Only where the streams
have been able to remove this capping of younger materials is the
Monmouth formation exposed to view. The rather deep valleys,
with their precipitous bluffs, along Sassafras River and its tribu-
taries, Turner, Freeman, Island, and Mill creeks, afford many ex-
cellent exposures. To the southwest, it is best exposed in the
escarpment between the Talbot and Wicomico formations in the

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

vicinity of Melitota and Fairlee wliile it is also exposed in the
headwatei'S of some small streams. In its wider distribution the
formation has been recognized by outcrops in a zone extending from
Atlantic Highlands to a point a short distance beyond Patuxent
River.

Character of Materials.

The formation is prevailingly arenaceous in character and un-
consolidated except where locally indurated by the segregation of
ferruginous material derived from the glauconite. The sands com-
posing the Monmouth deposits vary in color from reddish-brown to
dark green or nearly black. The fresh material always contains
considerable glauconite and this gives to the deposits their dark
color. In their more weathered portions the sands generally range
in color from rich brown to reddish-brown, but at some places they
are dark gray.

The Monmouth deposits of New Jersey, which are continuous
with those of this region, have been divided into three members.
These divisions have not been recognized in Kent County.

The lower beds of the latter area are somewhat more glauconitic
than the upper but are not sharply separated from them. In the
vicinity of Cassidy wharf, on the Cecil County side of the Sassa-
fras River, the lower marly beds have a thickness of about 20 feet,
while near Ordinary Point they are about 45 feet thick. The
material consists of fine, slightly micaceous sand so intermixed
with brown iron-stained sand as to give the whole a mottled appear-
ance. Within the iron stained portions are found pockets of gray-
green glauconitic sand. Under the microscope it is seen that the
grains of sand from the more ferruginous parts are completely
coated with iron, while those from the lighter colored pockets are
entirely free from it. On the south side of Sassafras River, near
Turner Creek wharf, there is an exposure of about 40 feet of lower
Monmouth materials. In the lower portion of the section numer-

THE GEOLOGY OF KENT COLXTY

ous iron crusts and concretions are present in a brown sand. Most
of the iron concretions are exceedingly irregular, but some are
pipe-like, long, and straight, and usually hollow. A few iron-in-
crusted fossil casts are present in this part of the section. The
upper 20 feet is composed of light-colored glauconitic sand con-
taining some soft lime concretions and a few fossil casts. A few
iron crusts are also present.

The lower marlv beds of the Monmouth occur also at a few
places along the tributaries of Bohemia Creek, Cecil County. On
the north side of the creek, just east of the bridge, marl for fertiliz-
ing purposes has been dug at several places, but none of these marl
pits are now worked.

The upper portion of the Monmouth formation in this region
consists of beds of rather coarse sands which at some places are
decidedly red in color, althoiigh usually a reddish-brown. Here
and there in this portion of the fonnation are pockets containing
considerable glauconitic sand. The sand is frequently casehard-
eued and occasionally firmly cemented by ferruginous material.
The sands are exposed at many places along Sassafras River. In
the headwaters of some small streams near Locust Grove the Mon-
mouth appears as a bright green glauconitic sand, while near Meli-
tota nearly all the glauconite has been decomposed, leaving a gray
to yellowish-brown sand.

Paleontologic Character.

The Monmouth formation is generally very fossiliferous and the
forms are usually well preserved. They consist of foraminifera,
pelecypods, gasteropods, and cephalopods. Among the most abun-
dant fossils found in the Monmouth in this area are Exoyijra
costata Say, Gryphaea vcsicularis Lamarck, Cucullaca vulgaris
Morton, Cardium Kiimmeli Weller, and Bclemnitella amcricana
Morton. They are typical Upper Cretaceous species. Several of
these are shown on the accompanying plate.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL StRVEY

Strike, Dip, and Thickness.

The total thickness of the Monmouth formation along its out-
crop in Kent County is about 80 feet. In northern New Jersey
it is about 200 feet thick, but from there it steadily decreases in
thickness along the strike, southwestward, until, in the valley of
Patuxent River, the beds are only 10 feet thick.

Stratigraphic Relatio n s .

The formation is conformable with the underlying Matawan
and with the Rancocas which overlies it in Delaware and New Jer-
sey. Along the Sassafras River and elsewhere in Kent County it
is unconformably overlain by Eocene deposits, the Rancocas being
absent from this county. Pleistocene materials conceal it from
view over the di\'ides and at some places even in the stream valleys.

THE TERTIARY

The Eocene Formations.
The Pamunkey Group.

THE AQUIA formation.*

Areal Distribution.
The Aquia is the only Eocene formation in Kent County. Its
outcrops are found along Sassafras and Chester Rivers and their
tributaries, in a belt from .5-6 miles wide, that extends from the
headwaters of the Sassafras River near the Delaware line to Lang-
ford Bay. Yet notwithstanding its great areal extent there are
comparatively few good exposures of more than a few feet of Eocene
materials. The best ones occur along the Sassafras River, in the
vicinity of Georgetown and Wilson Point wharf and along the
Chester River about 2 1/^ miles below Chestertown. Minor ex-
posures occur along the streams in the vicinity of Morgnec, Big-
woods, and Chestertown, and at the base of the Talbot-Wicomico
escai-pment near Langford and Sandy Bottom. The Aquia forma-

* Md. Geol. Survey, Eocene, 1901.

THE GEOLOGY OF KENT COUNTY

tion has been recognized in a series of disconnected outcrops that
extend from a point near the border of Delaware southward through
Virginia.

CJuiractcr of Materials.

This formation consists usually of loose sand in which there is a
considerable admixture of glauconite, the latter in places making
up the body of the formation. TNTiere the material is fresh the
deposits range in color from a light blue to a very dark green, but
in regions where the beds have been exposed to weathering for a
considerable time they have assumed a reddish-brown to light-gray
color. The beds are in most places unconsolidated, although locally
some have become very firmly indurated by oxide of iron.

SECTION AT WILSON POINT WHARF ON THE SASSAFRAS RIVER.

Feet

Talbot. Coarse brown sand, very compact, containing iso-
lated gravels and small gravel lenses with a
quite persistent gravel band 9 to 13 feet thick
at base 11

Aquia. Green glauconitic sand, upper part intensely green
and lower 5 to 8 feet lighter in color and more
or less consolidated 27

Total 38

A short distance below the locality where the above section was
taken there is a firmly indurated ledge of weathered green sand,
rich -brown in color, about 8 feet in thickness in which there are

numerous casts of fossils.

SECTION NEAR JIILLDAM NORTHEAST OF GALENA.

Feet

Wicomico. Gravel in a matrix of coarse sand 4

Aquia. Brownish-yellow, very compact, weathered green-

sand, grading downward into fresher material,

somewhat gray in color 14

Dark-green, coarse glauconitic sand, filled with
numerous iron concretions, usually irregular
in shape, although sometimes showing a slight
tendency to nodular structure 10

Total 28

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

KENT COUNTY. PLATE V

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

The best exposure of the Aquia in Keut County shows the indu-
rated glauconitic sand which outcrops along the Chester River
below Chestertown.

SECTION ON RIGHT BANK OF CHESTER RIVER
1 MILE NORTHWEST OF ROLPHS.

Feet

Talbot. Sand and loam 3-5

Aquia. Very coarse indurated glauconitic sand, much oxi-

dized and iron-stained, with abundant angular
quartz pebbles, some of which are nearly %
inch in diameter. Abundant casts of fossils in-
cluding Turritella mortoni, Panopea elongata,
Frotoeardia lenis, Venericardia planicosta, var..

regia, Crassatellites alaeformis. Glycimeris ido-

neus, Cucullaea gigantea 4-6

Yellowish-red slightly indurated sand bearing a

few fossil casts 5-6

Oxidized glauconitic sand, with occasional tubes

of Yermetus. Exposed to water's edge 4

Total 12-16

Near Sandy Bottom the Aquia consists almost entirely of glaii-
conitic sand, and there marl has been dug for fertilizing purposes.

Palcontologic Character.

A great many fossils are seen in the outcrops of the Aquia along
Sassafras River from Georgetown to Sassafras, but most of them
are poorly preserved and only a few can be identified. At Fred-
ericktowTi the following forms have been recognized: Dosiniopsis
lenticularis (Rogers), Yenericardia planicosta (Conrad), Cuculcea
gigantea (Conrad), and Tereltratula marylandica Roberts. These
are shown on the accompanying plate.

Strike, Dip, and Thickness.

The strike and dip correspond in general with the previously-
described formations. The thickness of the Aquia exposures in Kent
County is about 35 feet. Toward the south the formation thickens,
reaching a total thickness of about 100 feet on the west side of
Chesapeake Bay in southern Maryland.

THE GEOLOGY OF KEXT COUNTY

Stratigraph ic Relations.

By the transgression of the Aqiiia sea, the beds of this formation,
which should normally overlie merely the Rancocas, have been
brought into direct contact with Monmouth deposits along Sassa-
fras and Chester rivers. On the western side of Chesapeake Bay
in southern Maryland a higher member of the Eocene, the Xanjemoy
formation, is exposed. The Xanjemoy is not represented in Kent
County, its absence being due likewise, no doubt, to the overlap of
the Calvert formation. In the divide between Sassafras and Chester
rivers the Aquia is unconf ormably overlain by the Wicomico forma-
tion and in the valleys of these two rivers by Talbot materials,
while in the area bordering the Chester River in the southeastern
portion of the county it is covered unconformably by the Calvert
formation.

The Miocexe Formations.
The Chesapeake Group.

THE CALVERT FORMATION.

The formation receives its name from Calvert County where in
the well-known Calvert Cliffs bordering Chesapeake Bay its typical
character is well shown.

Areal Distribution.

The Calvert, the only Miocene formation in Kent County, crops
out along the Chester River and some of its tributaries in the south-
eastern portion of the county. In that section there are no high
bluffs, the Pleistocene covering is thicker than in the western part
of the county, and the slopes of the stream valleys are gentle, con-
sequently there are few exposures of Calvert materials. The best
sections obser\-ed occur on the river road about 14 mile west of
Millington and at the crossing of Mills Branch on the Millington-
Chestertown road. To the south and southeast of Kent County the

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Calvert formation is well developed. In its wider distribution it
has been recognized in New Jersey, whence it extends southward
through Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia into North Carolina.

Character of Materials.

In Kent County the Calvert consists of very fine buff to white
quartz sands which, in places, are streaked with alternating bands
or blotches of white and bulf. Diatomaceous earth, which forms
such a prominent constituent of the formation elsewhere in Mary-
land and in New Jersey, Delaware, and Virginia, has not been
observed in this county, though it is exposed in Queen Anne's
County, a short distance south of Chester River. Blue sandy clay
is also present in other places in Maryland and in Delaware but
is unrepresented in this county.

SECTION ONE-HALF MILE WEST OF MILLINGTON.

Feet

Coarse gravel in matrix of loose gray or slightly

indurated yellowish-brown ferruginous sand. . 7
Fine gray quartz sand with yellow streaks and

blotches running through it, exposed 1%

Total 8V2

Palcontologic Character.

No fossils have been found in the Calvert in this county though
elsewhere the formation contains a varied and extensive marine
fauna and flora. The diatomaceous earth has yielded a great quan-
tity of diatoms while the shell layers, developed in certain places,
are composed of quantities of the remains of moUuscan and other
invertebrate forms of life with occasional vertebrate bones and
teeth. The fossils are allied to forms now living in lower latitudes,
this fact indicating a somewhat warmer' climate in this region
during the period of deposition of the Calvert materials. The fos-
sils of this formation have been fully described and illustrated
in the volume on the Miocene issued by the Maryland Geological

Talbot.
Calvert.

THE GEOLOGY OF KENT COUNTY

Survey. The accompanying plate shows the more characteristic
fossil shells, any of which may be found in the soiitheastern part of
the county.

Strike, Dip, and Tliickness.

The thickness of the Calvert in Kent County is probably not
more than 15 feet. South of this region it gradually thickens as it
passes beneath strata of later age. At Crisfield a well section indi-
cates over .300 feet of Calvert materials.

Stratigra ph ic Relations.

In this region the Calvert unconformably overlies the Aquia
formation while it is in turn overlain by deposits of the Talbot and
Wicomico formations between which there are likewise marked
stratigraphic breaks. On the western shore of Maryland the Cal-
vert overlies the Nanjemoy formation of the Eocene and is overlain
by Miocene strata belonging to the Choptank formation.

The Pleistocene Formations.

The Columbia Group.

The Pleistocene formations of the Atlantic Coastal Plain are
united under the name Columbia group. They have many character-
istics in common, due to their similar origin. They consist of
gravels, sands, and loam, which are stratigraphically younger than
the Brandywine or Bryn Mawr formation. The Columbia group
has been divided in Maryland into three formations: the Sunder-
land, Wicomico, and Talbot, the last two of which are represented
in Kent County. They appear as the facings of different plains or
terraces, possessing very definite physiographic relations, as al-
ready described.

On iDurely lithologic grounds it is imj)Ossible to separate the
three formations composing the Columbia gi'oup. The materials of

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

all have been derived maiuly from the oldei' formations which occur
in the immediate vicinity, mixed with more or less foreign material
brought in by streams from the Piedmont Plateau or from the Appa-
lachian region beyond. The deposits of each of these formations are
extremely variable and change in general character according to
the underlying formations. Thus materials belonging to the same
formation may in different i-egions differ far more lithologically
than the materials of two different formations lying in proximity to
each other and to the common source of most of their material.
Cartographic distinctions based on lithologic differences could not
fail to result in hopeless confusion. At some places the older Pleis-
tocene deposits are more indurated and their pebbles more decom-
posed than are those of younger formations, but these differences
cannot be used as criteria for separating the formations, since loose
and indurated, fresh and decomposed materials occur in each.

The fossils found in the Pleistocene deposits are far too meager
to be of much service in separating them into distinct formations,
even though essential differences between deposits may exist. It is
the exceptional and not the normal development of the formations
that has rendered the preservation of fossils possible. These consist
principally of fossil plants that were preserved in bogs, although in
a few places about Chesapeake Bay local Pleistocene deposits con-
tain great numbers of marine and estuarine mollusks.

The Columbia group, as may be readily seen, is not a physio-
graphic unit. The formations occupy wave-built terraces or plains
separated by wave-cut escarpments, their mode of occurrence indi-
cating different periods of deposition. At the bases of many of the
escarpments the underlying Cretaceous and Tertiary formations are
exposed. The highest terrace is occupied by the oldest deposits, the
Sunderland, while the lowest terrace is made up of the youngest, or
Talbot materials.

At almost every place where good sections of Pleistocene mate-
rials are exposed the deposits from base to top seem to be a unit. At

THE GEOLOGY OF KENT COUXTY

other places, however, certain layers or beds are sharply separated
from overlying beds by irregular lines of unconformity. Some of
these breaks disappear within short distances, showing clearly that
they are only local phenomena in the same formation, produced by
contemporaneous erosion due to shifting shallow-water currents.
Whether all these breaks would thus disappear if sufficient expo-
sures occurred to permit the determination of their true nature
is not known. An additional fact which indicates the contempo-
raneous erosive origin of these unconformities is that in nearby
regions they seem to have no relation to one another. Since the
Pleistocene formations lie in a nearly horizontal plane it would be
possible to connect these seiiaration lines if they were subaerial
erosional unconformities. In the absence of any definite evidence
that these lines are stratigraphic bi'eaks separating two formations,
they have been disregarded. Yet it is not improbable that in some
places the waves of the advancing sea in Sunderland, Wicomico,
and Talbot times did not entirely remove the beds of the preceding
period of deposition over the area covered by the sea in its next
transgression. Especially would deposits laid down in depressions
be likely to persist as isolated remnants which later were covered
by the next mantle of Pleistocene materials. If this is the case
each formation from the Brandywine to the Wicomico is probably
represented by fragmentary deposits beneath the later Pleistocene
formations. In regions where pre-Quaternary materials are not
exposed in the bases of the escarpments each Pleistocene formation
near its inner margin probably rests upon the attenuated edge of
the next older formation. Since lithologic differences furnish
insufficient criteria for separating these late deposits, and since
sections are not numerous enough to furnish distinctions between
local interformational unconformities and widespread unconform-
ities resulting from an erosion interval, the whole mantle of Pleis-
tocene materials occurring at any one point is referred to the same
formation. The Wicomico is described as including all the gravels,

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

sands, and clays overlying the pre-Brandywine deposits and extend-
ing from the base of the Sunderland-Wicomico escarpment to the
base of the Wicomico-Talbot escarpment. Perhaps, however, mate-
rials of Brandywine and of Sunderland age may underlie the
Wicomico in places. In like manner the Talbot may occasionally
rest upon deposits of the Brandywine, Sunderland, and Wicomico.

THE WICOMICO FORMATION.

The Wicomico formation receives its name from the Wicomico
River on the southern Eastern Shore of Maryland where deposits
of this age are characteristically developed.

Arcal Distribution.

The oldest Pleistocene deposits of Kent County belong to the
Wicomico, which, on account of its extensive development, is the
most important formation in the region. It occupies the broad
divide between Chesapeake Bay and Delaware Kiver and is the
surface formation over nearly two-thirds of the county. It conceals
from view many of the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations which
otherwise would be exposed over the divides and which now appear
only along the valleys of the streams, where the Wicomico materials
have been removed by erosion. The formation is extensively devel-
oped throughout the northern and central portions of the Atlantic
Coastal Plain and probably extends into the Gulf region. It forms
the surface material of a gently sloping plain ranging in elevation
from 40 to 100 feet above sea level.

Character of Materials.

The materials composing the Wicomico formation are extremely
varied both in size and mineral character. Boulders, gravel, sand,
and loam are all present. These are usually well stratified, yet the
lithologic characters of the strata change so abruptly that it is not

THE GEOLOGY OF KENT COUNTY

possible to follow one bed for any great distance. Again, tbere is
no definite sequence of the materials, although in general the coarser
constituents are found near the base of the section while the finer
form the capping. Fine sands may alternate with coarse boulder
beds several times within a single section. Cross-bedding is also
quite common.

The section exposed in the Betterton cliffs, given on a previous
page, well iUustrates the general character of the formation in its
greatest development in this county. In the central portion of the
divide between the Sassafras and Chester rivers, the Wicomico is
from 15 to 20 feet thick and almost invariably has a well developed
loam cap at the top and a gravel band, a few feet in thickness, at
the base. This loam, in many respects, resembles the loess of the
Mississippi Valley and constitutes the heavier soils of the upland.
The gravel band at the base is exposed along the roads in scores of
places where small streams are crossed.

The Wicomico materials found in almost every exposure have
been largely derived from older deposits in the immediate vicinity,
and the lithologic character of the formation changes from place to
place according to the character of the contiguous older formations.
In the northwestern portion of the county where a great deal of the
Wicomico material has been derived from Upper Cretaceous and
Eocene beds, the formation comprises considerable greensand. In
the southeastern portion greensand is entirely absent, but the
formation there contains light-colored sands derived from the Cal-
vert. At places where there is little foreign material mixed with
the locally derived debris it becomes somewhat difficult to draw
the line between the Wicomico and the underlying Cretaceous and
Tertiary formations. Usually, however, a stratigraphic break may
be noted if there is a goofl exposure; if not, the harsher and more
loamy character of the overlying materials indicates that they have
been reworked and redeposited.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

KENT COUNTY, PLATE VI

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

"While the Wicomico was being formed as an offshore deposit
streams from the adjoining land to the northAvest were bearing in
quantities of boulders, pebbles, sands, and loam. These were
dropped when the streams entered the ocean, the larger particles
first and the finer later. This sorting or arrangement is well shown
in Kent County in that the size of the land-derived materials rapidly
decreases from the northwest to the southeast. Large boulders and
coarse pebbles are very common all over Sassafras Neck, but they
gradually decrease both in size and number toward the southeast.
Some of the boulders that occur in the Wicomico deposits in the
northern portion of the county are very large. On Sassafras Neck
many with a diameter of 2 feet or more are to be found. Nearly all
the pebbles and boulders are composed of quartz or quartzite, but
some of them are more complex mineralogically. In a ravine about
one-half mile northeast of Galena some pebbles and boulders com-
posed of peridotite, gabbro, gneiss, and quartz-mica schist were
found. Similar boulders also occur elsewhere.

In the Potomac Valley near Washington boulders carrying
glacial striae have been found in the Wicomico formation, but in
Kent County no striated rocks have been observed. The great size
of the boulders found here, however, and their occurrence with much
finer materials furnish evidence of their transportation by float-
ing ice.

The amount of loam present in the Wicomico is exceedingly
variable. Wherever the loam cap is well developed the roads are
firm and the land is suitable for producing grass and grain, but in
regions where loam is present in small quantities, or absent alto-
gethei*, the roads are apt to be sandy. The Wicomico on Sassafras
Neck and on the divide between Sassafras and Chester rivers is
characterized by its well-developed loam cap. In marked contrast
with those regions is that portion of Delaware lying a short distance
southeast of Kent County where there is little loam present and the
surface is very sandy.

THE GEOLOGY OF KENT COUNTY

Physiographic Expression.

In Kent County the Wicomico possesses the features of a broad,
flat plain forming the stream divides. On the west side of Chesa-
peake Bay it occurs mainly as narrow terraces occupying the lower
portions of the stream divides and extending up the sides of the
wider valleys. It is at many places separated from the Sunder-
land above and the Talbot below by well-defined escarpments. In
Kent County the Wicomico-Talbot escarpment forms one of the
most prominent topographic features of the region. It is best
developed in the western portion of the county where it forms an
almost continuous cliff 15 to 30 feet in height extending from Clin-
ton Creek to Chestertown, passing near Hanesville, Melitota, Fair-
lee, Sandy Bottom, and Langford. It is a sharp rise that distinctly
separates the low-lying Talbot plain from the upland Wicomico
level. The same escarpment is continued from Chestertown to Mill-
ington usually at a distance of from one-half to one mile from the
river. Along the Sassafras River it is less well developed though
there it appears along the lower headlands between the tributary
streams. These escarpments represent wave-cut cliffs formed during
a period of submergence when the waters of Chesapeake Bay and
its estuaries encroached upon the land to a greater extent than at
present.

Pahoiitologic Character.

The Wicomico formation in Kent County has thus far fui-nished
no fossils. In other regions plant remains and impure peat have
been found in it. The plant remains have marked modern
characteristics.

Strike, Dip, and Thickness.

The Wicomico formation is not at all places uniformly thick,
owing to the uneven surface on which it was deposited. Its thick-
ness ranges from a few feet to 50 feet or more. The formation dips
down into the valleys and rises on the divides, so that its thickness

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SUKVKY

is uot so groat as might be supposed from the fact that the base is
frequently as low as 40 feet while the surface rises in places as
high as 100 feet above sea level. NotAvithstandiiig these irregu-
larities it occupies as a whole au approximately horizontal position,
with a slight southeasterly dip.

^tratigraph ic Relations.

The Wicomico unconformably overlies all of the Cretaceous and
Tertiary formations of the county. In places it may possibly overlie
some of the Sunderland deposits Avhich may be present beneath the
Wicomico but, as has already been stated, the evidence for this is
not conclusive. It is also in contact with the Talbot formation at
many places along the Chesapeake Bay and its estuaries where the
two formations are separated by an escarpment 10 to 20 feet in
height, the base of which is from 38 to 45 feet above sea level.

THE TALBOT FORMATION.

The Talbot formation receives its name from the extensive devel-
opment of deposits of this age in Talbot County.

Areal Distribution.

The latest formation represented in this region is the Talbot. It
consists of gravels, sands, and loam in the form of a terrace that
extends from tide to an elevation of 38 to 45 feet above sea level,
where it is separated by an escarpment from the deposits of the
Wicomico formation. It is best developed along Chesapeake Bay
and the lower courses of the Chester River where it forms the
surface material over a strip of land that has a width of between
3 and 7 miles. It also covers the lower portions of the minor
stream divides along both the Sassafras and Chester rivers. The
formation lias an extensive development throughout the northern
and middle portions of the Atlantic Coastal Plain.

THE GEOLOGY OF KENT COUXTY

Character of the Materials.

The materials composing the Talbot deposits are very similar
in lithologic character to those found in the Wicomico formation.
There is usually more loam present as compared with the gravel
and sand than is found in the Wicomico, but the proportions of
these constituents are extremely variable.

The following section, which is exposed near the town of Sassa-
fras along a tributaiy of Sassafras River, illustrates the varied
character of the material composing the Talbot formation :

SECTION NEAR SASSAFRAS.

Ft. In.

Coarse brown sandy loam 1 6

Fine gravel in matrix of coarse brown

sand; no distinct bedding 4 6

Coarse brownish-yellow to buflf sand with

considerable fine gravel 4 10

Gravel band; pebbles of various sizes, not

well sorted 0 5

Medium-fine brownish sand showing dis-
tinct cross-bedding, containing large

broken masses of iron crust 8 0

Gravel band; pebbles small 3 6

Layer of iron crusts 0 10

Coarse sand, cross-bedded, containing a few

drab-colored clay lenses 4 0

Indurated iron band 0 6

Coarse sand (thickness exposed) 2 0

30 1

Near Wilson Point wharf a section of the Talbot is exposed in
which the material consists of weathered glauconitic sand. At
Chestertown the Talbot contains beds of clay loam which have been
utilized in the manufacture of brick.

Physlogra phic Expression.

The Talbot preserves the appearance of a terrace in the Kent
County area better than the other Pleistocene formation. From

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

the base of the Talbot- Wicomico escax'piuent the terrace slopes to
the water's edge with few irregularities except where the surface
is cut by streams.

Paleontologic Character.

The Talbot is the only one of the Pleistocene formations that has
furnished any fossils in this region. On the east and west shores
of Eastern Neck and on the bay shore of Eastern Neck Island,
layers of clay containing plant remains have been found. The
vegetable debris has been rather finely comminuted though no
doubt careful collecting would reveal the presence of determinable
species, such as have been studied from other places on Chesapeake
Bay. Elsewhere large fossil cypress stumps, in an upright position,
have been exposed by the cutting action of the waves, but no such
fossils have been observed in this county. At Cornfield Harbor,
near the mouth of Potomac River, the formation has yielded a great
number of molluscan shells, representing a varied fauna of marine
and brackish-water origin.

Strike^ Dip, and Thickness.

The thickness of the Talbot formation is extremely variable rang-
ing from a few to 40 or more feet. The unevenness of the surface
on which it was deposited has in part caiised this variability. The
proximity of certain regions to mouths of streams during the Tal-
bot submergence also accounts for the increased thickness of the
formation in these areas.

Stratigraphic Relations.

The Talbot rests unconforraably, in ditferent portions of the
region, upon various formations of Cretaceous and Tertiaiy age.
It may in places rest upon deposits of Sunderland or Wicomico age,
although no positive evidence has yet been found to indicate such
relations to the older Pleistocene formations. The deposits occupy

THE GEOLOGY OF KENT COUNTY

a nearly horizontal position, with perhaps slif^ht slopes toward
Delaware and Chesapeake bays on the two sides of the county, but
the amount of slope is too small to be accurately determined. The
Talbot was at some places deposited upon a very irregular surface.
Great irregularities, now concealed, no doubt exist elsewhere in
the surface upon which the Talbot materials were deposited.

THE RECENT DEPOSITS.

In addition to the two Pleistocene terraces already discussed,
a fifth is now being formed by the waters of the rivers and the waves
of the estuaries. This terrace is present along the water's edge,
extending from a few feet above to a few feet below tide. It is the
youngest and topographically the lowest of the series. Normally it
lies at the base of the Talbot terrace from which it is separated by
a low scarp. In the absence of the Talbot the Recent terrace may
be found at the base of the Wicomico terrace in which case the
separating scarp will be higher. The Recent materials consist of
peat, clay, sand, and gravel and these are deposited in deltas, flood-
plains, beaches, bogs, dunes, bars, spits, and wave-built terraces.

INTERPRETATION OF THE GEOLOGICAL RECORD

The area in which Kent County lies has undergone many clianges
throughout past geologic time, some of which can be readily inter-
preted by the character of the deposits and their physical relations.
The region has alternately been submerged and elevated, and depo-
sition of materials has frequently been succeeded by erosion. At
certain times the entire county was beneath the water and received
deposits; at other times it was land and was degraded by surface
streams ; at still other times the shore line crossed the county so that
part of it was in the zone of denudation and part of it in the zone
of deposition. The erosion intervals are indicated by erosional un-
conformities, while the beds of various materials represent periods
of submergence. Further, the physical conditions prevailing during

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

the ages of sedimentation are revealed by the lithologic character of
the beds and their included organic remains.

The floor upon which the Coastal Plain deposits were laid down
is a great mass of crystalline rocks of pre-Cambrian and early Pale-
ozoic age. These crystallines do not appear at the surface in this
region, nor have they been reached by any deep-well borings.

Sedimentary Record of the Lower Cretaceous.

The earliest of the known unconsolidated deposits lying upon the
floor of crystalline rocks belong to the Patuxent formation of the
Potomac group. It does not appear at the surface within Kent
County, but has been reached by the deep-well boring at Middle-
town, Delaware. It outcrops a few miles to the northwest, in Cecil
County, and probably underlies this entire county. It indicates a
submergence of the Coastal Plain of this region of sufficient extent
to cover the whole area with shallow water. The cross-bedded sands
and gravels furnish evidence of shifting currents, as do also the
rapid changes in the character of the materials, both horizontally
and vertically. The presence of numerous land plants in the lami-
nated clays shows the proximity of the land.

The deposition of the Patuxent formation was ended by an up-
lift which brought the region above the water and inaugurated an
erosion period which persisted long enough to permit the removal
of a vast amount of material. To the south a submergence, during
which the Ai'undel formation was laid down, and a re-elevation
occurred before the area of this county was again depressed be-
neath the water level. Physical conditions similar to those which
had prevailed during Patuxent time existed during this period of
submergence, in which the Patapsco formation was laid down.

After the deposition of the Patapsco formation the region again
became land through an upward movement which drained all of the
previously existing estuaries and marshes. Erosion at once became
active and the Patapsco surface was dissected.

THE GEOLOGY OF KENT COUNTY

Sedimentary Record of the Upper Cretaceous.

A downward land movement again submerged the greater por-
tion of the region, leaving only a very narrow strij) of Patapsco
deposits above water. The Raritan formation was now deposited
under conditions very similar to those which had existed during
the previous submergence. Raritan deposition was terminated by
an uplift which again converted the entire region into land. A
long period elapsed before a re-submergence, so that the streams
were able to extensively erode the recently formed deposits.

The extensive development of shallow-water deposits, every-
where cross bedded and extremely variable in lithologic character,
and the presence throughout of land plants furnish some evidence
that Raritan sedimentation took place, not in open ocean waters
but in brackish or fresh-water estuaries and marshes that were in-
directly connected with the ocean, which may have at times locally
broken into the sea. Some land barrier east of the present shore
line probably existed and produced these conditions, but its posi-
tion and extent cannot be determined.

The period during which the Magothy deposits were formed was
a period of transition from the estuarine or fresh-Avater conditions
of the Patapsco and Raritan periods to the marine conditions of the
Matawan and Monmouth periods. The lithologic characters of the
materials as shown by their great variability, the coarseness of the
sands and gravels, and the cross-bedding all suggest conditions
similar to those of the former periods. On the other hand, the occa-
sional pockets of glauconitic sand and the presence of marine in-
vertebrates suggest the marine conditions of the later Cretaceous
periods. The probability is that over most of the area where
Magothy deposits are now found Potomac conditions prevailed dur-
ing the greater part of the period and in some places perhaps during
the whole period, but that occasionally, through the breaking down
of the land barriers which had kept out the ocean, there were incur-

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

KENT COUNTY. PLATE VII

Fig. 1. — \iE\v SHOWING hillside erosion at upper edge of the wicomico-t.vlbot

SC ARP IN KENT COUNTY.

Fig. 2. — viiow showing hillsides wi th hardwood kokest, uokdering marsh land

NEAR STILL I'OND.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

sions of sea water, bringing in marine forms of life. Thus far
there is no evidence that they occurred anywhere except in >few
Jersey.

At the close of the Magothy period the region was uplifted and
a period of erosion was inaugurated. During this erosion interval
comparatively small amounts of material were removed. In some
places it is impossible to establish definitely any erosion break be-
tween the Magothy and the Matawan. This may be because the
erosion interval w^as comparatively short or because the elevation
of the land above the water was so slight that it did not permit the
streams to cut channels in the recently formed deposits.

Not until late Cretaceous time did a downward movement occur
of sufficient extent to permit the ocean waters to transgress widely
over this region. During the Matawan and Monmouth epochs all
of Kent County, except perhaps a small portion in its northwestern
corner, was depressed beneath the ocean waters. The streams from
the low-lying land evidently carried into the ocean at this time only
small amounts of fine sand and mud, which afforded conditions
favorable to the production of glauconite and permitted the accumu-
lation of the greensand beds that are so characteristic of the Upper
Cretaceous epoch along the Atlantic border. During this time very
slight changes took place along the continental border, although
elevation was probably proceeding slowly, as the Monmouth forma-
tion is found outcropping farther and farther southeastward.

After the deposition of the Rancocas formation in adjoining
territory in Delaware and New Jersey upward land movements
again caused the shore line to retreat eastward, but to what point is
not definitely known. In areas lying farther north in New Jersey,
deposition still continued in some places, for the Rancocas is there
overlain by another later deposit of Cretaceous age. If such de-
posits were ever formed wdthin the limits of Kent County they have
either been removed or are concealed from view by later formations
which have overlapped them.

THE GEOLOGY OF KENT COUNTY

Sedimentary Record of the Eocene.

During early Eocene time a portion of this area again became a
region of deposition through a subsidence which carried it beneath
the ocean waters. This Eocene ocean seems to have transgressed
the Rancocas surface, as Eocene deposition took place immediately
upon the Monmouth formation in many places along Sassafras River
and its tributaries. The Eocene waters probably did not cover that
portion of Delaware adjoining Kent County for near IMiddletown
and Townsend, Delaware, the later Calvert deposits are in contact
with the Rancocas.

The conditions that prevailed during the time of the deposition
of the Aquia formation must have been very similar to those existing
during late Cretaceous time. The presence of great quantities of
glauconitic material indicates quiet water where foraminifera
aboimded and where only fine terrigenous detritus was being carried
in small amounts by streams from the land. The waters were also
well suited for marine life of higher types, and numerous pelecypod
and gasteropod fossils occur in the deposits.

Sedimentary Record of the Miocene.

The Eocene deposits are unconformably overlain by the Calvert
formation. The unconformity indicates that an erosion interval
succeeded Eocene deposition, during which the area was above water
and the streams of the region were cutting drainage channels in the
Eocene deposits. A subsequent depression of the district submerged
all that portion of the county lying southeast of a line drawn from
Sassafras to Kennedyville. At this time all of the land to the west
must have been worn down to such an extent that the streams which
drained it had very little force. Fine sands and mud were carried
into the ocean and laid down as an offshore deposit, but no coarse
materials were brought in. Diatoms lived in abundance in the
waters near the shore and as they died their siliceous tests dropped

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVE3Y

to the bottom. Altbouyh diatoms are extremely small, yet their
remains form a very considerable portion of the Calvert deposits,
and in places beds several feet in thickness are found composed
almost entirely of their tests. The Calvert deposits must therefore
represent a very long period of time. The waters also abounded in
other forms of life, particularly corals, pelecypods, gasteropods,
and fishes, although all the main groups of marine animals are
represented.

After the deposition of the Calvert formation most if not all of
this region remained above water for a long period, during which
those portions of the Atlantic Coastal Plain that lie farther east
and south were alternately submerged and uplifted. Two Miocene
formations, not represented in this area, are developed in those
districts. During this time erosion was active, and much material
was removed by the streams that meandered across the region.

Sedimentary Record op the Brandywine Formation.

The erosion interval that followed Calvert deposition was finally
terminated by a more extensive submergence, which carried the
whole region beneath the waters of the ocean and at the same time
elevated the adjoining land through a southeastward tilting of the
continental border. This tilting rejuvenated the rivers and they
were enabled to carry much coarser materials than they had borne
during Eocene and Miocene time. As a result the entire submerged
region near the shore was covered with a mantle of coarse gravel
and sands, while the finer materials were carried out to sea beyond
the confines of Kent County. These deposits constitute the Brandy-
wine formation. The thickness of this formation, in view of the
coarseness of the materials, indicates that this submergence was not
of long duration. This material was deposited on a gently sloping
surface, probably similar to the present continental shelf. In time
upward-moving forces became dominant and the entire Coastal
Plain was again raised above the water. When the region was up-

92 THE GEOLOGY OF KENT COUNTY

lifted the recently deposited material formed a broad, nearly level
plain, which extended from the Piedmont Plateau in a gradual
slope to the ocean. Erosion succeeded deposition and large quan-
tities of the Brandywine material were removed. During this ero-
sion interval streams rapidly cut into the Brandywine and earlier
formations. Over Kent County the Brandywine plain was entirely
destroyed, while in other places the tributary streams succeeded in
isolating large portions, which remained as outliers.

Sedimentary Record op the Pleistocene.

During the next depression, which occurred in Pleistocene time,
the Sunderland deposits were formed. The depression was not great
enough to carry all portions of the Coastal Plain beneath the water,
and only those regions which now have an elevation less than ISO
feet above sea level were submerged. All of Kent County seems to
have been submerged. The materials that were carried in by the
streams and deposited in the ocean, there to be re-sorted by the
waves, indicate that the relation of the land to the sea must have
been about the same as during Brandywine time. In the valleys
which had been carved out by the streams during the erosion inter-
val following the Brandywine period the deposits formed were much
thicker than on the former stream divides. Had the period of sub-
mergence been a long one the old stream valleys must have been
obliterated. That the Sunderland period, like the preceding, was
comparatively short may be inferred from the thin layer of sedi-
ments which accumulated over the submerged region.

An elevation sufficient to bring the entire area above water per-
mitted the streams to extend their courses across the newly-formed
land and in a short time the Sunderland deposits were extensively
eroded. A portion of those that remained after this period of denu-
dation were destroyed by the waves, when a gradual subsidence
again permitted the ocean waters to encroach upon the land. In
this submergence the regions now lying above 100 feet were not

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

covered with water; hence a considerable part of the Coastal Plain
remained as land. At this time the Wicomico sea cut cliffs along
the shore and these now appear as escai'pments whose bases are at
an elevation of 90 to 100 feet above sea level. Streams of consider-
able velocity and volume brought down gravel and sand, which the
waves spread over the ocean bottom. The coarser materials were
dropped near the shore, while the finer were carried farther out to
sea. This accounts for the fact that the gravel of the Wicomico
formation is larger and more abundant in the northwestern portion
of the county than in the southeastern portion.

During the time that the Wicomico formation was being laid
down the country to the north was covered by the glacial ice sheet.
A great deal of ice evidently formed along the streams that were
bringing in the Wicomico materials, and at times large masses were
broken loose and floated down to the ocean. These ice masses car-
ried within them boulders, frequently of large size, which were
dropped as the ice melted, and in this way the boulders that are
found in Wicomico deposits, mixed with much finer deposits,
reached their present positions. Some of these ice-borne boulders
included in the Wicomico deposits found elsewhere show their gla-
cial origin by numerous striae. Toward the close of Wicomico time
an upward land motion caused the ocean to retreat gradually
again and at the same time checked the velocity of the streams
through a landward tilting, by which the lower courses Avere ele-
vated to a greater degree than the upper courses. The streams with
less carrying power were then unable to transport coarse materials
and as a result the upper beds of this formation are composed prin-
cipally of fine sand and loam.

During the succeeding erosion interval the principal streams
that are now present in this region developed, in large part, their
main and lateral channels as they now exist.

The lower courses of Sassafras and Chester rivers in their pres-
ent form date from this time. Before the next subsidence all of

THE GEOLOGY OF KENT COUNTY

these streams had cut through the Wicomico deposits and opened
wide valleys in the old channels. With later submergence the water
entered these valleys, converting them into wide estuaries or bays.
The greater portion of the region was not submerged ; those areas
that now have an elevation more than 40 feet above sea level re-
mained as land. In the estuaries and bays the Talbot deposits were
laid down. In Kent County the Chesapeake Bay shore line at this
time extended irregularly from Churn Creek to Chestertown, and
along this shore the waves were sufficiently strong to cut sea cliffs
at many exposed points. These remain as escarpments and may be
plainly seen at several points, particularly near Langford and
Melitota. The waters of Chesapeake Bay advanced up the valleys
of the various streams, forming broad estuaries in which sedimen-
tation took place. Although the Bay was then, as now, merely an
arm of the ocean, yet the waves were of sufficient magnitude to cut
sea cliffs at many places. In this region some of these old sea cliffs
can be traced continuously for several miles as escarpments, in
places 15 to 20 feet high. During this period of submergence the
waters of Chesapeake Bay extended far enough inland to permit
deposition in areas as far east as Sassafras on Sassafras River and
Millington on Chester River.

The Talbot materials closely resemble those of the Wicomico
formation, which indicates similar conditions during the two
periods. Along the shore at some places marshes were formed in
which an accumulation of vegetable debris took place, as in the
swamps on Eastern Neck, which were produced at this time.

The Talbot stage of deposition was brought to a close by an up-
lift, as a result of which the shore line once more retreated and the
previously submerged regions were drained. When this elevation
occurred the region that emerged from the sea appeared as a broad
terrace about the borders of the Wicomico plain, above described.
During this time of uplift the streams again became active and
rapidly removed large quantities of the loose material that had

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

just been deposited. The land after the uplift undoubtedly stood at
a higher elevation than at present, so that the material recently de-
posited formed a larger addition to the continent than would appear
from the present outlines of the Talbot formation. Although a com-
paratively short period has elapsed since the Talbot deposits were
converted into land, yet already in many places the streams have
succeeded in cutting through these to the underlying beds.

The last event in the geologic history of the region was a down-
ward movement, which is still in progress. It is this which has
produced the estuaries and tidewater marshes that form so con-
spicuous features of the present topography. The movement is
very slow and in many places has not kept pace with the filling
process which is very noticeable in certain regions of the Coastal
Plain. Many of the estuaries are not now navigable as far inland
as they were a century ago. Deposition is very active in the estu-
aries, as nearly all the material brought doAvn by the streams from
the land is dropped in their quiet waters. The following state-
ments indicate the amount of change that has taken place within
the Delaware River in recent times and probably similar changes
have occurred in almost all of the tidewater estuaries of the region.
From 1841 to 1881 Delaware River between Reedy Island and Lis-
ton Point increased its mean width 411 feet, 285 feet on the New
Jersey side and 126 feet on the Delaware shore. During this same
period certain portions of this area have been deepened while cer-
tain others have been shoaled. Except in the region of Liston Point
the river bed shows an excess of shoaling over deepening. The
region includes an area of 15 square miles and shows an excess of
filling of 8,096,150 cubic yards, representing an average decrease in
depth of 0.4 foot in forty years. (Rept. U. S. Coast and Geodetic
Survey for 1884, Appendix 12, pp. 433-434.)

THE MINERAL RESOURCES OF
KENT COUNTY

BENJAMIN L. MILLER

Introductory.

The mineral resources of this region are not extensive nor ex-
tremely' valuable, yet Kent County contains some deposits of eco-
nomic importance, although they have not been very largely worked.

THE NATURAL DEPOSITS

The Clays.

The Pleistocene formations of this region contain a number of
clay beds, some of which are available for the manufacture of brick
and tile. In Chestertown the surface loam of the Talbot formation
has been utilized for the making of brick. The material is used to a
depth of about 4 feet. No doubt much of the surface Talbot loam
on the broad low-lying flats bordering the lower Chester River and
Chesapeake Bay would prove equally serviceable for the manufac-
ture of ordinary brick and tile.

On the Uplands, the Wicomico loams cover extensive areas and
would, in many places, be suitable for brick. In the vicinity of
Philadelphia and Washington, and in many places in Virginia these
Wicomico argillaceous loams have been extensively utilized for this
purpose.

The Sands.

In the Pleistocene and Miocene formations there are numerous
and extensive beds of fine quartz sands. The sand from these beds

THE MINERAL RESOURCES OF KENT COUNTY

has been used locally for building purposes, but no large openings
have been made in any of the deposits. In many places in the
county an unlimited amount of sand of excellent quality for build-
ing purposes could be obtained.

The Gravels.

The Wicomico and Talbot formations contain many beds of
gravel that is suitable for road-making, and in a few places these
beds have been worked. In many places the deposits contain
enough ferruginous clay and sand to cause the gravel to pack well
and to make a firm road bed. There are, in the region, many beds
aot yet opened which would yield a good quality of gravel for road
making. In the upland portion of the county gravels are found
almost universally beneath the loam cap of the AVicomico, and these
have been used here and there for local purposes. At some places
these gravel beds contain very little sand or clay and consequently
are not weU suited for roads; at others there is considerable iron
oxide and sandy clay mixed with the gravel and it has considerable
value as road metal.

The Marls.*

The Monmouth and Aquia formations contain considerable glau-
conitic and calcareous materials. It is well known that glaucouitic
marl has considerable value as a fertilizer. Similar deposits have
been extensively worked in New Jersey, where the importance of
utilizing the marls has long been recognized. The marls of Kent
County seem to be somewhat inferior in quality to many of the Xew
Jersey deposits, for analyses show a smaller percentage of the
potassium compounds, yet the results obtained by the use of the
Delaware and Maryland marls are said to have been very satis-

* It should be understood that the marls of the coastal plain differ
widely in character and origin from the marls used in Michigan for the
manufacture of cement. The marls of Maryland are not suitable for such
purposes.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SUKVKY

factory. In the early part of the last century many marl pits were
opened in Newcastle County, Delaware, and Cecil County, Mary-
land, where these glauconitic beds either appear at the surface or
under thin cover of later deposits. These marl pits were located
near Silver Run and Drawyer and Appoquinimink creeks in Del-
aware, and along Bohemia Creek and Sassafras River and their
tributaries in Maryland. Marl was obtained also at a few places
near Sandy Bottom. Analyses made a long time ago by the Delaware
Geological Survey show from 7 to 9 per cent of potassium. In places
where the marl can be obtained at low cost such a percentage of
potassium would seem to justify the opening of marl pits for
local use.

The Bog-iron Orb.

In many places on the Eastern Shore of Maryland deposits of
bog-iron ore are found in the swamps and marshes bordering the
estuaries. Conditions have long been favorable for its accumula-
tion and considerable deposits have formed in some of the lower
counties where conditions are still favorable for its formation. In
the early history of the region, many of these deposits were used
as a source of iron though, at the present time, they could not be
worked with profit. In Kent County the iron ores are of minor im-
portance and, so far as is known, have never been utilized. Thin
layers of ore are exposed, however, on Eastern Neck and in the
vicinity of Langford Bay where the waves have removed the over-
lying materials and no doubt there are other places where the iron
ore is developed though not exposed.

THE WATER RESOURCES

The water supply of Kent County available for use is found in
the streams and wells of the district. As the county contains no
large cities the streams are not used as sources of public water
supply. They are, however, used to furnish water power in some
places, as has been already mentioned.

100

THE MINERAL RESOURCES OF KEXT COUNTY

Surface Waters.

The two large streams, Sassafras River and Chester River, which
form respectively the northern and southern boundaries of the
county, are tidal estuaries and their waters are consequently brack-
ish and more or less charged with organic matter and are therefore
unsuited as sources of potable ^\'ate^. The small streams are all
short and expand almost immediately into estuaries or marshes.
The amount of flow is limited, the water is charged with organic
matter, and practically all receive more or less drainage from in-
habited areas and are therefore extremely liable to pollution. None
are, nor should be, utilized as sources of domestic or municipal
supplies.

Underground Waters.

ARTESIAN waters.

The absence of large centers of population or industrial enter-
prises requiring large quantities of water has limited the number
of drilled wells in Kent County, since shallow dug, or driven well
furnish ample supplies for domestic or farm purposes. At Chester-
town two of the wells at the ice plant, between 160 and 170 feet
deep, are thought to draw water from a bed in the Monmouth. The
water only rises to within 30 feet of the surface but the supply is
large. A well about II/2 miles southwest of Morgnec is 224 feet
deep and is drawing from the Matawan. The water is soft and
rises to within 10 feet of the surface.

Two wells at Rockhall found water at about 345 feet that is
thought to come from the Magothy, being correlated with tlie lower
Magothy level in the Chestertown well. These wells have a fair
flow, the exact amount unknown, but the water is so highly charged
with iron that it is not palatable.

At the Chestertown Water Works two attempts have been made
to secure water from deep wells, but althoiigh water was found in

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

101

both wells the results were not satisfactory and so the Avells were
abandoned. Tlie log of the second and deeper well is given below.

DEEP WELL OP CHESTERTOWN WATER WORKS.
(Put down winter of 1908-1909. J. H. K. Shannahan Company, Contractors.)

Pleistocene. Feet

Soft yellow clay 0-6

Soft yellow marl containing shells 6-60

Eocene.

Aquia formation.

Soft gray marl containing shells 60-113

Soft black marl, hard boulders 113-129

Upper Cretaceous.

Monmouth formation.

Hard and soft marl alternating from green to black. . 129-150

Hard dark brown sand 150-200

Matawan formation.

Gray and black sand, water bearing, pumped 15 gals. 200-230

Gray clay and sand 230-251

Soft gray sand rock 251-257

Hard black sandy clay 257-268

Magothy formation.

Soft black loamy micaceous clay 268-332

Soft coarse white sand, water bearing, tested about 20

gallons per minute 332-335

Soft lead-colored clay 33 5-340

Soft coarse white sand, water bearing, no test 34 0-344

Raritan formation.

Soft clay alternating red and white 3 44-355

Soft sandy clay alternating red and white 355-390

Reddish sands, grains loose and free, water bearing. . 390-395

Soft sandy red clay 39 5-421

Hard red clay 4 21-480

Soft rock (sandstone?) 480-480y2

Sand, traces of water . .480 %-481%

Soft gray clay 481 1/2-4 92

Very hard rock 4 92-492

Tough sticky gray clay 492% -5 40

Hard gray sandy clay 5 40-5 50

Free white sand, water bearing, tested 80 gallons per

minute 550-581

Lower Cretaceous.

Patapsco formation.

Soft gray sandy clay 581-625

Very hard red and white sandy clay 625-632

102

THE MINERAL RESOURCES OP KENT COUNTY

Hard boulder 632-632

Tough light pink clay 632 %-648

Tough red clay 648-700

Gray sandy clay, alternated hard and soft 700-706

Coarse white sand, trace of water 706-713

Tough purple clay 713-750

Tough red clay 750-955

Patuxent formation.

Soft purple clay containing hard boulders 955-981

Very hard purple clay 981-1002

Coarse reddish sand, quite free. Flows 14 gallons per

minute at +2 feet 1002-1004

Soft gray clay 1004-1023

Red clay, somewhat hard 1023-1050

Soft gray clay 1050-1056

Very hard gray clay 1056-1060

Soft red clay 1060-1100

Soft gray sandy clay containing boulders 1100-1108

Soft gray sandy clay 1108-1110

Large boulders 1110

Soft gray sandy clay 1110-1135

Coarse sand, water bearing. Flows 50 gallons per

minute. Very salty 1135

The first well stopped at 583 feet near the base of the Raritau,
where a supply was encountered which overflowed 20 gallons per
minute. The second well passed through to the Patuxent sands at
a depth of 1135 feet and encountered a flow of about 50 gallons
per minute Avith a head 2 feet above the surface, but this water was
too salty to use. The abandonment of these two wells, or more
strictly the shallower, since the water in the deeper well was unfit
to use, demonstrates the need of a change in well-drilling methods.
By the system in use in the Coastal Plain of Maryland the driller
merely washes out a hole in the ground, hammering down castiron
pipe until he strikes a stratum which yields a flow or a good head
of water. The small water zones that may be penetrated escape his
notice, and since he knows no way to add them to the large flow
which he hopes to strike he seldom keeps accurate records of the
beds passed through or the water they contain.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 103

Feet

Soft jellow clay 0-6

Soft yellow marl containing shells 6-60

Soft gray marl containing shells CO-113

Soft black marl, hard boulders 113-129

Hard and soft marl alternating from green to black 129-150

Hard dark brown sand 150-200

Gray and black sand, water bearing, pumped 15 gals 200-230

Gray clay and sand 230-251

Soft gray sand rock 251-257

Hard black sandy clay 257-268

Soft black loamy micaceous clay 268-332

{ Soft coarse white sand, water bearing, tested about 20 gals, per miu. 332-335

< Soft lead colored clay 335-340

[ Soft coarse white sand, water bearing, no test 340-344

Soft clay alternating red and white 344-355

Soft sandy clay alternating red and white 355-390

Reddish sands, grains loose and free, water bearing 390-395

Soft sandy red clay 395-421

Hard red clay 421-480

Soft rock (sandstone?) 480-480%

Sand, traces of water 480%-481iyi

Soft gray clay 48iy2-492

Very hard rock 492-492

Tough sticky gray clay 492% -540

Hard gray sandy clay 540-550

Free white sand, water bearing, tested 80 gals, per min 550-581

Soft gray sandy clay 581-625

Very hard red and white sandy clav 625-632

Hard boulder 632-632%

Tough light pink clay G32%-648

Tough red clay 648-700

Gray sandy cla;-, alternated hard and soft 700-706

Coarse white sand, trace of water 706-713

Tough purple clay 713-750

Tough red clay 750-955

Soft purple clay containing hard boulders 955-981

Very hard purple clay 981-1002

Coarse reddish sand, quite free. Flows 14 gals, per min. at -f 2 ft. 1002-1004

Soft gray clay 1004-1023

Red clay, somewhat hard 1023-1050

Soft gray clay 1050-1056

Very hard gray clay 1056-1060

Soft red clay 1060-1100

Soft gray sandy clay <-ontaining boulders 1100-1108

Soft gray sandy clay 1108-1110

Large boulders 1110

Soft gray sandy clay 1110-1135

Coarse sand, water bearing. Flows 50 gals, per rain. Very salty. . . . 1135

Fig. 1. — Section of the Deep Well at Chestertown.

104

THE MINERAL RESOURCES OF KENT COUNTY

Referring to the section of tlie Chestertown well, it will be seen
that there was a water level in the Eocene (the one from which the
shallowest ice-plant well at that place draws ) , one in the Monmouth
(the level which supplies the two other wells at the ice plant), a
lower horizon in the Matawan, two in the Magothy, and three in
the Raritan. But the finished well draws only from the last and
yielded an insuflBcient supply.

The idea of drawing from several levels at once has perhaps
occurred rather vaguely to those who have had to suffer most from
this method of drilling, but the only way apparent to do this is by
leaving the portions of the well opposite the water bearing strata
uncased. This is impossible because of the objectionable sand and
silt that would be pulled up by the pumps, although in some deep
wells in more consolidated material it is possible to leave the well
uncased after the loose, near-surface materials have been passed.

The drillers in California were confronted with the same prob-
lems, sharpened considerably, in that strata were looser, filled with
larger boulders, and were much thicker. Then, too, since the wells
were sunk with the view of obtaining water for irrigation an enor-
mous supply was demanded. These impelling reasons led to the
development of a special type of well construction known as the
"stovepipe" well which is discussed by C. S. Slichter.* Short
lengths of large casing are forced down by hydraulic jacks, accu-
rate records of water zones are kept, and after a sufficient number
are penetrated to yield the desired supply the casings are slit or
perforated at the desired levels by appropriate tools of which a
considerable variety are in use in the West. To give an idea of the
amount of water yielded by wells of this construction several yields
of California wells are noted. From wells averaging 250 feet in
depth 300,000 to 2,000,000 gallons a day have been pumped, while
several deeper wells in southern California 500 to 700 feet deep flow
3.000,000 gallons daily. It may not be possible to duplicate these

* U. S. Geol. Survey, Water Supply Paper No. 110, pp. 32-36, 1905.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

KENT COUNTY. PLATE VIII

Fid. 1. VIHW SllOWl •l Al.liO I -W ICdMICO SCARI'. TALBOT SUBFACK IN FORICG l!()U N D, ON'K

MII.IO KAST OK SANDY HOTTOM.

Phi. 2. — vii;\v at riii: samk i.oc m ity as ahovic bi t from the wicomico si ufaie
L()oi<i:\(; DOW N on iiii; tm.hot plain. iiiK roi> OF TiiF, SCAKP may be seen running

ACROSS TIIK MIDDLE OK THE ILLUSTRATION.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL ST'RVEY

105

yields in the East, but some such method would unquestionably
have saved the Chestertown well and would greatly increase flows
in other wells in the Coastal Plain at present dependent upon one-
water bed.

The adoption of this method would necessitate a few radical
changes in rigging. The hydraulic jacks might not be absolutely
necessary, but the advantages of their use are so numerous that
their inclusion in the rig would greatly increase its efficiency. Per-
haps the greatest difficulty, however, aside from that of overcoming
prejudice and custom, would be that of securing the proper casing
in the East, although the sections are very simply constructed and
could easily be copied.

Summarizing the artesian prospects in Kent County, it may be
said that in the western part of the county the results of deep drill-
ing have not been entirely satisfactory. In the vicinity of Milling-
ton fair supplies of hard water can be obtained at less than 125
feet, but the head is too low to give flows. However, the water
rises to Avithin less than 10 feet of the surface and can be easily
pumped. Toward the shore of Chesapeake Bay it may be necessary
to drill from 250 to 400 feet. Flows have been obtained on Ioav
ground near the Bay. Other artesian wells could doubtless be
obtained by drilling to the same water horizons. The depth re-
quired can be estimated by adding 20 to 30 feet for each mile
toward the southeast from known wells, or subtracting a like
amount for each mile toward the northwest. The head is only a
few feet above sea level, and flowing wells cannot be obtained except
on the lower portion of the Talbot plain. On the higher ground
the water should rise near enough to the surface to be pumped.

With a few exceptions the artesian wells of Kent County have
obtained satisfactory water, but at Kockliall a 400-foot well en-
countered water high in iron, and at Chestertown the deep well
procured salt water. These facts suggest that deep drilling may
prove unprofitable, although elsewhere throughout the Coastal

106

THE MINERAL RESOURCES OF KENT COUXTT

Plain of Maryland the Lower Cretaceous water horizons have
yielded large supplies and usually of good quality.

XOX-ARTESIAX WATERS.

Springs. — Aside from small springs at various points and liable
to more or less seasonable fluctuations there is one of good size
along the Sassafras River at Betterton. This spring, known as the
Idlewhile, has attracted considerable attention and is extensively
advertised by the owner of the Idlewhile Hotel. The spring has a
flow of about 25 gallons per minute and is reported to have had a
constant volume during the last 40 years. It emerges in a small
depression near the shore and the water probably comes from a sand
bed in the Magothy formation. The construction of a wall about
the spring and of a small house over it excludes dirt and surface
water.

Shallow Wells. — The majority of the inhabitants of Kent County
utilize shallow wells for their water supply since the water is
usually obtainable in suflScient quantities for domestic or farm
use at inconsiderable depths, is generally of good quality, and be-
cause of the equably distributed rainfall is dependable at all seasons
of the year.

In the lower areas along the Bay and up the Chester River, as at
Melitota, Tolchester, Sandy Bottom, Crosby, Edesville, Rockhall,
and as far up the river as Millington, variable but usually sufficient
amounts of water are found in the Talbot formation at depths rang-
ing from 8 to 25 feet. Naturally these wells exhibit a variety of
conditions reflecting their local environment, since the shallow
water table is the direct result of downA\ard seepage from the rain-
water falling on the surface of the ground. In some places the
water is pure and wholesome and free from organic or mineral
matter. Elsewhere the water may be so high in iron or organic
matter as to be unfit for use. The Talbot water is thus a very

MARYLAND GKOLOGICAL ST KVEY

107

accessible supply and usually ample and of good quality, but very
susceptible to local surface conditions and also liable to marked
fluctuations during especially wet or dry seasons.

The broad level surface of the Wicomico terrace which forms the
central and eastern part of the county comprises a thin mantle of
sand and loam which like the Talbot stores the water that falls
as rain on its surface. The water table is generally somewhat lower
than on the Talbot terrace and the wells must be suuk somewhat
deeper, striking their first water zone at the base of the Wicomico
formation at depths varying with the surface topography and rang-
ing from but 12 feet at Worton to the more common depth around
30 feet.

The Wicomico water, like the Talbot, is accessible and usually
ample and of fair quality, although frequently hard. The older geo-
logical formations, already mentioned in the introductory para-
graph on the geology of the county, lie so near the surface that they
are readily tapped by comparatively shallow wells. In the northern
part of the county along Sassafras River and in the northwestern
part along the Bay the wells penetrate the Upper Cretaceous forma-
tion. At Betterton, Avhere the wells vary in depth from 40 to 80
feet, an ample supply of good water is obtained from the Magothy
formation. A well at Coleman, 70 feet deep, draws from this same
horizon.

In the region underlain by the Aquia formation of the Eocene,
it is only necessary to go to shallow depths to obtain Eocene water.
At Galena three wells at different elevations strike Aquia water at
from 40 to 60 feet. At Kennedyville, Morgnec, and Sandy Bottom
this same water horizon is found at from 50 to 65 feet. At Chester-
town the public supply wells penetrate this zone at fi'om 58 to 70
feet, while at Millington, where the surficial formations are thick
and are underlain by the Calvert it was necessary to go down 100
feet to strike the Aijuia water zone. All the Eocene wells have a
noticeable head, the Kennedyville well rising to within 4 feet of the

108

THE MINERAL RESOURCES OF KENT COUNTY

surface. This Eocene water seems to be consistently hard but not
otherwise objectionable. There should be no difficulty in tinding
this water in the southern part of the county and it should be
especially' valuable since it is not deeply buried and because it will
be more dependable and not so easily depleted a supply as the
surface waters of the Pleistocene, and by proper locating the water
should be brought within easy pumping distance of the surface.

The public supply wells at Chestertown and one of the weUs at
the ice plant, 99 feet deep, probably all draw from the Eocene, al-
though at different levels.

As previously mentioned, the southeastern part of Kent County
is underlain by the Calvert formation of the Miocene which in
Southern Maryland and the other lower Eastern Shore is a most
important artesian horizon. It is unimportant in Kent County but
is sometimes utilized by shallow wells in this part of the county.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

109

M M M iliilliil M i Mi ;

!^riii iiiMrrrryiiiii

Aq'pi""\

: : : : : 2 :

. ^, ^ ,r. . ■

o; q;d9a

!hH.!ijii,mil!l!!l

i i 1 1 g ! H i ; ; ; ; ; i i 1 1 i ^

1 583
1135
100
160
170
58-70

1 Bricked
CO

48-55

52 1

^ ...... ^ ^ ^

1
1

Chestertown Water Co. . .
Chestertown Water Co. . .

R. G. Nicholson

Chestertown Water Co...

H. Klinefelter |

Cutliolie Church

Davis Bros

Penn. R. R

J. P. Ahern

Central Hotel

J. E. Higgman |

W. H. Soper |

166 \ \\6

Uil.l

Chestertown

Chestertown (14 wells) ....

Chestertown, 3 mi. NE

Galena

KoinHHlyville

Massey (3 wells)

.Millington

Millington

1 H a X : :

lyiili

THE SOILS OF KENT COUNTY

JAY A. BONSTEEL

Introductory.

Kent County lies entirely within the Coastal Plain and the
various geologic formations which constitute the land mass of the
county consist of unconsolidated gravels, sands, and clays. These
different materials, though they have only passed through the first
stages of rock formation, fall within the limits of the geologic defi-
nition of a rock, for they constitute an integral part of the earth.

The Eocene and Cretaceous sediments consist of greensand
marls, in some instances containing fossil shells. The greensand is
made up of the mineral glauconite and of medium to fine-grained
quartz sand. The glauconite, being a silicate of potassium and
iron, has a distinct value as a source of potash salts and for this
reason it is frequently used as a fertilizer. It has been used in
Kent County and several old marl pits are found along the Sassa-
fras River. The weak action of this fertilizing material, and the
fact that its value depends on the small amount of potash to be
derived from it, has led to its abandonment in favor of commercial
fertilizers which contain larger amounts of potash besides other
plant foods.

The Miocene deposits, consisting largely of clay, are only spar-
ingly represented by small areas in the southern part of the county
and these are so covered by later deposits that they rarely influence
the character of the soil.

The latest geologic formations found in Kent County are the
ones which give rise to by far the larger part of the soils of the

112

THE SOILS OF KENT COUNTY

county. They belong to the Pleistocene. Like all the other forma-
tions in the Coastal Plain they owe their origin to the deposition
of sediments over a tide water area. The materials consist of gravel
and sand arranged in layers or strata. Two well defined levels cov-
ered by Columbia deposits are found in Kent County. The higher
upland area, as described in the chapter on physical geography, con-
sists of a mass of Cretaceous and Eocene material over which has
been laid down a layer of sand and gravel, coarser and thicker to-
ward the northwest and gradually becoming thinner and composed
of finer particles toward the east and south. The greatest thickness
is found near the mouth of the Sassafras River between Coleman
and Chesapeake Bay, where this horizon reaches a total thickness
of about thirty feet. It thins rapidly until near Laugford its total
thickness is only about twelve feet, while near Millington it is only
five or six feet thick.

Over this sand and gravel member is found a thin layer of mixed
boulders, gravel, and loam which forms the stony bands found along
steep slopes when it is exposed by stream erosion and mingles with
higher lying materials to form the Sassafras gravel loam on more
gently sloping areas.

The latest and highest lying material on the upland is a yellow
or reddish-yellow loam which forms the Sassafras loam and covers
the greater part of the county above 50 feet elevation. This mate-
rial is also thicker toward the northwest, where it reaches a depth
of about fifteen feet, and thinner toward the southeast, where it is
absent from part of the area and its place is taken by the gravel
loam.

In the extreme southeastern part of the county east of Massey
and Millington the surface material is a very sandy loam, giving
rise to the Norfolk sand type of soil.

The lower foreland area, extending from tide water to about 50
feet elevation, forms the late stage of deposition in Kent County.
The latest Columbia strata are deposited over the inclined strata

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

KENT COUNTY. PLATE IX

Fii. 2.— NiLu siuJwiiNG Tin; HAi;\ i;sn.NG oi" wheat.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

113

of Cretaceous and Eocene age. The Columbia consists of a basal
gravelly layer, covered by drab and blue clay, over a large part of
the foreland portion of the county. Locally, as near Emory's wharf
between Rock Hall and Eastern Neck Island and in the vicinity
of Worton Point, the surface material is a medium or fine sand
which gives rise to the Norfolk sand type of soil. The clay, on the
other hand, gives rise to two main soil types. The poorly drained
areas constitute extensive flat meadow lands, while the portions
which have been subjected to a longer period of atmospheric action
have become weathered out to a mottled clay loam typical of the
Elkton clay soil.

It is easily seen that the geologic agencies, active in forming the
sediments of which Kent County is built, have provided a consider-
able variety of materials from which soils have been derived either
directly or indirectly. Thus the greensands of the Cretaceous and
Eocene times, though only forming small areas along streams not
adapted to agriculture, furnished sands for the construction of
newer strata in Columbia time which do form portions of the arable
land of the county. Thus the sandy southeastern portion of the
county owes its character in part to the presence of these older
sands, while the sandy areas of the forelands have been formed by
an even larger deposit of Cretaceous, Eocene, and even older Colum-
bia sands carried down by streams which were cutting into these
older layers.

A large share of the Columbia sediments was derived from land
areas outside of Kent County. The boulders and gravels of the
Columbia are worn fragments of sandstone, shale, quartzite, granite,
gabbro, and diabase, which correspond exactly to similar rocks still
found in places along the Susquehanna River. The larger of these
boulders could not have been carried to their present position by
flowing water alone. Some of them are masses of rock of one or two
tons weight and it is only the buoying power of floating ice that
enables water to transport such coarse materials. Moreover every

114

THE SOILS OF KENT COUNTY

spring just such rocks are carried down the Susquehanna, borne
upon the ice or frozen into the larger cakes which form along the
stream margin in Pennsylvania and Maryland. The melting of these
cakes drops the stones upon the bottom of the bay, just as the
Columbia boulders were deposited in a former geologic period. Thus
the presence of such large masses of rock indicates the existence
of a land area whence they were derived ; the presence of a Colum-
bia stream, corresponding at least in part to the Susquehanna ;
and the prevalence of climatic conditions perhaps a little colder
though not far diflferent from those known at present.

The derivation of several distinct soil types from a single geo-
logic formation arises from the fact that the geologic classification
of sedimentary rocks has for its basis the criterion of age, as deter-
mined by the character of life forms and by the position and suc-
cession of strata, while the soil classification depends upon the tex-
ture and structure of the particles composing any given soil. Thus
a medium-grained sandy loam is adapted to the same crops, other
things being equal, no matter whether it is of Columbia, Eocene,
Cretaceous, or older geologic age. Similarly the character of
marine sediments laid down during a single geologic age may vary
considerably in texture and structure Avith different depths of
water, with the character of material upon which the waves and
streams are working, and with the presence or absence of organic
life. In this manner a single geologic horizon may give rise to two
or more soil types. When the added influence of the degree and
kind of action of atmospheric agencies like frost, rain water, and
organic acids in solution is considered, it becomes evident that the
number of soil types to be found in a given region will usually ex-
ceed the number of geologic formations in the same area.

The present geologic activity in Kent County is similar to that
over nearly all land areas and consists of the tearing awaj' of sand,
silt, and clay by waves and streams; the transportation of these
materials along the coast and down the streams; and their deposi-

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SUUVEY

115

tion in areas of more quiet water. Tlie remains of oysters and
other shell fish buried in these sediments will furnish data for the
age identification of these deposits when at some future time they
shall come to form part of the land area.

THE SOIL TYPES

The soils of Kent County comprise the following distinct types,
which will be summarized briefly.

1. Sassafras loam. — A yellow or brown loam about ten inches
deep, underlaid by a heavier yellow loam subsoil. It occupies the
greater part of the gently rolling upland and is well suited for
general agricultural purposes.

2. Sassafras gravel loam. — Brown gravelly loam nine inches
deep, underlaid by a red gravelly loam to thirty inches. This is in
turn succeeded by red sand and gravel. It occupies sloping upland
and produces corn, peaches, pears, and canning crops to good
advantage.

3. Susquelianiva gravel. — A loamy soil of about twelve inches
depth, containing from 30 to 60 per cent of rounded gravel. It is
usually underlaid by gravel beds. It is found near the tops of
slopes, appearing only as narrow bands more or less continuous.

4. Norfolk sand. — A coarse sandy soil of from six to nine inches
depth. The subsoil is a coarse yellow sand extending to a depth of
three feet or more. The areas of this soil occupy the low terraces
along river necks or small areas on the upland. It is a typical early
truck soil.

5. Elkton clay. — A brown loam soil about nine inches deep,
underlaid by a heavy mottled or gray clay loam. It occurs on the
lowest terrace and is adapted to wheat and grass. The areas need
extensive underdrainage.

Meadow. — This is in turn used to describe areas of low-lying,
poorly drained, flat lands suited to grass and grazing. With proper
underdrainage many of these areas are capable of producing good
crops of grass and wheat.

116

THE SOILS OF KENT COUNTY

The Sassafras Loam.

The Sassafras loam covers a total area of over 130 square
miles, lying wholly within the upland portion of Kent County.
The soil is typically represented both in Kent and in the Coastal
Plain portion of Cecil County, though it is by no means confined
to these areas nor to the Eastern Shore of Maryland. It forms a
portion of the widely extended sedimentary deposits of one of the
latest geological formations along the Atlantic coast. It was
deposited as a marine sediment during a geologically recent sub-
mersion and it partakes of the nature of materials usually laid
down in Avaters of moderate depth. The layer or stratum of mate-
rial from which this soil type is derived was deposited over tilted
areas of a much older age. Its composition and the evidence of
associated debris — chiefly boulders and blocks of stone scattered
through the stratum — show that this soil material once formed a
portion of higher-lying rocks and soils along the lower course of
the Susquehanna River. The blocks of stone mentioned may be
identified as once forming parts of ledges of sandstone, shale, con-
glomerate, quartzite, or masses of igneous rocks like the granite
and gabbros found in Cecil and Harford counties. These rocks,
and the finer particles which once covered them as soil in their
original positions, have been carried by water and by floating ice
to their present positions, where they are now rebuilt into a much
newer geological formation. They have since been modified by the
action of frost, rain, and organic agencies to form a valuable and
highly productive soil.

In this first form these sediments constituted a nearly continu-
ous sheet overlying the iipland area ; but stream drainage, as it be-
came established, has cut into this material, added to slight original
inequalities of surface, has relieved the monotonous level of the
country and the soil now occupies the highest positions along inter-
stream divides as well as along the main upland.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

117

As a rule the surface of this formation in Kent County is
slightly rolling and the areas possess sufficient irregularity of
surface to allow of good natural drainage. In some instances small
saucer-shaped depressions still exist unaffected by the general
stream erosion, but short surface ditches or, better, a tvell-like drain
down through the subsoil to underlying sandy layers will suffice to
bring these wet places into good cultivation.

The soil proper consists of a fine brown loam which is often
slightly sandy, especially in the eastern part of the county. It ex-
tends to an average depth of about nine inches and is underlaid by
a typical yellow loam subsoil. The subsoil varies in thickness from
about twenty inches to a maximum of five or six feet. It forms a
supply reservoir capable of maintaining a large amount of soil
moisture during the growing season, and it is as important a factor
in the productivity of this soil type as is the soil proper. Under-
neath the true subsoil is usually found a layer of rather coarse
gravel mixed with large-sized boulders and coarse sand, frequently
cemented to a solid mass by the long-continued deposition of
hydrated iron oxide. When in this state the gravel band is com-
monly known as hardpan in this region.

Below the gravel layer there is usually found a bed of medium
to coarse red sand mixed with fine gravel and interspersed with
seams and beds of gravels. Sometimes masses of clay are incorpo-
rated with this material. These lower-lying, coarser materials have
little effect upon the higher upland areas of this soil type beyond
furnishing a natural underdrainage, but where the higher lying
surface becomes thinner as it descends toward stream beds the low-
er-lying, coarser material sometimes mingles with the finer-grained
soil material sufficiently to produce a different soil condition.

The Sassafras loam is carefully cultivated over almost its entire
extent, hence little if any of its original tree growth remains to
indicate what the natural productivity of the soil brought forth.

118

THE SOILS OF KENT COUNTY

The soil is well adapted to general farming. It lies between the
limits of the heavy clay soils and the light sandy soils and is cap-
able of producing a wide range of crops in generous amounts. It
forms the typical corn and wheat soil of the county, producing
wheat at a rate of from 1.5 to 20 bushels per acre— the quantity
varying with the season and with the state of cultivation of differ-
ent farms. Corn yields about 50 bushels per acre. Large orchards
of Keiflfer pears are found on this soil and while peach raising is not
so largely followed now as formerly, many peach orchards both
old and new are found on the Sassafras loam. The production of
tomatoes, peas, and of other canning crops is also carried on upon
this soil, while extensive asparagus beds ai*e found in its area.
Stock raising and dairying are followed and many flocks of sheep
are to be found, chiefly upon this soil formation.

The diversity of interests already supported by this soil mark
it as a highly valuable farming area for general purposes.

The Sassafras Gravel Loam.

In many instances where the slope from higher to lower levels is
not steep enough to bring the heavy gravel band of the upland region
to the surface as an outcrop, areas of decidedly gravelly soil are
found. These owe their origin to the fact that the Sassafras loam
is not so thickly developed over the areas as to cover in and obscure
the underlying gravel completely, though enough of the finer mate-
rial is present to constitute by far the larger part of the soil mass.
Such areas are usually found on long, gentle slopes near or between
the larger stream courses. Large tracts occur northwest of ililling-
ton and northwest of Chestertowu, while smaller areas are found
throughout the upland part of the county.

The surface of this soil type is generally sloping or rolling, and
some of the smaller areas occur as bands along the gently sloping
banks of smaller streams and near stream heads.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

119

The soil consists of a brown, slightly sandy loam containing a
scattering of gravel. This is underlaid by about two feet of heavy
red or reddish yelloAV loam, also containing gravel, which is in turn
followed by red sand and gravel mixed with iron crust.

The less depth of heavy subsoil in this type and the consequent
influence of the underlying sands and gravels are more important
factors in differentiating it from the Sassafras loam than is the
presence of the gravel in the soil. All the factors, however, com-
bine to constitute a lighter soil type and to make it adaptable to
other agricultural purposes.

Like the Sassafras loam this soil comprises lands, chiefly
cleared, which have long been cultivated. The absence of natui'al
tree growth precludes any conclusions drawn from natural
conditions.

The Sassafras gravel loam approaches more nearly to a sticky
corn-producing type than to a wheat-land, and it is also suited to
the production of late truck crops like those used in the canning
industry. Sugar corn, tomatoes, peas, and other crops produce well
on similar soils and the climate of Kent County favors these crops.
Nursery stock and small fruits can be raised on this type of soil,
and while the wheat crop usually produces best on heavier soils a
fair crop can be raised on the Sassafras gravel loam.

The Susquehanna Gravel.

Along the slope which separates the upland portion of Kent
County from the foreland areas and along the steepier slopes down
to stream areas the stony and gravelly layer underlying the Sassa-
fras loam almost universally reaches the surface and its materials
mingle with those of overlying and underlying formations. Thus a
narrow band of steeply sloping stony soil is foi-med which makes a
marked line of separation between other distinct soil types. Origi-
nally this layer of gravel could only have formed a narrow band of a
width equal to the extent of the beveled edge reaching the surface

120

THE SOILS OF KEXT COUNTY

on the slope; but long-continued freezing, thawing, rain washing,
and the action of gravitation have spread the stone and gravel over
wider areas and produced a stony slope soil.

This soil contains from 20 to fully 50 per cent of coarse gravel in
certain places. The other finer material may be sandy, especially
on slopes where the underlying sand formations reach the surface,
or it may be composed of silt and clay washed down from the Sassa-
fras loam.

The stony areas are frequently cultivated to the same crops as
the other soils above and below, but they differ from them largely in
ease of cultivation and in the varying degrees of productivity.
Usually they are not sufficiently extended to warrant any special
treatment or crop, though some of the slopes closely resemble soils
devoted to vineyard interests in other localities.

It would not be possible to completely remove even the larger
stones from these areas, as the supply from the gravel bands is
almost inexhaustible and new crops of stone would work out into
the soil so long as cultivation and atmospheric influences have access
to this material.

The Norfolk Sand.

The Norfolk sand covers a total extent of nearly thirty square
miles in Kent County. The largest single area of this soil type
occurs in the southeastern part of the county. Here the surface of
the land rises from near tide level along the Chester River to eleva-
tions exceeding 60 feet. The surface is gently rolling and quite
generally forested. Tlie higher elevations consist of rounded hills
and hummocks of sandy soil, interspersed with hollows which are
usually swampy and contain accumulations of partially decayed
organic matter mixed with silt.

Along the shore of Chester River the lower lying land is quite
generally sandy from near the water's edge up to 20 feet elevation.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

121

In the foreland region of Kent County, beginning near Chester-
town, there are found detached and scattered areas of this sandy
soil, often comprising two or three square miles each. From Rock
Hall southward to Eastern Neck Island this soil is also predomi-
nant, though composed of slightly finer material than elsewhere in
the county. Near Worton Point and on the extreme end of Still
Pond Neck this soil is again present in its coarse phase.

Other smaller areas of Norfolk sand are found over the upland,
while the outcrops of the sandy underlying strata of Cretaceous,
Eocene, and even of Pleistocene age in the deep stream cuts along
the Sassafras River give rise to small areas of Norfolk sand.

The areas of this soil found along the forelands are usually
slightly rolling or nearly flat, while those along the stream cuts are
frequently very steeply inclined and consequently of little agricul-
tural value.

The original sources of the sand entering into the composition of
the Norfolk sand vary in different parts of the county. The green-
sands of Cretaceous and Eocene age consist of rounded quartz
grains, glauconite, and some silt and clay. The weathering of out-
crops of this material gives a sandy soil, usually found only along
very deep stream cuts. But this same material when re-worked by
streams and waves, transported to new localities and redeposited
as a later sediment, also forms a soil which has the same agricul-
tural values as along the weathered outcrops. In some instances it
is possible to secure materials along the present shores from Creta-
ceous or Eocene outcrops, from the Pleistocene sandy stratum, and
on the surface of the new foi'eland terraces, which differ from one
another chiefly in the amount of the glauconite still present. Tex-
turally they vary but slightly. Owing to this fact areas due to all
these different causes have very similar crop values and are included
in the same soil type.

The soil of the Norfolk sand consists of a medium to rather
coarse sand with gravel also occurring in some areas. The soil is

122

THE SOILS OF KENT COUNTY

usually brown or reddish-brown, from the admixture of organic
matter. It has a depth of about nine inches. The subsoil also con-
sists of a medium sand, generally red or yellow, frequently contain-
ing sufficient silt to make it slightly adhesive.

The steeper sloping areas of Norfolk sand have not been entirely
cleared and they are usually marked by a growth of chestnut and
oak. The chestnut is found growing on this soil more frequently
than on any other.

The Norfolk sand is a typical truck soil, although not actually
used for such crops to any great extent in Kent County. Near
Chestertown and near Worton Point truck and small fruits are
being cultivated on this soil, but it is usually farmed in the regular
rotation used in the county. The excellent facilities for transpor-
tation and the proximity of several large cities should lead to a
more pronounced specialization of crops in this region and the Nor-
folk sand areas should be utilized as the best truck soil existing in
Kent County.

The Elkton Clay.

The Elkton clay occupies a total area of over twenty-five square
miles in the foreland portion of Kent County. It usually lies be-
tween 15 and 40 feet elevation and its surface is very nearly level,
or at most only gently sloping. The larger areas of the Elkton clay
are found along the bay shore and on the necks which extend out
into the Chester River. Only small areas of this type occur east-
ward from Chestertown in the southern part of the county and it is
only represented by a single area on the Sassafras River just east
of Shell Cross Wharf.

The materials forming this soil were deposited as a marine sedi-
ment during the Wicomico stage of the Columbia, and they have
since been elevated to their present position above tide water. The
low foreland area is largely made up of the same material, but it
has not all proceeded to the same stage of soil formation. It will be

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SUUVBY

123

noticed, with respect to the Elkton clays in Kent County, that all
the areas lie in positions favorable to natural drainage; that is,
they have the advantage either of considerable elevation above tide
water or else of so lying that the slopes to natural drainage-ways
are short and steep. It is due to this position and to the progress
of natural underdrainage that most of these areas have been natu-
rally brought to a more productive state than the surrounding
meadow lands.

The first processes of soil formation, when any area of sediment
becomes a part of the land, are those of drainage and of weather-
ing. The rainfall must be disposed of and where the slope is suffi-
cient streamways are formed which dispose of the surface waters.
If the material is not too impervious a large part of the rain water
percolates through it and finds an underground outlet to main
drainage ways. The water passing underground carries various
acids in solution and these aid in soil preparation.

The circulation of air also goes on, unless the soil pores are filled
with water. So when air and water circulation are freely estab-
lished various chemical and mechanical changes prepare the soil
for crop production, but if they are interfered with these changes
progress more slowly and the soil is considered wet, cold, and sour.

The materials constituting the meadow areas and those of Elk-
ton clay are frequently the same, but the natural processes of soil
formation have proceeded much farther in the latter case than in
the former.

The Elkton clay is a yellow to brown silty loam soil, extending
to a depth of about nine inches. This is underlaid by from twelve
to thirty inches of mottled gray and yellow clay loam, which grades
imperceptibly downward into a heavy dense drab clay. The drab
clay was the original form of this material, but the circulation of
air and water and of the solutions of various chemical compounds
in the water has changed the upper portion of the clay while surface

124

THE SOILS OF KENT COUNTY

cultivation has changed the structure of the soil proper and mingled
with it various amounts of organic matter.

The yellowing and mottling of the subsoil are due to the oxida-
tion and deposition of iron salts held in the soil water and this
process is still in progress. It has made the hea\-y plastic clay
more loose and friable and this aids the underground circulation
of soil water.

The growth, death, and decay of organic matter on the surface
of the soil and the incorporation of this organic matter with the soil
not only furnishes a temporary mulch for the retention of moisture
within reach of growing plants but additional organic acids for
the further preparation of the deep subsoils.

The natiiral growth over a large part of the Elkton clay included
white oak, pitch pine, and sweet gum trees. Some areas still retain
this growth while others, which have only been cleared in recent
years, are not fully prepared for their best work in crop production.

The Elkton clay is more typically a wheat and grass land than
any other soil type in the county. The soil and subsoil are suffi-
ciently retentive of moisture to enable grain crops to maintain a
steady growth, except during extremely dry seasons. The chief
difficxilty attending the cultivation of this soil is its tendency to
form into clods and lumps. Wheat crops of from 30 to 35 bushels
per acre are reported from different farms located on this soil type
and good grass lands can be obtained. The hay is apt to be rather
coarse and of only medium grade, but this is due fully as much to
impure seed and lack of proper care as to any property of the soil.

Stock raising should be undertaken more extensively on this soil
than it has been and the use of stable manures and lime may be
profitably increased. Artificial underdrainage should be under-
taken over considerable areas of the Elkton clay in order to facili-
tate the natural processes already under way.

MARYLAND GKOLOGICAL SURVKY

125

The Meadow.

The meadow land in Kent County comprises areas of flat, poorly
drained land best adapted to the production of grass and for pas-
turage. The meadows are not confined to soils of any one texture
but are dependent for their characteristics rather on physiographic
than on textural featul-es.

The stream valleys are usually wet, poorly adapted to ordinary
tillage, and are of greater value for grazing than for any other
purpose. Certain parts of the upland portion of the county are so
situated that the natural stream drainage has proved inadequate to
prepare them fully for cultivation and they remain as forest areas.
About one mile west of Massey an area of nearly three square miles
still retains its meadow condition, owing to a lack of drainage,
though the texture of the soil differs very little from the surrounding
Sassafras loam. Tavo similar areas occur east of Chesterville, the
northern one being above 60 feet in elevation and corresponding in
texture to the Sassafras loam ; the lower area sloping from 60 to 20
feet and resembling more nearly the Elkton clay. All three of these
areas are so situated as to be easily reclaimed by artificial drainage.
The lower-lying portions of the southeastern part of Kent County
are also rather wet and fall within the meadow type, though a very
little attention to drainage would fit them for the production of
celery, cabbage, cauliflower, and late truck crops.

By far the largest meadow areas are found in the lowland
division of the county, these areas usually lying between sea level
and an elevation of 20 feet. They owe their present condition chiefly
to lack of drainage.

The foreland portion of the county is the youngest part geolog-
ically and drainage systems are not yet completely established. As
a result those areas which lie near Avater level are saturated nearly
to the surface and the meadow condition is the only one possible.

The natural growth on all of the meadow areas consists of willow
oak, sweet gum, and other water-loving forms. The main forest

126

THE SOILS OF KENT COUNTY

areas of the county are found on the meadow areas, though they
are not all of them forested. Recent removal of forests has thrown
some of the foreland areas into cultivation and wheat and grass
are produced to fair advantage. The production of corn is not suc-
cessful for in wet seasons planting is usually prevented until late
on account of the water-soaked condition of the ground, and in
time of drought the surface bakes to such an extent that growth is
interfered with and the crop becomes yellow and backward. This
yellowing is known locally as ''Frenching." Underdrainage, to per-
mit better circulation of the air, and frequent shallow surface cul-
tivation, to form a soil mulch, would help to prevent this baking
process.

The soil of the lowland meadows consists of a gray loam having
a depth of about eight inches. The subsoil is a blue or gi'ay clay
loam which is very heavy and plastic when wet, but on exposure to
the air usually bakes to a hard surface. The clayey subsoil contains
considerable silt.

The meadow lands of Kent County may be reclaimed by under-
drainage and added to the grain producing areas of the county. The
upland meadows are so situated that drainage ditches may be cut
to the heads of existing streams with laterals ramifying over the
areas. Tlien local underdrains should be provided for each field.
The only question involved is that of the comparison of the expense
with the results to be obtained. The lowland meadows in some
cases lie too near to tide level to be reclaimed easily, but many of
the areas now grown up to sweet gum and willow oak could be
made to produce wheat and grass if properly drained.

The Swamps.

The swamp lands of Kent County fall into two classes : the salt
marshes and fresh water marshes. The salt marshes occupy posi-
tions along the estuaries and are subject to inundation by the
highest tides, while the fresh water marshes are usually formed

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

127

along the upland streams where the surface slope is insufficient to
carry off all the surface water. The salt marshes comprise by far
the larger area. Neither type is at present of any great agricultural
value. When the value of lands in the East becomes greater the
tide can be excluded from the salt marshes by diking and artificial
drainage will obliterate the fresh water marshes, but so much other
laud remains in the East either in forest or in a low state of cultiva-
tion that the marsh areas are apt to play but a small part in agri-
cultural operations for many years to come.

THE AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS

Kent County has been an agricultural community from the time
of its earlj' settlement to the present day. In the earlier times the
county was divided into large manorial estates and later subdivided
into smaller farms. Some of the farms have remained in the pos-
session of single families for two hundred years. The effect of this
long tenure is evident in the general prevalence of substantial farm
buildings and in the state of cultivation to which a very large pro-
portion of the land has been brought. Substantial houses are to be
found in all parts of the county, each forming the center of a group
of farm buildings. The boundary lines and roads are marked by
osage hedges, and long avenues of trees leading from the main high-
ways to the residences are freq\iently found.

The early crops were largely confined to the grains, while A\-ithin
recent years the cultivation of truck and canning crops has been
introduced. The greatest change of recent years, however, began
with the rise of the peach industry. Thousands of acres were
devoted to peach orchards and a full crop and fair prices brought
excellent returns. For many years the peach crop was maintained,
but the opening of new areas to the cultivation of the fruit affected
the markets and as the orchards grew older they became more sub-
ject to various diseases, in spite of every care; and at present the
acreage devoted to peaches is decreasing rather than increasing.

128

THE SOILS OF KENT COUNTY

The Keiffer pear has been introduced along with other varieties and
proves a wonderful producer. The pears are sold to local canning
companies at varying prices and even at the lowest price some profit
is derived. Tomatoes are raised extensively as a canning crop and
usually yield fair returns. Asparagus beds are found on many
farms, while small fruits are being cultivated to a limited extent.
The areas of Norfolk sand found in the county are well adapted to
the production of truck ; and small fruits such as strawberries, rasp-
berries, blackberries, currants, and grapes should be added to the
list of Kent County products.

Dairying, stock raising, and sheep raising are other farm indus-
tries of the county. Several creameries manufacture the milk. The
dairy industry should be made to supplement the canning industry.
Sweet corn can be produced in Kent County for canning purposes.
The forage crop remains and may be cured and stored for dry feed-
ing or, better, may be shredded and stored in silos for green feeding.
The advantages to be derived from the cash return from the canning
factory and the creamery are not the only benefits to be obtained
from this practice. The item of farm expense annually charged to
the fertilizer bill may be very largely eliminated by the production
of increased amounts of stable manure.

Every bushel of grain sold from a farm removes absolutely be-
yond recall so much plant food. The store of such food in the soil
must be replenished and commercial fertilizers are resorted to. On
the other hand the dairying and com producing rotation give imme-
diate cash return, with little or no drain upon the supply of plant
food. Moreover the item of transportation charges is also reduced.
The nearness of such markets for daiin- products as are furnished
by Washington, Baltimore, and Philadelphia should awaken the
community to the desirability of increased dairying along the most
modern lines of development.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

129

Transportation.

Kent County is well situated with respect to transportation
facilities both for internal communication and for egress to the
centers of commerce and trade along the Atlantic seaboard. The
county is bounded by over eighty miles of coast line. The head of
navigation on both the Sassafras and Chester rivers is not reached
until near the Delaware line, and the entire western limit of the
county is formed by Chesapeake Bay.

Several steamboat lines carry freight and passengers to Balti-
more and Philadelphia and during the grain and fruit seasons extra
freight steamers are provided. Ice interferes with navigation only
during periods of excessive cold.

In addition to the opportunities for navigation two railroads
cross the county. One has its terminus at Chestertown and at Clay-
ton, Delaware. The other connects Centerville, Queen Anne's
County, with the trunk lines farther north. It enters Kent County
at Millington and crosses the Delaware line at Golts. The railroads
cross each other at Massey and together furnish rail communication
with trunk lines. In addition, various passenger and freight auto-
mobile lines have been inaugurated in recent years.

THE CLIMATE OF KENT COUNTY

ROSCOE NUNN*

Introductory.

Kent County lies wholly within the region known as the Coastal
Plain Province and its topography is simple. The county is,
roughly, crescent-shape, its greatest length being along a nearly
east-west line. Its southernmost margin is in latitude X. 39° 1'
and its northernmost limits in latitude N. 39° 23', while in longi-
tude it extends from W. 75° 46' to W. 76° 17'. Its area is about
281 square miles. Bordered as it is on its comparatively long
western side by the Chesapeake Bay and on its north and south
sides by the broad estuaries of the Sassafras and the Chester rivers,
respectively, a large portion of the county is affected by the tide
waters of the Chesapeake. The drainage is about equally divided
between the waterslieds of the Sassafras River on the north and the
Chester River on the south, both of which flow into Chesapeake Bay.

In recent years Kent County has been well represented in our
climatological investigations and studies. A fairly good view of
the climatic conditions is now presented by these records. Acknowl-
edgment of the valuable service rendered by the cooperative observ-
ers is made with pleasure at this time. While the instrumental
equipment and the supervision of the work were furnished by the
United States Weather Bureau, in cooperation with the Maryland
State Weather Service, the results would not have been possible
except throiigh the conscientious work of the cooperative observers.

* The paper is prepared by direction of Dr. Edward B. Mathews, Direc-
tor, Maryland State Weather Service. Credit is due Mr. .Joseph Bily, Jr.,
and other assistants for valuable aid.

132

THE CLIMATE OF KENT COUNTY

A list of the Keut County climatological stations follows :
Cli.matological Stations.

Climatological records are available from the following stations :

Betterton. — Elevation, 80 feet; extreme northwestern portion
of Kent County ; on south shore of Sassafras River, at mouth ; about
2 miles due east from Chesapeake Bay. Observations from March
to July, 1898, by Mr. Edward E. Carey, under Maryland State
Weather Service.

Chestertown. — Elevation, 85 feet; about half-way between
extreme southwestern and southeastern corners of Kent County;
about 25 miles, on north shore, from mouth of Chester River, which
is boundary between Kent and Queen Anne's Counties. Observa-
tions from June, 1855, to July, 1861, were under the auspices of the
Smithsonian Institution, and were made at Washington College, by
Prof. J. R. Dutton and Prof. F. L. Bardeen. There is a private
record from 1880 to 1895. Under the Maryland State Weather
Service and the U. S. Weather Bureau, observations from November,
1893, to March, 1910, were made by Hon. Marion De Kalb Smith ;
and under the U. S. Weather Bureau from April, 1910, to Decem-
ber, 1913, by Mr. M. W. Thomas.

Coleman. — Elevation, 80 feet; extreme northwestern portion of
Kent County; about 3 miles south of Betterton and the Sassafras
River and about 3 miles east of Chesapeake Bay. Ob.servations
under the U. S. Weather Bureau were made from Februaiy, 1898, to
September, 1914, by Mr. James Sheppard Harris; from January to
May, 1915, by Mr. Carson W. Harris ; and from September, 1916, to
December, 1925, by Mr. Walter B. Harris.

Galena. — Elevation, 60 feet; northeastern portion of Kent
County; about 2 miles south of Sassafras River and about 6 miles
west of the eastern boundary of the County. Observations were
made under the IT. S. Weather Bureau from September, 1888, to
June, 1890, by Mr. Henry Parr.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

133

MiLLiNGTON. — Elevation, 27 feet; exti*eme southeastern portion
of Kent County; on Pennsylvania Railroad; about % mile north
of Chester River and about 4 miles west of eastern boundary of the
County. Observations under the U. S. Weather Bureau were made
from October, 1898 to May, 1906, by Mr. J. S. Barwick ; from Octo-
ber, 1906, to January, 1912, by Mr. James E. Higman ; and from
February, 1912, to December, 1925, by Mr. Henry L. Higman.

Rock Hall. — Elevation, shore station (No. 1), 20 feet, inland
station (No. 2), 25 feet; extreme southwestern poi'tion of Kent
County; on Rock Hall Creek on Chesapeake Bay; about 9 miles
north of extreme southwestern corner of the County. Observations
were made under the Maryland State Weather Service: At station
No. 1, in March, 1898, by Mr. Charles R. Kerr, and from April, 1898,
to May, 1900, by Mr. Charles Nathan Satterfleld ; at station No. 2,
from February, 1898, to February, 1902, by Mr. Isaac Lassell Leary.
Under the U. S. Weather Bureau observations were made at station
No. 2 from September, 1919, to February, 1920, by Mr. George R. S.
Downey, and from July, 1921, to December, 1925, by Mr. Charles
Judefind.

DATA AVAILABLE

It will be seen that weather records began in Kent County as
early as 1855 and that records have been kept continuously from
November, 1893, to the present time, although no one of the stations
has an unbroken record for quite so long a period. Under the
auspices of the Smithsonian Institution, the first observations were
begun in June, 1855, by Prof. J. R. Dutton, of Washington College,
Chestertown. This early series continued, Avith considerable inter-
ruptions, until July, 1864.

From 1891 to 1913, inclusive, the Chestertown record is only
slightly broken. For the years 1898 and 1899 and from 1902 to
1925, inclusive, the Coleman record has but few interruptions.
From 1899 to 1925, inclusive, the Millingtou record has only one or

134

THE CLIMATE OF KENT COrXTY

two slight breaks. A good record was kept at Rock Hall from Sep-
tember, 1919, to date, and there are also short series of records for
this station at intervals prior to 1919. There are fragmentary
records for Galena and Betterton.

These records are sufficient to give fairly reliable monthly aver-
ages of temperatures, rainfall, and snowfall, and the average time
of last killing frost in spring and the first in autumn; also, the
frequency of some of the important climatic elements, such as
extremes of temperature, excessive precipitation, drought, and
thunderstorms. However, there is no doubt but that longer records
will depict more definitely the characteristics of the climate.

CLIMATIC FEATURES

It is interfsting to note that the early records at Chestertown
show the coldest month in the entire record for Kent County. This
very cold month was January, 1856, when the monthly mean tem-
perature was 21.4 degrees. Records at Baltimore and other stations
bear out the Chestertown record and show that January, 1856, was
one of the coldest moutlis of the last century.

The tables require little explanation. From an inspection of
them it may readily be seen how temperature and rainfall vary
from month to month, and what ranges may occur in the records of
any month over a period of years. They show how cold or how
warm and how wet or how dry any month has been within the period
of history here given; also, what extremes of temperature and
precipitation may be expected, judging from the past.

The long western shores of Kent County enjoy a slight ameliora-
tion of temperature conditions, as compared with the eastern or
interior portions of the county. This, in a slight way, illustrates
the well known fact that a body of water of any considerable propor-
tions on the windward of a land area modifies the temperature
extremes that otherwise would be experienced. It is shown in the
length of the growing, or frost-free, season, which is about ten days

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

135

COLEMAW

MAR 1 APR 1 MAY

rb 31 IS 3o It 3

JUNE 1 JULY 1 AUG \ SEP. | OCT | NOV

IS 30 It 31 It 31 /.<• -30 li 31 IS 9

i8<?8
)8<?<?

;9oo

)<?0I
I90Z

;9o3

/<?0-4

llos

J90i
1107
IfOB
1909
I9IO
1911
19 IZ
If 13
I9M
t9lS
I9lb
1917
1916
1119
I9Z0
1921
\^2Z
1923

I92S^

MEAN

ROCK HALL

MAR

H, 3

APR 1 MAY

IS so If, 3

dUNE 1 JULY

IS SO Id 3

AUG.
/6 3

StP

IS 3

OCT

O l(> 3

/£• 30

1898
1899
I900
t90l
1919
I9ZO
I9ZI
I9ZI
l9Zi
1924
I9ZS

MEAN

Fig. 2. — Diagrams showing variations in the length of the growing season
at Coleman and Rock Hall.

]36

THE CLIMATE OF KENT COKXTY

CHESTERTOWN

YEAR

MAR 1 APR 1 MAY ljUNE 1 JULY
lb 31 15 30 If, 31 IS 30 /4 3

AUG 1 SeP. 1 OCT 1 NOV 1
/6 31 IS JO /6 31 IS 30

IS<)5

1891
1898
1891
1900
1901
I90Z
1903
1901
1905
l9ot,
l9ol
1908
1909
1910
1911
ItlZ
1913

MEAN

MILLINGTON

YEAir

MAR
/♦ i

APR
'f t

MAY
J /» J

JUNE

JULY 1 AUG 1 SEP 1 OCT | MOV |
0 lb 31 U 31 IS SO 16 31 IS 30

1896
(89'?
(900
1901
I90Z
I90i
l9t>A
I90S
I90i
1907
1906
1909
1910
1911
I9li
1913
I9M
I9IS
19 If.
1917
I9IB
1119
1920
IfZI
H2Z
1923
I9Z^
I9ZS

ME;A(^

Fig. 3. — Diagrams showing variations in the length of the growing season
at Chestertown and Millington.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

137

longer on the western border of the county than on the east. For
example: the average date of last killing frost in spring at Rock
Hall is April 9; at Millington, April 15; and the average date of
first killing fi'ost in autumn at Rock Hall is October 28, while at
Millington it comes on October 23.

Certain facts not brought out by the tables, but which are dis-
coverable from the detailed records of the observers, are given below.
These facts, representing the county as a whole, are gathered from
the combined or average records for Chestertown, Coleman, Milling-
ton, and Rock Hall.

Temperature, frequency of certain extremes. — The average num-
ber of days in the . year with maximum temperature as high as 90°
or above is 23 ; with minimum temperature as low as 32° or below,
98; with minimum as low as 14° or below, 11. Temperatures of
zero, or lower, rarely occur. Millington records zero or lower in
only nine years of the last twenty-eight; Rock Hall had zero or
lower in only one year of the last nine.

Length of groiving season. — The average date of the last killing
frost (freezing temperature) in spring is April 12; average date of
the first in autumn, October 26. This gives an average of 197 days
for the growing season. The extremes of killing frost dates are as
follows: Earliest date of last in spring, March 19; latest date of
last in spring. May 12. Earliest date of first in autumn, October 8 ;
latest date of first in autumn, November 13.

Sunshine and cloudiness. — The average number of days in the
year with cloudy sky is 119 ; partly cloudy, 132 ; clear, 114.

Humidity. — No records of relative humidity are available for
Kent County. However, from records kept at neighboring regular
Weather Bureau stations, especially Baltimore, it is apparent that
the average relative humidity in Kent County is about 70 per cent.
This is slightly lower than on the immediate Atlantic coast and
slightly higher than in the Piedmont and Appalachian mountain
regions of Maryland.

138

THE CLIMATE OF KENT COUNTY

Excessive rainfall. — Rainfall of 2.50 inches or more within a 24-
hour period is called excessive. Such excessive falls have occurred
25 times at Coleman and 19 times at Millington during the last
twenty-eight years and at Rock Hall (J times in the last nine years.
This gives an average of less than one occurrence a year. These
excessive rains fall principally in the month of July and August,
as thunder showers, but almost as frequently in September, mostly
in connection with Atlantic coast storms. The greatest 24-hour
rainfall recorded in Kent County was 5.45 inches, in July, 1901.
Amounts greater than 4.00 inches within 24 hours are very rare.

Thunderstorms. — In the late autumn and during the winter
thunderstorms seldom occur, but a few have been recorded even in
mid-winter. On an average in this region thunderstorms occur on
about 36 days in the year. The average number for May is 4 ; June,
7; Jiily, 9; August, 7; September, 3. Thunderstorms occur nearly
three times as often in portions of Florida and twice as often in
southern Georgia, Alabama, and the middle Gulf region.

Tornadoes. — Tliese, the most violent of all local storms, are un
known in Kent County.

Prevailing uinds. — The wind comes from a westerly direction
(northwest and southwest principally) during most of the winter
and early spring seasons and from the south and southwest in sum-
mer and early autumn. There is a considerable percentage of winds
from the north. Easterly winds are the most infrequent.

Droughts. — During the crop growing season droughts causing
serious damage have been recorded only two or three times in the
last thirty years. It will be noted from the precipitation tables that
July and August have greater average rainfall than the other
months of the year and that June is about the third month for
plentiful rainfall. Droughts occur more often in the autumn, but
at that season are seldom injurious from any standpoint.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

CONCLUSIONS

Having made coniparisoiis * of the climatic data for Kent County
with the data for many other regions, the w riter is prepared to say
that this county is favored climatically on account of its geograph-
ical position and its insular setting. The climate is free from great
extremes. It is conducive to comfortable living the year round and
is favorable for the industrious occupations of the people. The
winters are mild for the latitude, with light snowfall and a large"
percentage of sunshine. The summers are warm, but Avith seldom
such prolonged spells of hot weather as occur farther west and
south. Precipitation is ample at all seasons, but rarely excessive.
The growing season, or period between the last killing frost in
spring and the first in autumn, is long and favorable for a diver-
sified agriculture.

* It should be borne in mind ttiat, to get a correct and clear under-
standing of the climate of any region or locality, it is necessary to com-
pare climatic statistics. It is quite desirable for one to be familiar with
the numerical climatic data for his own locality in order to compare
climatic data for other places understandingly. While it is impracticable
to give in this paper comparative data for other regions, such data may
be procured for almost any locality of the United States by writing to the
U. S. Weather Bureau, Washington, D. C, or to the nearest Weather
Bureau station.

140

THE CLIMATE OF KENT COUXTY

TABLE I.*

Monthly and Annual Mean Temperatures at Betterto

Tear

18!)8

48.9150.8

63.3

73.0179.1

....

Chestertiiw:

1853
1856
1857
1858
1859

1862
1863
1864

1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905

1910
1911
1912
1913

I I I I I
, I .... 175. 3! 77. 9 1 72. 61

:|;;.'.'|;.'.".'i'74;4''.';;'

51.7I58.8I75.2I7S.4 74. v
48.6|62.8|69.3|7r..(i T.;,';

59.7 72.9|7.-i.ii Tr, n
62.5 68. 8174. S 7.-..:i
64.4169.5170.6 ...
67.4171.0177..-.

. 152.0 45.7135.6]

41 .0 :Hs .4 .-,4.

52.6

50.9

44.9 37.2 o5.2
47.7135.5 54.0
47.8136.0 ....

.0 33.
.6 23.
.8 34.
.0 35.
.5 33.
.8126.
.0\3k.
.2130.
.6128.
.0135.
.4126.
.0 24.
.2134.
.4127.
.8130.
.6143.
.8134.
.7134.
.7131.
.0 36.

4 54
1151

8!49
2151
0 j oi
6|o0
8151
,6 52
0(49

5 51
0153
2|47
8154
8153
6 '56
2 1 40
6155

63.8171
61.4172
66.6 71
61.3167
2162.6171
8163.0173
0164.2171

1160.01 70
6163.2170
3163.2166
2164.4169
8164.0170
5163.1172
0158.4165
8164.2171
6163.3172
S162.2

6 169. 2 7:;

6165.2 70
5163.0 72

I I

4|76.
9 72.
8176.
8175.
0|77.
6176.
4|78.
0179.
3175.
8175.
8173.
8175.
6|74.
7|74.
4178.
3 7.'!.

71.8
74.5
75.4
71.8
76.0
74.0

75.6 67.
r2.5 66.
71.5166.
72.0166.

.8156
,0|51
.0153
9'5:^
.6

. |46.4|34.
9 4i.0|36.
4|45.8 38.

5'50.0l33.

1 1 -1 t > : . , .
> 4i>.i oi; .

.0;39.6,33.
.5150.6133.
.2141.1131.
.6141. 9128.
.9143.2138.
4145.6136.
,0145.1138.

52.7
54.3
53.2
.0
53.7
55.0
53.0
53.8

0:4."

!!45.4l35.

AT COLE.MAN.

.-.1.8134.6 54.2
2 4:!. 8132. 1154. 7
II 43.4 30.0152.3
5I45.SI38.8I54.3
6|46.8|36.7155.9
4|46. 1139.5153. 5
2 1 45. 4 '36. 4 1 55. 4
0149.6 ,-52.4 .-..1.5

9142.2 :;ii.2 .-4 s;

* Figures in italic denote interpolated data.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
TABLE I. — Continupd

141

Year

J2
fa

March

April

May

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Annual

1912

30.6

40.6

H.O

69.8

75.7

70.3

60.

48.2

54.4

1913

42.6

30.8

48.6

55.2

72.4

77.4

68.8

60.

47.8

57.2

1914

36.7129.8

39.1

52.4

73.6

75.8

76.

68.8

60.

U-0

54.6

1915

38.4

38.2

56.8

HO. 0\ 76.0

70.0

U.O

5^.6

'V.

32.5

36.0

51.0

68.0

76.0

66.8

58.

47.6

oi.l

1917

33.9

31.8

41.8

54.0

T2.5

76.6

65.0

43.8

53.0

1918

31.2

33.4

45.7

53.3

71.6

76.0

66.8

47.6

55.4

1919

37.2

36.1

46.9

52.2

72.5

78.3

70.0

47.2

56.1

1920

27.2

31.6

43.2

52.6

71.7

75.6

70.3

46.3

54.6

1921

38.0

54.2

58.5

74.4

79.3

73.9

48.4

57.8

1922

31^4

37.2

44.8

55.4

74.6

76.4

70.4

48.6

56.4

1923

34.9

30.4

43.0

52.8

75.6

70.3

45.6

55.6

1924

35.0

33.0

41.4

51.0

70.0

75.4

65.6

40. 0

53.8

1925

30.8

40.4

45.4

55.6

77.8

76.7

73.2

44.8

4j55.7

33 . 3

33.2

43.9

53.4

63.6

7I.0I76.6

69.2

58.3

46.2

35.9

55.0

1888

1 1 1

1 1

|65.6|51.1|46.7

35.2
43.6

54;9

1889

36.5I29.6 ki.slsi.e

42.6j41.8j40.1j54.2

65.2I73.8I75.8

72.6 65.5(52.7 47.5

1890

64.4 75. 2j

1 1 1

AT MiLLINGTOS.

38.5

35.3

28.0

44.2

0173

39.0

54.8

37.5

35.1

40.2

37.5

56.1

35.4

29.0

44.8

2172

34.9

54.4

30.8

29.0

46.4

34.9

55.1

33.2

38.5

51.6

31.6

54.8

26.6

27.5

41.6

30.0

52.6

29.3

25.6

46.4

38.6

54.6

40.0

35.3

39.0

36.6

55.9

35.5

27.4

46.2

39.2

53.0

34.3

31.0

46.6

36.2

55.1

42.8

40.6

8171

31.0

54.4

32!o

35.0

49.0

28.9

54.5

35.2

41.1

40.8

55.8

24 '. 9

30.2

40.7

53.8

42.5

35.1

48.6

8139.2

56.6

36.8

30.1

37.8

33.3154.1

35.9138.5

38.4

34.0

54.9

38.8

32.8

2134.0

54.1

34.0

32.1

42^2

4171

5128.1

52.2

22.6

33.0

45.2

9140.4

54.0

36.2

35.8

47.2

2130.6

55.1

27.3

31.1

43.0

38.7

53.5

36.0

38.0

55.2

35.6157.0

30.9

37.4

45.0

55.3

35.5

30.6

44.2

55.2

35.3

33.0

42.0

53.5

31.0

42.3

45.7

36!2

55.4

I33.7

33.3

44.0153

2j71

68.4

35.8

54.6

AT Rock Hall (No. 1) — (Shore Station).

1898

48.8
42.2

63.5

72.7
74.6

78.6
77.4

74.4
74.4

72.1

60.2

45.0

35.9

1899

34.8

27.7

1900

53.1

64.4

....

142 THE CLIMATE OF KENT COUNTY

TABLE I. — Continued

AT Rock Hall (No. 2).

Year

April

May

July

Aug.

ft
m

Nov.

1 SlJS l' . . . _

50 1

63.2

76.8

70.2

189'J

33.0

9152.2

63.4

74.0

65.0

53.9

1900

35.1

52.9

63.6

79.0

72.6

56.3

1901

34.6

50.2

61.0

76.0

67.0

53.7

1902

30.5

.... 1 ... .

1919

....

68.4

1 \ :\\

1920

27:8

....
53. 0

59.8

75.0

70.3

5.}. 8

1921

37.5

59.0

62.0

73.2

72.4

2
8

57.9

1922

32.0

54.8

65.7

74.2

70.0

56.4

1923

36.3

52.4

62.8

74.3

70.0

55.7

1924

35.2

50.9

59.6

74.6

64.4

53.7

1925

31.4

55.6

59.8

72.4

72.5

55.3

33.3

33.5

53.1

62.1

76.8

75.0

TABLE II.
Highest Te.mperatdres at Bettertox,

1898

1 1 76 1 78 1 90

96 I'lOl i

101

1 1 i 1

1 1

at Chestertow.s.

I 1

1 1 1 1

93
95
95
96

1859

....|....

1 _ _ .

1861

1893

. . . .

1894

59
58

84
92

'94'

1895

93
88

'75'

1896

1897

1898

90
91

'62'

1899

1900

1901

100

'ss'

ioo"

1902

'66'

1903

1904

1905

1906

1907

1908

1909

1910

1911

1912

1913

at Colemax.

1898 1

....I73

80
86

91
89
93

95
97
91
98

102
98

93
95

95
90

86
79

66 1 63
69 1 65

102
98

1899 1 55

1900 1 60

58 1 68
66 1 67

1901 ! . . . .

104

'97'
96

1902 1 . . . .

60 ! 72
67 73
59 1 71

85
88
81

90
92
90

76 1 59
74 1 53
64 1 60

1903 1 53

1904 1 57

87
95

97
96

95
92

91
94

84
85

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 143

TABLE II. — Continual

Year

March

April

1-5

July

■

Sept.

Oct.

^■
0

<lo

(•7
«I

(•fl

e«

85
83

8«

Q-

-1

(•Q

9''

95
90

1911

1912

1913

'79'

1914

100

1915

1917

98'

1918

106

1919

1920

■95'

1921

1922

1923

1924

100

1925

4<t

100

AT Galena.

1888

....

1889

....

AT MiLLINGTON.

67
68

1899

1900

1901

102

104

1902

100

1903

1904

1905

'98'

1906

62
90

1907

"94'

1908

100

1909

1910

1911

105

1912

1913

101

1914

100

1916

1917

1918

103

1919

102

1920

1921

1922

1923

101

1924

100

1925

103

AT Rock Hai.i, (No. 1) — (Shore Station).

1898

72
65

96
97

100
94

92
94

85 i....

100
97

1899

1900

144 THE CLIMATE OF KENT COUNTY

TABLE II. — Continued

AT Rock Hall (No. 2).

Year

Jan.

a
U

April

June

July

Aug.

Oct.

Nov.

Annual |

1898

74
66
65
73

77
79
76
78

89
89
91
79

94
95
92
97

99
92
98
102

91
93
101
91

94
90
91
89

85
79
84
79

73
65

62
66
60
66

99
95
101
102

1899

54
57
60
51

58
61

56
60

1900

1901

1902

1919

1 . . . .

....

1920

92
96
94
95
97
96

1921

95
91
97
99
91

95
91
88
95
92

79
88
81
79
76

77
71
65
74

65
56
63
68
61

96
94
97
99
101

1922

54
62
61
51

65
57
59
67

74
76
72
73

86
82
77

87
87

83
92

91
95
96
101

1923

1924

1925

TABLE III.'
Lowest Tempebatcees at Bettertox.

1898

AT CHESTEBTOW

1856

1858

1859

1861

1862

1864

1893

1894

" '9"

1895

55
58

'25'

15
9

1896

1897

1898

25
28

ie'
9

1899

—9

1900

1901

'57'

io'

1902

'so'

1903

1904

—2

1905

—6

— 6

1906

1907

1908

1909

1910

1911

1912

—7

1913

AT Coleman.

1898

1899

—10

25
24

25
28

50
51

55
54

56
57

50
42

33
33

24
30

— io

1902

19
27

::::

28
18

16
10

9
3

1903

• Figures in italic denote interpolated data.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 145

TABLE III. — Continued

Year

Feb.

Marcli

April

May

a
s

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

1904

— 2

—2

1905

— 1

1906

1907

1908

40
39

24
30

1909

' S

1910

45
53

32
36

1911

— 6

1913

'34'

1914

1915

1916

1917

—3

—3'

1918

— 6

—6

1919

'24'
30

42
39

1920

1921

1922

1923

1924

1925

J,o

AT GaLEN.V.

28
29

1889

25
20

6
25

50
44

•"

1890

AT MiLLINGTON.

1898

1899

—7

1900

1901

1902

1903

1904

1905

—10

— 3

34
30

—10

1906

1907

—5

1908

1909

1910

—3

1911

1912

—10

1913

1914

1915

1916

1917

—4

— 4

1918

—12

1919

— 1

1920

1921

1922

1923

1924

1925

— /

— 1

146 THE CLIMATE OF KENT COUNTY

TABLE III.— Continued

AT Rock Hall (No. 1) — (Shore Station)

Tear

u
cs

April

Mny

c
s

3
HS

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Annual

1898

24
26

52
56

57
54

1899

—6

— 6

1900

....

AT Rock Hall (No. 2).

1898

22
25
13
12

25
25
28
36

41
39
41

51
50
47
48

49
51
55
64

54
56
55
54

43
41
43
40

32
28
32
29

24
23
24
17

11
11
14

—6'
5
8
2

1899

1
10
11
10

—6
5
11
2

1900

1901

1902

1919

....

1920

50
60
57
53
54
50

1921

53
53
47
51
47

50
38
39
41
40

34
30
34
28
28

27
26
23
16
22

12
13
21
10
10

' 's'

8
3

1922

5
16
8
3

9
11
13
18

23
17
24
11

30
14
28
29

35
37
35
33

56
51
48
49

1923

1924

1925

TABLE IV.

Mkan Te.mperature Range at Chesteutown

43.0

43.2

49.2

56.8

69.2

75.3

79.0177.0

72. 2j

60.8

50.6

41.

8 57.5

Lowest

21.4

23.8

37.4

47.0

58.4

65.7

72.0

71.5

65. o;

50.2

39.6

28.

6 51.0

Range

21.6

19.4

11.8

9.8

10.8

9.6

7.0

5.5

7.2|

10.6

11.0

13.

21 6.5

Extreme Ma.x. . . .

100

94 1

1100

Extreme Min. . . .

—9

1—9

Range

57 1

1109

AT Coleman.

Highest

42.6

43.6

54.2

58.5

68.2

77.8

79.3

73.9

63.1

;

51.8143

9157.8

Lowest

26.6

25.2

36.5

48.2

58.8

66.2

75.0

72:0

65.0

52.6

42.2|28

3|52.3

16.0

18.4

17.7

10.3

9.4

11.6

4.3

5.6

8.9

10.5

9.6115

6| 5.5

Extreme Max. . . .

100

104

106

76 1 6S

|106

Extreme Min. . . .

—6

—10

18 —a

1—10

Range

58 i 71
1

1116
1

AT MILLIXGTOX.

Highest

.142.5

42.8

55.2

58.8

68.7

77.0

80.4

77.3

72.6

62.4

51.4143.7157.0

Lowest

122.6

25.6

36.4

47.8

57.4

65.2

73.6

71.0

62.6

52.0

40.6

28.1152.2

Range

119.9

17.2

18.8

11.0

11.3

11.8

6.8

6.3

10.0

10.4

10.8

15.61 4.8

Extreme Max. .

.1 74

103

105

103

70 llOo

Extreme Min. .

.1—10

—12

—4 1—12

Range

.1 84

74 117

AT Rock Hall (No. 2).

Highest

37.5

41.0

55.0159.0

65.7

77.2

79.5 79.0

72.6

62.7

49.4

44.257.9

Lowest

27.8

26.6

39.4

50.1

59.6

70.0

74.6

72.4

64.4

52.6

41.0131.8 53.7

9.7

14.4

15.6

8.9

6.1

7.2

4.9

6.6

8.2

10.1

8.4112.4; 4.2

Extreme Max. . . .

101

102

101

68 1102

Extreme Min. . . .

2 1—6

Range

66 1108

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

147

TABLE V.
Killing Frosts at Ciiestertown.

Last in Spring. First in Autnnin.

1895

April

October

1896

April

October

1897

April

November

1898

April

October

1899

October

1900

April

October

1901

March

November

1902

April

October

1903

May

November

1904

April

October

1905

April

October

1906

April

October

1907

April

October

1908

April

October

1909

April

October

1910

Marcli

October

1911

April

November

1912

April

November

1913

May

October

Average : April

October

Last in Spring. First in Autumn.

1898

April

October 28

1899

April

October 22

1900

April

October 20

1901

March

October 26

1902

April

October 30

1903

April

October 29

1904

April

October 28

1905

April

October 22

1906

April

October 12

1907

April

October 31

1908

April

November 5

1909

April

October 20

1910

April

October 30

1911

April

November 3

1912

April

November 4

1913

May

October 22

1914

April

October 28

1915

April

October 11

1916

April

October 11

1917

April

October 13

1918

April

November 7

1919

April

November 10

1920

April

November 13

1921

April

November 11

1922

April

October 21

1923

April

November 2

1924

April

October 23

1925

April

October 28

Average : April

October 27

148

THE CLIMATE OF KENT COUNTY

TABLE V.

— Continued

AT Ml

^LIXGTOX.

Last in Spring.

First in Autum

1898

April

October

1899

April

October

1900

April

November

1901

April

October

1902

April

October

1903

April

November

1904

April

October

1905

April

November

1906

April

October

1907

April

October

1908

April

October

1909

April

October

1910

April

October

1911

April

October

1912

April

October

1913

May

October

1914

April

October

1915

April

November

1916

April

October

1917

April

October

1918

April

October

1919

April

November

1920

May

November

1921

April

October

1922

April

October

1923

April

October

1924

April

October

1925

April

October

Average : April

October

AT Rock Hall.
Last in Spring. First in Autumn.

1898: April 9 October 28

1899: April 11 October 22

1900: April 11 October 20

1901 : March 19 October 7

1902 :

1919: April 2 November 9

1920: April 11 November 13

1921 : April 12 November 11

1922 : April 29 October 21

1923 : April 10 November 2

1924 : April 3 October 23

1925 : April 21 October 28

Average : April 9 October 28

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

149

TABLE VI.*

Monthly and Annual Precipitation at Bettekton.

Year

Feb.

March

April

ci'

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

o
C

Annual

1898

2.33

1.90

2.62

0.40

AT CHESTERTOWN.

2.40
i.'94

0.87
1.72

4.141
....|

6.18
4 '.82

4.74
9.16
1.91
1.37

1 .6.5 1 44.
1.251 . . .
4.341 . . .

.35
.12 4.91
.22 2.97
2.69
5.59
52 I 3.02
3512.67
3.. 50
4.71
.76
„.01
6.11
2.77
2.31

.17

3.95 3.6312.12
.75
.51
.37

1.90 3.'
2.80 3.
7.54 2.
6.04|6.
I

3.02
2

2.93
6.72
4.75
3.25
2.25

T
4.24

1.40
7.86
3.73
5.35
1.17
1.83
5.90

4.27
3.78
4.76
1.27
5.23
7.89
4.72
2.72
2.63

1.97
3.45
4.87
8.43
3.05
4.53
2.37
8.48
4.07
5.55
5.38
10.00
5.14
4.67
2.07
2.05
3.56
3.71
4.92
1.47

3.54
2.08
2.11
4.95
7.62
4.80
2.86
6.25
1.48
4.96
2.37
4.01
8.81
3.73
6.17
1.00
4.21
10.07
1.87
4.06

2.40
2.60
2.22
1.77
5.58
5.10

1.17
2.12
1.62
2.41
7.31
1.19
2.32
3.08
5.23

60
2.98
2.40
0.86
i.OO
5.98
1.28
2.50
7.44
6.83
3.47
3.58
3.53

4.83
4.26
4.19
1.78
4.34
3.56
2.10

3.0913.01

.5913. 74(3. 9G 4.06 4.59

I I I I

3.10 2.85 3.42 42.85

AT COI.KMAN.

1898

2.00

2.69

2.47

6.34

2.27

5.36

r899

4.21

8.85

6.12

1.40

5.78

7.45

2:21

1900

3.59|5.64

2.63

2.58

4.00

5.15

2.01

1901

3.3110.79

3.44

5.44

2.70

2.03

1.60

1902

2.40|4.22

4.03

3.01

5.20

-J

/.50

7.00

6.90

1903

4.0015.46

5.05

4.91

6.00

1.35

4.19

1904

2.6412.04

3.68

2.15

2.77

6.14

2.76

1905

3.26

2.46

3.21

4.26

5.03

3.06

1.88

1906

3.20

2.49

5.05

3.26

6.59

1.68

5.90

1907

3.19

1.59

3.. 34

3.14

5.31

7.93

3.15

.56.08

1908

3.S0

5.00

2.^0

5.41

3.51

2.89

1909

3.27

3.75

3.93

2.04

0.72

3.52

1.28

1910

Ji.50

i.eo

1.50

5./0

3.48

0.74

3.12

1911

4.34

1.82

2.48

3.82

•7

12.04

2.02

3.23

1912

2.56

2.92

7.53

2.58

2.39

4.88

2.92

* Figures in italic denote interpolated data.

150 THE CLIMATE OF KENT COUNTY

TABLE VI.— Continupd

Tear

■

April

July

§•

Oct.

j;
c

1913

3 19 1 1

23138

1914

40jl

1 r,4

i , 1 1

.20

1915

4.0514

4811

;

.00

1916

1.50 S

0.00

J. 00

iV.i

.00

.»

1917

3.0611

5.43

2.80

58139

1918

4.28|1

1.76

5.31

35140

1919

4.48|2

3.80

.24

2 . 29

1920

2.4813

5.28

.05

2 . 49

95|49

1921

2.4312

77|1

4.98

93138

1922

3.8513

4714

6.9218

1 :■■'<

31139

1923

3.9512

1.88

1924

3.85 |4

5. 37 10

. tiS

1925

4.4511
1

1.4710

1.23

3.45I3

3.53

3.38

3.65

6214

.51 13. 41

AT Galena.

1888 1 .... 1 ........ 1 ....... .

. . 3.97

3.41I3.O4I

]0.17|0. 55159. 96

1889 14.4912. 4814. 4515. 97 6.08

1890 1 1 . 63 1 3 . 69 1 4 . 75 j 3 . 34 3 . 90

5.84
1.60

8.46

2.09

4.6314.75
....|....

AT MILLINGTOX.

1899

2415

1900

1312

1901

.-SO

1902

0012

?§

1903

1904

1905

7813

7_^

4.".

1906

.00

1907

6816

.18

1908

3'.

0012

1909

1713.

7413

41;

1910

1 . 24 1 1

4910

1911

4913

1310

1513.

4ti

1912

1913

57|1.

2812

6613

1(1

1914

9112.

1915

0713

23|4

4 .

1916

08|4

i;t

1 .

1917

9213

7316

411

-.1

1918

.^8

1 ^

1:'

1919

38110

.8919

1920

',1 +

'\l

9918

VJ.

39
97

1921

IS ci

L'4

1922

4:.

1923

5314

66|3

32|3

3.01

1924 14

42|6

4014

0016

1925

1911.
1

54j3

49 j 8

8811

1513
1

.5913.

04|3

.34 j 3

2.91

AT Rock Hall (No. 1) — (Shore Station).

1898

2.74
5.07

2.27

0.91
4.85

4.04
3.43

6.97
5.44

4.49

4 . 29 2 . 56 1

1899

3.77

5.57

1900

2.02

::;;!;;::,:::::

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

151

TABLE VI. — Continued

AT Rock Hali. (No. 2).

Year

Feb.

April

May

2
1

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Annual

1898 , .

2.51
4.99

1.77
1.03

5.28
2.57

1.49
3.84

3.43
3.52

7.69
5.48

2.32
3.37

3.70
1.77

4.52
2.59

3.30
1.03

1899

3.77

5.27

39.23

1900

2.63

4.91

2.72

2.10

2.82

4.66

1.81

4.26

8.23

1.49

2.01

2.22

39.86
42.15

1901

2.41

0.31

1.75

5.18

3.22

1.43

8.31

4.10

4.35

1.08

3.30

6.71

1902

3.38

4.09

1919

2.45

3.25

3.55

3.30

1920

2.33

3.58

3.20

4.90

2.65

6.00

5.00

9.00

3.00

3.20

1,6. i6

1921

2.50

2.90

240

S.20

3.70

2.00

-}.50

2.48

3.23

0.'85

4.10

2.26

Si. 12

1922

4.57

3.20

6.01

1.95

2.18

5.60

7.00

2.67

3.18

1.10

0.50

3.67

41.63

1923

4.10

2.87

4 22

4.82

2.05

3.15

3.41

3.81

2.31

2.80

42.71

1924

3.61

3.85

5.15

5.71

5.69

4.23

I'.Sl

4.46

7.75

0.16

2.02

2.82

46.76

1925

4.78

1.39

2.50

2.64

1.85

1.82

7.39

1.41

4.36

3.35

34.54

3.41

3.24

3.54

3.33

3.20

1 1
3. 42|4. 7614.50

3.8912.03

2.84'|3.0l|41.17

1 1

TABLE VII.

Nu.MBER OF Days with .01 Inch or More of Precipitation at Chestertown.
(Rainfall and Melted Snow.)

1893

1894

1895

1896

' '78

1897

9
8

1898

1899

1900

1901

io"

1902

ii'

ios

1903

118

1904

113

1905

110

1906

1907

123

1908

1909

1910

1911

106

1912

100

1913

9,0

■

101

AT Coleman.

1898

1899

' '88

1900

1901

' '89

1902

....

1903

"96

1904

1905

1906

1907

110

1908

6
3

1909

■ '76

1910

1911

'ioe

1912

1913

152 THE CLIMATE OF KENT COUNTT

TABLE VII. — Continued

Year

Jan.

April

c
s
iZ

July

5f
<

Oct.

Nov.

Annual |

5
8

8
3

7
6

4
11

1915

1916

1917

1918

1919

111

1920

1921

102

1922

114

1923

102

1924

192.5

108

9 1 9

9 I 9

AT MiLLlNGTOX.

1898

.... 1 ... .

1890

1900

1901

1902

1903

' '9'

■ 'si

1904

1905

"5'

"83

1906

1907

'i24

1908

111

1909

110

1910

129

1911

123

1912

112

1913

116

107

1915

118

1916

123

1917

117

1918

104

1919

119

1920

113

1921

125

1922

132

1923

120

1924

119

1925

115

108

Rock

Hall (No. 1)-

— (Shore Station).

1898

10
10

9
10

1899

1900

....

at Rock Hall (No. 2i

1898

10
9

12
4

13
6

10
6

1899

105

1900

1901

113

1902

1919

1 1 1

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

153

TABLE VII.— Continued

Year

Feb.

March

April

May

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Annual |

■»

102

llfl

102

119

1923

113

1924

110

1925

114

109

TABLE VIII.*
Monthly and Annual Snowfall at Chestertown.

1893

' '6'

1.0
T

7.0

0
1.0

0
0.2
3.0

0
1.0

0.5
2.0
T
T

0.5
0

3.o| ....
1.51....
O.2I....
6.0110.0

1894

2.0
4.0
1.0
7.5

6.0
13.5
T

4.5
0

34.2

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
T
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

1895

2.0
T
T

4.0

0
0
0
2.0
0

1896

1897

1898

3.0
1.5
1.7
T

3.5
3.8
13.5
3.0
T

5.0
8.0
16.0
12.0
T

8.0
T

43!2

isie

19.2
5.6
39.3
33.3
12.5
30.0
27.2
35.7
24.0
18.0
39.5
0.5

1899

3.5

1900

1901

12.1
8.7
0.-8

15.0

26.7
1.5
4.8
8.0
3.2
6.5
5.0

21.0
T

0.5
6.5
0.8
4.8
3.6
3.5
13.5
8.7
1.5
2.0
4.0
1.7
0.5

0.5

0
3.0
T

6.5
6.7
2.0
13.0
3.5
9.0
8.3
T

0
0
0
0
T
T
T
0
T
0
T
0
T

1902

1903

1904

1905

1906

1907

1908

1909

1910

1911

1912

1913

1 . .

1 1

7.31 S.sl 3.l'| 0.1

1 1 1

0.8

4.5j21.6

.........

at Coleman.

1898

2.0
3.0
8.0
T

0.5

0
3.0
T

9.0
7.5

2.0

0
T
T

0
T

0
1.0

0
5.0

0
0
0
0

8.2

0
1.0

2.0
T

1.0

0
1.0
2.0

•

1.0
0

1.0
1.5
2.0

0
4.5
5.5
15.0
3.0
T

4.0
7.0
16.0
10.0
1.0
6.0
0

41.0
22.5
9.7

40.2
23.0
17.0
31.5

33.7

25! 6

31.0
2.0

1899

5.0
1.5
6.2
9.0
2.0
15.0
14.0
2.0
8.0

31.5
11.0
2.5
4.0
2.0
5.2
6.0
5.0
12.0

1900

1901

1902

1903

0
0
0
T
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

1904

1905

1906

1907

1908

1909

4.2

1.5

10.0

1910

1911

6.5
13.5
1.0

0
1.0

8.0
1.5
1.0
10.0
0.5

8.5
9.0
0
19.0
1.5

1912

1913

1914

1915

1916

0
0
0
0
0
0

2.0

0
T

11.0

5.7
0
T

1918

20.0

1 1.0

6.0

0.5
6 5

21.0
9.3
16.0
16.2

1919

T 1

....|....

1920

2.01 8.01 5.5
1.01 6.21 0

1 1

....|....

1921

... 1

....

1 1

Figures in italic denote interpolated data.

154

THE CLIMATE OF KENT COUNTY

TABLE VIII. — Continued

Year

Marcli

April

May

June

S
<

Nov.

Annual

1922

25.5
•4.5
T
13.0

4.5
5.0
7.5
0

0.2
5.0
-*.o
T

0
T

6.0

0
0
0

s.o

0
0.5
0.5

1.5
2.0
T
T

31.7
16.5
18.0
16.5

1923

1924

1925

....

6.6

6.0| 4.0

0.81 ...'....!... .

1 1 1 1

.... 0.1

1 1
0.8! 4.2 22.5

.\T MlLLINGTON.

1900
1901

1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907

1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925

7.0|.

2.0 1

10.0 2.5|

21.0 I

1.0 1 .

4.5
7.0
6.5
3.5 3.01
7.0 8.51
18.5 2.4|
T 2.0i
T 5.0|-
2.0 3.01
3.71 4.5
3.51 4.0|
125.01 2,01
I 1.01 y.oi

11.8
8.6
2.01

1.4

9.0

5.4

6.2

21.5

7.0

4.0

4.5

5.5

9.5

S.O

11.3

0
T

0
T
T

0
0.3
T
T

0
T

0 I

0 I
15.01

0.51

0 I

3.01- . .
1.0|...
3.7124.
T |...
2.8|. . .

Iif:?!:::

0 2.01 . . .
1.0 T I . . .

0 i 2.4j24.
T 110.0127

3.0125.6

1.5

13.5

0.5

9.0

1.0

5.5

15.0130

2.0

6.0120

6.6

0.5

6.3

16.5

2.0

1.0

0.5

. I 6.7! 6.31

! I I

0.1 1 0.4 4.8 22.

AT Rock Hall (No.

1898

1 1 1 1
....1....I....! 1.01 2.0

... 1 1 —

3.51 0.7

1899

1 . 1 1 IT

■•o1--

! 1 1 1

1 1

AT Rock Hall (No. 2).

189S
1899
1900
1901
1902

1919
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925

,! 4.5130.5

I 2.7110.0

,| 4.51....

1 8.01 2.0

2.01 8.0

T I 6.0

25.51 5.41

3.5 5.5

T 8.5

16.01 T

T I .
2.0 |.

T I.

T I .
6.0 .
0 .

16.0
19.0
19.0

THE HYDROGRAPHY OF KENT COUNTY

N. C. GROVER

This county lying between Chesapeake Bay on the west, the
State of Delaware on the east, Sassafras River on the north and
Chester River on the sonlli, is practically surrounded by tidal water
except on its eastern boundary. Tides within the bay, along the
shores of this county, have an extreme range of 1.8 feet at the
mouth of Chester River; 1.4 feet at Tolchester Beach; and 1.6 feet
at Howell Point. In Chester River the head of tide is near Milling-
ton and the extreme range at Holton Point is 2.0 feet; at Melton
Point is 2.1 feet ; at Chestertown is 2.3 feet. In Sassafras River the
head of tide is near Sassafras and the extreme range is 2.3 feet at
Betterton and 2.7 feet at Frederick.

The streams within the county are tributary to Chesapeake Bay
either directly or through Sassafras and Chester rivers. The largest
of these tributary streams is Cypress Branch which drains an area
of 38 square miles, part of which lies in Delaware. The next largest
is Morgan Creek which drains an area of 33 square miles. The
minimum flow of these streams is of course small, but the slopes
may be considerable, appearing to be as great as twenty feet per
mile in some instances. The total fall on any stream cannot be
great, however, as no land in the county reaches an elevation of
more than 100 feet above sea level.

No measurements of discharge of these streams have been made.

The Census Office has listed nine small water powers which have
been utilized for grist and flour mills, as follows :

156

THE HYDROGRAPHY OF KENT COUNTY

yame Postofflce Wheels Horse-poicer

rp - 1 XT

n 1

Spear, E. W

Higman, J. E

. . . .Millington . .

Dreka, L. H

. . . .Sassafras ....

Woodall, A

. . . .Galena

McKnett, H. W

. . . . Kennedyville

Cooper, Mrs. H. E

. . . .Norton

Plummer, B. C

Stillnond

I^^infcill TGCords show sl

n average annual precipitation of al

43 inches.

Length

Average annual

Place

of record

precipitation

Chestertown

19 years

42.85

Coleman

28 "

42.35

Rock Hall

12 "

41.17

Millington

27 "

43.39

THE MAGNETIC DECLINATION OF
KENT COUNTY

L. A. BAUER

Introductory.

The values of the magnetic declination of the needle, or of the
"variation of the compass" as observed have been made by the
Maryland Geological Survey, the United States Coast and Geodetic
Survey, and the Carnegie Institution of Washington at various
points within the county are given in Table I.

Declinations

Magnetic Declinii
(West)

1900.01 1905.0 1 1910.0 ! 19ir

Chestertowii. C o u r t
House

Chestertown, CoUeKe
1897

Chestertown, College

Tolchester
Massey . .
Betterton

39 13.0 76 05.0

39 13.0 I 76 04.4

:'.9 13.0

39 12.9

1897.4 I 3 50.0

1897.4 I 5 47.0

39 18.5
39 21.9

76 04.4 I 1908.8 | 6 32.9

I I
75 14.3 I 1897.4 | 5 37.1

75 48.5 I 1896.7 | 6 25.0

I I

76 03.9 I 1899.5 | 4 03.9

0 00 I 6 IS 1 G 42 1 7 05

5 57 I 6 15 1 6 39 1 7 02

5 58 I 0 16 I 0 40 I 7 03

5 47 I 6 05 I 6 29 I 6 48

6 37 I 6 55 I 7 19 I 7 40
4 or. I 4 24 I 4 48 I 5 09

L. A. Haiier,

M(i. G. S.
L. .\. Bauer,

M(l. G. S.
C. C. Stewart,
C. I. of W.
L. A. Bauer,

Md. G. S.
L. .\. Bauer,

ild. G. S.
L. A. Bauer,

Mil. G. S.
r. & G.S.

Explanations; The date of observation is given in years and tenths of; January
1, 1900, would accordingly be expressed by 1900.0 and similarly with regard to Jan-
uary 1, 1905 or 1910. See Table II.

For a general description of the methods and instruments used,
reference must be made to the "First Report upon Magnetic Work
in Maryland" (Md. Geol. Survey, vol. i, pt. v, 1897). In the Second

158 THE MAGNETIC DECLIXATION OF KEXT COUNTY

Report (M(l. Geol. Survey, vol. v, pt. i, 1905), the various values
collected were reduced to January 1, 1900. They are given now also
for January 1, 1905 and 1910. Some slight changes have been made
in the previously published vahies. The First Report contains an
historical account of the jjhenomena of the compass needle and dis-
cusses fully the difficulties encountered by the surveyor on account
of the many fluctuations to which the compass needle is subject.
To these reports the reader is referred for any additional details.

MERIDIAN -LINE

In compliance with the instructions from the County Commis-
sioners, dated April 15, 1897, a true sun'eyor's line was established
by L. A. Bauer of the Maryland Geological Survey on May 29, 1897,
on the Court House grounds at the County seat of Chestertown.
Owing to the lay and character of the grounds, the monuments had
to be set on a true northeast-southwest line, instead of a true north
and south line. Approved astronomical methods Avere used and the
line may be taken to be correct within one minute. An official
report containing all necessary information was furnished for the
Court House files.

The monuments marking the line are granite posts 6x6 inches
square and 4 feet long ; they are imbedded in several courses of con-
crete and were allowed to project about 5 inches above the ground.
They Avere planted so that the letters on the monuments ( N M on
the SW stone and SM on the NE stone) Avould indicate approxi-
mately the true north and south. In each monument there was
leaded and countersunk a one-inch brass bolt, 3 inches long; the
line passing through the center of the crosses cut in the brass bolts
is the t7-ue northeast-southwest line. The year 1897 appears on each
stone, the northeast one being 103.7 feet from the northeast corner
of the Court House and 121.1 feet from the northwest corner.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

159

DESCRIPTION OF STATIONS

Chestertown, Court Hause, 1897. — At the uortheast stone of the
true surveyor's line establislied on the Court House grounds in 1897.

Chestertown, Washington College, 1897. — On the campus of the
College grounds. This being only an auxiliary station, it was not
permanently marked.

Chestertown, 1908. — Same as L. A. Bauer's station of 1897. In
the southeastern part of grounds of Washington College, 130 feet
(39.6 meters) north of the south edge of the grounds, 97 feet (29.6
meters) northeast of an elm tree, and 123.2 feet (37.6 meters) from
the corner of a board fence enclosing the field of Mr. White. Sta-
tion is marked by a blue marble post 5 by 5 by 21 inches (12.7 by
12.7 by 61 cm.) lettered on top "C.I.1908" and sunk flush with the
surface of the ground. The period after the letter "I" marks the
exact point. The following true bearings were determined : cross
on Catholic Church, 27° 26'.8 West of South; cross on Methodist
Protestant Church, 8° 15'.5 West of South ; cross on Methodist Epis-
copal Church, 1° 45'.6 West of South.

Tolchester, 1897. — In the race-track back of the picnic grounds.

Massey, 1896. — On the north side of road to Clayton near small
school house, about one mile from railroad station ; 121 feet north-
northwest of corner of school house.

Betterton, 1899. — On the hill west of Bettertowu Hotel owned
by Mr. John Henry Crew. Precise spot is in line with chestnut
tree, on the northeast side of the hill, and the northeast corner of
Mr. Crew's house, about one-third of the way from said tree. Point
marked by a wooden peg.

With the aid of the figures in Table II the surveyor can readily
ascertain the amount of change of the needle between any two
dates. For practical purposes it will suffice to regard the change
thus described as the same over the county. It should be empha-
sized, however, that Avhen applying the quantities thus found in the
re-running of old lines, the surveyor should not forget that the table
cannot attempt to give the correction to be allowed on account of
the error of the compass used in the original survey.

160

THE MAGNETIC DECLINATION OF KENT COUNTY

Showing Change in the Magneth

TABLE II.

Declination at Chestertown from 1700 to 1915.

The following table is reproduced from page 482 of the First Report cited
above except for the extension to 1915.

Year

Needle

Year

Needle

Year

Needle

Year

Needle

Jan. 1

pointed

Jan. 1

pointed

Jan. 1

pointed

Jan. 1

pointed

1700

6 low

1750

3 16 W

1800

1 09 W

1850

2 SOW

5 59 W

2 56 W

1 08 W

3 09 W

5 47 W

2 38 W

1 10 W

3 29 W

5 33 W

2 22 W

1 14W

3 48 W

5 15W

2 04W

1 21 W

4 09 W

4 58 W

1 48W

1 31W

4 28 W

4 38 VV

1 35W

1 43 W

4 49 W

4 18 W

1 24 W

1 58 W

5 08 W

3 58 W

1 16W

2 16 W

5 26 W

3 38 W

1 12 W

2 32 W

5 44 W

1750

3 16 W

1800

1 09 W

1850

2 50 W

1900

5 58 W

6 16 W

6 40 W

II 1915

7 03 W

The declination is westerly over th
annual rate of about 5 minutes.

entire county and is increasing at an average

To reduce an observation of the magnetic declination to the mean
value for the day of 24 hours, apply the quantities given in the table
below with the sign as affixed :

Januar.v . .
February .
March . . . .

April

May

June

July

August . . .
September
October . .
November .
December .

—0.1
+0.6
+1.2
+2.5
+3.0
+2.9
+3.1
+2.9
+1.8
+0.5
+0.5
+0.2

+0.2
+0.7
+2.0
+3.1i
+3.8
+4.4
+4.6
+4.9

+i;6

+1.2
+0.3

+1.0
+1.5
+3.0
+3.4
+3.9
+4.4
+4.9
+5.4
+3.4
+3.1
+1.7
+0.8

+2.6
+2.6
+3.3
+3.9
+3.7

+2.41
+1.4!
+1.6
+0.8
+0.1
+1.1
+1.8
+0.4
+0.3
+1.4
+1.1
+1.8

-1.31—0.
-1.2-0.
-2.3—1.

2|+0.2
8 1-0.4
2 1— 0.5
21—0.2
;v^:).l

—2.(1 — .S.6 — 4..-. —4..-. -.S.S —•_".••, — 1 •_> -n.v
—1.2 —3.4'— 4.4 -4.7 4.2 —U s -1.3 -0.3

-l.Oj-
-0.51-

o.ol-

—4.:;,— 4.0— 1.4 — n

1.6 1-

Angle.

At the northeast stone the angle between the true northeast-
southwest line and the northeast corner of the Court House is 17°
34' and for the northwest corner of the Court House the angle is
33° 41'.

The latitude of the Court House may be taken to be 39° 13.0',
and the longitude 76° 04.4' W of Greenwich or 56' East of Washing-
ton. To obtain true local mean time, or solar time, subtract from
Eastern or Standard time 4 minutes and 26 seconds.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

KENT COUNTY. PLATE

THE FORESTS OF KENT COUNTY

F. W. BESLEY

Introductory.

Kent is pre-eminently an agricultural county that has reached
a high state of farm development. There is a small percentage of
woodland, rather unequally distributed, but inasmuch as the
forested areas have been brought to a nearly irreducible minimum,
forest products have a higher value for local uses than obtains in
other counties where there is a larger percentage of woodland. This
report is based upon a complete forest survey, made in 1907, by the
State Department of Forestry, an established agency for the investi-
gation of forest conditions, and prepared to give reliable informa-
tion and advice concerning forest management to all woodland
owners. The data upon which the report is based has been revised,
since the original sui'vey was made, in order to bring it more nearly
up to date.

The land area of the county consists of 179,872 acres classified
as follows :

There is a considerable variation in the agricultural lands, in
different parts of the county, giving rise to a variety of crops, but
most of it is of a good quality of clay loam that produces excellent
yields of corn and wheat. The demand for farm lands has resulted
in a reduction of the forest areas to a point where practically all
tillable land has been cleared, so that the present wooded area will,

Improved farm land

Woodlands

Marsh lands

Waste land

132,726 acres, or 73%

33,776 acres, or 19%

7,000 acres, of 4%

6,370 acres, or 4%

162

THE FORESTS OF KENT COUNTY

probably, always remain. Indeed, during the past few years of
agricultural depression a considerable acreage of land, formerly
cultivated, has reverted and is now classed as waste land.

At the time of settlement magnificent mature hardwood forests
covered almost the entire county. The only non-forested areas were
the salt marshes and a few grassy glades where tree growth could
not successfully compete with the grasses. No sooner had settle-
ment begun and the necessity for cleared land on which to grow
food crops asserted itself, than the natural conditions were changed
and the forests destroyed. With the increase of population the
clearing of land went forward with greater rapidity. Timber was
overabundant and consequently of very little value. The land was
found very productive and nearly all of it so situated as to be easily
tillable. This course, consistently followed for over 200 years could
lead to but one result, the forests fell before the ax of the settler
and of the farmers who flocked to the land of great agricultural
promise, and today there exists a high state of agricultural develop-
ment, but as for lumber and other construction material, the county
is a heavy importer having long ago ceased to produce enough
timber for the local demand. The scarcity of timber is not entirely
due to the clearing away of the forests for farm crops, though that
is the chief cause. There is still left nearly 19 per cent of the total
land area in forest which, if properly managed and fully productive,
would supply at least three-fourths of the local needs. The present
difficulty and the problem for serious consideration is that the
present wooded area has been so mismanaged that it is not pro-
ducing one-third of a full crop. The forests for many years have
been subjected to a system of culling in which the best trees of the
best species are being constantly taken with the result that the
forests have not only been thinned to the point where they are
only partially stocked, but the trees that constitute the present
stands consist largely of scrubby defective specimens and those of
inferior species which, because of their worthlessness, were left in

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

163

the woods and are now simply encumbering the ground and prevent-
ing a more valuable growth. A radical change in the method of
handling the forests is imperative to put all of the lands, the wood-
lands as well as the fields, in a state of highest productiveness and
demands the combined efforts of the farmer and the forester.

The present forest resources of the county are graphically shown
by the following tabular statement :

TABLE I.

WoHDKD Area, Stand, and Value op Timber bv Election Districts.

District

Total area
of district
-acres

Total

wooded

area-acres

"3 ti
IJ

lloS
d P. ^'-S

Massev I

43,405

10,409

19.379

$167,080

Kennedy ville 11

42,374

4,842

10,558

95,008

Worton III

26,419

4,480

7,390

61,264

Chestertown IV

5,376

608

1,382

12,560

Rockhall V

19,059

4,029

6,201

50,112

23,642

10,128

90,224

19,597

4,615

8,097

68,536

Totals

179,872

33,818

,»

63,135

$544,784

The value of saw timber given in the table represents its value
as it stands in the tree in the woods without any labor expenditure.
The same timber after cutting and sawing would represent a value
at the mills of about |1,750,000. The table shows that the wood-
lands of the county are not evenly distributed, two districts having
each 24 per cent of wooded area and two others but 11 per cent each.
Massey district, which has the largest land area, has more than
twice as much woodlands as any other district and also has the
largest amount of standing timber. It is here that some of the
largest lumbering operations in the county are in progress. Ken-
nedyville and Chestertown districts have the smallest per cent of
woodlands but in point of stand and value of timber Kennedyville,
which is the second largest district in the county, ranks among the
first. The other districts, viz., Worton, Rock Hall, Farlee, and

164

THE FORESTS OF KENT COUNTY

Pomona each have nearly the same amount of woodlands, though
the percentage of wooded area differs in each, due to variation in
the relative size of the districts.

THE CHARACTER OF THE WOODLANDS

Kent County is the northernmost county of the Eastern Shore
Peninsula entirely within the tidewater section and in consequence
some of the tidewater tree species attain here the northern limit
of their distribution. The most notable example is the loblolly pine,
a valuable timber tree of the south, forming extensive forests in all
of the lower counties where it is the principal timber tree. Loblolly
pine forests, however, are not found farther north than the southern
part of Kent County. There is likewise in this transition zone a
curious mingling of the northern and southern species of trees. The
forest vegetation is most luxuriant and, for the botanist, presents
an interesting field for study.

The woodlands are largely confined to the poorly drained soils
along the water courses or to the short abrupt slopes adjacent to
the Sassafras River and its tributaries and along the bay shore.
In undrained soils there are relatively few kinds of trees that will
thrive, such as red gum. black gum, red maple, pin oak, willow oak,
etc., and these are generally of less value than upland species. On
exposed slopes along the bay shore and the Sassafras River the con
ditions are not favorable for the best tree growth, but in such loca-
tions they serve their most useful purpose in protecting the short
abrupt slopes from soil erosion, as well as affording an excellent
windbreak against the cold northwest winds. The principal species
found in such locations are chestnut oak, Spanish oak, chestnut,
and locust.

The area, stand, and value on the stump of the saw timber of the
different classes in the several districts is shown by the following
table :

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

KENT COUNTY. PLATE XI

Fig. 2.— vikw sjiow inc poi.e.s fou I'lwii pounds at rock stuauiht spkuce I'INe

TKKKS AKK THE ONES O.ENKKAI.I.Y I SEl).

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

165

TABLE II

DisTRimTioN OF Woodlands, Stand and Valuk of Saw Timbku

I!V ELKCTION DlSTHlCTS.

District •

Merchantable Hardwoods

Merchantable Pine

Area
acres

Stand
M Bd. Ft.

Value

Area
acres

Stand
M Bd. Ft.

Value

Massey I

1,130
1,318
208
188

4,520
5,272
1,072
752

$45,200
52,720
10,720
7,520

376

1,504

$15,040

Kennedyville II

Worton III

Chestprtown I\'

Rock Hall V

252

2,520

Fairlee VI

1,150
470

4,600
1,880

46,000
18,800

Pomona VII

Totals

18,096

$180,960

439

1,756

$17,560

District

Culled Hardwoods

Mixed Hardwoods and Pine

Area
acres

Stand
il Bd. Ft.

Value

Area
acres

Stand
M Bd. Ft.

Value

Massev I

8,830
3,480
4,212
420
3,552
3,685
4,145

13,245
5,220
6,318
630
5,328
5,528
6,217

$105,960
41,760
50,544
5,040
42,624
44,224
49,736

73
44

110

$880
528

Kennedyville II

Chestertown IV

414

621

4,968

Fairlee VI

Pomona VII

28,324

42,486

$339,888

531

797

$6,376

THE FOREST TYPES

There are three types of forest in the county which may be
designated as mixed hardwood, mixed hardwood and pine, and pure
pine. The mixed hardwood type is the most important since it
covers 97 per cent of the wooded area and comprises nearly the
entire stand of timber. The mixed hardwood and pine type occurs
in three districts — Massey, Kennedyville, and Rock Hall — the latter
district containing the bulk of it. This type covers about 531 acres
and represents less than 2 per cent of the total wooded area of the
county. The pure pine type occurs in but two districts, Massey and
Rock Hall. That in the Massey district is spruce pine, while that
found in Rock Hall district is part spruce pine and part loblolly

166

THE FORESTS OF KENT COUNTY

pine. The latter is the more valuable of the two as a timber tree but
of small acreage as compared with spruce pine. The entire area of
the pure pine type covers but 439 acres and represents but a little
over 1 per cent of the total woodlands of the county.

Mixed Hardwood Type.

The mixed hardwood type, comprising the greater bulk of the
wooded area, consists of a variety of species, often as many as
twenty-five different kinds of trees occurring on a single acre. The
more valuable species, such as white oak, hickory, black oak, and
red gum were originally much more abundant. In late years these
species have been cut rather closely and there is, in consequence, an
increasing proportion of the less valuable species, such as black
gum, red maple, beech, pin oak, and the dense underbrush of dog-
wood and iron wood to usurp the ground to the exclusion of a more
valuable second growth. Since the wooded areas are largely con-
fined to the short, abrupt slopes toward the creeks on the bay shore
and to the undrained situations growth is, on the whole, slow. On
the better drained soils, however, growth is rapid and the species
represented are largely of the valuable kinds that make good timber.

For the purpose of greater accuracy in estimating the stand of
saw timber and for the sake of a better representation of actual
conditions the mixed hardwood forests were divided into three
classes based upon the average stand of saw timber per acre. Two
classes are designated, merchantable hardwoods and culled hard-
woods. (See Table 11.)

The merchantable hardwood class includes the stands contain-
ing sufficient saw timber to warrant logging operations, and repre-
sents 20 per cent of the wooded area. The average stand of saw
timber of this class is 4,000 feet, board measure, per acre, on the
4,524 acres in the county, and gives a total stand of 18,096,000 feet,
valued at |180,960 on the stump.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

167

TLii culled hardwood class represents stands that have either
been severely culled or repeatedly cut over until the amount of saw
timber will average only 1,500 feet to the acre. This type covers
28,324 acres or nearly 76 per cent of the total wooded area. The
stand of saw timber is 42,486,000 feet, with a stumpage value of
$339,888.

Mixed Hardwood and Pine Type.

This type of forest consists of a mixture of hardwood and pine
and is represented in Table II. It occurs in three districts of the
county, namely, Massey, Kennedyville, and Rock Hall. In Massey
and Kennedyville districts, in the eastern part of the county, it
covers 117 acres and the pine, in mixture with the hardwoods, is
exclusively the spruce pine. In Rock Hall district, in the south-
western part of the county where this type covers 414 acres, the
mixture consists of spruce pine with hardwoods in some cases, and
of loblolly pine with hardwoods in other cases. Most of these mixed
stands were originally a pure hardwood growth where, in the
process of culling, sufficient open places were created for the pine
to become established by seeding from neighboring pine stands.
The mixed hardwood and pine forests are found on II/2 per cent of
the woodlands of the county and have a total stand of 797,000 feet,
board measure, with a stumpage value of |6,376.

Pure Pine Type.

This type is found in but two districts in the county, namely,
Massey in the eastern part, and Rock Hall in the southwestern part.
In Massey district the pine is spruce pine entirely and covers 376
acres. Spruce pine does not make large timber and, because it is
usually knotty and small, it seldom makes a better grade than box
board lumber or scantling. In Rock Hall district there are 63
acres of pure pine stands, the most of which are loblolly found on
the poorer drained situations. Lower Kent County is the northern

168

THE FORESTS OF KENT COUNTY

limit of range of loblolly pine forests on the Eastern Shore Penin-
sula. The total stand of pine in the 439 acres of this class is
1,756,000 feet, board measure, and represents a stumpage value of
117,560.

THE NATIVE TREES

Fifty-eight native species of tree size, together with five intro-
duced species that have become common, are found in the county.
The following is a complete list. The first five are coniferous (ever-
greens), the remainder are hardwoods (deciduous) :

Conifers.

Botanical Name Common Name

Jiiniperus virginiana L Red Cedar

Pinus echinata Mill Short Leaf Pine

Pinus rigida Mill Pitch Pine

Pinus taeda L Loblolly Pine

Pinus virginiana Mill Spruce Pine

Hardwoods.

Ace7- ruhrum L Red Maple

Alnus maritima Nutt Swamp Alder

Amelanchier canadensis Med Service Berry

Aralia spinosa L Hercules Club

Asimina triloba Dunal Paw Paw

Betula nigra L River Birch

Carpinus caroliniana Walt Blue Beech

Castanea dentata Borkh Chestnut

Celtis occidentalis L Hackberry

Gercis canadensis L Redbud

Cornus florida L Flowering Dogwood

Crataegus coccineae Scarlet Thorn

Diospyros virginiana L Persimmon

Fagus grandifolia Ehrh Beech

Fraxinus americana L White Ash

Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh Red Ash

Hamamelis virginiana L Witch Hazel

Hicoria alba L White Hickory

Hicoria glabra Mill Pignut Hickory

Hicoria minima Marsh Bitternut Hickory

Ilex opaca Ait Holly

Juglans cinerea L White Walnut

Juglans nigra L Black Walnut

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

1G9

Liquidambar styraciftua L Red Gum

Liriodendron tulipifera Yellow Poplar

Magnolia virginiana L Sweet Bay

Morus rubra L Red Mulberry

Myrica cerifera L Wax Myrtle

Nyssa sylvatica Marsh Black Gum

Platahus occidentalis L Sycamore

Prunus pennsylvanica L Fire Cherry

Prunus serotina Ehrh Wild Black Cherry

Prunus virginiana L Choke Cherry

Quercus alba L White Oak

Quercus coccinea Muench Scarlet Oak

Quercus lyrata Walt Overcup Oak

Quercus marilandica Muench Black Jack Oak

Quercus michauxii Nutt Basket Oak

Quercus stellata Wang Post Oak

Quercus nigra L Water Oak

Quercus palustris Muench Pin Oak

Quercus phellos L Willow Oak

Quercus bicolor Willd Swamp White Oak

Quercus borealis maxima Ashe Northern Red Oak

Quercus rubra L Southern Red Oak

Quercus velutina Lam Black Oak

Rhus typhina L Staghorn Sumach

Robinia pseudacacia L Black Locust

Salix discolor Muhl Glaucous Willow

Salix nigra Marsh Black Willow

8assaf7-as sassafras Karst Sassafras

Vlmus americana L White Elm

Ulmus fulva Michx Slippery Elm

iNTRonrcED Species That Have Become Common.

Acer negundo L Ash-leaved Maple

Ailanthus altissima Swing Ailanthus

Glcditsia triacanthos L Honey Locust

Populus alba L Silver Poplar

Toxylon pomiferuyn Rafn Osage Orange

IMPORTANT TREE SPECIES

Saw timber is so scarce in the county that practically all species
are cut and used for building material. There are, however, several
species that by their abundance and good qualities are regarded as
of special importance.

170

THE FORESTS OF KENT COUNTY

White Oak.

This produces the highest priced construction timber of any tree
in the county, and is becoming scarce. It is in great demand for
bridge plank, cross-ties, piling, and general construction purposes.
The tree is found in moist, deep soils associated with other oaks and
beech. The demand for white oak timber is so great as to force the
cutting of trees before they are mature and results in lessening the
proportion of this species in the forest stands.

Spanish Oak.

Is one of the most common trees on well-drained soils. It does
not rank in value with the white oak but is its most important sub-
stitute and is largely used for building material. It is used to some
extent for railroad ties and piling.

Willow Oak and Pin Oak.
Are abundant in the poorly drained soils along the streams.
The wood is not so valuable as that of the other oaks but it is largely
used for rough lumber for construction purposes where exposure to
weather is not required. Since the trees are usually straight with
slight taper they make good piles.

Red Gum.

This species of late yeai's has come into general use for cutting
into veneer, which is manufactured into berry boxes and fruit and
vegetable baskets. It is abundant and makes a good growth on
low ground, where it competes with black gum and red maple,
though it frequently occurs in almost pure, even-aged stands.

Yellow Poplar.
Is one of the most valuable woods in the county. The tree
attains large size in the deep forest soils along streams, but repeated
culling has so reduced its chance for survival as to make it a com-
paratively rare tree.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

171

Pine.

Is an important tree in the southern and southeastern parts of
county. Of the two species of pine in the county, spruce pine and
loblolly, the former is much more abundant though the timber is of
less value. The principal use of spruce pine is for fire wood and
pulpwood while loblolly pine is in demand for lumber, especially
for box boards for which it is particularly adapted. Both pines are
slightly increasing in area, the spruce pine occupies the better
drained light soils, while the loblolly is generally found on low
sandy grounds, adjacent to swamps.

LUMBER AND TIMBER PRODUCTION

Lumber.

The available saw timber is in such small tracts and so much
scattered that only small operations are possible. There were nine
saw mills operating in the county in 1925, most of them running but
a few months and cutting for local orders. Practically all species
are cut for lumber but the oaks and pines are the most important.
A considerable amount of dead chestnut was utilized, but most of
that left has been dead so long that it is unfit for saw timber.

Railroad Ties.

There are about 30 miles of railroad in the county which draw
heavily upon the local timber supply for railroad ties. Oak is used
almost exclusively, the Avhite oak being in greater demand. The
normal annual requirements are about 15,000 ties for replacement
and new construction. The supply of available tie timber has been
so far depleted that imported treated ties are now being generally
used.

Poles.

The network of telephone and telegraph lines, extending through
the county, require a large number of poles for maintaining existing
lines and constructing new ones. Chestnut continues to be the

172

THE FORESTS OF KENT COLXTY

species almost universally used for the purpose, and before the
chestnut blight appeared, there was an abundance of pole timber
of this species. In recent years, however, with the practical destruc-
tion of all standing chestnut timber, the pole line companies are
beginning to import heavily to supply local needs.

Fen'cixg Material.
A large quantity of fence posts are required annually, as would
naturally be expected in a county where dairying and stock raising
are so important. Practically all fields are fenced, since under the
existing practice of crop rotation, nearly every field is used for
pasture periodically. It is estimated that 85,000 fence posts are
required annually for replacement and for new fence lines. Red
cedar and black locust make the best fence posts and are generally
used. As a third choice, a great deal of chestnut was formerly used,
but the supply has been, practically, destroyed by the chestnut
blight.

Indications are that within a few years, the use of treated fence
posts will be required to supplement the diminishing supply of
naturally durable woods. It has been demonstrated at the Mary-
land Experiment Station that cheap woods of low natural dura-
bility, such as pine or gum, can be made to last for 20 years or more,
wiieu properly treated with creosote at a reasonable expense.

FUELWOOD.

Tlie quantity of wood used annually for fuel is greater than that
for all other uses combined. Notwithstanding the increasing
amount of coal used, the large majority of people depend upon wood
for fuel. Most farmers have woodlots from which they secure their
fuelwood, as well as the material for fencing and construction
purposes around the farm. The farmer who has as much as l.j acres
of woodland can secure the needed fuel by utilizing the dead and
defective trees in the nature of thinnings and improvement cuttings,

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

KENT COUNTY. PLATE XII

Fig. 2. — vikw siiowinc, ki kf. wciod cut kkom tuinnincjs in a i.obi.oi.i.y pine thicket.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

173

thus maintaining the productivity of his forest lands, while utilizing
them for immediate needs.

The wood and timber taken from the forest each year is much
greater than the annual growth. The result is a constant depletion
which has already made the county a heavy importer of building
material.

This emphasizes strongly the need of conserving and increasing
timber production to meet home needs which cannot long be sup-
plied from the surplus of neighboring counties, where supplies are
being rapidly depleted. The universal adoption of systematic forest
management in the county would increase the production of the
forests certainly to three times their present output and probably
more.

WOOD USING INDUSTRIES

In addition to the nine saw mills, there are wood-using industries
operating in the county, which convert rough lumber, or veneer logs,
into manufactured products. There are not less than three such
establishments, employing 85 men, which, annually, convert about
2,000,000 board feet of rough sawed lumber into manufactured prod-
ucts, principally boxes, baskets, crates, flooring, ceiling, window
and door frames and other interior finish.

These are growing industries -which represent considerable capi-
tal and give employment to a great many people. It is important
that these industries be encouraged and extended and that can only
be done by maintaining the supply of timber, which is the raw
material, upon which they must depend. The woodland owner, who
is the timber producer, is likewise helped in securing a good local
market for his timber. The county is also enriched by retaining
this source of wealth for the benefit of its OAvn people.

The principal species used are yellow pine, red gum, yellow
poplar, American elm, cypress, and a number of species of oak. Of
the amount used approximately half of it is Maryland grown, the
remainder coming from outside the State.

174

THE FORESTS OF KENT COUNTY

FOREST MANAGEMENT
In view of the fact that the local timber supply is not equal to
the demand and that prices are certain to advance considerably,
the question is, or should be, how can these woodlands be made more
productive? A study of the conditions has shown that greatly
increased timber production is possible and can easily be accom-
plished by applying certain well known principles of forest
management.

1. Full timber production is only possible where the woodland
is fully stocked with growing trees, that is, where no open places
occur in the forest.

2. The highest yield, quantity and quality considered, can only
be obtained by encouraging the species best adapted to the location,
and those for which there is the greatest demand, and at the same
time weeding out the undesirable kinds.

3. The forest must be fully protected against fires, grazing, and
tree diseases.

In a mixed hardwood stand it is not often possible to attain the
ideal conditions, but the nearer such conditions are approached the
better will be the results.

In the first place the number of trees required to make a fully
stocked stand will depend upon the age of the stand, the fertility of
the soil and the species, hence no definite number can be given. A
stand is, however, fully stocked no matter what may be the age,
species, or locality, when the tops of the trees are so close together
that the branches of each tree touch, or nearly touch, on all sides the
branches of its neighboring trees. If the trees are so close that the
branches interlace, they are too close to make the best growth and a
thinning is needed. In the young stages of growth a little crowding
is beneficial, as it forces the trees to shoot up rapidly for light, and
at the same time the lower branches are killed by shading and drop
off. When the main height growth is attained less shading on the

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SI KVEY

175

sides is required for then diameter increase is most needed, and
can be encouraged by giving the tree more room.

On good soil there will be fewer trees of a given age per acre
than on a poor soil, although on the former the trees will be larger.
Then, too, some species will grow in dense stands while others will
not. AVhite oak, beech, and spruce pine will grow so close together
as to completely shade the ground, while locust, poplar, and black
oak require more room in which to develop.

In the second place such species as white oak, red oak, yellow
poplar, hickory, and red gum are of the greatest commercial value
and should be encouraged at the expense of the less valuable species.
This can be done by improvement cuttings made at proper times and
in connection witli thinnings when required. The woods should be
gone over frequently to remove dead and suppressed trees and those
of inferior kinds that are crowding the more valuable species named
above. Such material can be utilized by the farmer for fuel and the
more valuable timber growth reserved to supply the future market
demands at a good price.

When the time comes to cut a stand of timber and the land is to
be held for further wood production, the main question should be how
to secure a valuable new growth. The method of cutting will be a con-
trolling factor. Nearly all hardwood sprout from the stump and if
the trees are cut while in full vigor the production of sprouts will
be abundant. Under the usual practice the valuable trees have been
removed and the less valuable ones, for which there is little mai'ket
demand, have been left. This repeated culling has brought about
a radical change in the representation of species and greatly reduced
the producing capacity of the woodlands. In order to restore
normal conditions it will be necessary to adopt different methods.
The particular method to be adopted will depend upon conditions
present and cannot be stated in definite terms. In the care of the
woodlot where there is a constant need for fuel, the inferior species
can gradually be thinned out as more room is needed for the better

176

THE FORESTS OF KENT COUNTY

trees and in that way much of the present inferior growth will give
way to the more valuable trees.

Management of Mixed Hardwood and Pine.

Forest management for this type of forest will be similar to that
recommended in the case of the mixed hardwood stands, since the
hardwoods constitute at least 75 per cent of the stand. If a larger
percentage of reproduction of pines is desired in the growth, it wall
be necessary to leave a number of pine seed trees per acre for
re-stocking as pines do not sprout from the stumps, as do the hard-
woods. The pine will only have a chance to succeed where there
are open places, since the hardwood sprouts will generally grow
faster than pine seedlings and kill out most of those that succeed in
getting started. The fact that the pine is increasing in distribution
is due to the repeated culling of the hardwood forests, thereby creat-
ing open spaces where the light pine seed finds a chance to germinate
and grow. Were it not that the pine is a prolific seeder and that
the seed is blown great distances by the wind it would in time be
almost exterminated by the more persistent hardwood growth. In
dealing with the spruce pine which, because of its slower growth
and less valuable product, is not as desirable as the hardwoods, the
plan of management would be to reduce the representation of that
species in the mixture. This can be best accomplished by thinnings
and improvement cuttings. When the mixed stand is in need of
thinning the spruce pine should be regarded as of lesser value or
even a tree weed, and sacrificed whenever it interferes with the
development of a more valuable hardwood, hence the operation is
called an improvement cutting. Since pine does not sprout from
the stump one cutting will suppress the tree. On the other hand,
in dealing with loblolly pine which is a rapid growing tree reaching
large saw timber size and therefore to be encouraged in the mixed
forest, the operation would be reversed, that is, instead of making
improvement cuttings to eliminate the tree, its competitors should

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

177

be cut away as fast as they threaten to suppress it or interfere with
its proper development.

Management of Pine Stands.

Pine nearly always grows in even-aged stands and therefore the
clear cutting system is the one to follow. The time to cut is when
the trees have reached financial maturity and that is in reality the
time when they will bring the best new returns — taxes, interest, and
rate of growth considered. Spruce pine, which is the pine most
largely represented in the county, grows very slowly after it gets
to be six or eight inches in diameter and ordinarily should be cut
about that time, as it rarely reaches good saw timber size and when
it does remain long enough for saw logs, the taxes and interest, or
rental, of high priced land more than offset its stumpage value. Its
chief market is for cordwood, pulpwood, or mine props, which does
not require large sizes.

Usually the best system of handling pure stands of spruce pine
is to cut them clean at maturity and plant with loblolly pine or
some other species, since spruce pine is not a tree that is profitable
to grow.

The loblolly pine stands in the southwestern part of the county,
while smaller in extent are important because loblolly pine is one
of the most valuable trees in the county. The lumber is not so valu-
able as the white oak, but it grows so much faster that the money
yield in a given time is considerably greater. It does not reach
financial maturity until it gets to be about 15 inches in diameter
on the stump when it will be from 35 to 50 years old. At that size
it makes good saw timber or mine props.

Where loblolly pine occurs in pine stands and has reached
maturity, the best method of cutting is to cut clear with the excep-
tion of three or four good seed trees to the acre well distributed in
order to insure a re-stocking of this species. Where there is a heavy
hardwood undergrowth mixed with the pine, the competing hard-

178

THE FORESTS OF KENT COUNTY

woods w ill have to be cut back in order that the pine may succeed
as the more important species.

TREE PLANTING
There are small open areas throughout the county, not now
utilized for field crops that can be profitably employed in growing
timber. There are a number of tree species of rapid growth and
high value, which can be profitably employed for the purpose. Black
locust, a rapid growing hardwood making an excellent fence post,
is one of the most promising. This species will grow rapidly on
good soil, and does well even on poor soil. The increasing demand
for fence posts, and its adaptability for planting on waste lands on
the farm, make it especially desirable. Planted stands of locust
should produce on good soil fence posts in 12 years. Loblolly pine
is another species that can be highly recommended for forest plant-
ing. It is the most rapid growing of the pines, a native tree in the
county, and will produce good saw timber in less time than any
other native species. The cost of starting a plantation will depend
upon the cost of the trees and the labor required in planting. This
will ordinarily be less than flO.OO per acre.*

FOREST PROTECTION

The most serious enemy of the forest is fire. Where fires are
permitted to run through the woods, there can be no satisfactory
tree growth. Even a light surface fire causes serious damage in
burning up the leaf litter, which is needed to keep the soil in a good
physical condition by acting as a mulch to conserve moisture and soil
fertility. The seed and small seedlings, intended for re-stocking the
forest, are destroyed, young trees are killed or seriously injured,
and even the larger ones are often fire scarred, exposing them to
decay. Fortunately, the natural conditions in the county are such

* The State Department of Forestry operates a forest nursery from
which stock may be obtained at low cost for forest planting.

MARYLAND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

179

as to limit greatly tlie fire damage. The Avoodlands are usually
in small areas, often located along the water courses, where tires
are not apt to occur, but there have been destructive fires, and there
is always the fire danger during the dry periods in the spring and
fall. Every woodland owner should be on the alert during these
periods to prevent fires and ready to fight promptly any that do
occur. Where outside assistance is required in combatting fires,
the State forest wardens are available, with the authority to employ
such assistance as may be required to bring fires promptly under
control.

CHESTNUT BLIGHT

The chestnut blight is the most destructive tree disease ever
known in this county. It is a fungus disease brought into the
United States, probably on nursery stock, from the Orient in the
nineties, coming under definite observation in the vicinity of New
York in 1904. From this point, it has steadily spread at an average
rate of about 40 50 miles yearly. The blight appeared in the county
about 1909 and has killed practically every chestnut tree. It is a
bark disease that affects only the bark and the layer of wood lying
just beneath it. Consequently, if diseased trees are utilized soon
after they die and before natural decay starts, the wood is as sound
as that from living trees.

Much time and money has been expended in trying to find a
remedy for the blight or a method of control, without success. The
only sensible thing for the land owner to do is to utilize the chestnut
before it becomes worthless.

SUMMARY

1. Nineteen per cent of the area of the county is wooded. The
total stand of saw timber is over 63,000,000 feet, board measure,
with a stumpage value of about $544,784.

2. Much of the wooded area is in poor condition due to inju-
dicious cutting and lack of proper management, so that the forests

180

THE FORESTS OF KENT COUNTY

are now producing less than one-third the value of product of which
they are capable. The annual cut from the forest is greatly in excess
of the annual growth.

3. There are three principal types of forest in the county, namely,
mixed hardwood, mixed hardwood and pine, and pure pine. Of
these the mixed hardwood type is the most important since it covers
97 per cent of the wooded area and comprises nearly the entire stand
of available saw timber.

i. There are no less than G3 species of forest trees in the county,
35 of which are useful timber trees.

5. The principle products of the forests are lumber, shingles,
railroad ties, poles, piling, mine props, ijulpwood, cordwood, fire-
wood, and fence posts.

6. The wood-using industries of the county convert over 2,000,000
feet of rough lumber into manufactured j)roducts including wheel-
wright stock, vehicles, boxes, crates, flooring, ceiling, window and
door frames, and other interior finish. The productiveness of the
forest must be maintained to continue these industries which give
employment to a great many people.

7. By applying the principles of practical forestry to the man-
agement of woodlands the forest yields can be greatly increased and
the quality of product much improved.

8. There is not much land not suitable for agricultural crops
upon which timber growing would be profitable. Such lands should
be planted with trees best adapted to the locality, especially those
that promise quick returns such as locust or loblolly pine.

9. The forests by reason of their location, generally on low lands,
and their division into small woodlots make them less subject to
fii'es than is the case in other counties; nevertheless they do suffer
to some extent from this source.

10. Over-grazing in the woodlot is responsible for a considerable
share of the damage that forests now suffer.

INDEX

Abbe, Cleveland, Jr., 40, 41.

Agricultural conditions, discussed, 12".

Alexander, J. H., 31, 32.

Alexander, Wm. H., 17.

Aquia formation, 71.

areal distribution of, 71.
character of materials of, 72.
paleontologic character of, 73.
stratigraphic relations of, 74.
strike, dip and thickness of, 73.

Areal distribution of Aquia forma-
tion, 71.

of Calvert formation, 74.
of Magothy formation, 62.
of Matawan formation, 65.
of Monmoutli formation, 68.
of Raritan formation, 58.
of Talbot formation, 83.
of Wicomico formation, 79.
Artesian waters, 100.

Bagg, Rufus M., 40, 42.
Bailey, J. W., 29.
Bassler, R. S., 42.
Bauer, L. A., 18, 157.
Berry, Edward W., 7, 43, 44.
Besley, F. W., 18, 161.
Betterton, precipitation at, 149.

temperatures at, 140, 142, 144.
Betterton Wharf, section near, 63.
Bibliography, 30.
Bog-iron ore, discussed, 99.
Bonstcel, Jay A., 17, 41, 111.
Boyer, C. S., 42.
Brandywine formation,

sedimentary record of, 91.

Calvert formation, 74.

areal distribution of, 74.

character of materials of, 75.

paleontologic character of, 75.

stratigraphic relations of, 76.

strike, dip and thickness of, 76.
Case, E. C, 42.

Character of materials of Aquia forma-
tion, 72.

of Calvert formation, ''>.

of Magothy formation, 62.

of Matawan formation, 66.

of Monmouth formation, 69.

of Raritan formation, 59.

of Talbot formation, 84.

of Wicomico formation, 79.
Chesapeake Group, 74.
Chester, Frederick I).. 29, 35, 36.
Chestertown, precii)itation at, 149, 151.

snowfall at, 153.

temperatures at, 140, 142, 144, 146.
Chestnut blight, discussed, 179.
Clark, Wm. Bullock, 26, 27, 28, 37, 38,

39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44.
Clays, discussed, 97.
Climate, discussed, 131.
Climatological stations in county. 132.
Coleman, precipitation at, 149, 151.

snowfall at, 153.

temperatures at, 140, 144, 146.
Columbia Group, 76.
Conifers, 168.
Conrad, .T. A., 32.
Conrad, T. A., 34.
Contents, 11.

Cretaceous, discussed, 58.

Dall, W. H., 42.

Darton, N. H., 27, 28, 30, 38, 39.
Ducatel, J. T., 26, 27, 28, 31, 32, 33, 34.
Dutton, J. R., 133.
Drainage, 50.

Eastman, C. R., 42.
Ehrenberg, C. G., 29.
Elkton clay, 115, 122.
Eocene, discussed, 71.

sedimentary record of. 90.
Eocene water horizon, 107.

Fence timber, 172.
Ferguson, John B., 5.

182

INDEX

Finch, John, 31.
Fisher, R. S., 34.
Forests, discussed, 161.

character of, 164.

distribution of, 16.";.
Forest management, 174.
Forest protection, 178.
Forest trees, 168.
Forest types, 165.
Fredericlitown, 28.
Fuelwood, 172.

Galena, precipitation at.

temperatures at. 141, 143. 14."i.
Gardner, J. A., 44.
Geology, discussed, 57.
Glenn, I.. C, 42.
Goodnow, Frank J., 5.
Gravels, discussed, 08.
Grover. X. ('.. 17.
Growing period, 137.

Hardwoods, 168.

Harris Wharf, section near, CO.

Heilprin. Angelo. 28,

Higgins, James, 34. 3.5.

HoUick. Arthur, 42.

Howell Point, section near, 50.

Hydrography, discussed. 15.">.

Illustrations. List of. 15,
Interpretation of Geologic record, 86.
Introduction, 21.

Kent County, agricultural conditions
in. 127.

artesian wells in, 100.

bog-iron ore of, 99.

Cla.vs of, 97.

Climate of. 131.

Climatological stations in, 132.

drainage of, 50.

forests of. 161,

geology of, 57.

gravels of, 98.

hydrography of, 155.

location of, 21.

magnetic declination in. 157.

marls of, 98.

mineral resources in, 97.

physiography of, 45.

precipitation in, 149.

sands of. 07.
settlement of, 21,
soils of. 111.
soil types in, 115.
springs in, 106.

temperature conditions in, 140,
topographic description of, 40.
topographic history of, 54.
transportation facilities in, 129.
water resources of, 99.

Lea, Isaac. 28.

Lloyd Creek, section at, 66.

Lower Cretaceous, discussed, 58.

sedimentary record of, 87.
Lumber. 171.

Maclure, Wm.. 25. 30.
Magothy formation. 61.

areal distribution of, 62.

character of materials of, 62.

paleontological character of. 64.

stratigraphic relations of. 65.

strike, dip and thickness of, 64.
Magnetic declination, discussed. 157.
Marls, discussed, 98.
IMaryland Geological Survey. 30.
Maryland State Weather Service. 39.
Martin. G, C„ 28, 41. 42,
Matawan formation. 65.

areal distribution of. 65.

character of materials of, 66.

paleontologic character of. 07.

stratigraphic relations of, OS.

strike, dip and thickness of, 67.
Mathews. Edward B.. 7. 9, 26. 43. 44.
McGee, W. J.. 29. 36,
Meadow Land, 115. 125,
Meridian line, 158,
Milldam. section near. 72,
Miller. Benjamin L,, 7. 17, 26. 27, 28,

42. 45. 57. 97,
Millington. precipitation at. 150. 152.

snowfall at. 154.

section near. 75.

temperatures at. 141. 143. 145. 146.
Mineral resources, discussed. 07.
Miocene, discussed. 74.

sedimentary record of, 90.
Monmouth formation. 68.

areal distribution of. OS.

character of materials of. 60,

paleontologic character of. 70.

stratigraphic relations of. 71.

strike, dip and thickness of. 71.
Morton, S. G.. 27, 31.

INDEX

183

Natiiral ilcposits, 97.
Xoii-arli'siMM waters. 10(i.
Xdi-f.ilk sninl, 11."). 120.
Xnnn. Kdscoc. 17, i:fl.

I'aleoiitoloKif cliaracter of A(|iiia

fiii-niatidii, T.i.

of CalviTt formation. I'l,

of Magoth.v formation, 04.

of Matawan formation, 07.

of Monmouth formation, 70.

of Raritan formation. 01.

of Talbot formation, 8.j.

of Wicomico formation, 82.
Pamunkey Group, discussed, 71.
Pearson, Ra.vmond A., o.
Physiographic expression of

Talbot formation, 84.

of Wicomico formation, 82.
Physiography, discussed, 4.3.
I'ierce, James, 31.
Pine, 171.
Pin oak, 170.
Pleistocene, discussed, 70.

sedimentary record of, 92.
P(des, 171.

Potomac Group, discussed, 58.
I'recipitation at Betterton. 149.

at Cliestertown, 149, 151.

at Coleman, 149, 151.

at Galena, 150.

at Millington, 150, 152.

at Rock Hall, 150, 152.
Preface, 17.

Railway ties. 171.
Raritan formation, 58.

areal distrilnition of, 58.

eh.u-aeter of materials of, 50.

paleoTitol..uie .iLivacler of, 01.

slrati^T.-ipliic lelaliniis of, 01.

strike, Miiil tliiekness of, 61.

lieceiit (leiiosits. 80.
Keci^nt stage. 5f,.
Red glim, 17(1,
Kiteliie, .Mil, .It (',. 9.
Hies, HeiliVHll, 41',
Rdlierts, ]), i;., L'7, 39,
Rock Hal!, precipitation at, 150, 152.

snowfall at. 154,

temperatures at, 141, 143, 146.
Rocky Point, section at, CO.
Rogers, W. B., 29.
Rolphs, section near, 73.

Sands, discussed, 97.

Sassafras loam, 115, 110.

Sassafras gravel loam. 115. 118.

Sassalr.is. se,(l,,ii near, 84.

Scliarf, ,1, 'I'iK.iii.as. ;-!7,

Sediiiierilaiy ice,,i-d of Pleistocene, 92.

(iT l'.ranil,\ wine formation, 91.

of .Miocene,

of Eocene. 90.

of Upper ('reta<-eous, 88.

of Lower Cretaceous, 87.
Shallow wells, 106.

Shattuck, Geo. B., 30, 40, 41, 42, 43.

Singewald, .T. T., Jr., 7, 44.

Slichter, C. S., 104.

Smith, John, 25, 30.

Smock, J. C, 35.

Snowfall at Cliestertown, 153.

at Coleman, 153.

at Millington. 154.

at Rock Hall. 154.
Soils, discussed. 111.
Soil types, 115.
Spanish oak, 170.
Sjiriiigs, 100,

State Roads (.'ommission, 24.
Stratigrai)liir relations of Aquia

foriuatioii. 74,

of Calvei t fdriiiation, 76.

of .Magdtliy fdriiiation, 05.

of Matawan fdriiiatidii. (>S.

of Moiimoutli, 71,

of Raritan formation. 01.

of Talbot fcrmation. 85.

of Wieomie,,, ,s:!.
Stream divides, 5ii,

Strike, dip and tliiekness of Acpiia

forniatidii. 73,

of Calvert formation, 70.

of Magdtliy fdrmatidii. 04.

of Matawan formation, 07,

of Mdnmoutli format ion, 71.

of Raritan formation, 01.

of Talbot fdrmatidii, s.-|.

of Wicomico fdriiiation. 82.
Surface waters, 100.
Sus(|iieliaiiiia gravel, 115.
Swamp land. 120,

Talbot formation, 83,

areal distribution of, S3,
character of materials of, 84.
paleontologic eliaraeter of. 85.
jibysiographic expression of. 84.
stratigrapliic relations of. S5,
strike, dip and thickness of, 85.

184

INDEX

Talbot plain, 48.
Talbot stage, 55.

Temperatures at Chestertown, 140,
144, 146.

at Coleman, 140, 144, 146.

at Millington, 141, 143, 145, 14

at Rock Hall, 141. 143, 146.

Tidewater estuaries, 51.

Tidal marshes, 47.

Timber production, 171.

Topographic description, 46.

Topographic history, 54.

Transmittal, Letter of, 9.

Transportation facilities, 129.

Tyson, Philip T., 28, 35.

Uhler, P. R., 28, 37.
Ulrich, E. O., 42.
Underground waters, 100.
U. S. Bureau of Soils, 18.
D. S. Geological Survey, 18.
U. S. Weather Bureau, 18.
Upper Cretaceous, discussed, 58.

sedimentary record of, 88.

water in, 104.

Water horizons in Eocene, 107.
in Upper Cretaceous, 104.

Water resources, discussed, 99.

White, C. A., 27.

White oak, 170.

Whitney, Milton, 17, 38.

Wicomico formation, 79.

areal distribution of, 79.
character of materials of, 7
paleontologic character of,
physiographic expression of,
stratigraphic relations of, S
strike, dip and thickness of,

Wicomico plain, 48.

Wicomico stage, 55.

Wilbur, F. A., 35.

Williams, Robert W., 5.

Williams, G. H., 26, 38.

Willow oak, 170.

Wilson Point Wharf, section at.

Wood-using industries, 173.

Woolman, Lewis, 40, 41.

Worton Point, section at, 60.

Vaughan, T. W., 42.

Yellow poplar, 170.

Date Due

L. B. Cat. No. 1 137

QE122,MA5

3 5002 00344 8995

Maryland Geological Survey.

vol.

1 122
' K4A5

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