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LABRADOR 

THE   COUNTRY   AND   THE   PEOPLE 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK   •    BOSTON   •    CHICAGO 
ATLANTA  •    SAN  FRANCISCO 

MACMILLA^N  &  CO.,  LIMITED 

LONDON  •    BOMBAY  •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  LTD. 

TORONTO 


LABRADOR 


THE  COUNTRY  AND  THE  PEOPLE 


BY 


WILFRED   T.   GRENFELL,  C.M.G.,  M.R.C.S., 
M.D.  (OxoN.) 

AND   OTHERS 


NEW  EDITION 
WITH   ADDITIONAL   CHAPTERS 


gorfc 

THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1913 

All  rights  reserved 


f*> 


COPTBIGHT,    1909, 

BY  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 

Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  November,  1909. 

New  edition  with  new  matter.     Copyrighted,  1913. 
Published  April,  1913. 


J.  8.  Cashing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


FOREWORD 


BY  WILFRED  T.  GRENFELL 

HAVING  selected  for  myself  a  role  in  life  that  compels 
me  to  pass  most  of  my  days  along  the  coasts  of  Labrador, 
I  have  come  to  love  the  rugged  fastnesses  of  my  adopted 
country,  and  to  lament  the  amount  of  almost  Stygian  dark- 
ness that  hangs  still  over  it  and  its  resources.  With  re- 
gard to  the  future  of  this  vast  area,  nearly  half  a  million 
square  miles,  I  am  myself  an  optimist.  True  it  is  that 
the  great  tide  of  humanity  flowing  ever  westward  has  for 
the  most  part  passed  it  by,  leaving  it  lone  and  frigid  in 
its  polar  waters.  But  the  hand  of  man  has  grappled  with 
harder  problems  than  this  presents. 

A  scientific  man  has  but  recently  transformed  the  use- 
less flora  of  hitherto  arid  deserts  into  food  for  man  and 
beast ;  at  the  bidding  of  an  engineer  water  is  now  flowing 
over  the  sands  of  Southern  California,  and  land  of  perhaps 
unrivalled  fertility  is  the  result.  Man's  hand  has  dammed 
the  royal  Nile,  so  long  prodigal  of  her  unfettered  waters ; 
and  a  vast,  new  kingdom  is  springing  into  being.  A 
college  man  has  given  his  skill  to  acclimatizing  fruit  and 
vegetables  to  Dakotan  frosts,  and  we  have  a  plum  that 
withstands  a  temperature  of  forty  degrees  below  zero 
Fahrenheit,  and  strawberries  that  will  live  in  the  open 
all  winter  even  in  that  climate. 


VI  FOREWORD 

The  coming  granary  for  the  worlcTs  wheat  supply  was 
yesterday  despised  as  "the  land  of  snows";  to-day  the 
subsoil  of  the  world's  best  wheat  land  never  thaws  out, 
and  the  frozen  valley  of  the  Peace  River  is  vying  with 
the  "corn"  lands  of  the  Pharaohs. 

To  us  here,  away  out  of  the  world's  hum  and  bustle, 
it  seems  only  a  question  of  time.  Some  day  a  railway 
will  come  to  export  our  stores  of  mineral  wealth,  to  tap 
our  sources  of  more  than  Niagaran  power,  to  bring  visitors 
to  scenery  of  Norwegian  quality  yet  made  peculiarly 
attractive  by  the  entrancing  colour  plays  of  Arctic  auroras 
over  the  fantastic  architecture  of  mountains  the  like  of 
which  can  seldom  be  matched  on  the  earth.  Surely  it 
will  come  to  pass  that  one  day  another  Atlantic  City  will 
rise  amidst  these  unexplored  but  invigorating  wilds  to 
lure  men  and  women  tired  of  heat  and  exhausted  by  the 
nerve  stress  of  overcrowded  centres. 

It  has  seemed  appropriate,  in  this  belief,  to  try  to 
collate  available  information  in  the  form  of  a  book  that 
should  bring  within  easy  reach  of  the  public  the  facts 
that  are  of  interest  concerning  Labrador.  It  is  hoped, 
also,  that  such  a  book  will  act  as  an  incentive  to  others 
to  come  and  pursue  still  further  the  studies  and  explora- 
tions herein  described.  With  these  objects  in  view  I 
sought  the  help  of  friends  skilled  in  the  various  branches 
of  science,  as  it  can  now  declare  the  meaning  of  Labrador, 
the  land  and  the  people. 

Dr.  Reginald  A.  Daly,  Professor  of  Geology  at  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  of  Boston,  had, 
during  an  extended  trip  in  a  schooner  along  the  Lab- 
rador coast,  expended  considerable  work  upon  its  rock 
formations,  and  to  him  has  been  intrusted  not  only 


FOREWORD  Vll 

the  chapter  on  Geology,  but  also  the  task  of  editing  the 
whole  work. 

Dr.  E.  B.  Delabarre,  Professor  of  Psychology  at  Brown 
University,  accompanied  Dr.  Daly  on  his  journey  along  the 
coast,  and  has  described  the  flora  from  an  ecological  point 
of  view  as  most  likely  to  be  of  interest  to  the  average 
reader.  His  exhaustive  list  of  plants  has  been  omitted 
from  the  book,  but  is  preserved  at  Brown  University. 

Dr.  C.  W.  Townsend  of  Boston  and  Mr.  G.  M.  Allen, 
who  have  written  on  the  ornithology,  made  a  special 
journey  to  Labrador  to  study  its  birds.  Dr.  Townsend 
has  already  published  a  book  entitled  Along  the  Labrador 
Coast  as  a  further  result  of  their  expedition. 

Mr.  Charles  W.  Johnson,  Curator  of  the  Boston  Society 
of  Natural  History,  has  undertaken  the  insects  (Mr.  John 
Sherman,  Junior,  expert  on  the  beetles,  has  described  this 
special  group)  and  mollusks  from  a  collection  of  Mr. 
Owen  Bryant  of  Harvard,  made  in  1908. 

Mr.  Outram  Bangs  has  supplied  the  list  of  mammals. 
Miss  Mary  J.  Rathbun,  the  well-known  expert  at  the 
United  States  National  Museum  at  Washington,  supplied 
all  the  information  we  have  about  the  crustaceans,  includ- 
ing a  study  of  those  collected  by  Mr.  Bryant. 

Dr.  A.  P.  Low,  Deputy  of  Minister  of  Mines  in  Canada, 
has  contributed  a  chapter  on  the  interior  of  this  little- 
known  land. 

Mr.  William  B.  Cabot  of  Boston,  who  for  several' years 
has  made  an  annual  visit  to  the  Montagnais  Indians  of 
Labrador,  and  who  has  edited  a  dictionary  of  their  lan- 
guage, has  had  unique  opportunities  for  observing  their 
habits.  He  has  contributed  a  valuable  monograph  from 
his  special  experiences. 


FOREWORD 


The  chapter  on  History  was  to  have  been  prepared  by 
Mr.  W.  G.  Gosling  of  St.  John's,  Newfoundland,  who 
had  devoted  some  years,  and  gone  to  no  small  expense,  on 
a  special  study  of  this  subject.  But  his  results  involved 
such  an  extended  treatise  that  it  was  thought  wiser  to 
issue  them  under  a  separate  cover  than  unduly  to  enlarge 
this  volume,  and  Mr.  W.  S.  Wallace,  of  Balliol  College, 
Oxford,  has  prepared  a  brief  historical  introduction. 

For  seventeen  years  I  have  been  collecting  such  facts 
as  my  regular  work  permitted.  From  them  I  have 
selected  material  for  certain  chapters.  To  many  friends 
who  have  supplied  such  information  I  wish  to  acknowl- 
edge my  indebtedness.  Incomplete  as  this  book  surely 
is,  it  is  issued  from  a  desire  to  record  the  more  interesting 
facts,  the  coins  of  science,  which  might  otherwise  need 
rediscovery.  It  is  hoped  that  the  book  may  be  of  use 
even  to  those  familiar  with  Packard's  excellent  work. 


PREFACE 

THE  three  years  which  have  passed  since  the  publica- 
tion of  this  book  have  seen  more  attention  paid  to  the 
development  of  Labrador  than  the  twenty-five  preceding. 
The  results  promise  to  be  consonant  with  the  views  herein 
expressed;  viz.,  that  Labrador  may  always  remain  a  " La- 
bourer's Land,"  a  land  where  men  are  obliged  to  work  for 
sport  or  a  living,  but  one  which  can  yield  an  ample  return 
to  those  who  do  so.  Deposits  of  rich  ore  may  at  any 
time  give  out,  but  the  wealth  of  Labrador  lies  in  those 
things  which,  if  properly  handled,  are  ever  reproducing 
themselves. 

The  fact  is  that  as  a  storehouse  and  sanctuary  Labrador 
needs  now,  if  ever,  the  serious  and  disinterested  attention 
of  those  able  to  save  it.  With  this  end  in  view,  I  have 
decided  to  add  to  the  new  edition  a  chapter  on  Conserva- 
tion and  Exploration  in  Labrador,  and  what  that  might 
mean,  not  only  for  the  future  of  the  country  itself,  but 
also  to  the  increasing  population  of  the  North  American 
Continent.  Besides  this  chapter,  I  have  also  added  a 
much-needed  bibliography  and  some  remarks  about  the 
habits  of  our  land  mammals. 


WILFRED   T.   GRENFELL,  M.D. 


SS.   "  STRATHCONA," 
NORTH  LABRADOR. 


CONTENTS 

OHAPTEB  PAGE 

I.     HISTORICAL  INTRODUCTION  —  BY  W.  S.  WALLACE    .  1 
II.     TRAVELLED  ROUTES   TO  LABRADOR  —  BY  WILFRED 

T.  GRENFELL 37 

III.  THE  PHYSIOGRAPHY  OF   LABRADOR  —  BY  WILFRED 

T.  GRENFELL .49 

IV.  THE  GEOLOGY  AND   SCENERY   OF   THE   NORTHEAST 

COAST  —  BY  REGINALD  A.  DALY   ....  81 
V.     THE   HAMILTON  RIVER  AND  THE  GRAND  FALLS  — 

BY  ALBERT  P.  Low 140 

VI.     THE    PEOPLE    OF    THE    COAST  —  BY    WILFRED    T. 

GRENFELL 164 

VII.     THE  INDIANS  — BY  WILLIAM  B.  CABOT    .         .         .184 
VIII.     THE  MISSIONS  — BY  WILFRED  T.  GRENFELL   .         .  226 
IX.     REINDEER  FOR  LABRADOR  —  BY  WILFRED  T.  GREN- 
FELL            251 

X.     THE  DOGS  — BY  WILFRED  T.  GRENFELL          .         .  272 
XI.     THE    COD    AND    COD-FISHERY  —  BY    WILFRED    T. 

GRENFELL 282 

XII.     THE  SALMON -FISHERY  — BY  WILFRED  T.  GRENFELL  328 

XIII.  THE  HERRING  AND  OTHER  FISH  —  BY  WILFRED  T. 

GRENFELL         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  340 

XIV.  THE  OCEAN  MAMMALS  — BY  WILFRED  T.  GRENFELL  352 
XV.     THE  BIRDS  — BY  CHARLES  W.  TOWNSEND       .         .  374 

XVI.     THE  FLORA  — BY  E.  B.  DELABARRE        .         .         .391 

XVII.     ANIMAL  LIFE  IN  LABRADOR      .         .                 .         .  426 

XVIII.     CONSERVATION  AND  EXPLORATION  IN  LABRADOR    .  443 


X  CONTENTS 

APPENDICES 

NO.  PAGE 

I.     INSECTS    OF    LABRADOR  —  BY    CHARLES    W.    JOHNSON 

AND  JOHN  SHERMAN,  JR 453 

II.     THE  MARINE  CRUSTACEA  —  By  MARY  J.  RATHBUN      .     473 

III.  THE  MOLLUSKS  —  BY  CHARLES  W.  JOHNSON         .         .     479 

IV.  LIST   OF   THE   MAMMALS  OF  LABRADOR  —  BY  OUTRAM 

BANGS 484 

V.     LIST  OF  THE  BIRDS  OF  LABRADOR  —  BY  CHARLES  W. 

TOWNSEND    AND    GLOVER    M.    ALLEN      ....       495 

VI.     LIST  OF  CRUSTACEA  ON   THE   LABRADOR   COAST  —  BY 

MARY  J.  RATHBUN       .......     506 

LIST  OF  BOOKS,  ETC.,  ON  LABRADOR        .        .        .        .        .515 

BIBLIOGRAPHY    .         .         .        0        .        .        .        .        .         .519 

INDEX  521 


FULL-PAGE  ILLUSTRATIONS 

AVILFRED  T.  GRENFELL Frontispiece 

FACING  PAGE 

MAP  OF  LABRADOR 1 

GRENFELL  STRAIT 58 

GARDENS  AT  NAIN,  SHOWING  POTATOES  BEING  COVERED  AT 

NIGHT  FROM  THE  SUMMER  FROST 69 

"  WOMAN  Box  "  FOR  WINTER  SLEDGE  TRAVEL  ...  76 

THE  WELL-BELOVED  MAIL-MAN 81 

MT.  RAZOR-BACK  FROM  THE  SOUTH,  FIVE  MILES  DISTANT  .  92 

THE  EAST  WALL  OF  THE  SOUTHERN  ARM  OF  NACHVAK  BAY  96 

THE  CLIFFS  ON  THE  NORTH  SIDE  OF  MUGFORD  TICKLE  .  101 

CAPE  MUGFORD,  LOOKING  NORTH 108 

VIEW  FROM  A  HILL  NEAR  HOPEDALE  MISSION  HOUSE  .  .  117 

ICE-WORN  SURFACE  NEAR  AILLIK  BAY 120 

LOOKING  SOUTH  INTO  THE  TALLEK,  THE  SOUTHERN  ARM  OF 

NACHVAK  BAY 124 

GLACIAL  BOULDERS  ON  A  RIDGE  NEAR  ICE  TICKLE  HARBOUR  130 

BEAR  ISLAND,  WAVE-WASHED  AND  THEN  UPLIFTED  ».  .  130 
RAISED  GRAVEL  BEACH  AT  WEST  BAY,  SOUTH  SIDE  OF 

ENTRANCE  TO  HAMILTON  INLET 135 

HALF-TIDE  VIEW  OF  THE  SHORE  AT  FORD  HARBOUR  .  .  135 

RAISED  BEACH,  OVERLOOKING  EMILY  HARBOUR,  SLOOP  ISLAND  138 

RAPIDS  IN  THE  HAMILTON  RIVER  .  .  .  .  .  .  149 

Two  VIEWS  OF  BOWDOIN  CANYON 156 

TAKING  IT  EASY 163 

ESKIMO  IN  KAYAKS  AT  HEBRON 170 

COURT  OF  ASSIZE  ON  THE  "  STRATHCONA  "  174 

ESKIMO  HUNTER 179 

xi 


xii  FULL-PAGE  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACIXG   PAGE 

THE  PRAYER-LEADER  AT  THE  RAGGED  ISLANDS      .        .        .  190 

ESKIMO  AND  NASCAUPEE  INDIANS,  HUDSON  BAY     .        .        .  195 

DAVIS  INLET  MONTAGNAIS  .        .        .        .                .        .        .  195 

INDIANS  WATCHING  THE  CARIBOU  AT  A  CROSSING  .        .        .  206 

NASCAUPEE  INDIANS  AT  DAVIS  INLET 206 

BLUBBER  YARD  AT  HEBRON 211 

THE  S.  S.  "  HARMONY  "  AT  RAMAH 222 

OKKAK 227 

WEST  COAST  ESKIMO 231 

A  FISHING  FLEET  WELCOMING  THE  MISSION  BOAT'S  ARRIVAL  234 

ST.  ANTHONY  HOSPITAL 238 

INTERIOR  OF  ST.  ANTHONY  HOSPITAL 238 

BATTLE  HARBOUR  — THE  HOSPITAL  ON  THE  LEFT  .        .        .  243 

A  VISITOR  FROM  THE  NORTH 243 

MISSION  S.  S.  "STRATHCONA" 246 

WHERE  THE  REINDEER  GRAZE 254 

A  DEER-TEAM 259 

THE  HERD  IN  SUMMER 263 

AFTER  A  LONG  HAUL 266 

WHOLE-BRED  ESKIMO  DOGS 270 

THE  MAINSTAY  OF  THE  TEAM 277 

ON  THE  MARCH 284 

WAITING  FOR  THEIR  MASTER 284 

THE  SEA  OF  ICE 289 

NEWFOUNDLAND  SCHOONERS  WORKING  NORTH          .        .        .  289 

A  BATCH  OF  PRISONERS      . 296 

FISHING  CREWS  CATCHING  BAIT 304 

THE  FISHING  FLEET 326 

KING  "ATTANEK"  AND  His  FRIENDS,  EATING  WALRUS  HEAD  353 

CATCHING  SEALS  NEAR  HEBRON 368 

FLIES  AND  BUTTERFLIES 458 

BUTTERFLIES  AND  MOTHS  .                .                ....  464 


LABRADOR 
THE   COUNTRY  AND   THE   PEOPLE 


Laurentian;  including  Fundamental  Gneissee 
and  Grenitille  Series,  sometimes  with  limestones 
"  •  granite  rocks 
Anorthosites 
-=--yUi>nf«frme 
\Glacial  strife 


(36 J       ^    ~?        C-4: 
|  >4»ESOUUTION  I. 

nd)  HVJD^Oy  STRAI^T 


LABRADOR 


CHAPTER  I 

HISTORICAL    INTRODUCTION  l 
BY  W.  S.  WALLACE 

LABRADOR  has  not  much  history.  So  far  as  we  know,  it 
was  first  seen  by  European  eyes  in  986.  From  that  time 
until  about  1700  it  almost  enjoyed  the  happiness  of  the 
country  which  has  no  history.  There  is  nothing  to  record 
but  the  voyages  of  navigators  who  came  and  saw  the  land, 
and  sailed  away.  Labrador,  said  Jacques  Cartier,  was 
" the  land  God  gave  to  Cain";  there  was  "not  one  cart- 
load of  earth  on  the  whole  of  it."  No  one  came  to  live 
on  the  coast  until  about  1700.  But  if  the  history  of  Lab- 
rador is  deficient  in  quantity,  it  is  marked  by  an  infinite 
variety.  Across  the  stage  there  pass  in  succession  the 
savage  bands  of  the  Eskimos,  an  earlier  race  than  ours; 
the  storm-driven  "dragons"  of  the  Vikings;  the  early 
navigators,  Venetian,  Portuguese,  English;  whalers  and 
fishermen  from  the  Basque  Provinces,  from  France,  from 
the  west  of  England;  French-Canadian  seigneurs  and 
concessionaires  along  the  Cdte  du  Nord;*  English  settlers 
after  1763  above  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle  (among  them 


1 1  wish  to  express  my  indebtedness  to  Mr.  W.  L.  Grant,  Beit  Lec- 
turer in  Colonial  History  in  the  University  of  Oxford,  and  Mr.  H.  P. 
Br  gar,  representative  in  Europe  of  the  Dominion  Archives,  for  assist- 
ance kindly  rendered  in  the  preparation  of  this  chapter.  —  W.  S.  W. 


Cl 


LABRADOR 

the  strange  figure  of  an  English  staff-officer;)  American 
privateers  in  1778,  French  warships  in  1796;  the  Hud- 
son's Bay  Company;  Acadian  refugees  from  the  Magdalen 
Islands;  and  the  demoted  figures  of  the  Moravian  mis- 
sionaries. The  dramatis  personce  are  numerous,  but  the 
play  has  little  plot  or  sequence ;  it  is  more  a  pageant  than 
a  drama. 

The  story  begins  in  the  year  986  in  Iceland.  Bjarni 
Herjulfson  in  that  year,  after  a  long  absence  on  the  high 
seas,  came  home  to  drink  the  Yuletide  ale  with  his  father. 
Finding  that  his  father  had  gone  with  Eric  the  Red  to 
Greenland,  to  found  there  that  colony  of  which  the  ruins 
still  stand  upon  the  bleak  and  desolate  coast,  Bjarni 
weighed  anchor  and  started  off  to  Greenland  after  him. 
On  the  way  he  encountered  foggy  weather,  and  sailed  on 
for  many  days  without  seeing  sun  or  stars.  When  at 
length  he  sighted  land,  he  was  in  waters  of  which  he  had 

never  heard. 

"  He  was  the  first  who  ever  burst 
Into  that  silent  sea." 

The  land  was  not  the  coast  of  fiords  and  glaciers  for  which 
he  was  looking;  it  was  a  shore  without  mountains,  show- 
ing only  small  heights  covered  with  dense  woods.  Bjarni 
put  about  and  sailed  to  the  north.  The  sky  was  now  fair, 
and  after  sailing  for  five  or  six  days  he  saw  land  again  on 
the  larboard,  "but  that  land  was  high,  mountainous,  and 
covered  with  glaciers."  Then  the  wind  rose,  and  they 
sailed  four  days  to  Herjulfsness.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
the  high,  mountainous  land,  covered  with  glaciers,  was  the 
coast  of  Labrador. 

Nothing  came  of  Bjarni  Her julf son's  adventure  till  the 


INTRODUCTION  3 

year  1000,  the  annus  mirabilis  of  mediaeval  history,  when 
Leif,  the  wise  and  stately  son  of  Eric  the  Red,  "made  up 
his  mind  to  go  and  see  what  the  coasts  to  the  south  of 
Greenland  were  like."  He  sailed  from  Brattahlid  with  a 
crew  of  thirty-five  men.  "  First  they  found  the  land  which 
Bjarni  had  found  last.  Then  sailed  they  to  the  land  and 
cast  anchor,  and  put  off  a  boat  and  went  ashore,  and  saw 
there  was  no  grass.  Mickle  glaciers  were  over  all  the 
higher  parts:  but  it  was  like  a  plain  of  rock  from  the 
glaciers  to  the  sea,  and  it  seemed  to  them  that  the  land 
was  good  for  nothing."  Leif  gave  the  place  the  name  of 
Helluland  (flat  stone  land) .  He  then  sailed  on  to  countries 
which  he  names  Markland  and  Vinland.  The  location 
of  these  places  has  been  a  subject  of  the  warmest  contro- 
versy. Helluland,  however,  it  is  perhaps  safe  to  say,  was 
either  Labrador  or  the  northern  coast  of  Newfoundland. 

This  is  not  the  place  to  describe  the  expeditions  of  the 
Northmen  to  Vinland,  which  took  place  after  the  return 
of  Leif  Ericson.  At  first  there  were  several  attempts  to 
found  a  colony,  but  the  hostility  of  the  Indians  and  the 
jealousies  of  the  settlers  brought  them  to  naught.  In 
1121  Eric  Gnupsson,  who  was  appointed  by  Paschal  II 
"  bishop  of  Greenland  and  Vinland  in  partibus  infidelium," 
went  in  search  of  Vinland;  it  is  so  recorded  in  at  least  six 
vellums.  His  is  the  last  Viking  expedition  of  which  we 
have  authentic  information.  But  it  is  extremely  probable 
that  there  were  voyages  of  which  we  have  no  record.  To 
these  daring  sea-farers  the  sea  had  no  terrors;  in  their 
beautiful  open  ships,  which  were  probably  stronger  and 
certainly  swifter  than  the  Spanish  vessels  of  the  time  of 
Columbus,  they  were  accustomed  to  traverse  long  stretches 


4  LABRADOR 

of  open  sea  without  compass  or  astrolabe.  They  went 
everywhere.1  In  1824  there  were  found  on  an  island  in 
Baffin  Bay,  in  a  region  supposed  to  have  been  unvisited 
by  man  before  the  modern  age  of  Arctic  exploration,  a 
stone  inscription:  "Erling  Sighvatson  and  Bjarni  Thor- 
harson  and  Eindrid  Oddson  raised  these  marks  and  cleared 
ground  on  Saturday  before  Ascension  week,  1135."  There 
is  a  strong  probability  that  the  Northmen  made  voyages 
to  the  coast  of  America  oftener  than  we  imagine.  Timber 
was  scarce  in  Greenland ;  what  more  likely  than  that  they 
should  have  cut  their  timber  on  the  shores  of  Newfound- 
land or  in  places  like  Hamilton  Inlet  on. the  Labrador  coast, 
»  where  there  is  still  timber  of  the  finest  sort  ? 

The  voyages  of  the  Northmen,  however,  were  quite 
barren  of  results  of  either  historical  or  geographical  im- 
portance. The_yery  tradition  of  Vinland  seems  to  have 
died  out  in  Europe.  There  are,  indeed,  accounts  of  voy- 
ages made  to  the  coast  of  America  in  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries;  but  these  are  almost  wholly,  if  not 
entirely,  mythical.  Antonio  Zeno,  a  Venetian  gentle- 
man, writing  to  his  brother  Carlo  about  1400,  tells  of  some 
fishermen  who  had  been  blown  out  to  sea  twenty-six 
years  before,  and  had  been  thrown  up  on  a  strange  coast, 
where  they  were  well  received  by  the  people.  The  land 
was  an  island  with  a  high  mountain  whence  flowed  four 
rivers.  There  was  a  populous  city  surrounded  by  walls ; 
and  the  king  had  Latin  books  in  his  library  which  nobody 
could  read.  All  kinds  of  metals  abounded,  and  especially 

1  A  stone  bearing  a  Runic  inscription  and  the  date  1362,  has  been 
found  in  the  heart  of  North  America,  at  Kensington,  Minnesota;  but 
very  strong  doubts  have  been  cast  on  its  genuineness. 


INTROD  UCT1ON  5 

\ 

gold.  The  name  of  the  country  was  Estotiland.  Some 
scholars  have  attempted  to  find  grains  of  truth  in  this 
fisherman's  yarn;  Estotiland  has  been  identified  as  New- 
foundland, and  the  populous  city  with  walls  about  it  has 
been  explained  as  an  Indian  encampment  surrounded  by  a 
palisade.  But  it  is  better  to  reject  the  story  altogether; 
there  is;  indeed,  strong  evidence  that  the  whole  of  the 
Zeno  narrative  is  a  forgery.  Another  supposed  pre- 
Columbian  voyage  to  America  is  that  of  the  Polish  pilot, 
John  Szkolny,  who  is  said  to  have  sailed  in  1476  to  Green- 
land, in  the  service  of  Christian  I  of  Denmark,  and  to  have 
touched  upon  the  coast  of  Labrador.  This  also  has  been 
shown  to  be  a  myth;  no  such  voyage  was  ever  made. 

It  was  the  opinion  of  the  late  Mr.  John  Fiske  that  there 
were  more  voyages  to  America  before  1492  than  we  have 
been  wont  to  suspect.  There  has  been,  he  pointed  out,  a 
great  deal  of  blowing  and  drifting  done  at  all  times  and  on 
all  seas.  "  Japanese  junks  have  been  driven  ashore  on 
the  coasts  of  Oregon  and  California;  and  in  1500  Pedro 
Alvarez  de  Cabral,  sailing  down  the  coast  of  Africa,  found 
himself  on  the  shores  of  Brazil."  He  argued  that  occasional 
visitors  such  as  these  "may  have  come  and  did  come 
before  1492  from  the  Old  World  to  the  New."  It  is  a 
pleasing  fancy.  Unfortunately,  the  voice  of  authentic  his- 
tory is  silent  and  cannot  be  made  to  speak. 

The  true  discoverer  of  Labrador,  for  practical  purposes, 
was  John  Cabot.  Cabot  was  a  Genoese  by  birth  (and  so  a 
compatriot  of  Christopher  Columbus),  but  in  1476  he  be- 
came a  naturalized  citizen  of  Venice.  In  his  earlier  days 
he  had  traded,  as  far  east  as  La  Tana,  Alexandria,  and 
even  Mecca.  There  he  had  seen  the  spice  caravans  from 


6  LABRADOR 

China.  They  seem  to  have  set  him  thinking.  Like  other 
men  of  his  day,  he  had  "  studied  the  sphere,"  as  the  saying 
went;  and  he  seems  to  have  conceived  the  idea,  inde- 
pendently of  Columbus,  of  reaching  the  country  where  the 
spices  grew  by  sailing  westward.  In  quest  of  merchants 
who  would  furnish  him  forth  he  went  to  the  west  of  Eng- 
land. There  he  found,  in  the  matter  of  the  new  route, 
affairs  much  farther  advanced  than  he  could  have  sup- 
posed. In  1480  two  ships  had  sailed  from  Bristol  to  discover 
the  fabulous  islands  of  Brazil  and  the  Seven  Cities  which 
were  supposed  to  lie  between  Ireland  and  the  east  coast 
of  Asia.  The  expedition  was  fruitless,  but  it  shows  that 
the  project  of  the  westward  route  was  already  in  the  air. 

From  Bristol  Cabot  made  a  long  series  of  attempts  to 
reach  the  islands  which  the  ships  that  sailed  in  1480  had 
failed  to  find.  He  believed  they  would  prove  stepping- 
stones  to  the  coast  of  Asia.  Year  after  year  expeditions 
went  out  under  his  direction;  autumn  after  autumn  they 
returned  to  Bristol  empty-handed.  Cabot's  patrons  were 
already  beginning  to  withdraw  their  support,  when  in  the 
summer  of  1493  news  came  to  England  that  Christopher 
Columbus,  with  three  Spanish  ships,  had  reached  the 
islands  of  Asia.1  Cabot  renewed  his  efforts,  and  on  May  2, 
1497,  he  sailed  under  royal  patent  on  the  voyage  which 
brought  him  out  on  the  shores  of  North  America. 

The  voyages  of  the  Cabots  have  been  a  storm-centre  of 

1  The  reason  why  Columbus  succeeded  where  Cabot  failed,  is  that 
Columbus  crossed  the  Atlantic  in  a  region  where  the  trade-winds  blow 
steadily  from  the  east;  whereas  the  tract  of  ocean  from  Ireland  to 
America  is  one  of  the  most  unquiet  in  the  world,  and  a  vessel  on  its 
westward  course  in  those  latitudes  has  to  contend,  not  only  with  ad- 
verse winds  and  broken  weather,  but  with  frequent  and  dense  fogs. 


INTRODUCTION  1 

controversy  for  many  years.  The  question  where  John 
Cabot  had  his  landfall  in  1497  depends  almost  wholly  on 
the  interpretation  of  the  old  maps.  The  fact  that  these 
charts  were  drawn  to  magnetic  meridians,  and  not  like  our 
maps  to  the  true  meridian,  sometimes  alters  the  lie  of  a 
coast  or  the  direction  of  a  course  by  over  45°.  Apart 
from  this,  also,  mediaeval  reckonings  were  often  far  astray. 
Chronometers  had  not  yet  been  invented,  and  it  was  only 
on  rare  occasions  that  longitude  could  be  reckoned  with 
the  least  degree  of  accuracy.  Determinations  of  latitude 
were  fairly  correct  when  made  on  dry  land,  but  made 
from  the  deck  of  a  vessel  with  the  imperfect  instruments 
of  that  period  they  were  liable  to  be  wrong.  Consequently, 
it  is  very  difficult  to  be  sure  of  the  course  to  which  a  med- 
iaeval mariner  held.  It  used  to  be  thought  that  in  1497 
John  Cabot's  landfall  was  on  Labrador.  It  is  now  cer- 
tain that  wherever  his  landfall  was,  it  was  not  there.  Prob- 
ably it  was  on  the  shores  of  Cape  Breton  Island. 

It  was  on  his  second  voyage,  in  1498,  that  Cabot  touched 
at  ^Labrador.  A  Canadian  scholar,  Mr.  H.  P.  Biggar,  in 
his  Voyages  of  the  Cabots  and  Corte-Reals,  has  attempted 
a  brilliant  reconstruction  of  this  voyage.  He  thinks 
that  Cabot  explored  first  the  coast  of  Greenland,  and  that 
then  he  sailed  south  along  the  coast  of  Labrador.  He 
attempts  even  to  identify  the  places  which  Cabot  de- 
scribes; Hamilton  Inlet,  for  instance,  and  the  Strait  of 
Belle  Isle,  which  Cabot  took  to  be  a  deep  bay.  Cabot 
seems  to  have  done  some  bartering  with  the  Indians,  for 
the  Corte-Reals  three  years  later  found  the  natives  in 
possession  of  a  broken  gilded  sword  and  a  pair  of  ear-rings, 
both  apparently  of  Venetian  manufacture. 


8  LABRADOR 

John  Cabot  probably  regarded  his  expeditions  as  finan- 
cial failures.  He  had  set  sail  expecting  to  bring  back 
the  wealth  of  Ormuz  and  of  Ind;  he  had  found  only  the 
rock-bound  coasts  of  North  America.  He  had  not  even 
been  able  to  discover  the  passage  to  the  country  where 
the  spices  grew.  King  Henry  VII  and  the  merchants  of 
Bristol  withdrew  from  a  venture  that  swallowed  up  so 
much  capital  and  offered  such  small  profits;  and  shortly 
afterwards  John  Cabot  died. 

Others,  however,  were  not  long  in  following  in  his  wake. 
In  the  summer  of,  1500  Gaspar  Corte-Real,  a  Portuguese 
gentleman  from  the  island  of  Terceira  in  the  Azores,  set 
sail  from  Lisbon  for  the  coasts  which  Cabot  had  discovered. 
On  his  first  voyage  Corte-Real  explored  only  the  coast  of 
Greenland.  On  his  second,  which  was  made  the  next 
year,  he  came  out  at  Labrador  in  about  58°  of  north  lati- 
tude. The  coast  here  is  3000  feet  high,  and  there  is  nothing 
to  the  north  but  a  barren,  precipitous  shore  of  the  same 
sort.  Corte-Real  therefore  turned  south,  no  doubt  in  hope 
of  reaching  in  that  direction  the  land  of  spices.  As  he 
followed  the  shore,  he  explored  every  bay  and  inlet.  He 
examined  Hamilton  Inlet  as  far  up  as  the  Narrows,  and  he 
seems  to  have  explored  Hawke  Bay  and  the  Gilbert  and 
Alexis  rivers.  The  Strait  of  Belle  Isle,  however,  he  mis- 
took (as  Cabot  had  done)  for  an  ordinary  inlet;  it  re- 
mained for  others  to  discover  its  real  nature.  He  named 
a  number  of  bays  and  capes,  but  nearly  all  his  names 
have  been  superseded.  Some  have  died  out,  and  some 
have  been  shifted  by  ignorant  geographers  down  to  the 
Newfoundland  coast.  Cape  Freels  (Cabo  de  Frey  Luis) 
is  an  example  of  the  latter  class;  originally  it  was  a  cape 


INTR  OD  UCTION  9 

on  the  Labrador,  named  possibly  after  the  chaplain  of 
Corte-ReaFs  ships. 

In  one  of  the  inlets  of  Labrador  Corte-Real  came  upon 
a  band  of  Nasquapee  Indians,  a  tribe  which  still  inhabits 
that  neighbourhood.  The  African  slave-trade,  which  was 
carried  on  principally  from  Lisbon,  had  taught  the  Portu- 
guese to  look  upon  all  natives  as  fair  spoil ;  and  the  sailors 
kidnapped  some  sixty  of  the  Indians,  and  stowed  them 
away  below  hatches.  Two  of  the  three  ships  were  sent 
back  to  Lisbon  with  the  Indians  on  board;  they  arrived 
there  in  little  more  than  a  month,  and  their  arrival  created 
the  greatest  excitement.  King  Manoel  was  delighted. 
Not  only  did  the  Indians  promise  to  prove  excellent  slaves, 
all  the  more  valuable  since  the  African  negro  had  become 
so  wary  that  his  capture  was  a  matter  of  difficulty,  but  the 
new  country  produced,  also,  timber  in  abundance,  which 
could  be  brought  to  Portugal  at  the  cost  of  a  month's 
voyage. 

This  slave-hunting  episode  has  been  fixed  on  by  some 
historians  as  affording  the  true  explanation  of  the  name 
Terra  Labrador,  or  Terra  del  Laboratore.  King  Manoel 
had  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  new  slaves  would  be 
"excellent  for  labour";  obviously  "Terra  del  Labora- 
tore" meant  "labourers'  coast,"  or,  as  we  might  say,  "slave 
coast."  Unfortunately,  there  are  difficulties  about  this 
ingenious  theory.  In  the  first  place,  the  words  del  Lab- 
oratore are  in  the  singular;  in  the  second  place,  the  Por- 
tuguese word  llavrador  does  not  mean  a  labourer,  but 
something  like  a  yeoman  farmer;  and  in  the  third  place, 
the  original  Labrador  was  not  what  we  know  now  as  Lab- 
rador—  it  was  Greenland.  In  nearly  all  the  maps  of  the 


10  LABRADOR 

first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century  Greenland  is  Labrador; 
it  was  only  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  early  geographers 
thought  that  Davis  Strait  was  a  gulf,  and  that  the  main- 
land continued  all  the  way,  that  the  name  got  shifted 
down  to  the  northeast  coast  of  North  America.  For  many 
years  what  is  now  known  as  Labrador  was  merely  desig- 
nated "  Terra  Corterialis." 

The  real  explanation  is  to  be  found  in  the  Wolfenbiittel 
map  of  1534,  which  bears  along  the  coast  of  Greenland 
the  legend :  "  Country  of  Labrador,  which  was  discovered 
by  the  English  of  the  port  of  Bristol,  and  because  he  who 
first  gave  notice  of  seeing  it  was  a  farmer  (llavrador)  from 
the  Azores,  this  name  became  attached  to  it."  We  have 
even  a  suspicion  as  to  who  this  llavrador  was.  He  was 
probably  one  Joao  Fernandes,  who  accompanied  Cabot 
on  his  second  voyage,  who  was  born  on  the  same  island 
of  the  Azores  as  Gaspar  Corte-Real,  and  who  was  probably 
instrumental  in  1500  in  persuading  Corte-Real  to  make 
his  first  expedition.  In  1499  he  himself  obtained  letters 
patent  from  King  Manoel,  but  he  does  not  seem  to  have 
used  them. 

On  his  third  voyage,  in  1502,  Gaspar  Corte-Real  was 
lost.  His  brother  Miguel  went  in  search  of  him,  and  he 
too  disappeared.  No  trace  of  the  two  brothers  has  ever 
been  found.  They  may  have  gone  down  in  the  broad 
Atlantic,  or  they  may  have  been  lured  to  their  fate  by  the 
unforgetting  Indians.  They  pass  from  history. 

For  the  next  fifty  years  the  exploration  of  Labrador 
was  at  a  standstill.  So  far  as  the  contour  of  the  coast  is 
concerned,  the  map  of  Sal  vat  de  Pilestrina  (1503)  is  nearer 
the  truth  than  any  map  up  to  Mercator's  great  chart  of 


INTRODUCTION  11 

1569.  The  first  official  explorer  to  reach  Labrador  after 
Corte-Real  was  John  Rut.  Rut  was  an  officer  of  the 
incipient  Royal  Navy  of  Henry  VIII;  in  1527  he  set  out 
to  discover  the  regions  of  the  Great  Khan  by  going  "  far- 
ther to  the  west."  One  of  his  two  ships  was  wrecked  near 
the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle,  where  he  encountered  "many 
great  islands  of  ice,"  and  had  to  turn  back.  In  1534 
Jacques  Cartier  explored  the  coast  inside  the  Strait  of 
Belle  Isle.  It  has  been  said  that  he  discovered  the  Strait 
of  Belle  Isle,  but  it  is  certain  that  the  Strait  was  well 
known  before  1534.  It  was  called  "le  destroict  de  la 
baye  des  Chasteaux"  (the  strait  off  Chateau  Bay).  Car- 
tier's  comment  on  the  coast  has  already  been  quoted. 
He  also  said,  however,  that  "  if  the  land  were  as  good  as 
the  harbours,  it  would  be  a  good  country. " 

The  results  of  later  voyages  may  be  briefly  summarized. 
In  1577  Martin  Frobisher  sailed  along  the  coast  of  northern 
Labrador.  "Foure  days  coasting  along  this  land,"  he 
says,  "we  found  no  sign  of  habitation."  "All  along  this 
coast  yce  lieth,  as  a  continuall  bulwarke,  and  so  defendeth 
the  country,  that  those  that  would  land  there,  incur  great 
danger."  In  1586  Davis  spent  a  month  on  the  Labrador 
coast,  searching  for  a  northwest  passage.  Besides  the 
openings  already  known,  Cumberland  Strait,  Frobisher 's 
Strait,  and  Hudson's  Strait,  Davis  rediscovered  Davis 
Inlet  in  56°  and  Hamilton  Inlet  in  54°  30'.  It  is  to  him 
that  we  owe  the  most  exact  knowledge  of  the  coast  until 
modern  times.  In  1606  John  Knight  arrived  on  the  Lab- 
rador coast  in  latitude  56°  25'.  He  and  his  men  were 
attacked  by  the  Eskimos,  and  only  with  great  diffi- 
culty were  able  to  beat  them  off.  Eight  years  later  a 


12  LABRADOR 

Captain  Gibbons  was  ice-bound  for  twenty  weeks  in  "a 
Bay  called  by  his  company  Gibbons  his  Hole";  it  is 
supposed  to -have  been  what  is  now  Nain  Bay.  In  1610 
Henry  Hudson  passed  through  Hudson's  Straits  to  Hud- 
son's Bay,  and  so  demonstrated  the  true  nature  of  the 
Labrador  peninsula. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  the  French  Canadians  began 
to  explore  the  Labrador  coast.  In  1657  Jean  Bourdon  of 
Quebec  tried  to  reach  Hudson's  Bay  by  sea.  He  sailed 
up  the  Atlantic  seaboard  until  he  reached  55°  north  lati- 
tude; there  he  was  compelled  to  turn  back  on  account  of 
the  icebergs.  Twenty-five  years  later  Jolliet,  the  discov- 
erer of  the  Mississippi,  also  sailed  on  a  voyage  of  exploration 
up  the  Labrador  coast.  The  chart  which  he  made  of 
Hudson's  Bay  and  Labrador  is  still  preserved  in  the 
Archives  of  the  Marine  at  Paris. 

It  is,  however,  only  within  recent  times  that  anything 
like  an  exact  cartographical  knowledge  of  the  coast  of 
Labrador  has  been  arrived  at.  This  has  been  due,  on  the 
one  hand,  to  the  British  admiralty  surveys,  the  first  of 
which  was  carried  out  by  the  great  Captain  Cook,  and  on 
the  other  hand  to  the  excellent  charts  of  the  Moravian 
missionaries.  The  interior  of  Labrador  is  still  to  a  large 
extent  unexplored. 

The  great  industry  of  the  coast  has  always  been  its 
fisheries.  In  the  middle  ages  fish  played  a  much  more 
important  part  in  the  economic  life  of  Europe  than  it  does 
to-day.  The  number  of  fast  days  in  the  year,  and  the  way 
in  which  they  were  observed  all  over  Europe,  made  fish 
one  of  the  great  staples  of  existence.  Until  the  sixteenth 


INTRODUCTION  13 

century  Iceland  was  the  scene  of  the  most  extensive 
fisheries.  In  1497,  'however,  John  Cabot  came  back  from 
"the  new-found  isle"  with  glowing  accounts  of  the  cod- 
fish which  abounded  there.  Sebastian  Cabot,  who  had  a 
vivid  imagination,  vowed  that  the  shoals  of  codfish  were 
so  numerous  "they  sumtymes  stayed  his  shippes."  En- 
terprising fishermen  almost  immediately  set  out  for  the 
new  fishing-grounds.  They  appear  in  the  records  for  the 
first  time  in  1504,  the  year  after  the  last  voyage  of  the 
Corte-Reals.  At  first  they  seem  to  have  come  mainly 
from  Breton  and  Norman  ports.  When  Queen  Joanna  of 
Spain,  in  1511,  wanted  pilots  for  the  Bacallaos  (New- 
foundland), she  went  to  Brittany  for  them.  And  in  1534, 
when  Jacques  Cartier  was  passing  through  the  Strait  of 
Belle  Isle,  he  met  a  fishing  vessel  from  La  Rochelle  looking 
for  the  harbour  of  "Brest."  This  wras  a  harbour  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Eskimo  River,  which  had  obviously  been 
named  by  Breton  fishermen;  it  was  already,  apparently, 
a  rendezvous. 

Contemporaneously  with  the  French  fishermen,  came 
the  Basque  whalers  from  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  The  asser- 
tion has  even  been  made  that,  in  their  whaling  voyages 
in  the  north  Atlantic,  the  Basques  discovered  and  fished 
at  Labrador  as-  early  as  1470 ;  but  this  story  may  be  safely 
discounted.  What  is  certain  is  that  from  1525  to  about 
1700  they  frequented  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle  and  the  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence  in  considerable  numbers.  As  they  soon 
discovered,  the  whales  followed  down  the  cold  Labrador 
current  and  passed  through  the  Strait  into  the  Gulf  in 
great  abundance. 

Portuguese  fishermen  followed  in  the  track  of  the  Corte- 


14  LABRADOR 

Reals;  and  the  voyage  of  Estevan  Gomez  conducted  the 
Spaniards  also  to  the  northwest  fisheries.  What  is  now 
Bradore  Bay  was  long  known  as  Baie  des  Espagnols:  and 
in  1704  there  were  still  to  be  seen  there  the  ruins  of  a  Span- 
ish fishing  establishment. 

The  English  were  slower  in  recognizing  the  value  of 
the  new  fisheries  than  the  French  or  Spanish.  They  did 
not  realize  at  first  that  Cabot  had  opened  to  them  a  source 
of  revenue  more  valuable  than  the  fabled  wealth  of  Cathay. 
But  gradually  they  too  awoke  to  the  possibilities  of  the 
new  fisheries.  They  threw  themselves  into  competition 
with  the  French,  and  appropriated  to  themselves  a  large 
part  of  the  fishing-grounds.  The  French  were  driven  back 
to  the  west  coast  of  Newfoundland,  along  what  is  known  as 
"the  French  shore."  A  study  of  the  names  on  the  map  of 
Newfoundland  will  show  the  limit  of  their  fishing  opera- 
tions; from  Bonne  Esperance  to  Cape  Charles,  the  names 
are  almost  wholly  French.  It  was  not  until  about  1763 
that  the  English  entered  upon  the  Labrador  fisheries  at  all. 

A  part  of  the  history  of  Labrador  which  still  remains 
to  be  worked  up  is  the  story  of  the  French  Canadian 
settlements  along  the  so-called  Quebec  Labrador.  No 
full  account  of  these  settlements  has  yet  been  published; 
the  facts  lie  buried  in  the  archives  at  Paris  and  Ottawa. 
Most  of  what  has  found  its  way  into  print  has  been  of  the 
most  unreliable  and  mythical  character.  Nothing  more 
instructive  could  be  found,  for  instance,  of  the  way  in  which 
history  is  sometimes  manufactured  than  the  legend  of  the 
town  of  Brest.  In  1608  there  was  published  in  Lyons, 
France,  a  little  book,  the  only  surviving  copy  of  which  is 


IN  TE  OD  UCTION  1 5 

in  the  Lenox  Library,  New  York.  It  was  entitled  Copy 
of  a  Letter  sent  from  New  France,  or  Canada,  by  the  Sieur 
de  Combes,  a  Gentleman  of  Poitou,  to  a  Friend,  in  which 
are  described  briefly  the  Marvels,  Excellence  and  Wealth  of 
the  Country,  together  with  the  Appearance  and  Manners  of 
the  Inhabitants,  the  Glory  of  the  French,  and  the  Hope  there 
is  of  Christianizing  America.  This  letter  gives  the  follow- 
ing account  of  Brest:  — 

"We  desired  first  to  go  and  see  the  Sieur  de  Dongeon, 
who  is  governor,  and  resides  ordinarily  at  Brest,  the  prin- 
cipal town  of  the  whole  country,  well  provisioned,  large 
and  strongly  fortified,  peopled  by  about  fifty  thousand 
men,  and  furnished  with  all  that  is  necessary  to  enrich 
a  good-sized  town." 

When  it  is  remembered  that  this  letter  was  written  in 
the  year  in  which  Champlain  founded  Quebec,  it  will  be 
seen  immediately  that  it  is  a  fairy  tale  of  the  wildest  sort. 
Brest  was  never  anything  at  this  time  but  a  convenient 
harbour  for  fishermen;  and  the  Sieur  de  Combes  and  the 
Sieur  de  Dongeon  are  probably  people  who  never  ex- 
isted. Somebody,  however,  must  have  taken  the  account 
au  grand  serieux;  for  in  1638  the  following  account  of 
Labrador  appeared  in  Lewes  Roberts'  Merchants'  Map  of 
Commerce  printed  at  London :  — 

"  The  seventh  is  Terra  Corterialis ;  on  the  South  whereof 
runs  that  famous  river  of  Caneda,  rising  out  of  the  hill 
Hombuedo,  running  nine  hundred  miles,  and  found  navi- 
gable for  eight  hundred  thereof.  .  .  .  The  chiefe  Towne 
thereof  is  Brest,  Cabomarso,  and  others  of  little  note." 

Cabomarso  is  obviously  a  cape  named  by  the  Portu- 


16  LABRADOR 

guese;  but  Brest  is  the  "  principal  town"  of  the  Sieur  de 
Combes.  The  finishing  touches  were  put  on  the  myth 
by  a  Mr.  Samuel  Robertson,  who  lived  on  the  Labrador 
coast  in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  In  a 
paper  read  before  the  Geographical  and  Historical  Society 
of  Quebec  in  1843,  he  gave  a  graphic  picture  of  Brest  in 
its  palmy  days.  "I  estimate,"  he  said,  "that  at  one  time 
it  contained  two  hundred  houses,  besides  stores,  etc.,  and 
perhaps  1000  inhabitants  in  the  winter,  which  would  be 
trebled  during  the  summer.  Brest  was  at  the  height  of 
its  prosperity  about  the  year  1600,  and  about  thirty  years 
later  the  whole  tribe  of  the  Eskimos  were  totally  extir- 
pated or  expelled  from  that  region.  After  this  the  town 
began  to  decay,  and  towards  the  close  of  the  century  the 
name  was  changed  to  Bradore."  In  1630,  he  goes  on  to 
relate,  a  grant  en  seigneurie  of  four  leagues  of  the  coast 
embracing  the  town  was  made  to  the  Count  de  Courte- 
manche,  who  was  married  to  a  daughter  of  King  Henry  IV 
of  France.  ' 

Et  voila  justement  comme  on  ecrit  I'histoire.  The  whole 
story  is  a  myth  and  a  fairy  tale.  There  was,  it  is  true,  a 
De  Courtemanche  on  the  Labrador  coast  from  1704-1716, 
but  he  was  not  a  count,  nor  did  he  hold  any  land  en  seig- 
neurie, and  he  was  married  to  the  daughter  of  a  tanner 
named  Chares t  at  Levis.  Moreover,  we  have  De  Courte- 
manche's  account  of  the  coast  when  he  came  there  in  1704. 
He  does  not  mention  the  town  of  Brest;  apparently  he 
had  never  heard  of  it.  But  in  the  harbour  he  found  an 
establishment  of  Frenchmen  and  a  blockhouse,  about  half 
a  league  from  the  mouth  of  the  Eskimo  River.  This 
was  just  a  century  after  the  time  when  "  Brest  was  at 


INTE  OD  UCTION  1 7 

the  height  of  its  prosperity."  It  is  indeed  probable  that 
Mr.  Robertson  did  not  know  where  Brest  was ;  he  confuses 
it  with  Bradore  Bay,  which  is  eight  or  ten  leagues  farther 
along  the  coast.  And  yet  the  story  has  died  hard;  it  is 
to  be  found  in  some  of  the  latest  books,  in  Professor  Pack- 
ard's Labrador  Coast  (1891),  and  in  Judge  Prowse's  His- 
tory of  Newfoundland  (1896). 

The  exploitation  of  Labrador  by  the  French  Canadians 
really  began  in  1661.  In  that  year  the  Compagnie  des 
Indes  granted  to  Francois  Bissot  the  Isle  aux  OEufs  en 
seigneurie,  together  with  fishing  rights  over  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  Quebec  Labrador,  from  the  Seven  Isles  to  Bradore 
Bay.  This  was  what  was  known  afterwards  as  the  Seig- 
neurie of  Mingan.  Frangois  Bissot  was  a  Norman  immi- 
grant who  had  come  out  to  Canada  some  time  between 
1641-1647.  He  was  a  man  of  enterprise  and  ideas.  He  was 
the  first  Canadian  to  enter  upon  the  tanning  of  leather,  an 
industry  which  is  to-day  perhaps  the  most  important  in 
Quebec.  He  was  also  one  of  the  very  first  Canadians  who 
attempted  to  establish  sedentary  fisheries  in  the  Gulf. 
At  the  Isle  aux  (Eufs,  and  later  at  Mingan  on  the  mainland, 
he  founded  posts  at  which  he  carried  on  fishing,  sealing, 
and  trading  with  great  success.  Between  his  farm  and  his 
tannery  at  *Levis  and  his  fishing-posts  on  the  Labrador 
it  was  not  long  before  he  made  his  fortune.  He  was  him- 
self of  bourgeois  extraction;  but  he  married  his  daughters 
to  members  of  the  colony's  ruling  class.  The  noblesse 
and  the  bourgeoisie  joined  hands. 

One  of  Bissot's  daughters  married  Louis  Jolliet,  the 
discoverer  of  the  Mississippi.  His  marriage  into  the  Bissot 
family  drew  Jolliet's  energies  eastward.  His  exploration 


18  LABRADOR 

of  the  coasts  of  Labrador  has  already  been  referred  to. 
As  a  reward  for  his  discoveries  he  was  granted  the  island  of 
Anticosti,  a  barren  fief,  of  which  he  was  the  first  seigneur. 
When  Bissot  died,  Jolliet  was  one  of  his  heirs.  He  became 
engaged  in  a  dispute  with  the  other  heirs  which  was  the 
precursor  of  a  long  line  of  disputes  about  the  Bissot  seig- 
neurie,  litigation  over  which  was  only  ended  in  1892  by 
the  decision  of  the  Judicial  Committee  of  the  Privy  Council 
in  the  case  of  the  Labrador  Company  vs.  the  Queen.  Jol- 
liet's  last  years  were  tragic.  He  endured  great  losses 
from  the  English  invasion  of  1690,  and  afterwards  was 
actually  suffering  from  poverty.  He  died  about  1700, 
neglected  and  forgotten,  on  some  island  of  the  Labrador 
coast. 

Jolliet's  example  without  doubt  induced  others  to  go 
and  spy  out  the  land  of  Labrador.  It  was  about  1702  that 
De  Courtemanche  obtained  his  concession  near  the  Strait 
of  Belle  Isle.  Augustin  Legardeur,  Sieur  de  Courtemanche, 
was  a  lieutenant  in  the  troops  of  the  marine.  He  spent  the 
early  years  of  his  life  in  the  west  in  the  Indian  wars,  and 
acquired  there  a  reputation  as  a  leader.  In  1697,  however, 
he  married  the  widow  of  Pierre  Gratien  Martel  de  Brouague ; 
she  was  the  granddaughter  of  old  Frangois  Bissot,  and 
family  ties  drew  De  Courtemanche,  as  they  had  drawn 
Jolliet,  to  the  east  of  Canada.  It  has  been  usual  to  describe 
De  Court emanche's  concession  as  a  seigneurie;  but  such 
language  is  inaccurate.  It  was  merely  a  grant  of  fishing 
and  trading  rights  for  a  number  of  years.  The  policy  of 
the  government  was  evidently  to  leave  its  hands  free  for 
the  future  with  regard  to  the  Labrador  coast.  The  only 
true  seigneurie  east  of  the  Mingan  Islands  was  "the  fief 


INTRODUCTION  19 

St.  Paul  in  the  country  of  the  Eskimos";  and  about  this 
seigneurie  not  much  is  known.  It  was  granted  in  1706  to 
Amador  Godefroy  de  St.  Paul.  In  1725  Godefroy  de  St. 
Paul  sent  one  of  his  wife's  relatives  to  render  foi  et  horn- 
mage  for  him  at  the  castle  of  St.  Louis  in  Quebec.  But 
after  Godefroy's  death  it  is  probable  that  the  '  family 
ceased  to  occupy  the  fief ;  certainly  the  fief  never  arrived 
at  any  degree  of  importance.1 

During  the  years  1700-1760  it  rained  concessions  on 
the  Cdte  du  Nord.  Grants  of  fishing  and  trading  rights 
were  made  to  the  Sieurs  Riverin,  De  la  Chesnaye,  Constan- 
tin,  De  la  Valtrie  (who  had  married  a  daughter  of  Fran- 
cois Bissot),  De  Leigne,  Boucault  and  Foucault,  De  la 
Fontaine,  De  Lanouilles,  Marsal,  Hocquart,  Tache,  Pom- 
mereau,  Vincent,  De  Beaujeu,  and  Estebe,  as  well  as  to 
Mme.  de  Boishebert  and  the  widow  Fernel.2  Hamilton 
Inlet  (Baie  des  Esquimaux)  was  granted  at  different  times 
to  traders  and  merchants,  on  condition  of  its  being  ex- 
plored; but  none  of  the  grantees  seem  to  have  complied 
with  the  condition.  It  is  noteworthy,  however,  that  in 
1779  Major  Cartwright  reports  the  discovery  near  Hamil- 
ton Inlet  of  "the  ruins  of  three  French  settlements." 
And  we  know  from  Jeffrey's  Northwest  Passage  that 
in  1752  the  French  traded  with  the  Eskimos  at  Ham- 
ilton Inlet  for  whalebone  and  oil.  Perhaps  the  French 
Canadians  went  north  of  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle  oftener 
than  we  hear  about. 

Inside  the  Strait,  however,  there  is  no  question  about 

1 1  have  to  acknowledge  here  the  kind  assistance  of  Professor  W.  B. 
Munro,  of  Harvard  University. 

2  This  list  does  not  pretend  to  be  perfect. 


20  LABRADOR 

the  number  of  fishing-posts  which  existed.  Not  only 
were  there  cod  fisheries  and  seal  fisheries,  there  were  even 
salmon  and  porpoise  fisheries.  The  seal  fishery  was  espe- 
cially important.  It  supplied  the  oil  which  was  used  for 
giving  light  in  Canada  and  for  dressing  hides  in  Europe. 
In  1744,  we  learn  from  an  old  table  of  products,  several 
thousand  barrels  of  oil  were  exported  from  Labrador  to 
France.  In  the  industrial  life  of  New  France  Labrador 
played  a  much  larger  part  than  has  been  usually 
realized. 

The  Jesuits  did  not  reach  Labrador.  In  1730  Father 
Pierre  Laure,  serving  at  Chekoutimi  on  the  Saguenay, 
wrote  to  his  superior:  "I  think  it  would  be  a  good  thing 
if  your  Reverence  would  permit  me  to  go  to  Labrador, 
where  I  know  that  great  results  can  be  obtained."  But 
his  petition  was  not  granted.  The  only  priest,  so  far  as 
we  know,  who  worked  on  the  Labrador  coast,  was  the 
Abbe  Martin,  who  petitioned  in  1727  to  be  allowed  to  set 
up  a  seal  fishery  there.  The  memorandum  of  the  Gov- 
ernor and  Intendant  on  the  subject  throws  light  on  the 
conditions  of  the  coast  in  1727 ;  they  write :  — 

"We  cannot  answer  immediately  in  the  matter  of  the 
Sieur  Martin's  request  to  set  up  an  establishment  of  the 
.Labrador. 

"This  region  scarcely  seems  suitable  for  a  man  of  his 
cloth,  there  being  only  rocks  in  this  place.  The  dissipa- 
tion which  a  trading-post  brings  about  scarcely  suits  a 
missionary. 

"These  proposals  show  good  intentions.  We  believe 
there  is  nothing  behind  them.  But  the  matters  which  he 
proposes  are  too  delicate  not  to  require  time  for  considera- 
tion." 


INTR  OD  UCTION  21 

Whether  the  Abbe  Martin's  request  was  granted,  we  do 
not  know.  He  is  to  us  merely  a  nominis  umbra.  We 
1  know  nothing  more  about  him  than  that  he  was  "  serving 
on  the  Labrador." 

Order  was  kept  on  the  coast  by  the  Sieur  de  Courte- 
manche,  who  bore  the  official  title  of  commandant.  At 
Baie  des  Phelypeaux  (now  Bradore  Bay)  he  had  a  fort 
called  Fort  Ponchartrain.  He  exercised  magisterial  pow- 
ers, and  sent  in  an  annual  report  to  the  president  of  the 
Navy  Board  at  Paris.  His  chief  difficulty  was  with  the 
Eskimos,  who  persisted  in  destroying  the  boats  and 
stages  of  the  fishermen,  and  in  murdering  an  occasional 
white  man.  De  Courtemanche's  conciliatory  policy  toward 
the  natives  is  deserving  of  notice,  especially  as  it  stands 
in  sharp  contrast  with  the  treatment  of  the  Indians 
by  the  English  across  the  Strait  in  Newfoundland.  There 
it  was  considered  good  sport  to  shoot  an  Indian  like  a 
deer.  This  is  not  the  only  case  in  which  the  French 
proved  themselves  superior  to  the  English  in  their  rela- 
tions with  the  natives. 

De  Courtemanche  died  in  1716,  and  his  place  as  com- 
mandant of  the  coast  was  taken  by  his  step-son,  Frangois 
Martel  de  Brouague.  De  Brouague  held  the  post  until 
the  conquest,  though  in  1759  he  was  so  old  and  worn  out 
that  the  minister  proposed  to  replace  him  by  another. 
He  too  had  difficulty  with  the  Eskimos,  and  he  seems 
not  to  have  been  so  successful  as  his  step-father  in  his 
measures.  He  was,  however,  a  person  of  importance  in 
New  France ;  he  married  in  1732  Louise-Madeleine  Mari- 
auchau-d'Esglis,  sister  of  the  eighth  bishop  of  Quebec, 
and  his  daughter  was  that  beauty  of  whom  Garneau  tells, 


22  LABRADOR 

who,  when  presented  at  the  French  court,  filled  with  admi- 
ration the  young  king,  Louis  XVI. 

The  conquest  of  Canada  in  1763  by  the  English  worked  a 
revolution  on  the  Labrador  coast.  Shortly  after  the  con- 
quest many  of  the  French-Canadian  gentry  went  back 
to  France;  we  know,  for  instance,  that  in  1767  Captain 
Croizille  de  Courtemanche,  half-brother  of  M.  de  Brouague, 
went  back.  At  the  same  time  there  flocked  into  the  coun- 
try a  number  of  English  and  Scotch  adventurers —  "four 
hundred  and  fifty  contemptible  sutlers  and  traders,"  as  Gov- 
ernor Murray  called  them.  Some  of  these  men  bought  up 
the  concessions  along  the  Labrador  coast  which  the  French 
Canadians  were  leaving.  Between  1759  and  1808  they 
acquired  nearly  the  whole  coast  from  the  Mingan  Islands 
to  Bradore  Bay,  and  formed  what  was  known  as  the  Lab- 
rador Company,  the  leading  spirit  in  which  was  Mathew 
Lymburner,  the  Quebec  merchant  who  spoke  so  ably  at 
the  bar  of  the  House  of  Commons  in  Westminster  against 
the  Constitutional  Act  of  1791. 

From  1763  also  dates  the  first  authentic  account  of  a 
settled  English  fishery  between  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle 
and  Hamilton  Inlet.  Under  the  French  regime  Canada 
had  included  all  Labrador;  but  by  the  proclamation  of 
1763  its  eastern  boundary  became  the  River  St.  John. 
Labrador  and  Anticosti  were  annexed  to  Newfoundland. 
Adventurers  immediately  began  to  establish  themselves 
in  the  new  territory.  Captain  Nicholas  Darby,  of  Bristol, 
set  up  near  Cape  Charles,  and  the  firm  of  Noble  and  Pinson, 
long  well  known  on  the  coast,  began  to  do  business  at 
Temple  Bay. 


INTRODUCTION  23 

This,  however,  was  not  at  all  the  object  which  the  Eng- 
lish government  had  wished  to  accomplish.  It  had  been 
their  intention  to  put  the  Labrador  fishery  under  the  same 
regulations  as  the  Newfoundland  fishery.  It  was  to  be 
preserved  as  an  "open  and  free  fishery"  for  the  Dorset 
and  Devon  fishing  fleets,  and  was  to  be  governed  by 
fishing  admiral  rules.  The  establishment  of  sedentary 
fisheries  immediately  caused  trouble.  It  was  the  old 
story,  so  familiar  in  the  case  of  Newfoundland  itself,  of  a 
struggle  between  the  settlers  on  the  shore,  who  claimed 
the  right  of  exclusive  fishing,  and  the  fishermen  who  came 
over  the  Atlantic  from  English  ports,  and  who  wanted 
the  fisheries  and  landing-places  reserved  for  themselves. 
Sir  Hugh  Palliser,  the  governor  of  Newfoundland,  strove 
energetically  to  carry  out  the  new  regulations.  He  applied 
to  the  home  government  for  naval  reinforcements,  "for 
the  purpose  of  enforcing  the  fishery  laws  and  preserving 
peace  and  some  degree  of  order  amongst  the  fisheries, 
especially  amongst  the  mixed  multitudes  now  resorting 
to  the  new  northern  banks  about  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle, 
composed  of  about  5000  of  the  very  scum  of  the  most 
disorderly  people  from  the  different  colonies."  He  built 
a  blockhouse  in  Chateau  Bay,  and  garrisoned  it  with  an 
officer  and  twenty  men.  But  his  measures  were  in  vain. 
He  had  to  encounter,  not  only  the  opposition  of  the  few 
English  and  French-Canadian  settlers  on  the  coast,  the 
latter  armed  with  their  title-deeds  acquired  under  the 
French  governors,  but  also  the  hostility  of  the  Canadian 
and  New  England  fishermen,  who  were  excluded  from  the 
fisheries.  The  feeling  among  the  New  England  fishermen 
was  especially  strong;  their  exclusion  from  the  Labrador 


24  LABRADOR 

fisheries  was  one  of  the  lesser  causes  which  helped  to  bring 
about  the  American  war,  and  it  explains  some  episodes 
in  the  naval  history  of  the  war.  In  1774  Labrador  was 
given  back  to  Canada.  It  was  not  until  1809  that  it  was 
finally  reannexed  to  Newfoundland. 

A  trader  who  came  to  Labrador  in  1770  was  Major 
George  Cartwright.  He  had  been  aide-de-camp  to  the 
Marquis  of  Granby  in  the  Seven  Years'  War;  but  failing 
to  obtain  promotion,  he  resigned  his  commission,  and  went 
into  business  on  the  coast  of  Labrador.  He  has  left  us 
his  journals,  in  three  large  folio  volumes.  The  great  ma- 
jority of  the  entries  are  trivial.  "I  went  out  a-shooting," 
he  says  on  September  29,  1772,  "but  saw  nothing."  Yet 
the  diary  as  a  whole  gives  a  vivid  and  minute  account  of 
the  life  at  a  post  on  the  Labrador  in  1770.  The  drunken- 
ness, the  brutality,  the  license,  are  all  depicted  without 
reticence.  Cartwright,  who  was  a  man  of  magnificent 
courage,  treated  the  Irishmen  and  Indians  under  him  like 
slaves.  "I  gave  MacCarthy,"  he  says,  " twenty-seven 
lashes  with  a  small  dog-whip  on  his  bare  back,  and  in- 
tended to  have  made  up  the  number  thirty-nine;  but  as 
he  then  fainted,  I  stopped  and  released  him:  when  he 
thanked  me  on  his  knees  for  my  lenity."  "I  broke  the 
stock  of  my  Hanoverian  rifle,"  he  says  at  another  time,  "by 
striking  a  dog  with  it."  So  far  as  women  were  concerned, 
Cartwright's  principles  were  frankly  immoral.  Yet  he 
was  religious  after  the  fashion  of  his  day.  On  Easter 
Sunday,  he  says,  "  I  read  prayers  to  my  family  both  in  the 
forenoon  and  afternoon."  And  after  a  providential  es- 
cape from  danger  he  writes:  "We  could  attribute  all  these 
things  to  nothing  but  the  effect  of  the  immediate  interpo- 


INTRODUCTION  25 

sition  of  the  DIVINITY,  who  had  been  graciously  pleased 
to  hear  our  prayers,  and  grant  our  petitions;  and  I  hope 
I  shall  'never  be  of  a  contrary  way  of  thinking."  He  was 
a  man  of  strict  honour;  and  when  he  failed  in  business, 
he  refused  to  go  into  bankruptcy,  and  preferred  to  carry 
the  burden  of  his  debt  in  the  hope  of  paying  it  off. 

He  had  several  trading-posts  at  intervals  along  the 
coast  from  Cape  Charles  to  Sandwich  Bay.  Under  him 
he  seems  to  have  had  at  times  as  many  as  seventy-five 
or  eighty  men,  mostly  Irishmen  of  the.  lowest  description. 
He  did  not  limit  himself  to  sealing,  and  fishing  for  cod  and 
salmon,  but  he  tried  by  all  means  possible  to  cultivate 
trade  with  the  Indians  and  Eskimos.  His  policy  in 
this  regard  is  one  of  the  most  laudable  things  about  him. 
Three  years  before  his  arrival  on  the  coast  the  Eskimos, 
with  whom  murder  was  a  pastime,  killed  three  of  Captain 
Darby's  men  at  Charles  River.  The  relations  between 
the  English  and  the  Eskimos  after  this  threatened  to 
degenerate  into  the  guerilla  warfare  which  ended  in  New- 
foundland in  the  extinction  of  the  Beothuks.  Cartwright 
saw  that  this  policy  was  a  wrong  one,  and  by  his  firm  and 
kindly  attitude  toward  the  Eskimos  he  gradually  gained 
their  confidence.  Twice  he  took  Eskimos  back  with  him 
to  England,  and  tried  to  train  them  up  as  go-betweens, 
but  they  almost  all  died  from  the  smallpox.  Their  death 
was  to  Cartwright  one  of  his  greatest  disappointments. 
Through  ill  luck  his  policy  was  not  so  successful  as  he 
hoped  it  would  be,  but  it  must  be  said  that  he  was  work- 
ing along  the  right  lines. 

Cartwright  was  not  a  good  business  man,  and  his  adven- 
ture was  not  a  success.  He  suffered  from  the  hostility 


26  LABRADOR 

of  Noble  and  Pinson,  "who  have  been  my  inveterate 
enemies  ever  since  I  came  to  the  coast,"  and  his  buildings 
were  several  times  destroyed  by  fire.  But  the  great 
calamity  which  overtook  him  was  the  visit  of  the  American 
privateer  Minerva  in  August,  1778.  At  one  o'clock  on 
the  morning  of  August  27,  he  was  alarmed  by  a  loud 
rapping  at  his  door;  he  opened  it,  and  a  body  of  armed 
men  rushed  in;  they  were,  they  said,  from  the  Minerva 
privateer,  of  Boston,  in  New  England,  commanded  by  John 
Grimes.  They  made  Cartwright  their  prisoner,  and  took 
possession  of  everything.  At  nine  o'clock  Cartwright 
was  taken  on  board,  and  received  by  Captain  Grimes, 
who  was  "  the  son  of  a  superannuated  boatswain  of  Ports- 
mouth." Cartwright  was  not  favourably  impressed  by  the 
first  lieutenant  and  the  surgeon,  whom  he  describes  as 
"two  of  as  great  villains  as  any  unhanged."  He  found 
that  his  possessions  at  Charles  Harbour  and  Ranger 
Lodge  had  already  been  plundered.  An  expedition  had 
been  sent  off  to  Caribou  Castle  to  plunder  there;  and  it 
was  only  by  talking  about  a  British  frigate  which  he 
expected  that  he  frightened  them  from  sending  to  Paradise 
and  White  Bear  River.  They  robbed  him  of  everything 
except  a  small  quantity  of  provisions  and  a  chest  of  bag- 
gage, which  Grimes  returned  ("but  many  things  were 
pillaged  out  of  it").  Cartwright  lost  also  about  one-half 
of  his  men.  The  Minerva  was  short-handed,  and  Grimes 
offered  a  share  of  the  booty  to  any  who  would  enter  with 
him.  Nearly  thirty-five  men,  mostly  Irish  and  Dutch,  ac- 
cepted his  offer.  It  is  needless  to  say,  none  of  them  ever  saw 
any  prize-money ;  when  they  reached  Boston,  they  were  all 
thrown  into  prison,  where  they  languished  for  several  months. 


INTRODUCTION  27 

Cartwright  computed  his  losses  at  about  £14,000. 
Fortunately,  however,  his  brig,  with  all  the  salt  and  most 
of  the  other  goods  which  the  Americans  had  carried  away 
in  her,  was  retaken  on  her  passage  to  Boston,  and  his 
losses  proved  not  so  great  as  he  had  imagined  they  would 
be.  Others  suffered  more  severely  than  he  did.  Noble 
and  Pinson  at  Temple  Bay  lost  three  vessels  and  all  their 
stores;  and  two  merchants  named  Slade  and"Seydes  lost 
a  vessel  each  at  Charles  Harbour.  The  next  year  a  small 
American  privateer  of  four  guns  entered  Battle  Harbour, 
and  captured  a  sloop  there  with  about  twenty-two  tuns 
of  seal  oil  on  board.  The  stores  on  the  shore,  belonging 
to  Slade  of  Twillingate,  were  destroyed.  The  result  was 
that  "  everybody  on  this  side  of  Trinity  was  in  the  utmost 
distress  for  provisions  from  the  depredations  of  the  priva- 
teers, as  no  vessels  had  arrived  from  England."  Cart- 
wright  himself  had  to  cut  his  men  down  to  short  rations 
during  the  winter. 

In  1786  Cartwright  returned  to  England,  and  his  diary 
closes.  In  the  last  entries  are  some  interesting  notes  on 
the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle.  At  both  Forteau  Bay  and  Blanc 
Sablon  Cartwright  founded  establishments  of  fishing  com- 
panies from  Jersey.  Behind  the  Isle  de  Bois  he  saw 
several  American  whalers  lying  at  anchor.  "Not  having 
had  any  success  with  whales,  they  were  catching  codfish. 
As  they  dare  not  carry  their  fish  to  the  European  markets, 
for  fear  of  the  Barbary  rovers,  they  are  sent  up  to  their 
own  back  settlements,  where  they  fetch  good  prices." 
The  journal  ends  with  a  poetical  epistle  to  Labrador. 
*  Ten  years  after  Cartwright  left  the  coast  Labrador  was 
again  the  victim  of  a  hostile  visitation.  In  August,  1796, 


28  LABRADOR 

Admiral  Bichery,  one  of  the  ablest  of  the  admirals  of  the 
French  republic,  made  a  flying  visit  from  Cadiz  to  the 
Banks  of  Newfoundland.  After  having  wrought  cruel 
havoc  among  the  fishermen  on  the  Banks,  he  despatched 
three  of  his  ships,  the  Duquesne,  the  Censeur,  and  the 
Friponne,  under  Commodore  Allemand,  to  visit  the  coast 
of  Labrador.  Allemand  was  delayed  by  wind  and  fog, 
and  when  he  arrived  at  Chateau  Bay,  most  of  the  fishing 
vessels  had  left  for  Europe.  Several  ships,  however,  still 
remained,  among  them  part  of  the  rich  convoy  of  peltries 
returning  from  Hudson's  Bay.  These  Allemand  captured. 
He  then  sent  a  summons  to  the  commandant  of  Fort  York, 
the  blockhouse  which  Governor  Palliser  had  built  at 
Chateau  Bay,  demanding  his  surrender.  When  the  com- 
mandant refused  to  surrender,  Allemand  opened  fire  on 
the  fort,  and  soon  silenced  its  fourteen  guns.  The  English 
thereupon  took  to  the  woods,  but  not  before  they  had  set 
fire  to  all  the  buildings  and  stores  at  the  post.  The  French 
landed,  but  found  "  no  thing  but  ashes";  after  a  vain 
attempt  to  pursue  the  English  garrison  in  the  woods,  they 
put  to  sea  again,  taking  with  them  those  prizes  which  they 
had  not  sunk  or  burned.  They  had  done  as  much  damage 
as  it  was  possible  for  them  to  do.  The  people  of  Labrador 
have  small  reason  to  love  the  warships  of  revolutionary 
states. 

/  In  1809  Labrador  was  given  back  to  Newfoundland. 
The  arrangement  was  once  more,  however,  found  to  be 
unsatisfactory.  The  Cdte  du  Nord  was  really  a  part  of 
Lower  Canada,  and  it  did  not  fit  in;  either  legally  or  socially, 
with  the  system  of  government  in  Newfoundland.  The 


INTRODUCTION  29 

result  was  that  in  1825  that  part  of  Labrador  which  is 
now  known  as  the  Quebec  Labrador,  stretching  from  the 
River  St.  John  to  Blanc  Sablon,  was  reannexed  to  Lower 
Canada.  This  is  the  arrangement  which  governs  the 
present  condition.  Unfortunately,  however,  the  boun- 
daries of  Labrador  have  never  been  clearly  defined.  The 
jurisdiction  of  the  governor  of  Newfoundland,  as  denned 
in  the  letters  patent  regularly  issued  up  to  1876,  includes 
"all  the  coast  of  Labrador,  from  the  entrance  of  Hudson's 
Straits  to  a  line  to  be  drawn  due  north  and  south  from 
Anse  Sablon  [sic]  on  the  said  coast  to  the  fifty-second 
degree  of  north  latitude."  The  only  conclusion  which 
may  be  drawn  from  this  document  is  that  the  advisers 
of  the  British  crown,  when  they  drew  it  up,  were,  as  usual, 
not  looking  at  the  map.  Anse  Sablon  is  a  place  which 
does  not  exist,  though  Blanc  Sablon  does;  and  just  where 
the  entrance  to  Hudson's  Strait  is,  might  well,  as  Sir  John 
Haselrig  said,  be  the  subject  for  a  month's  debate.  It 
might  be  anywhere  from  Cape  Chudleigh  to  Fort  Chimo. 

The  result  of  the  ambiguity  in  the  terms  by  which  the 
boundary  of  Labrador  is  defined,  has  been  a  dispute  be- 
tween Quebec  and  Newfoundland  which  is  still  pending. 
Canada  has  issued  a  map  coloured  red  right  to  the  Atlantic 
seaboard;  and  Newfoundland  has  retorted  by  colouring 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  Labrador  peninsula  green.  The 
question  will  probably  be  decided  by  the  Judicial  Com- 
mittee of  the  Privy  Council. 

In  1811  an  act  of  Parliament  was  passed  authorizing 
the  holding  of  surrogate  courts  in  Labrador.  Nothing 
was  done  to  give  effect  to  this  act  until  1827,  when  Sir 
Thomas  Cochrane,  the  governor,  issued  a  proclamation 


30  LABRADOR 

setting  up  a  court  of  civil  jurisdiction.  A  sheriff  was  ap- 
pointed for  the  coast,  and  a  vessel  was  chartered  to  take 
the  judge  on  his  circuit;  but  it  was  soon  found  that  the 
undertaking  was  more  expensive  than  advantageous.  In 
1833  the  court  was  abolished. 

Meanwhile  a  change  had  been  taking  place  in  the  fisheries. 
In  1818  a  .convention  was  made  between  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain,  by  which  the  inhabitants  of  the  United 
States  gained,  among  other  things,  the  right  of  taking 
fish  of  any  kind  "  on  the  coasts,  bays,  harbours,  and  creeks  " 
of  the  Labrador.  American  fishermen  took  advantage 
of  this  convention  in  great  numbers.  In  1820  Captain 
Robinson,  of  H.M.S.  Favourite,  reported  "530  sail  of  them 
this  year."  The  English  fishermen  began  to  suffer  from 
their  competition.  Both  the  American  and  French  fish- 
ermen received  bounties  from  their  governments :  the  first 
in  the  shape  of  a  drawback  on  the  salt  used;  and  the  sec- 
ond in  the  shape  of  premiums  which  were  so  regulated  as 
to  make  20  francs  per  quintal  the  minimum  price  received. 
The  American  fisherman  also  fished  "in  his  own  vessel, 
built  by  himself,  with  timber  grown  on  his  own  land,  and 
with  provisions  supplied  by  his  own  farm."  There  was 
great  irritation  against  the  government  because  of  their 
admission  of  the  Americans  into  what  was  considered  the 
richest  part  of  the  fisheries.  It  was  felt  that  England  was 
being  generous  to  the  prodigal  son  at  the  expense  of  the  son 
who  stayed  at  home.  Such  a  feeling  has  not  died  out. in 
Newfoundland  yet,  as  recent  events  have  shown. 

Population  has  never  increased  by  leaps  and  bounds  on 
the  Labrador  coast.  In  1841,  however,  Samuel  Robertson 
said  that  on  his  part  of  the  coast  there  were  over  two  hun- 


INTRODUCTION  31 

dred  and  fifty  settlers.  In  1848  the  bishop  of  Newfound- 
land visited  Labrador.  "No  bishop  or  clergyman  of  our 
Church/'  he  said,  "has  ever  been  along  this  coast  before, 
and  yet  the  inhabitants  are  almost  all  professed  members 
of  our  Church  and  of  English  descent."  The  good  man 
found  plenty  of  work  to  do.  He  consecrated  several 
graveyards.  At  one  settlement  "great  numbers  were 
married,  and  both  here  and  elsewhere  an  offering  [of  four 
dollars]  was  very  cheerfully  paid."  At  Battle  Harbour 
fifty-seven  children  were  admitted  into  the  Church. 

The  statement  is  made  in  some  of  the  books  that  when 
the  Acadians  were  driven  from  their  homes  in  1753,  a 
number  of  them  took  refuge  on  the  Labrador  coast,  and 
erected  a  fort  at  Chateau  Bay.  For  this  statement  there 
is  no  authority  whatever.  The  only  invasion  of  the  shores 
of  Labrador  by  Acadians  took  place  in  the  years  1857-1861. 
During  these  years  a  number  of  Acadians  came  from  the 
Magdalen  Islands,  whither  their  ancestors  had  fled  a  cen- 
tury before.  Some  of  them,  braving  the  threats  of  seig- 
neurs, settled  at  Pointe  Saint-Paul,  not  far  from  the  ancient 
harbour  of  "Brest,"  and  others  squatted  near  Natishquan, 
ninety  miles  east  of  Mingan.  In  all,  they  numbered 
about  eighty  families.  Their  children  still  live  on  the 
Cdte  du  Nord,  scarcely  distinguishable  from  the  French 
Canadians  about  them. 

Something  must  be  said  about  the  Hudson's  Bay  Com- 
pany. It  is  probable  that  until  1870  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company  was  at  law  the  proprietor  of  a  large  part  of  the 
Labrador  peninsula.  Under  their  charter  they  claimed 


32  LABRADOR 

"all  rights  to  trade  and  commerce  of  those  seas,  etc., 
within  the  entrance  of  Hudson's  Strait,  and  all  lands  on 
the  coasts  and  confines  thereof."  Their  claim  to  Labrador 
was  submitted  to  the  law  officers  of  the  British  crown  in 
1752,  and  pronounced  by  them  to  be  valid.  It  was  not, 
however,  till  1831  that  the  company  began  to  exploit 
Labrador.  In  that  year,  having  learned  from  a  missionary 
report  that  the  country  about  Ungava  produced  excellent 
furs,  and  being  desirous  also  of  "  ameliorating  the  condi- 
tion of  the  natives,"  they  founded  Fort  Chimo  on  Hudson's 
Strait.  A  year  or  so  later  they  established  at  the  other 
end  of  Labrador  Rigolet  Post,  near  the  head  of  Hamilton 
Inlet.  It  was  the  desire  to  establish  communications 
between  these  two  posts  that  led  to  the  wonderful  over- 
land journey  of  John  M'Lean,  the  factor  at  Fort  Chimo, 
in  1838,  a  journey  which  has  not  been  repeated  until  within 
the  last  few  years.  M' Lean's  Notes  of  a  Twenty-five  Years1 
Service  in  the  Hudson1  s  Bay  Territories  is  worth  reading 
as  an  earlier  version  of  the  lure  of  the  Labrador  wild. 

In  1870  the  great  company  surrendered  all  its  rights  in 
British  North  America  to  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  in  return 
foT  a  substantial  quid  pro  quo.  All  that  part  of  Labrador, 
therefore,  which  does  not  belong  to  Newfoundland,  comes 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Dominion. 

There  remains  to  be  told  the  story  of  the  Moravian 
missionaries.  No  more  wonderful  story  of  missionary 
effort  has  ever  awaited  the  pen  of  the  reporter;  and  yet 
the  work  of  the  Moravian  Mission  in  Labrador  has  been 
little  known.  It  was  in  1752  that  the  United  Society  of 
Brethren  first  attempted  to  found  a  mission  there  among 


INTRODUCTION  33 

the  Eskimos.  It  ended  in  failure.  The  four  mission- 
aries had  erected  a  house,  the  frame  and  materials  of  which 
they  had  brought  with  them,  when  five  or  six  members  of 
the  crew,  among  them  the  mate,  who  was  a  Brother,  were 
treacherously  murdered  by  the  Eskimos.  The  mission- 
aries were  obliged  to  return  with  the  ship,  in  order  to 
help  man  her,  and  they  left  their  house  standing  on  the 
bleak  and  desolate  coast.  It  was  seen  next  year  (1753) 
by  Captain  Swaine,  of  Philadelphia,  who  was  exploring  the 
coast  in  the  ship  Argo. 

The  attempt  to  found  a  mission  was  not  renewed  until 
1764.  In  that  year  Jans  Haven,  a  member  of  the 
Brotherhood  who  had  been  working  among  the  Eskimos 
of  Greenland,  landed  at  St.  John's,  Newfoundland.  Sir 
Hugh  Palliser,  the  new  governor,  was  anxious  to  improve 
the  relations  between  the  white  men  and  the  Eskimos, 
and  he  did  all  in  his  power  to  further  Haven's  aims.  At 
last,  at  Quirpont,  Haven  met  an  Eskimo.  "I  ran  to 
meet  him,"  he  says.  Great  was  the  surprise  of  the  Eskimo 
at  being  addressed  in  Greenlandic. 

The  next  year  three  other  missionaries  came  out,  one 
of  them  an  old  man  whose  race  was  nearly  run.  They 
selected  the  spot  which  they  thought  best  for  their  mission, 
and  then  asked  from  the  government  a  grant  of  100,000 
acres  in  connection  with  it.  This  demand  fell  on  the  ears 
of  the  government  like  a  thunderbolt.  It  was  excessive; 
it  savoured  even  of  ulterior  designs.  The  missionaries 
explained  that  the  vicious  influence  of  the  European 
traders  and  fishermen  on  the  coast  made  it  necessary  that 
the  natives  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  preserved  from 
contamination.  In  1769,  after  long  delays,  the  grant  was 


34  LABRADOR 

made.  Two  years  later  the  Brethren  began  to  build  their 
mission  house  at  Nain.  "  It  was  as  if,"  wrote  one  of  them, 
"  each  with  one  of  his  hands  wrought  in  the  work  and  with 
the  other  held  a  weapon."  Before  winter  broke  on  them 
they  had  the  house  finished. 

In  1773  the  British  government  sent  out  Lieutenant 
Curtis,  R.N.,  as  a  commissioner  to  report  on  the  progress 
of  the  mission.  Some  sentences  from  his  report  may  be 
transcribed :  — 

"They  have  chosen  for  their  residence  a  place  called 
by  the  Indians  [Eskimos]  Nonynoke,  but  to  which  they 
have  given  the  name  of  Unity  Bay.  .  .  .  Their  house  is 
called  Nain.  It  is  a  good  situation,  and  is  well  contrived. 
They  have  a  few  swivels  mounted,  although  they  have 
no  occasion  for  them,  as  the  Indians  [Eskimos]  are  awed 
more  by  their  amiable  conduct  than  by  arms.  There 
is  a  sawmill,  which  is  worked  by  a  small  stream  conducted 
thither  by  their  industry  from  the  mountains,  and  they 
find  this  engine  to  be  extremely  serviceable.  .  .  .  They 
have  a  small  sandy  garden,  and  they  raise  salads  in  toler- 
able perfection.  .  .  .  The  natives  love  and  respect  them, 
because  they  have  happily  adopted  and  strictly  adhere 
to  that  conduct  which  is  endearing  without  being  familiar. 
None  of  the  Indians  [Eskimos],  a  very  few  excepted, 
ever  presume  to  come  within  the  palisades  without  per- 
mission, nor  is  a  bolt  necessary  to  prevent  their  intrusion. 
..  .  .  The  progress  which  the  mission  has  made  in  civiliz- 
ing the  Indians  [Eskimos]  is  wonderful." 

In  1775  the  mission  at  Okkak  was  established;  and  in 
1782  that  at  Hopedale.  Everything,  however,  did  not  go 
smoothly  at  first.  About  1787  a  mysterious  person  named 
Makko,  a  French  Canadian  (says  the  historian  of  the 
mission),  who  combined  the  character  of  merchant  and 


INTRODUCTION  35 

Roman  Catholic  priest,  succeeded  in  enticing  a  number  of 
the  Eskimos  away  from  the  Brethren.  And  Cartwright 
says  in  his  journal  in  1783 :  "  The  Eskimos  expressed  a 
great  dislike  to  the  Moravians,  and  assured  me  they  would 
not  live  near,  or  trade  with,  them  more."  It  was  not  until 
1804,  says  one  of  the  missionaries,  that  the  fruits  of  the 
mission  began  to  appear;  but  in  that  year,  " a  fire  from  the 
Lord  was  kindled  among  the  Eskimos."  Since  then 
mission  stations  have  been  established  at  Hebron,  at  Zoar, 
at  Ramah,  and  at  Makkovik.  These  names  may  be  seen 
marked  on  any  good  map  of  northeastern  America,  "  names 
of  another  clime  and  an  alien  race." 

The  Eskimos,  said  Cartwright,  "have  always  been 
accounted  the  most  savage  race  of  people  on  the  whole 
continent  of  America."  "They  are,"  said  Governor 
Palliser,  "the  most  savage  people  in  the  world."  To- 
day it  would  be  hard  to  find  a  more  quiet,  placid,  and 
peaceable  race.  The  change  is  due  almost  entirely  to  the' 
United  Brethren.  They  have  converted  a  race  of  primeval 
savages,  with  whom  murder  was  a  passion  and  theft  a 
craze,  into  mild  and  simple  Christians.  The  great  miracle 
has  seldom  been  wrought  on  more  unpromising  materials 
and  with  more  amazing  success. 

For  their  part,  the  Eskimos  are  not  unmindful  of 
their  friends  and  benefactors.  "My  dear  Brethren  and 
Sisters,"  writes  Simeon  of  Nain,  "I  am  quite  astonished  at 
your  love  for  us,  and  distressed  that  I  am  not  able  to  make 
you  any  return.  I  have  requested  my  teachers  to  trans- 
late my  words  into  your  words,  that  you  may  understand 
that  I  feel  great  gratitude  toward  you.  I  am  Simeon." 

"I  greet  the  unknown  friends  in  Europe,"  writes  Verona 


36  LABRADOR 

from  Hopedale,  "as  if  I  knew  them,  and  write  these  un- 
worthy lines  to  them.  In  heaven  I  shall  see  them  and  get 
to  know  them,  because  we  shall  all  be  with  the  Lord,  even 
those  who  have  no  money." 


CHAPTER  II 

TRAVELLED  ROUTES  TO  LABRADOR 
BY  W.  T.  GRENFELL 

THE  northeast  coast  of  Labrador  can  be  reached  at  pres- 
ent only  via  Newfoundland.  A  passenger  steamer  runs 
from  each  side  of  the  island  to  Labrador.  These  steamers 
belong  to  the  Reid-Newfoundland  Company,  and  receive  a 
subsidy  to  carry  the  mails.  They  are  both  smart,  stout 
boats,  and  are  in  the  hands  of  such  old  experienced  pilot 
captains  that  in  spite  of  the  badly  charted  coast,  the  ice- 
bergs, and  the  absence  of  most  of  the  aids  to  navigation  in 
the  more  beaten  tracks,  no  danger  beyond  what  is  inci- 
dental to  every  sea  trip  need  be  anticipated.  There  has 
never  yet  been  a  life  lost  from  accident  on  these  mail  boats 
visiting  the  Labrador  coast. 

The  tourist  must  choose  whether  he  wishes  to  go  by  the 
west  or  east  coast  of  Newfoundland.  The  east  coast  boat 
runs  once  a  fortnight.  She  calls  at  many  points  along  the 
east  coast  of  Labrador  as  far  as  Nain,  in  lat.  56°,  and  also 
at  several  points  on  the  east  coast  of  Newfoundland.  The 
west  coast  boat  makes  weekly  trips,  starting  from  Bay  of 
Islands.  She  touches  at  ports  on  the  island,  crosses  the 
Strait,  and  visits  the  southern  shore  of  Labrador,  from 
Bonne  Esperance  to  Battle  Harbour,  at  the  entrance  to  the 
Strait  of  Belle  Isle.  Here  she  connects  with  the  east  coast 

37 


38  LABRADOR 

boat,  so  that  visitors  can  come  by  the  one  route  and  return 
by  the  other;  the  tickets  are  good  on  either  steamer.  St. 
John's  is  connected  with  Bay  of  Islands  by  direct  railway 
communication.1 

The  Reid-Newfoundland  Company  issue  an  illustrated 
" Souvenir"  of  Newfoundland.  This  contains  an  excellent 
map  of  all  the  routes  of  their  lines,  and  also  takes  in  the 
whole  coast  of  Newfoundland  and  the  Labrador  coast  as 
far  north  as  their  steamer  goes,  i.e.  to  Nain.  As  far  as 
Chateau  in  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle,  the  tourist  is  in  tele- 
graphic communication  with  the  outside  world  and  by  the 
Marconi  system  as  far  north  as  Hamilton  Inlet. 

St.  John's  is  easy  of  access  and  can  be  reached  from 
Liverpool  or  Glasgow  by  the  Allan  line  of  steamers.  The 
passage  takes  about  eight  days.  St.  John's  can  also  be 
reached  by  steamer  from  Halifax  by  the  Furness  line  or 
Red  Cross  line ;  from  New  York  direct  by  the  Red  Cross 
line ;  direct  from  Philadelphia  by  the  Allan  line ;  and  direct 
from  Montreal  by  the  Black  Diamond  Steamship  line.  If, 
however,  a  shorter  sea  passage  is  desired,  passengers  can  go 
via  Sydney,  Cape  Breton,  whence  a  steamer  connects  with 
the  trans-Newfoundland  Railway  at  Port-aux-Basques, 
accomplishing  the  short  sea  journey  in  six  or  seven  hours. 
The  railway  to  St.  John's  from  Port-aux-Basques  passes 
through  Bay  of  Islands,  the  starting-point  of  the  western 
boat  to  Labrador.  It  also  traverses  the  beautiful  valleys 
of  the  Humber  and  Cordroy  rivers. 

As  the  east  coast  Labrador  steamer  makes  about  a  hun- 

1  The  passenger  agent  at  St.  John's  for  the  Reid-Newfoundland 
Company  will  gladly  give  all  information  with  regard  to  means  of 
transit,  etc. 


TRAVELLED   ROUTES   TO  LABRADOR  39 

dred  calls  on  the  round  trip,  the  traveller  can  learn  much 
without  leaving  her.  But  if  he  wishes  really  to  see  Lab- 
rador, he  must  be  willing  to  give  more  time  to  it  than  the 
mere  hurried  round  trip  of  the  mail  steamers  can  afford 
him.  These  steamers  remain  but  a  very  short  time  at  each 
place,  and  do  not  visit  the  long  and  almost  unknown 
fiords  which  constitute  one  of  the  chief  attractions  of  the 
coast.  To  go  where  perhaps  the  foot  of  man  has  never 
trod,  to  wind  in  and  out  at  leisure  among  the  countless 
turns  and  twists  of  these  inlets,  never  knowing  what  one 
is  likely  to  meet  with  next,  adds  a  great  charm  to  a  holiday 
and  a  freshness  which  long  since  has  been  lost  by  most 
summer  resorts.  The  wildest,  least  known,  and  by  far  the 
grandest  fiords  are  all  north  of  Nain;  in  order  to  attain  a 
true  appreciation  of  scenic  Labrador,  one  ought  to  begin 
where  at  present  the  average  visitor  is  obliged  to  turn  back 
with  the  mail  steamer. 

Thus  to  enjoy  the  best  that  Labrador  has  to  offer,  and 
to  study  the  remarkable  features  which  among  all  the 
coasts  near  to  civilization  are  peculiar  to  "the  Labrador," 
one  must  be  able  to  linger  at  will  in  the  long  fiords,  push 
up  these  still  unnamed  and  almost  unknown  arms  of  the 
sea,  and  discover  for  oneself  new  coves  and  inlets  as  he 
coasts  along  them.  In  a  few,  but  only  a  very  few,  of  the 
northern  bays  and  fiords  one  may  occasionally  find  a 
solitary  salmon  fisherman.  Generally  the  visitor  may  en- 
joy with  Robinson  Crusoe  the  joy  of  being  monarch  of  all 
he  surveys.  Not  a  policeman,  nor  a  warning  "not  to  tres- 
pass" will  be  encountered.  No  advertising  fiend  has  yet 
succeeded  in  defacing  these  refreshing  wilds. 

In  Labrador  there  are  no  hotels  in  the  ordinary  meaning 


40  LABRADOR 

of  the  word.  Yet  there  is  not  a  single  place  touched  by  the 
mail  steamer  where  the  visitor  will  not  find  a  shelter  of  some 
sort.  The  ways  of  the  country  are  those  of  the  wilds,  and 
every  house  is  glad  to  offer  what  accommodation  it  can  to 
those  who  come  along.  The  Moravian  Brethren,  the  hos- 
pitals of  the  Royal  National  Mission  to  deep-sea  fishermen, 
the  larger  planters,  as  well  as  the  settlers,  are  always  glad 
to  help  a  visitor  along.  Naturally,  however,  if  one  wishes 
to  go  exploring,  hunting,  fishing,  or  doing  any  kind  of  work 
which  involves  going  far  from  the  mail  steamers,  it  is  best 
to  be  independent,  and  to  be  so  one  should  carry  a  tent 
and  light  camper's  outfit. 

Very  few  supplies  can  be  obtained  locally.  It  is  best  to 
rely  on  obtaining  nothing  beyond  flour,  sugar,  hard  bread, 
salt  meats,  and  one  or  two  of  the  commoner  foods,  such  as 
dry  peas,  etc. ;  these  can  be  obtained  at  almost  every  place 
where  the  mail  boat  stops.  Nor  must  one  count  on  getting 
canoes  or  light  boats  suitable  for  rivers  on  the  coast. 
Only  a  very  few  such  craft  exist.  It  is  far  better  to  take 
one's  own  boat  and  sell  off  at  the  end  of  the  trip,  for  craft 
of  this  sort  would  command  a  ready  market. 

Guides  can  be  obtained  for  most  of  the  outer  bays  if  they 
are  arranged  for  beforehand.  Since  the  summer-time  is 
the  only  season  in  which  most  Labrador  men  can  earn 
money,  arrangements  should  be  made  for  guides  and  crews 
during  the  preceding  winter  or  spring.  The  best  way  to  be 
sure  of  a  reliable  guide  is  to  write  to  the  agent  of  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company,  the  Moravian  Brethren  in  the  north,  or  the 
author  of  this  chapter.  All  are  glad  enough  to  assist  any 
one  planning  a  visit  to  the  coast  or  interior. 

The  best  way  of  all,  though  naturally  the  most  expen- 


TRAVELLED  ROUTES   TO   LABRADOR  41 

sive,  is  to  hire  a  schooner  or  a  small  steamer,  and  thus 
be  entirely  one's  own  master.  Few  yachts  have  ever 
visited  Labrador.  The  descriptions  given  of  the  welcome 
afforded  by  its  coast  to  small  vessels,  even  in  such  should-be 
authorities  as  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  are  so  poetical 
in  their  freedom  with  the  actual  facts,  that  they  are  not 
calculated  to  entice  any  one  who  is  bent  on  pleasure.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  if  the  charting  were  better,  there  could 
scarcely  be  a  safer  coast  for  the  amateur  skipper,  for  one 
can  get  a  harbour  in  every  stretch  of  ten  miles  along  the 
whole  length  of  the  Atlantic  coast.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
spend  a  single  night  at  sea  the  whole  way  from  the  Belle 
Isle  Strait  to  Cape  Chidley.  Flitting  from  harbour  to 
harbour,  one  can  easily  cover  the  entire  coast.1 

The  days  are  long  in  summer  in  these  latitudes,  and  at 
night  the  clear  atmosphere,  the  splendid  northern  lights, 
and  the  absence  of  strong  tidal  currents  (except  in  the 
extreme  north),  make  navigation  still  more  easy.  I  have 
cruised  the  coast  both  in  sailing  boat  and  steamer,  year 
after  year,  and  have  never  been  near  losing  a  life  yet. 
Three  parties  of  friends,  who  have  adopted  this  method  of 
visiting  Labrador  in  a  hired  schooner  (one  party  having 
come  two  summers  in  succession),  all  give  the  same  testi- 
mony.2 The  fishermen  who  visit  this  coast  year  after  year 
can  give  similar  evidence ;  thousands  of  men,  women,  and 
children  have  for  many  years  been  cruising  the  outside  coast 

1  With  one  man  in  an  open  dingey  I  have,  with  comparative  com- 
fort, traversed  the  coast  from  Battle  Harbour  to  Rigolet,  a  distance 
of  two  hundred  miles. 

2  The  gentlemen  referred  to  are  Americans  from  Boston,  Mass., 
Concord,  N.H.,  and  Providence,  R.I.,  respectively. 


42  LABRADOR 

in  summer  as  far  as  lat.  56°  north  and  some  as  far  as  Hud- 
son Strait.  These  people  come  down  from  both  sides  of 
Newfoundland  in  sailing  craft  of  every  conceivable  kind, 
many  sailing  in  vessels  under  twenty  tons,  and  some  in  open 
skiffs.  Yet  it  is  very  rare  to  hear  of  any  having  been  lost 
from  stress  of  weather.  The  dangers  of  the  ice  have  simply 
been  ridiculously  exaggerated.  The  one  or  two  cases  where 
collisions  with  ice  have  occurred  have  been  due  to  the 
fisherman's  hastening  along  on  dark  nights  in  order  to 
reach  a  fishing  station  sooner  than  another  vessel.  In 
fact,  these  accidents  are  due  to  the  contempt  bred  of  famil- 
iarity, and  to  the  consequent  boldness  which  no  pleasure 
party  would  ever  dream  of  displaying. 

The  want  of  charting  can  be  entirely  made  up  for  by  the 
knowledge  of  these  fishermen,  who  can  readily  be  shipped 
as  part  of  the  crew,  acting  as  pilots  at  the  same  time.  Nor 
is  this  knowledge  so  marvellous  after  all,  when  one  con- 
siders the  number  of  times  that  they  have  navigated  these 
same  waters,  and  that  they  have  sounded  almost  every 
part  of  it  again  and  again  with  their  hand-lines  as  they 
fish  year  after  year  along  the  coast.  Moreover,  the  cliffs 
are  generally  so  steep-to  that  the  bowsprit  would  strike 
before  the  keel.  Poor  anchors  and  chains  are  the  causes 
of  almost  all  our  losses.  Only  when  it  comes  to  the  inside 
calm  waters  up  the  fiords,  where,  as  a  rule,  the  Newfound- 
landers do  not  go  after  fish,  does  their  local  knowledge  come 
to  an  end,  and  the  pleasure  of  exploring  for  oneself  begins. 
But  as  the  water  is  then  necessarily  sheltered  from  any 
possible  swell  from  the  Atlantic,  and  as  an  anchor  can  at 
a  pinch  be  dropped  anywhere,  the  danger  to  life  becomes 
almost  absolutely  nil.  In  the  fiords  it  is  often  impossible 


TRAVELLED  ROUTES   TO  LABRADOR  43 

to  strike  bottom;  if  you  should  wish  to  do  that,  your  bow- 
sprit will  keep  you  off  the  land.  Even  supposing  that  you 
were  to  strike  and  lose  the  schooner,  you  have  only  to 
launch  the  jolly-boat  and  row  ashore. 

A  forty-ton  schooner  with  a  crew  of  four  hands  could  be 
obtained  for  $100  per  week,  or  less  —  a  sum  which  would 
include  food  for  the  crew,  the  insurance,  and  all  charges. 
As  such  a  vessel  will  easily  accommodate  a  party  of  four  or 
five,  the  expenses,  considering  the  nature  of  the  holiday, 
cannot  be  considered  heavy.  The  lessor  of  the  schooner 
would  have  to  be  guaranteed  probably  a  ten  weeks'  mini- 
mum hire.  It  is  possible  to  hire  a  schooner  for  a  lump 
sum  to  include  everything.1 

If  time  is  a  great  object,  the  best  way  would  be  to  send 
the  schooner  on  to  Labrador  and  meet  her  there  in  the  mail 
steamer.  This  would  obviate  the  only  open  sea  that  is 
more  than  one  could  be  sure  of  compassing  in  a  day's  run; 
namely,  the  journey  from  St.  John's  to  Battle  Harbour. 
After  that  it  is  perfectly  easy  to  harbour  every  night. 
As  one  travels  farther  north,  the  number  of  off -lying  islands 
increases  considerably,  and  for  a  hundred  miles  at  a  time 
one  can  pursue  his  journey  along  the  coast  with  an  "in- 
side" passage.  From  Cape  Harrigan  in  lat.  55°  north  to 
Cape  Mugford  in  lat.  58°  north,  the  voyage  can  be  made 
almost  without  seeing  the  open  sea.  The  last  thirty  miles 
to  Cape  Chidley  Island  is  again  all  inside,  and  the  vessel 
can  then  be  sailed  on  into  Ungava  Bay  through  a  strait  on 
the  south  side  of  the  island.  It  may  be  noted  that  the 
tides,  such  as  they  are,  set  almost  uniformly  to  the  south- 

1  Mr.  W.  H.  Peters,  St.  John's,  has  arranged  such  a  trip  and  is 
prepared  to  assist  any  one  wishing  to  make  a  similar  expedition. 


44  LABRADOR 

ward,  so  that  however  hard  it  may  be  to  beat  against  head 
winds  to  the  northward,  it  is  always  easy  to  get  back  again. 
Fire-wood  for  camping  purposes  can  be  obtained  every- 
where south  of  Cape  Mugf ord ;  with  a  little  care  and  fore- 
sight the  fuel  question  need  offer  no  difficulty. 

After  many  years'  cruising  the  coast  as  master  of  my 
own  vessel,  after  having  visited  the  coasts  of  Norway  and 
Iceland,  as  well  as  having  coasted  all  round  the  British 
Isles,  I  consider  that  none  of  these  European  shores  offers 
a  more  fascinating  and  safer  field  for  pleasure  cruising  than 
the  coast  of  Labrador.  Everywhere  the  coast  is  bold-to, 
and  if  disaster  overtakes  a  pleasure  vessel  in  the  summer 
months,  it  is  due  to  negligence  or  to  bad  tackle  for  holding 
or  running  gear. 

If  the  visitor  to  Labrador  desires  scenery  of  a  wild  and 
rocky  nature,  he  should  certainly  aim  for  the  northern  half 
of  the  northeast  coast.  At  Nain  the  cliffs  are  already 
beginning  to  rise  to  heights  which  cannot  fail  to  delight 
the  eye  and  to  stimulate  the  imagination.  From  that 
point  on,  the  sheer  precipices  increase  in  number  and  im- 
pressiveness  until,  at  Port  Manvers,  they  rise  two  thousand 
feet  out  of  the  sea ;  at  Cape  Mugf  ord,  three  thousand  feet ; 
at  the  Moravian  Mission  station,  Ramah,  thirty-five  hun- 
dred feet;  while  the  mountains  rising  direct  from  sea- 
level  in  the  Nachvak  region  are  over  four  thousand  feet  in 
height.  One  of  the  finest  of  the  great  mountain-blocks  is 
that  at  Cape  White  Handkerchief  —  so  named  from  •  a 
large  mass  of  white  rock  in  the  face  of  this  stupendous 
promontory.  At  the  head  of  Seven  Islands  Bay  are  the 
highest  mountains  in  Labrador,  known  as  the  "Four 
Peaks."  So  far  as  known,  no  white  man  has  ever  climbed 


TRAVELLED  ROUTES   TO  LABRADOR  45 

any  one  of  these  hornlike,  rocky  piles :  their  heights  have 
been  variously  estimated  at  from  six  to  ten  thousand  feet. 
The  probable  heights  seem  to  be  from  six  thousand  to 
seven  thousand  feet. 

Many  of  the  beautiful  inlets  in  the  southern  half  of  this 
coast  maybe  explored  with  small,  open  boats  or  even  with 
canoes.  Some  of  the  inlets  can  be  easily  reached  by  leav- 
ing the  mail  steamer  at  Fanny's  Harbour,  Cape  Harrigan, 
or  Davis  Inlet  (the  Hudson's  Bay  Company's  name  for 
Ukasiksalik) .  First,  there  is  Jack  Lane's  Bay,  with  a 
salmon  river  at  its  head;  then,  a  few  miles  farther  north, 
Jem  Lane's  Bay,  beyond  which  there  begin  hundreds  of 
miles  of  winding,  interlacing  fiords  and  channels  (" tickles"). 
Such  inside  passages  thread  among  a  long  and  wide  island- 
breastwork  along  the  coast ;  many  months  could  be  spent 
in  exploring  these  waters.  The  wooded  sides  of  the  narrow, 
steep-sided  " tickles"  not  only  give  their  own  touch  of 
beauty  to  the  landscapes,  but  afford  cover  to  animals  of 
various  sorts.  At  Hopedale  one  has  access  to  several  long 
bays  reaching  up  into  the  interior :  at  the  head  of  the  near- 
est bay  is  a  large  and  beautiful  waterfall.  Farther  south 
the  bays  bearing  the  following  names  will  well  repay  visits : 
Kaipokak,  Makkovik,  Kanairiktok,  Stag  Bay,  Hamilton 
Inlet,  Sandwich  Bay,  Hawke's  Bay,  Alexis  River  Bay,  and 
Lewis  Bay.  To  reach  them  the  visitor  should  leave  the 
steamer  at  the  respective  points :  West  Turnavik;  Makko- 
vik Island,  Hopedale,  Cape  Harrison,  Rigolet,  Cartwright, 
Boulter's  Rock,  Square  Island,  and  Battle  Harbour. 

But  the  universal  attraction  of  the  coast  —  the  ever 
changing  glory  of  the  atmosphere  —  cannot  be  localized  or 
described.  Colour  is  everywhere,  with  a  gamut  that  few 


46  LABRADOR 

parts  of  the  world  can  equal.  From  the  hilltops  the  land 
is  a  giant  opal,  changing,  in  a  million  moods,  from  the 
tenderest  gray  or  blue,  through  vivid  emerald  or  most 
royal  purples,  to  the  unsurpassed  gold  and  reds  of  the  long 
twilights  and  dawns.  In  the  summer  season  north  of 
Hamilton  Inlet  the  sky  is  seldom  clouded  over  completely, 
and  cumulus,  stratus,  or  ocean  mist  simply  enhance  the  in- 
imitable play  of  nature's  colouring.  Thunder-storms  are 
very  rare;  when  one  of  these  storms,  coming  from  the 
west,  does  pass  out  to  sea,  it  may  be  an  event  in  'one's  life. 
I  shall  never  forget  one  dark  night  when  the  huge  cliffs  of 
Mugford  Tickle  through  which  we  steamed,  and  a  group  of 
great  icebergs  stranded  at  their  feet,  leapt  out  of  the  black- 
ness as  stroke  after  stroke  of  lightning  blazed  from  the 
clouds.  It  seemed  that  one  could  scarcely  imagine  a  sight 
more  thoroughly  awe-inspiring.  Even  the  short  nights 
of  the  summer  and  early  autumn  are  blest  with  light  and 
exquisite  colour,  for  the  auroral  displays  are,  on  this  coast, 
among  the  most  frequent  and  extensive  of  all  those  re- 
corded throughout  the  world.  Very  often,  beneath  this 
strange  sky,  the  sea  is  intensely  phosphorescent ;  the  traveller 
by  night  may  find  endless  entertainment,  watching  from 
the  bow  of  his  moving  vessel  the  weird  lights  set  flashing 
by  schools  of  frightened  fish. 

If  the  visitor  seeks  large  rivers  for  exploration  by  canoe, 
he  can  find  a  good  number,  and  all  are  well  stocked  with 
salmon  and  trout.  Trout  are  known  always  to  be  taken 
with  the  fly,  but  beyond  the  latitude  of  53°  50'  north,  little 
fly-fishing  has  been  attempted,  and  contrary  reports  are 
given  as  to  the  measure  of  success  in  getting  salmon  to 
rise.  The  noblest  of  the  rivers  is,  of  course,  the  Hamilton, 


TRAVELLED  ROUTES   TO  LABRADOR  47 

at  the  head  of  Melville  Lake  (Hamilton  Inlet) ;  this  river 
will  be  specially  described  in  Dr.  Low's  chapter  on  "  Ham- 
ilton River  and  Grand  Falls." 

For  hunting,  the  places  least  disturbed  by  man  are 
naturally  apt  to  be  the  best.  In  the  autumn  almost  all 
the  bays  abound  in  geese  and  ducks.  One  may  be  rather 
sure  of  geese  at  the  entrance  to  Hamilton  Inlet,  at  the  head 
of  Lane's  Bay,  at  the  entrance  of  Table  Bay,  in  Goose  Bay 
near  Cartwright,  and  in  Byron's  Bay.  Other  likely  places 
are  Partridge  and  Rocky  bays,  and  also  at  all  the  flats  near 
the  mouths  of  the  big  rivers.  The  autumn  deer-hunting 
is,  so  far  as  known  to  me,  most  likely  to  be  successful  in 
Davis  Inlet,  on  the  hills  about  Nain,  inside  Cape  Mugford, 
at  the  head  of  Makkovik  Bay  and  on  the  hills  above  Stag 
Bay  and  False  Bay.  After  Christmas  deer  are  to  be  found 
in  abundance  within  reach  of  the  settlers  on  the  southern 
part  of  the  coast.  Black  bears  are  most  likely  to  be  en- 
countered where  the  settlers  are  fewest  in  number  and  where 
the  caplin  come  to  the  land-wash  near  the  woods.  Many 
bears  are  killed  every  year  in  Hawke's  Bay.  They  are  also 
found  in  the  fiords  between  Davis  Inlet  and  Nain.  White 
bears  are  found  in  small  numbers  on  the  northern  parts  of 
the  coast,  where  they  remain  all  summer  to  feed  on  the 
eggs  and  young  of  the  countless  ducks  and  geese. 

Those  who  wish  to  study  the  Eskimo  should  go  to  Nain, 
and  then  farther  north.  To  see  them  in  anything  like 
their  primitive  condition  one  should  go  as  far  as  Ramah, 
and,  if  possible,  to  Nachvak  and  Ungava.  In  the  northern 
fiords  are  many  relics  of  the  stone-age  out  of  which  these 
people  are  just  passing;  many  articles  of  ancient  make  may 
be  found  by  travelling  in  the  gravel-beaches.  To  see  the 


48  LABRADOR 

Nascaupee  or  Montagnais  Indians  one  should  seek  for  them 
at  Northwest  River  or  at  Davis  Inlet  whither  they  come 
to  trade  their  furs. 

Studies  in  geology,  botany,  and  mineralogy  can,  of  course, 
be  pursued  anywhere.  The  formations  north  of  Nain 
seem  to  offer  most  prospect  of  commercial  ores.  An  iron- 
deposit  has  been  worked  near  Ramah ;  gold  has  been  found 
near  Cartwright ;  mica,  at  Paradise  and  at  Boulter's  Rocks  ; 
antimony,  near  Eagle  River;  and  copper,  near  Cape  Mug- 
ford.  No  lasting  mining  operations  have  been  begun. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE   PHYSIOGRAPHY   OF  LABRADOR 
BY  W.  T.  GRENFELL 

IT  is  probable  that  the  readers  of  this  book  are,  as  a  rule, 
most  interested  in  the  drama  of  human  life  as,  year  after  year, 
it  is  being  played  out  in  this  strange  land  of  Labrador. 
For  this  very  reason  one  may  well  pause  beforehand  to 
review  the  physical  features  of  the  peninsula;  in  an  in- 
timate way  and  often  in  spectacular  fashion  the  Labra- 
dorman's  daily  life  is  controlled  by  natural  conditions. 
The  simplicity  and  wholesomeness  of  that  life  are  chiefly 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  men  of  the  country  are  always 
close  to  nature.  These  essential  traits  of  fine  character 
are  growing  every  day  in  the  youth  of  Labrador  much 
as  the  myriad  of  exquisite  flowers  deck  its  hills  during  the 
glory  of  summer;  both  man  and  plant  are  rooted  in  the 
soil  or  grip  the  native  rocks,  their  home  by  the  sea.  This 
chapter  is  intended  to  furnish  a  brief  outline  of  the  physi- 
ography. Since  the  northeast  coast  is  from  many  aspects 
the  most  interesting  part,  a  following  chapter  will  supply 
additional  details  on  that  region;  in  that  chapter  a  brief 
summary  of  the  geological  development  of  the  whole 
peninsula  is  also  included.  The  scenic  importance  of  the 
Grand  Falls  of  Hamilton  River  demands  a  chapter  which 
incidentally  describes  many  typical  features  of  the  interior. 

E  49 


50  LABRADOR 

Dr.  A.  P.  Low,  now  Deputy  Minister  of  Mines  in  Canada, 
is  the  chief  authority  on  the  geography  of  the  interior. 
He  alone  has  published  much  on  that  greater  part  of  the 
peninsula.  His  truly  wonderful  trips  through  the  length 
and  breadth  of  Labrador  were  signalized  as  much  by  the 
success  attained  as  by  the  absence  of  mishaps  on  his  long 
and  hazardous  journeys.  To  see  the  interior  one  must 
understand  travelling.  Mr.  Low's  trips  show  that  much 
good  work  can  be  done  with  little  fuss,  and  that  no  ob- 
stacles to  exploration  exist  which  foresight  will  not  over- 
come. Using  his  simple  but  effective  and  essential  rules 
of  outfitting  and  living  on  the  way,  other  men  will  repeat 
his  traverses  and  add  many  new  ones,  until  finally  Labra- 
dor is  really  and  thoroughly  known.  Meantime,  I  am 
glad  to  be  able  to  supply  from  Mr.  Low's  own  pen  a  short 
account  of  his  findings  in  the  interior.  He  writes :  — 

"The  peninsula  of  Labrador  has  an  area  of  more  than 
five  hundred  thousand  square  miles.  It  is  an  ancient 
plateau  formed  of  crystalline  rocks  which  were  folded  up 
and  elevated  above  the  sea  in  a  very  early  period  in  geo- 
logical history.  The  plateau  rises  abruptly  from  the  sea 
along  the  Atlantic  and  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  while 
the  northern  and  western  slopes  are  much  more  gentle. 
The  main  watershed  of  southern  Labrador  is  about  two 
hundred  miles  north  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  where  the  general 
level  is  about  two  thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  As  con- 
trolled by  the  southern  position  of  the  watershed  and  by 
the  range  of  mountains  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  the  greater 
part  of  the  drainage  is  to  the  north  and  west,  into  Hudson 
Bay  and  Hudson  Strait,  and  the  largest  rivers  flow  in  those 
directions. 

"The  surface  of  the  interior  is  comparatively  level, 
being  broken  by  low,  rounded  ridges  of  crystalline  rocks, 


THE  PHTSIOGEAPHT  OF  LABRADOR  51 

which  seldom  rise  three  hundred  feet  above  the  general 
level,  and  are  usually  much  lower.  These  ridges  lie  roughly 
parallel;  some  of  them  being  many  miles  in  length,  but 
as  a  rule,  they  die  out  in  less  than  ten  miles,  so  that  the  low 
land  between  forms  a  network  of  connected,  shallow  valleys. 
The  general  surface  is  further  modified  by  low  ridges  of 
glacial  drift,  whose  direction  corresponds  with  the  general 
slope  of  the  country.  These  ridges  have  resulted  from  the 
transportation  and  movement  of  the  loose  surface  material 
by  the  glacier,  which  once  covered  almost  the  entire  surface 
of  the  peninsula.  They  have  largely  obliterated  the  ancient 
drainage  systems  of  the  central  area,  where  the  present 
watercourses  are  all  of  recent  origin.  The  valleys  separat- 
ing the  ridges  are  occupied  by  innumerable  irregularly 
shaped  lakes,  which  vary  in  size  from  ponds  to  lakes  hun- 
dreds of  square  miles  in  extent.  The  lakes  of  each  valley 
are  connected  by  a  stream,  usually  with  a  rapid  current 
and  without  definite  banks,  following  the  lowest  levels  of 
the  surface  between  lake  and  lake.  As  the  streams  be- 
come larger  they  are  often  split  into  numerous  channels  by 
large  islands ;  many  of  the  lakes  discharge  by  two  or  more 
outlets  flowing  into  the  next  lake  below.  There  results 
a  bewildering  network  of  waterways  hard  to  follow  or  map. 
These  streams  are  seldom  broken  by  falls ;  and  as  an  ex- 
ample of  the  uniformity  of  the  grade,  it  may  be  mentioned 
that  the  Hamilton  River  above  the  Grand  Falls  can  be 
ascended  to  the  heads  of  both  its  main  branches  without 
a  portage.  The  rivers  as  they  approach  the  coast  fall  into 
ancient  valleys  which  have  been  sculptured  deep  into  the 
hard  rocks  forming  the  general  surface  of  the  plateau. 
The  Hamilton  Valley  is  the  finest  example ;  cut  a  thousand 
feet  into  the  plateau,  it  extends  three  hundred  miles  inland, 
and  greatly  exceeds  the  Saguenay  Valley  in  length  and 
grandeur. 

"The    peninsula,    extending    northward    through    ten 
degrees  of  latitude,  differs  greatly  in  climate,  and  passes 


52  LABRADOR 

from  cold  temperate  in  its  southern  parts  to  sub-Arctic 
on  the  shores  of  Hudson  Strait.  The  climate  of  the  in- 
terior is  Arctic  in  winter,  but  during  the  short  summer  is 
much  warmer  than  the  coast,  with  hot  days,  cool  nights, 
and  occasional  frosts,  so  that  heavy  blankets  are  always 
comfortable.  The  annual  rainfall  is  not  heavy,  and  during 
the  summer  heavy  rains  are  rare ;  light  showers  fall  almost 
daily,  but  are  not  very  inconvenient  to  the  traveller.  The 
northern  limit  of  trees  extends  to  the  southern  shores  of 
Ungava  Bay.  About  the  upper  waters  of  Hamilton  River, 
the  valleys  are  thickly  wooded  with  small  spruce,  fir,  aspen, 
and  poplar,  while  the  hills  are  partly  bare.  There  is  a 
marked  absence  of  underbrush,  the  ground  being  carpeted 
with  white  lichens  on  the  higher  parts  and  with  mosses  in 
the  damp  lowlands.  Blueberries  and  other  small  fruits 
are  abundant  in  the  burnt  areas  and  along  the  banks  of 
streams. 

"  Owing  to  the  high  coastal  range  along  the  Atlantic, 
the  only  large  rivers  flowing  eastward  empty  into  the  head 
of  Hamilton  Inlet,  which  itself  is  cut  through  the  range. 
The  Hamilton  River  is  by  far  the  largest  of  these;  next 
in  size  is  Northwest  River,  the  outlet  of  Lake  Michikamou, 
a  very  large  body  of  water  some  three  hundred  miles  inland 
to  the  northwest.  The  Kenamow  is  the  third,  and  flows 
from  the  highlands  to  the  southwest. 

"Some  knowledge  of  the  interior  of  Labrador  was  pos- 
sessed by  the  French  in  1700,  as  shown  by  the  map  pub- 
lished at  Paris,  by  Delisle,  in  1703.  This  information  was 
probably  obtained  from  Jesuit  missionaries  and  fur  traders. 
By  1733,  seven  fur-trading  posts  had  been  established  along 
the  north  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  in  the 
southern  interior. 

"The  fight  for  the  fur  trade,  between  the  Northwest 
Company  and  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  lasting  from 
shortly  after  the  conquest  of  Canada  until  1820,  led  to  the 
establishment  of  many  small  posts  and  outposts  far  in  the 


THE  PHYSIOGRAPHY   OF  LABRADOR  53 

interior  of  Labrador.  The  amalgamation  of  these  rival 
companies  led  to  the  abandonment  of  many  of  these  small 
posts,  of  which  all  trace  is  now  lost. 

"In  1824,  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  sent  Dr.  Mendrys 
from  Moose  Factory  on  Hudson  Bay,  across  the  peninsula 
in  canoes,  to  establish  Fort  Chimo  on  Ungava  Bay.  This 
trip  was  the  basis  of  Ballantyne's  popular  story,  Ungava. 

"At  the  same  time  James  Clouston  was  mapping  the 
country  between  the  Nottaway  and  East  Main  rivers, 
which  flow  into  Hudson  Bay.  The  next  record  of  explora- 
tion is  contained  in  Twenty-Jive  Years  in  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Territory  by  John  McLean.  In  the  period  1838-1840  he 
made  annual  trips  from  Fort  Chimo  to  Hamilton  Inlet, 
and  on  one  trip  discovered  the  Grand  Falls  of  Hamilton 
River.  In  1857  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  had  nine 
posts  and  outposts  established  in  the  country  north  of 
the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  Owing  to  changes  in  the  con- 
ditions of  the  Indians,  these  posts  have  been  gradually 
abandoned,  and  but  two,  Nichicun  and  Mistassini,  remain 
at  the  present  time.  These  are  situated  on  the  head 
waters  of  the  Big  and  Rupert  rivers,  which  flow  into  Hud- 
son Bay,  and  are  not  within  the  province  of  this  book. 
The  old  posts  of  Nascaupee,  Michikamou,  and  Winokapau 
on  the  Hamilton  River  were  abandoned  in  1873,  and  the 
Indians  belonging  to  them  now  trade  at  posts  on  the  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence. 

"With  the  closing  of  the  trading  posts  all  knowledge  of 
the  interior  was  lost,  and  it  can  only  be  recovered  by  new 
explorations.  In  1887,  R.  F.  Holmes  attempted  to  reach 
the  Grand  Falls  of  the  Hamilton,  but  being  without  proper 
canoes  and  crew,  only  reached  Lake  Winokapau,  a  little 
over  halfway  up  the  river.  Two  separate  expeditions 
from  the  United  States  ascended  to  the  Grand  Falls  within 
a  few  days  of  each  other  in  1891,  and  accounts  of  their  trips 
were  published  in  the  geographical  journals  and  in  the 
Century  Magazine. 


54        ,  LABRADOR 

"  Since  1885  the  writer  has  made  a  number  of  trips 
through  the  interior  and  along  the  northern  and  western 
coasts,  reports  of  which  are  published  by  the  Canadian 
Geological  Survey. 

"This  in  a  few  words  is  the  available  knowledge  con- 
cerning the  history  of  the  vast  interior  of  Labrador;  our 
information  has  been  wholly  derived  from  a  few  portage 
routes  travelled  by  the  voyageurs  of  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company  to  and  from  the  coast  and  from  a  few  surveyed 
tracks  along  the  principal  watercourses  by  government 
explorers  and  others." 

One  quarter  of  the  whole  surface  of  Labrador  is  estimated 
to  be  covered  with  fresh  water.  Vast  lakes  are  so  joined 
by  an  intersecting  network  of  rivers  that  it  is  possible  to 
canoe  over  most  of  the  country  with  astonishingly  few 
portages  of  length.  For  example,  a  voyager  can  enter 
the  Manikuagan  River  at  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  in  lat. 
49°  15'  north,  travel  about  three  hundred  miles  to  Summit 
Lake  in  lat.  53°  north,  cross  the  lake  and  on  the  opposite 
side  enter  the  Koksoak  River,  and,  proceeding  another 
four  hundred  miles,  come  out  in  Ungava  Bay  in  lat.  58°  5' 
north.  These  distances,  it  may  be  noted,  are  in  the  air- 
line; following  the  turn&  of  the  rivers  the  distances  are 
nearly  twice  as  great  as  those  given.  Or,  again,  one  can 
enter  Hamilton  Inlet,  proceed  about  one  hundred  and  fifty 
miles  to  the  mouth  of  Hamilton  River  in  long.  60°  west, 
follow  it  to  its  source  some  six  hundred  miles  to  the  west- 
ward, cross  by  a  short  portage  to  the  head  of  Big  River, 
and  follow  that  stream  about  seven  hundred  miles  farther 
westward,  to  its  mouth  in  Hudson  Bay  in  long.  79°  west. 
Probably  in  no  country  of  equal  area  can  exploration  by 
canoe  be  carried  on  with  so  few  portages. 


THE  PHYSIOGRAPHY  OF  LABRADOR  55 

The  maps  showing  Mr.  Low's  traverses  are  published  by 
the  Geological  Survey  Department  at  Ottawa,  Canada; 
they  are  the  only  reliable  maps  of  any  part  of  the  interior. 

The  distances  along  the  coast-lines  of  the  peninsula 
are  truly  " magnificent."  The  air-line  stretch  from  Battle 
Harbour  to  Cape  Chidley  on  the  northeast  coast  is  seven 
hundred  miles;  following  the  sinuosities  the  shore-line  is 
doubtless  three  to  four  times  as  long.  From  Cape  Chidley 
to  Cape  Wolstenholme  (the  north  coast)  is  about  five  hun- 
dred miles  as  the  crow  would  fly,  if  he  could  live  up  there. 
From  Cape  Wolstenholme  to  the  bottom  of  James  Bay  is 
another  eight  hundred  miles,  while  the  south  coast  is  ap- 
proximately seven  hundred  miles,  also  in  a  straight  line. 
Thousands  of  miles  of  additional  shore-line  are  represented 
in  the  numerous  inlets  and  in  the  literally  thousands  of 
islands  along  the  southern  and  northeastern  coasts.  The 
relative  accessibility  of  the  coasts,  coupled  with  the  fact 
that  fisheries  will  long  be  the  principal  industry  of  the 
country,  makes  it  expedient  to  use  more  space  in  the  de- 
scription of  these  parts  of  the  peninsula.  Besides  the 
physiography  described  in  the  special  chapter  on  the 
northeast  coast,  I  shall  here  add  some  notes  derived  from 
my  own  exploration  of  the  northern  fiords. 

If  one  could  and  should  accurately  picture  the  fiords,  it 
would  mean  that  half  the  interest  of  the  visitors  in  these 
northern  waters  would  be  lost.  The  romance  of  these 
wonderful  cleavages  in  the  mountains  largely  consists 
in  the  feeling  one  has  that,  when  he  turns  a  corner,  no 
man  has  told  him  what  will  next  meet  the  eye.  The  study 
of  the  fiords  has  only  just  begun ;  all  that  I  can  do  is  to  give 
some  indication  as  to  general  location,  lengths,  and  con- 


56 


LABRADOR 


1905.  ^oaio/5-10/.  reported  by 
Scylla.  I  have  repeatedly  sounded 
the  channel  and  especially  in  1907 
I  could  find  no  point  leas  than  15 
/.  in  the  middle. 


LI»MS    ENGRAVING    CO., 


250-300  ft. 


SKETCH  PLAN  AND 
SOUNDINGS  OF  TICKLE 

BETWEEN 

CAPE  CHIDLEY  ISLAND 
AND  LABRADOR 

SCALE   OF  GEOGRAPHICAL  MILES 

0  23 


THE  PHYSIOGEAPHY  OF  LABRADOR 


57 


tours  of  a  few  of  them.  Of  the  thirty  or  more  larger  fiords 
a  few  will  be  noted,  beginning  at  the  most  northerly  one 
on  the  Atlantic  coast.  Some  stress  will  be  laid  on  the 
landmarks  which  may  be  of  service  to  future  explorers 
in  the  far  north. 

South  of  Cape  Chidley  Island  is  the  channel  connecting 
Ungava   Bay   with   the   Atlantic.     Separated   from   that 


FIG.  1.    CAPE  CHIDLEY 

1.   1950  ft.  —  Mt.  Sir  Donald  on  south  side  of  Grenfell  Tickle;  2.   The  cape;  3.  Post 
tion  of  Killinik;    4.  East  coast  of  Labrador;    5.   Gray  Straits. 

channel  for  some  ten  miles  only  by  a  narrow,  rocky  ridge, 
is  a  long  inlet  which  I  explored  .in  the  small  steamer  Sir 
Donald  during  the  year  1897.  We  entered  this  inlet  while 
searching  for  the  channel  above  mentioned.  We  steamed 
up  about  ten  miles,  the  water  being,  as  usual,  deep  on  both 
sieves.  Finding  at  that  distance  a  good  circular  harbour 
on  the  north  side,  we  dropped  anchor  in  good  mud  at  six 
fathoms.  We  thence  scaled  the  highest  hill  on  the  north 
side,  finding  the  summit  too  precipitous  to  ascend  until  we 
reached  its  southwest  shoulder.  The  summit  was  found 
to  be  only  about  nineteen  hundred  and  fifty  feet  above  sea, 
but  it  commanded  a  glorious  view.  We  could  see  Ungava 
Bay  in  the  west,  the  Button  Islands  in  the  north;  to  the 
east,  the  Atlantic  beset  with  numerous  islands;  to  the 
south,  a  great  array  of  the  rugged  peaks  stretching  away 


58 


LABRADOR 


indefinitely  into  the  mainland.  We  built  a  cairn  on  this 
peak  and  named  it  "  Mount  Sir  Donald."  Running  an- 
other ten  miles,  toward  the  north-northwest,  we  reached 
a  point  in  the  inlet,  where  it  is  separated  from  a  similar 
inlet  from  Ungava  Bay  only  by  a  low  neck  of  land.  The 
main  bay  continues  to  the  southwestward  —  how  far,  I  am 


FIG.  2.    THE  CURVE  IN  GRENFELL  TICKLE 
1.   Chidley  Island;    2.   Mt.  Sir  Donald;   3.   Cairn. 

unable  to  say.  On  a  second  visit  to  this  fiord  we  found 
three  families  of  Eskimo  camped  on  its  shore;  there  are 
remains  of  ancient  Eskimo  encampments  on  the  flats. 
This  is  an  excellent  ground  on  which  to  search  for  stone 
relics. 

Threading  the  islands  for  a  distance  of  ten  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  this  fiord,  another  inlet  opens.  It  is  marked  on 
the  Admiralty  chart  under  the  name  "Ekortiarsuk." 
I  have  never  entered  it,  nor  have  I  record  of  its  exploration 
by  a  single  white  man;  the  inlet  is  reported,  however, 
to  wind  away  among  the  mountains  for  thirty  miles. 

Fifteen  miles  to  the  south-southwest  is  Mount  Bache 


THE  PHYSIOGRAPHY  OF  LABRADOR  59 

and  the  northern  end  of  the  fiord-like  Eclipse  Channel, 
which  lies  between  the  mainland  and  the  large  island 
"  Aulatzevik."  Halfway  through,  this  channel  is  blocked  by 
ledges  of  rock,  so  that  only  small  boats  can  pass.  The 
Eskimo,  in  order  to  avoid  the  journey  in  the  open  ocean 
outside  Aulatzevik,  regularly  use  the  channel  for  their 
skin  boats.  The  mountains  on  each  side  of  the  channel 


FIG.  3.     REGION  OF  ECLIPSE  COAST 

1.  CapeNaksarektok;  2.  Cape  Nullataktok;  3.  Islands  off  Komaktorvik;  4.  Cape 
north  of  Seven  Islands;  5.  South  end  of  Strand;  6.  South  side  Ryan's  Bay; 
7.  Cape  Territok;  8.  North  cape  of  False  Bay;  9.  Mt.  Bache. 

vary  from  two  to  three  thousand  feet  in  height.  Aulatze- 
vik is  divided  by  a  through-going  valley,  occupied  in  part 
by  a  long  bay  and,  for  the  rest,  by  a  string  of  small  lakes. 
The  bay  offers  excellent  anchorage.  The  American  eclipse 
expedition  of  1860  has  published  a  chart  of  the  island  and 
)" tickle"  (channel),  but  it  does  not  show  this  harbour 
on  the  southern  end  of  the  island.  Just  west  of  the  entrance 
to  the  harbour  there  is  a  remarkable  natural  landmark, 
a  sketch  of  which  is  given  in  Figure  4.  The  landmark 
may  be  useful  to  any  one  making  the  land  here,  for  the 
peak  is  plainly  visible  from  the  sea ;  I  have  called  the  peak 
"Castle  Mountain/'  since  it  greatly  resembles  an  old  ba- 


60 


LABRADOR 


ronial  castle  perched  high  on  a  semi-isolated  spur  of  the 
general  range  facing  the  sea.  Care  must  be  taken  in  ap- 
proaching the  northern  entrance,  for  there  are,  besides 
several  very  small  islands,  some  " nasty"  shoals  lying  be- 
tween east  and  northeast  of  Mount  Bache.  Beyond  these 
shoals  there  are  some  larger  islands,  one  of  which  has  an 


FIG.  4.     VIEW  FROM  SEA  OFF  SOUTHERN  SIDE  OF  BIG  BAY 

1.  Eclipse  —  North  entrance;      2.   Castle  Mountain;      3.   A  green   grassy  point; 
4.  By  waterfall. 

excellent  harbour  on  the  western  side.  These  we  have 
called  the  Mettek  Islands,  i.e.  Eider-duck  Islands.  In 
1903  Mr.  George  Ford  of  Nachvak,  with  two  Eskimo, 
visited  the  islands  during  the  breeding  season.  The  birds 
were  so  thick  on  the  ground  that  Mr.  Ford  had  difficulty  in 
finding  enough  space  free  of  nests  or  eggs  on  which  to  place 
his  sleeping-bag.  The  men  took  away  twenty-five  hundred 
eggs,  but  when  they  left  the  eggs  were  as  abundant  as 
ever;  the  eider-duck  is  a  most  industrious  bird.  I  have 
found  the  cod  abundant  among  the  shoals  hereabouts  in 
late  August. 
About  five  miles  to  the  south  of  the  southern  entrance, 


THE  PHYSIOGRAPHY  OF  LABRADOR  61 

and  beyond  the  mouth  of  the  bay  called  "Komiadluarsuk," 
a  remarkable  headland  rises  from  the  water.  This  is  a 
ridge  some  two  miles  long  and  persistently  about  three 
hundred  feet  high.  The  sky-line  is  serrate,  and  the  fisher- 
men call  the  ridge  "Razorback."  The  rocks  of  the  lower 
cliffs  (specially  steep  at  the  east  end)  are  red ;  those  higher 


FIG.  5.     WESTEKN  ENTRANCE  TO  GKENFELL  TICKLE 

1.  Chidley  Island;    2.  Mt.  Sir  Donald;    3.   Western  entrance  to  Grenfell  Tickle; 
4.  Tunusaksak  Bay. 

up  grow  darker  until,  at  the  top,  the  ridge  is  almost  black. 
Its  various  peculiarities  make  the  ridge  a  fine  landmark. 
"Razorback"  lies  just  north  of  the  entrance  to  the  next 
fiord,  that  called  Ryan's  Bay.  This  one  has  not  been  ex- 
plored by  schooners.  There  is  good  anchorage  on  the  north 
side,  just  beyond  a  great  rampart  of  dark  rock  which  runs 
southerly,  at  right  angles  to  the  ridge  just  described.  On 
this  side  of  the  fiord  there  is  a  notable  beach  of  sand,  one 
of  the  very  few  sand  beaches  on  the  coast.  It  is  a  com- 
pound beach,  being  made  up  of  successive  terraces  of  sand, 
each  terrace  marking  an  old  level  of  the  sea;  the  whole 
forms  the  clearest  evidence  of  the  recent  emergence  of  the 
coast  border  from  beneath  the  sea.  There  are  numerous 


62 


LABRADOR 


remains  of  old  Eskimo  " earth"  houses,  sunk  into  these 
raised  beaches.  The  roofs  have  long  since  fallen  in;  but 
the  walls,  built  of  boulders  and  banked  with  sand,  were 
still  standing.  The  bay  is  said  to  run  far  inland,  and  re- 
ceives at  its  head  a  good-sized  river  plenteously  supplied 
with  trout,  a  former  food  supply  for  the  Eskimo. 

The  mountains  both  to  north  and  to  south  of  Ryan's 


FIG.  6.    MOUNTAINS  TO  WEST-SOUTHWEST  LOOKING  OVER  RYAN'S  BAY 

Bay  are  alpine  in  character.  The  peaks  are  bare  and  sheer ; 
one,  rising  to  the  southwest,  reminded  me  strongly  of  the 
Matterhorn,  though,  of  course,  on  a  smaller  scale  (Figure 
6).  Fifteen  miles  to  the  southward,  or  halfway  between 
Ryan's  Bay  and  Cape  White  Handkerchief,  another  large, 
double  fiord  opens.  Owing  to  the  large  islands  facing  this 
inlet,  the  fishermen  have  named  it  Seven  Islands  Bay. 
The  two  divisions  of  the  bay  are  called  by  the  Eskimo 
"  Komaktorvik "  and  "Kangalaksiorvik."  The  entrance 
may  be  safely  made  by  keeping  the  north  side  aboard; 
there  is  abundant  good  anchorage  almost  anywhere  inside. 
The  large,  high  island  bearing  to  port  is  called  "Avagalik," 
or  Whale  Island.  The  entrance  to  the  south  of  the  islands 
is  partly  blocked  by  shoals  occurring  near  the  islands. 


THE  PHYSIOGRAPHY  OF  LABRADOR  63 

These  shoals  are  dangerous,  especially  as  they  are  covered 
with  black  kelp;  the  average  depth  upon  them  is  about 
two  fathoms.  To  enter  safely,  one  should  keep  the  shore 
side  aboard.  Running  out  directly  seawards  for  nearly 
twenty  miles  is  a  barrier  reef  of  low  black  rocks  surmounted 
by  tiny  islands ;  the  whole  simulating  a  coral  reef  in  form, 
though,  of  course,  not  in  origin.  The  fishermen  call  the 
whole  the  Hog's  Back,  from  the  likeness  of  the  islets  and 
rocky  points  to  a  hog's  bristles.  There  is  an  interesting 
problem  as  to  just  how  all  these  innumerable  rocks  were  cut 
off  so  near  the  water-line.  To  approach  the  entrance  of 
the  double  fiord  from  the  south,  the  skipper  should  keep 
all  the  islands,  including  the  Hog's  Back,  to  the  north; 
standing  in  for  the  land  about  five  miles  north  of  Cape 
White  Handkerchief;  with  the  cliffs  aboard,  pass  in  south 
of  a  ridged  island  about  three  hundred  feet  high  and  a  mile 
long.  This  island  is  of  a  red  colour,  and  is  called  by  the 
Eskimo  "Nenoraktualuk,"  or  "Big  White  Bearskin";  it  is 
the  only  really  large  island  on  the  outside.  Four  miles  west 
of  the  end  of  the  island  is  the  spring  sealing  station  of  many 
Eskimo,  and  is  called  "Inuksulik,"  or  Beacon  Island. 

How  far  the  double  fiord  extends  into  the  land  is  not 
known,  though  it  is  certainly  many  miles.  The  Eskimo 
catch  trout  in  Komaktorvik,  and  used  to  carry  their  catch 
to  Nachvak,  the  Hudson's  Bay  station  until  1906. 

Since  this  region  north  of  Nachvak  Inlet  is  the  least 
known  part  of  the  Atlantic  coast,  I  have  laid  special  em- 
phasis upon  it,  with  the  express  purpose  of  pointing  to  the 
need  of  its  further  exploration.  The  more  southerly  fiords 
have  been  more  visited  by  white  men.  One  of  the  very 
finest  of  all  is  that  at  Nachvak;  it  is  illustrated  in  Dr. 


64 


LABRADOR 


Daly's  chapter  on  the  geology  and  scenery  of  the  northeast 
coast  —  a  chapter  which  also  contains  a  brief  description 


FIG.  7.     REGION  OF  IKON  STRAND 

1.   Pumt  at  entrance  to  Seven  Island  Bay;   2.  The  Iron  Strand  (Sagliarvtsek),  shoaJ 
water  close  in  (black  sand  and  rocks). 

of  the  very  different,  though  likewise  imposing,  fiords  and 
channels  about  Cape  Mugford.  In  order  to  avoid  a  tedious 
verbal  account,  while  giving  some  idea  of  the  curiously 
varied  scenery  of  the  coast  as  I  have  seen  it,  a  considerable 


FIG.  8.     REGION  OF  IRON  STRAND 
1.  Promontory  off  north  end  Iron  Strand;    2.   Long  fresh  water  pond. 

number  of  sketches  have  been  introduced  (Figures  7  to  12). 
The  configuration  of  the  sea  bottom  off  the  coast  is, 
of  course,  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  fisheries.  Im- 
perfect as  they  are,  the  Admiralty  charts  yet  give  us  our 
best  information  on  this  subject;  to  them  the  reader  is 


THE  PHYSIOGRAPHY  OF  LABRADOR 


65 


referred,  as  a  useful  written  description  of  the  many  irreg- 
ularities of  the  inshore  bottom   is  quite  impossible.     In 


FIG.  9.    CAPE  NULLATAKTOK 
Cape  White  Handkerchief  just  around  corner. 

general,  it  may,  however,  be  said  that  the  whole  coast  is 
fringed  with  a  shelf  covered  with  relatively  shallow  water, 
the  depth  averaging  well  under  one  hundred  fathoms. 


FIG.  10.     REGION  OF  RAMAH 

1.  Ramah  Bay;     2.  The  Look-out;     3.   Mountain  above  Mission  Strait,  3500  ft.; 
4.   Reddick's  Bight. 

The  beltlike  archipelago  of  islands  along  the  northeast 
coast  simply  represents  the  emerged  portions  of  the  shelf. 
Beyond  the  islands  the  depth  may  increase  to  more  than 
one  hundred  fathoms,  but,  farther  out  to  sea,  the  bottom 


66 


LABRADOR 


often  rises  again,  forming  shoals  which  many  claim  to  be 
the  winter  home  of  the  cod.     The  famous  Grand  Banks 


FIG.  11.     VIEW  OF  SAEGLEK  BAY 

1.  Bluebell;   2.  EastUivuk;     3.   St.  John's  Harbour;  4.   Southwest  Point; 
5.  SaeglekBay;   6.  Point  bearing  N.  290°  W. 

off  Newfoundland  represent  a  great  enlargement  of  the 


FIG.  12.    VIEW  LOOKING  WEST  UP  SAEGLEK  BAY 


1.  St.  John's  Harbour;     2.  Southern  division  of  bay;     3.  North  division  of  bay; 
4.   Island  bore  N.  325°  W. 

shelf.    The   summer  fisheries   are   carried   on   along  the 
" inner  banks"  which,  between  Cape  Harrison  and  Cape 


THE  PHYSIOGRAPHY  OF  LABRADOR 


67 


Schooner  Anchorage 


Good  anchorage  in  V 
7  fm..  rinse 
Opposite  two  white 


.Serualuk 


RAMAIT  REGION 
Long.  63°  15'  W.     Lat,  68"  53'^T. 

SCALE   OF  GEOGRAPHICAL  MILES 


ENGRAVING   CO.,  N.Y. 


9        10 


68 .  LABRADOR 

Mugford,  Hind  has  estimated  to  cover  fifty-two  hundred 
square  miles.  Beyond  the  outer  banks  the  bottom  drops 
off  into  water  hundreds  of  fathoms  deep  —  at  the  real  edge 
of  the  continental  plateau. 

As  a  rule,  the  tides  are  practically  unimportant  in  the 
navigation  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  peninsula.  They 
are  to  be  reckoned  with  in  the  narrow  parts  of  Belle  Isle 
Strait  and  in  the  region  about  Cape  Chidley.  The  only 
overfalls  likely  to  affect  a  small  boat  are  to  be  expected 
off  Forteau,  off  Point  Amour,  in  the  narrow  tickles  near 
Cape  Chidley,  and  in  Belle  Isle  Strait.  In  the  strait  the 
current  runs  about  three  knots  an  hour  both  to  the  east 
ancl  to  the  west.  On  the  northeast  coast  the  current 
generally  runs  slowly  to  the  southward.  Strong  winds 
will  affect  these  velocities  about  a  knot  an  hour  either 
way.1 

The  tides  of  the  far  north  are,  on  the  other  hand,  quite 
remarkable.  On  one  occasion  I  attempted  to  force  the 
nine-knot  steamer  Strathcona  against  a  full  ebb  tide  in  the 
tickle  south  of  Cape  Chidley  Island.  At  the  narrowest 
place,  where  the  defile  is  only  a  hundred  yards  in  width, 
the  water  was  a  boiling  torrent,  filled  with  whirlpools. 
The  steamer,  though  at  full  speed  ahead,  was  carried  astern. 
We  were  forced  to  run  back  and  await  the  turn  of  the  tide. 
We  reckoned  the  current  at  fully  ten  knots  an  hour. 

The  range  of  tide  on  the  Atlantic  coast  varies  from  five 
to  eight  feet;  at  Cape  Chidley  it  is  thirty-five  feet,  while 

1  Fuller  information  may  be  obtained  in  the  monograph  on  the  tides 
of  this  coast  by  Dr.  W.  Bell  Dawson,  Engineer  in  charge  of  tidal 
surveys  for  Canada,  Department  of  Marine  and  Fisheries,  Ottawa, 
Canada. 


THE  PHYSIOGRAPHY   OF  LABRADOR  69 

the  range  in  Ungava  Bay  is  said  to  be  as  much  as  fifty  feet. 
In  any  case  the  range  in  this  bay  is  one  of  the  greatest 
recorded  in  the  world. 

Since  the  magnetic  pole  lies  to  the  north-northwest  of 
Hudson  Bay,  the  magnetic  variation  is  very  high  on  the 
Labrador  coast.  At  Battle  Harbour  it  is  40°  west ;  thence 
it  increases  until  it  is  more  than  53°  to  the  west  at  Cape 
Chidley.  The  visitor  cannot  fail  to  be  struck  by  the  fact 
that,  during  auroral  displays,  the  middle  of  the  illuminated 
arc,  which  flames  over  the  magnetic  pole,  lies  to  the  north- 
west, far  from  the  north  star. 

It  should  be  emphasized  that  the  charts  of  the  region 
north  of  Hamilton  Inlet  are  of  little  or  no  practical  value 
to  the  navigator.  They  are  only  of  value  in  giving  general 
directions  and  in  furnishing  a  crude  pictorial  idea  of  the 
coast. 

The  climate  of  Labrador  is  not  excelled  anywhere  in 
the  world  for  its  bracing  and  invigorating  effect.  Testi- 
mony gathered  from  hundreds  of  workmen,  prospectors, 
visitors,  sailors,  fishermen,  officials,  lumbermen,  and 
scientific  men  have  shown  that,  without  exception,  their 
general  health  has  improved,  and  they  have  been  able  to 
sleep  quite  a  material  proportion  of  the  twenty-four  hours 
longer  than  at  their  own  homes.  Of  this  in  my  own  ex- 
perience of  seventeen  years,  I  have  had  many  remarkable 
instances. 

Labrador  has  no  endemic  disease,  and  though,  like  all 
subarctic  countries,  it  is  the  home  of  many  mosquitoes, 
there  is  no  malaria.  Notwithstanding  the  great  number 
of  Eskimo  dogs  bred  and  kept  in  the  country,  I  have 
never  known  nor  heard  of  a  single  case  of  either  hydro- 


70  LABRADOR 

phobia  or  of  the  Tcenia  echinococcus,  or  fatal  tapeworm, 
that  dogs  transmit  to  man. 

The  restorative  influence  of  a  holiday  in  Labrador  on 
a  jaded  and  overwrought  system  is  often  truly  wonderful, 
and  I  feel  sure  that,  under  proper  conditions,  a  constitution 
will  be  toned  up  much  faster  than  in  the  summer  resorts. 
Commander  Peary  has  recently  added  his  testimony  to  the 
great  value  of  the  Arctic  air  to  consumptives. 

There  has  somehow  got  abroad  an  idea  that  Labrador 
is  continually  wrapped  in  fog.  This  is  an  entirely  erroneous 
idea,  and  has  arisen  from  the  fact  that  at  the  line  of  junction 
of  the  Gulf  and  polar  currents,  in  the  regions  of  the  Banks 
of  Newfoundland  and  England,  more  or  less  fog  is  preva- 
lent. As  a  matter  of  fact,  fog  is  almost  left  behind  at  the 
Strait  of  Belle  Isle.  Many  times  as  we  have  steamed  out 
of  the  strait  in  thick  fog,  and  passed  the  southeast  corner 
of  Labrador,  we  emerged  from  what,  on  looking  back,  re- 
sembled a  dark  wall,  to  bask  suddenly  in  the  clearest  of 
sunshine.  As  master  of  my  own  vessel  for  fifteen  years  on 
the  coast,  I  can  say  that  the  delays  that  I  have  experienced 
in  the  summer  from  fog  between  Battle  Harbour  and  Cape 
Chidley  have  been  quite  immaterial.  Thus,  during  last 
year's  cruise,  commenced  on  May  7,  and  ended  November 
13,  we  were  delayed  by  fog  only  one  day.  On  the  average, 
a  more  or  less  foggy  day  once  a  fortnight  may  be  expected. 

The  rainfall  again  is  exceptionally  small,  and  the  small 
amount  of  snow  that  falls  in  the  eight  winter  months,  which 
is  at  that  time  the  rain  of  the  country,  is  not  sufficient  to 
leave  a  permanent  ice-cap  even  on  the  highest  peaks. 
There  are  no  accurate  statistics  to  show  exactly  what  the 
rainfall  is,  but  the  experience  of  visitors  is  that  a  whole 


THE  PHYSIOGRAPHY  OF  LABRADOR  71 

day's  rain  is  exceptional.  A  land  surveyor  who,  with  a 
party,  spent  four  months  on  the  Grand  River  and  not  far 
from  the  very  centre  of  the  country,  experienced  only 
one-half  day  during  which  rain  prevented  his  party  from 
working.  On  the  other  hand,  the  amount  of  sunshine  is 
well  up  to  the  average.  One  might  say  that  in  summer 
one  day  in  three  is  altogether  sunny;  one  day  in  three  is 
partly  sunny ;  one  day  in  three,  dull.  As  these  deductions 
are  not  the  result  of  accurate,  scientific  records,  I  can  only 
offer  them  as  the  results  of  my  own  general  notes  from  year 
to  year.  They  appear,  however,  to  agree  with  those  of 
observers  who  have  more  accurately  chronicled  the  amount 
of  sunshine  during  their  visits  to  Labrador. 

The  summer  temperature  of  both  air  and  water  varies 
greatly  as  one  leaves  the  coast  and  goes  up  the  bays.  This 
remarkable  feature  of  the  coast  is  due  to  the  combination 
of  two  influences  —  that  of  the  southerly  latitude  within 
which  Labrador  lies,  and  that  of  the  polar  current  which 
sweeps  right  home  to  its  Atlantic  shore.  When  one  con- 
siders that  the  southern  point  of  Labrador  is  on  the  same 
parallel  of  latitude  as  London,  and  its  most  northern  point 
only  the  same  as  the  north  of  Scotland,  one  can  understand 
how  in  summer  the  sun's  rays  are  very  effective  in  warm- 
ing the  atmosphere  in  localities  untouched  by  the  polar 
current.  The  summer  temperature  of  the  outside  water 
averages,  at  the  surface,  from  40°  to  45°  F.,  while  ten 
fathoms  down  it  sinks  to  nearly  35°  F.,  and  at  thirty 
fathoms  is  from  30°  to  35°  F.  When,  however,  one  gets 
near  the  head  of  a  bay,  say  twenty  miles  in  from  the  coast, 
the  temperature  at  the  surface  may  be  as  high  as  50°  F. 
and  at  the  heads  of  the  big  bays,  especially  above  Rigolet 


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THE  PHYSIOGRAPHY  OF  LABRADOR 


73 


in  Hamilton  Inlet,  even  higher.  The  diurnal  range  of  the 
summer  air  temperature  in  the  bays  is  not  great. 

This  systematic  relation  of  temperatures  produces  the 
result  that,  though  on  the  coast  one  can  grow,  as  vegetables, 
only  stringy  cabbages  and  leaves  of  turnips,  at  the  bay 
heads,  carrots,  potatoes,  cabbages,  turnips,  currants,  rasp- 
berries, and  gooseberries  grow  with  readiness.  The  average 
temperature  in  summer  for  southern  Labrador  is  about 
50°  F.  On  the  coast  the  diurnal  range  may  be  from  30° 
to  80°  and  in  the  bays  from  45°  to  90°  F. 

The  lists  (on  this  and  the  opposite  page)  of  average 
monthly  temperatures  are  taken  from  the  records  of  the 
Deutsche  Seewarte,  as  copied  here  from  the  report  of  His 
Excellency,  Sir  William  MacGregor :  — 

TABLE  (2)  OF  MEAN,  MAXIMUM,  AND  MINIMUM  TEMPERATURES  FOR 
ENTIRE  YEARS  (DEGREES  FAHRENHEIT) 


PLACE 

LAT.  N. 

YEARS 

MEAN 

MAX. 

MlN. 

RANGE. 

Ramah 

58°  53' 

'84-'88 

22.64 

Hebron 

58°  12' 

'84-'91 

21.2 

Hebron 

58°  12' 

'86 

26.8 

-33.8 

Hebron 

58°  12' 

'87 

26.5 

76.1 

-38.0 

114.1 

Hebron 

58°  12' 

'88 

27.8 

79.8 

-  36.4 

116.2 

Hebron 

58°  12' 

'90 

25.5 

86.2 

-38.0 

124.2 

Hebron 

58°  12' 

'91 

23.3 

83.3 

-40.5 

123.8 

Hebron 

58°  12' 

'94-'95 

72.5 

-  19.1 

91.1 

Okak 

57°  34' 

'84-'88 

21.9 

Nain 

56°  33' 

'84-'90 

21.92 

Zoar 

56°  07' 

'84-'90 

22.28 

Hopedale 

55°  27' 

'84-'90 

24.08 

74  LABRADOR 

In  a  country  like  Labrador  the  seasons  are  so  marked, 
and  bring  with  them  such  great  changes,  that  one  must 
know  exactly  at  what  time  to  come  in  order  to  enjoy  any 
favourite  pastime  to  the  best  advantage,  or  pursue  any 
particular  object.  One  visitor  landed  on  the  coast,  and  we 
drove  him  over  a  frozen  harbour  in  the  end  of  May.  He 
had  been  enjoying  fresh  strawberries  at  home  before  he 
left,  and  expected  to  find  summer  here,  and  not  our  last 
month  of  winter.  I  may  therefore  give  a  brief  description 
of  the  seasons  so  that  one  can  tell  at  a  glance  what  is  likely 
to  be  going  on  at  any  particular  portion  of  the  year. 

January.  The  second  coldest  of  the  winter  months; 
only  occasional  temperatures  above  freezing,  and  then  only 
for  a  short  spelt.  The  whole  country  everywhere  is  under 
ice  and  snow.  The  first  winter  mail  arrives  from  Quebec 
by  dog  train.  Natural  bridges  make  it  possible  to  cross 
all  the  rivers,  bays,  and  arms  of  the  sea.  Thus,  travelling 
is  usually  begun  in  this  month,  though  in  the  green  woods 
snow  is  not  yet  hard  packed,  and  consequently  one  has  to  go 
round  the  "  drogues,"  as  we  call  them.  The  dogs  are  able 
to  go  fifty  to  sixty  miles  in  a  day.  The  shortness  of  the 
days  is  the  chief  drawback.  The  settlers  are  all  in  their 
homes  in  the  woods  at  the  heads  of  the  bays.  They  are 
trapping  fur,  hunting  deer,  and  lumbering.  The  great 
herds  of  deer  are  in  the  low  marshes  and  woods  near  the 
land-wash,  and  are  often  obtainable  in  great  plenty.  Willow 
grouse  and  rabbits  are  plentiful  at  times  in  the  woods. 
Harp  seals  are  being  netted  as  they  pass  south  along  the 
Labrador  coast.  The  sea  is  impossible  to  navigation,  ex- 
cept now  and  again  in  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle. 

February.    The  coldest  month  with  seldom  any  " let  up" 


THE  PHYSIOGRAPHY  OF  LABRADOR  75 

—  temperature  in  the  north  even  falling  on  rare  occasions 
to  45-50°  below  zero  F.  Travelling  is  improved  by  the 
heavier  falls  of  snow,  which  fill  the  dangerous  hollows  and 
smooth  off  the  rough,  rocky  points.  The  Arctic  ice  blocks 
the  coast  and  keeps  the  swell  from  breaking  up  the  ice  in 
the  bays.  The  Strait  of  Belle  Isle  is  choked.  The  hood 
and  harp  seals  are  working  southwards  in  the  sea  off  New- 
foundland and  in  the  Gulf,  to  whelp  on  the  loose  floes  around 
which  they  find  the  fish.  Fox-trapping  with  hunting  for 
marten  or  sables,  minks,  musquash,  and  other  species  is  in 
full  swing  on  the  land. 

March.  A  splendid,  bright,  bracing,  cold  month.  The 
reflection  of  the  sun  from  the  snow  makes  it  imperative  to 
protect  the  eyes  with  coloured  spectacles,  since  a  single 
day's  exposure  will  blind  a  man.  The  skin  gets  so  tanned 
that  the  whites  begin  to  resemble  Indians  in  colour.  The 
settler  never  loses  the  tawny  colour.  This  constant  sun 
bath,  in  spite  of  the  low  temperatures,  has  an  excellent 
tonic  effect  on  weakly  people.  The  snow  is  now  hard,  and 
it  is  as  easy  to  travel  through  thick  woods  as  in  the  open. 
Much  longer  distances  can  be  covered  by  the  dogs  in  a  day ; 
they  can  be  given  their  heads  to  choose  their  own  paths. 
Furs  are  in  their  prime.  The  annual  seal  hunt  from  New- 
foundland takes  place,  and  all  along  the  southern  seaboard 
the  settlers  are  on  the  watch  for  baby  seals  on  the  ice. 
Some  of  the  birds  are  breeding,  e.g.  the  Canada  jay.  Settlers 
are  cutting  logs  and  hauling  them  out  for  summer  fire-wood. 
Some  traps  are  now  taken  up,  as  certain  furs  cease  to  be 
in  prime  condition. 

April.  The  bright,  hot  sun  in  the  middle  of  the  day 
begins  to  thaw  the  snow,  which  freezes  hard  again  at  night. 


76  LABRADOR 

Travelling  is  done  mostly  in  the  early  morning.  The  ice  at 
times  clears  off  enough  to  leave  a  narrow  strip  of  open  water 
along  the  exposed  coast.  Ducks  and  geese,  with  other 
smaller  birds,  such  as  the  snow-bunting  and  the  northern 
shrike,  begin  to  arrive  from  the  south.  Some  men  are  now 
netting  seals  if  the  season  is  early ;  others  are  still  working  at 
twine  for  summer  use.  Shooting  sea-birds  from  the  head- 
lands offers  good  sport.  Fur  shows  clear  loss  in  value. 
Many  settlers  return  to  summer  fishing  stations,  using  dogs 
and  komatiks  to  transport  all  their  summer  necessities  out 
to  the  islands.  Others  who  take  care  of  and  repair  the  sta- 
tions of  our  summer  visitors  are  hard  at  work  on  houses 
and  stagings.  On  fine  days  these  men,  while  at  their  out- 
side work,  venture  off  on  the  running  ice.  Most  years, 
however,  the  ice  is  too  hard  near  the  shore,  and  to  go  off 
far  from  shore,  hauling  small  boats  on  runners,  is  restricted 
to  the  hardier  and  more  venturesome.  Through  the  ice  of 
the  ponds  in  southern  Labrador,  good  trout  fishing  can  be 
obtained. 

May.  Navigation  as  far  as  the  south  part  of  the  east 
coast  is  practicable,  though  onshore  winds  will  bring  the 
floe-ice  in  at  any  time  and  block  all  the  harbours  and  bays. 
Still,  one  or  two  venturesome  vessels  come  down  with  safety 
to  southern  Labrador,  seldom  taking  any  harm  from  the 
ice  beyond  what  they  are  liable  to  at  any  time  of  year. 
American  bankers  are  baiting  in  the  straits,  and  French 
fishermen  from  Newfoundland  arrive  on  the  Treaty  Shore 
opposite.  The  first  mail  steamer  visits  as  far  as  Cape 
Charles.  The  rivers  and  bays  break  up.  The  last  of  the 
people  move  out  to  their  summer  homes  for  the  fishery. 
Good  trout  fishing  is  to  be  had  in  the  rivers  or  in  the  lakes 


TEE  PHYSIOGRAPHY  OF  LABRADOR  77 

through  the  ice.  Sea-birds  are  nesting  all  along  the  coast 
on  the  islands  and  rocks,  and  foxes  have  their  young. 
Many  people  gather  the  eggs  and  store  them  for  eating. 
Traps  are  all  taken  in  by  the  first  day,  as  the  fur  is  now 
losing  colour  and  the  long  "king"  hairs  fall.  Seals  are 
beating  north;  swatching  or  shooting  them  from  the  ice 
pans  as  they  come  up  to  take  breath  forms  a  very  favourite 
pastime.  Old  harps  and  bedlamer  seals  are  caught  on 
southern  Labrador  in  great  frame  nets.  Farther  north 
the  Eskimo  are  hunting  the  walrus.  The  deer  are  all  going 
north  and  taking  to  the  hills.  The  native  bears  leave  their 
caves;  any  white  bears  that  have  gone  south  on  the  floes 
begin  to  work  north  again. 

June.  Most  of  the  snow  has  gone,  though  in  places  it 
remains  to  the  water-level.  Ground  is  still  hard  frozen, 
with  occasional  frosts  at  night.  Arctic  ice  still  besets  the 
coast.  Fishing  vessels  work  down  along  the  straits  and 
the  southern  part  of  the  east  coast.  Some  years  the  mail 
boat  gets  as  far  as  Hamilton  Inlet;  other  years  ice  inside 
the  islands  is  as  hard  as  at  any  time  in  the  winter.  In  the 
straits  the  cod-fishery  is  in  full  swing,  while  on  the  east  coast 
the  southerners  in  their  schooners  are  up  the  bays  get- 
ting wood  for  firing,  for  stages,  etc.  Americans,  Canadians, 
and  West  Coast  Newfoundlanders  are  trawling  in  the  straits 
and  Gulf.  The  sea  is  very  calm,  owing  to  the  ice  outside. 
The  brilliancy  of  the  sun,  the  innumerable  icebergs,  the 
return  of  the  whales,  and  the  fleets  of  fishing  vessels  make 
the  scenic  effects  some  of  the  best  in  the  year.  In  the  inlets 
the  salmon  and  trout  fisheries  are  being  prosecuted.  Deer 
seek  the  hills  to  avoid  the  mosquitoes.  The  does  are  with 
their  fawns  in  the  woods.  Black  bear  seek  the  fish  along 


78  LABRADOR 

the  land-wash.  Most  of  the  small  bird  visitors  from  the 
south  have  arrived.  Lean  dogs  wander  about  everywhere, 
searching  for  meat,  for  they  are  no  longer  fed,  and  as  yet 
there  are  no  fish  heads  and  offal  for  them. 

July.  Most  of  the  ice  and  snow  gone  from  the  land. 
The  ground  at  the  heads  of  the  bays  thaws  out  enough  to 
sow  seed.  The  mail  steamer  now  usually  reaches  her 
northern  limit  at  Nain,  visiting  all  along  as  she  goes.  The 
caplin  are  working  into  the  land  farther  north  and  at- 
tracting the  codfish.  Salmon  in  the  river  begin  to  take 
the  fly.  The  young  ducks  and  other  sea-birds  are  hatched 
out.  Pleasure  schooners  can  get  down  among  the  Eskimo 
who  are  now  out  at  their  summer  fishing  stations  in  skin 
tents.  The  salmon  fishing  with  nets  in  the  inlets  is  going 
on,  and  the  cod-fishery  begins  with  the  caplin  school.  Mos- 
quitoes hatch  out  and  are  troublesome. 

August.  Southern  cod-fishers  reach  their  extreme  north- 
ern limit,  and  fish  are  taken  as  far  as  Cape  Chidley. 
Caplin  begin  to  die  or  leave  the  shore,  cod  following  them 
out  of  the  bays.  The  salmon-fishery  in  the  sea  is  at  an 
end.  The  salmon  and  trout  in  the  rivers  rise  to  the  fly 
well.  The  best  fiords  and  least-known  northern  bays  are 
accessible  to  pleasure  yachts.  Icebergs  in  greatest  abun- 
dance are  now  to  be  seen.  They  are  continually  driving 
south  with  the  Arctic  current.  The  flappers  of  water-fowl 
are  big  enough  to  shoot.  Old  ducks  and  divers  are  moulting, 
and,  being  unable  to  fly,  escape  pursuit  only  by  diving. 
The  first  foreign  vessels  with  dried  fish  leave  the  coast. 
Cloudberries  and  other  berries,  e.g.  bilberries,  currants, 
raspberries,  begin  to  ripen.  Formerly  large  flocks  of 
curlew  came  down  to  feed  on  these.  The  young  geese  in 
the  bays  are  beginning  to  fly. 


THE  PHTSIOGEAPHY  OF  LABRADOR  79 

September.  Hooks  and  lines  replace  the  large  trap  nets, 
as  the  cod  are  now  only  to  be  taken  in  deep  water.  Northern 
schooners  begin  to  come  south  with  cargoes  of  green  fish. 
The  first  snow  falls  about  Cape  Chidley,  and  frosts  set  in 
occasionally  at  nights.  Deer  are  to  be  had  in  the  country. 
Geese  and  black  duck  are  seeking  the  salt  water  in  the  day- 
time, and  may  be  shot  flighting.  The  mosquitoes  are  no 
longer  troublesome.  Grouse  are  to  be  shot  on  the  hills, 
and  afford  excellent  sport.  Small  migratory  birds  begin 
to  leave.  Berries  are  plentiful  and  add  materially  to  a 
camper's  menu.  Caribou  leave  the  hills  for  the  marshes. 
All  together,  this  is  the  best  month  for  sportsmen  to  visit 
Labrador,  except  for  salmon-fishing. 

October.  The  southern  fishermen  mostly  leave.  Pleasure 
schooners  must  do  the  same.  Fish  are  still  to  be  taken  in 
deep  water  with  long  lines.  Frosts  at  night  are  often 
severe,  and  many  harbours  begin  to  "catch  over"  with  ice. 

Ducks  and  geese  leave  the  coast.  Deer  are  rutting,  but 
are  now  nearer  the  seaboard  in  the  leads  and  marshes. 
The  winds  are  high  and  cold,  but  they  are  nearly  all  westerly 
and  off  the  land ;  thus  the  sea  is  often  smooth  alongshore. 
The  most  disastrous  storms,  however,  have  occurred  in 
this  month.  All  the  trappers  are  busy  taking  supplies  into 
the  country  and  preparing  their  traps.  Otters,  foxes, 
mink,  beaver,  etc.,  come  in  season.  They  are,  however, 
not  really  "  prime."  Large  Labrador  herring  are  taken 
in  gill  nets.  Lesser  auks,  puffins,  murrelets,  and  other 
diving  sea-birds  are  very  plentiful,  passing  south.  The 
lakes  all  freeze  over,  and  the  hilltops  are  all  capped  with 
snow. 

November.    The   last   of   the    southerners   leave.    The 


80  LABRADOR 

mail  steamer  makes  her  last  visit.  Winter  has  really 
arrived.  Not  a  craft  left  afloat  on  the  coast  by  the  end 
of  the  month.  Trapping  is  specially  now  for  foxes  and 
mink  on  the  seaboard.  Many  settlers  on  the  " outside" 
are  engaged  with  seal  nets.  The  rest  have  gone  to  their 
homes  among  the  trees  at  the  bottom  of  the  long  bays. 

The  last  of  the  ducks  and  geese  leave.  Hares,  rabbits, 
grouse,  etc.,  assume  their  winter  colouring.  Dogs  are  now 
fed  up  for  their  winter  work.  Lumbermen  are  in  the 
woods  cutting  logs. 

December.  The  short  days  tend  to  make  this  the  most 
dismal  month,  but  the  dog  driving  begins  and  the  assump- 
tion of  snow-shoes,  or  "ski,"  also  helps  to  enliven  matters. 
For  sports  we  now  play  football  on  the  snow,  sail  our  ice- 
boats, or  go  deer  hunting.  Any  game  killed  now  will 
remain  good  till  June,  being  hard  frozen  as  soon  as  killed. 
All  along  northern  Labrador  many  seals  are  being  netted. 
Even  the  large  rivers  are  now  safe  to  cross  on  the  ice,  but 
in  some  of  the  arms  of  the  sea  there  is  still  no  ice  that  will 
bear,  owing  to  the  tide.  Some  of  the  best  furs  are  now 
taken  in  the  country.  The  first  dog  mail  leaves  for  Quebec 
at  Christmas. 

Such  is,  approximately,  the  year's  curriculum. 


The  Well-beloved  Mail-man 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE    GEOLOGY    AND    SCENERY    OF   THE    NORTHEAST    COAST 
BY  REGINALD  ALDWOBTH  DALY 


Labrador  Peninsula  is  less  known  than  the  interior 
of  Africa  or  the  wastes  of  Siberia."  In  these  words  the 
noted  naturalist,  Mr.  A.  S.  Packard,  in  1891,  summed  up 
existing  information  on  that  anciently  discovered  but  long- 
neglected  land.  Low's  fruitful  journeys  across  Labrador 
have  added  much  to  the  store  of  knowledge,  but  there  is 
even  now  but  little  exaggeration  in  Packard's  statement. 
It  was  therefore  with  great  and  prolonged  interest  that  the 
members  of  the  Brave  expedition  of  1900  studied  the  700 
miles  of  coast  from  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle  to  the  Hudson's 
Bay  post  in  Nachvak  Bay.  The  Brave  was  a  tight  little 
schooner  of  but  forty  tons,  specially  fitted  up  to  be  the  home 
of  the  exploring  party  for  the  summer.  The  party  con- 
sisted of  five  Harvard  men  and  one  man  from  Brown  Uni- 
versity. Three  seamen  and  a  pilot  captain  with  a  miracu- 
lous knowledge  of  the  ten  thousand  islands,  shoals,  rocks, 
channels,  and  landmarks  of  "the  Labrador,"  sailed  the  little 
vessel. 

Leaving  St.  John's,  Newfoundland,  on  June  25,  the 
schooner  coasted  all  the  way  to  Nachvak,  which  was 
reached  on  August  22.  This  slow  passage  gave  the  explor- 
ing party  numerous  opportunities  to  sample  the  natural 
history  and  geology  of  the  coast.  One  member  of  the  expe- 
ct 81 


82  LABRADOR 

dition  or  "exhibition,"  as  the  fishermen  with  unconscious 
humour  and  truth  called  it,  was  an  amateur  botanist,  an- 
other an  ornithologist,  a  third  a  prospector,  a  fourth  a 
geologist,  and  the  others  enthusiastic  hunters.  The  writer 
was  busied  with  the  geology  of  the  coast,  and  most  of  the 
observations  noted  in  the  following  pages  refer  to  results 
obtained  during  that  season.1 

To  know  Labrador  is  to  know  its  geology.  The  visitor 
to  the  northeast  coast,  were  he  to  go  thither  to  study  thor- 
oughly its  climate,  its  scenery,  its  botany  or  zoology,  its 
peoples  or  few  industries,  must  come  upon  the  final  ques- 
tion concerning  all  of  these:  whence  came  they?  When 
fully  answered,  he  shall  have  been  told  the  story  of  the  phys- 
ical growth  of  the  peninsula.  Each  bird,  beast,  or  man; 
each  moor,  tundra,  ragged  reef,  swelling  granite  dome  or 
fretted  mountain-ridge  on  all  the  thousand  miles  of  shore, 
forms  a  link  in  the  chain  that  binds  the  present  with  the 
inconceivably  distant  past  of  the  earth.  And  seldom  else- 
where is  the  explorer's  mind  so  forced  to  the  thought  of  an 
ancient  evolution.  The  great  rocky  headlands,  looming 
first  out  of  the  fog;  the  deep, quiet  fiord  or  island-labyrinth 
receiving  the  stranger  vessel  as  she  runs  in  from  the  open 
sea ;  the  vast,  moss-coloured  landscapes  on  the  wilderness  of 
hills ;  the  stately  train  of  icebergs  or  the  yet  mightier  ocean- 
current  that  bears  them  southward,  —  these  first  views, 
startling  in  their  savageness,  charming  in  their  mantle  of 
colour,  astonishing  in  their  extent,  always  of  enthralling 
interest  as  the  elements  of  a  new  kind  of  world,  can  never 

1  A  technical  report  on  the  geology  appears  in  the  Bulletins  of  the 
Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology  at  Harvard  University,  Vol.  38, 
p.  205,  1902. 


GEOLOGY  AND   SCENERY  OF  NORTHEAST  COAST     83 

fail  to  rouse  a  very  ardour  for  exploration.  In  England, 
France,  or  Germany,  the  peoples,  the  culture,  cities,  rail- 
roads, institutions,  must  claim  the  traveller  first,  and  the 
primitive,  the  soil,  the  ground  of  Europe,  only  second. 
In  most  of  Labrador,  Nature,  supreme  in  her  loneliness, 
calls  first,  last,  and  always. 

Like  every  science,  earth-science  is  the  result  of  restless, 
eternal  questioning,  much  of  it  answered,  infinitely  more 
unanswered.  He  thinks  especially  in  questions  who  thinks 
at  all  in  Labrador  geology ;  it  forms  a  mass  of  problems  for 
the  most  part  unsolved.  Yet  some  of  these  have  such 
importance  that  the  mere  statement  of  them  has  value,  and 
when  further  exploration  has  given  the  solutions,  it  will  be 
found  that  the  scientific  study  of  Labrador  will  have  brought 
a  rich  store  to  man's  knowledge  of  the  whole  earth.  Rather, 
therefore,  to  erect  finger-posts  pointing  the  way  to  wide 
fields  of  research  than  to  indicate  that  much  is  known  of 
the  Labrador  coast,  the  pages  of  this  chapter  have  been 
written. 

So  far  geologists  and  geographers  have  accomplished 
nothing  more  than  a  rapid  reconnaissance  of  the  coast. 
That  stage  of  exploration  has  a  borrowed  name,  and  in  some 
respects  explorers  are  compelled  to  regard  the  new  land  as 
an  enemy  —  to  be  conquered  at  some  cost.  More  or  less 
"  roughing  it,"  almost  always  a  degree  of  hard  though  repay- 
ing toil,  the  bite  of  the  sun  or  the  bite  of  the  polar  wind  — 
all  form  "  part  of  the  game,"  a  kind  of  war-game.  An  expe- 
dition to  the  Labrador  has  assuredly  to  meet  with  such 
troubles  and  a  few  special  ones  besides.  In  early  summer  a 
sailing  craft  must  meet  with  the  wide  fields  of  pan-ice  which 
unite  with  the  " Labrador"  ocean-current  and  prevalent 


84  LABRADOR 

northwest  winds  to  prevent  a  speedy  progress  "down"  the 
coast.  Ashore,  at  any  point  from  Belle  Isle  to  Hebron, 
the  " enemy"  assumes  a  new  face  much  more  repellent. 
Many  a  time  has  every  naturalist  ashore  on  the  coast 
during  July  or  August  been  driven  from  his  work  or  through 
it  by  Labrador's  greatest  plague  —  the  almost  incredible 
mosquito  and  black  fly.  In  countless  swarms  of  countless 
individuals  they  attack  hands,  face,  and  neck  necessarily 
unprotected  in  the  collection  of  specimens  or  in  the  manipu- 
lation of  instruments.  It  is  written  that  the  grasshopper 
may  be  a  burden,  but  he  is  a  small  angel  of  light  compared 
to  the  Labrador  "fly." 

In  Newfoundland  the  mosquito  and  gnat  have  had  an 
apologist  who,  in  all  fairness,  should  be  heard.  Thus  writes 
Whitbourne,  the  optimist:  "Those  Flies  seeme  to  haue  a 
great  power  and  authority  upon  all  loytering  people  that 
come  to  the  New-found-land :  for  they  have  this  property, 
that  when  they  finde  any  such  lying  lazily,  or  sleeping  in  the 
Woods,  they  will  presently  bee  more  nimble  to  seize  on 
them,  than  any  Sargeant  will  bee  to  arrest  a  man  for  debt. 
Neither  will  they  leaue  stinging  or  sucking  out  the  blood 
of  such  sluggards,  untill,  like  a  Beadle,  they  bring- him  to 
his  Master,  where  hee  should  labour:  in  which  time  of 
Loytering,  those  Flies  will  so  brand  such  idle  persons  in 
their  faces,  that  they  may  be  known  from  others,  as  the 
Turkes  doe  their  slaves." 

But  to  the  explorer,  especially  to  the  geologist,  there  is 
another  side  to  the  matter  —  an  occasion  for  keen  pleasure 
in  spite  of  every  disability  in  the  way  of  advance  or  in 
comfort.  Once  beyond  the  fog-curtain  so  often  let  down 
over  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle,  he  can  enjoy  a  climate  made  for 


GEOLOGY  AND   SCENERY  OF  NORTHEAST  COAST     85 

strenuous  outdoor  work.  If  he  be  interested  in  bed-rock 
geology,  he  finds  conditions  comparable  to  those  that 
favour  observation  in  "The  Paradise  of  geologists/'  the  arid 
or  subarid  plateaus  of  the  western  United  States.  Here  as 
there  the  climate  forbids  the  growth  of  the  heavy  forest- 
cap  which  covers  so  much  of  the  geological  record  in  arable 
lands,  and  in  Labrador  the  intense  glaciation  of  the  last 
Glacial  epoch  has  left  remarkably  little  rock-rubbish  or 
" drift"  on  the  surface  of  the  well-scoured  and  still  rela- 
tively unweathered,  fresh  rock.  The  geologist  leaves  the 
coast,  therefore,  well  content  if  he  has  had  time  to  make 
anything  like  an  extended  reconnaissance  of  the  enemy; 
there  remains  as  well  the  stimulus  to  hope  for  a  future 
campaign. 

Labrador  is  the  land  of  charm,  whether  it  be  among  the 
low,  moss-covered  islands  of  the  south  or  on  the  superb 
mountains  of  the  north.  But  this  charm  hitherto  de- 
scribed in  terms  of  impressions  derived  from  visits  to  what 
is  really  southern  Labrador  is  a  hundred  fold  greater  in  the 
region  north  of  Cape  Mugford. 

Yet  throughout  the  whole  stretch  from  Belle  Isle  to 
Hudson  Strait  the  scenery  is  to  be  related,  sooner  or  later, 
to  one  great  group  of  geological  formations,  all  rocks  of 
the  remotest  antiquity;  and  perhaps  no  more  fitting 
introduction  to  the  geology  and  geography  of  the  coast 
is  to  be  found  than  to  describe  the  extensive  fundamental 
terrane.  It  belongs  for  the  most  part  to  the  Archean  series, 
offering  like  the  Archean  rocks  of  the  world,  problems  of 
extreme  difficulty.  Able  and  highly  trained  geologists, 
specialists  in  the  Archean,  during  the  past  thirty  years  have 
solved  some  of  these  problems,  but  it  is  still  fair  to  call  this 


86  LABRADOR 

vast  group  of  rocks  forming  the  staple  material  of  the  Lab- 
rador coast  by  a  name  confessing  at  once  some  knowledge 
and  much  ignorance.  The  Archean  formations  compose  the 
foundation  on  which  the  Continent  of  North  America  has 
been  built.  Resting  upon  its  ancient  surface  are  the 
rock-beds  bearing  the  skeleton  remains  of  the  earliest 
known  organisms,  and  upon  those  beds  have  been  accumu- 
lated in  turn  the  limestones,  shales,  sandstones,  conglom- 
erates, and  lavas,  which  make  up  most  of  the  continent. 
That  is  one  of  the  main  facts  known  about  the  Archean,  — 
it  is  a  basement  formation.  Another  fact,  no  less  certain, 
no  less  important,  is  that  the  Archean  is  complex  in  its 
composition,  in  its  structure,  and  in  its  history.  Let  us, 
then,  call  these  old  rocks  by  their  time-honoured  name,  "the 
Basement  Complex." 

Here  and  there  on  the  earth  the  younger,  covering  rocks 
have  been  swept  away  by  age-long  weathering  and  wasting, 
and  the  ancient  foundation  has  been  exposed  to  the  air. 
Nowhere  on  the  earth  is  so  great  a  continuous  area  of  the 
Archean  to  be  found  as  in  eastern  Canada.  From  Lake 
Winnipeg  to  the  Atlantic,  and  from  the  St.  Lawrence  and 
Ottawa  rivers  northward  to  the  Arctic,  the  Basement 
Complex,  still  locally  bearing  on  its  back  patches  of  the 
younger  rocks,  forms  a  rolling,  timber-covered  plateau, 
which  amazes  every  explorer  who  compares  the  simplicity  of 
its  present-day  relief  with  the  infinite  turmoil  through  which 
its  constituent  rocks  have  passed.  These  rocks  are  almost 
entirely  crystalline  —  gneisses,  schists,  marbles,  coarser 
crystalline  limestones,  and  granitic  rocks  of  endless  variety 
—  agreeing,  however,  in  the  telling  of  a  common  story,  that 
the  Complex  is  the  remnant  of  enormous  mountain-systems 


GEOLOGY  AND   SCENERY  OF  NORTHEAST  COAST     87 

long  battered  by  the  weather  of  ancient  days,  and  so  long 
and  successfully  attacked  and  lowered  by  streams,  that 
already  very  early  in  the  earth's  history  these  mountains 
had  been  flattened  to  a  relief  probably  as  tamed  as  that  of 
the  great  Canadian  plateau  to-day.  It  was  this  old-moun- 
tain plain,  or  almost-plain,  which  formed  the  nucleus  of 
North  America.  No  one  can  say  as  yet,  even  approximately, 
how  much  the  old  plateau  has  been  affected  by  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  millions  of  years  since  it  was  reelevated  from 
beneath  the  sea,  with  its  mantling  load  of  Cambrian, 
Silurian,  Devonian,  and  later  sediments.  Again  and  again 
the  Basement  has  been,  wholly  or  in  part,  alternately  above 
and  below  sea-level.  With  each  emergence  it  has  lost  sub- 
stance, and  with  each  loss  a  new  physical  geography  has 
been  developed  upon  it. 

When  a  mountain- system  is  young,  its  summits  are 
ranged  more  or  less  systematically  in  straight  or  slightly 
curved  lines  joining  the  crests  of  the  various  ranges.  When 
the  system  is  very  old,  that  is,  worn  down  flat  by  age-long 
wasting,  these  same  trends  may  still  be  recognized  in  the 
structure  of  the  mountain-roots.  A  normal  range  owes  its 
existence,  not  so  much  to  simple  uplift  of  the  earth's  crust 
as  to  an  intense  folding  and  crumpling  together  of  its  rock- 
strata  by  powerful  forces  acting  tangentially  with  reference 
to  the  curve  of  the  earth  and  transverse  to  the  axis  of  the 
range.  If,  therefore,  the  Basement  Complex  forms  the 
root  of  an  old  mountain-system,  the  natural  inquiry  arises 
as  to  the  trend  of  the  rock-bands  now  visible  to  the  geolo- 
gist; for  these,  even  in  the  absence  of  the  long-vanished 
mountainous  relief,  will  tell  the  direction  of  the  old  ranges 
and,  by  implication,  the  direction  of  the  great  compressive 


88 


LABRADOR 


forces  which  set  the  earth's  crust  writhing  so  long  ago,  and 
so  built  one  of  earth's  earliest  mountain-systems. 

Rather,  then,  to  raise  the  question  than  to  declare  an 


FIG.  13. 
Sketch  map  showing  mountain  trends  in  eastern  North  America. 

answer  to  it,  the  writer  has  prepared  the  diagram  of  Figure  13, 
embodying  a  tentative  conclusion,  the  result  of  observa- 
tions at  some  twenty-five  localities  on  "the  Labrador." 


GEOLOGY  AND   SCENERY  OF  NORTHEAST  COAST     89 

The  little  map  is  intended  to  show  that  there  is  definite 
trend  to  the  rocks  of  the  Basement  Complex,  and  that  this 
trend  has  a  remarkable  parallelism  with  the  present  north- 
east coast  of  the  peninsula.  That  is,  the  edges  of  the  worn- 
down,  folded  schists  and  other  rocks,  Mke  the  axes  of  the 
folds,  run  parallel  to  the  general  shore-line.  It  looks  as  if 
this  part  of  the  Basement  Complex  were  originally  built 
up  by  mighty  earth-forces  acting  in  a  northeast-southwest 
direction  and  raising  a  distinct  and  lofty  mountain-chain 
on  the  line  of  the  present  coast.  Further  exploration  is 
necessary  before  the  conclusion  can  be  considered  as  final, 
but  Dr.  Bell's  discovery  in  the  Baffin  Land  Archean  of 
what  would  appear  to  be  the  continuation  of  the  same 
" Labrador  trend"  (thus  extending  more  than  1300  miles) 
lends  force  to  the  idea. 

In  Figure  13,  heavy  black  lines  diagrammatically  repre- 
sent the  "  Labrador  trend,"  and  others  represent  the  various 
elements  in  both  relief  and  rock-structure  which  belong  to 
the  great  Appalachian  mountain-system.  The  two  trends 
meet  at  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle.  The  " Labrador  trend" 
locates  one  of  the  most  ancient  (Pre-Cambrian)  mountain- 
ranges  of  America;  the  Appalachian  trend  characterizes 
the  much  younger  (Post-Carboniferous)  system  that  in- 
cludes the  Alleghanies,  the  Blue  Ridge,  the  White  Moun- 
tains, the  Green  Mountains,  and  the  lower  ranges  of  New 
Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia,  and  Newfoundland.  Where  so 
little  has  been  done  in  the  field,  one  must  hold  but  loosely 
to  the  idea  of  a  definite  law  of  structure  in  Canada's  most 
difficult  terrane,  but  it  is  believed  to  be  a  fair  and  just, 
perhaps  helpful,  working  hypothesis  to  govern  further 
exploration. 


90  LABRADOR 

It  would  be  tedious  and  not  very  profitable  to  the  general 
reader  to  describe  all  the  different  types  of  rock  found  in 
the  Basement  Complex ;  yet  a  few  principal  considerations 
will  serve  to  indicate  the  kind  of  material  which  goes 
to  form  the  bed-rock  of  the  coast,  and  serve,  also,  to 
outline  the  grand  march  of  events  that  gave  us  modern 
Labrador. 

With  but  rare  exceptions  the  rocks  of  the  Basement 
Complex  are  allied  to  that  most  familiar  rock,  granite. 
Like  granite  they  are  aggregates  of  common  minerals  like 
quartz,  feldspar,  mica,  hornblende,  augite,  magnetite,  etc. 
These  are  always  crystalline,  though  rarely  does  any  mineral 
show  crystal  facets  to  the  eye.  The  minerals  interlock 
in  the  intimate  way  characteristic  of  granite.  Further- 
more, these  rocks  bear  witness  to  one  common  fact  of  origin 
with  granite.  They  formed,  crystallized,  under  the  press- 
ure of  overlying  rock  which  has  long  since  been  swept  away 
—  eaten  away  by  the  weathering  and  decay  of  ages,  eroded 
by  the  "  tooth  of  Time."  Many  of  the  individual  rock- 
masses  are  known  to  have  resulted  from  the  crystallization 
of  once  molten  rock-material,  cooled  slowly  as  its  heat  was 
conducted  through  the  heavy  cover  of  rock  above.  Such  is 
believed  to  have  been  the  origin  of  all  granites.  Others  of 
the  Labrador  rocks  seem  to  have  crystallized  at  a  tempera- 
ture high  enough  to  allow  of  the  rearrangement  of  their 
ultimate  particles  from  former  quite  different  associations, 
yet  at  a  temperature  too  low  for  actual  fusion  of  the  rocks. 
Such  are  the  conditions  within  the  heart  of  a  mountain- 
range  as  it  grows,  its  rocks  crumpling  together,  piling  .up, 
fracturing,  and  making  way  before  great  bodies  of  the 
molten  matter  erupted  from  the  interior  of  the  earth ;  such 


GEOLOGY  AND  SCENERY  OF  NORTHEAST  COAST  91 

were  unquestionably  the  conditions  under  which  the  old 
Archean  chain  of  Labrador  was  upheaved. 

As  we  have  seen,  enormous  lateral  pressure,  pressure  too 
great  to  be  comprehended  by  the  human  mind,  ridged  up 
the  rocks  to  alpine  heights.  During  that  process  much  of 
the  crystallization  and  recrystallization  of  the  Archean 
rocks  took  place.  It  was,  therefore,  natural  that  the  min- 
erals of  the  rocks  should  be  arranged  with  reference  to  the 
pressure.  They  might  be  expected  to  lie  in  the  rock  with 
their  longer  axes  perpendicular  to  the  lines  of  force,  assum- 
ing thus  the  position  offering  greatest  resistance  to  that 
force.  This  is  the  case  for  probably  much  the  largest  area 
of  rock  in  the  coastal  belt.  Many  granites  and  allied  rocks 
which  had  been  "  intruded,"  in  the  molten  state,  into  the 
base  of  the  range,  were  squeezed  by  the  continued  appli- 
cation of  the  same  mountain-building  forces,  and  their 
minerals,  too,  have  been  crushed  and  driven  into  alignment 
at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  pressure.  So  it  has  come 
about  that  the  commonest  rocks  found  on  the  coast  are 
what  are  called  " crystalline  schists":  gneisses,  which  are 
like  granite  in  composition  but  show  on  the  broken  surface 
the  parallelism  of  the  minerals ;  mica  schists,  with  the  same 
(schistose)  structure,  yet  lacking  the  white  or  pink  feldspar 
crystals  of  gneiss ;  hornblende  schists,  in  which  the  familiar 
mica  is  replaced  by  the  less  familiar  but  likewise  important 
mineral,  hornblende;  and  a  large  number  of  other  rock- 
species  of  similar  structure. 

The  nature  of  the  original  material  from  which  the  crys- 
talline schists  have  been  made,  that  is,  the  composition 
of  the  earth's  crust  in  a  mountainous  region  before  the  moun- 
tain-building began,  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  problems 


92  LABRADOR 

before  geologists  to-day.  It  has  been  proved  in  certain  fa- 
vourable localities  that  such  schists  are  the  result  of  the  alter- 
ation of  more  ancient  slates,  sandstones,  conglomerates,  vol- 
canic ash,  and  lava-flows,  under  the  same  conditions  as  once 
obtained  within  the  Archean  range  of  northeastern  Labra- 
dor. Here  again  is  a  wide  field  open  to  further  exploration. 
The  geologist  who  seriously  studies  these  coastal  rocks  of 
Labrador,  wonderfully  exposed  as  they  are,  may  some  day 
establish  new  principles  of  interpretation,  or  confirm  those 
now  forming  the  basis  of  modern  earth-science. 

During  the  paroxysmal  though  extremely  slow  growth 
of  a  lofty,  alpine  mountain-range,  other  changes  of  great 
moment  occur  in  the  deep,  highly  heated  core  of  the  range. 
The  foundations  of  the  huge  pile  are  unloosed,  and  enormous 
blocks  of  the  solid  rocks  are  displaced  by  molten  or 
thoroughly  plastic  matter,  thrust  up  into  the  range  by 
titanic  subterranean  force.  There  cooling,  this  material 
crystallizes  into  solid  rocks  of  the  granite  type.  As  it 
crystallizes,  the  whole  mass  may  be  pulled  out  in  the 
wrenching  shear  of  mountain-building,  much  as  soft  pitch 
may  be  drawn  out  in  the  hands.  In  such  a  case  the  min- 
erals composing  the  new  rock  are  arranged  in  lines,  and  not 
in  planes,  as  in  ordinary  schists.  An  unusually  fine  example 
is  exhibited  on  a  large  scale  at  Pottle's  Cove,  West  Bay, 
halfway  between  Belle  Isle  and  Hamilton  Inlet.  The 
rock  is  there  a  common  light  pinkish  gray  granite  possessing 
this  curious  arrangement  of  its  constituents  —  a  witness 
to  the  " storm  and  stress"  period  of  Archean  mountain 
growth. 

Late  in  the  mountain-building  period  there  occurred  one 
of  the  most  important  underground  events  yet  chronicled 


GEOLOGY  AND   SCENERY  OF  NORTHEAST  COAST     93 

in  Labrador.  For  at  least  fifty  miles  along  the  coast  from 
Ford  Harbour  northward,  and  for  many  miles  inland,  the 
older  formations  of  the  range  were  in  some  manner  displaced 
by  a  huge  body  of  molten  rock.  This  enormous  mass 
crystallized  into  a  solid  rock  precisely  analogous  to  common 
granite  in  having  solidified  under  a  cover  of  older,  over- 
lying schists  or  strata.  The  latter  have  since  been  worn 
away,  and  to-day  the  once  deeply  buried  " intrusive"  body 
is  visible  in  mountain  stubs  covering  hundreds  of  square 
miles.  The  rock  is  called  "gabbro";  in  composition  it  is 
often  similar  to  basalt,  the  commonest  of  lavas,  i.e.  such  rocks 
as  have  been  erupted  at  the  earth's  surface  from  volcanic 
vents.  Like  basalt,  the  gabbro  has  a  specially  dark  colour, 
that  which  dominates  the  island-cliffs  and  mainland-moun- 
tains of  the  region  about  Nain.  These  highlands  are  bare 
of  both  soil  and  vegetation,  and  the  black  slopes  impress 
the  eye  with  a  sense  of  sombre,  almost  terrible,  majesty 
even  greater  than  is  given  by  their  mere  altitude  and  savage 
sculpturing.  Aulatsivik  Island  ("The  Ruler")  and  Paul's 
Island,  lying  in  a  whole  archipelago  of  smaller,  rounded, 
hummocky  islands  or  ragged  skerries,  offer  numerous  land- 
ing-places where  the  formation  can  be  studied. 

As  in  other  occurrences  within  the  Canadian  Archean, 
the  gabbro  is  chiefly  made  up  of  a  wonderfully  beautiful 
mineral,  a  feldspar,  first  recognized  as  a  distinct  species 
during  the  examination  of  hand-specimens  brought  many 
years  ago  to  Europe  from  Paul's  Island.  The  species  was 
called  "labradorite"  in  its  first  description,  and  the  name 
is  still  employed  to  signify  one  of  the  main  constituents 
of  the  earth's  crust.  It  is  predominant  not  only  in  gabbro 
and  gabbro-like  rocks,  but  as  well  in  the  bulk  of  the  world's 


94  LABRADOR 

volcanic  rock.  Labradorite  early  attracted  the  attention 
of  mineralogists  and  of  the  much  larger  class  of  persons 
interested  in  gems  and  in  the  beauty  of  colour  in  inorganic 
nature.  Owing  to  the  peculiar  internal  structure  of  the 
mineral,  white  light  penetrating  its  glassy  surfaces  is  broken 
up  into  its  coloured  components .  Some  of  these  are  absorbed 
in  the  mineral  and  do  not  affect  the  eye;  the  remainder 
are  reflected  from  myriads  of  microscopic  particles  within 
the  feldspar  and  afford  tinted  light-rays  of  exquisite  beauty. 
Purples,  violets,  and  blues,  flashing  like  flame  out  of  the 
iridescent  crystals,  are  the  prevailing  colours,  but  bronze,, 
yellow,  green,  orange,  and  red  are  not  uncommon.  The 
individual  feldspars  vary  greatly  in  size,  the  diameters 
ranging  from  a  quarter  of  an  inch  or  less  to  six  or  eight 
inches.  As  rocks  go,  the  gabbro  is  always  coarse-grained, 
but  the  finest  labradorite  is  found  in  the  numerous  veins 
of  specially  coarse  rock  which  crop  out  irregularly  on  the 
ledges. 

An  enterprising  American  has  attempted  to  market 
the  labradorite  as  a  semi-precious  decorative  stone.  He 
opened  a  quarry  on  a  small  island  (Napoktulagatsuk) 
situated  some  twelve  miles  south  of  Nain.  Dr.  Grenfell 
had  the  kindness  to  place  the  steamer  Strathcona  for  a 
day  at  the  disposal  of  the  members  of  the  Brave  expedi- 
tion, and  the  writer  was  thus  enabled  to  visit  the  quarry. 
It  was  found  that  sufficient  blasting  had  been  done  to 
remove  the  weathered  rock  at  the  surface.  Notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  the  more  beautiful  material  had 
been  shipped  away,  the  fresh  surfaces  of  the  rock  presented 
a  unique  and  striking  appearance.  The  iridescence  could 
be  discerned  in  almost  every  part,  but  a  perfect  glory  of 


GEOLOGY  AND   SCENERY  OF  NORTHEAST  COAST     95 

colour  flashed  from  the  coarse,  vein-like  patches  in  the  rock. 
With  each  changing  angle  of  vision  a  new  splendour  of 
gorgeously  tinted  rays  shot  out  of  the  finely  contrasted  dark 
gray  of  the  general  rock-surface.  It  is  no  wonder  that  every 
effort  should  have  been  made  to  market  the  stone.  Yet, 
with  all  their  resources,  Tiffany  and  Company  have  had 
to  decide  against  the  success  of  the  material  as  a  gem. 
One  of  the  chief  difficulties  in  working  the  stone  lies  in 
its  extremely  brittle  and  cleavable  nature,  forbidding  the 
production  of  a  well-polished  surface.  The  conditions  of 
nature  do  not,  however,  prevent  the  collection  of  many 
uncut  specimens  of  exceeding  beauty.  The  finest  material 
yet  seen  in  the  bed-rock  occurs  on  or  near  Napoktulagatsuk. 
The  settlers  on  the  coast  report  abundant  iridescent  lab- 
radorite  also  on  Mt.  Pikey,  southwest  of  Ford  Harbour. 

A  complete  account  of  this  interesting  formation  would 
necessarily  involve  a  description  of  the  other  minerals 
composing  the  gabbro,  but  that  would  carry  the  reader  far 
into  the  domain  of  the  rock-specialist. 

The  relative  ages,  areal  distribution,  and  exact  com- 
position of  the  hundreds  of  igneous  rock-bodies  between 
Belle  Isle  and  Cape  Chidley  must  be  left  almost  entirely 
to  future  discovery.  From  the  magnificent  exposure  of 
these  terranes  a  splendid  harvest  can  be  promised  to  all 
geological  expeditions  to  the  coast. 

The  Nain  gabbro  seems  to  have  been  " intruded"  into 
the  older  rocks  after  the  mountain-building,  with  its  folding 
and  crumpling,  was  nearly  completed.  This  at  least  ap- 
pears to  be  the  testimony  of  the  rock-ledges  themselves. 
If  the  gabbro  had  already  been  crystallized  out  before  any 
considerable  amount  of  the  lateral  crumpling  still  remained 


96  LABRADOR 

to  be  applied,  the  minerals  of  the  existing  rock  should 
show  the  crushing  and  granulation  due  to  the  strain  of 
the  later  mountain-building.  Such  has  been  the  fate  of 
great  masses  of  this  gabbro  in  other  parts  of  Labrador 
and  in  Quebec,  but,  so  far  as  known,  the  coast  gabbros 
have  escaped  extensive  crushing. 

The  same  remark  applies  to  a  quite  different  class  of 
intrusive  rocks  which  leap  to  the  eye  of  every  observer  on 
the  coast.  Toward  the  close  of  the  epoch  of  mountain- 
growth  in  the  Basement  Complex,  perhaps  at  or  near  the 
date  of  the  great  gabbro  intrusion,  the  base  of  the  entire 
range  from  Belle  Isle  to  Chidley  was  fissured  and,  in  a 
sense,  shattered.  To  that  event  there  contributed  the 
irregular  contraction  of  the  granites  and  highly  heated 
schists  as  they  cooled,  and  doubtless,  also,  a  general  settling 
down  of  the  ridged-up  crust  after  the  earth's  paroxysm 
was  over.  Countless  cracks  and  fissures  were  thus  formed 
far  down  below  the  lofty,  rugged  surface  of  the  range.  The 
fissures  were  seldom,  if  ever,  left  gaping.  So  soon  as  formed 
and  in  the  very  act  of  forming,  they  were  filled  with  highly 
molten  basaltic  rock  which  then  froze  or  crystallized. 
Thus  the  range  was  strongly  knitted  together  again.  So 
firm  was  the  new  cementation  of  the  shattered  formations 
that  the  rocks  filling  the  ancient  fissures  now  form  so  many 
ribs  strengthening  the  mountain-chain  against  the  attack 
of  the  weather.  All  up  and  down  the  coast  the  gray  sea- 
cliffs  and  mountain-slopes  are  seamed  with  these  thousands 
of  basaltic  fissure-fillings,  the  so-called  " dikes"  of  "trap." 
Wonderfully  fine  examples  occur  on  the  north  side  of  the 
entrance  to  Hamilton  Inlet.  From  the  anchorage  in  Ice 
Tickle  one  should  mount  any  one  of  the  higher  hills  on  either 


GEOLOGY  AND  SCENERY  OF  NORTHEAST  COAST     97 

Ice  Tickle  Island  or  Rodney  Mundy  Island  and  cast  his 
eye  over  the  singularly  varied  landscape.     Under  his  feet 
the  observer  will  find  the  black  ledges  of  trap.     He  speedily 
notes  that  all  the  rounded  ridges  or  knob-like  hills  of  the 
region  have  the  same  dark  hue,  and  rightly  concludes  that 
they  are  composed  of  the  same  rock.     Between  the  hills 
are  short,  broadly  flaring  valleys  floored  with  light  gray 
schistose  rock   peeping  out  through  the   moss   or  from 
beneath  the  curlewberry  bushes  and  willows.     Each  of 
the  two  large  islands,  for  about  three-quarters  of  its  surface, 
is  underlain  by  the  coarse-grained  schists  with  some  com- 
mon granite.     The  remaining  fourth  of  the  surface  is  un- 
derlain by  the  trap.     Many  of  the  ancient  fissures  have 
parallel  walls  which  are  from  ten  to  a  hundred  feet  or  more 
apart ;  others  have  doubly  convex  walls  converging  at  the 
two  ends  of  gigantic  pods  of  trap  up  to  a  thousand  feet  in 
breadth  and  perhaps  of  twice  that  length.     The  trap  being 
more  resistant  to  the  weather  than  the  rocks  it   cuts,  the 
hills  have  assumed  the  varying  outlines  of  palisade,  ridge, 
or  dome,  according  to  the  shape  of  their  respective  bodies 
of  intrusive  rock.     Such  a  landscape  most  tellingly  declares 
the  fact  that  in  mountains  generally,  but  especially  in  old 
mountains,  the  expression  of  the  actual  relief    is  really 
more  controlled  by  the  age-long  sculpturing  of  the  elements 
than  by  the  original  upheaval  of  the  earth's  crust.    The 
uplift  and  folding  together  of  strata  but  furnished  the  raw 
material ;   the  carving  out  of  valleys  by  the  weather,  and 
particularly  the  destruction  of  the  softer  rock-belts,  leaving 
the  more  slowly  wasting,   harder  ones   projecting,  have 
evolved  the  finished  product,  the  mountain  topography 
of  the  present  day. 


98 


LABRADOR 


These  dikes  of  trap  often  occur  in  nests,  as  at  Ice  Tickle, 
but,  large  or  small,  they  are  never  wanting  in  any  extended 
view  of  the  shore.  They  form  striking  features  in  the  frown- 
ing cliffs  of  the  north;  perhaps  nowhere  better  displayed 
than  in  a  score  of  huge,  black,  vertical  seams  of  trap  part- 
ing the  schists  of  Mt.  Blow-me-down.  Another  score  of 


FIG.  14. 


From  a  photograph 


View  of  Striped  Island,  looking  east.  The  highest  point  is  about  200  feet 
above  the  sea.  The  black  bands  represent  horizontal  sheets  of  trap, 
cutting  the  gneiss. 

parallel  dikes  cut  through  Webeck  Island.  On  account 
of  their  great  size  —  on  Mt.  Blow-me-down,  ranging  from 
one  hundred  to  four  hundred  feet  in  width  and  exposed 
for  thousands  of  feet  along  their  walls  —  these  dikes  are 
conspicuous  even  many  miles  offshore,  compelling  in  the 
mind  of  every  voyager  wonder  at  the  stupendous  force 
that  so  cleaved  the  mountains  to  their  mysterious  depths. 
Such  dikes  appear  in  the  view  of  Bear  Island  (opp.  p.  130). 
They  are  small  examples,  but  serve  to  show  the  essential 
characteristics  and  that  contrast  of  colour  which  makes  the 
dikes  scenically  important  on  the  coast.  Before  the  moun- 
tains were  wasted  away  to  their  present  low  relief,  these 
dikes  extended  upwards  hundreds,  if  not  many  thousands, 


GEOLOGY  AND   SCENERY  OF  NORTHEAST  COAST     99 

of  feet.  It  is,  indeed,  possible  that  their  fissures  reached 
quite  to  the  surface  and  built  volcanic  cones  and  lava 
plains  long  since  destroyed.  That  inference  is  supported 
by  the  discovery  on  the  Labrador  of  just  such  volcanic 
accumulations,  although  these  have  not  yet  been  suffi- 
ciently studied  to  show  actual  connection  between  the 
lavas  and  the  dikes  of  trap.  That  the  latter  were  thrust 
into  the  fissures  of  the  mountain-core  with  enough  energy 
to  force  the  molten  rock  to  the  surface  is  implied  in  the 
conditions  of  Figure  14. 

Striped  Island  gets  its  name  from  a  remarkable  group  of 
thin,  nearly  horizontal  sheets  of  black  trap  cutting  common 
gray  gneiss.  The  causes  of  the  intrusion  here  may  have 
differed  from  what  they  were  in  the  case  of  the  vertical 
dikes,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  entered  the  base  of  the  moun- 
tain-range by  a  kind  of  permission ;  great  mountain  blocks 
moved  apart  and  permitted  the  plastic  trap  to  enter  the 
opening  fissure.  But  the  sheets  of  Striped  Island,  as  they 
forced  their  way  into  place,  had  apparently  to  lift  a  rock- 
cover  weighing  countless  millions  of  tons.  Their  intrusion 
began  along  so-called " joints7';  that  is,  microscopic  though 
continuous  cracks  previously  developed  in  the  gneiss. 
The  imagination  may  well  be  staggered  in  the  attempt 
to  grasp  the  magnitude  of  a  force  which  could  so  thrust 
fluid  rock  into  almost  infinitesimal  cracks,  wedging  up  a 
whole  mountain  in  the  process  as  if  a  Titan  had  worked 
with  an  omnipotent  jack-screw;  yet  there  seems  to  be  no 
escape  from  the  conclusion  that  such  a  wonderful  display 
of  power  in  the  molten  under-earth  has  taken  place. 

In  summary,  then,  the  different  formations  composing 
the  Basement  Complex  of  Labrador,  though  understood 


100  LABRADOR 

only  in  the  light  of  rapid  and  incomplete  exploration,  are 
to  be  viewed  as  those  belonging  to  old-mountain  stubs. 
The  facts  show  with  certainty  that  an  enormous  volume 
of  rock  has  been  carried  away  to  the  depths  of  the  Atlantic, 
where  the  debris  is  accumulating  to  this  day.  Observa- 
tions in  structure,  too  technical  to  be  described  in  these 
pages,  seem  to  show  as  clearly  that  the  staple  rocks  of  the 
Labrador  were,  in  Archean  times,  built  up  into  a  gnarled 
and  knotted  mountain-system  extensive  in  area  and  lofty 
in  an  Alpine,  or  even  Himalayan,  sense. 

But  the  imagination  is  not  left  entirely  unaided  in  its 
attempt  to  reconstruct  the  Archean  mountains.  In  com- 
paratively recent  geologic  time  a  portion  of  the  Basement 
Complex  on  the  Labrador  has  been  warped  up,  i.e.  bodily 
uplifted,  so  high  that  the  streams  of  the  country  have  been 
enabled  to  cut  many  thousands  of  feet  down  into  the  old 
rocks.  As  a  result,  the  150  miles  of  the  coastal  belt  south- 
eastward from  Cape  Chidley  presents  to-day  a  rugged 
relief,  rivalling  in  grandeur  many  famous  Alps  of  Switzer- 
land and  the  Selkirks  of  the  Canadian  West.  Here  the 
strong  topography  has  a  distinct  coastal  trend,  and  its 
boldness  forcibly  suggests  that  there  has  been  a  veritable 
resurrection  of  the  Archean  mountain-chain.  This  long 
mountain-belt  has  been  called  the  "Torngat"  Range, 
from  the  Eskimo  word  for  "bad  spirits."  A  single  view 
of  the  bare,  forbidding,  riven,  and  jagged  cliffs  of  the 
saw-tooth  ridges  and  alpine  horns,  whether  seen  in  the 
interior  or  springing  their  thousands  of  feet  from  salt 
water  in  the  fiords,  leaves  no  wonder  at  the  name.  The 
absence  of  trees,  the  eerie  loneliness  of  the  whole  land,  and, 
in  the  countless  gorges  and  ravines,  the  depth  of  shadow 


GEOLOGY  AND   SCENERY  OF  NQBTti£A$$'  CpLjflFjg*    1.0  L- 

made  startling  by  the  brilliance  of  the  high  lights  under 
a  northern  sun,  might  well  cause  the  savage  mind  to  people 
these  mountains  with  sinister  devils. 

A  noble  introduction  to  the  Torngats  is  to  be  found  as 
the  vessel  bound  for  Nachvak  Bay  rounds  the  long  finger- 
like  promontory  of  Gulch  Cape,  ten  miles  south  of  the  Bay 
entrance.  All  along  the  shore  cliffs  of  gray,  naked  rock, 
streaked  with  great  black  seams  (dikes)  of  trap,  rise  2000  to 
2500  feet  directly  out  of  the  sea,  and  terminate  in  sharp 
peaks  and  ridges.  One  of  the  latter  has  been  appro- 
priately named  "Mt.  Razor-back."  Imagine  four  miles 
of  a  saw-toothed  pile  of  rock,  nearly  3500  feet  high  and 
furrowed  on  the  seaward  face  by  a  score  of  deep  gulches 
which  cleave  the  mass  from  top  to  bottom,  and  each  of 
the  lateral  ridges  in  like  manner  broken  by  a  dozen  ravines 
on  each  slope,  and  you  have  a  picture  of  mountain-land 
without  a  parallel  on  all  the  American  coast  of  the  Atlantic 
to  the  southward.  Between  the  great  ridges  open  long, 
flat-floored  valleys  that  have  been  moulded  into  their 
present  forms  by  the  glaciers  of  the  Ice  Age.  During  a 
memorable  day  the  Brave  beat  up  the  Inlet,  her  crew  and 
passengers  enjoying  an  ever  changing  panorama  recalling 
in  its  grandeur  the  cliffs  and  fiords  of  Norway. 

Nachvak  Bay  forms  a  trough  running  transverse  to  the 
range  and  heading  some  30  miles  from  the  Atlantic,  at  a 
point  more  than  halfway  across  the  mountain-belt.  It  is, 
therefore,  fortunately  situated  for  the  exploration  of  the 
Torngats.  For  a  half-dozen  miles  together  its  walls  present 
steep,  or  even  nearly  vertical,  precipices,  their  heads  often 
covered  with  clouds  a  half-mile  above  the  sea.  At  one 
salient  angle  formed  by  the  meeting  of  two  branches  of 


1-02  LABRADOR 

the  fiord,  is  such  a  cliff,  3400  feet  high  —  twice  the  height 
of  the  famous  Cape  Eternity  of  the  Saguenay  fiord  —  the 
culminating  point  of  a  notched  and  bastioned  wall  ex- 
tending seven  miles  to  the  southward.  Often  the  vivid 
and  varied  colouring  of  the  rocks  or  the  threads  and  broad 
ribbons  of  numerous  waterfalls  cascading  over  the  cliffs 
enliven  these  scenes.  How  rarely  the  Inlet  is  visited  ap- 
pears in  the  fact  that  our  schooner  was  the  first  sailing 
vessel  in  eight  years  to  cast  anchor  at  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company  Post  of  Nachvak. 

Both  to  south  and  to  north  of  the  Bay  the  mountains  are 
truly  Alpine  in  form,  their  summits  measuring  more  than 
6000  feet  in  altitude.  Indeed,  some  50  miles  to  the  north- 
ward, at  least  one  of  the  "Four  Peaks"  is  believed  to  be 
over  7000  feet  in  height.  In  any  case,  it  is  not  too  much 
to  say  that  the  Torngats  afford  the  most  lofty  land  imme- 
diately adjacent  to  the  coast  in  all  the  long  stretch  from 
Baffin  Land  to  Cape  Horn.  When  it  is  remembered  that 
these  mountains  rise  out  of  the  sea  itself,  not  from  an  ele- 
vated plateau  as  in  the  case  of  the  Green  Mountains  and 
the  White  Mountains  (Mt.  Washington  about  6300  feet  in 
altitude),  one  may  well  be  prepared  to  understand  the  fact 
that  in  all  eastern  America  there  is  no  scenery  that  even 
approaches  in  scale  and  ruggedness  the  Torngats  of  the 
Labrador. 

At  its  southern  end  the  range  gradually  assumes  the  tamer 
profiles  of  a  broken  plateau.  About  fifty  miles  southeast  of 
Hebron,  the  Moravian  mission  station,  the  scenery  once  more 
becomes  specially  impressive,  but  a  wholly  new  element 
appears  in  the  landscape  forms.  Again  we  meet  with  a 
boldness  of  relief  extraordinary  for  eastern  America,  with 


GEOLOGY  AND  SCENERY  OF  NORTHEAST  COAST   103 

heights  above  sea-level  of  from  2500  to  3500  feet  for  moun- 
tains starting  up  out  of  the  depths  of  the  Atlantic.  This 
second  mountain-group  covers  about  300  square  miles .  It  is 
called  by  the  Eskimo  the  "Kaumajet"  or  Shining  Moun- 
tain, a  name  forming  the  exact  equivalent  of  the  Hindoo 
"Himalaya,"  and  recalling  the  considerable  list  of  names  of 
peaks,  as  Mt.  Blanc,  the  White  Mountains,  Mauna  Kea,  etc., 
covered  with  perennial  or  evanescent  snow- fields. 

So  far  as  known  the  Kaumajets  have  a  unique  history  in 
the  topography  of  the  coast,  and  it  is  of  special  interest  not 
only  in  the  discussion  of  the  wonderful  mountain-forms  of 
the  present  day,  but  because  of  an  ancient  record,  —  a 
geographic  fossil  long  preserved  beneath  rocky  leaves  but 
now  visible,  for  the  book  is  open  and  may  be  read.  It  will 
be  remembered  that  the  Basement  Complex  was  worn 
down  to  an  almost-plain  before  the  earliest  known  fossil- 
bearing  rocks  of  eastern  America  (the  Cambrian  formations) 
were  formed.  Let  us  imagine  this  old  mountain-root  land- 
surface  sinking  deeply  beneath  the  sea ;  then  imagine  piled 
upon  it  a  thickness  of  3000  feet  or  more  of  mud,  sand,  and 
gravel,  along  with  the  lavas,  flows,  and  ash,  of  sea-coast  or 
marine  volcanoes.  Such  material,  since  hardened  to  form 
well-bedded  slates,  sandstones,  conglomerates,  tuffs,  and 
trap-rock,  was  the  raw  stuff  from  which  the  Kaumajets 
have  been  made.  The  whole  mass,  including  the  well- 
buried  Basement  Complex,  was  long  ago  hoisted  above  the 
sea,  warped  and  slightly  folded  into  great  shallow  troughs 
and  low  arches  (Fig.  15) .  For  countless  millenniums  the  new 
surface  was  given  over  to  the  patient  but  powerful  attack 
of  frost  and  other  weathering  agents  and  the  still  more 
destructive  water-streams  new  born  on  that  surface.  The 


104 


LABRADOR 


result  has  been  to  wear  away  all  but  a  comparatively  small 
patch  of  the  ancient  sea-bottom  sediments.  Steep- walled 
gorges  and  canyons  have  thus  been  sunk,  leaving  massive 
tables,  mesas,  and  terraced  plateaus  that  reach  down  to  the 


FIG.  15.  From  a  photograph 

The  Kaumajet  Mountains,  looking  north  from  Mugford  Tickle. 

valley-bottoms  in  gigantic  steps  like  those  in  the  much 
younger  strata  of  the  Colorado  Canyon.  The  result  has 
been  to  fashion  a  type  of  mountain  scenery  truly  wild  and 
imposing  and  of  unusual  interest  in  possessing  an  architec- 
tural element  quite  lacking  in  the  other  high  mountains  of 
the  Atlantic  coast.  This  special  quality  is  best  brought  out 
when  a  fresh  fall  of  snow  lying  on  the  narrow  ledges  of  the 
even-coursed  cliffs  makes  evident  the  nearly  horizontal 
structure. 

Examples  of  the  Kaumajets  are  represented  in  Fig- 
ures 15  and  16,  drawn  from  photographs.  In  Figure  16 
the  old  buried  surface  of  the  Basement  Complex,  revealed 
once  more  after  its  millions  of  years,  probably  tens  of 


GEOLOGY  AND   SCENERY  OF  NORTHEAST  COAST     105 

millions  of  years,  of  burial,  appears  above  the  broad  un- 
stratified  band  at  the  base  of  the  Bishop's  Mitre. 

A  brief  note  from  the  revised  log  of  the  schooner  Brave 
suggests  how  little  exploration  of  the  Kaumajets  has  been 
accomplished :  — 

"As  indicated  by  its  position,  composition,  and  topo- 
graphic character,  the  island  of  Ogua'lik  really  forms  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  Kaumajets.  Mugford  Tickle 
separates  it  from  the  mainland.  It  was  in  this  narrow 
channel  that  our  anchorage  was  chosen.  Again  we  had 
occasion  to  mourn  the  slowness  of  our  northward  progress, 
for  it  would  have  been  of  the  highest  interest  to  devote  a 
fortnight  at  least  to  the  exploration  of  this  region ;  in  order 
to  be  certain  of  reaching  Nachvak,  however,  we  allowed  but 
two  days  in  which  to  secure  information  concerning  the 
nature  of  the  massifs  immediately  surrounding  the  vessel. 

"The  nine-hundred  foot  scarps  of  Ogua'lik  would  have 
been  impressive  among  the  tamer  landscapes  of  southern 
Labrador,  but  they  were  dwarfed  beside  the  superb  walls 
of  the  opposing  mountains  only  a  mile  or  two  distant.  We 
had  entered  the  tickle  late  at  night,  and  in  the  brilliant 
starlight  had  discerned  the  huge  piles  looming  up  in  solemn 
and  formless  grandeur.  Their  mystery  became  in  part 
dispelled  as  a  bright  sun  disclosed  a  scene  in  its  way  un- 
rivalled in  Labrador.  Due  north  in  the  centre  of  the  view 
two  gracefully  rounded  knobs,  estimated  by  the  aid  of 
barometric  readings  halfway  to  their  summits  to  be  2500 
feet  in  height,  lay  close  to  the  verge  of  an  almost  vertical 
precipice  from  1000  to  1200  feet  high.  Below  this  a  series 
of  lesser  cliffs,  separated  by  steeply  sloping  screes  of 
rock-waste  stepped  downward  to  the  uneven  floor  of  a 


106  LABRADOR 

deep  NE.-SW.  valley.  On  the  southeast  the  valley  is 
bounded  by  a  similar  arrangement  of  cliffs  and  taluses. 
It  ends  as  a  great  cul-de-sac,  two  miles  in  length,  in  a  thou- 
sand-foot head-wall  over  which  there  cascades  a  large 
brook. 

"On  landing,  I  found  that  the  first  and  natural  impres- 
sion, that  this  systematic  array  of  scarps  and  taluses  sig- 
nified a  stratified  structure  for  the  massif,  was  justified." 

At  the  foot  of  the  great  cliff  the  light-colored  gneisses 
and  other  crystalline  schists  of  the  Basement  form  broad 
ledges  well  scoured  by  the  ice  of  the  Glacial  Period.  Their 
gently  rolling  surface  is  considerably  more  uneven  than  the 
old  " fossil"  land-surface  on  these  same  crumpled,  gnarled, 
and  twisted  rocks.  The  overlying,  veneering  strata  of  the 
plateaus  include  black  slates,  quartzites,  and  sandstones, 
apparently  all  sea-bottom  deposits ;  but  probably  more  than 
1500  feet  of  the  half-mile  of  thickness  in  these  bedded  rocks 
belongs  to  a  volcanic  formation.  For  unknown  centuries 
this  part  of  the  Labrador  must  have  been  the  home  of  one 
or  more,  perhaps  many,  volcanoes  of  large  size.  Millions 
of  years  ago  they  erupted  enormous  volumes  of  "ash"  and 
other  debris  of  lava.  Most  of  the  lava  was  shattered  into 
angular  fragments,  coarse  and  fine,  by  the  violence  of  ex- 
plosion. In  the  resulting  deposits  one  can  find  abundant 
and  very  perfect  " bombs"  with  the  rounded  shapes  and 
cracked  surfaces  of  lava  masses  freezing  as  they  spun  through 
the  air  from  the  mouth  of  Nature's  cannon.  Other  thick 
sheets  of  solid  lava  represent  the  quiet  flows  that  signify 
yet  greater  power  in  the  eruptive  force. 

So  far  only  the  most  cursory  examination  has  been  given 
this  important  rock-section.  No  organic  fossils  have  been 


GEOLOGY  AND  SCENERY  OF  NORTHEAST  COAST     107 

found  in  any  part  of  the  series  of  beds.  Geologists  cannot 
say,  therefore,  just  what  is  the  age  of  these  rocks  relatively 
to  the  other  formations  of  the  world.  It  is  only  known  that 
here,  as  in  similar  rock-groups  in  western  and  southwestern 
Labrador,  the  stratified  beds  are  extremely  old  in  a  geologi- 
cal sense,  dating  in  all  probability  from  a  time  near  the 
beginning  of  the  so-called  Paleozoic  Period.  An  incon- 
ceivable time  has  elapsed  since  these  lost  volcanoes  were 
active ;  inconceivable  time  had  elapsed  between  the  build- 
ing of  the  Archean  mountains  and  the  bursting  forth  of  the 
lavas.  Though  the  exact  number  of  millenniums  engaged 
in  those  events  cannot  be  told,  the  discovery  of  organic 
remains  in  the  sea-bottom  sediments  can  yet  give  science 
an  idea  as  to  the  relative  place  of  the  events  in  the  earth's 
history.  Such  a  search  for  fossils,  the  closer  description  of 
the  rock-formations,  the  mapping  of  the  region,  and  the 
contemplation  and  explanation  of  the  marvellous  scenery 
of  the  Kaumajets  offer  an  exploring  party  enjoyable  work 
for  more  than  one  busy  season.  It  is  doubtful  if  a  more 
promising  region  for  research  in  Nature's  wonders  can  be 
found  elsewhere  on  the  Labrador. 

In  the  northward  journey  from  Mugford  Tickle,  the 
vessel  will  pass  close  under  the  sheer  two-thousand  foot 
cliff  of  Cape  Mugford.  Nowhere  is  the  " geographic  fossil" 
of  the  Kaumajets  better  displayed.  Even  in  the  pho- 
tograph one  can  see  the  exceeding  contrast  of  colour  and 
composition  in  the  Basement  Complex  and  in  the  bedded 
rocks  above.  It  is  hard  to  imagine  a  more  spectacular 
exposure  of  such  a  surface  as  that  limiting  the  Complex. 
Let  the  visitor  to  the  Kaumajets  remember  that  the  " al- 
most-plain" has  an  antiquity  so  vast  that,  in  comparison 


108 


LABRADOR 


with  it,  the  Alps  of  Europe,  the  Andes  of  South  America, 
our  own  Rocky  Mountains,  the  Colorado  Canyon,  the  bound- 
less plain  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  are  all  but  creatures  of  a 
day.  He  will  then  not  only  enjoy  the  wild  picturesqueness 
of  these  masterpieces  of  Nature's  masonry,  but  hold  in 
special  reverence  their  hoary  record  of  an  ancient  world. 


==F          '-.___ 


FlG.   16.  From  a  photograph 

Sea-coast  view  of  the   "Bishop's  Mitre"    (left)   and   "Brave  Mountain" 

(right). 

Again  the  scene  changes.  "  Numerous  waterfalls  and 
extensive  banks  of  snow  lent  welcome  relief  to  the  dark 
cliffs,  the  black  recesses  of  the  great  sea-chasms,  and  the 
savage  gorge-like  inlets  that  opened  one  after  another  as  our 
schooner  slowly  forged  through  the  '  tide '  around  the  cape. 
Fine  as  this  scenery  was,  still  greater  magnificence  awaited 
us  as  we  came  face  to  face  with  the  Bishop's  Mitre  (Fig.  16). 
Seen  from  the  northeast,  the  Mitre,  estimated  to  be  about 
3500  feet  in  height,  exhibits  a  symmetry  which  is  most  re- 
markable in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  existing  profiles  are 
everywhere  the  result  of  weathering  and  wasting.  The 
two  peaked  summits  are  separated  by  a  sharp  notch  about 
500  feet  in  depth  —  the  uppermost  part  of  a  long  ravine 


GEOLOGY  AND   SCENERY  OF  NORTHEAST  COAST     109 

cleaving  the  mountain  to  its  base  at  the  shore  two  miles 
from  the  notch.  Occupying  the  bottom  of  the  ravine  an 
uninterrupted  snowbank  still  marked,  in  the  month  of 
August,  the  line  of  symmetry  of  the  whole  mountain.  From 
either  peak  of  the  Mitre  a  rugged  razor-back  ridge  descends, 
each  gradually  diverging  from  the  other  across  the  widening 
intervening  trench.  With  essentially  similar  profiles,  the 
two  spurs  further  match  as  each  terminates  at  an  elevation 
of  about  a  thousand  feet  in  a  bold  rock-tower.  Each  sen- 
tinel tower  rises  some  800  feet  above  the  ridge-crest,  from 
which  there  is  a  sudden  slope  of  the  full  1800  feet  into  the 
sea.  The  light  gray  colour  of  the  Basement,  in  contrast 
with  the  black  of  the  cyclopean  masonry  above,  adds  to  the 
impression  won  from  the  beautiful  symmetry  that  the  whole 
structure  is  the  work  of  giants  with  the  brains  of  men.  No 
more  interesting  mountain  occurs  on  the  whole  coast." 

Our  knowledge  concerning  the  Torngat  Range  or  the 
Kaumajets  is  imperfect;  still  less  is  known  of  the  third  of 
the  high  places  on  the  Labrador  —  the  Kiglapait.  Fif- 
teen miles  north  of  Port  Manvers  and  some  fifty  miles  south 
of  the  southern  limit  of  the  Kaumajet  group,  the  Kiglapait 
lifts  its  rocky  head  and  giant  vertebrae  out  of  the  sea  like 
the  massive  skeleton  of  some  monster  reptile  left  stranded 
on  the  shore.  Practically  all  the  information  to  be  had 
on  the  real  nature  of  the  range  is  embodied  in  two  para- 
graphs of  the  report  of  the  Brave  expedition:  "The  name 
of  this  mountain-group  is  an  Eskimo  word  meaning  'The 
Great  Sierra'  and  refers  to  the  very  ragged  sky-line  and 
general  outlines.  The  axis  of  the  range  runs  due  east  and 
west  parallel  to  the  coast-line,  which  here  has  an  exceptional 
trend.  The  sierra  is  not  more  than  thirty  miles  in  length, 


110  LABRADOR 

but,  on  account  of  its  conspicuous  position  on  the  shore,  is 
strikingly  picturesque.  Ten  different  summits  from  2500 
to  4000  feet  in  height  could  be  counted  from  the  schooner. 
No  one  of  these,  so  far  as  the  writer  has  been  able  to  de- 
termine from  missionaries,  fishermen,  or  from  the  literature, 
has  as  yet  received  a  name.  Here,  as  in  the  higher  moun- 
tains of  the  north,  there  is  abundant  opportunity  for  sys- 
tematic field-work  on  the  part  of  such  an  organization  as  the 
Appalachian  Club. 

"We  had  hoped  to  spend  some  days,  if  not  weeks,  in  the 
study  of  these  interesting  mountains,  but  the  lateness  of  the 
season  forbade  our  dropping  anchor  within  reach  of  the  noble 
range.  Judging  again  simply  from  the  peculiarly  dark 
colour  of  the  bare  rock-surfaces,  it  seems  probable  that  the 
gabbro  seen  at  Port  Manvers  makes  up  most  of  the  Kigla- 
pait,  which  will  thus  represent  the  Coolin  type  of  gabbro 
mountains  in  Scotland." 

The  2700-foot  Mt.  Thoresby  at  Port  Manvers  is  another 
dark-coloured  mass  of  the  gabbro,  which  continues  to  a  point 
at  least  twelve  miles  south  of  Nain. 

Thence  southward  the  rugged,  island-girt  plateau  of  the 
Basement  Complex  extends  all  the  350  miles  to  Belle  Isle 
Strait.  Throughout  that  distance  the  hills  and  islands  on 
the  shore  range  from  200  to  1200  feet  in  height,  with  an 
average  altitude  above  sea  of  about  500  feet.  A  typical 
view  epitomizing  the  topography  may  be  had  from  the 
summits  near  Hopedale.  One's  first  impression  from 
the  view  is  that  of  an  extremely  broken  character "  in 
the  relief.  The  endless  succession  of  hills  and  valleys,  is- 
lands and  bays,  would  seem  to  proclaim  that  on  no  account 
must  this  land  be  called  a  plateau.  And  yet  no  designa- 


GEOLOGY  AND   SCENERY  OF  NORTHEAST   COAST      111 

tion  more  helpful  in  giving  one  an  accurate  and  significant 
idea  of  the  landscape  can  be  applied.  From  the  deck  of 
schooner  or  steamer  coursing  several  miles  offshore,  the 
hundred  visible  hills  of  the  coast-belt  are  seen  to  accord  so 
closely  in  elevation  that  the  general  sky-line  is  notably  flat. 
The  flatness  would  scarcely  be  more  pronounced  if  some 
miraculous  shovel  were  to  fill  in  the  valleys.  Such  magic 
filling  would  give  a  land-surface  quite  similar  to  that  which 
explorers  have  found  sweeping  westward  over  the  wide 
interior  of  Labrador  and  beyond  to  Lake  Winnipeg.  It  is 
the  last  "  almost-plain "  to  which  the  Archean  mountain- 
system  has  been  reduced  by  the  wasting  of  the  ages.  Since 
the  plain  was  formed,  it  has  been  bodily  elevated  some  hun- 
dreds of  feet,  and  especially  on  its  edges,  as  on  this  southern 
half  of  the  Labrador,  new  valleys  have  been  etched  out  by 
weather  and  running  water.  So  numerous  are  these  valleys 
that  the  relief  along  the  coast  is  wonderfully  diversified, 
but  it  belongs  none  the  less  to  an  old-mountain  plateau 
Cut  in  intaglio. 

Before  we  take  the  next  step  in  declaring  the  develop- 
ment of  scenery  on  the  Labrador,  it  is  well  to  review  the 
ground  over  which  we  have  come.  The  limited  explora- 
tion of  the  Labrador  has  led  to  the  recognition  of  several 
distinct  units  in  its  topography,  all  to  be  related  directly 
or  indirectly  to  an  ancient  mountain-system  represented 
to-day  in  the  much-worn  Basement  Complex.  The  south- 
ern half  of  the  coast  represents  a  part  of  the  greatest  single 
element  in  the  relief  of  British  North  America  —  the 
Archean  plateau.  The  Torngat  Range  of  the  extreme 
north  forms  the  "Alps"  of  eastern  America,  —  true  moun- 
tains, as  shown  not  only  in  the  folded  and  crumpled  struc- 


112  LABRADOR 

ture  of  their  rock-bands,  but  as  well  in  the  conspicuous 
heights  of  the  individual  peaks.  The  strength  of  this 
mountainous  relief  is  principally  due  to  the  deep  incision 
of  stream-made  valleys  in  a  portion  of  the  Basement  Com- 
plex locally,  and  in  a  geological  sense  recently,  uplifted 
far  above  the  general  level  of  the  Archean  plain.  So  far  as 
known,  the  Torngats  thus  owe  their  origin  to  the  selfsame 
processes  that  have  shaped  the  low  but  much  broken 
plateau  of  the  south. 

A  third  element  in  the  scenery  is  found  in  the  high  gabbro 
ranges  of  Nain,  Port  Manvers,  and  the  Kiglapait.  These 
fine  mountains  may  similarly  have  undergone  recent  uplift ; 
or,  on  the  other  hand,  they  may  be  still  high  because  the 
gabbro  is  tougher  than  the  surrounding  rocks  and  from  the 
Archean  time  to  the  present  has  been  more  stubborn  than 
they  in  resisting  the  destructive  activity  of  the  weather. 
It  must  be  left  to  future  investigation  to  decide  as  to  which 
alternative  is  to  be  preferred.  Both  may  be  true. 

Finally,  the  Kaumajet  mountain-group,  built  on  the 
gently  undulating  floor  of  the  Complex,  and  showing  a 
special  composition  and  history,  makes  the  fourth  member 
in  our  scenic  divisions.  The  stratified  rocks  forming  the 
terraced  slopes  of  the  Kaumajets  are  the  youngest  solid- 
rock  formations  yet  discovered  on  the  northeast  coast  of 
the  peninsula.  No  solid  formation,  with  certainty  repre- 
senting any  of  the  lifetime  of  the  earth  from  the  earliest 
Paleozoic  time  to  the  present,  has  been  found. 

In  Labrador  the  net  result  of  the  geological  activities  of 
this  incomprehensible  a3on  appears  to  have  been  to  demol- 
ish rather  than  to  construct,  to  wear  away  old  rock-terranes 
rather  than  to  build  new  ones  into  the  framework  of  this 


GEOLOGY  AND  SCENERY  OF  NORTHEAST  COAST  113 

part  of  the  continent.  During  that  time,  to  the  westward 
and  southward,  the  sea-bottoms  of  geological  epochs 
accumulated  muds,  sands,  and  gravels  aggregating  many 
miles  in  thickness  —  the  rock-materials  that  now  compose 
the  bulk  of  the  emerged  continent  of  North  America. 
During  that  time,  many  volcanoes  near  the  Atlantic,  many 
others  on  the  Pacific  seaboard,  were  born,  lived  active  days, 
and  died,  to  leave  more  than  a  hundred  thousand  cubic 
miles  of  lava  on  plains  and  broken  mountain-land.  Dur- 
ing that  time,  the  Appalachian  mountain-system,  stretch- 
ing from  Newfoundland  to  Alabama,  was  hoisted  to  lofty 
heights  again  and  again ;  each  great  uplift  was  followed  by 
secular  wasting  that  reduced  the  ranges  to  flat  or  rolling 
plains  broken  only  by  remnant  hills  or  low  peaks.  During 
that  time  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  of  the  west  was  the 
scene  of  repeated  mountain-building  with  a  similar  wastage 
of  its  ranges.  During  that  time,  the  visible  rocks  under- 
lying the  five  million  square  miles  of  plain  country  between 
the  Rockies  and  the  Appalachians  and  extending  from  the 
Arctic  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  were  deposited  on  the  bottom 
of  America's  Interior  Sea  at  a  rate  doubtless  no  more  rapid 
than  is  now  accomplished  on  the  bed  of  the  Atlantic.  And 
yet,  for  all  that  immense  interval  in  geological  history,  no 
bed-rocks  have  yet  been  discovered  on  the  Labrador  to  tell 
us  of  the  earth's  constructive  activities  in  the  region.  Such 
formations  may  be  found  in  the  future,  but  it  is  already 
known  that  they  cannot  occupy  large  areas  in  the  coastal 
belt.  The  layered  rocks  of  the  Kaumajets  once  covered 
much  more  territory  than  now;  it  may  well  be  believed 
that,  formerly,  other  extended  mantles  of  bedded  rock 
in  like  manner  veneered  the  Basement  Complex.  But  in 


114  LABRADOR 

no  case  can  any  one  of  these  mantles  furnish  other  than 
small  patches  on  the  old  3asement.  For  millions  of  years 
the  Labrador  has  been  above  the  sea  and  has  suffered  the 
steady,  patient  onslaught  of  frost  and  rain  and  the  delving 
of  brooks  and  rivers  —  forces  that,  with  the  cumulative 
power  of  the  ages,  have  laid  bare,  throughout  the  Labrador, 
the  foundation  of  the  world. 

Thus  it  has  come  about  that  the  most  ancient  of  forma- 
tions now  lies  in  contact  with  the  youngest  that  go  to  make 
up  the  geological  record,  the  loose  deposits  of  the  geological 
"yesterday"  and  "to-day."  The  "yesterday"  is  the  Gla- 
cial Period;  the  "to-day"  is  the  post-Glacial  "Recent" 
Period.  What  remains  of  our  brief  account  of  Labrador's 
scenic  evolution  has  to  do  with  these  short  but  exceedingly 
important  epochs. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  Glacial  Period  the  Labrador  Pen- 
insula had  essentially  the  main  topographic  features  of  the 
present  time.  Through  the  working  of  climatic  causes  whose 
relative  efficiency  is  in  lively  discussion  among  geologists, 
a  regional  ice-cap  many  times  greater  than  the  well-known 
ice-field  of  Greenland  gradually  accumulated  in  north- 
eastern America.  What  seems  to  have  been  the  region  of 
greatest  thickening  in  the  ice-sheet  was  located  on  the  height 
of  land  between  James  Bay  and  the  St.  Lawrence  River. 
Thence  the  ice  slowly  flowed  in  all  directions  —  to  north, 
east,  south,  and  west  —  outward  into  the  Atlantic  off  the 
Labrador,  the  maritime  provinces  and  New  England, 
ploughing  the  sea-floor  as  it  moved ;  outward  into  Hudson 
Strait  and  across  Hudson  Bay,  apparently  filling  that  broad 
basin  completely;  outward  across  the  Great  Lakes,  as  far 
as  the  belt  of  moraines  stretching  from  New  York  City 


GEOLOGY  AND   SCENEET  OF  NORTHEAST  COAST     115 

across  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  so  on 
to  the  plains  of  the  Upper  Mississippi  Valley  and  Northwest 
Territories  of  Canada.  The  total  area  of  this  " Labrador" 
or  "Laurentian"  ice-cap  was  over  two  millions  of  square 
miles.  In  the  central  part  its  thickness  grew  to  be  at 
least  six  thousand  feet.  There  is  evidence  to  show  that  even 
Mt.  Washington  (6288  feet  in  altitude),  together  with  all 
other  peaks  of  New  England,  was  covered  by  the  flooding 
ice. 

Investigation  much  less  thorough  than  has  been  given  to 
the  Labrador  glacier  has  suggested  that  similar,  independent 
ice-caps  were  formed  on  the  heights  of  Newfoundland  and 
on  the  plateau  northwest  of  Hudson  Bay  (the  "Keewatin" 
Glacier),  each  having  centrifugal  flow. 

The  causes  for  the  disappearance  of  the  ice-sheets  are 
as  stimulating  to  debate  among  glacialists  as  the  conditions 
that  led  to  the  growth  of  the  glaciers.  Fortunately  for 
a  scenographic  account  of  the  Labrador,  these  intricate 
theoretical  questions  need  not  detain  us ;  suffice  it  only  to 
note  the  fact  that,  after  a  period  of  prolonged  activity,  the 
ice  gradually  melted  away.  Not  an  acre  of  the  old  ice  has 
been  found  on  the  mainland  of  North  America.  It  is 
possible  that  the  Grinnell  Glacier,  the  relatively  diminutive 
ice-cap  of  southern  Baffin  Land  (Meta  Incognita),  repre- 
sents a  still  lingering  portion  of  the  mightier  glacial  flood, 
but  so  little  is  known  of  the  Grinnell  that  a  former  connec- 
tion of  the  existing  and  the  vanished  ice-sheet  cannot  be 
asserted.  On  the  contrary,  it  may  be  that  the  reported 
twelve  hundred  square  miles  of  ice  on  the  Meta  Incognita 
belong  to  another  independent  centre  of  ice-accumulation. 
The  solution  to  this  problem  and  the  interest  which  always 


116  LABRADOR 

attaches  to  a  regional  glacier  will  surely  and  amply  repay 
the  explorer  who  heads  his  steamer  for  Frobisher  Bay. 
The  Grinnell  Glacier  lies  only  a  long  half-day's  journey 
by  steamer  from  Cape  Chidley ;  in  a  sense  it  is  at  the  very 
door  of  civilization,  yet  it  is  far  less  known  than  the  ice  of 
northern  Greenland  or  the  distant  glaciers  of  Alaska. 

Whether  or  not  the  north  land  bears  any  remnant  of  the 
ice  which  once  overwhelmed  Labrador,  the  recency  of  the 
glacial  retreat  from  the  peninsula  is  most  strikingly  evident. 
This  is  especially  true  on  the  northeast  coast,  where  the  gla- 
cialist,  no  less  than  the  worker  in  bed-rock,  is  blessed  with 
that  negative  virtue  of  the  earth's  surface,  the  absence  of  a 
forest-cover.  He  who  runs  may  read  the  glacial  records 
from  one  end  of  the  coastal  belt  to  the  other. 

To  gain  a  vital  idea  of  ice-work  even  on  the  Greenland 
scale  or  the  Antarctic  scale,  one  needs  not  the  training  of  a 
professional  glacialist.  A  first  approach  to  the  understand- 
ing of  glaciers  may  be  profitably  made  in  the  recognition 
of  their  analogy  with  rivers.  Upstream,  a  river  scours  its 
channel,  batters,  grooves,  and  wears  away  the  solid  rock, 
so  deepening  its  bed  and  in  time  excavating  a  valley  of  a 
size  appropriate  to  the  stream.  In  its  lower  course  on 
flood-plain  or  delta,  the  river  lays  down  the  rock-fragments 
worn  out  of  the  rocky  channel.  Throughout  the  length 
of  the  river,  increasingly,  this  debris,  in  the  form  of  gravel, 
sand,  or  mud,  is  moving  deltawards.  A  water-stream  has 
thus  three  main  functions  —  to  scour,  to  carry  the  scoured 
rubbish  down  the  valley,  and  then  to  deposit  that  same 
rubbish  in  lake  or  sea  or  other  basin,  where  the  stream's 
velocity  is  finally  checked.  In  like  manner  the  gliding  ice- 
stream,  whether  flanked  by  valley-walls  or  blanketing 


GEOLOGY  AND  SCENERY  OF  NORTHEAST  COAST 


r^Cape  Chid  I y 


.,- 250  Nachvak  Biy 


260   Hebron 


265  Cape  Mugford 
...270 'Cutthroat    Tickt* 

285  'Port  Manners 

•?.. 290 >' Ford  Harbour 

.340    Quirk    Tick  It 


Ha; 
345' Pomiadluk   Point 


265' Ice  Tickle 
Hamilton  Inlet 
West  Bay 

!26O>6ready 

/J0<?/  Domino  Harbour 


f325-fOj  Venison  Tickle 
365  'Sf  Francis  Harbour 


150*  Kirpon  Harbour 

Fortune  Bay 


SOS   C.  Rouge  Harbour 


Greenspond 


JS75)  SfJohn 


FIG.  17. 

Map  showing  by  arrows  the  directions  in  which  the  ice  of  the  Glacial  Period  moved. 
Numbers  indicate  in  feet  the  amount  of  uplift  since  Glacial  times.  Scale,  200  miles 
to  1  inch. 


118  LABRADOR 

half  a  continent,  scours  and  grooves  its  rock-floor,  removes 
loose  rubbish,  and  attacks  the  solid  rock,  which  slowly  yet 
surely  wastes  under  the  heavy,  creeping  stream.  In  like 
manner,  too,  a  moving  ice-stream  is  freighted  with  "drift," 
the  debris  of  the  wearing  floor,  and,  finally,  that  debris  is 
deposited  downstream  where  the  glacier  current  comes  to 
an  end.  Alluvium  is  the  "drift"  material  of  the  river's 
load;  glacial  "drift"  is  the  alluvium  of  an  ice-stream. 
The  alluvial  deposits  of  the  river  in  terrace,  flood-plain,  or 
delta  are  the  "moraines"  of  the  glacier. 

If  a  well-established,  mature  river  should,  through  a 
change  of  climate,  become  dried  up  or  greatly  shrunken  in 
volume,  its  scoured,  boulder-strewn  gorge,  its  terrace  sands 
and  clays  and  its  delta  would  remain  to  tell  the  story  of 
that  river's  former  activity  as  clearly  as  if  the  rushing  waters 
had  never  ceased  to  flow.  Such  climatic  changes  have 
actually  occurred  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  so  that, 
even  in  that  respect,  water-streams  and  ice-streams  hold 
their  analogy. 

All  of  these  three  principal  activities  of  glaciers  are 
memorialized  with  wonderful  clearness  on  the  Labrador. 
However,  as  might  be  expected  from  the  fact  that  the  pen- 
insula was  the  central  region  of  dispersal  for  the  ice-cap, 
the  main  effect  of  glaciation  on  the  coast  has  been  to  abrade 
the  bed-rock  and  to  carry  away  the  loose  product  of  the 
grinding  to  the  ice-margin  which  lay  far  out  on  the  bed  of 
the  Atlantic.  The  scenery,  no  less  than  the  conditions 
ruling  plant,  animal,  and  human  life  on  the  coast,  has  been 
powerfully  affected  by  this  erosive  work  of  the  vanished 
glacier.  To  that  phase  of  the  glacial  geology  of  Labrador 
the  explorer's  attention  is  inevitably  turned. 


GEOLOGY  AND  SCENERY  OF  NORTHEAST  COAST     119 

Among  the  first  evidences  to  convince  the  observer  of 
the  extent,  power,  and  recency  of  the  glacial  invasion  is  the 
character  of  the  rock-ledges  on  all  the  coastal  belt  from 
Belle  Isle  to  Cape  Mugford.  In  pre-Glacial  times  there 
must  have  existed  a  deep  soil  and  a  heavy  layer  of  weathered 
and  decomposed  rock  over  this  entire  area.  The  word 
"must"  is  none  too  strong  if  the  Labrador  mountains  had 
wasted  down  after  the  manner  of  other  old  ranges,  and 
there  is  every  ground  for  believing  that  such  was  the  case. 
In  other  words,  we  can  find  an  analogy  to  the  pre-Glacial 
range  of  the  Labrador  in,  for  example,  the  unglaciated 
southern  Appalachian  Mountains  in  which  the  granites 
and  schists  are  so  altered  by  secular  weathering  that  the 
rock  is  friable  and  rotten  for  depths  of  hundreds  of  feet 
below  the  present  surface. 

In  Georgia  or  northern  Alabama  it  can  be  proved  that 
some  of  the  rock-bands  are  weathering  more  rapidly  than 
others;  over  the  former  the  blanket  of  disintegrated  rock 
is  deeper  than  elsewhere.  So  it  doubtless  was  in  Labrador. 
When  the  ice-cap  became  thick  and  powerful,  it  slowly 
scoured  and  planed  away  the  ancient  soil  with  the  under- 
lying layer  of  rotted  rock.  Under  the  enormous  weight 
of  the  cap  a  half  mile  or  more  in  thickness,  the  ice  moulded 
itself  into  all  the  depressions.  As  the  easily  removed 
blanket  of  decayed  rock  was  carried  northeastward  out  to 
the  Atlantic  basin,  not  only  was  the  general  level  of  the 
country  lowered,  but  it  was  lowered  faster  where  the  pre- 
Glacial  decay  of  the  rocks  had  been  most  pronounced. 
The  energy  and  duration  of  the  glacial  scouring  were  such, 
that  apparently  all  of  this  loose  material  was  removed, 
leaving  smoothed,  hummocky  hills  and  ledges  of  fresh, 


120  LABRADOR 

unbroken  rock  to  form  the  post-Glacial  landscapes. 
Where  the  pre-Glacial  cover  of  decayed  rock  was  spe- 
cially deep,  a  trough  or  a  rock-basin  remained  after 
the  ice  melted  away.  In  this  way  the  old  valleys  were 
irregularly  deepened  and  new  depressions  were  sunk; 
innumerable  lakes  and  ponds  were  formed  which  to-day 
make  the  peninsula  one  of  the  great  lake-districts  of 
the  world ;  and  the  coastal  belt  assumed  its  present  aspect 
of  singular  raggedness.  The  diversity  of  relief  in  southern 
Labrador  is  nowhere  more  conspicuous  than  along  the 
shore.  When  the  ice  finally  disappeared,  from  mainland 
and  invaded  sea-floor,  the  ocean  waters  entered  the  maze 
of  scoured  troughs  that  open  seaward.  The  ponderous 
flood  of  ice  was  replaced  by  the  restless  sea,  flooding  a 
perfect  labyrinth  of  channels,  straits,  broad  sounds,  islands, 
skerries,  and  headlands. 

There  is  evidence,  too,  to  show  that  the  solid,  fresh  rock 
itself  was  attacked  by  the  overriding  ice.  All  rock  is 
intersected  by  more  or  less  abundant  cracks  or  planes  of 
weakness  which  divide  it  into  blocks  that  may  be  rifted 
away.  Just  as  the  quarryman  uses  these  rifting  planes  to 
remove  slabs  of  marble,  granite,  or  schist,  so  the  Labrador 
glacier  with  the  wedge  of  the  frost,  with  bottom  friction 
and  shear,  plucked  out  and  carried  off  great  blocks  from 
its  firm,  unweathered  floor.  The  photograph  of  the 
"  ice-worn  surface  near  Aillik  Bay  "  illustrates  a  single 
example  of  this  process  which  had  an  important  share 
in  the  glacial  remodelling  of  the  topography.  In  the 
view,  the  smooth  slope  on  the  left  represents  the 
heavily  scoured  bed  of  the  ice-sheet  as  it  moved  sea- 
ward from  right  to  left.  The  pond  fills  a  small  rock- 


GEOLOGY  AND   SCENERY  OF  NORTHEAST  COAST     121 

basin  produced  by  the  glacial  plucking  away  of  many 
blocks  of  the  fresh  rock  (gneiss)  frozen  into  the  ice,  and  so 
lifted  and  freighted  off  by  the  moving  glacier.  In  the  face 
of  the  low  cliff  can  be  discerned  the  planes  of  rifting  and 
the  outlines  of  several  blocks  that  were  in  the  very  act  of 
being  plucked  away  as  the  ice  disappeared  from  the  country. 
It  is  an  instructive  case  of  natural  quarrying.  Ten  thou- 
sand other  examples  on  the  coast  would  show  quite  as 
clearly  that  a  glacier  works  with  crowbar  and  crane  as 
well  as  with  gouge  and  chisel.  Using  all  its  powers,  the 
ice-cap  strongly  modified  the  details  of  relief  on  the  plateau 
of  southern  Labrador. 

In  so  reaching  a  principal  conclusion  from  the  glacial 
studies,  let  it  not  be  forgotten  that  normal  stream-cutting 
in  pre-Glacial  times  produced  the  grand  features  of  the 
sculpture. 

The  energy  of  glacial  attack  is  manifested  not  alone  in  the 
remodelling  of  plateau  and  valley ;  its  power  leaves  enduring 
records  on  the  single  ledge  of  rock.  Observations  on  the 
living  glaciers  of  the  world  show  that  they  scour  their  beds 
not  so  much  by  the  direct  friction  of  ice  against  ledge  as 
by  the  dragging  of  frozen-in  boulders  over  the  bed-rock. 
The  pressure  so  applied  is  truly  enormous.  Deep  grooves 
or  shallower  "striae"  running  in  the  direction  of  ice-flow 
are  cut  in  the  solid. rock  by  such  "graving-tools."  Lime- 
stone, slate,  trap,  granite,  or  schist  may  be  thus  marked  by 
scratches,  furrows,  or  channels  from  a  fraction  of  an  inch  to 
a  foot  or  more  in  depth.  They  are  not  continuous  mark- 
ings, but  occur  only  where  the  wearing  boulder  has  been 
pressed  with  irresistible  might  against  the  bare  rock. 
Shallow  and  deep  striations  of  the  sort  are  to  be  found  on 


122  LABRADOR 

all  the  length  of  the  Labrador ;  as  elsewhere,  they  may  be 
used  to  determine  the  directions  in  which  the  massive  ice- 
cap flowed.  Until  the  year  1900  striaB  were  reported  from 
not  more  than  five  localities  on  the  coast.  In  that  year 
the  list  was  so  far  enlarged  that  it  became  possible  to  prove 
a  seaward  flow  for  the  ice  throughout  the  750  miles  of  the 
shore.  In  Figure  17  arrows  have  been  drawn  to  show  the 
directions  of  this  movement  of  the  ice. 

Besides  the  scouring  and  quarrying,  the  Labrador  ice- 
cap, like  all  other  glaciers,  carried  out  a  programme  of  con- 
structive work.  In  southern  and  north-central  Canada 
and  in  the  northern  United  States,  this  activity  furnishes 
for  the  glacial  story  a  second  chapter  of  even  more  positive 
importance  than  the  chapter  so  briefly  sketched  for  the 
Labrador.  In  northeastern  Canada,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
ice-sheet  spent  its  energies  chiefly  in  transporting  to  out- 
lying regions  the  abundant  rock-rubbish  won  from  the 
plateau  in  its  polishing  and  latest  sculpturing.  That  same 
drift  was  laid  down  in  a  broad  zone  of  moraines  and  water- 
washed  deposits  of  sand,  gravel,  and  clay  not  far  from  the 
edge  of  the  ice-cap.  The  rich  farms  of  southern  Ontario, 
southern  Michigan,  of  Illinois,  Indiana,  Ohio,  and  other 
northern  States  of  the  Union  are  underlain  by  the  broken 
and  pulverized  material  that  once  composed  the  pre- 
Glacial  cover  of  decayed  rock  in  the  region  to  the  north 
and  northeast.  Through  the  glacial  invasion  those  south- 
ern tracts  have  gained  in  the  raw  material  of  good  soils 
at  the  expense  of  northern  Michigan  and  Ontario,  of  Quebec 
and  southeastern  Labrador. 

With  seemingly  greater  thoroughness  the  mantle  of  soil 
and  disintegrated  rock  has  been  removed  from  the  coastal 


GEOLOGY  AND  SCENERY  OF  NORTHEAST  COAST     123 

belt  of  northeastern  Labrador.  The  resulting  moraines 
and  other  loose  deposits  cannot  be  seen  in  anything  like 
their  full  volume,  for  they  are  almost  entirely  buried 
beneath  the  waters  of  the  North  Atlantic.  Only  here  and 
there  within  the  coastal  belt  itself  did  some  lingering, 
local  ice-tongue  build  a  small  moraine  to  represent  the 
immense  accumulations  that  must  have  resulted  from 
the  strong  glaciation  of  the  coast.  One  such  moraine  has 
been  described  as  a  unique  discovery  during  the  voyage 
of  the  Brave.  It  was  noted  on  the  mainland  opposite 
Copper  Island  near  Seal  Island  Harbour. 

For  the  rest  of  the  coast,  so  far  as  known,  the  glacial 
deposits  consist  either  of  very  small  patches  of  clay  carrying 
boulders  or  of  single  boulders  scattered  over  the  bed-rock 
surface.  All  told,  they  form  but  a  comparatively  insig- 
nificant mass  of  loose  material  left  irregularly  distributed 
over  the  glacier-floor  when  the  ice  finally  melted  away. 
As  the  ice-sheet  shrunk,  the  boulders  gradually  and  quietly 
sank  to  their  present  resting-places.  Many  of  the  larger 
ones  were  delicately  poised  on  their  corners  and  now  form 
"rocking-stones"  which  may  be  easily  set  swinging  from 
side  to  side  with  the  hand. 

But  a  picture  of  the  Labrador  in  glacial  times  would  be 
far  from  complete  unless  the  imagination  reconstruct  the 
physical  geography  of  the  lofty  northern  mountain-ranges 
during  that  period.  As  far  back  as  1860  an  American  geol- 
ogist named  Lieber  noted  on  the  mainland  south  of  Cape 
Chidley  "wild  volcanic-looking  mountains,  .  .  .  whose 
craggy  peaks  have  evidently  never  been  ground  down  by 
land-ice  into  domes  and  rounded  tops."  Dr.  Robert 
Bell,  after  a  brief  visit  to  the  Torngats,  said  of  them: 


124  LABRADOR 

"The  mountains  around  Nachvak  are  steep,  rough- 
sided,  peaked,  and  serrated,  and  have  no  appearance  of 
having  been  glaciated,  excepting  close  to  the  sea-level. 
The  rocks  are  softened,  eroded,  and  deeply  decayed. 
Throughout  the  drift  period,  the  top  of  the  coast-range  of 
the  Labrador  stood  above  the  ice  and  was  not  glaciated, 
especially  in  the  high  northern  part."  An  exploration  more 
prolonged  than  any  permitted  to  either  of  the  two  geologists 
mentioned  was  carried  on  by  the  writer  in  1900,  and  his 
observations  entirely  corroborate  their  conclusion. 

In  the  northern  Torngat  Mountains,  all  signs  of  general 
glaciation  cease  at  the  level  of  about  2000  feet  above  the 
sea.  Above  that  level,  the  ledges  are  thoroughly  shattered 
into  angular  fragments  by  the  frost,  and  weathered  to  a 
deep  brown  colour  strikingly  different  from  the  gray  tints 
of  the  rounded  ledges  and  boulders  which  have  been 
scoured  by  the  ice  lower  down  the  slope.  The  decompo- 
sition of  the  rock  is  doubtless  something  like  that  which 
affected  all  the  ledges  of  the  Labrador  in  pre-Glacial 
time.  The  2000-foot  contour  also  marks  the  upper  limit 
at  which  "erratic"  boulders,  namely,  those  which  have 
been  surely  carried  from  their  parent  ledges  by  ice,  can 
be  found. 

Thus  in  the  Nachvak  region  the  ice-sheet  at  its  maximum 
during  the  Glacial  Period  was  not  more  than  one-third  as 
thick  as  in  southeastern  Labrador,  and  filled  these  northern 
valleys  to  a  height  of  about  2000  feet  above  the  present 
level  of  the  sea,  but  no  higher.  The  ice  of  the  local  Nachvak 
Glacier  was  in  largest  part  derived  from  the  main  interior 
ice-cap  which  flowed  through  a  deep  transverse  cleft  in 
the  Torngat  Range.  Branch  glaciers  growing  in  the  moun- 


GEOLOGY  AND  SCENERY  OF  NORTHEAST  COAST     125 

tains  themselves  swelled  the  volume  of  that  trunk  stream 
of  ice.  For  fifty  miles  the  latter  glacier,  like  a  broad,  deep 
river,  wound  its  way  beneath  the  grand  cliffs  of  the  Torn- 
gats  until  it  debouched  in  the  open  Atlantic.  So  it 
was  with  many  other  cross-valleys  of  the  range;  the 
Torngats  stood  like  a  lofty,  turreted  wall  which  the  ice- 


FIG.  18. 

Section  across  the  south  arm  of  Nachvak  Fiord.    Height  (above  sea-level) 
and  depths  (below  sea-level)  in  feet. 

cap,  thick  as  it  was,  could  not  surmount,  but  could  only 
partially  conquer  by  the  easy  routes  of  the  passes.  In 
all  probability  the  tops  of  the  Kaumajets  and  of  the 
Kiglapait  Mountains  likewise  stood  well  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  ice  which  must  perforce  flow  round  them  in  its 
journey  to  the  sea. 

The  glacial  occupation  of  the  Torngat  valleys  led  to  ex- 
ceptionally important  changes  in  their  pre-Glacial  form, 
and  to  that  modification  we  owe  some  principal  elements 
in  the  impressive  landscapes  of  the  long  inlets.  These 


126 


LABRADOR 


15 


80 


NARROWS 


huge  tongues  of  ice,  even  more  notice- 
ably than  the  main  ice-cap,  •  have 
scoured  and  quarried  away  the  bed- 
rock. One  result  has  been  to  widen 
and  flatten  the  valley-floors,  thereby 
steepening  up  the  side  slopes  that  be- 
longed to  the  normal  river-cut  canyons 
of  pre-Glacial  days.  Over  the  cliffs 
many  fine  waterfalls  are  tumbling  from 
side-valleys  mouthing  many  hundreds 
of  feet  above  the  sea-water  of  the  in- 
lets. As  usual,  too,  the  rocks  of  the 
glacier-beds  showed  different  powers  of 
resistance  to  the  pluck-and-scour  of  the 
ice  and  long,  deep  rock-basins  were 
ploughed  out  in  the  bottoms  that  once 
possessed  the  uniform,  smooth  seaward 
slope  of  river-made  valleys.  (See  Figs. 
18  and  19.)  Thus,  excavation  by  the 
great  local  glaciers  has  been  chiefly  re- 
sponsible for  the  peculiar  and  impressive 
scenic  quality  of  the  fiords  occurring  be- 
tween Cape  Mugford  and  Cape  Chidley. 
A  short  but  interesting  chapter  re- 
mains to  complete  the  scenic  history  of 
the  Labrador.  Ice-cap  and  valley 
glaciers  melted  away  and  left  the  land 
sculptured  into  essentially  its  present 
form ;  left  hill  and  valley,  scoured  rock, 
hollowed  basins,  ponded  waters,  and 
countless  rushing  rapids  and  quiet  reaches 
in  the  streams  which  were  new-born  on 


GEOLOGY  AND   SCENERY  OF  NOETREAST  COAST     127 

the  old  glacial  floors.  At  the  close  of  the  Ice  Period,  how- 
ever, the  whole  of  the  Labrador  stood  some  hundreds  of  feet 
lower  than  it  now  stands  with  respect  to  the  level  of  the  sea. 
During  the  thousands  of  years  which  have  since  elapsed, 
the  land  has  been  slowly  upheaved  to  that  amount.  All 
along  the  existing  shore  an  irregular  belt  of  land  so  emerged, 
and  now  bears  with  marvellous  distinctness  the  traces  of  wave- 
action  far  above  the  present  level  of  the  Atlantic.  Probably 
nowhere  in  the  world  are  there  more  beautifully  preserved 
relics  of  ancient  shores.  The  absence  of  forest  that  might 
cover  the  records  and  the  recency  of  the  uplift  contribute 
to  the  perfection  of  the  display.  We  must  add  thereto 
the  fact  that  it  is  precisely  in  just  such  a  coastal  region, 
exposed,  as  it  was,  to  the  full  force  of  the  ocean's  swell 
and  the  gales  of  a  North  Atlantic,  that  we  should  expect 
old  shore-lines  to  be  well  marked.  With  truly  dramatic 
force  Nature  has  fulfilled  the  expectation  and  so  afforded 
every  observer  on  the  Labrador  a  never  failing  source  of 
interest  and  instruction. 

Again  let  it  be  called  to  mind  that  the  study  of  any  geo- 
logical fact  in  Labrador  has  a  twofold  significance.  Many 
a  stage  in  the  physical  evolution  of  the  peninsula,  or  many 
a  striking  element  in  the  landscape  or  underground  struc- 
ture, is  worthy  of  wonder  and  interpretation  for  its  own 
sake  —  yet  still  more  worthy  if  it  be  viewed  as  a  sample 
of  the  structure,  scenery,  or  stage  of  development  that 
belongs  to  the  earth's  crust  as  a  whole.  Much  of  the  rugged 
beauty  and  charm  of  colour  of  the  Labrador  shore  are  due 
to  the  thorough  washing,  wearing,  and  fretting  of  the  rocky 
hills  as  they  emerged  from  beneath  Atlantic  waters  in  recent 
times.  The  beauty  and  charm  gain  in  meaning  and  power 


128  LABRADOR 

if  the  truth  be  recognized  that  all  about  the  North  Atlantic 
the  same  upward  movement  of  the  land  has  taken  place. 
The  shores  of  Maine,  Quebec,  Scotland,  Scandinavia,  and 
Finland  are  regions  favoured  by  those  who  love  the  form 
and  colour  contrasts  of  the  many-tinted  sea  with  the  massive, 
bold,  or  savage  rocks  still  bearing  marks  of  a  late  submerg- 
ence. On  a  larger  scale  and,  in  general,  with  much  greater 
vividness  than  elsewhere  in  North  America  at  least,  the 
explanation  of  this  peculiar  scenery  can  be  told  and  illus- 
trated on  the  Labrador,  where,  therefore,  the  beauty  of 
such  a  shore,  becoming  a  type  of  all,  can  be  at  once  best 
appreciated  and  understood. 

A  visit  to  the  newest  dry  land  of  Labrador  has  yet  greater 
value  in  giving  one  faith  in  the  reality  of  the  giant  geo- 
logical forces.  Throughout  a  human  lifetime  the  earth 
seems  stable;  the  human  records  of  a  thousand  years 
seem  to  establish  the  same  belief.  It  needs  some  such 
object-lesson  as  the  emerged  coastal  zone  of  Labrador  to 
show  us  finally  that  those  "first  impressions"  are  wrong,  — 
that  the  Greek  philosophers  were  right,  though  they  knew 
not  the  name  of  geology,  in  claiming  for  the  world  an  "  eter- 
nal flux  of  things,"  The  lesson  speaks  tellingly  of  the  real 
instability  of  the  sea-level,  of  massive,  regional  uplifts  of 
the  land,  and  of  the  growth  of  continents.  On  other 
grounds,  for  example,  it  is  believed  that  the  long  coastal 
plain  underlying  the  Atlantic  States  from  New  Jersey 
to  Florida  was  once  part  of  the  bed  of  the  ocean,  but  the 
belief  founded  on  local  discoveries  at  last  reaches  its  full 
strength  and  overlaps  actual  knowledge  when  it  can  be 
shown  beyond  doubt  or  cavil  that  the  sea-bottom  elsewhere 
has  been  warped  up  to  form  new  land.  With  unmistakable 


GEOLOGY  AND   SCENEET  OF  NOETHEAST  COAST     129 

directness  and  with  lavish  proofs  this  ground  principle  of 
geology  is  illustrated  on  the  Labrador. 

The  memorials  of  post-Glacial  uplift  are  as  diverse  as 
the  kinds  of  shore-line  form  which  the  waves  of  to-day  are 
impressing  on  the  hard  rocks  of  the  coast.  Boulder  beaches, 
gravel  beaches  and  terraces,  plains  and  pointed  spits  of  wave- 
laid  sand,  sea-cliffs,  splendid  sea-caves  and  long  chasms, 
even  the  dunes  of  sand  blown  up  on  these  prehistoric  shores, 
remain  to  tell  us  of  just  such  activities  as  wind  and  wave  dis- 
play on  the  present  shore,  the  lowest  of  all  those  which  the 
Atlantic  has  stormed  and  battered  since  the  Glacial  Period. 

Ocean  waves  are  like  rivers  and  glaciers  in  their  ways  of 
working.  They  destroy  or  erode  bed-rock ;  they  transport 
the  eroded  debris;  they  deposit  their  freight  of  rubbish 
where  the  force  of  wave-  and  wind-driven  current  is  lowered. 
Thus,  in  a  sense,  the  gnawed  and  riven  sea-cliffs  correspond 
to  the  scoured  glacier-bed  or  washed,  abraded  floor  of  the 
river-canyon ;  the  beaches  and  spits,  the  bedded  sand  and 
mud  of  the  .sea-bottom  correspond  to  moraines  and  to  the 
deltas  and  alluvial  plains  of  rivers.  As  the  outer  coastal 
belt  of  the  Labrador  slowly,  with  the  deliberation  of  mil- 
lenniums, and  urged  by  the  mysterious,  colossal,  internal 
energy  of  a  planet,  rose  out  of  the  sea,  the  ocean-billows 
rolled  in  upon  the  changing  shores,  destroying  where  they 
could,  constructing  where  they  must.  The  visible  signs  of 
the  submergence  belong,  therefore,  to  two  classes  of  land- 
scape forms  which  give  a  real  fascination  to  this  most  recent 
geology  on  the  coast. 

The  most  widespread  evidence  of  the  destruction  wrought 
by  the  waves  on  the  old  shore-lines  can  be  found  at  almost 
any  landing-place  between  St.  John's  and  Cape  Chidley. 


130  L  ABE  ALOE 

It  has  been  said  that  the  ice-cap  left  but  little  of  its  drift 
on  the  surface  of  the  Labrador  plateau.  The  same  state- 
ment is  true  of  the  contemporaneous  glacial  action  on  New- 
foundland. Yet  in  both  lands  enough  "drifted"  boulders 
were  dropped  on  the  smoothed  and  scoured  bed-rock  so 
that  the  whole  floor  of  the  glacier  was  pretty  thickly 
peppered  over  with  these  products  of  ice-erosion.  Noth- 
ing can  be  more  evident  on  the  low,  bare,  treeless  hillsides 
facing  the  open  Atlantic  on  Newfoundland  or  the  Labrador 
than  the  absence  of  such  boulders.  Below  the  level  of 
500  feet  above  sea  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  island,  and 
below  the  250-foot  contour  on  the  Labrador,  the  vast  ma- 
jority of  the  boulders  have  been  swept  from  the  slopes  where 
the  ice  dropped  them.  Only  a  few  of  the  very  largest,  too 
ponderous  to  be  moved  even  by  the  superb  onslaught  of 
the  North  Atlantic  "seas,"  remain  in  or  near  their  former 
positions .  The  rest  are  gone  to  the  many  boulder  and  gravel 
beaches  left  stranded,  as  it  were,  in  the  valleys  of  the 
emerging  land,  or  at  the  present  moment  are  being  ground 
in  the  mill  of  the  surf  whither  they  have  been  dragged  dur- 
ing the  uplift.  Hundreds  of  square  miles  of  ice-worn  hills 
of  naked  rock  have  been  thus  washed  clean  of  glacial 
debris.  Compare  the  two  views  of  Bear  Island. 

With  special  intensity  those  cleared  surfaces  are  feeling 
Nature's  ceaseless  attack.  Exposed  as  they  are  to  the  open 
sky  in  a  rigorous  climate,  the  rocks  of  the  wave-washed 
zone  are  being  rent  and  shattered  by  the  frost,  which  uses 
the  rain-water  of  the  present,  has  used,  the  rains  and  the 
spray  fling  of  former  times,  to  split  the  rocks.  Here  and 
there  the  surface  is  clasped  in  the  close  embrace  of  many- 
hued  lichens  or  covered  by  thicker  growths  of  almos' 


Glacial  Boulders  on  a  Ridge  near  Ice  Tickle  Harbour 


Bear  Island,  Wave-washed  and  then  Uplifted 


GEOLOGY  AND  SCENERY  OF  NORTHEAST  COAST     131 

equally  hardy  mosses,  but,  in  the  main,  the  ledges  seem  as 
bare  of  vegetation  as  if  the  sea  had  retreated  from  them 
only  yesterday. 

The  bed-rocks  of  the  Labrador  are  old-mountain  rocks, 
toughened  in  the  early  days  when  they  lay  in  the  heart  of 
the  mountain-chain.  They  are  giving  pause  to  the  greedy, 
unending  assault  of  the  ocean  wave,  which  is  finding 
on  the  present  shore,  as  it  found  on  the  higher  ones, 
that,  while  glacial  boulders  are  playthings,  the  bed-rock 
offers  work,  —  grim,  arduous  work  that  must  continue 
many,  many  thousands  of  years  before  the  stubborn  head- 
lands will  yield  to  the  onset.  For  this  double  reason, 
first,  the  shortness  of  the  time  during  which  the  emergence 
took  place,  and,  secondly,  the  sturdy  resistance  of  the  solid 
rock  to  wave-battering,  the  newly  emerged  land  bears 
relatively  few  strong  cliffs  or  other  scenic  forms  cut  by  the 
waves  in  the  living  rock. 

Nevertheless,  where  favourably  situated  weak  bands  oc- 
curred in  the  formations  of  the  old  shores,  the  waves  in- 
fallibly sought  them  out  and  at  many  points  excavated 
strange  caves  and  long,  deep  chasms  along  such  seams  of 
softer  material.  To-day,  hundreds  of  feet  above  the  sea, 
there  may  be  seen  these  trenches  floored  with  the  tough 
boulders  with  which  the  breakers  used  to  cannonade  the 
coast.  As  one  explores  the  silent,  dark  recesses,  they  seem 
haunted  by  unnumbered  ghosts  of  the  seas  that  once  tore 
through  the  narrow  gates  and  roared  destruction  to  the 
walls  of  the  ever  deepening  chasms. 

The  finest  of  these  great  clefts  in  the  hillsides  are  gener- 
ally located  on  the  dikes  of  trap-rock  that  transect  the 
schists  or  granites  of  the  Basement  Complex.  As  a  rule, 


132  LABRADOR 

the  trap  is  more  resistant  to  ordinary  weathering  and  decay 
than  the  formation  it  cuts,  but  is  less  resistant  than  they  to 
the  more  mechanical  destruction  of  the  sea-wave ;  thus  a 
trap-ridge  may  be  seen  to  terminate  in  a  sea-chasm  at  the 
point  where  the  rock  has  been  under  the  mastering  control 
of  the  pounding  breakers.  An  easily  visited  example,  one 
of  relative  antiquity  as  it  lies  close  to  the  highest  of  the  old 
shore-lines,  is  situated  on  a  ridge  a  half  mile  northwest  of 
Hopedale  Mission  House,  at  an  elevation  of  325  feet  above 
the  sea.  This  chasm,  three  hundred  yards  in  length,  faith- 
fully follows  the  line  of  a  trap-dike  crossing  the  ridge.  An- 
other picturesque  example  is  nearly  as  long,  with  an  average 
width  of  twenty  feet  and  vertical  depth  of  seventy-five  feet ; 
it  occurs  on  Long  Island  at  American  Tickle.  Its  excava- 
tion has  been  long  under  way,  beginning  when  the  land  stood 
scores  of  feet  lower  than  at  present.  The  boiling  waves 
still  run  nearly  to  the  head  of  the  chasm. 

Before  the  writer  lies  a  photograph  which  shows  the  base 
of  a  torn  and  ragged  sea-cliff  overlooking  a  fine  beach  about 
200  feet  above  the  present  sea-level.  The  boulders  of  the 
beach  represent  the  wave-worn,  rounded  debris  of  the  cliff. 
In  the  background  is  the  old,  uneven  sea-bottom,  now  cov- 
ered with  a  slight  vegetation  and  with  moss-encircled  lake- 
lets filling  glaciated  rock-basins.  The  scene  before  the 
photographer  was  wild  and  desolate,  yet  cheered  and  made 
beautiful  by  the  wonderful  blues  of  sea  and  sky  and  the 
no  less  exquisite  purples  of  the  atmosphere.  Without  the 
colour,  the  views  might  have  been  depressing ;  with  it,  there 
was  much  attractiveness  in  this  spectacle  of  a  primitive 
world  restored  from  the  sea. 

The  fact  of  the  massive  crustal  upheaval  of  the  Labrador 


GEOLOGY  AND   SCENERY   OF  NORTHEAST   COAST     133 

in  recent  times  is  still  more  forcibly  emphasized  by  the 
thousands  of  boulder-beaches  and  other  marine  accumula- 
tions on  the  emerged  land.  The  glacial  drift  and  the  an- 
gular fragments  of  rock  torn  from  cliff  and  chasm  were 
sorted,  grouped,  and  graded  by  the  waves  many  centuries 
ago,  yet  the  resulting  beaches  very  often  look  as  if  they 
had  just  been  formed.  Almost  the  only  change  that  has 
affected  their  appearance  since  the  last  mad  fling  of  the 
surf  was  dried  upon  them,  is  the  growth  of  a  thin  and  scat- 
tered coat  of  lichens  upon  the  boulders.  Next  to  a  view 
of  the  reality  no  better  proof  of  the  remarkable  preservation 
of  the  beaches  or  illustration  of  their  perfect  exposure  can 
be  had  than  the  testimony  of  the  camera.  The  photo- 
graphs of  the  raised  beaches  are  examples,  and  not  ex- 
ceptional ones  at  that,  of  the  hundreds  of  beaches  visited 
by  the  members  of  the  Brave  expedition  in  one  season. 
Some  of  the  most  interesting  exhibitions  of  beaches  dis- 
covered at  that  time  occur  at  Sloop  Harbour  (their  eleva- 
tions above  sea  being  115,  140,  160,  and  215  feet),  at  Aillik 
Bay,  Hopedale,  Pomiadluk  Point  (here  measured  eleva- 
tions of  55,  65,  230,  250,  315,  320,  and  335  feet),  and  at 
Port  Manvers. 

In  some  of  the  beaches  Packard  has  found  the  shells  and 
skeletons  of  the  animals  which  thronged  the  sea  as  the 
beaches  formed.  He  records  the  discovery  of  a  whale's 
skeleton  in  marine  clay  fifty  feet  above  the  present  high- 
water  mark.  The  captain  of  the  Brave  reported,  too,  that 
he  had  found  whalebones  in  a  beach  estimated  to  be  one 
hundred  feet  above  the  same  level.  Packard  states  that 
these  fossil  remains  are  identical  in  character  with  the  hard 
parts  of  species  now  living  in  the  Arctic  and  North  Atlanl  ic. 


134  LABRADOR 

Where  the  glacial  deposits  had  been  unusually  thick,  still 
bulkier  accumulations  of  sand  and  gravel  were  built  by 
the  waves  in  sheltered  places.  In  the  lee  of  many  an  island 
between  Ford  Harbour  and  Nain  is  an  elevated  spit  which 
tails  off  from  the  island  in  beautifully  even  slopes  from  a 
few  hundred  feet  to  more  than  a  mile  in  length.  Often  such 
a  spit  forms  a  continuous  bar  from  one  island  to  another. 
Other  plateau-like  sand  deposits,  as  at  Port  Manvers,  tie 
large  islands  to  the  mainland,  or,  in  a  unique  case,  underlie 
a  true  coastal  plain  of  large  size,  as  north  of  Cape  Porcupine. 
The  loose  sands  and  clay  of  this  plain  have  given  foothold  to 
a  relatively  extensive  growth  of  scrub  timber  which,  else- 
where, on  the  well- washed  hills,  finds  little  encouragement. 
Indeed,  there  is  generally  not  enough  soil  on  the  outer  shore 
to  permit  of  the  cultivation  of  vegetables ;  at  some  of  the 
small  ports  in  eastern  Newfoundland,  soil  for  the  purpose  has 
actually  been  imported  in  the  form  of  ballast  from  England. 
So  scarce  is  either  soil  or  loose  material  of  any  kind  that  a 
settlement  on  the  Labrador  has  almost  invariably  had  to 
seek  a  raised  beach,  often  composed  simply  of  large  boulders, 
as  the  only  available  site  for  the  graveyard. 

As  an  accurate,  scientific  description  of  scenery  is  neces- 
sarily, founded  on  geology,  so  geological  principles  have 
often  been  evolved  or  at  least  brought  into  clearer  light  by 
the  impressionistic  influence  of  landscape.  The  extraordi- 
nary proofs  of  the  recent  upheaval  of  the  Labrador  cannot 
but  force  upon  the  visitor  to  the  coast  the  question  as  to 
whether  the  elevating  process  still  continues.  The  answer 
seems  to  be  in  the  affirmative.  "The  almost  universal 
belief  of  the  old  settlers  on  these  shores  is  that  in  no  other 
way  can  the  changes  in  depth  at  familiar  localities  be  ex- 


Raised  Gravel  Beach  at  West  Bay,  South  Side  of  Entrance  to  Hamilton 

Inlet 


Half-tide  View  of  the  Shore  at  Ford  Harbour 


GEOLOGY  AND  SCENERY  OF  NORTHEAST  COAST  135 

plained.  With  no  theory  to  support  or  refute,  many 
reputable  observers  among  the  fishing  population  state  that 
they  have  time  and  again  noted,  during  periods  of  from  thirty 
to  sixty  years,  cases  where  rock-ledges  have  come  per- 
ceptibly nearer  the  sea-surface,  where  new  channels  have 
had  to  be  sought  among  the  shoals  for  the  passage  of  their 
fishing-boats,  and  where  the  stages  must  be  again  and  again 
lengthened  over  their  bed-rock  foundations  in  order  to  se- 
cure a  depth  of  water  sufficient  to  float  their  small  craft. 
A  gentleman  of  St.  John's  has  made  a  study  of  the  question 
for  forty  years,  and  has  come  to  the  conclusion  that  eleva- 
tion is  still  in  progress  along  the  whole  coast.  He  believes 
that  the  rate  of  uplift  is  about  twice  as  rapid  in  northern 
Labrador  as  in  Newfoundland.  He  has  found  among  the 
older  settlements  of  the  island  some  where  the  inhabitants 
are  in  a  very  unfavourable  position  for  plying  their  industry 
on  account  of  the  rim  of  just  submerged  rock-ledges  that 
obstruct  the  harbours.  He  has  asked  the  older  men  why 
they  chose  such  locations  for  settlement.  The  reply  was 
that  they  or  their  fathers  had  made  these  harbours  when 
the  conditions  were  very  different  from  the  present;  namely, 
when  the  harbours  were  deeper.  Such  qualitative  evidence, 
however  great  in  amount,  must  yield  in  value  to  the  testi- 
mony of  even  a  few  bench-marks  carefully  distributed 
along  the  coast."  Here,  again,  a  most  welcome  contribu- 
tion to  observational  geology  can  be  made  by  an  expedi- 
tion which,  by  so  placing  bench-marks,  can  give  the  geolo- 
gists of  the  future  a  standard  for  the  measurement  of  the 
rate  of  crust al  movement.  On  quantitative  observations, 
in  geology  no  less  than  in  all  other  physical  sciences,  hang 
all  the  law  and  the  prophets. 


136  LABRADOR 

The  sea-coast  phenomena  apparently  show  that  the  epoch 
of  emergence  is  not  yet  closed ;  with  greater  certainty  they 
tell  us  of  the  extent  of  maximum  submergence.  With 
very  close  accuracy  the  highest,  and  presumably  the  oldest, 
of  the  shore-lines  can  be  located  along  the  prehistoric 
headlands  and  intervening  bays.  In  the  summer  of  1900 
the  highest  shore-line  was  approximately  fixed  at  some 
thirty  points  on  the  1100-mile  journey  from  St.  John's  to 
Nachvak.  Its  position  gives  a  sort  of  measure  as  to  how 
much  of  the  Labrador  scenery  was  given  final  form  and 
colour  by  the  wash  and  wear  and  beach  accumulation  in  the 
shifting  zone  of  the  breakers.  The  discovery  of  the  maxi- 
mum uplift  has  also  a  strong  theoretical  interest  in  adding 
to  the  observations  that  some  day  may  suffice  to  solve  the 
great  problem  of  the  cause  of  such  broad  upheavals  of  the 
earth's  crust. 

The  principle  by  which  the  highest  shore-line  was  de- 
termined is  a  simple  one.  It  was  only  necessary  to  seek 
out  at  the  various  landing-places  the  seaward  facing  hill- 
slopes  which  must  have  suffered  strong  wave  attack  in 
case  they  had  slowly  emerged  from  the  sea  in  post-Glacial 
time.  These  slopes,  when  high  enough,  always  show  at 
once  a  vigorous  contrast  between  the  washed  and  unwashed 
zones.  Above  the  highest  shore-line,  the  glacial  boulders 
dotting  the  treeless  hillsides  still  lie  in  practically  their 
original  positions.  Below  that  line  they  have  been  swept 
away.  The  highest  shore-line  is,  therefore,  just  below 
the  boulder-limit,  which,  of  course,  has  been  driven  by 
storm-waves  a  little  higher  than  the  high-water  mark  of 
the  level  sea.  At  this  line  the  " fossil"  beaches,  cliffs,  and 
chasms  cease,  and  the  smooth,  boulder-dotted  slopes  begin. 


GEOLOGY  AND  SCENERY  OF  NORTHEAST  COAST     137 

The  map  of  Figure  17  gives  a  synopsis  of  the  observations 
so  far  made  on  the  present  altitudes  of  the  highest  shore- 
line. The  figures  represent  the  number  of  feet  through 
which  the  coastal  belt  at  individual  points  has  risen  since 
the  Ice  Period.  The  illustration  indicates  "that  the  uplift 
on  the  Labrador  has  been  greatest  near  Hopedale.  Hamil- 
ton Inlet  owes  in  part  its  depth,  and  indeed  its  very  exist- 
ence as  an  inlet  (it  is  but  10  fathoms  deep  at  the  Narrows), 
to  the  fact  that  the  part  of  the  plateau  in  which  it  lies  has 
not  been  elevated  as  much  as  the  land  to  north  and  to  south. 
The  line  rapidly  rises  as  it  crosses  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle, 
and  seems  to  be  about  500  feet  in  height  along  the  whole 
eastern  shore  of  Newfoundland." 

It  is  further  clear  that  the  uplift  is  a  real  and  independent 
upward  movement  of  the  land  and  not  a  mere  withdrawal 
of  the  sea-water,  lowered,  it  may  be,  in  the  filling  of  distant 
troughs  or  basins  formed  by  the  recent  subsidence  of  other 
parts  of  the  ocean-floor.  On  the  contrary,  the  evidence  is 
unmistakable  that  "there  has  been  unequal  positive  uplift 
of  the  earth's  crust.  The  force  responsible  for  this  great 
piece  of  work  has  been  applied  locally  and  in  varying  degree. 
The  result  is  that  to-day  the  actual  distance  from  the  centre 
of  the  earth  of  every  point  on  the  highest  shore-line  is 
greater  than  it  was  at  the  close  of  the  Glacial  Period." 

Why  has  the  earth's  crust  been  thus  hoisted?  Some 
geologists  believe  that  the  crust  is  elastic  and  sensitive,  even 
to.  the  load  of  an  ice-cap,  and  that  the  upheaval  of  the  Labra- 
dor is  due  to  the  lightening  of  the  load  on  the  crust  when  the 
massive  glacier  disappeared.  It  is  certainly  true  that  the 
recent  uplift  of  the  northern  half  of  the  continent  has  been 
most  pronounced  where  the  ice-load  was  presumably 


138  LABRADOR 

heaviest.  The  crust  underlying  northwestern  Europe  has 
behaved  in  a  similarly  suggestive  way  since  the  melting 
away  of  the  thick  Scandinavian  ice-cap.  The  theory  of 
crustal  sensitiveness  is  strengthened  by  this  repeated  oc- 
currence of  the  phenomenon,  but  as  yet  other  explanations 
cannot  be  excluded.  The  final  unravelling  of  the  mystery 
will  be  of  prime  importance  in  geological  investigations  as 
to  the  raising  of  mountain-chains  and  the  increase  of  the 
continents. 

We  cross  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle  once  more,  homeward 
bound.  Large  questions  are  left  to  us.  From  Archean 
time  as  from  the  latest  grand  event  in  Labrador's  history, 
they  rise  to  claim  the  attention  of  future  generations  of 
Nature's  students.  That  attention  they  will  surely  have, 
for  the  coast  shares  with  other  wild  lands  one  greater  value 
"than  the  best  arable  we  have."  Old  Jacques  Cartier, 
searching  for  an  Eldorado,  found  Labrador,  and  in  disgust 
called  it  "  the  land  of  Cain."  A  century  and  a  half  after- 
ward Lieutenant  Roger  Curtis  wrote  of  it  as  "  a  country 
formed  of  frightful  mountains,  andunfruitfulvallies,  a  prodi- 
gious heap  of  barren  rock" ;  and  George  Cartwright,  in  his 
gossipy  journal,  summed  up  his  impressions  after  five  and 
twenty  years  on  the  coast.  He  said:  "God  created  that 
country  last  of  all,  and  threw  together  there  the  refuse  of 
his  materials  as  of  no  use  to  mankind." 

In  our  own  day  the  artist  and  scientific  explorer  give  us 
wiser  counsels.  We  have  at  last  learned  the  vital  fact  that 
Nature  has  set  apart  her  own  picture-galleries  where  men 
may  resort  if  for  a  time  they  would  forget  human  contri- 
vances. It  is  good  for  man  to  be  alone,  good  for  him  to 


GEOLOGY  AND  SCENERY  OF  NORTHEAST  COAST     139 

leave  his  fellows,  very  good  to  forget  how  to  make  or  spend 
money.  That  man  is  unhuman  who  thinks  of  his  income  or 
his  outgo  above  the  snow-line  or  in  the  depths  of  a  Colorado 
canyon.  It  is  as  if  the  pageant  of  earth's  history  has  left 
to  the  waste  places  some  of  its  choicest  settings.  The  great 
playgrounds  of  the  world,  —  the  high  Alps,  the  Yosemite, 
the  Selkirks,  a  Saguenay,  —  they  are  in  large  part  desert, 
most  providentially  useless.  And  such  a  wilderness  is 
Labrador,  a  kind  of  mental  and  moral  sanitarium.  The 
keen  air  of  its  midsummer  is  no  more  bracing  to  the  nerves 
and  sinews  of  the  body  than  its  quiet  beauty  and  savage 
grandeur  are  stimulating  to  the  powers  of  thought  and  ap- 
preciation. The  beautiful  is  but  the  visible  splendour  of 
the  true.  The  enjoyment  of  a  visit  to  the  coast  may  con- 
sist not  alone  in  the  impressions  of  the  scenery ;  there  may 
be  added  the  deeper  pleasure  of  reading  out  the  history  of 
the  noble  landscapes,  the  sculptured  monuments  of  ele- 
mental strife  and  of  revolutions  in  distant  ages. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE   HAMILTON  RIVER  AND   THE   GRAND   FALLS 
BY  A.   P.   Low 

HAMILTON  INLET  is  the  largest  of  the  many  long  fiords 
which  indent  the  Atlantic  coast.  Like  the  others,  it  is 
very  deep,  and  is  surrounded  by  high  hills,  often  rising  a 
thousand  feet  sheer  from  the  water,  while  its  surface  is 
frequently  broken  by  large,  bold,  rocky  islands.  The  lower 
slope  and  islands  are  wooded  with  dark  spruce  mingled 
with  the  lighter-coloured  birch  and  aspen,  forming  a  pleas- 
ing contrast  with  the  bare  rocks  of  the  summits.  The 
distance,  from  the  hospital  station  of  Indian  Harbour  at 
its  mouth,  in  a  southwest  direction  to  the  head  of  the  inlet, 
is  slightly  over  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  while  its  aver- 
age breadth  is  fourteen  miles.  Forty-five  miles  above  the 
entrance,  the  inlet  narrows  and  is  only  about  a  mile  wide 
for  upwards  of  five  miles.  During  each  change  of  tide  a 
strong  current  with  rapids  occurs  at  this  point. 

Rigolet,  the  headquarters  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company 
for  the  Atlantic  coast,  is  situated  on  the  north  side  of  the 
lower  part  of  the  narrows. 

A  village  of  Eskimo,  made  up  of  a  cluster  of  small  log 
houses,  occupies  the  shore  of  a  small  cove  at  the  upper  end  ; 
its  chief  interest  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  is  the  most  southerly 
community  of  these  people.  The  inhabitants  have  been 
long  in  contact  with  the  white  men,  and  have  acquired  many 
of  the  virtues  and  vices  of  civilization. 

140 


THE  HAMILTON  EIVEE  AND   THE  GRAND  FALLS     141 


142  LABRADOR 

The  inlet  gradually  widens  above  the  narrows  into  Lake 
Melville,  which  is  fifteen  miles  across  in  its  widest  part. 
The  eastern  third  is  full  of  wild,  rocky  islands.  The  Mealy 
Mountains  rise  directly  from  its  southern  shores.  The 
northern  side  is  also  high,  but  there  is  often  a  wide  margin 
of  low  land  between  the  water  and  the  rocky  wall  of  the 
fiord.  Northwest  River  enters  on  the  north  side,  about 
eighty  miles  beyond  the  narrows.  The  stream  is  only 
about  one  hundred  yards  wide  at  its  mouth,  but  averages 
fifteen  feet  in  depth.  Half  a  mile  upstream  it  expands 
into  a  small  lake,  which,  three  miles  farther  up,  again  con- 
tracts for  four  hundred  yards  to  form  the  outlet  of  Grand 
Lake,  a  large  body  of  fresh  water  extending  westward  some 
forty  miles,  in  a  deep  valley  between  high,  rocky  walls. 

A  Hudson's  Bay  post  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  North- 
west River.  It  consists  of  some  half  a  dozen  small  log 
buildings.  Early  in  the  last  century  this  was  an  im- 
portant place,  the  residence  of  the  chief  factor  in  charge  of 
Labrador.  It  then  had  a  large  farm  attached,  where  oats 
and  vegetables  were  easily  grown.  Its  importance  was 
greatly  diminished  by  the  abandonment  of  the  inland 
posts  in  the  seventies,  and  later  the  Indians  trading  there 
were  induced  by  missionaries  to  take  the  proceeds  of  their 
winter's  hunt  to  the  posts  on  the  north  side  of  the 
St.  Lawrence,  so  that  at  present  the  trade  of  the  post 
is  exclusively  with  the  whites  living  about  the  inlet. 
Here  also  is  a  fur-trading  station  of  Revillon  Freres  of 
Paris. 

Almost  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Northwest  River  on 
the  south  side  of  Lake  Melville  is  Carter's  Basin,  a  small 
bay  into  which  empty  the  Kenamou  and  Kenamich  rivers. 


THE  HAMILTON  RIVER  AND   THE  GRAND  FALLS     143 

The  former  is  much  the  larger,  and  drains  an  extensive  area 
of  the  highlands  to  the  southwest.  It  is  very  rapid  and 
practically  unnavigable.  Above  Northwest  River  the  inlet 
has  been  silted  up  by  sand  brought  down  and  deposited 
there  by  the  Hamilton  River,  which  flows  into  the  head 
of  the  inlet.  A  long,  narrow  point  stretching  out  from  the 
north  shore  just  above  the  Northwest  River  divides  the 
shallows  from  the  deeper  portion  of  the  inlet;  the  upper 
part  is  called  Goose  Bay,  and  extends  twenty  miles  to  its 
head,  which  receives  a  small  river,  famous  for  the  large 
brook  trout  taken  about  its  mouth  in  the  autumn  months. 
There  is  here  a  large  lumber  mill  belonging  to  the  Grand 
River  Lumber  Company.  Their  "  loggers  "  penetrate  far 
into  the  country  along  the  river  valley.  Besides  their  build- 
ings, small  log  houses  are  scattered  along  the  shores  of  the 
inlet,  wherever  the  ground  is  sufficiently  level  for  a  small 
garden;  these  are  the  winter  houses  of  the  white  people 
who  reside  permanently  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  They  are 
called  " planters"  or  "livyeres,"  to  distinguish  them  from 
the  summer  fishing  population  from  Newfoundland.  The 
planters  are  largely  descendants  of  settlers  brought  out 
from  England  for  the  salmon-fisheries.  Some  of  their 
ancestors  were  among  the  original  settlers  who  came  to 
Sandwich  Bay  with  Cartwright  in  1770;  others  are  de- 
scended from  servants  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company. 
They  are  all  poor  and  hopelessly  in  debt,  either  to  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company  or  to  Newfoundland  fishing  firms, 
so  that  these  people  have  little  hope  or  ambition  to  better 
their  condition.  Their  life  is  fairly  happy  and  close  to 
nature.  The  sea  supplies  fish  freely;  their  gardens, 
potatoes.  From  the  proceeds  of  their  summer's  cod-fishery 


144  LABRADOR 

and  winter's  fur  hunt,  they  obtain  food  and  clothing,  to- 
gether with  a  few  "  luxuries."  Early  in  the  summer  they 
leave  their  houses  on  the  inlet  for  the  outer  coast,  where 
they  engage  in  the  cod-fishing,  usually  with  nets  and  gear 
provided  by  some  Newfoundland  fishing  firm.  As  a  rule, 
the  amount  of  fish  caught  does  not  pay  for  the  advances 
of  provisions  and  clothing  at  the  prices  charged  by  the 
merchants,  so  they  get  deeper  and  deeper  in  debt  year  by 
year.  At  the  close  of  the  cod-fishery  they  return  to  their 
houses  on  the  inlet,  stopping  on  the  way  at  the  Hudson's 
Bay  posts,  where  they  receive  other  advances  of  provisions 
and  clothing  to  be  charged  against  their  coming  winter's 
hunt.  Arriving  home,  they  dig  their  potatoes  and  catch 
and  freeze  trout,  which  swarm  in  the  mouths  of  all  the 
streams  at  this  season.  As  soon  as  sufficient  snow  falls, 
they  set  their  traps  for  marten,  fox,  otter,  lynx,  and  other 
fur-bearing  animals.  Each  hunter  has  a  "path"  or  line 
of  traps  fifty  miles  or  more  in  length.  A  single  winter 
visit  to  all  the  traps  on  the  line  may  involve  a  week's 
journey.  Small  " shacks"  or  shelters,  where  the  hunters 
may  pass  the  night,  are  built  at  convenient  distances  along 
the  path. 

With  the  advent  of  spring,  the  skins  get  out  of  condition, 
and  the  fur  path  is  abandoned  for  the  seal  hunt.  These 
animals  are  killed  by  shooting  them  on  the  ice,  where  they 
come  up  through  cracks  and  holes  to  bask  in  the  sun. 
Later,  when  the  ice  leaves,  they  are  caught  in  heavy  nets. 
By  the  time  the  seal  hunt  is  over,  the  garden  dug,  and 
potatoes  planted,  it  is  time  to  go  to  the  outer  coast  for  the 
cod-fishery. 

This  is  the  yearly  round  of  the  planter.     It  applies  all 


THE  HAMILTON  E1VER  AND   THE  GBAND  FALLS      145 

along  the  Labrador,  except  that  nowhere  else  can  vege- 
tables be  grown,  owing  to  the  settlements  being  nearer  to 
the  Arctic  current  on  the  outside  coast.  Although  it 
may  not  appeal  to  many,  it  is  a  much  better  and  freer 
life  than  is  the  lot  of  the  poor  in  civilization,  with  its 
monotonous  daily  grind  for  a  mere  subsistence. 

As  regards  the  chances  of  sport  about  Hamilton  Inlet, 
the  summer  season  is  unfavourable,  there  as  well  as  else- 
where. The  big  game  consists  of  barren-ground  and 
woodland  caribou,  black  bear,  and  seals.  Caribou  are 
found  in  small  bands  on  the  Mealy  Mountains  immediately 
south  of  Lake  Melville,  while  in  the  winter  large  bands  of 
barren-ground  caribou  come  out  on  the  coast  to  the  north- 
ward, and  have  been  killed  in  great  numbers  within  a  few 
miles  of  the  inlet.  Bears  are  found  on  the  burnt  areas, 
where  they  feed  on  blueberries  in  the  late  summer.  The 
seals,  especially  the  harbour  seal,  are  common  in  the  waters 
of  the  inlet,  and  often  afford  good  sport  with  the  rifle. 

Wild  fowl  and  geese  are  very  abundant  in  the  spring  and 
fall,  and  are  killed  in  great  numbers  below  Rigolet.  The 
curlew,  which  formerly  passed  in  great  flocks  on  their 
migration  southward,  are  now  nearly. extinct;  the  Canada 
grouse,  or  spruce  partridge,  is  abundant  about  the  head  of 
the  inlet,  and  the  ruffed  grouse  is  also  common.  During 
the  winter,  great  numbers  of  willow  ptarmigan  migrate 
southward  and  feed  in  flocks  on  the  willow  buds  in  the 
valleys. 

Hamilton  Inlet  was  once  famous  for  its  salmon-fishery, 
but  the  use  of  numerous  cod-traps  along  the  coast  has 
practically  exterminated  the  salmon,  as  far  as  concerns 
rod-fishing  in  the  rivers.  I  have  visited  the  inlet  in  October, 


146  LABRADOR 

and  can  vouch  for  the  excellence  of  the  trout-fishing  from 
that  time  until  the  ice  becomes  so  thick  that  it  is  impossible 
to  cut  holes  through  it.  Dr.  Grenfell  reports  that  the  trout 
bite  freely  all  summer.  The  fish  appear  to  be  sea-run,  al- 
though their  sojourn  in  salt  water  is  probably  short,  for 
they  do  not  lose  their  markings  as  do  the  trout  of  the  St. 
Lawrence.  Large  fish,  up  to  six  and  seven  pounds  in  weight, 
are  caught  in  the  lower  stretches  and  at  the  mouths  of  all 
the  streams  flowing  into  Melville  Lake,  and  take  the  fly 
freely  until  the  waters  freeze  over.  My  knowledge  of  the 
Hamilton  River  from  its  mouth  to  the  Grand  Falls  is  con- 
fined to  the  conditions  prevailing  in  late  winter  and  early 
spring.  We  left  Northwest  River  early  in  March  and 
reached  the  falls  on  the  1st  of  May.  The  great  length  of 
time  taken  on  the  trip  was  due  to  our  small  party  having 
to  draw  on  sledges  the  outfit,  tents,  canoes,  and  provisions 
sufficient  for  the  following  summer's  work  in  the  interior. 
This  amounted  to  four  loads  of  two  hundred  pounds  for 
each  member,  and  a  consequent  sevenfold  lengthening 
of  the  original  distance  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles. 

The  Hamilton  River  is  the  most  important  stream  of  the 
eastern  watershed  of  the  peninsula.  It  is  upwards  of  five 
hundred  miles  in  length,  and  extends  westward  halfway 
to  Hudson  Bay.  To  the  north  and  west  its  tributaries 
interlock  with  those  of  the  Northwest  River  and  with  the 
head  waters  of  the  George  and  Koksoak  rivers,  both  of 
which  flow  north  into  Ungava  Bay,  while  to  the  south  the 
Hamilton  is  separated  by  a  low,  sinuous  watershed  from 
the  rivers  flowing  southward  into  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence. 

At  the  Grand  Falls,  some  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles 
above  its  mouth,  the  river  is  naturally  divided  into  two 


THE  HAMILTON  EIVEE   AND    THE  GRAND  FALLS      147 

parts  which  are  quite  dissimilar  in  physical  character. 
The  lower  part  occupies  a  deep,  ancient  valley,  cut  down 
into  the  hard,  crystalline  rocks  of  the  plateau,  so  that  the 
present  level  of  the  river  is  from  five  hundred  to.  one  thou- 
sand feet  below  the  general  level  of  the  surrounding  country. 
This  deep  valley  varies  in  width  from  one  hundred  yards 
to  more  than  two  miles  between  the  rocky  walls.  The  river 
flows  with  a  strong  current  often  broken  by  rapids,  espe- 
cially along  the  upper  stretches.  Only  in  one  place  has  it 
a  direct  fall  over  a  rock  obstruction,  and  that  is  at  the 
Muskrat  Falls,  twenty-seven  miles  above  its  mouth,  where 
a  dam  of  glacial  drift  has  diverted  the  stream  from  its 
ancient  course  and  has  caused  it  to  find  a  new  channel  on 
the  south  side  of  a  rocky  knoll  where  the  river  falls  seventy 
feet  over  ledges  in  a  distance  of  four  hundred  yards. 

The  greater  part  of  the  valley  below  the  Grand  Falls  has 
been  burnt  over  by  frequent  fires,  which  have  destroyed 
much  of  the  original  forest  of  spruce,  its  place  being  taken 
by  small  second-growth  aspen,  white  birch,  and  spruce. 
Where  the  original  forest  remains,  the  trees  are  fair-sized 
and  of  commercial  value,  in  marked  contrast  to  the  stunted 
spruce  found  partly  covering  the  rolling  surface  of  the 
plateau  above  the  valley  on  both  sides.  The  river  varies  in 
width,  and  usually  only  partly  fills  the  bottom  of  the  valley, 
being  confined  between  banks  of  sand  or  glacial  drift  form- 
ing the  soil  of  the  bottom.  A  reference  to  the  accompany- 
ing map  shows  that  the  river  valley  as  far  as  the  junction 
of  Minipi  River,  eighty  miles  upstream,  conforms  in  its 
southwesterly  direction  with  that  of  Hamilton  Inlet  (Lake 
Melville).  The  general  direction  then  changes  to  west- 
northwest,  and  so  continues  to  the  Grand  Falls.  A  more 


148  LABRADOR 

detailed  account  of  the  various  courses  and  characteristics 
of  the  valley  than  can  be  given  here  may  be  found  in  my 
report,  and  might  be  consulted  by  any  intending  visitor 
to  the  falls.1 

The  river  flows  into  the  head  of  Lake  Melville  on  the  south 
side  of  Goose  Bay,  and  is  separated  from  it  by  a  long,  low, 
sandy  point.  The  mouth  of  the  river  is  obstructed  by 
wide  shoals  with  numerous  narrow  channels  between  them. 
These  continue  for  about  ten  miles,  where  the  stream  is 
about  a  mile  wide  and  gradually  narrows  to  Muskrat  Falls. 
Above  the  falls  there  is  a  steady  current  for  fourteen  miles 
to  the  foot  of  Porcupine  Rapids,  which  are  nearly  three 
miles  long.  Good  tracking  along  the  banks  with  deep 
water  makes  the  ascent  easy.  An  expansion  called  Gull 
Island  Lake  extends  six  miles  from  the  head  of  Porcupine 
Rapids  to  the  foot  of  the  next  rapids.  In  the  next  twenty 
miles,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Minipi,  the  valley  gradually 
narrows,  leaving  very  little  bottom-land  between  the  river 
and  its  rocky  walls.  This  portion  of  the  river  is  very  rough 
and  almost  a  continuous  rapid.  Ascending  the  stream, 
Gull  Rapids  extend  for  nearly  five  miles  above  the  lake, 
with  shallow  water  and  great  boulders  obstructing  the 
channel.  The  second,  or  Horseshoe  Rapid,  is  at  the  sharp 
bend  to  the  southward;  it  also  is  shallow  and  filled  with 
boulders.  The  river  now  contracts  to  about  one  hundred 
yards  in  width,  and  deepens,  so  that  although  the  current 
is  swift,  the  surface  is  broken  only  for  a  short  distance- 
below  the  junction  of  the  Minipi,  where  a  short  portage 
may  be  necessary  to  pass  the  head  of  the  rapid. 

1  Report  on  Labrador  Peninsula,  A.  P.  Low,  Ann.  Rep.  Geol.  Survey 
of  Canada,  Vol.  VIII,  Part  L,  1895. 


THE  HAMILTON  RIVER  AND   THE  GRAND  FALLS      149 

Above  the  Minipi  the  valley  soon  widens,  and  varies 
from  one  to  two  miles  across  the  bottom.  The  rocky  walls 
rise  from  seven  hundred  feet  to  nine  hundred  feet  above  the 
water,  while  the  glacial  drift  in  the  valley  has  been  cut 
by  the  river  into  terraces,  which  are  seen  flanking  the  walls 
at  heights  ranging  from  twenty  feet  to  two  hundred  and 
fifty  feet.  The  navigation  is  good  for  the  next  forty  miles, 
the  even  current  of  the  river  being  broken  only  by  a  few 
short  rapids  not  difficult  to  ascend.  A  number  of  very 
beautiful  stretches  are  seen  along  this  portion,  where  the 
channel  is  divided  by  islands  covered  with  thick  green 
forest,  giving* contrast  with  the  bare  rocky  walls  down 
which  a  number  of  small  tributaries  tumble  in  feathery 
cascades.  The  valley  again  contracts,  and  for  eighteen 
miles,  to  its  outlet  from  Winokapau  Lake,  the  current  is 
swift,  and  the  river  broken  by  a  number  of  rapids,  making 
the  ascent  difficult,  but  probably  entailing  portages  only  at 
a  few  short  pitches. 

The  entrance  to  the  lake  is  impressive ;  the  walls  of  the 
valley  are  less  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile  apart,  and  tower 
in  sheer  cliffs  for  a  thousand  feet  above  the  stream.  The 
change  from  the  foaming  rapids  of  the  outlet  to  the  quiet 
surface  of  the  lake  is  especially  pleasing  to  the  somewhat 
wearied  traveller. 

Winokapau  Lake  is  thirty  miles  long  and  varies  from  one 
mile  to  two  miles  and  a  half  in  width;  its  waters  fill  the 
valley  from  wall  to  wall.  The  lake  is  remarkably  deep, 
isolated  soundings  giving  over  four  hundred  feet;  only 
a  few  soundings  were  made  during  our  passage,  as  the  ice 
was  then  four  feet  nine  inches  thick,  and  two  hours  of  hard 
work  were  required  to  put  a  hole  through  it.  The  upper 


150  LABRADOE 

end  of  the  lake  is  shallow,  being  filled  with  sand  brought 
down  by  the  river.  The  Hudson's  Bay  post  was  situated 
on  a  sandy  plain  near  the  inlet ;  it  was  abandoned  in  1873, 
and  subsequently  destroyed  by  fire.  The  old  journals 
of  this  post  show  that  the  first  snow  fell  about  September 
20th  and  remained  until  the  following  June.  The  lowest  tem- 
perature recorded  was  —  55°  F.  Geese,  ducks,  and  sum- 
mer birds  arrived  about  the  10th  of  May  and  were  killed 
in  large  numbers  in  the  open  water  at  the  head  of  the  lake. 
In  the  autumn  and  winter,  ptarmigan  were  very  abundant, 
while  caribou  and  bears  were  frequently  killed  in  the  valley 
and  on  the  surrounding  plateau.  The  spring  catch  of  fish 
was  always  notable,  white  fish  and  trout  being  taken  in 
large  numbers  in  nets  set  about  the  post.  In  the  summer, 
all  the  inhabitants  used  to  go  in  canoes  with  the  winter's 
fur  to  the  post  at  Northwest  River.  Before  leaving  the 
place,  potatoes  and  turnips  were  planted  and  left  to  the 
care  of  Nature  until  the  return  of  the  traders  in  September ; 
it  is  not  surprising  that  the  comments  on  the  crops  were 
unfavourable. 

The  river  is  easily  navigable  from  the  head  of  Winokapau 
Lake  to  the  Grand  Falls  portage,  situated  on  the  north  side 
of  the  river  some  forty-five  miles  upstream,  at  the  foot 
of  a  continuous  rapid,  which  extends  several  miles  to  the 
mouth  of  Bowdoin  Canyon. 

In  order  to  pass  the  Grand  Falls,  and  reach  the  upper 
part  of  the  river,  the  valley  must  be  left  at  the  foot  of  the 
rapids,  where  a  portage,  up  the  bed  of  a  small  tributary, 
rises  abruptly  seven  hundred  feet  and  then,  by  gradual 
ascent  for  two  miles,  leads  to  a  small  lake  on  'the  level  of 
the  plateau.  The  route  then  leads  through  fourteen  small 


THE  HAMILTON  EIVER  AND   THE  GRAND  FALLS      151 

lakes  connected  by  as  many  portages,  and  ends  in  an  ex- 
pansion of  the  river  immediately  above  the  rapids  leading 
to  the  falls.  This  route  is  over  twenty  miles  in  length, 
and  more  than  one-fourth  is  on  portages.  To  obtain  a  view 
of  the  falls,  the  river  must  be  crossed  at  the  end  of  the 
portages  and  the  far  bank  descended  past  the  rapids,  where 
an  excellent  view  may  be  obtained,  from  the  top  of  the  wall 
enclosing  the  circular  basin,  into  which  the  river  falls. 
A  descent  may  here  be  made  into  the  canyon,  with  less 
difficulty  and  risk  than  are  incurred  in  descents  from  the 
near  bank.  Our  party,  from  what  I  can  learn,  was  the 
only  one  to  view  the  falls  from  that  side.  It  must  have 
been  a  great  disappointment  to  the  others,  after  their  long 
trip,  to  have  seen  the  falls  only  from  the  east  side,  where 
no  adequate  view  can  be  obtained.  This  warning  is  in- 
tended especially  for  the  visitor  who  might  decide,  owing 
to  the  difficulty  of  the  portages,  to  leave  his  canoes  at  the 
lower  end  of  the  portages  and  tramp  overland  to  the  falls. 
The  distance,  between  the  lake  expansion  at  the  upper 
end  of  the  portage  route  and  the  mouth  of  Bowdoin  Canyon, 
is  eight  miles  in  a  straight  line  running  south-southeast. 
The  river  at  the  upper  end  of  this  line  has  an  elevation  of 
sixteen  hundred  and  sixty  feet  above  sea-level,  a  little 
below  the  general  level  of  the  surrounding  country.  Where 
it  issues  from  the  canyon  into  the  main  valley,  it  is  nine 
hundred  feet  above  the  sea;  there  is  thus  a  drop  of  seven 
hundred  and  sixty  feet  in  a  distance,  by  the  river,  of  less 
than  twelve  miles.  Considering  the  volume  of  the  stream, 
estimated  at  fifty  thousand  cubic  feet  per  second,  this  is  a 
phenomenal  descent.  If  the  energy  developed  by  the  fall 
could  be  turned  into  work,  it  would  produce  the  enormous 


152  LABRADOR 

amount  of  upwards  of  four  million  three  hundred  thousand 
horse-power.  Neglecting  the  rapids  above  and  below  the 
falls  and  confining  the  calculation  to  the  power  of  the  falls 
itself,  we  find  that  it  would  develop  energy  equal  to  one 
million  seven  hundred  thousand  horse-power,  an  amount 
sufficient  to  operate  a  large  proportion  of  all  the  manu- 
factories and  railways  of  Canada. 

For  a  mile  downstream  from  its  lakelike  expansion,  the 
river  is  dotted  with  small,  rocky  islands,  covered  with  small 
evergreens.  The  great  stream  is  thereby  broken  into  a 
number  of  narrow  channels  with  swift  current.  The  river 
then  narrows  to  less  than  four  hundred  yards,  and  for  a  mile 
passes  over  a  number  of  rocky  ledges  between  low,  wooded 
banks,  falling  fifty  feet  in  a  succession  of  rapids.  It  again 
widens  to  nearly  a  mile,  and  flows  swiftly  between  small 
islands  for  two  miles ;  then,  turning  southeast,  it  contracts 
to  less  than  half  its  previous  width  and  rushes  along  with 
heavy  rapids  in  a  shallow  channel  obstructed  by  huge 
boulders.  In  this  manner  the  river  continues  for  two  miles, 
gradually  narrowing  as  it  descends.  The  banks  and  bottom 
are  solid  rock,  and  the  stream  in  the  next  mile  has  cut  a 
narrow  and  gradually  deepening  trough,  so  that,  at  the 
lower  end  of  the  course,  it  dashes  through  a  gorge  about 
fifty  yards  wide  with  steep  walls,  one  hundred  and  ten  feet 
below  the  level  of  its  upper  end.  In  the  last  three  hun- 
dred yards  the  grade  is  very  steep,  where  the  confined 
waters  rush  along  in  a  swirling  mass,  thrown  into  enormous, 
long,  surging  waves,  at  least  twenty  feet  high,  the  deafening 
noise  of  which  completely  drowns  the  heavy  boom  of  the 
great  falls  immediately  below.  With  a  final  great  surge 
the  pent-up  water  is  shot  down  a  steep  incline  for  a  hundred 


THE  HAMILTON  EIVEE  AND   THE  GRAND  FALLS     153 

feet,  where  it  breaks  into  a  silvery  mass  and  plunges  into 
a  circular  basin  two  hundred  feet  below.  The  momentum 
acquired  during  the  descent  of  the  slope  is  sufficient  to 
carry  the  mass  of  water  far  out  from  the  perpendicular 
rocky  wall,  leaving  at  the  bottom  an  almost  free  passage 
between  the  foot  of  the  cliff  and  the  falling  water.  Owing 
to  the  dense  column  of  spray  which  rises  continuously 
from  the  basin  to  a  height  of  nearly  a  thousand  feet, 
it  is  impossible  to  obtain  a  clear  photograph  of  the 
cascade. 

The  trees  on  the  slopes  about  the  falls  are  largely  white 
spruce  upwards  of  seventy  feet  in  height,  while  the  icicles 
fringing  the  foot  of  the  ice-covered  walls  (on  the  first 
of  May)  were  more  than  fifty  feet  in  length.  Owing  to 
the  refraction  of  the  ice  which  flashed  the  sunlight  into 
all  the  colours  of  the  spectrum,  the  spectacle  was  most  gor- 
geous. The  total  height  of  the  falls,  from  the  crest  of  the 
incline  to  the  basin,  is  three  hundred  and  two  feet ;  in 
shape  it  resembles  on  a  gigantic  scale  a  stream  flowing 
through  a  V-shaped  trough  and  issuing  freely  from  its 
lower  end.  The  basin  at  the  bottom  is  nearly  circular, 
with  a  diameter  of  two  hundred  yards.  The  rocky  walls 
surrounding  it  rise  perpendicularly  five  hundred  feet,  except 
at  a  narrow  cut  at  right  angles  to  the  falls  where  the  waters 
pass  out  into  Bowdoin  Canyon.  The  surface  of  the  basin 
is  continuously  agitated  by  the  rush  of  waters  and  huge, 
lumpy  waves  leap  high  upon  its  rocky  walls.  The  stunning 
noise  of  the  fall  and  the  wonderful  display  Of  energy  are 
so  awe-inspiring  that  there  is  a  feeling  of  dread  in  ap- 
proaching the  brink,  and  the  Indians  cannot  be  induced 
to  visit  the  neighbourhood. 


154  LABRADOR 

Bowdoin  Canyon  was  so  named  by  Gary  and  Cole,  who 
discovered  it  in  1891.  Issuing  from  the  basin  at  the  foot 
of  the  great  cascade,  the  river  zigzags  in  half-mile  courses 
to  the  east  and  southwest  until  it  finally  issues  into  the  main 
valley.  The  distance  from  the  falls  to  the  mouth  of  the 
canyon  is  eight  miles  in  a  straight  line,  but  by  the  river 
it  is  more  than  twice  that  distance.  The  canyon  is  cut 
sharply  and  nearly  perpendicularly  out  of  the  granites 
and  other  crystalline  rocks  to  a  depth  of  over  five  hundred 
feet  below  the  general  surface  of  the  plateau.  The  zigzag 
courses  of  the  gorge  conform  with  the  directions  of  two  sets 
of  jointage  planes,  which  split  the  granites  into  huge  blocks 
in  the  area  below  the  falls.  The  cracks  appear  to  influence 
the  direction  of  the  river  courses,  and  to  have  greatly  as- 
sisted the  water  in  clearing  out  the  gorge.  The  canyon 
is  probably  a  new  valley  excavated  by  the  river  since  the 
Glacial  Period.  The  ancient  river  which,  in  pre-Glacial 
time,  flowed  down  the  main  valley  seems  to  have  been 
diverted  by  dams  of  glacial  drift  and  perhaps  by  local 
changes  of  level,  so  that  it  now  flows  on  the  surface  of  the 
plateau  to  the  north  of  the  old  valley.  On  reentering  the 
old  valley  with  such  a  tremendous  fall,  the  river  has  cut 
out  the  canyon  in  a  comparatively  short  period  of  time. 
The  break  in  the  surface  of  the  plateau  is  so  sharp  that  an 
approach  to  within  a  few  yards  of  the  edge  may  be  made 
without  any  indication  of  its  presence,  the  first  warning 
being  the  hoarse  roar  of  the  rapids  far  below.  Across  its 
top  the  gorge  rarely  exceeds  a  hundred  yards ;  at  the  bottom 
the  river  is  confined  to  a  width  of  a  hundred  feet.  The 
difference  in  level  between  the  water  in  the  basin  and  that 
issuing  into  the  main  valley  is  two  hundred  and  sixty  feet, 


THE  HAMILTON  EIVEE   AND   THE  GRAND  FALLS      155 

and  this  descent  is  in  a  continuous  rapid  by  the  pent-up 
stream. 

Above  the  Grand  Falls  the  character  of  the  river  changes 
completely ;  it  now  flows  nearly  on  a  level  with  the  surface 
of  the  plateau,  spreading  out  to  fill  the  valleys  between  the 
long,  low  ridges,  arranged  en  ichelon  over  the  country. 
The  river  in  passing  around  the  ridges  is  often  broken  into 
several  channels  by  large  islands;  in  other  places  where 
the  valleys  are  wide,  it  spreads  out  into  long,  irregular  lakes 
studded  with  islands.  The  current,  instead  of  flowing 
regularly,  alternates  between  short  rapids  and  long  lake 
stretches.  The  banks  are  usually  low,  and  covered  with 
a  dense  growth  of  willows,  which  form  a  wide  fringe  between 
the  water  and  the  spruce  trees  covering  the  higher  ground 
behind.  The  general  direction  of  the  river  is  west-north- 
west from  the  Grand  Falls  to  Petitsikapau  Lake,  more 
than  a  hundred  miles  above.  Throughout  this  distance 
its  course  is  nearly  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the  glacial 
striae  and  to  that  of  the  ridges  of  glacial  drift.  All  these 
features  give  an  aspect  of  newness  to  the  upper  part  of 
the  river,  and  indicate  that  its  present  course  and  condition 
have  been  determined  by  the  post-Glacial  configuration 
of  the  plateau. 

The  first  expansion  above  the  portage  is  called  Jacopie 
Lake.  It  is  seven  miles  long  by  about  two  miles  wide,  and 
is  surrounded  by  low,  rocky  hills  partly  burnt  over.  A 
stretch  of  eight  miles  of  swiftly  flowing  river  connects  with 
the  island-dotted  Flour  Lake,  which  is  ten  miles  long  with 
deep  bays  leading  off  on  both  sides.  At  its  head  the  river 
enters  by  two  nearly  equal  channels,  which  unite  again 
in  Sandgirt  Lake,  some  fifteen  miles  above.  The  north 


156  LABRADOR 

channel  leads  through  Lobstick  Lake,  where  a  long  bay 
passes  northward  and  connects  the  spring  at  high  water 
with  Lake  Michikamau  on  the  head  waters  of  the  Northwest 
River.  The  south  channel  is  the  ordinary  canoe  route 
between  Flour  and  Sandgirt  lakes. 

Sandgirt  Lake  is  an  irregular,  shallow  body  of  water,  with 
many  islands  of  drift.  It  is  twelve  miles  long  from  the 
southern  outlet  to  the  mouth  of  the  Ashuanipi  branch. 
Owing  to  the  number  of  canoe  routes  which  centre  here,  the 
lake  is  an  important  gathering  place  for  the  Indians  of  the 
interior.  The  Hamilton  River  divides  into  two  branches, 
the  larger,  or  Ashuanipi,  flowing  from  the  northwest  and 
the  Attikonak  from  the  south.  The  principal  route  from 
Hamilton  River  to  Michikamau  Lake  and  northward  also 
ends  here.  The  Indians  who  pass  the  winter  hunting  in 
this  region  congregate  at  Sandgirt  Lake  shortly  after  the 
ice  leaves  the  river,  and  thence  proceed  in  company  south- 
ward to  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  posts  situated  on  the 
north  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence. 

The  Attikonak  branch  of  the  Hamilton  flows  into  the 
southern  part  of  Sandgirt  Lake,  where  it  has  about  half 
the  volume  of  the  other  branch.  It  takes  its  rise  in 
Attikonak  Lake,  close  to  the  southern  watershed;  thence 
a  portage  leads  to  the  upper  waters  of  the  Romaine  River 
flowing  into  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  From  Sandgirt 
Lake  to  the  south  end  of  Attikonak,  the  distance  by  river 
is  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  and  the  stream  is 
practically  a  succession  of  long,  narrow  lakes  connected  by 
stretches  of  rapids.  The  country  through  which  it  flows 
is  broken  by  low  hills  of  rock  and  ridges  of  drift,  with  much 
low,  swampy  land  between.  The  lowlands  are  covered 


Two  Views  of  Bowdoin  Canyon 


THE  HAMILTON  RIVER  AND   THE  GRAND  FALLS     157 

with  small  trees,  chiefly  black  spruce,  along  with  larch  and 
balsam  fir.  Lake  Attikonak  is  upwards  of  forty  miles  long, 
and  is  so  covered  with  islands  that  no  idea  of  its  shape  or 
width  is  obtained  by  a  passage  through  it.  Its  water  is 
clear  but  brownish,  and  does  not  appear  to  be  very  deep. 

The  Ashuanipi,  or  main  branch  of  the  Hamilton,  enters 
Sandgirt  Lake  on  its  west  side.  The  river  flows  from  the 
northwest  for  seventy-five  miles  in  a  wide  valley,  broken 
by  long  ridges,  which  cut  the  stream  into  a  perfect  labyrinth 
of  channels  connecting  irregularly  shaped  lake  expansions. 
An  intelligent  detailed  description  of  the  watery  maze  is 
almost  impossible,  and  would  be  too  long  for  the  present 
chapter.  A  few  miles  above  Sandgirt  Lake  the  granites 
and  gneisses  give  place  to  bedded  sandstones,  limestones, 
and  shales,  with  which  are  associated  bedded  iron  ores. 
These  rocks  have  a  remarkably  close  resemblance  to  the 
iron  formations  of  the  south  and  west  of  Lake  Superior, 
and  there  is  reason  to  believe  that,  in  the  future,  important 
deposits  of  iron  ore  will  be  found  along  the  upper  Hamilton 
River.  A  change  in  the  physical  features  follows  the  change 
in  the  rocks;  the  rocky  hills  become  higher  and  sharper, 
while  the  ridges  are  longer  and  much  less  broken,  causing 
the  valley  to  be  walled  in  between  rocky  barriers  that  rise 
from  three  hundred  feet  to  five  hundred  feet  above  its 
surface. 

With  the  change  of  soil  there  is  a  surprising  change  in 
the  trees.  These  increase  in  size;  and  the  monotonous 
forest  of  small  black  spruce  gives  place  to  a  more  diversified 
one  of  white  and  black  spruce,  balsam  fir,  larch,  balsam, 
aspen,  poplar,  and  white  birch,  all  growing  in  the  valley  and 
on  the  sides  of  the  hills.  This  portion  of  the  river  is  a 


158  LABRADOR 

paradise  for  fishermen;  the  swiftly  flowing  water,  in  the 
numerous  channels  connecting  the  lake  expansions,  swarm 
with  large  brook  trout  greedy  for  any  description  of  lure, 
from  a  salmon-fly  to  a  bit  of  red  flannel  on  a  cod-hook. 
More  fish  were  taken  with  cod-hooks  by  the  canoemen  than 
I  could  catch  with  the  regulation  rod  and  tackle.  The  deep, 
quiet  eddies  and  the  foam-covered  spots  at  the  foot  of  rapids 
are  the  resort  of  lake  trout  reaching  more  than  twenty 
pounds  in  weight.  In  the  rapids  the  game  ouaniniche,  or 
land-locked  salmon,  may  be  easily  captured  with  a  fly. 
Whitefish  are  also  seen  bobbing  about  in  the  thick  foam, 
and  take  an  artificial  May-fly;  as  they  jump  and  fight  as 
fiercely  as  the  ouaniniche,  they  afford  good  sport,  but,  being 
very  tender  in  the  mouth,  they  are  often  lost.  The  willow 
ptarmigan  and  Canada  goose  breed  abundantly  in  this  region. 
The  flocks  of  unmated  geese  lose  their  wing-feathers  in 
the  summer,  and,  being  unable  to  fly,  may  be  chased  ashore 
and  captured,  usually  after  a  most  exciting  run.  Caribou 
may  be  secured  with  little  trouble.  Bears  are  not  very 
numerous. 

At  the  head  of  the  long  northwest  course,  a  short  stream 
leads  into  Lake  Petitsikapau,  a  large,  irregularly  shaped 
body  of  water,  separated  by  a  rocky  ridge  from  the  head 
waters  of  the  George  River,  flowing  north  into  Ungava 
Bay.  On  its  shore  is  situated  the  ruins  of  Fort  Nascaupee, 
established  by  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  in  1842,  and 
abandoned  in  1873.  The  ruins  stand  in  a  small  clearing 
close  to  the  edge  of  the  lake.  The  houses  were  built  of  small, 
squared  logs  with  sawn-board  roofs.  The  main  building 
is  about  twelve  by  eighteen  feet,  with  a  low  attic.  Smaller 
buildings  adjoined  the  house  on  both  sides,  and  were  prob- 


THE  HAMILTON  EIVER  AND   THE  GRAND  FALLS     159 

ably  used  as  kitchen  and  shop.  The  foundation  of  an- 
other small  building  about  twenty  yards  in  the  rear  is 
probably  the  remains  of  the  servants'  house,  while  the 
powder-magazine,  half  buried  in  the  ground,  stands  farther 
back.  Adjoining  is  a  small  burying-ground  with  a  large 
cross  in  the  centre;  no  marks  were  found  on  the  graves. 
In  the  attic  of  the  main  building  a  fragment  of  the  Albion 
of  March  7, 1846,  was  found.  Close  to  the  house  are  several 
patches  of  rhubarb  in  a  flourishing  condition.  The  whole 
forms  the  ruined  remains  of  what  corresponded  to  a  typical 
inland  post  of  to-day,  as,  for  example,  those  of  Nichicun  and 
Mistassini.  Such  a  post  is  in  charge  of  a  postmaster,  usually 
graduated  from  the  ranks  of  the  superior  servants  of  the 
larger  posts,  and  married  to  an  Indian  woman.  He  has 
generally  two  or  three  Indians  or  half-breeds  under  him, 
and  these  with  their  families  make  up  the  settlement. 
Owing  to  the  great  distances  from  the  coast  and  the  diffi- 
culties of  transportation,  the  amount  of  civilized  provisions 
brought  in  is  small,  and  the  daily  ration  is  very  meagre. 
About  one  pound  of  flour  per  day  falls  to  the  share  of  each 
family,  with  tea  and  sugar  in  proportion,  so  that  all  must 
look  to  the  country  for  food.  This  is  largely  provided  by 
nets,  as  the  posts  are  always  located  conveniently  to  some 
good  fishing  lake.  Ptarmigan  and  other  game  birds 
provide  most  of  the  flesh,  supplemented  with  caribou,  bear, 
beaver,  lynx,  muskrat,  and  rabbits. 

At  Nichicun  potatoes  will  not  grow  in  the  short  summer 
season,  and  this  was  probably  the  case  at  Nascaupee,  so 
that  the  farinaceous  food  was  limited  to  the  family  share 
of  the  daily  pound  of  flour.  The  life  at  an  inland  post  is  a 
lonely  one.  With  the  departure  of  the  ice  in  spring,  the 


160  LABRADOR 

band  of  Indians  belonging  to  the  post  congregate  with  their 
furs,  which  are  soon  packed  in  bundles  of  one  hundred 
pounds  and  loaded  into  large  bark  canoes  for  the  voyage 
to  the  coast.  All  the  active  males  are  required  as  canoemen, 
leaving  behind  only  the  very  aged,  cripples,  and  children. 
Many  of  the  women  accompany  the  brigade  in  small  canoes ; 
the  remainder  scatter  about  the  lakes  to  convenient  fishing 
places.  The  post  is  practically  abandoned  until  the  return 
of  the  brigade,  late  in  the  summer,  with  canoes  deeply 
laden  with  provisions,  ammunition,  and  goods  for  the  next 
season's  trade.  A  few  days  after  the  arrival,  each  Indian 
has  received  his  outfit  and  departs  for  his  winter  hunting- 
grounds,  leaving  the  inhabitants  of  the  post  to  themselves. 
The  early  fall  is  employed  in  securing  a  supply  of  trout 
and  whitefish  for  the  winter,  and  nets  are  set  on  the  spawn- 
ing-grounds for  the  fish.  This  ends  the  work  of  the  year, 
and  everybody  becomes  a  trapper  of  fur  until  Christmas 
time.  With  the  new  year,  the  cutting  of  fire- wood  for  the 
coming  year  is  commenced ;  the  wood  is  drawn  home  with 
dog-teams.  As  the  spring  approaches,  the  canoes  are 
mended  and  preparations  made  for  the  annual  trip  to  the 
coast,  which  is  eagerly  anticipated,  as  it  means  the  annual 
mail  and  contact  with  civilization. 

The  Ashuanipi,  at  the  entrance  to  Petitsikapau,  bends 
sharply  to  the  south,  where  it  flows  out  of  a  large  lake  of 
the  same  name,  situated  near  the  southern  watershed, 
close  to  the  head  waters  of  the  Moisie  River,  which  flows 
southward  into  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  The  distance 
from  the  bend  to  the  head  of  the  lake  is  upwards  of 
one  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  about  half  of  which  is  un- 
surveyed. 


THE  HAMILTON  EIVER  AND   THE  GEAND  FALLS     161 

In  closing  this  brief  description  of  the  Hamilton  River, 
a  few  words  of  advice  may  be  given  to  intending  visitors. 
At  the  present  time  no  facilities  exist  on  Hamilton  Inlet 
for  a  trip  inland.  The  white  men  living  about  the  inlet  are 
unaccustomed  to  canoes,  and  use  heavy  sea-boats  for  their 
short  trips  inland.  For  an  extended  journey  to  the  in- 
terior, canoes  are  required,  and,  in  my  experience  for  such 
work,  the  best  are  built  of  cedar;  these  are  nearly  as  light 
as  the  Indian  bark  canoes,  and  are  much  more  enduring. 
They  should  be  built  larger  and  deeper  than  the  ordinary 
pleasure  canoe,  which  is  an  abomination  on  a  serious  ex- 
ploratory trip.  A  good  size  is  nineteen  feet  long,  forty 
inches  wide,  and  about  eighteen  inches  deep.  Such  a 
canoe  will  take  a  load  of  twelve  hundred  pounds  with  the 
crew  of  three  or  four  persons,  without  danger,  through 
heavy  rapids  and  across  windy  lake  stretches,  where  the 
ordinary  canoe  could  not  venture.  These  canoes  weigh 
about  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  pounds,  and  are  easily 
carried  by  two  men.  An  ordinary  camp  equipment,  in- 
cluding mosquito  tent  and  plenty  of  good  blankets,  is  all 
that  is  required.  The  provisions  should  be  as  simple  as 
possible,  consisting  chiefly  of  pork,  bacon,  flour,  and  beans, 
along  with  tea  and  sugar.  Condensed  foods  may  be  good 
for  rations  on  forced  marches,  where  nothing  else  is  avail- 
able, but  they  are  highly  unsatisfactory  to  canoemen  work- 
ing hard  upstream,  who  must  have  a  full  weight  of  three 
pounds  of  solid  food  a  day.  A  few  tinned  luxuries  may  be 
taken  if  the  trip  does  not  exceed  six  weeks  in  duration,  — 
a  good  rule  to  follow  is  an  allowance  of  three  pounds  per 
man,  together  with  the  limit  of  four  hundred  pounds'  weight 
for  each  canoeman  ascending  a  river,  so  that  if  two  men 


162  LABRADOR 

are  engaged  in  propelling  the  canoe,  the  load  should  not 
greatly  exceed  eight  hundred  pounds  in  weight. 

As  the  whites  know  nothing  about  river  work,  and  the 
Indians  are  few  and  unreliable,  it  is  necessary  to  secure 
canoemen  in  Canada,  and  take  them  along  to  Hamilton 
Inlet .  On  my  trips  through  the  country,  I  have  used  Indians 
and  French  half-breeds  from  the  Lake  St.  John  district 
of  Quebec,  and  have  found  them  good,  willing,  and  reliable 
men.  Similar  men  may  be  obtained  through  the  officer  in 
charge  of  any  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company's  posts  along 
the  frontier.  Fish  are  plentiful  in  the  rivers,  especially 
above  the  Grand  Falls,  and  a  net  set  nightly  affords  great 
assistance  in  securing  the  surprising  amount  of  food  re- 
quired by  a  party  of  able-bodied  men.  No  reliance  should 
be  placed  upon  the  killing  of  game  during  the  summer 
months,  and  if  by  good  luck  caribou  or  bears  are  met  with, 
it  is  easy  to  throw  away  a  corresponding  amount  of  pro- 
visions, but  a  sufficient  supply  for  the  entire  trip  should 
be  taken  in  case  of  ill  luck;  this  is  an  essential  matter,  as 
more  parties  have  had  to  turn  back  from  the  northern 
wilderness  owing  to  lack  of  food  than  from  other  reasons. 
A  good  supply  of  provisions  means  good-natured  canoe- 
men,  willing  to  go  anywhere  without  a  thought  of  danger, 
whereas  the  suspicion  of  starvation  will  change  the  same 
men  into  a  discontented,  mutinous  crew.  Mr.  Leonidas 
Hubbard,  subeditor  of  Outing,  lost  his  life  in  1903  in 
this  district  from  starvation.  His  assistant,  Mr.  Dillon 
Wallace,  and  his  half-breed  guide  only  just  succeeded  in 
getting  out  alive.  He  had  relied  almost  entirely  on  what 
game  he  could  capture. 

Mrs.  Hubbard  and  Mr.  Dillon  Wallace  have  since  led 


THE  HAMILTON  EIVEE  AND   THE  GRAND  FALLS     163 

separate  expeditions  through  the  same  country.  Travel- 
ling inland  to  Lake  Michikamau,  thence  down  the  George 
River  to  Ungava  Bay,  Mr.  Wallace  returned  by  dog- 
sleigh  in  the  winter,  skirting  with  his  teams  the  entire 
Labrador  coast.  Both  expeditions  have  been  described 
by  these  travellers  in  their  well-known  books. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  PEOPLE  OF  THE  COAST 
BY  W.  T.  GRENFELL 

THE  fishery  as  it  exists  in  Labrador  at  the  present  day. 
is  confined  practically  to  Newfoundlanders,  Labrador 
settlers,  or  "livyeres,"  as  they  are  called,  Eskimo,  Americans 
from  Massachusetts  and  Maine,  and  a  few  Canadians  from 
the  Maritime  provinces.  Of  the  Basques  only  a  few  tiled 
floors,  and  the  debris  of  the  bones  of  whales  captured  by 
those  people,  remain.  These  bones  are  still  fished  up  at  Red 
Bay  in  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle  and  are  used  for  dog-sledge 
shoes.  Biscay ans  and  Bretons  are  represented  by  a  wild 
growth  of  the  small  leek  or  hive,  which  once  flourished 
in  their  well-cared-for  vegetable  patches.  Jean  Jacques 
and  Antoine  Perrault  still  fish  on  the  coast,  but  speak  the 
homeliest  Labrador  and  are  innocent  of  anything  French, 
even  as  on  the  Canadian  Labrador  Rob  Roy  McGregor  and 
Angus  McNab  know  nothing  but  French  patois. 

The  Canadians  are  represented  by  their  telegraph  lines, 
lighthouses,  and  steam  tenders.  An  occasional  sick  French 
Canadian  finds  his  way  to  the  small  hospitals  on  the  coast. 
Germany  has  at  Nain  a  consul,  a  Moravian  missionary 
bishop,  whom,  in  1907,  a  man-of-war  came  in  and  saluted. 
Words  lacking  in  the  Eskimo  language  have  been  supplied 
from  the  German.  Tosten  Andersens  and  Donald  Camp- 

164 


THE  PEOPLE  OF  THE  COAST         165 

bells  from  Norway  and  Scotland  came  out  with  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Fur  Trading  Company,  and  have  left  a  plentiful 
progeny  to  represent  them  in  this  generation.  One  Jersey 
firm  still  has  a  fishing-room.  Stone  fish-drying  bournes, 
brick  chimneys,  and  occasional  panelled  doors  testify  to 
the  excellent  scale  on  which  the  enterprising  men  of  Jersey 
once  carried  on  the  fishery  so  far  from  their  own  sunny 
homes.  Their  influence  in  doing  things  must  have  been 
very  great.  But  with  one  or  two  exceptions  there  is  to- 
day nothing  to  compare  with  the  relatively  fine  style  in 
which  all  their  arrangements  were  carried  out,  and  their 
men  housed.  These  businesses  have  long  ago  passed  into 
the  hands  of  Newfoundland  firms. 

The  fishery  of  Blanc  Sablon  is  perhaps  the  one  pursued 
on  the  largest  scale.  It  has  holdings  also  at  Greenley 
Island  and  Forteau.  The  enterprise  of  the  Honourable 
Captain  Sam  Blandford  added  largely  to  its  fame  and 
efficiency,  for  he  annually  hired  at  great  expense  two  large 
steamers  in  which  he  pushed  as  far  north  as  Cape  Chidley, 
to  add  a  second  chance  to  each  voyage. 

Canadian  fishing  vessels  visiting  Labrador  from  the  lower 
provinces  are  fewer  than  twenty  years  ago.  Americans 
from  Maine  are  more  numerous.  These,  the  finest  fishing 
vessels  by  far  that  come  amongst  us,  are  always  welcome. 
Their  crews  are  a  generous,  open-handed  crowd  of  men, 
thorough  fishermen,  and  splendidly  fitted  out.  Our  own 
humble  vessels  look  poor  and  sorry  beside  them.  Only 
for  one  thing  do  we  regret  their  advent,  and  that  is  due 
to  their  indifference  to  what  we  consider  the  laws  of  God. 
They  go  fishing  and  working  on  Sundays  among  our  people, 
who,  though  poorer  and  far  more  needy  of  material  wealth, 


166  LABRADOR 

are  wise  enough  to  know  that  life  does  not  consist  in  the 
abundance  of  things  man  possesses.  The  joy  of  life  on 
our  coast  comes  of  a  peace  of  mind  due  to  a  real  faith  in 
God's  fatherhood  and  our  sonship,  and  from  every  high 
ideal  realized  on  that  premise.  Without  any  theories  it 
is  the  simplest  " simple  life."  There  is  no  room  in  Labrador 
for  persons  affected  with  the  ''dementia  of  owning  things." 
If  ever  by  elimination  of  their  faith  or  by  the  introduction 
of  the  "habits  of  civilization"  our  people  are  deprived  of 
that  faith,  life  on  the  coast  would  be  little  short  of  a  purga- 
tory to  be  endured.  So  strongly  do  our  people  feel  on  this 
matter  of  keeping  Sunday  strictly  for  rest  that  one  of  our 
laws  runs  that  "no  person  shall,  between  the  hours  of 
twelve  o'clock  on  Saturday  night,  and  twelve  o'clock  on 
Sunday  night,  take  or  catch  in  any  manner  whatsoever, 
any  herring,  caplin,  squid,  or  any  other  bait  fish,  or  set  or 
put  out  any  contrivance  whatsoever  for  taking  them,"  — 
just  such  a  law  as  prevailed  one  hundred  years  ago  about 
salmon-catching  in  Ireland.  Oddly  enough,  the  law  does 
not  prevent  catching  the  cod  themselves,  so  we  cannot 
prevent  the  long  lines  being  hauled  by  our  cousins  from 
"civilization."  When  remonstrated  with,  however,  they 
have  almost  always  shown  enough  good  feeling  to  give  way 
to  the  wishes  and  customs  of  our  people. 

The  first  of  the  fleet  that  leaves  for  Labrador  sets  out  as 
early  as  the  end  of  April.  Those  from  the  out  ports  have 
still,  owing  to  the  unfortunate  centralization  of  trade  at 
St.  John's,  to  repair  first  almost  to  the  very  extreme  south 
of  Newfoundland  for  supplies,  and  thence  to  leave  for  the 
north  again.  The  southern  vessels  that  come  out  of  the 
winter  ice  early  frequently  find  time  to  do  some  coasting 


THE  PEOPLE  OF  THE  COAST         167 

before  leaving  for  Labrador,  and  will  carry  loads  of  lumber, 
etc.,  to  the  capital.  But  this  cannot  be  done  by  those  who 
desire  to  make  two  cargoes  at  the  fishing-grounds  or  by 
those  who  live  in  northern  ports.  Their  vessels  scarcely 
get  out  of  the  winter  ice  early  enough. 

In  Canadian  waters  the  trap  berths  are  leased  to  the 
same  parties  year  after  year  by  the  government,  who 
charge  so  much  per  fathom  for  the  " leading"  net.  There 
is  thus  no  great  incentive  to  be  down  on  that  part  of  the 
coast  too  early. 

On  the  part  of  the  Labrador  coast  which  is  under  New- 
foundland jurisdiction,  the  first  comer  takes  the  best  berths. 
This  led  to  such  unnecessarily  early  starts,  with  the  suffer- 
ing involved  and  risks  incurred  from  pushing  down  among 
the  floe-ice,  that  laws  were  made  preventing  berths  being 
claimed  till  a  certain  date,  according  to  the  latitude. 
Any  net  set  before  that  time  is  not  only  taken  up,  but 
the  owner  is  fined.  Every  year,  however,  numerous  dis- 
putes and  quarrels  arise  from  the  eagerness  to  be  sure  of 
the  choice  of  places,  and  never  a  season  passes  without 
some  being  brought  to  the  travelling  magistrate  for  settle- 
ment. 

Some  fishermen,  without  trying  for  more  than  one  voy- 
age, go  direct  to  the  spot  of  their  choice,  however  long  they 
will  have  to  wait.  These  men,  though  living  on  their 
vessels,  will  always  be  found  in  the  same  places.  Their 
schooners  at  anchor  might  almost  be  marked  on  the  chart. 
These  men,  such  as  the  Whites  of  Twillingate,  the  Milleys, 
the  Lansons,  the  Harbours,  etc.,  are  almost  always  success- 
ful men. 

Most  of  the  schooners,  however,  are  obliged  to  wander 


168  LABRADOR 

about,  looking  everywhere  for  "good  tucks"  of  fish,  and 
often  so  anxious  to  get  the  fish  quickly  that  they  leave  the 
very  places  that  later  turn  out  to  be  best,  only  to  find  no 
others  and  so  go  home  empty  or  "  clean." 

These  wandering  schooners  are  called  " green  fish" 
catchers,  and  when  they  have  taken  their  "fare,"  or  when 
their  time  is  "runned  up,"  they  come  south,  pick  up  the 
freighters  they  left,  and  carry  them  to  their  homes.  Of 
late,  however,  more  "make,"  or  dry,  their  fish  at  the  har- 
bour, where  their  freighters  are  doing  the  same  thing. 
Though  curing  seems  an  easy  matter,  it  involves  much  work 
and  infinite  patience.  At  home  the  gardens  left  in  the 
spring  sorely  need  tending  now,  and  every  man  is  anxious 
to  be  getting  ready  for  the  winter.  Yet  often  for.  a  week 
at  a  time,  wet  and  cold  days  prevent  any  work  being  done. 
So  valuable  are  fine  days  that  a  certain  medicine  was  ad- 
vertised along  the  coast  as  a  guarantee  to  "cure  all"  and 
to  "  give  eight  fine  fish  days"  to  any  one  buying  five  dollars' 
worth. 

The  actual  number  of  the  vessels  visiting  Labrador  I  am 
unable  to  obtain,  —  probably  one  thousand  each  year. 
Every  year  quite  a  number  go  down  that  neither  "clear" 
nor  "  register"  at  the  customs-houses.  About  twenty  thou- 
sand persons,  all  told,  constitute  the  summer  exodus  from 
Newfoundland. 

One  or  two  steamers  have  been  used  in  the  Labrador  cod- 
fishery  of  recent  years,  but  the  people  are  strongly  preju- 
diced against  their  introduction.  They  have  seen  the 
steamers  supplant  the  schooners  entirely  for  catching  seals. 
They  have  seen  any  chance  of  large  returns  pass  entirely 
out  of  reach  of  the  small  fisherman.  Moreover,  they  be- 


THE  PEOPLE   OF  THE   COAST  169 

lieve  that  the  seals  are  being  killed  out.  As  yet,  however, 
it  has  not  been  possible  to  get  a  law  prohibiting  the  use  of 
steam  fishing-vessels  sanctioned  in  the  Upper  House  of  the 
Legislature.  It  should  be  added  that  laws  relating  to  the 
fishery  are,  all  together,  very  few,  and  the  total  number  of 
cases  where  trouble  arises  from  all  causes,  when  added  up, 
are  so  small  as  to  be  almost  negligible.  The  use  of  steamers 
to  bring  fishermen  and  their  families  to  the  fishery  and 
back  again  is  greatly  to  be  desired. 

His  Excellency,  Sir  William  MacGregor,  in  the  report 
issued  in  1906,  after  his  official  visit  to  the  coast,  says: 
"The  difference  in  conduct  between  the  present  generation 
of  Labrador  fishermen  and  the  banditti,  or  'irregular/ 
crews  that  formerly  frequented  it,  forms,  perhaps,  one  of 
the  most  striking  contrasts  that  could  be  found  in  the 
annals  of  Justice.7'  He  further  states  that  "the  administra- 
tion of  justice  in  Labrador  is  now  so  easy  as  to  be,  perhaps, 
without  any  precedent  in  any  other  country."  He  de- 
scribes our  fishermen  as  being  "phenomenally  law-abiding." 
This  is  certainly  my  experience,  after  acting  as  magistrate 
on  the  coast  for  the  past  ten  years. 

The  greatest  drawback  to  the  Labrador  fishery  has  been, 
and  still  is,  the  want  of  proper  communication.  A  small 
steamer,  which  is  used  for  seal-hunting  in  the  spring,  makes 
ten  trips  each  year.  She  is  supposed  to  complete  each 
trip  in  a  fortnight,  but  as  she  has  ninety  ports  of  call  to 
make,  fully  fifteen  hundred  miles  to  steam,  is  loaded  with 
freight,  and  has  fog,  ice,  and  bad  storms  to  contend  with, 
she  is  frequently  unable  to  keep  within  several  days  of  her 
schedule  time.  With  a  captain  second  to  none  for  pluck, 
and  acquainted  with  the  coast  as  probably  no  other  man  is, 


170  LABRADOR 

she  still  loses  time.  Day  and  night,  when  possible,  she 
travels,  but  the  scarcity  of  lights,  the  miserable  survey, 
and  the  absence  of  artificial  assistance  to  enter  harbours, 
leave  no  question  that  she  has  far  more  work  than  she  can 
accomplish. 

The  passenger  traffic  alone  is  far  more  than  she  is  able 
properly  to  undertake.  The  improved  conditions  of  the 
fishery  enable  fishermen  to  get  cash  to  pay  for  passages 
home  by  steamer  so  as  to  save  time  in  the  autumn.  Thus, 
so  many  travel  that  even  the  available  floor  space  is  at 
times  all  too  small  for  those  crowding  aboard.  On  some 
trips  the  gangway  has  had  to  be  kept  up  to  prevent  more 
passengers  coming  aboard.  For  care,  courage,  courtesy, 
and  efforts  to  please,  the  crew  of  the  Labrador  mail  vessel 
cannot  be  beaten;  but  they  cannot  create  space.  The 
irregularities  thus  caused  and  the  uncertainty  as  to  the 
time  of  her  arrival  are  also  a  great  source  of  loss  of  time 
and  money.  Moreover,  considering  the  importance  of  the 
fishery  to  the  country,  one  mail  per  fortnight  is  not  nearly 
enough. 

Five  Marconi  stations  have  been  placed  on  the  coast, 
and  these  are  of  very  great  value.  They  cover  two  hun- 
dred miles  of  coast,  but  do  not  yet  connect  with  New- 
foundland, and  only  very  indirectly  with  anywhere.  When 
the  Canadian  station  on  Belle  Isle  is  working,  then  Labra- 
dor can  talk  with  the  outside  world  via  Canada.  But  none 
of  these  stations  is  opened  except  in  the  summer  months. 
The  government  proposes  soon  to  extend  and  complete  this 
line  of  communication,  which  will  then  be  of  infinite  value 
to  Labrador,  its  trade,  its  people,  and  its  visitors. 

In  the  wireless  system,  the  problem  of  communication 


THE  PEOPLE  OF  THE  COAST  171 

in  the  Arctics  and  subarctic  regions  finds  a  solution.  The 
drifting  ice,  whether  as  pan  or  resistless  berg,  is  almost 
prohibitive  of  submarine  cables.  The  immense  bays,  with 
their  endless  indraughts,  make  land  wires  out  of  the 
question. 

With  commendable  zeal,  and  with  great  success,  the 
Canadians  have  succeeded  in  running  a  wire  all  the  way 
from  Quebec  along  the  north  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence  to  the  Straits.  Unfortunately  the  line  ends 
at  Chateau,  twenty-eight  miles  from  Battle  Harbour, 
where  the  terminal  Marconi  station  is  situated. 

In  winter,  residence  in  Labrador  is  specially  discouraged 
by  lack  of  communication,  and  the  permanent  population, 
except  around  the  newly  established  mills,  is  decreasing 
steadily.  The  existing  arrangement  of  one  or,  at  most, 
two  mails  carried  by  dogs  is  not  sufficient  to  meet  the  needs 
of  a  population  of  English-speaking  people  during  a  whole 
winter. 

Labrador  could  easily  carry  a  large  and  healthy  popula- 
tion if  the  artificial  conditions  were  improved.  The  resi- 
dents on  the  shore  from  Red  Bay  to  Quebec  show  no  desire 
to  leave  it;  yet  even  for  them  very  little  is  done  to  en- 
courage them  to  remain.  The  same  applies  to  the  whole 
north  coast  of  Newfoundland.  A  telegraph  line  or  a  chain 
of  wireless  stations  is  badly  needed.  Such  rudimentary 
adjuncts  of  modern  civilization  will  no  doubt  shortly  be 
afforded  them. 

Exclusive  of  a  school  grant  of  $2000,  the  total  appropria- 
tions for  Labrador  are  under  $30,000  per  annum.  Twenty 
thousand  dollars  of  this  is  for  the  summer  mail  steamer 
and  the  Marconi  stations;  $2000  is  for  collecting  revenue 


172  LABRADOR 

on  the  coast.  All  the  rest  is  spent  on  summer  post-offices, 
and  providing  for  sick  fishermen.  Five  hundred  dollars 
a  year  appears  to  be  the  amount  granted  to  make  Labra- 
dor habitable  in  winter. 

As  the  revenue  from  its  inhabitants  direct  is  certainly 
$150,000  per  annum,  and  the  indirect  revenue  from,  the 
fishery  so  large,  this  does  not  seem  fair.  The  Labrador 
people  must  purchase  every  supply  from  Newfoundland, 
from  a  rifle,  a  trap,  a  net,  to  flour,  pork,  and  potatoes. 
I  have  seen  a  cargo  of  potatoes  turned  back  home  from 
the  boundary  at  Blanc  Sablon  because  they  were  grown 
in  Prince  Edward  Island,  and  the  taxation  was  far  too  high 
for  the  settlers  at  Forteau  and  Red  Bay  to  be  able  to 
afford  them.  Yet  they  could  get  no  potatoes  from  New- 
foundland, could  grow  none,  suffered  from  hunger  for  want 
of  vegetables  in  spring,  and  some  were  being  fed  every 
year  on  government  flour  during  the  long  winter  months. 

The  testimony  of  hundreds  of  my  friends  who  live  in 
Labrador,  among  them  men  who  have  lived  in  the  United 
States,  England,  Scotland,  Canada,  Norway,  and  elsewhere, 
is  that  Labrador  is  by  no  means  a  bad  country  to  settle 
in,  but  it  is  handicapped  by  having  too  little  government  ^ 
encouragement  given  to  people  to  live  there. 

The  reindeer  project,  backed  only  by  the  Canadian 
government  and  by  private  friends,  I  shall  leave  to  another 
chapter. 

One  other  great  drawback  to  settling  is  the  impossibility 
of  either  getting  grants  of  land  or  buying  land  with  good 
title  in  Labrador.  This  partly  arises  from  the  unsettled 
question  of  ownership.  For  nobody  knows  the  boundary 
between  Newfoundland  and  Canada.  Grants  of  timber 


THE  PEOPLE  OF  THE  COAST  173 

lands  have  been  made  to  Canadian  firms  in  Sandwich  Bay 
and  Hamilton  Inlet,  covering  about  two  thousand  square 
miles  in  all.  Grants  to  fishing  firms  have  apparently  been 
made  to  Baine,  Johnston  &  Company  at  Battle,  to  Isaac 
Mercer  at  Long  Tickle,  to  Job  Brothers  at  Blanc  Sablon 
and  Indian  Harbour,  and  to  a  few  others  at  other  points. 

The  policy  of  the  Newfoundland  government  has  always 
been  in  theory  to  leave  the  land  free  to  any  one,  so  that 
when  one  man  leaves  it  another  may  make  use  of  his  former 
situation.  Presumably  this  is  on  the  assumption  that 
nothing  of  value  will  be  left  behind.  But  though  no  legal 
conveyance  has  been  made,  men  who  fish  any  particular 
place,  and  even  move  a  stone  to  "  spread  fish  on,"  will  claim 
that  place,  though  they  have  not  been  using  it  for  years, 
and  the  courts  at  home  have  upheld  them.  It  leaves  the 
land  about  the  harbours  in  a  very  anomalous  and  undesirable 
condition.  There  are  fishermen  anxious  to  come  and  settle, 
there  is  land  unused,  and  with  no  marks  on  it ;  yet  either 
some  one  refuses  to  allow  them  to  settle  or  they  dare  not 
settle  for  fear  some  one  may  arise  who  will  some  day  eject 
them.  Several  of  these  cases  have  come  before  me  as 
magistrate  on  the  coast. 

Labrador  has  no  representation,  and  no  one  is  appointed 
to  look  after  its  interests.  The  Governor's  Report  for  1906 
does  not  put  the  matter  one  iota  too  strongly.  The  follow- 
ipg  paragraph  taken  from  it  is  very  significant,  when  the 
varied  experience  of  its  author  in  other  out-of-the-way 
parts  of  the  world  is  taken  into  consideration:  — 

'"If  the  difficulties  of  representation  are  considered  to  be 
too  great,  then  there  remains  the  obvious  alternative  of  ap- 
pointing a  minister,  or,  at  least,  a  secretary  for  Labrador, 


174  LABRADOR 

whose  sole  and  special  executive  duty  would  be  to  study  all 
the  questions  in  connection  with  that  country.  It  may  be 
stated  here  at  once  that  the  proper  development  of  the 
Labrador  coast  cannot  take  place  unless  one  or  other  of 
the  above  suggestions  is  adopted,  or  some  other  more  or 
less  similar  arrangement  is  provided,  such  as  an  annual 
visit  to  the  coast  of  a  Minister  of  the  Crown." 

Only  one  such  has  ever  visited  Labrador,  and  that  one, 
the  Honourable  Minister  of  Fisheries,  accompanied  Sir 
William  MacGregor  on  his  trip  in  1906. 
/  Education  in  both  Newfoundland  and  Labrador  is  an- 
other very  difficult  problem.  It  is  rendered  almost  im- 
possible to  solve,  owing  to  the  denominational  system  of 
schools.  A  recent  visitor,  writing  in  an  American  paper, 
expressed  himself  as  follows,  and  his  view  I  entirely  agree 
with :  — 

"  If  any  one  desires  to  study  the  working  out  of  an  ex- 
clusively denominational  education  to  its  logical  result,  a 
visit  to  Newfoundland  will  supply  the  materials.  The 
island  is  a  poor  and  sparsely  settled  country;  yet  its  edu- 
cation is  completely  in  the  hands  of  the  churches,  the 
only  uniformity  attempted  being  the  preparation  of  exam- 
ination papers  by  a  central  board.  In  the  smaller  settle- 
ments there  may  be  a  Methodist,  an  Anglican,  a  Roman 
Catholic,  and  even  a  Salvation  Army  separate  school,  and 
each  denomination,  except  the  Congregationalist,  has  its 
own  college  in  St.  John's,  not  one  of  which  has  yet  got 
beyond  the  point  of  secondary  education.  This  is  the 
logical  outcome  of  the  denominational  idea.  It  results 
in  the  maintenance  of  separate  camps  in  every  village, 
and  bids  fair  to  postpone  forever  any  real  unification  and 
assimilation  of  the  people." 


THE  PEOPLE  OF  THE  COAST  175 

L.  The  best  educated  people  in  the  country  at  present  are 
the  Eskimo.  Almost  without  exception  they  can  read 
and  write.  Many  can  play  musical  instruments,  share 
in  part  singing,  and  are  well  able  to  keep  accounts,  and 
know  the  value  of  things.  These  accomplishments,  entirely 
and  solely  due  to  the  Moravian  missionaries,  have  largely 
helped  them  to  hold  their  own  in  trade,  a  faculty  for  want 
of  which  almost  every  aboriginal  race  is  apt  to  suffer  so 
severely. 

I  have  known  an  Eskimo  called  in  to  read  and  to  write 
a  letter  for  a  Newfoundland  fisherman,  and  I  have  had 
more  than  once  to  ask  one  to  help  me  by  playing  our  own 
harmonium  for  us  at  a  service,  because  not  one  of  a  large 
audience  could  do  so.  I  have  heard  more  than  one  Eskimo 
stand  up  and  deliver  an  excellent  impromptu  speech.  Read- 
ing the  Newfoundland  Blue  Books,  reporting  the  numbers 
able  to  read  and  write  in  Labrador,  I  acquired  an  entirely 
erroneous  estimate  of  the  people's  accomplishments  in 
those  directions.  Our  white  population  is  still  very  largely 
illiterate.  Some  headway  .has,  however,  been  made  of 
late  years,  and  literature  and  loan  libraries  distributed 
through  the  Labrador  Mission  are  now  accessible  all  along 
the  coast,  and  are  creating  a  love  of  reading. 

There  are  practically  no  alcoholic  liquors  sold  in  Labra- 
dor. Not  a  licensed  house  exists.  If  liquor  is  sold  at 
all,  it  is  in  very  small  quantities  and  clandestinely  in  what 
we  know  as  "  shebeens."  To  obtain  convictions  for 
breaches  of  the  really  very  stringent  liquor  laws  is  not 
easy.  In  ten  years'  cruising  the  coast,  I  have  only  been 
able  to  convict  five  "shebeeners, "  and  I  will  candidly  admit 
that  I  lose  no  opportunities. 


176  LABRADOR 

Some  trouble  is  caused  by  the  fact  that  the  mail  steamer 
brings  down  regularly  to  private  individuals  liquor  which 
is  bought  and  paid  for  in  St.  John's.  They  can  even  carry 
it  down  for  "cash  on  delivery"  and  still  escape  the  law. 

Naturally,  this  opens  a  very  wide  loophole  for  the  enemy 
of  the  fishermen.  Foreign  vessels  are  still  unfortunately 
in  the  habit  of  giving  away  rum  to  those  loading  them  with 
fish.  The  total  quantity  drunk,  however,  is  very  small 
indeed.  Thousands  of  our  fishermen  are  absolute  ab- 
stainers on  principle,  and  a  very  strong  anti-liquor  senti- 
ment prevails  almost  universally.  The  results  are  obvious 
in  the  fact  that  we  have  not  one  policeman  stationed  along 
the  whole  coast;  not  one  among  twenty-five  thousand 
people.  We  have  no  penitentiary,  and  there  has  not  been, 
to  my,  knowledge,  a  conviction  for  drunkenness.  During 
sixteen  years  I  have  personally  not  seen  one  fisherman 
drunk.  It  is  very  different  among  the  North  Sea  fisher- 
men. Alcohol  has  there  been  the  downfall  of  some  of  the 
best  men.  It  has  cost  the  lives  of  more  than  one  of  my 
own  friends.  It  has  ruined  and  starved  many  families 
I  have  known  and  loved. 

A  careful  study  of  the  health  conditions  of  the  coast  by 
the  doctors  of  our  staff  all  these  years  has  shown  that  there 
is  no  need  for  liquor  whatever  in  these  subarctic  climates  ; 
that,  on  the  contrary,  the  first  man  to  go  down  in  hard 
physical  conditions  is  almost  always  the  drinking  man. 
Among  men  on  the  sea  the  dangers  from  its  use  are 
enormously  enhanced.  As  a  method  of  making  money, 
I  can  conceive  of  few  that  are  so  despicable,  so  inhuman, 
as  this  liquor  traffic ! 

The  complete  absence  of  artificial  class  distinctions  on 


THE  PEOPLE  OF  THE  COAST  177 

the  coast  is  one  of  the  most  refreshing  experiences  a  visitor 
can  have.  A  man  may  have  fustian  instead  of  broad- 
cloth, sea-boots  instead  of  patent-leather  boots,  a  blue 
guernsey  instead  of  the  latest  cut  of  frock-coat,  but  a  man 
is  a  man  in  Labrador  for  all  that,  —  independent  and  free 
from  all  self-consciousness,  which  quite  falsely  humbles 
one  man  in  the  presence  of  his  fellow-men.  Thus  I  have 
had  guests  many  times  staying  with  us  in  our  house,  waited 
on  at  our  table,  and  then  quite  naturally  adjourning  to  the 
kitchen  and  feeling  absolutely  at  home  and  unembarrassed 
there  with  the  servants,  without  any  false  contempt  for 
others,  just  as  a  Ruskin  or  a  Tolstoi,  or  the  Christ  would 
have  it. 

Yet  the  Labradorman,  on  the  other  hand,  has  none  of 
that  offensive  familiarity  which  would  ignore  the  differ- 
ences that  are  the  outcome  of  position  and  training.  He 
does  not  so  much  care  who  your  father  and  grandfather 
were,  or  the  quality  of  your  clothes.  But  he  does  not  try 
to  force  that  fact  on  you  in  the  manner  said  to  be  the  pre- 
rogative of  "  walking  delegates." 

Those  who  have  visited  the  Labrador  fisherman  have, 
on  social  grounds,  learnt  to  love  him  for  his  simple  virtues, 
his  hospitality,  his  faith,  his  truthfulness,  and  his  loyalty,  — 
even  as  Ian  Maclaren  taught  us  to  love  the  people  of  Drum- 
tochty.  Nor  can  you  be  long  in  the  fisherman's  company 
without  feeling  this. 

The  public  health  of  Labrador  has  practically  been  a 
matter  of  chance.  Houses  are  not  drained.  Few  have 
even  outside  closets,  much  less  one  in  the  house.  There 
are  no  sanitary  officers.  Very  few  residents  have  ever  been 
vaccinated.  Until  recently  they  have  had  no  teaching 


178  LABRADOR 

as  to  the  dangers  of  infectious  diseases,  and  especially 
how  to  deal  with  and  avoid  tuberculosis.  Consumption 
is  the  main  enemy  of  these  people  who  live  here  in  one 
of  the  purest  atmospheres  in  the  world.  But  it  is  fostered 
and  propagated  in  every  possible  way  by  the  customs  of 
the  people  and  by  their  poverty.  The  total  number  of 
residents  is  now  about  four  thousand,  inclusive  of  thirteen 
hundred  Eskimo.  In  spite  of  new  mills  and  other  new 
industries  recently  introduced,  the  number  is  not  increas- 
ing. This  is  due  partly  to  the  fact  that  some  return  to 
Newfoundland  to  benefit  by  the  schools  and  other  ad- 
vantages, or  to  escape  starvation  or  the  isolation  that 
arises  from  no  line  of  communication  in  the  winter.  Those 
residents,  who  make  this  journey,  invariably  tell  me  they 
would  greatly  prefer  to  remain  on  the  coast  in  winter  if 
it  were  possible. 

The  lack  of  increase  is  partly  due,  also,  to  the  want  of 
care  of  the  young.  I  have  no  statistics  to  show  the  rela- 
tive mortality  in  childhood.  I  know  it  to  be  great.  The 
families  are  comparatively  large.  I  call  to  mind  one  of 
thirteen,  one  of  fourteen,  and  several  of  seven  and  eight. 
Most  men  marry  young.  Bachelors  are  very  few  on  the 
coast.  A  knowledge  of  the  cheaper  food-stuffs  and  how 
to  use  them  would  be  a  great  help.  Thus,  corn  meal, 
oatmeal,  and  rice  are  seldom  used.  The  average  age 
attained  is  certainly  low.  The  older  English  and  Scotch 
settlers  live  and  maintain  their  vitality  much  longer  than 
those  of  the  succeeding  generations.  They  also  hold  their 
own  much  better  in  the  battle  with  their  environment. 
One  man  proudly  told  me,  "  Father  is  eighty-two  and  hasn't 
a  kink  in  him." 


V 


Eskimo  Hunter 


THE  PEOPLE  OF  THE  COAST  179 

The  sicknesses  of  the  coast  are  not  indigenous.  In  the 
past  seventeen  years  there  have  been  grippe;  a  few  cases 
of  small-pox,  imported  by  a  schooner  from  the  Gulf; 
scarlet  fever  brought  from  Newfoundland  in  a  steamer; 
one  small  outbreak  of  diphtheria  in  the  Straits  on  the 
arrival  of  the  summer  visitors;  and  in  summer  a  few 
sporadic  cases  of  typhoid. 

The  Eskimo  brought  back  from  the  Chicago  Exposition 
typhoid  of  a  very  virulent  type,  which  killed  several  hun- 
dred of  them ;  and,  from  the  Buffalo  Exposition,  diphtheria, 
which  is  still  raging  amongst  them,  and  has  destroyed 
many.  An  epidemic  of  grippe,  complicated  with  pneu- 
monia and  pericarditis,  killed  about  sixty  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Okkak.  The  worst  enemy  of  the  Eskimo  is,  again, 
tuberculosis,  and  from  that  in  one  form  or  another  most 
of  the  people  die.  The  disease  is  entirely  due  to  ignorance, 
neglect,  and  poverty.  Of  late,  an  active  crusade  against 
it  has  been  commenced. 

On  the  other  hand,  so  healthful  is  the  country  that  I  have 
no  hesitation  in  recommending  it  for  neurotics,  or  even  to 
persons  with  disposition  for  tuberculosis.  In  winter  the 
dry  cold,  in  spring  the  low  latitude  and  reflected  sunshine, 
and  in  summer  the  clear  cold,  bracing  air,  are  great 
recommendations . 

When  speaking  of  the  people  of  the  coast,  one  is  apt  to 
overlook  those  who  are  represented  in  Labrador  only  by 
agents  in  their  various  businesses.  Were  it  not  for  their 
enterprise  and  courage,  the  Labrador  fishery  would  be  lost 
to  the  human  race.  Labrador  owes  them  many  debts, 
and  the  people  almost  owe  their  existence  to  them. 
To-day  the  merchants  carrying  on  business  in  Labrador 


180  LABRADOR 

are  mostly  residents  of  St.  John's.  The  largest  outfitting 
firm  for  Labrador,  especially  of  the  greenfish  catchers, 
is,  however,  that  of  C.  &  A.  Dawe,  of  Bay  Roberts,  and 
second  to  them  are  the  Messrs.  Ryan,  of  King's  Cove. 
Nearly  all  the  merchant  firms  interested  in  the  bank  fishing 
and  the  shore  fishery  elsewhere  are  represented.  The 
largest  single  establishment  at  Blanc  Sablon  belongs  to 
Messrs.  Job  Brothers  &  Company,  a  firm  that  for  a  hundred 
years  has  carried  on  the  fishery  business.  The  second  largest 
station  is  Battle  Harbour,  the  property  of  Messrs.  Baine, 
Johnston  &  Company.  Rorke  &  Sons  of  Carbonear  own  the 
old-established  stations  at  Venison  Tickle  and  Francis  Har- 
bour. Messrs.  Harvey  &  Company  are  interested  in  Indian 
Harbour.  Munn  Brothers,  of  Harbour  Grace,  have  built 
up  a  fine  business  at  Shoal  Bay  and  Snug  Harbour.  McCrea 
&  Son,  at  Gready,  carry  on  a  very  extensive  business. 
Messrs.  Kennedy,  Bartlett,  Hennesy,  Spracklin,  Jerrett, 
and  the  Anglo-Newfoundland  Company  and  others  have 
all  built  shore  stations  and  opened  up  fisheries  in  which 
every  year  they  risk  considerable  sums  of  money.  Labra- 
dor owes  its  developing  utility  to  mankind  largely  to  these 
enterprising  men.  They  are  among  the  world's  producers, 
adding  directly  to  its  supply  of  necessities  in  one  of  the 
most  precarious  of  businesses.  They  have  met  with  vary- 
ing fortune.  Some  have  made  successes.  None  has  made 
a  large  fortune.  Many  have  experienced  great  losses. 
When  they  come  to  balance  the  issues  of  their  enterprise, 
they  should  not  forget  their  greatest  asset,  —  that  their 
names  are  held  in  honour,  and  that  gratitude  to  them  is 
cherished  in  numerous  hearts  and  homes  along  the  ice-girt 
shore  of  the  "  lonely  Labrador." 


THE  PEOPLE  OF  THE  COAST  181 

The  Hudson's  Bay  Company  has  long  shared  the  fur- 
trade  of  the  northeast  coast  with  the  Moravian  Mission 
stations.  The  older  of  these  two  companies  has  a  station 
in  Davis  Inlet,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  spots  in  eastern 
Labrador.  The  well-wooded  sides  of  the  inlet,  the  steeply 
rolling  hills,  the  narrow,  deep  fiords  branching  away  in  many 
directions,  the  peace  of  the  seldom  ruffled  waters,  and  the 
number  and  variety  of  the  sea-birds  inhabiting  the  bays 
during  the  summer,  all  lend  Davis  Inlet  a  kind  of  beauty 
unrivalled  on  the  outer  coast.  Here  the  largest  trade  with 
the  Montagnais  Indians  is  pursued.  Every  winter  and 
summer  a  band  comes  out  with  furs,  deerskins,  and  parch- 
ment. A  trifling  reward  is  given  by  the  company  to  any 
settler  meeting  the  band  and  piloting  them  in  his  boat  to 
the  station.  There  they  generally  stay  a  few  days  barter- 
ing their  "hunt"  for  ammunition,  tobacco,  and  coloured 
handkerchiefs  and  cloths.  There  is  some  trade  here  also 
with  Eskimo  and  half-breeds  in  salt  trout  and  salmon. 
The  head  post  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  is  Rigolet 
in  Hamilton  Inlet,  and  from  that  place  all  orders  are  issued, 
all  goods  exported,  and  to  and  from  that  port  their  annual 
steamer  plies,  bringing  the  goods  from  London  and  carry- 
ing back  the  furs  in  the  fall.  She  arrives  generally  in  mid- 
July,  coming  out  under  sail  and  steam  to  economize  fuel. 
She  proceeds  north  to  Ungava  and  to  the  bottom  of  Hud- 
son Bay,  returning  to  pick  up  the  summer's  catch  of  sal- 
mon with  the  furs  of  the  preceding  winter.  The  name  of 
her  captain,  rendered  famous  in  Labrador  by  his  innumer- 
able voyages  safely  accomplished,  will  be  perpetuated  in 
the  channel  through  which  he  always  passes  on  his  way 
around  Cape  Chidley.  It  has  been  christened  Gray  Straits 
in  his  honour. 


182  LABRADOR 

If  we  steam  up  ninety  miles  farther  along  Hamilton 
Inlet,  we  reach  the  Northwest  River  station  of  this  same 
company.  From  here  they  supply  potatoes,  carrots,  cab- 
bages, and  other  vegetables  of  their  own  growing  to  the 
outside  posts.  It  is  beautifully  situated  at  the  mouth 
of  a  lonely  salmon  river,  with  a  well-wooded  background 
and  a  level-grassed,  pebbly,  and  sandy  beach  in  front.  Here 
the  Canadian  party  viewed  the  eclipse  in  1905,  and  here  the 
present  Lord  Strathcona,  the  grand  old  man  of  British 
North  America,  spent  thirteen  years  of  his  early  life.  No 
place  is  better  worth  a  visit.  The  vast  quantities  of  fresh 
water  pouring  into  the  great  Lake  Melville  make  it  quite 
warm,  and  bathing  can  be  indulged  in  there  as  well  as  any- 
where in  England. 

The  station  at  Cartwright,  the  southernmost  of  the  Hud- 
son's Bay  Company  stations,  is  the  one,  however,  best 
known  to  visitors,  and  to  the  world  also,  from  the  famous 
journals  of  the  founder.  The  entire  people  of  that  bay  for 
long  years  depended  on  it  for  all  their  supplies,  but  now 
they  trade  also  largely  with  the  southerners  at  their  summer 
stations  at  Gready  and  Pax  Harbour,  and  also  with  the 
French  firm  of  Revillon  Freres,  who  built  a  station  in  the 
bay  in  1907.  This  firm  has  been  spreading  its  stations 
wherever  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  carries  on  operations, 
and  metaphorically  have,  in  each  place,  put  down  their 
trading-post  in  the  latter's  back  yard.  A  few  years  ago 
this  would  have  originated  feuds  and  strife,  as  in  the  famous 
days  of  the  Northwest  Company  in  Canada.  But  now-a- 
days  there  seems  no  personal  animosity,  and  the  various 
factors  can  even  meet  and  smoke  together  the  pipe  of  peace. 
Revillon  Freres  have  a  station  also  at  Northwest  River. 


THE  PEOPLE  OF  THE  COAST          183 

Their  advent  on  the  coast  has  marked  a  considerable  rise 
in  the  price  paid  the  people  for  furs. 

In  the  winter  months  the  fur-traders  make  long  sledge 
journeys  along  the  coast,  buying  the  skins  caught,  or  lay- 
ing embargoes  on  them.  The  Rigolet  dog-teams  and  the 
Nachvak  dog-teams  have  for  years  been  famous  along  the 
coast.  The  former,  with  their  well-known  owner,  James 
D.  Fraser,  here  probably  reach  the  acme  of  dog-driving, 
while  the  famous  Ford  family  have,  between  them,  carried 
the  mail  three  hundred  and  fifty  miles  each  way  over  these 
barren,  uninhabited  shores,  winter  after  winter,  where  no 
man  lives  and  no  houses  shelter  them  —  across  mountain 
fastnesses,  over  glaciated  passes,  and  the  still  more  dan- 
gerous sea-ice,  year  after  year,  without  serious  accident. 
The  mail  starts  at  Fort  Chimo  in  Ungava  Bay,  then  round 
and  along  the  Labrador  coast  to  Davis  Inlet.  The  mail 
crosses  the  land  to  Nachvak  Bay,  and  so  on  over  a  stretch 
of  fifteen  hundred  miles  to  Quebec. 

The  life  of  a  Hudson's  Bay  factor  in  Labrador  does  not 
offer  all  the  joys  of  civilization,  but  it  offers  a  field  to  develop 
courage,  muscle,  resourcefulness,  and  self-reliance  to  an 
eminent  degree.  It  makes  men  who  shoot  straight,  fear 
nothing,  and  live  hard.  It  offers  the  simple  life,  with  its 
many  advantages,  and  it  breeds  a  hospitality,  a  brotherli- 
ness  to  one's  kind,  a  readiness  to  stand  by  any  one  in  dis- 
tress, that,  in  our  complex  life  in  cities  and  even  villages, 
we  rarely  find'  ourselves  called  on  to  exercise.  Never  has 
a  visitor  travelled  our  coast,  but  his  heart  has  gone  out 
equally  to  all  the  brave  men  of  these  two  great  organiza- 
tions, the  Moravian  Missions  and  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE   INDIANS 
BY  WILLIAM  B. 


THE  Indians  of  Labrador  are  all  of  the  family  stock 
known  to  ethnology  as  the  Algonquian,  which  in  its  day 
occupied  a  vast  area  of  the  continent.  From  the  Carolinas 
to  the  Eskimo  shores  of  Hudson's  Strait  and  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Mississippi  and  far  to  the  northwest,  the 
maps  of  the  present  day  are  dotted  with  the  place-names 
of  one  group  or  another  of  this  vanishing  family.  These 
names,  one  of  the  chief  legacies  of  the  Algic  tribes,  remain 
a  sign-manual  of  their  occupation  of  the  soil.  Their  great 
territory  was  shared  by  almost  none  but  the  Iroquoian 
tribes,  and  these  in  limited  numbers. 

Beyond  the  Mississippi  were  the  various  and  generally 
unfriendly  races  of  the  plains.  Westward  from,  Hudson 
Bay  and  to  the  far  north  were  the  Athabascans,  different 
in  physiognomy  and  of  another  linguistic  system.  South- 
ward were  various  tribes,  chiefly  Muskogean,  although 
names  of  the  Algonquian  form  are  not  wholly  wanting 
over  most  of  the  southern  area  to  the  Gulf. 

The  northern  groups  are  closely  related.  TJie  Montagnais, 
or  Mountaineers,  of  the  southern  Labrador  t*alk  easily  with 
the  Nascaupees  of  the  northern  and  eastern  Crees;  these 
latter  in  turn  with  others  to  the  west,  and  so  on  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  The  differences  are  only  of  dialect.  To  the 
southward  it  is  otherwise;  the  St.  Lawrence  marks  so 

184 


THE  INDIANS  185 

distinct  a  division  of  language  that  existing  tribes  cannot 
converse  in  Indian;  and  as  observed  by  the  writer  upon 
the  meeting  of  a  Montagnais  with  an  Abnaki  acquaintance 
on  the  winter  trail,  conversation  must  proceed  in  some 
foreign  language  —  in  this  instance  in  French.  The  Indians 
of  the  Labrador  estimate  that  as  many  as  half  of  the  people 
speak  no  language  but  their  own.  The  presence  of  white 
blood  is  largely  evident  in  the  southwest,  adjacent  to  the 
settlements  and  the  upper  gulf ;  and  many  who  are  counted 
Indians  might,  but  for  the  saving  effect  of  a  hunting  life 
inland,  be  reckoned  as  white  rather  than  red. 
Low  writes :  — 

"The  most  northern  tribe  has  a  tradition  that  their 
people  originally  lived  far  to  the  south,  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  they  were  driven  northward  from  the  country 
about  the  St.  Lawrence  by  the  Iroquois,  about  the  time 
of  the  first  settlement  of  Canada,  by  the  French.  There 
are  many  traditions  about  these  wars  among  the  northern 
Indians,  and  it  is  surprising  to  what  distances  the  Iroquois 
followed  them,  into  the  middle  of  Labrador,  and  up  the  east 
coast  of  Hudson  Bay  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Big  River  in  north  lat.  54°.  As  the  Crees  retreated 
before  the  Iroquois,  they  in  turn  displaced  the  Eskimo, 
who  at  one  time  occupied  the  eastern  and  southern  portions 
of  the  peninsula  as  far  as  Eskimo  Bay  on  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence  and  all  the  territory  about  Hudson  Bay.  These 
wars  terminated  when  the  Eskimo  became  supplied  with 
firearms,  and  are  now  traditions  of  the  distant  past;  but 
the  memories  still  live,  and  the  Eskimo  and  Indians,  al- 
though never  engaging  in  open  hostilities,  have  a  mutual 
hatred  and  never  intermarry.  The  northern  Indians 
still  regard  with  fear  the  descendants  of  the  once  fierce 
Iroquois,  and  their  name  is  used  to  frighten  children." 


186  '    LABRADOR 

In  the  nearer  regions,  service  at  guiding  and  with  survey- 
ing or  exploring  parties  as  voyageurs  is  resorted  to  con- 
siderably by  men  of  more  or  less  Indian  blood,  but  the  dark 
Indian  accepts  such  employment  rather  reluctantly.  His 
light  bodily  frame,  in  fact,  is  not  well  suited  to  heavy 
work.  The  voyageurs  of  the  north  par  excellence  are  Scotch 
or  French  mixed  breeds,  men  not  infrequently  of  unusual 
bone  and  strength.  Although  Dr.  Low  regards  the  modern 
Montagnais  as  rather  improved  in  sturdiness  by  the  long 
infiltration  of  white  blood  which  began  with  the  days  of 
the  Coureurs  des  Bois  and  early  fur  trade,  the  slighter 
build  usual  in  the  northern  group  is  tolerably  common. 

Occasional  association  with  modern  operations  along 
the  nearer  borders  has  not  much  changed  the  inland  life 
of  the  people.  The  interior  is  still  an  Indian  possession, 
where  no  white  man  makes  his  home,  and  the  only  law  is 
the  immemorial  code  of  lodge  and  hunting-ground.  The 
whole  inland,  and  indeed  almost  all  the  coasts,  remains 
given  over  to  the  hunting  life. 

-i  The  Indians,  always  diminishing  in  numbers,  may  be 
reckoned  at  some  three  or  four  thousand  at  the  present 
time.  Of  these  the  Montagnais,  who  are  all  tributary  to 
Gulf  or  Saguenay  trading-stations,  make  up  more  than  half. 
It  is  difficult  to  arrive  at  a  census  of  such  a  wandering 
people,  for  in  one  year  and  another  some  of  them  appear 
successively  upon  coasts  remotely  apart.  The  lists  of 
names  at  such  far-distant  trading-stations  are  rarely  com- 
pared with  each  other,  while  the  names  of  the  Indians  are 
somewhat  subject  to  change,  and  at  best  are  not  always 
easy  to  identify. 

About  the  great  lakes  of  the  central  area  the  people 


THE  INDIANS  187 

meet  as  may  happen  during  the  hunting  season,  and  ex- 
change their  unwritten  news;  slight,  indeed,  is  the  occur- 
rence, from  side  to  side  of  the  country,  which  escapes  those 
lodge-fire  gatherings.  Families  hidden  here  and  there 
in  remote  valleys  may  wait  for  their  news,  perforce,  until 
late  in  the  spring,  when  at  various  rendezvous  they  group 
together  for  the  down-river  voyages ;  or  even  until  the  sum- 
mer meeting  on  the  reserve,  where  all  subjects  have  their 
final  review ;  but  on  the  far  lake  levels  of  the  high  interior, 
the  hunting-place  of  the  strong  and  skilful,  their  network 
of  communication  is  seldom  long  broken.  There,  about 
the  central  area,  gather  the  rivers  which  flow  to  the  four 
coasts,  and  there  the  people  converge.  In  the  words  of 
John  Bastian  of  Pointe  Bleue,  "At  Kaniapishkau  you 
meet  Indians  from  all  shores." 

Almost  all  the  Montagnais  families  leave  their  hunting- 
grounds  when  the  fur  becomes  poor  —  technically,  "com- 
mon" —  in  the  spring.  About  the  last  of  the  fur-hunting 
comes  with  the  bear-hunt,  late  in  May,  when  the  snow  has 
settled  down  and  the  bears  begin  to  move  about  after  their 
winter's  sleep.  By  the  last  of  June  the  people  are  gathered 
upon  the  reserves  along  the  Gulf  and  on  the  Saguenay. 
Sometimes  a  family  remains  inland  two  years  for  some  rea- 
son, most  often  because  of  a  light  catch  of  fur.  In  such  an 
event  some  neighbour  usually  takes  down  what  skins  there 
may  be,  and  brings  up  purchases  accordingly  in  the  fall. 
There  is  not  much  trouble  about  subsistence  in  the  summer 
for  those  who  stay  in.  Fish,  taken  almost  wholly  by  net 
and  spear,  are  nearly  unfailing,  and  there  are  some  ducks, 
geese,  and  small  animals,  besides  eggs  and  berries ;  enough 
all  told  to  get  along  on,  although  the  large  game  fail. 


188  LABRADOR 

Beaver,  bear,  and  lynx,  with  the  caribou,  may  be  reckoned 
under  the  latter  description. 

The  latter  days  of  June  —  Nipish  Piishum,  the  "Leaf 
Moon"  —  find  the  country  pretty  well  vacated  by  the  out- 
goers.  July  —  Shetan,  or  "  Ste.  Anne  Moon/'  for  Saint 
Anne  is  their  special  saint  —  is  dedicated  to  church  observ- 
ances and  quiet  life  at  the  shore.  The  Oblate  Fathers  give 
religious  instruction  from  the  missions  on  the  reserves,  and 
the  younger  Indians  are  taught  to  write  their  own  language. 
Canoes  are  built ;  a  little  near-by  fishing  is  carried  on ;  the 
season  on  the  whole  is  one  of  festivity. 

The  physical  condition  of  the  people  is  apt  to  deterio- 
rate in  summer,  for  the  elements  of  the  reserve  life  are 
largely  foreign  to  the  native  habit.  There  is  crowding 
into  small  houses  and  cabins;  doubtful  drainage, water, 
and  food ;  more  whiskey  than  ought  to  be,  and  the  ordinary 
diseases  of  civilization.  At  Pointe  Bleue,  on  Lake  St.  John, 
rheumatism  is  prevalent,  and  the  constitutional  instability 
of  the  mixed  race  makes  for  consumption  and  the  minor  dis- 
eases always  present  in  the  large  town  of  Roberval  near  by. 

The  month  of  August  is  known  as  0-p6-o  Piishum, 
"Moon  of  Flight,"  for  then  the  young  ducks  begin  to  fly. 
They  are  welcome  for  the  kettle  during  the  canoe  journeys 
to  the  hunting-grounds.  As  the  month  goes  on,  a  busier  air 
comes  over  the  reserves;  trading  is  completed,  and  the 
refitting  brought  to  a  close.  One  by  one  the  families 
slip  away,  until  at  last  only  those  who  hunt  comparatively 
near  are  left.  By  the  last  of  September,  Ushakau  Piishum, 
when  the  "caribou  horns  harden/'  most  of  the  cabins 
are  empty,  the  tents  have  vanished,  and  few  but  the  very 
helpless  are  left  upon  the  reserve. 


THE  INDIANS  189 

Near  Bersimis,  some  two  hundred  and  twenty  miles  below 
Quebec,  three  large  rivers  converge  to  the  coast,  and  all 
receive  their  customary  families  in  the  fall.  The  Mani- 
quagan  is  the  chief  of  these,  being  ascended  during  recent 
years  by  as  many  as  seventy  families.  Near  and  parallel 
with  this  is  the  more  difficult  Outardes  River,  named 
by  the  Indians  Pletipi,  " Partridge- water/7  from  its  chief 
lake.  Many  of  its  hunters  ascend  the  Maniquagan  some 
two  hundred  miles  to  the  lakes,  and  cross  to  their  own  river 
by  a  toilsome  portage  route.  A  few  pass  directly  up  the 
Outardes.  With  the  burden  of  provisions  now  necessary 
to  the  hunting  of  these  rivers,  the  way  up  such  a  difficult 
stream  as  the  Pletipi  becomes  peculiarly  hard.  Still,  for 
these  people,  whatever  their  age  or  condition,  there  is 
little  choice,  —  inland  they  must  go,  to  their  own  lands. 

A  party  on  the  way  up  river  was  camped  above  the  first 
portage  a  few  years  ago  when  the  writer  passed  down. 
A  bright  old  withered  woman  appeared  at  the  landing, 
her  husband,  older  and  blind,  standing  close  with  his  staff. 
Two  children  showed  their  heads  from  the  bushes  near 
the  piled  supplies,  peering  at  the  strange  canoe.  A  small 
dog  barked  not  far  away,  a  shot  followed,  and  soon,  carry- 
ing a  partridge,  a  young  man  came  from  that  direction 
and  joined  the  conversation  which  our  Indians  had  begun. 
They  were  going  to  the  large  lake  Pletipi  on  the  head  of 
the  river.  It  would  take  a  long  time,  all  the  fall,  and  they 
thought  game  to  live  on  would  be  more  plenty  along  the 
Pletipishtuk  than  on  the  other  river  where  so  many  families 
travelled.  They  were  cheerful  enough,  though  with  virtu- 
ally only  one  effective  pair  of  arms  to  fend  for  all. 

In  a  country  of  such  scanty  resources  and  physical 


190  LABRADOR 

obstacles,  these  movements,  involving  the  young  and  the 
feeble,  could  .not  be  undertaken  but  for  the  intimate  local 
knowledge  of  the  people.  Most  of  the  Indians  are  actually 
born  upon  hunting-lands  handed  down  from  their  ancestors, 
and  at  an  early  age  each  knows  his  own  ground  as  the 
farmer  boy  knows  his  father's  farm.  He  has  made  the  yearly 
passage  of  his  river,  down  and  back,  from  infancy.  High 
water  or  low,  he  knows  its  every  eddy  and  turn.  As  to 
an  inn  ahead,  he  plans  his  day's  travel  to  some  fishing  pool 
or  lake ;  or  to  the  blueberry  lands,  where  will  be  berries 
surely,  and  bears  perhaps.  He  camps  in  no  chance  place, 
but  where  the  beach  is  clean,  the  bank  not  too  high  or  steep, 
where  wood  and  boughs  and  water  are  to  hand,  and  always, 
when  may  be,  where  the  view  is  sightly  and  wide.  Thus 
he  continues  his  way,  every  resource  of  the  barren  land 
made  his.  Illness  and  death  sometimes  befall,  want  and 
misfortune  tax  too  often  the  fortitude  of  this  ever  disci- 
plined race,  but  sooner  or  later  the  plateau  level  is  gained, 
the  lake  region  begins,  and  the  portages  along  the  narrow- 
ing streams  become  short  and  easy.  The  great  falls  are 
behind,  their  jarring  thunder  fades  in  time  from  the  ear; 
the  roar  of  the  long  rapids  is  over ;  the  shut-in  river  valley 
has  given  place  to  the  broad  sunshine  of  the  table-land. 
Well  content  are  they  who  have  safely  come.  The  long 
toil  is  over;  they  are  glad  to  be  away  from  the  reserve; 
above  all,  they  are  once  more  upon  the  blue  lakes  of  their 
own  hunting-ground. 

The  journeys  inland  have  become  increasingly  hard  as 
the  game  resources  have  diminished.  The  carrying  in  of 
supplies  involves  great  labour  on  the  long  portages.  A  crew 
of  picked  voyageurs  moves  slowly,  even  though  taking  no 


The  Prayer-leader  at  the  Ragged  Islands 


THE  INDIANS  191 


time  to  hunt,  and  unencumbered  by  children  or  old  persons. 
On  the  Long  Portage  of  the  Bersimis,  Low's  exploring  party 
spent  a  full  week.  It  appears  on  his  map  as  the  "  ten- 
mile  portage/7  and  passes  over  a  mountain  more  than  one 
thousand  feet  high. 

In  the  earlier  days  of  the  fur  trade,  these  movements  were 
by  no  means  general  with  the  people,  partly  because  the 
comparatively  few  articles  then  required  in  trade  were 
easily  transported,  and  the  trading  was  done  at  some  dis- 
tance inland.  In  the  nearer  regions,  formerly  the  best 
hunting  districts,  fur  is  now  scarce  and  large  game  almost 
wholly  wanting.  Previous  to  white  occupation  of  the 
shores,  it  is  probable  that  long  journeys  were  not  often 
undertaken  for  any  purpose,  while  those  performed  were 
favoured  by  a  game  supply  which  was  usually  ample. 
The  seasonal  migrations  of  the  recent  period  bear  very 
heavily  upon  the  young  and  feeble,  and  must  seriously 
affect  the  current  mortality  figures. 

The  periods  of  actual  straits  and  starvation  usually 
occur  late  in  the  winter,  when  reserve  supplies  are  ex- 
hausted. It  would  be  hard  now  to  name  a  district  of  the 
peninsula  where  subsistence  upon  the  country  the  year 
through  is  reasonably  dependable. 

The  prime  disaster  to  the  game  resources  was  not  due  to 
improved  firearms  or  such  access  of  direct  destruction  as 
swept  away  the  buffalo  and  other  western  game,  but  was 
incidental  to  a  succession  of  tremendously  destructive 
forest  fires.  From  the  Gulf  to  the  barrens,  three-fourths 
of  the  country  has  been  laid  waste  within  the  white  period, 
the  thin  mat  of  organic  soil  being  burned  wholly  away  over 
large  areas,  leaving  only  rock  and  sterile  subsoil.  The  great 


192  LABRADOR 

fire  of  the  Saguenay  ran  from  west  of  Quebec  some  seven 
hundred  miles  to  the  Romaine  River,  sweeping  the  country 
from  the  Gulf  to  the  height  of  land.  Such  damp  grounds 
as  were  spared  could  sustain  little  game,  and  afforded  slight 
protection  from  the  hunters  to  such  as  survived.  The 
catastrophe,  so  far  as  resources  for  the  Indians  are  con- 
cerned, was  nearly  complete. 

Earlier  still  the  plateau  had  become  largely  non-support- 
ing. Hind,  writing  in  the  sixties  of  the  country  about 
the  Moisie,  gives  a  saddening  account  of  the  misfortunes 
of  the  Nascaupees,  Many  were  forced  to  the  shores. 
There  food  was  to  be  had,  but  the  change  to  the  damp  of 
the  Gulf  from  the  activity  and  sunshine  of  the  high  interior 
brought  its  natural  consequences,  and  consumption  and 
the  unknown  diseases  of  civilization  soon  brought  their 
end. 

Where  the  soil  remains,  gradual  replacement  of  the  forest 
goes  on,  the  higher  ground  most  often  turning  to  birch, 
with  quaking  asp,  and  the  gravel  river  levels  of  the  south- 
west to  an  open  growth  of  Banksian  pine,  the  ussishk  of 
the  Indians,  and  the  cypres  of  the  French  habitants.  In 
favourable  places  the  original  forestation  of  spruce  and  fir 
succeeds,  if  poorly,  in  reestablishing  itself. 

The  cause  of  fires  is  generally  the  carelessness  of  border 
whites,  although  Dr.  Low's  supposition  that  not  a  few  have 
begun  with  "  wandering  Indians,  careful  only  in  their  own 
hunting-grounds,"  is  doubtless  true  enough.  But  it  is  to 
be  remembered  that  the  fire  code  of  the  real  Indian  is  very 
rigid,  and  the  fact  that  white  advent  found  the  country 
forested  to  the  subarctic  barrens  tells  its  own  tale.  The 
people  were  far  more  numerous  then,  yet  under  their  law 


THE  INDIANS  193 

the  woods  were  green.  But  for  the  coming  of  a  careless 
race,  they  would  be  so  now. 

Along  the  Gulf  the  principal  trading-stations  are  Ber- 
simis,  Seven  Islands,  Mingan,  and  St.  Augustine.  From 
Seven  Islands  the  Moisie  is  the  main  highway  to  the  interior, 
and  several  of  its  families  make  their  hunts  within  two  hun- 
dred miles  of  Ungava  on  eastern  branches  of  the  George. 
Nearly  parallel  with  the  Moisie  is  the  St.  Marguerite,  or 
Tshimanipishtuk.  Its  principal  western  branch  inter- 
locks with  the  Maniquagan.  The  network  of  Indian  travel 
about  and  far  beyond  the  heads  of  these  rivers  is  intermi- 
nable. 

From  the  Gulf  near  Mingan,  the  hunters  ascend  the  St. 
John,  pass  a  difficult  high  portage  to  the  Romaine,  and 
proceed  toward  the  Grand  Falls  region  of  the  Hamilton. 
They  know  the  lower  Hamilton  as  the  Winikapau  Shibu, 
or  " River  of  Willows,"  and  the  falls  as  Pitshetonau,  "It 
steams,"  from  the  column  of  white  vapour  which  is  seen  from 
a  distance.  Low  gives  the  tradition  of  two  maidens  swept 
over  the  falls,  who  spend  their  time  behind  the  falls  dressing 
skins.  The  lower  part  of  the  Romaine  is  not  navigated, 
and  is  perhaps  unknown  to  the  Indians  of  the  present  day. 
Its  Indian  name  "Alimun,"  meaning  difficult,  has  passed 
through  a  rearrangement  of  sounds  unusual  in  the  ad- 
justing of  Indian  names  to  French  organs  of  speech.  From 
"L'Alimun"  to  "La  Romaine"  the  transition  is  easy, — sur- 
prisingly so,  considering  that  no  less  a  feat  is  involved  than 
the  introduction  of  the  full  rolling  r  into  a  language  which 
has  not  the  r-sound  at  all. 

In  general,  while  the  French  learn  readily  enough  to 
make  practical  use  of  the  Indian  dialects,  they  seem  to 


194  LABRADOR 

have  much  more  difficulty  :n  the  matter  of  correct  articu- 
lation than  do  persons  of  English  speech.  Nevertheless 
the  two  races,  the  French  and  the  Indian,  are  by  tempera- 
ment rather  notably  acceptable  to  each  other.  It  has  been 
remarked  that  the  Highland  Scotch,  in  particular,  learn  the 
native  dialects  well  and  readily.  This  peculiarity  seems 
more  than  an  accident  of  linguistics,  for  the  young  High- 
landers brought  over  by  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  not 
only  learn  the  language  easily,  but  marry  forthwith,  fall 
into  the  life,  and  show  in  their  children  as  encouraging  ex- 
amples of  such  combining  of  extreme  elements,  the  very 
light  and  the  deep  brown,  as  may  well  be  found.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  young  Englishmen  brought  over  in  the 
earlier  period  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  were  a  notable 
failure  in  adaptability  to  the  conditions,  remaining  alien  to 
the  life  and  seeking  usually  a  final  escape  from  their  sur- 
roundings. 

Analysis  of  the  deeper  affinities  of  the  language  must  be 
left  to  the  linguist ;  superficially  it  does  not  appear  to  have 
a  common  origin  with  any  of  the  European  tongues.  It 
must  be  supposed  that  articulation,  at  least,  is  affected  by 
climate  and  mode  of  life,  as  is  physiognomy  as  well  in  the 
case  of  dwellers  upon  wind-blown  plains.  A  relation  may 
exist  between  the  mild  climate  of  southern  Europe  and  the 
prevailing  use  of  the  outer  organs  of  speech  by  the  Latin 
races.  The  rolling  r  and  the  mobile  face  are  hardly  to  be 
associated  with  high  latitudes.  In  the  north,  on  the  con- 
trary, it  might  be  difficult  to  find  any  word  in  the  Algon- 
quian,  or  in  that  very  different  language,  the  Eskimo, 
which  could  not  be  spoken  clearly  with  the  face  immov- 
able. These  are  languages  which  can  be  used  without 


Eskimo  and  Nascaupee  Indians,  Hudson  Bay 


Davis  Inlet  Montagnais 


THE  INDIANS  195 

difficulty  when  the  face  is  stiff  with  cold.  It  may  be  noted 
that  the  Scotch  and  English,  whose  relative  facility  in 
catching  the  Indian  sounds  has  been  remarked;  have  also 
a  long  inheritance  of  northern  conditions. 

Eastward  from  Mingan  the  people  travel  the  Natashquan, 
St.  Augustine,  and  Eskimo  rivers.  Their  lands  are  chiefly 
in  the  region  between  the  Hamilton  and  the  St.  Lawrence. 
Southward  from  the  Mealy  Mountains  of  Hamilton  Inlet 
and  the  Sandwich  Bay  coast  lies  an  indefinite,  unmapped 
area  of  high  territory,  partly  barren,  where  large  lakes 
supply  the  rough  rivers  passing  north,  east,  and  south. 
In  winter,  white  or  Eskimo-white  hunters  penetrate  one 
or  two  hundred  miles  into  this  area.  The  Hamilton  River 
also  is  hunted  by  the  shore  people.  These  go  up  in  the 
fall  in  boats,  returning  on  snow.  The  inland  life  of  these 
shore-dwelling  hunters  is  as  little  like  that  of  the  Indians 
as  well  may  be.  Their  winter  method  is  to  take  what 
supplies  can  be  hauled  on  sleds  by  hand,  set  traps  along  their 
route,  the  length  of  which  is  determined  somewhat  by  snow 
conditions,  and  take  up  the  catch  of  fur  on  their  return 
march.  They  are  known  as  "  planters";  their  occupation 
is  " furring."  Cabins  are  built  by  some  at  strategic  points, 
and  these  " tilts"  may  be  taken  as  the  sign  of  white  blood 
in  the  land.  The  Indian,  held  to  no  base,  uses  the  movable 
lodge  only.  The  shore  hunter  is  bound,  his  campaign 
limited,  by  his  large  dependence  on  transported  provisions. 
If  half-emancipated  from,  or  better,  only  half-subjugated 
by,  "the  white  man's  burden,' '  he  lacks  yet  the  full  inherit- 
ance, the  ferity,  which  saves  existence  to  the  Indian  born. 
The  broad  difference  between  the  two,  the  fur  catcher  and 
the  Indian,  is  that  between  hunting  and  the  hunting  life. 


196  LABRADOR 

The  white  man  goes  hunting,  his  family  protected  in  his 
absence ;  the  Indian,  rarely  separated  from  his  family,  takes 
the  chances  of  the  open  for  all. 

During  late  years,  few  Indians  have  been  regular  visitors 
on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  peninsula.  For  convenience 
to  themselves,  the  Oblate  Fathers  have  influenced  the  hunters 
who  formerly  traded  at  Hamilton  Inlet  to  make  the  longer 
journey  to  Seven  Islands.  Irregularly  a  few  northern 
Indians  from  George  River  have  visited  Davis  Inlet  post, 
as  few  as  three  coming  down  in  one  or  two  recent  summers. 
The  northern  group  turns  rather  toward  Chimo  on  Un- 
gava  Bay.  In  winter  some  numbers  of  the  northern  group 
may  come  to  the  east  coast,  but  they  do  not  bring  their 
families  unless  under  pressure  of  starvation,  and  their  stay 
is  brief.  The  number  of  lodges  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
country  depends  on  the  movements  of  the  caribou.  These 
vary  rather  widely  in  the  course  of  their  migration,  the 
main  herd  sometimes  remaining  south  a  year  or  two  at  a 
time.  As  already  noted,  a  number  of  Montagnais  families 
from  Seven  Islands  hunt  near  the  upper  George  River  nearly 
west  from  Hopedale.  The  height  of  land  there  is  one  hun- 
dred to  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  from  the  coast.  All, 
or  nearly  all,  of  these  families  make  the  long  journey  to 
Seven  Islands  at  intervals,  going  usually  by  the  upper 
Hamilton,  Ashwanipi  Lake,  and  the  Moisie.  Rather  regu- 
larly some  of  these  make  a  visit  to  the  east  coast  in  winter, 
and  sometimes  in  summer. 

In  the  northern  district,  tributary  to  Fort  Chimo,  there 
are  some  forty  or  fifty  families,  according  to  Peter 
McKenzie.  A  certain  number  of  Indians  from  Whale 
River  also  come  to  Chimo  more  or  less  regularly,  perhaps 


THE  INDIANS  197 


more  often  to  Fort  George  or  other  posts  on  Hudson  Bay. 
These  probably  belong  to  the  division  mentioned  by  Low 
in  his  large  Labrador  report  as  the  coastal  Indians  of  Hud- 
son Bay.  Their  dialect  is  not  very  easy  for  the  other 
Indians  to  understand,  probably  from  its  0  jib  way  affinities. 
Those  who  come  to  Chimo  are  strong,  active  people,  proud 
of  their  large  hunts  and  of  the  long  journeys  they  make  to 
the  coast.  They  look  down  a  little  on  the  Chimo  Indians, 
many  of  whom  hunt  comparatively  near  by.  The  eastern 
Nascaupees,  in  particular,  are  not  very  ambitious  either 
in  fur  hunting  or  travel.  The  caribou  supply  nearly  all  their 
wants,  so  that  not  much  effort  is  required  to  get  fur  enough 
to  pay  for  what  else  they  require.  Indians  do  not  enter 
the  wide  peninsula  to  the  west  of  Ungava,  which  is  Eskimo 
ground  so  far  as  occupied.  From  Koksoak  River  to  Hud- 
son Bay  the  respective  areas  covered  by  the  two  races  are 
separated  approximately  by  the  line  of  the  Nastapoka 
and  Larch  rivers,  which  constitute  a  route  surveyed  by 
Low,  and  pursued  by  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Tasker  of  Philadelphia 
in  1906. 

The  name  Nascaupee  is  a  slighting  term  given  to  the 
northern  Indians  by  their  more  sophisticated  neighbours 
of  the  south.  Originally  the  word 'seems  to  have  meant 
ignorant,  unlearned,  but  is  now  connected  usually  with 
pagan  or  heathen  people  who  have  not  had  religious  in- 
struction. In  his  very  comprehensive  report  (1885-1886), 
published  by  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,.  Washington, 
Lucius  M.  Turner  gives  the  name  Nascaupee  as  meaning 
false,  unworthy,  and  as  connecting  the  people  with  a  failure 
to  join  in  some  movement  against  the  Eskimo  in  the  old 
days;  but  this  rendering  seems  etymologically  doubtful. 


198  LABRADOR 

Their  immediate  neighbours  call  the  eastern  Nascaupees 
Mushauau-eo,  "  Barren-ground  People/'  and  their  principal 
river,  the  George,  is  known  to  all  Indians  as  Mushauau 
Shibo,  or  "  Barren-ground  River." 

The  Nascaupees'  name  for  themselves  is  Nenenot,  "  True 
or  Ideal  People."  Literally  this  seems  to  mean  "Our  Own 
People,"  which,  after  all,  in  the  minds  of  most  races  comes 
to  much  the  same  thing.  These  meanings  have  been 
quoted  by  a  recent  traveller,  Wallace,  who  gives  some  of 
the  information  gathered  during  a  visit  at  Chimo.  His 
statement  regarding  the  Indians'  extreme  fear  of  the  sea 
seems  at  least  exaggerated.  He  describes  them  as  afraid 
to  even  look  upon  the  sea  below  Chimo.  On  the  contrary, 
Mr.  Guy,  long  resident  at  Chimo,  has  observed  little  feeling 
of  the  sort.  During  his  time  there  a  young  white  man 
while  hunting  was  drowned  in  a  lake  on  a  stream  emptying 
into  the  bay.  Some  Indians  not  only  went  down  to  the 
sea  by  canoe  and  around  to  recover  the  body,  but  made 
the  trip  a  second  time  to  find  the  rifle.  In  the  recent  ob- 
servation of  some  Chimo  hunters  on  the  Atlantic  side,  they 
took  very  readily  to  salt  water,  boating  and  canoeing  under 
reasonable  conditions.  If  unnecessary  canoeing  about  Un- 
gava  with  its  forty-  to  sixty-foot  tides  and  notoriously 
bad  navigation  has  small  attraction  for  them,  the  circum- 
stance is  not  to  be  taken  as  phenomenal.  None  who  has 
actually  voyaged  with  these  masters  of  the  open  canoe  is 
likely  to  believe  them  water-timid.  Turner  says  these 
Indians  bear  cold  as  well  as  the  Eskimo  do,  although  under 
starvation  they  do  not  hold  their  working  strength  so  well. 
The  little  children  certainly  show  astonishing  indifference  to 
cold. 


THE  INDIANS  199 

The  lake  and  river  route  from  the  middle  George  to 
Chimo  leads  westerly  to  Whale  River.  This  is  not  the 
Whale  River  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  coastal 
Indians,  which  is  a  great  stream  of  the  Hudson  Bay  slope. 
The  present  river  is  smaller,  and  is  known  to  the  Indians 
as  Manouan,  "  Egg-gathering  Place."  They  describe  the 
route  as  a  hard  one,  and  the  Manouan  as  alinum,  "  diffi- 
cult." The  river  route  eastward  to  the  Atlantic  is  not 
difficult  for  a  light  party,  but  as  it  includes  more  than  twenty 
lakes  with  many  long  portages  between,  it  is  hard  to  follow 
without  a  guide,  and  is  at  best  rather  formidable  for  a  loaded 
party. 

Formerly  some  of  the  southern  Indians  came  up  North- 
west River  and  hunted  on  its  upper  waters  and  those  of 
rivers  flowing  eastward  into  the  Atlantic.  Their  country, 
poor  at  best,  suffered  by  fire;  fish  were  small,  the  caribou 
more  and  more  uncertain.  Finding  that  the  deer  summered 
in  the  unoccupied  lake  country  south  of  the  Nascaupees 
and  west  of  Hopedale,  they  adopted  that  region  and  gave 
up  the  difficult  Northwest  River  route.  Having  changed 
their  trading-point  to  Seven  Islands,  the  easier  route  by 
the  upper  Hamilton  and  Lake  Michikamau  was  very  direct. 
The  number  of  these  families  varies  from  half  a  dozen  to 
as  many  as  fifteen  or  more.  Their  summer  route  finally 
reaches  the  east  coast  by  the  Notaquanon  ("  Porcupine- 
hunting-place")  River. 

In  winter,  they  can  traverse  the  country  without  much 
reference  to  watercourses.  The  camps  are  in  sheltered 
places,  where  there  are  trees  enough  to  protect  from  the 
wind,  and  are  almost  always  near  water.  The  ice  becomes 
too  thick  to  be  cut  through  easily,  but  whenever  there  is 


200  LABRADOR 

much  weight  of  snow,  the  water  comes  over  the  ice  in  places 
near  shore,  and  does  not  freeze  when  blanketed  with  ten 
or  twelve  inches  of  light  snow.  Such  water  can  be  cleared 
of  slush  by  very  little  warming  over  the  fire.  In  default 
of  water,  chopped  ice  melts  much  better  than  snow,  which 
the  people  avoid.  They  prefer  to  work  hard  for  twenty 
or  thirty  minutes  chopping  a  hole,  rather  than  bother  to 
melt  down  an  uncompacting  mass  of  cold,  porous  snow. 
They  rarely,  if  ever,  drink  ice-cold  water,  but  warm  it  a  few 
degrees,  even  building  a  special  fire  for  this  purpose  when 
travelling.  In  this,  as  in  most  other  race  peculiarities, 
they  find  their  opposite  in  their  Eskimo  neighbours,  who  are 
said  to  eat  snow  and  swallow  frozen  food  with  only  the 
happiest  consequences. 

For  winter  travel,  most  of  the  people  now  use  sheet-iron 
stoves  a  foot  square  and  about  two  feet  long.  The  snow 
is  tramped  level  with  the  snow-shoes,  the  tent  raised  and 
boughs  laid ;  then  the  stove  is  placed  on  four  stakes  which 
are  driven  some  three  feet  into  the  snow,  and  serve  as  legs. 
Such  a  stove  will  burn  almost  any  small  wood,  and  in  a 
country  where  good  wood  is  scarce,  will  save  much  time  and 
labour  in  heavy  chopping  and  shovelling  snow,  besides 
enabling  the  traveller  to  camp  almost  anywhere  and  not 
have  to  go  more  than  a  mile  or  two  out  of  his  course  to 
get  good  wood. 

The  Indians  at  Nichicun  are  classed  by  Low  as  Western 
Nascaupees.  Only  thirteen  families  traded  at  the  post 
at  the  time  of  his  visit.  Other  families  in  the  neighbourhood 
go  to  the  Gulf  with  their  furs.  Living  near  the  geographical 
centre  and  apex  of  the  plateau,  they  naturally  hunt  not 
far  from  Nichicun  ("  Otter-place  ")  Lake.  They  live  almost 


THE  INDIANS  201 

wholly  on  the  country.  Few  deer  are  taken  there,  and 
while  fish  are  generally  plenty,  the  margin  of  subsistence  is 
uncomfortably  narrow.  All  the  able-bodied  men  go  to 
Rupert  House  in  summer  with  the  brigade,  while  the  women 
keep  the  nets  out  in  lakes  near  the  post.  The  return  jour- 
ney from  Rupert  takes  about  sixty  days.  Sometimes  the 
start  downward  is  made  before  the  ice  has  left  the  lakes, 
but  although  the  stay  at  Rupert  is  only  a  few  days,  the 
upper  lakes  are  sometimes  frozen  again  before  their  arrival 
at  Nichicun. 

For  some  years  Nichicun  has  been  the  only  inland  post 
in  the  whole  peninsula,  unless  Mistassini,  in  the  extreme 
southwest,  be  reckoned.  The  up  voyage  of  the  Mistassini 
brigade  takes  about  fifty  days.  The  lower  part  of  its  route, 
in  common  with  that  to  Nichicun,  follows  Rupert  River. 
There  are  seventy-five  portages  between  Rupert  and  Mis- 
tassini. 

The  thirty  families  who  trade  at  Mistassini  are  also 
counted  as  Nascaupees.  All  the  Indians  known  by  this 
name  are  properly  Swampy  Crees.  Those  at  Chimo  say 
that  they  came  originally  from  southwest  of  Hudson  Bay 
to  get  away  from  the  Iroquois. 

The  brigade  canoes  are  now  of  canvas,  twenty-eight  feet 
by  five  and  one-half,  by  two  and  one-half  deep,  and  carry 
five  thousand  pounds  each  of  cargo.  In  1898  thirty-five 
thousand  pounds  of  freight  went  to  Mistassini.  The  port- 
aging is  arduous.  Every  man  takes  two  " pieces,"  each  of 
ninety  to  one  hundred  pounds'  weight.  There  is  compe- 
tition among  the  men  for  the  bags  of  shot,  which  balance 
uncommonly  well  at  the  top  of  the  load  close  to  the  neck. 
Such  a  load,  of  about  two  hundred  pounds,  is  no  trifle 


202  LABRADOR 

over  rough  and  swampy  ground;  but  every  man,  down 
to  the  least,  prefers  to  take  his  two  pieces  at  once  rather 
than  make  two  trips.  The  downward  trip  from  Mistassini 
in  a  light  canoe  takes  about  ten  days. 

The  unit  of  value  here,  as  formerly  in  most  of  the  north, 
is  the  "Made  Beaver."  In  1898  a  fair-sized  actual  skin 
was  worth  2  MB.  Prices  were  virtually  a  nominal  matter; 
the  people  simply  took  down  their  furs  and  brought  back 
their  necessaries,  with  a  share  for  the  post.  If  for  any  rea- 
son a  man  did  not  have  much  fur  to  turn  in,  he  was  still 
taken  care  of,  being  at  least  furnished  ammunition  and 
other  means  of  getting  fur  and  food. 

The  Mistassini  people  hunt  chiefly  to  the  north  on  the 
east  main  head  water,  the  "Nichicun  side"  of  the  country. 
Far  from  outside  help,  this  region  has  a  history  of  starva- 
tion. For  a  long  term  of  years,  the  deaths  from  starvation 
were  more  than  from  all  other  causes  combined.  For  a 
time  the  district  was  abandoned.  The  fur  game  increased 
remarkably,  tempting  the  people  back,  and  about  the  year 
1906  new  cases  of  starvation  occurred.  There  is  not  much 
large  game,  and  in  the  periodic  seventh  year,  when  rabbits 
fail,  and  perhaps  the  uncertain  ptarmigan  or  "  white  par- 
tridge" does  not  come,  the  worst  may  follow. 

All  the  families  of  the  southern  slope  now  take  in  enough 
supplies  to  escape  actual  starvation.  About  the  year  1904 
the  large  Etienne  family,  of  Ste.  Anne,  transported  about 
one-third  the  total  amount  they  would  naturally  consume ; 
and  this  may  be  taken  as  a  fair  example  of  the  best  half- 
breed  practice.  So  large  an  amount  can  be  moved  only  by 
stages.  The  canoe  carries  a  load  to  the  end  of  the  stage 
of  a  few  miles,  and  then  drops  back  for  another  cargo. 


THE  INDIANS  203 

The  hunting-place  of  the  Etiennes  is  at  Temiscamie,  on  the 
very  head  of  Rupert  River  above  Mistassini.  Their  route 
follows  Peribonka  River  for  nearly  three  hundred  miles. 

From  Lake  St.  John  the  Indians  hunt  the  large  rivers 
northward  to  the  height  of  land,  and  to  some  extent  beyond. 
The  great  evergreen  regions  of  the  East  Main  are  the  best 
hunting-grounds  now;  there,  in  the  " black  growth"  forests, 
the  martens  are  dark  and  rich,  fetching  prices  of  SI 5  to 
$30;  but  the  journey  is  long,  and  not  many  hunters  from 
the  south  go  so  far.  Wherever  burnt  districts  have  come 
up  to  birch  and  aspen,  fur  values  are  lower.  In  such  dis- 
tricts there  may  be  plenty  of  martens,  but  by  an  interesting 
observance  of  the  laws  of  protective  colouration,  the  fur 
tends  to  match  the  general  light  aspect  of  the  country 
and  is  pale  and  less  valuable. 

The  hunting-lands  are  held  by  individual  hunters,  and 
are  passed  down  from  one  generation  to  another  by  customs 
of  inheritance  similar  to  our  own.  The  hunting  naturally 
descends  upon  some  man  of  active  age;  if  a  daughter  is 
married,  the  young  husband  may  succeed  to  the  lands. 
Surviving  parents,  or  even  more  distant  relatives,  have, 
by  common  right,  their  place  in  the  lodge.  In  fact,  all 
must  be  taken  care  of  in  some  way,  in  one  lodge  or  another ; 
about  the  hunters  group  the  dependent  ones,  widows  and 
orphans  and  incapacitated ;  none  is  denied  his  right. 

Infringements  upon  each  other's  hunting-grounds  are 
probably  no  more  frequent  than  the  cutting  of  timber  on 
another's  land  in  civilization.  The  restraint  of  Indians 
in  such  matters  is  far  beyond  that  of  more  advanced  races. 
In  passing  across  another's  ground,  which  may  take  some 
days,  the  traveller  has  the  right  to  take  enough  game  for 


204  LABRADOR 

subsistence,  but  not  to  hunt  fur;  nor  to  accumulate  a  stock 
of  provisions. 

The  number  of  animals  taken  yearly  depends  on  their 
abundance;  enough  are  always  left  to  renew  the  supply. 
Usually  the  land  is  divided  into  three  parts,  which  are 
hunted  in  rotation  from  year  to  year.  On  the  southern 
slope  the  beaver  is  greatly  valued,  perhaps  more  for  its 
wonderfully  good  meat  than  its  fur.  The  most  sustaining 
foods  are  beaver  and  bear.  With  bread,  of  course,  all  the 
game  is  sustaining,  —  fish,  flesh,  and  fowl,  —  but  the  family 
thrown  for  weeks  or  months  on  rabbits  and  ptarmigan  alone, 
with  perhaps  a  little  fish,  weakens  in  time  to  the  point  of 
danger.  The  expression  " Starve  on  rabbits''  is  well  under- 
stood in  the  north. 

The  beaver  is  taken,  not  uncommonly,  by  "  staking," 
a  method  which  involves  the  driving  of  long  stakes  in  a  sort 
of  grating  over  the  under-water  exits  of  the  beaver,  and  then 
easily  digging  out  the  imprisoned  animals.  Bears  are 
found  even  in  midwinter,  sometimes  by  aid  of  the  small 
dogs,  but  more  often  by  taking  advantage  of  the  bear's 
habit  of  returning  to  the  same  place  for  successive  winters. 
Their  empty  nests  are  noted  in  summer  and  visited  at  con- 
venience during  the  long  period  of  hibernation. 

The  keen  little  dogs  referred  to  are  indispensable  in  the 
hunting  of  small  game,  joining  their  efforts  and  senses  to 
those  of  the  family  in  a  marvellous  way.  In  travelling  by 
canoe,  they  are  often  put  ashore  to  run  the  banks,  with  great 
effect.  An  Indian  dog,  a  pole,  and  a  noose  are  as  effective 
a  combination  in  hunting  some  of  the  grouse  kind  as  almost 
any  that  can  be  brought  to  bear. 

The  substantial  fish  of  the  country,  and  valued  accord- 


THE  INDIANS  205 


ingly,  is  the  lake  trout  —  namaycush,  often  called  kokomesh, 
"the  fish  that  swallows  anything."  It  sometimes  grows 
to  thirty  or  forty  pounds'  weight.  Although  a  lake  fish,  it 
is  found  in  some  of  the  running  rivers  in  summer,  taking 
flies  along  with  the  fontinalis.  The  latter  is  not  as  impor- 
tant to  the  people  as  the  namaycush,  and  is,  on  the  whole, 
less  regarded  by  both  whites  and  Indians.  In  fact,  when 
cooked  by  boiling,  which  is  the  method  of  the  country,  — 
perhaps  of  all  countries  where  the  main  living  is  upon  fish, 
-  the  lake  trout  may  fairly  be  reckoned  the  better  fish  of 
the  two. 

The  whitefish,  when  of  good  size,  holds  a  higher  place 
than  either  of  the  trouts.  It  is  a  different  species  from  the 
western  one,  the  coregonus,  and  such  fortunate  persons  as 
have  taken  it  from  the  cold  rivers  of  the  plateau  are  likely 
to  regard  it  as  the  superior  fish.  Its  specific  name  is  labra- 
doricus.  The  fish  is  rather  insipid,  "vealy,"  when  young, 
but  gains  in  flavour  and  firmness  up  to  the  weight  of  six 
or  eight  pounds.  It  is  caught  with  the  gill  net,  which  in 
the  northern  districts  becomes  useless  by  midwinter,  as 
the  fish  go  into  the  deepest  water  and  are  considerably 
dormant.  Line-fishing  then  becomes  the  only  resource. 
The  whitefish  is  thus  unavailable,  and  the  trouts  and  the 
pike  form  the  mainstay.  In  many  waters  of  the  south 
slope  the  most  dependable  fish  in  midwinter  is  one  called 
among  whites  by  the  various  names  —  maria,  ling,  loche, 
cusk,  and  fresh-water  cod.  This  curious  combination,  to  all 
appearances,  of  eel  and  hornpout,  comes  freely  into  shallow 
water  under  thick  ice,  and  is  easily  caught  by  set  lines  with 
almost  any  bait.  Its  native  name  is  mildkato,  which  has 
been  translated  by  a  Montagnais  as  "  Big- wide-head." 


206  LABRADOR 

Another  rendering  from  a  native  source  carries  the  meaning 
of  its  being  a  nasty,  disagreeable-looking  fish,  which  is  cer- 
tainly accurate.  The  flesh  flakes  quite  like  cod,  and  is 
rather  good.  Its  habitat  extends  at  least  as  far  south  as 
the  Connecticut  Lakes  of  New  Hampshire. 

The  list  of  important  fishes  includes  the  ouandniche,  or 
"  land-locked  salmon,"  found  rather  widely  over  the  south- 
eastern quarter  of  the  country,  the  red  and  white  suckers, 
and  the  pike-perch,  or  wall-eyed  pike;  the  range  of  the  latter 
extends  as  far  as  the  eastern  heads  of  the  Maniquagan, 
where  a  round  lake  nine  miles  across  is  known  as  okauinipi, 
"pike  perch  water."  As  kau  means  rough,  the  name 
of  the  fish  would  seem  to  come  from  the  perch  like  rough- 
ness of  its  scales. 

Last  and  least  of  the  common  southwestern  fishes  is  the 
river-chub,  or  dace,  which  in  the  cold  streams  is  good 
throughout  the  summer.  It  should  be  skinned  rather  than 
scaled.  Its  native  name  is  uitush  "  stone-carrier, "  from 
its  well-known  habit  of  piling  up  pebbles  in  the  shallows. 

The  wooden  spear  is  used  for  all  kinds  of  large  fish  at 
times,  especially  for  the  salmon.  To  fish  with  a  torch  and 
spear  is  waswdno,  hence  Waswanipi  lake,  south  of  Hud- 
son Bay,  and  possibly  Ashwanipi,  the  large  lake  north  of 
the  Moisie  on  Hamilton  Water. 

According  to  John  Bastian,  a  young  Scotch-Montagnais 
of  Pointe  Bleue,  who  was  hunting  there  between  Mistinik 
and  Kaniapishkau,  that  region  has  practically  no  rabbits 
or  beaver,  —  there  being  little  food  for  them,  —  although 
it  is  a  good  district  for  martens.  Other  subsistence  failing, 
John  and  his  companion  were  thrown  wholly  upon  fish, 
caught  with  difficulty  and  boiled  without  salt,  for  two  or 


Indians  watching  the  Caribou  at  a  Crossing 


Nascaupee  Indians  at  Davis  Inlet 


THE  INDIANS  207 

three  months.  "It  was  hard  work  to  cut  the  holes  to  fish 
through, "  for  the  ice  became  six  or  seven  feet  thick,  but  they 
had  enough  fish  to  live  on.  John  suffered  from  cramps 
while  doing  without  salt,  and  they  both  grew  weak,  although 
the  companion,  who  was  more  used  to  such  living,  got  on 
somewhat  better  than  he.  They  "felt  well  enough,  but 
had  no  strength."  They  were  gone  from  the  shore  more 
than  a  year.  The  experience  was  rather  a  commonplace 
one  for  the  regular  hunters  of  these  districts,  but  it  left  John 
a  good  deal  reduced,  and  it  was  some  time  before  he 
recovered  his  strength. 

The  people  who  descend  the  Moisie  in  the  summer  gather 
at  Sandgirt  Lake  on  the  Hamilton,  apparently  for  the  mere 
sake  of  seeing  each  other,  and  they  keep  together  as  may 
be  until  their  final  separation  in  the  fall  for  their  individual 
lands.  Something  of  an  inland  trade  used  to  be  done  among 
the  people,  and  doubtless  survives  still.  A  Seven  Islands 
hunter  would  give  fur  to  a  Bersimis  man  at  some  rendez- 
vous, and  each  would  go  his  way.  Months  later,  in  the  fall, 
one  of  the  fine  canoes  for  which  Bersimis  is  known  would 
be  passed  in  return  at  some  appointed  place.  A  similar 
trade  in  canvas  canoes  goes  on  between  the  Gulf  Indians 
and  the  Nascaupees,  whose  country  furnishes  no  canoe 
bark. 

Rolls  of  canoe  bark  are  still  sold  at  some  of  the  northern 
posts  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  being  imported  from 
more  southern  districts,  along  with  other  merchandise. 
Nevertheless,  the  supply  has  been  insufficient  for  some  years 
and  often  of  poor  quality ;  while  by  some  unnecessary  neg- 
lect the  northern  posts  have  been  short  even  of  canvas. 
With  the  full  supply  of  the  latter  laid  in  recently  along  the 


208  LABRADOR 

farther   coasts,   the    almost  distressing    situation    of   the 
Indians  is  at  last  relieved. 

During  the  period  of  open  water  there  is  practically  no 
foot  travel.  Some  of  the  hunting-grounds,  however,  can- 
not be  reached  otherwise,  and  these  are  unoccupied  until 
late.  Mistinik,  for  instance,  is  reached  by  sleds  from  as  far 
as  the  lakes  of  the  Maniquagan,  only  two  hundred  miles  from 
the  Gulf,  where  the  canoes  are  laid  up  and  a  stay  made  until 
winter  sets  in  and  the  foot  travel  comes  on.  The  tabanask, 
the  sled  for  light  snow,  is  as  narrow  as  sixteen  inches  and 
is  one-fourth  or  five-sixteenths  of  an  inch  thick.  The 
thinner  and  more  flexible  the  bottom,  the  easier  the  sled  is 
to  haul,  but  as  they  wear  a  little  with  use,  it  is  better  to 
start  a  long  journey  with  a  little  extra  stiffness.  The  ma- 
terial of  the  sled  is  usually  white  birch,  sometimes  larch. 
The  latter  is  not  likely  to  ice-up  and  stick  in  changing  tem- 
peratures. This  icing-up  may  occur  at  zero,  or  below, 
and  is  a  very  serious  hindrance ;  not  much  is  done  to  pre- 
vent it,  but  there  is  no  doubt  of  the  good  effect  to  come 
of  such  pitch-beeswax-tallow  treatment  as  is  given  to  the 
Norwegian  ski,  for  the  same  sort  of  evil.  Thin  grease,  or 
still  worse,  oil,  does  decided  harm.  The  pulling  is  done  from 
the  head  with  the  hands  twisted  into  the  lines  behind  the 
back.  In  midwinter  the  snow  is  dry  and  gritty,  and  a  load 
of  two  hundred  pounds,  taken  over  a  ten-mile  stretch,  may 
be  a  hard  day's  work  for  a  strong  man.  As  the  snow  settles 
in  the  spring,  the  loads  and  mileage  increase,  runner-sleds 
are  taken  into  use,  and  on  the  lakes  and  rivers  a  load  of 
five  hundred  pounds  may  move  twenty  or  twenty-five  miles 
a  day.  All  the  snow-shoes  of  the  country  are  of  the  "  round  " 
type,  which  is  doubtless  better  than  any  other  for  light  snow 


THE  INDIANS  209 

in  a  broken  country.  The  prevailing  pattern  of  the  Sague- 
nay  district  is  from  twenty  to  twenty-four  inches  wide, 
with  an  ordinary  tail  four  or  five  inches  long.  The  rest  of 
the  peninsula  generally  is  committed  to  a  rather  wider 
shoe,  with  a  mere  loop  for  a  tail.  The  frame  is  in  two  pieces, 
spliced  at  the  sides.  A  fine  pair  in  possession  of  the  writer 
are  twenty-six  inches  wide  and  twenty-five  and  three- 
fourths  inches  long  over  all.  Although  the  various  patterns 
of  round  shoe  look  awkward  or  impossible  at  first  sight,  they 
are  extremely  well  regarded  by  all  who  have  used  them. 
For  firm  snow  or  in  a  level  country,  a  narrower  shoe  is  ob- 
viously more  suitable.  For  spring  snow-shoeing  almost  any 
sort  of  a  makeshift  is  sufficient ;  still  the  round  shape  prevails, 
the  shoe  being  smaller  than  for  winter,  and  roughly  made. 

For  snow-shoe  moccasins,  caribou  hide  is  largely  used  in 
Labrador,  in  default  of  moose.  Instead  of  stockings  are 
worn  duffel  slippers,  "nips,"  which  fit  one  inside  another, 
and  are  very  serviceable.  The  Indian  hunters  wear  foot 
wraps  —  piuashigan  —  which  need  no  repairs,  are  easily 
dried,  and  do  not  wear  thin  at  heel  and  toe,  like  nips.  Al- 
most any  material  serves  for  these,  —  blanketing,  duffel, 
rabbit  skins,  or  even  old  towels. 

In  general,  the  Montagnais  are  rather  badly  clothed  in 
trading-store  furnishings.  The  Nascaupees  are  still  con- 
siderably in  skins,  some,  in  fact,  with  no  cloth  garments 
at  all.  The  men  wear  a  breech  cloth  of  skin,  a  sort  of  thin 
undershirt  of  unborn  caribou  with  the  slight  fleece  turned  in, 
leggins  of  Hudson's  Bay  Company's  "strauds,"  mocca- 
sins, and  a  skin  or  cloth  frock  over.  Commonly,  when 
inland,  no  sort  of  hat  is  worn.  The  hair  of  the  men  is  cut 
off  square  above  the  shoulders. 


210  LABRADOR 

In  winter  the  frock  has  a  hood,  and  the  moderate  coat  of 
hair  which  the  summer  skins  bear  is  allowed  to  remain  on, 
usually  turned  inside.  For  extreme  weather  this  sort  of 
frock  is  made  without  a  hood,  so  that  a  hooded  frock  with 
hair  outward  can  be  put  on  over  it.  Sleeping-bags  of 
caribou  skin  are  commonly  used. 

Many  of  the  Chimo  Indians  have  lately  adopted  trousers 
for  winter  wear,  but  the  little  band  of  George  River  people 
under  Chief  Ostinitsu  still  prefer  leggins  and  the  bare  thigh. 
No  foreign  language  is  yet  spoken  by  this  group,  nor  do 
they  use  ordinarily  either  bread  or  salt. 

Although  well  off  for  guns,  the  chief  means  of  support 
of  this  band  are  those  of  the  prehistoric  period.  In  fa- 
vourable years  the  deer-spear  alone  furnishes  the  main  living. 
When  the  great  migration  is  on,  hundreds  and  sometimes 
thousands  of  caribou  are  speared  on  the  lake  and  river 
crossings,  without  the  firing  of  a  shot.  The  smaller  game 
and  birds  are  taken  largely  in  snares  and  wooden  traps. 
Nets  of  their  own  making,  either  of  sinew  or  twine,  are 
their  most  dependable  means,  rarely  failing  for  long  of 
taking  food  during  a  large  part  of  the  year.  Even  in  the 
last  months  of  winter,  the  time  of  graver  straits,  they  rest 
their  forlorn  hope,  not  on  the  gun  or  steel  trap  or  fishing 
gear  of  trade,  but  on  the  unfailing  wooden  hook  of  ancient 
days. 

All  in  all,  the  life  of  these  people  remains  singularly  un- 
changed. It  may  be  doubted  whether  another  such  survival 
of  the  purely  primitive  hunter,  at  the  same  time  of  so  high  a 
personality  as  that  of  the  savage  of  temperate  America, 
is  to  be  found  in  any  part  of  the  world.  The  caribou  are 
to  them  what  the  buffalo  were  to  the  Indians  of  the  plains. 


THE  INDIANS  211 

So  long  as  continue  the  migrations,  the  old-time  ways  will 
prevail. 

The  cooking  of  fresh  material  is  done  most  usually  by 
boiling,  the  most  economical  method,  and  the  one  which, 
preserving  all  the  elements  of  the  material  in  hand,  wearies 
least  upon  the  taste. 

In  the  caribou  country,  the  preferred  way  of  saving  meat 
is  by  smoking  and  converting  into  pemmican.  For  this 
the  meat  is  smoked  rather  brittle,  pounded  into  powder 
and  shreds  upon  a  stone,  and  put  into  a  bag  or  bladder. 
Melted  fat  is  then  poured  in ;  when  the  covering  is  stripped 
off,  the  pemmican  looks  like  a  lump  of  tallow,  but  an  in- 
cision with  the  thumb  nail  exposes  the  meat. 

In  the  high,  cool  barrens,  whole  carcasses,  skinned  and 
cleaned,  are  left  on  the  gravel-beaches  to  dry  black  in  the 
sun  and  wind.  Sometimes  many  hundreds  of  carcasses 
thus  exposed  may  be  seen  along  the  beaches  at  the  spearing 
places. 

The  art  of  making  pemmican  is  practised  also  by  certain 
Africans  and  other  primitive  peoples,  and  the  grease  is 
sometimes  replaced  by  honey  or  some  similar  preservative. 

If  it  is  not  surprising  that  so  convenient  a  means  of  deal- 
ing with  the  food-supply  should  be  found  in  various  parts 
of  the  world,  there  is  nevertheless  a  deer  product  in  northern 
use  which  might  more  naturally  be  presumed  as  of  only 
local  use.  This  is  the  uinastikai  of  the  caribou  country; 
into  the  paunch  of  the  caribou  is  put  the  blood,  a  little  of 
the  partly  digested  moss  is  left  in,  and  the  whole  is  cooked 
and  dried,  when  it  may  be  crumbled  into  grains  like  brown- 
ish gunpowder.  It  does  not  seem  to  be  regarded  as  a 
delicacy,  being,  it  would  appear,  more  valued  than  liked, 


212  LABRADOR 

and  used  chiefly  in  times  of  scarcity.  It  is  also  prepared 
in  northern  Europe,  and  quite  possibly  may  be  found  around 
the  entire  reindeer  north.  When  starting  for  a  day's  hunt 
in  winter,  the  Nascaupee  takes  a  cup  of  water,  stirs  in  a 
handful  of  uinastikai,  and  drinks  the  mixture.  Until 
through  hunting  he  takes  no  more  food.  The  same  ab- 
stinence during  the  day's  hunting  is  noted  of  the  Blackfeet 
by  Shultz,  and  is  doubtless  common  to  the  North  American 
races. 

It  is  probable  that  the  slightly  digested  moss  which  enters 
into  the  uinastikai  appeals  to  our  natural  desire,  seldom 
gratified  in  the  northern  life,  for  starchy  food.  A  certain 
amount  of  this  is  contained  by  cladonia  moss,  although  by 
itself  it  is  hardly  digestible.  The  Ungava  Eskimo  are  said 
to  chop  up  the  caribou  moss  with  seal  oil  as  a  sort  of  salad. 
If  its  use  among  primitive  people  is  anything  like  coexten- 
sive with  the  range  of  the  reindeer,  there  must  be  a  practical 
justification  for  it. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  berries  in  the  semi-barrens, 
the  service-berry,  or  mountain  cranberry,  being  the  one  of 
principal  importance  to  the  Indians.  To  them  it  is  known 
as  idshitshimfo,  "  bitter-berry."  The  shore  people  call 
it  simply  the  redberry.  The  cloud-berry,  or  bake-apple, 
grows  here  and  there  in  damp  places,  even  to  the  bleak 
bogs  of  the  height  of  land  east  of  the  middle  George  River. 
Blueberries,  delicate  of  flavour  and  structure,  grow  on  many 
of  the  coast  islands  and  inland  hills.  They  grow  so  close 
to  the  ground  in  exposed  places  that  often  it  is  not  easy  to 
pick  one  without  getting  a  little  grit  at  the  same  time. 
The  crowberry,  or  curlewberry,  locally  "  blackberry ,"  is 
very  common  near  the  coast,  but  is  insipid. 


THE  INDIANS  213 

In  the  southern  half  of  the  peninsula  the  common  blue- 
berry grows  abundantly  in  burnt,  areas,  and  constitutes 
an  important  crop  to  both  bears  and  Indians.  At  con- 
venient places  the  outgoing  families  burn  fresh  areas  each 
spring,  as  the  yield  falls  away  after  two  or  three  crops. 
Coming  up  river  in  the  early  .fall,  the  families  camp  at  a 
suitable  distance  from  their  berry  farm,  and  the  men  make 
a  kind  of  surround  hunt  for  bears.  Sometimes  as  many 
as  fifteen  are  taken  in  a  few  days.  Then  the  women  and 
children  turn  in  for  the  berries.  A  good  deal  of  blueberry 
cake  is  made,  the  berries  being  stewed  in  a  kettle  until  they 
will  hold  together,  and  then  dried.  The  name  of  the  cake 
means  "like  liver/7  from  its  final  appearance;  it  will  keep 
indefinitely.  The  blueberry  is  minish,  the  "little-berry." 

Formerly  the  barren-ground  bear  ranged  rather  widely 
in  the  northern  districts.  The  last  one  reported  was  killed 
near  the  Barren-groundland  Lake  of  the  George  about  the 
year  1894.  Peter  McKenzie,  who  has  bought  their  skins 
at  Chimo,  says  the  hair  was  very  dark,  even  black.  Both 
Eskimo  and  Indian  regard  it  as  aggressive  and  dangerous, 
though  the  Eskimo  tales  at  least  need  not  be  taken  too 
seriously.  They  are  afraid  of  the  common  black  bear, 
being  unfamiliar  with  it.  The  much  more  formidable  white 
bear  they  make  little  of,  attacking  him  readily  with  hand 
weapons.  No  complete  skin  of  the  barren-ground  bear  of 
Labrador  has  been  examined;  the  species  is  probably 
extinct  now,  and  while  it  is  not  unlikely  to  have  been  a 
variety  of  grizzly,  its  identity  may  never  be  established. 

The  caribou  range  from  Hudson  Strait  to  the  coast  at 
Belle  Isle  Strait,  where  they  sometimes  mix  with  the  larger 
woodland  species.  The  migrations  do  not  hold  together 


214  LABRADOR 

after  leaving  the  barrens,  but  scatter  into  the  timbered 
country  of  the  Hamilton  Inlet  basin,  and  from  there  to  the 
Atlantic.  Sometimes  the  greater  herd  stays  south  two  or 
three  years,  to  the  great  privation,  or  worse,  of  the  Indians. 
The  families  east  of  the  George  can  generally  reach  the  coast 
in  time  to  save  themselves.  At  Chimo,  in  the  nineties,  nearly 
half  the  people  starved  or  died  about  the  post  from  illnesses 
due  to  their  enfeebled  condition.  Actual  starvation  may 
happen  almost  anywhere  excepting  in  the  short  summer, 
for  subsistence  is  not  altogether  secure  in  any  district  with- 
out the  aid  of  coast  provisions.  The  late  Charles  Robertson, 
whose  last  years  were  passed  at  Pointe  Bleue,  used  to  speak 
with  feeling  of  the  bad  conditions  on  the  "Nichicun  side," 
as  an  indefinite  area  north  of  Rupert  River  is  called. 
During  the  long  administration  at  Chimo  of  Mr.  Matheson, 
lately  retired,  it  was  the  usual  yearly  happening  that  five 
or  six  hunters  "did  not  come  back."  They  had  fallen 
somewhere,  hunting  to  the  last,  —  for  the  less  the  strength 
of  the  hunter,  the  more  urgent  the  need  of  finding  some- 
thing before  it  is  too  late. 

The  semi-barrens  of  the  northeast,  the  home  of  the 
Nascaupees,  and  of  the  caribou  they  live  on,  is  in  summer 
an  attractive  country.  Unmapped  lakes  of  large  size  lie 
along  the  height  of  land  east  of  the  George,  and  smaller 
ones  here  and  there  to  the  very  coast.  When  the  deer  are 
passing  north,  the  best  crossing  is  often  at  Mistinisi,  a  fine 
lake  fifteen  or  twenty  miles  long  discharging  into  the  Barren- 
ground  Lake.  The  crossing-place  is  six  or  eight  miles  from 
the  east  end,  and  is  at  least  a  third  of  a  mile  wide.  If  the 
leaders  of  the  migration  are  turned,  the  whole  route  is 
shifted,  perhaps  a  long  distance.  It  is  certain  that  very 


THE  INDIANS  215 

slight  causes  must  serve  to  determine  their  course  of 
migration,  for  no  one  can  tell  just  where  it  will  go.  From 
Atlantic  to  Alaska,  throughout  the  immense  territory  of 
the  barrens,  this  is  true;  no  race  or  tribe  can  foretell  in 
this  absolutely  important  matter.  Some  scattering  deer 
are  found  over  the  country  apart  from  the  main  herd ;  and 
the  latter  may  break  up  into  smaller  bands. 

The  shore  people  from  Hopedale  north  formerly  depended 
much  on  their  deer  supply.  For  some  years  this  has  failed. 
The  southward  movement  was  never  much  depended  on 
at  the  coast,  while  recent  fires  have  swept  so  much  of  the 
country  south  of  Davis  Inlet  that  the  northward  movement 
may  be  shunted  off  inland  around  the  burnt  district  for 
a  long  time  to  come. 

So  far  as  the  caribou  and  the  Indian  are  concerned,  the 
loss  of  the  shore  people  is  quite  their  gain,  for  the  latter 
are  well  armed,  good  shots,  and  have  less  restraint  in  killing 
than  the  Indians.  An  Eskimo  family  south  of  Nain  told 
the  writer  that  they  ought  to  get  one  hundred  deer  in  a  good 
season,  for  themselves  and  dogs.  North  of  Nain  conditions 
are  less  changed.  The  Eskimo  hunters  from  Nain  and 
Okkak  meet  near  the  height  of  land  west  of  Okkak  late  in 
the  winter,  and  often  get  all  the  meat  their  dogs  can  haul 
out.  Large  wolves,  varying  from  gray  to  black,  accom- 
pany the  herds. 

The  northern  Indians  are  still  polygamous,  though  the 
limited  number  of  women  tends  toward  practical  monogamy. 
The  work  about  the  lodge  is  done  mainly  by  the  women; 
what  with  dressing  skins,  making  pemmican,  and  the 
ordinary  housework,  they  are  often  overworked.  In  time 
of  scarcity  there  is  little  for  them  to  do,  while  the  men, 


216  LABRADOR 

as  straits  continue,  wear  down  rapidly  under  the  constant 
hunting.  On  the  hunter,  in  the  end,  hangs  the  fate  of  all, 
and  this  is  to  be  remembered  when  in  times  of  plenty  the 
men  are  found  merely  spearing  the  deer  as  they  make  the 
crossing  and  leaving  the  hard  work  of  meat  and  skins  to 
the  women.  In  the  evil  day  that  is  sure  to  come,  it  is  most 
often  the  women  and  children  who  survive,  husbanding 
their  strength  in  the  lodges  until  some  hunter  brings  game. 
There  is  no  question  as  to  the  fate  of  the  hunter  who  does 
not  return,  though  the  spot  where  he  sank  to  his  lonely 
end  may  never  be  known. 

These  recurring  vicissitudes  of  the  hunting  life,  especially 
in  the  farther  north,  must  be  taken  account  of  before  judg- 
ment is  passed  upon  some  of  the  customs  and  traits  of  such 
races.  Until  recently  the  old  and  feeble  among  the  people 
were  at  times  put  out  of  the  way  by  their  relatives.  It 
must  be  understood  not  only  that  the  necessary  alternative 
was  usually  abandonment  and  death  by  freezing  or  starva- 
tion, but  that  the  event  was  brought  about  by  the  request 
of  the  person  concerned. 

It  might  be  difficult  to  find  a  people  more  devoted  to 
their  own  than  these.  In  his  well-known  Twenty-five 
Years  of  Service  John  McLean  has  an  interesting  chap- 
ter on  their  traits,  his  long  relations  with  them  standing 
in  as  good  stead  as  the  imagination  which  gives  colour  to 
Hind's  accounts  of  them  as  seen  at  Seven  Islands  in  later 
years  in  his  Labrador  Peninsula.  To  quote  a  passage :  — 

"In  their  intercourse  with  us  the  Nascaupees  evince  a 
very  different  disposition  from  the  other  branches  of  the 
Cree  family,  being  selfish  and  inhospitable  in  the  extreme ; 
exacting  rigid  payment  for  the  smallest  portion  of  food. 


THE  INDIANS  217 

Yet  I  do  not  know  that  we  have  a  right  to  blame  a  practice 
in  them  which  they  have  undoubtedly  learned  from  us. 
What  do  they  obtain  from  us  without  payment  ?  Nothing ; 
not  a  shot  of  powder,  not  a  ball,  not  a  flint.  But  whatever 
may  be  said  of  their  conduct  towards  the  whites,  no  people 
can  exercise  the  laws  of  hospitality  with  greater  generosity, 
or  show  less  selfishness  toward  each  other,  than  the  Nascau- 
pees.  The  only  part  of  an  animal  a  hunter  retains  for  him- 
self is  the  head ;  every  other  part  is  given  up  for  the  com- 
mon benefit.  Fish,  flesh,  and  fowl  are  distributed  in  the 
same  liberal  and  impartial  manner ;  and  he  who  contributes 
most  seems  as  contented  with  his  share,  however  small 
it  may  be,  as  if  he  had  no  share  in  procuring  it.  In  fact,  a 
community  of  goods  seems  almost  established  among  them. 
The  few  articles  they  purchase  from  us  shift  from  hand 
to  hand,  and  seldom  remain  more  than  two  or  three  days  in 
the  hands  of  the  original  purchasers.'7 

The  Cree,  which  is  considered  the  parent  language  of  all 
the  Algic  dialects,  is  believed  to  have  had  its  early  home 
and  centre  of  development  not  far  from  its  present  place. 
The  Iroquois  also  are  thought  to  have  emerged  from  the 
same  quarter, —  " somewhere  north  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
and  east  of  Hudson  Bay."  The  development  of  either 
race  in  such  a  latitude  would  seem  to  be  one  of  numbers 
rather  than  of  racial  type  or  language,  for  the  last  Glacial 
period  there  ended  only  a  few  thousand  years  ago,  while 
the  physical  type  of  both  these  peoples  appears  to  have 
been  very  long  established ;  and,  as  well  as  their  accessories 
of  clothing  and  other  belongings,  gives  a  strong  impression 
of  development  in  more  moderate  latitudes. 

The  Algonquin  group  of  languages,  to  which  all  the  dia- 
lects of  the  peninsula  belong,  are  both  well  developed  in 
method  and  generally  agreeable  in  sound.  Their  accept- 


218  LABRADOR 

ability  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  ear  is  evident  from  the  con- 
tinued use  over  the  country  of  their  innumerable  place- 
names.  Once  adopted  by  the  white  race,  these  names  are 
rarely  displaced;  indeed,  are  brought  more  into  use  as 
time  goes  on.  More  than  half  of  the  Indian  place-names 
of  the  northeastern  states  would  be  readily  understood  by 
the  Montagnais  or  the  Nascaupees  of  Ungava  Bay :  thus, 
K'taadn,  Monadnock,  and  Wachusett;  Penobscot,  Kenne- 
bec,  and  Connecticut;  Massachusetts,  Narraganset,  and 
Manhattan,  are  as  plain  in  their  meaning  to  the  northern- 
most Cree  of  the  barrens  as  they  are  familiar  in  sound  to 
the  white  dwellers  of  New  England. 

To  the  white  stranger  these  are  merely  well-sounding 
names,  but  without  significance ;  to  the  Indian  each  brings 
its  image:  the  " Great  Mountain";  the  " Mountain-stand- 
ing-alone"; the  " Long-open- water"  (Moosehead  Lake); 
"Long-river";  the  " Region-about-the-large-hills "  (Blue 
Hills);  the  " Point-country "  (Mount  Hope  Point);  "The 
Island,"  —  and  the  list  might  go  on. 

Algonquin  place-names  are  rarely  fanciful;  the  method 
of  life  required  an  accurate  and  serviceable  system  of  geo- 
graphical description,  the  function  of  which  was  too  im- 
portant to  be  trifled  with.  Much  of  the  eastern  country 
was  remarkably  irregular  and  made  up  of  features  often 
repeating  themselves  at  different  angles.  Few  regions  of 
the  world,  perhaps,  are  as  confusing  to  the  traveller  as 
were  formerly  the  vast  forested  areas  of  mountains  and 
watercourses  throughout  the  north  Atlantic  belt. 

Of  necessity  the  descriptive  method  of  the  people  was  of 
almost  legal  severity,  and  is  in  the  north  to-day.  Personal 
names,  however,  are  often  subjects  of  fancy.  The  humour 


THE  INDIANS  219 

of  the  people  lays  quick  hold  of  the  possibilities  of  the  nick- 
name. 

Not  infrequently  the  name  of  a  child  is  given  from  some 
trait  or  chance  occurrence.  The  name  Mattawayshish, 
"  Play  bear/'  belonging  to  an  Indian  first  seen  by  the  writer 
as  a  tall  old  man,  dignified  though  feeble,  was  doubtless 
given  by  the  mother  to  the  little  boy  who  played  behind  the 
bushes  in  days  long  gone. 

A  short,  active  man  with  a  peg-top  build  was  nicknamed 
Mistnouk,  from  the  great  triangular  fly  known  in  Maine  as 
the  moose-fly.  A  stranger  from  across  some  far  water 
was  dubbed  " Over-sea"  or  its  Indian  equivalent.1  Indian 
rebaptisms,  as  to  name,  are  not  uncommon,  especially 
in  connection  with  younger  men  of  no  especial  standing. 
Many  of  the  Montagnais  have  French  names.  Neverthe- 
less, as  many  as  half  the  people,  it  may  be,  speak  only  the 
aboriginal  tongue ;  their  names,  with  those  of  many  others, 
are  naturally  still  of  the  vernacular. 

As  regards  the  language  as  a  whole,  it  is  probable  that 
few  but  its  actual  students  realize  its  scope  and  resources. 
Notwithstanding  the  number  of  names  both  of  places  and 
persons  which  we  have  accepted  from  the  race,  it  would 
not  be  far  wrong  to  say  that  the  chance  person  of  cultiva- 
tion, if  told  that  the  Indian  language  consisted  of  a  few 
uncouth  words  of  limited  import,  would  assent  as  a  matter 
of  course.  It  is  true  that  their  field  of  observation  as  com- 
pared with  that  of  modern  civilization  is  limited.  The 
swelling  tide  of  our  technical  vocabularies,  our  now  half- 
inanimate  burden  of  metaphysical  terms,  have  scarcely 

1  A  northern  Indian  had  a  name  meaning  "  Man-in-the-Moon." 


220  LABRADOR 

a  counterpart  in  the  unwritten  speech  of  the  lodge  and  the 
open. 

Yet  in  the  human  relation  the  tongue  falls  little  if  any- 
thing short ;  its  terms  for  a  thousand  features  of  earth  and 
sky  and  the  endless  manifestations  of  the  outdoor  world 
are  far  beyond  our  own ;  our  Bible,  Old  Testament  and  New, 
finds  its  way  into  the  language  without  loss,  and  an  inherit- 
ance of  story  and  song,  no  ruder  than  that  of  our  own  race 
at  a  pitifully  near  period,  is  passed  by  clear  minds  from 
old  to  young  as  the  generations  go. 

In  Lemoine's  French-Montagnais  Dictionary  are  some 
twelve  thousand  title  words,  yet  the  commoner  forms  are 
not  exhausted.  In  Watkins'  Cree  Dictionary  are  thirteen 
thousand  five  hundred  Indian  title  words,  and  it  is  probable 
that  Indians  of  superior  mind  command  a  yet  greater  vo- 
cabulary. Without  the  support  of  writing,  the  Indian  mind 
compares  in  this  capacity  evenly,  or  better  than  evenly,  with 
that  of  the  white  races.  When  it  is  remembered  that, 
according  to  Whitney,  three  thousand  to  five  thousand 
words  " cover  the  ordinary  needs  of  cultivated  intercourse" 
and  that  "  three  thousand  is  a  very  large  estimate  for  the 
number  ever  used  in  writing  and  speaking  by  a  well-educated 
man/7  the  dimensions  of  the  Algic  list  of  ideas  may  be  some- 
what appreciated. 

Some  peculiar  advantages  of  structure  in  the  Cree  have 
been  urged  recently  by  Berloin  in  a  remarkable  analysis 
of  more  than  two  hundred  pages,  entitled  La  Parole  Hu- 
maine.  His  conclusions  are  singularly  complimentary  to 
the  language;  their  level  may  be  perceived  from  a  sen- 
tence of  his  last  page,  —  "Peut-il  concevoir  meilleur  et  plus 
noble  langage?" 


THE  INDIANS  221 

Whether  his  enthusiasm  is  to  be  fully  shared,  or  whether 
such  a  view  must  be  taken  as  going  obviously  too  far,  if 
only  because  the  language  was  conceived  by  savages,  may 
be  left  for  scholars  yet  to  come. 

Superficially,  the  structure  of  the  language  has  some 
resemblances  to  Latin,  mainly  in  its  wonderfully  inflected 
verb.  The  noun  is  little  inflected,  although  it  has  a  certain 
accusative  usage.  The  adjective  is  put  in  a  verbal  form, 
as  wapau,  "it  is  white";  hence  wapush,  " little- white-one " 
(rabbit),  and  wapilao,  "white  partridge."  Adverbs  are 
favoured,  and  are  often  placed  early  in  the  sentence,  as  in 
"Quickly  I  ran."  Pronouns  are  rather  fully  inflected. 
The  particles  are  wanting.  Of  the  verb  it  may  be  said 
that  it  bears  nearly  the  whole  weight  of  the  language. 
The  development  of  this  part  of  speech  is  extraordinary. 
The  Dictionary  of  Father  Lemoine  gives  three  hundred  and 
seventy-seven  inflections  of  a  single  regular  verb,  and  pre- 
sents no  less  than  fifteen  conjugations.  The  number  of 
inflections  in  actual  use  much  exceeds  this  number. 

The  resemblance  to  Latin  is  quite  close  in  some  of  these 
verbal  inflections,  notably  such  as  the  imperfect  in  -aban 
as  compared  with  -abat  in  Latin,  and  the  perfect  with  the 
sharp  it,  as  in  the  Latin  amavit. 

The  dual  form  for  we  exists,  as  in  the  primitive  Greek 
and  German.  A  special  inflection  is  observed  when  the 
subject  of  the  verb  is  speaking  to  a  person  present.  The 
number  of  inflections  is  nearly  doubled  by  the  use  of  sepa- 
rate forms  for  animate  and  inanimate  objects,  thus:  — 

I  like  the  dog  —  ni  shatshitan  atum. 

I  like  the  tent  —  ni  shatshiau  mitshiuap. 


222  LABRADOR 

Certain  articles  of  importance  are  granted  the  superior 
form  of  the  verb:  among  these  are  dshamits,  " snow-shoes  " ; 
ashtesh,"  gloves";  m'as/i/'meat";  and  the  names  of  the  dif- 
ferent furs.  Curiously,  perhaps,  for  with  aboriginal  races  the 
flesh  is  weak  in  this  connection,  ishkut'eu-a'pui,  "  whiskey," 
is  not  given  the  higher  genre,  iiorshuliau,  "  money"  (silver), 
while  uapamin,  "  apple,"  is. 

New  names  have  come  with  the  white  regime :  — 

Horse,  Kapilikishuao  —  he  that  has  but  a  single  toe. 

Cow,  Uishauautuk  —  the  yellow  deer. 

Turkey,  Mishildo  —  great  partridge. 

Cat,  MiHsh. 

Iron,  Assukumdn  —  kettle-metal  or  material. 

Tin,  Uapukuman  —  white-metal. 

Gun,  Passigan  —  thunderer. 

Soap,  Uapdkiigan  —  whitener. 

Spy-glass,  Tushkdpitshigan  —  instrument  for  seeing  far. 

The  ending  s  or  sh,  as  in  wapush,  "  rabbit,"  and  miush, 
"cat, "  is  a  diminutive.  Such  is  Tshipshas  (lake),  "Little 
Tshipshau/ '  and  Mistassinis, ' '  Little  Mistassini . ' '  The  latter 
name  signifies  "  Great  Stone,"  from  a  large  boulder  on  the 
shore  of  that  lake,  which  is  regarded  as  having  occult 
influences.  Almost  all  the  names  of  fish  and  other  crea- 
tures are  plainly  descriptive. 

It  may  be  inferred  that  not  much  borrowing  from  other 
languages  has  occurred  for  a  long  time.  Considering  how 
few  of  our  common  names,  such  as  horse,  dog,  cod,  trout, 
not  to  mention  names  of  inanimate  objects,  have  any 
descriptive  meaning  to  us,  as  words,  this  survival  of  original 
meanings  in  the  Indian  emphasizes  the  compositeness,  at 
least,  of  our  English  tongue. 

Wa-  as    a  prefix  means  white;  was-  or  wash-,  bright 


THE  INDIANS  223 

and  shining.  Wash  alone  means  sky;  Washeshkundu 
means  blue,  sky-colour. 

The  language  is  mild  in  its  cadences.  Little  conversa- 
tion accompanies  serious  occupation  and  travelling.  When 
making  camp,  the  young  men  toss  their  japes  back  and  forth, 
and  about  the  fire  the  women  talk  and  laugh  when  by  them- 
selves in  the  world- wide  fashion. 

The  religion  of  the  country  is  professedly  almost  wholly 
Christian.  The  people  trading  around  Hudson  Bay  are 
Protestants,  while  all  the  Montagnais  are  Catholics,  cared 
for  spiritually  by  the  various  missions  of  the  Gulf  and  the 
Saguenay. 

It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  old  beliefs  are  extinct ; 
on  the  contrary,  no  reserve  or  gathering  place  is  so  changed 
in  blood  or  so  affected  by  white  neighbourhood  as  not  to 
have  among  its  members  those  who  are  priests  of  the  older 
theology  and  can  deal  with  at  least  some  of  the  overpowers 
of  earth  and  sky.  The  influence  of  these  many  spirits  for  or 
against  the  laymen  is  determined  largely  by  the  rites  of  the 
manitu  lodge.  The  spirits  are  not  malevolent  if  uninflu- 
enced, although  naturally  less  to  be  trusted  as  their  form 
approaches  the  human ;  but  the  power  of  the  priest,  liter- 
ally a  manitsesht,  or  "  spirit-person,"  may  win  over  almost 
any  spirit  to  evil  purposes.  The  one  supernatural  being 
of  original  malice  is  the  frightful  urindigo,  described  as  a 
cannibal  man  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  high.  He  lies  in  wait 
for  the  solitary  hunter,  and  rushes  out  upon  him.  The 
mere  glimpse  of  a  windigo  brings  calamity  and  an  early 
and  unfortunate  end.  The  spell  may,  however,  be  broken 
by  making  the  proper  observances ;  these  are  usually  done 
by  the  manitsesht,  who  has  power  in  these  matters. 


224  LABRADOH 

"The  Great  Spirit/'  the  Tshe  Mariitu,  is  wholly  good,  but 
remote  and  scarcely  approachable.  The  conception  seems 
hardly  anthropomorphic  at  all,  certainly  not  as  clearly  so 
as  the  Biblical  one. 

What  is  doubtless  an  Indianized  doctrine  of  the  Trinity 
has  had  standing  for  many  years,  even  in  districts  west  of 
Hudson  Bay. 

"The  First  One"  —  Puk-wa-sha-ne-magan  —  "gives  us 
that  which  we  must  beg  for"  (what  is  necessary  for  mere 
existence). 

"The  Second  One"  —  Wahkt-Kna  —  "gives  us  too  much, 
more  than  we  can  use"  —  (deer,  fish,  etc.,  in  great  numbers). 

"The  Third  One"  —  Tshe  Manitu  —  "is  the  greatest  of 
all;  He  gives  us  the  Fur,  of  which  we  cannot  have  too 
much." 

It  must  be  confessed  that  as  to  the  concerns  of  the  other 
world  the  concept  is  not  very  comprehensive. 

All  notable  features  of  the  country  have  their  local 
spirits.  As  a  safe  rule,  the  ordinary  person  does  well  to 
avoid  them.  Some  are  always  wejl  disposed,  but  as  a 
spirit  of  bad  intentions  may  take  an  attractive  form  for 
his  own  purposes,  it  is  better  for  the  laymen  at  least  to  have 
no  dealings  with  any  of  them.  The  people  are  readily  sus- 
ceptible to  missionary  instruction,  in  all  earnestness  put- 
ting on  the  new  faith  over  the  old,  which  may  be  supposed 
to  relinquish  its  ancient  hold  only  about  in  proportion  as 
the  hunting  life  is  given  up.  This  hardly  occurs  save  with 
persons  of  much  white  blood;  so  long  as  the  wilderness 
life  and  the  language  continue,  the  old  theology  will  survive. 

Under  the  strict  injunctions  of  the  Gulf  missionaries,  the 
sound  of  the  teuehigan,  "the  ceremonial  drum,"  is  not  heard 


THE  INDIANS  225 

on  the  summer  reserve,  but  once  beyond  hearing  of  the 
missions  some  remnant  of  the  old  rites  is  not  far  to  seek. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  church  calendar  is  carried  every- 
where over  the  Montagnais  country;  each  day  a  pin  is 
moved  forward  and  pinned  through  the  paper  at  the  suc- 
ceeding date,  and  feast-days  and  Sundays  are  pretty  well 
observed.  Although  the  Oblates  do  not  require  the  people 
to  bring  their  dead  to  the  shore,  they  do  it  when  possible, 
for  burial  in  consecrated  ground;  yet  along  most  of  the 
travelled  routes  of  the  south  are  a  few  graves,  marked 
sometimes  by  wooden  cross  and  fence.  The  burial  spots 
are  held  in  respect  by  the  passers-by ;  camps  are  not  made 
very  near,  nor  the  peace  of  the  place  disturbed. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE   MISSIONS 
BY  W.  T.  GRENFELL 

The  Moravian  Mission 

IF  a  man  in  Labrador  is  not  a  fisherman,  that  is,  a  cod- 
catcher,  he  traps  fur-bearing  animals  in  winter  and  catches 
salmon  in  summer.  The  trappers  form  a  class  apart  from 
the  rest  of  the  shore  people.  They  seldom  come  out  "to 
the  coast,"  their  winter  industry  keeping  them  far  inland 
and  their  summer  salmon-catching  being  convenient  in  not 
forcing  them  to  transfer  their  families  very  far  down  the 
bays.  There  is,  however,  every  gradation,  from  the  moun- 
taineer Indian,  who  does  nothing  all  the  year  but  trap  and 
kill  deer,  through  the  Eskimo,  who  once  only  killed  seals, 
but  now  even  catches  furs  and  " fishes,"  to  the  man  who 
lives  entirely  "out  of  the  water/'  i.e.  never  outfits  for  the 
winter  furring. 

Until  1905  the  trade  of  all  these  people  was  carried  on 
by  two  great  companies,  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  and 
the  Moravian  Missions.  The  Hudson's  Bay  Company 
originally  dealt  only  with  Indians,  but  the  intermarriage 
and  settling  of  their  own  imported  servants  have  built  up 
a  class  which  beats  the  Indians  at  their  own  industry,  and 
now  does  a  far  larger  trade  in  fur.  The  Indians  are  reduced 
to  a  mere  handful,  while  the  strong  Scotch  and  Norwegian 

226 


THE  MISSIONS  227 

stock  is  steadily  growing  and  displacing  both  Indians  and 
Eskimo.  Farther  north,  the  Moravians  care  for  the  Eskimo. 
The  Hudson's  Bay  Company  have  also  made  a  bid  for  their 
trade,  establishing  posts  at  Nachvak  (since  abandoned) 
and  at  Ungava. 

At  present  the  Moravians  have  six  stations.  The  most 
northerly  station  is  that  at  Killinek,  or  Cape  Chidley. 
Here  the  Eskimo,  attracted  by  the  excellent  seal-fishery, 
walrus,  and  white-whale  fishery  to  be  had  at  the  cape, 
have  gathered  from  the  northeast  coast  and  from  Ungava 
Bay.  Though  the  turbulent  currents  and  whirlpools  are 
dangerous  to  kayaks,  the  Eskimo  have  no  fear  of  venturing 
out,  and,  at  times,  cross  to  the  Button  Islands  to  hunt 
there.  A  man  with  his  family  will,  in  the  spring,  transfer 
all  his  belongings  to  a  pan  of  ice  at  Fort  Chimo,  and  live  by 
hunting  and  shooting  on  the  floating  ice  till  he  arrives  at 
the  cape,  one  hundred  and  eighty  miles  distant.  He  finds 
no  monotony,  feels  no  cold,  and  knows  no  fear  of  conditions 
which  would  whiten  the  hair  of  many  a  bold  European. 

At  the  present  time  one  Moravian  family  dwells  at  the 
station.  They  have  themselves  built  a  house,  church, 
and  stores.  Even  the  church  is  admirably  constructed  to 
keep  out  the  cold.  It  is  floored  under  the  sills,  double 
floored  over  them,  and  filled  between  with  cement.  Thick 
tarred  paper  in  one  piece  runs  up  in  a  similar  manner  be- 
tween the  layers  of  the  wall.  To  Europeans  the  site  seems 
the  most  villainous  dwelling-place  possible.  The  settle- 
ment is  situated  in  a  deep  gulch  with  a  wall  of  rock  opposite, 
shutting  out  any  view;  a  terribly  dangerous  current  runs 
through  the  defile.  The  tides  rise  and  fall  thirty-five  feet. 
The  land  is  entirely  bare  of  woody  growth,  even  shrubs, 


228  LABRADOR 

and  for  firing  the  people  must  depend  on  what  driftwood 
is  washed  up,  or  else  on  seal-fat  lamps.  The  average  tem- 
perature for  the  year  is  far  below  freezing.  One  mail  a 
year  is  the  most  the  people  can  ever  expect.  They  can 
reach  and  talk  to  no  Europeans,  except  possibly  by  a  long 
and  dangerous  shore  journey  taken  once  in  the  winter. 
In  sickness  or  accident  there  is  no  skilled  help.  Yet  these 
patient  missionaries  have  just  selected  this  spot  for  a 
station. 

The  missionary  in  charge  at  present  is  a  splendid  speci- 
men of  humanity,  broad  and  strong  far  beyond  the  average 
man,  with  merry  blue  eyes,  and  the  abundant  light  hair  of 
a  Viking.  He  has  a  capacity  for  work,  and  an  accuracy 
of  mind  rarely  equalled.  His  hospitality  and  generous 
manner  toward  strangers,  along  with  all  his  other  splendid 
qualities,  make  him  the  ideal  man  for  the  environment. 
One  could  imagine  that  he  had  dropped  off  an  ancient 
"war  swan"  and  had  persisted  ever  since  those  days  on 
these  seemingly  God-forsaken  rocks.  The  man's  scorn  of 
physical  conditions,  the  hard  things  that  he  has  moulded 
to  his  will  and  use,  the  absolute  happiness  he  always  seems 
to  enjoy,  have  shown  to  me,  each  time  I  have  visited  the 
station,  how  man,  as  God  would  have  him  be,  towers  above 
his  circumstances.  One  leaves  the  station  regretting  that 
so  few  should  be  there  to  benefit,  humbled  and  glad  that 
men  of  such  type  still  live  to  adorn  the  human  race. 
Other  thoughts,  I  confess,  have  risen  to  my  mind  in  the 
enervating  palaces  of  some  of  those  "more  wealthy." 

Few  furs  are  caught  there.  The  white  fox  and  the  polar 
bear  alone  are  not  uncommon.  The  sight  and  smell  of 
seal  and  walrus  blubber  are  everywhere.  Fat  is  the  meas- 


THE  MISSIONS  229 

lire  of  wealth.  Fat  in  gallons  is  the  coin  of  their  realm. 
To  the  Eskimo  of  the  place,  such  a  man  and  his  mission 
mean  everything,  pessimists  notwithstanding. 

The  next  station  is  at  Ramah,  about  a  hundred  miles  to 
the  southeastward.  The  intermediate  station  of  the  Hud- 
son's Bay  Company  at  Nachvak  has  recently  been  with- 
drawn, and  the  withdrawal  of  the  Ramah  station  is  under 
consideration.  The  Eskimo  here  dwell  in  holes  in  the 
ground  with  skin  bowel-parchment  windows  that  do  not 
open,  and  with  roofs  and  entrances  made  of  sods.  There 
are  no  islands  near  to  supply  birds  and  eggs ;  the  decrease 
in  the  number  of  seal  and  walrus  and  the  low  market  or 
local  value  of  sea-trout  have  seriously  impoverished  the 
people.  This  poverty  means  that  they  are  poorly  equipped 
for  travel ;  in  consequence,  they  dawdle  about  the  unsavoury 
village  when  they  should  be  seeking  and  finding  sustenance, 
gaining  health  and  strength  by  migrating  from  place  to 
place  as  they  always  did  of  yore.  Here  they  are  much 
more  dependent  upon  the  missionary,  upon  his  supply  of 
clothing,  and  upon  his  kablenak  or  European  food,  than 
is  good  for  them.  From  their  physical  condition  it  is 
perfectly  easy  to  tell  a  Ramah  Eskimo  from  a  Cape  Chidley 
man,  though  you  may  never  have  seen  either  previously. 

A  journey  to  the  southward  of  nearly  another  hundred 
miles  brings  us  to  the  third  station  at  Hebron.  This  is 
still  a  good  hunting  station.  Its  Eskimo  have  been  wisely 
taught  by  the  Brethren  to  segregate  and  not  congregate. 
No  permanent  village  has  come  into  being.  A  few  sod 
houses  and  one  or  two  better  houses  exist.  This  would 
to-day  be  probably  far  the  most  creditable  settlement  of 
Eskimo,  had  it  not  been  for  the  carrying  of  several  families 


230  LABRADOR 

to  show  them  to  the  curious  at  the  exhibitions  at  Chicago, 
Buffalo,  and  elsewhere.  Few  returned,  and  they  richer 
only  in  those  heirlooms  of  civilization,  the  germs  of  specific 
diseases,  which  most  efficiently  put  a  stop  to  the  growth 
of  the  community,  and  left  a  diseased  and  miserable  people 
to  be  a  constant  danger  to  every  "Innuit"  on  the  coast. 

Another  forty  miles  to  the  south  is  Okkak,  the  largest 
station,  with  some  three  hundred  and  fifty  souls.  It  is 
within  the  northern  limit  of  trees,  and  consequently  houses, 
boats,  and  firing  are  more  easily  acquired.  A  large  number 
of  permanent  wooden  houses  have  been  erected.  At  cer- 
tain seasons  of  the  year  considerable  social  life  is  possible. 
The  annual  census  shows  that  .during  the  fifty  years  pre- 
vious to  1902  the  congregation  was  steadily  growing  in 
numbers.  Some  small  arts  and  crafts  were  established  and 
quite  a  trade  done  in  ivory  carvings,  in  modern  skin  dolls, 
tubiks  or  tents,  kayaks,  etc.,  and  in  wooden  models  of  na- 
tive houses,  komatiks,  and  such  like.  Sickness  imported 
by  families  returning  from  the  exhibitions,  overcrowding 
and  lack  of  sanitation  with  its  inevitable  shadow,  con- 
sumption, epidemics  arising  from  the  increasing  contact 
with  the  white  fishermen  who  fish  in  hundreds  on  what 
once  the  Eskimo  considered  "  their  grounds,"  have  shorn 
the  settlement  of  much  of  its  original  strength. 

The  Brethren  here  now  have  a  little  hospital  besides  their 
educational  and  religious  work.  At  first  the  "Innuits" 
would  not  subject  themselves  to  the  necessary  hospital 
regulations.  We  carried  thither  the  first  patients  in  our 
little  hospital  steamer.  A  severe  epidemic  of  grippe  (with 
heart  troubles  and  other  complications)  was  killing  many. 
We  had  picked  up  a  full  load,  and  dumped  them  on  the  new 


West  Coast  Eskimo 


THE  MISSIONS  231 

doctor.  It  was  a  new  experience  to  see  an  Eskimo  trying 
to  accommodate  himself  to  a  bed.  The  warmth  of  the  ward 
was  objectionable.  The  additional  heat  of  bedclothes  was 
intolerable.  Washed  to  a  fine  nut-brown,  with  their  jet- 
black  hair  and  large,  dark  eyes,  they  formed  a  most  pleas- 
ing contrast  to  the  white  sheets  on  which  they  lay  when 
we  paid  our  first  morning  visit.  Covering  of  any  kind  they 
had  long  disposed  of,  and  even  then  they  were  perspiring 
and  panting.  Nature  seems  to  have  taught  them  what 
civilization  has  made  us  forget,  —  the  value  of  fresh  air. 

In  a  terribly  fatal  epidemic  of  typhoid  fever  in  1896, 1  had 
tried  to  persuade  some  of  my  patients  to  remain  in  their 
tents  when  very  feverish.  In  one  case  I  had  endeavoured 
to  enforce  my  ruling  by  removing  the  patient's  garments. 
Such  a  trifling  " impediment"  had  not  daunted  him.  Why 
stay  under  cover  when  you  are  hot  ?  Next  morning  when 
I  returned,  I  found  him  stark-naked,  huddled  up  in  the 
cold,  waiting  for  the  doctor  and  the  ravished  clothes.  He 
eventually  recovered,  in  spite  of  me. 

Nain,  the  fifth  station,  is  ninety  miles  farther  south,  and 
accessible  by  mail  steamer.  It  is  a  perfect  harbour,  en- 
tirely shut  in  from  the  sea  by  countless  islands,  great  and 
small.  Its  beautiful  bay  runs  inland  over  forty  miles, 
and  one  can  travel  by  steamer  for  a  hundred  miles  south 
without  once  going  into  the  open  ocean.  Nain  is  at  once 
the  head  station  of  the  Brethren,  the  seat  of  the  Bishop, 
who  is  also  a  German  consul,  and  is  of  the  oldest  standing. 
The  well -tended  vegetable  patches,  the  tidy  paths  through 
the  woods  so  long  preserved,  and  now  so  lonely  looking 
against  the  otherwise  absolutely  naked  ground,  the  prim 
flower-gardens,  and  the  orthodox  tea-houses  (with  more 


232  LABRADOR 

often  than  not  the  appropriate  picture  of  the  Kaiser), 
combine  to  transport  a  visitor  momentarily  to  Europe,  to 
the  German  homes  which  these  good  men  have  left,  never  to 
return. 

I  had  the  pleasure  —  a  partly  melancholy  pleasure  — 
of  introducing  the  first  gramophone  to  the  attention  of 
a  venerable  brother  who  had  not  visited  his  home  for  many 
years.  As  he  drew  near  the  room  in  which  the  machine 
was  playing  some  musical  record,  I  saw  the  unbidden  tear 
roll  down  my  dear  old  friend's  cheek,  as  even  that  crude 
music  irresistibly  called  to  memory  former  happy  days 
when  the  music  of  the  Fatherland  was  all  about  him. 

Near  Nain  is  a  great  outcrop  of  blue  labradorite.  The 
hunting  and  fishing  near  this  station  are  also  excellent  at 
times,  and  there  are  many  things  to  attract  the  visitor. 
But  first  amongst  these  are  the  hospitable  Brethren  and  the 
neat  congregations  at  their  regular  services,  where  the 
excellent  singing  and  orchestral  playing  of  the  Eskimo  men 
and  women  is  a  revelation  to  the  stranger. 

This  station  is  the  head  of  the  trade,  too.  For  the  Mis- 
sion is  an  industrial  one,  and  therein,  to  my  mind,  lies  its 
immense  value.  It  not  only  tends  to  the  mind  and  spirit, 
but  it  looks  after  the  "vile  body."  Had  it  not  been  so 
during  the  last  one  hundred  and  fifty  years,  there  would 
now  be  no  bodies  through  which  to  get  at  souls.  There 
can  be  no  question  the  Moravians  have  so  far  saved  the 
native  population  for  Labrador.  The  more  numerous 
Eskimo  that  once  flourished  between  Hopedale,  their  south- 
ernmost Eskimo  station,  and  Anticosti  Island,  are  gone 
almost  to  a  single  man.  Eskimo  once  were  numerous  on 
both  sides  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle.  At  Battle  and  at  Cart- 


THE  MISSIONS  233 

wright  in  1800  they  were  still  numerous.  Contact  with 
white  men  has  blotted  them  out  like  chalk  from  a  black- 
board. 

I  was  intensely  surprised  to  find  by  reference  to  their 
carefully  kept  registers  from  1840  to  1890  that  the  con- 
gregations around  all  the  stations  had  actually  increased 
in  numbers.  It  is  not  fair  to  estimate  the  numbers  that 
should  now  exist  on  the  coast  by  the  average  increase  of 
Europeans,  as  some  have  done.  In  the  wild  state,  untram- 
melled by  civilization  and  unmodernized  by  missionaries, 
Eskimo  can  only  exist  in  small  numbers  and  scattered  com- 
munities, anyhow.  The  casual  reporter  visiting  Labrador 
has  more  than  once  severely  criticised  the  trade  methods 
of  the  Brethren,  which  involve  comparative  high  prices  on 
their  goods.  They  have  stigmatized  them  as  robbers  and 
oppressors.  Indeed,  they  have  been  so  misunderstood  that 
their  Conference  has  seriously  considered  abandoning  their 
trading  altogether.  Were  they  to  do  so,  there  would,  in 
a  very  brief  time,  be  no  need  for  their  spiritual  minis- 
trations. 

I  do  not  believe  any  master  of  labour  could  possibly  carry 
on  industrial  work  like  fishing  and  furring,  for  which  the 
masters  have  to  supply  all  gear,  outfit,  and  provisions  at 
their  own  risk,  if  they  employed  only  Eskimo  workmen. 

The  fact  is,  they  are  not  able  to  persevere,  and  though 
they  are,  man  for  man,  far  better  educated  than  the  men 
who  come  from  hundreds  of  miles  south  and  make  a  good 
living  by  fishing  right  at  the  Eskimo's  own  door,  yet  they 
cannot  compare  with  the  Newfoundland  and  white  fisher- 
men for  perseverance  and  what  is  known  on  this  coast  as 
"snap."  An  Eskimo  does  not  get  one  fish  for  the  other's 


234 .  LABRADOR 

ten.  Thus  the  Moravians  have  been  again  and  again 
saddled  with  debts  sorely  crippling  their  funds,  for  they 
assume  a  responsibility  no  ordinary  master  of  labour  does. 
They  look  after  the  poor,  feed  the  infirm  and  helpless,  tend 
the  sick,  educate  the  children,  and,  as  well,  minister  to  their 
spiritual  needs,  which  involves  up-keep  of  chapels,  and  all 
the  attendant  duties  and  expenses.  They  have  recently 
altered  their  methods  of  trade.  It  is  quite  possible  they 
might  profitably  be  still  further  modernized,  but  no  man 
need  fear  inquiring  into  this  noble  Mission  who  really  is 
anxious  for  the  extension  of  Christ's  Kingdom. 

The  magnificent  salary  of  the  individual  worker,  includ- 
ing the  Bishop,  is  £23  per  annum,  with  dinner  and  tea  found 
at  a  communal  board,  the  wives  taking  it  in  turn  each  week 
to  cook  and  superintend  meals.  The  children  at  seven  years 
of  age,  the  most  interesting  period  of  child  life,  have  to 
leave  the  parents,  probably  forever,  to  be  educated  at  the 
Society's  schools  in  England  or  Germany.  It  is  scarcely 
necessary  to  say  that  the  missionaries  have  no  personal  in- 
terest in  the  trade,  and  that  their  small  income  only  clothes 
and  provides  absolute  necessities  for  the  families.  The 
present  trade  manager  of  the  whole  Mission,  for  many  years 
past  my  most  beloved  friend,  has  made  many  long  journeys 
with  me  all  along  the  coast.  He  is  an  excellent  photog- 
rapher, sending  the  pictures  home  to  help  the  deputation 
workers  to  raise  the  necessary  funds,  and  he  is  but  the  type 
of  all  their  men  with  whom  I  have  been  acquainted  these 
twenty  years  past.  Soon  after  my  arrival  at  this  station, 
I  asked  him  if  they  kept  photographic  material  in  the  store. 
After  seeing  the  Eskimo  brass  band  perform,  it  seemed 
natural  they  should  perform  also  the  simpler  functions  of  a 


THE  MISSIONS  235 

photographer.  "No/'  he  replied,  "but  I  have  a  small 
private  stock."  "Would  you  sell  me  some  printing  paper? 
I  have  run  out."  "We  may  not  sell  privately/'  he 
replied,  "but  I  shall  be  glad  to  give  you  half  mine."  "But 
that  you  cannot  afford  to  do.  You  must  let  me  at  least 
defray  the  actual  cost."  "The  Society  gives  us  £23  a 
year/'  he  said,  "and  that  supplies  all  our  needs.  What 
do  I  want  more  money  for  ?  We  have  everything  we  can 
possibly  need."  The  whole  conversation  burnt  into  my 
mind.  It  is  worthy  of  reproduction  where  it  may  be  read 
by  others,  for  it  is  typical  of  the  spirit  of  all  the  workers, 
and  shows  they  have  learnt  possibly  the  hardest  lesson 
for  the  world  to  learn,  namely,  the  true  value  of  gold, 
reckoning  by  the  best  standard. 

Some  ninety  miles  to  the  south  again  is  Hopedale,  the 
sixth  station.  It  is  the  southern  border  of  the  tribe  now, 
and  one  cannot  visit  the  station  without  feeling  forcibly 
that  the  fringe  is  ravelling  out,  and  that  the  race  in  Labrador 
is  facing  its  inevitable  doom.  Mixed  with  the  dying,  purer 
type,  are  an  increasing  and  stronger  element  of  half-breeds. 
It  is  in  these  that  much  of  the  hope  for  the  future  popula- 
tion of  Labrador  at  present  lies.  Here  one  of  the  Brethren 
has  had  some  medical  training,  and  has,  single-handed,  done 
some  excellent  work  in  emergency  cases.  The  Brethren  here, 
also,  have  done  a  considerable  amount  of  scientific  work  in 
the  past,  both  in  climatology,  botany,  and  ornithology. 

The  last  Moravian  station  is  at  Makkovik,  fifty  miles 
south.  It  was  only  erected  in  1900,  and  was  put  there  in 
the  hope  of  fostering  the  scattered  half-breeds  and  settlers 
who  are  slowly  beginning  to  populate  that  section  of  coast. 
It  is  a  valuable  stand  for  those  travelling  the  coast  in  winter. 


236  LABRADOR 

To  no  other  people  on  earth  does  the  lonely  Labrador  owe 
one-half  the  debt  it  does  to  these  devoted  servants  of  the 
Moravian  Mission. 

The  Methodist  church  is  carrying  on  work  among  the 
settlers,  with  local  headquarters  for  their  mission  at  Rigolet. 
The  Anglican  church  has,  for  many  years,  supported  a  mis- 
sion, with  headquarters  at  Battle  Harbour. 

The  Labrador  Deep-sea  Mission 

In  the  report  of  the  Newfoundland  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce for  1892,  the  following  item  appeared:  — 

"  A  new  feature  worthy  of  mention  in  this  report,  affecting 
as  it  does,  more  or  less,  the  comfort  of  twenty  thousand  to 
thirty  thousand  of  our  people,  was  the  appearance  on  the 
Labrador  coast  of  the  Mission  to  Deep-sea  Fishermen  ship 
Albert,  outfitted  by  a  philanthropical  society  in  England, 
unsectarian  in  its  lines,  and  intended  to  convey  skilled 
medical  aid  to  our  fishermen  and  provide  to  some  extent 
for  their  mental  and  material  wants.  This  essay  has  been 
an  unqualified  success,  and  has  evoked  from  the  recipients 
of  its  bounty  expressions  of  deep  gratitude.  It  is  likely 
to  result  in  well-organized  cooperation  by  the  Colony  next 
season  upon  the  lines  along  which  the  Mission  ship  is  being 
worked." 

The  Mission  to  Deep-sea  Fishermen  had,  for  some  twenty 
years,  been  working  among  the  great  fleets  that  travel  all 
over  the  North  Sea.  The  Mission  owned  a  dozen  vessels, 
including  one  steamer.  These  were  mostly  fishing  vessels, 
but  in  command  of  men  who  sought  by  word  and  deed  to 
carry  the  Gospel  of  Christ  to  their  comrades  by  the  prac- 
tical messages  of  love  of  the  "Good  Samaritan."  Four  of 
the  vessels  had  small  hospitals  on  board,  and  each  carried 


THE  MISSIONS  237 

a  doctor.  The  Mission  had  driven  the  liquor  traffic  off 
the  sea,  built  homes  at  the  seaports,  and  provided  for 
religious  services,  for  good  reading,  and  for  the  care  of  those 
in  trouble  and  want.  The  Mission  Council,  at  the  request 
of  Sir  Francis  Hopwood,  one  of  its  members,  had  sent  their 
medical  superintendent  to  see  if  similar  work  were  needed 
among  the  Bankers  and  Newfoundland  fishermen.  The 
Mission  yawl  Albert,  of  one  hundred  and  fifty-one  tons  bur- 
den, sailed  out,  and  after  a  season  among  the  fishermen 
of  the  Labrador  coast,  called  into  St.  John's  to  report  be- 
fore sailing  back  to  England.  The  governor  of  the  colony 
called  a  meeting  at  Government  House  of  all  the  principal 
men,  to  receive  the  report.  As  a  result,  on  the  proposal 
of  the  Prime  Minister,  the  following  resolution  was  passed 
unanimously :  — 

"  That  this  meeting,  representing  the  principal  merchants 
and  traders  carrying  on  the  fisheries,  especially  on  the 
Labrador  coast,  and  others  interested  in  the  welfare  of  this 
colony,  desires  to  tender  its  warmest  thanks  to  the  direct- 
ors of  the  Deep-sea  Mission  for  sending  their  hospital  ship 
Albert  to  visit  the  settlement  on  the  Labrador  coast. 

"Much  of  our  fishing  industry  is  carried  on  in  regions 
beyond  the  ordinary  reach  of  medical  aid,  or  of  charity,  and 
it  is  with  the  deepest  sense  of  gratitude  that  this  meeting 
learns  of  the  amount  of  medical  and  surgical  work  done.  .  .  . 

11  This  meeting  also  desires  to  express  the  hope  that  the 
directors  may  see  their  way  to  continue  the  work  thus  begun, 
and  should  they  do  so,  they  may  be  assured  of  the  earnest 
cooperation  of  all  classes  of  this  community." 

The  government  of  Newfoundland  promised  to  excuse 
the  Mission  from  paying  any  duties  on  bringing  in  goods, 
except  any  for  sale. 


238  LABRADOR 

With  open  water  in  spring  the  Albert  returned,  carrying 
two  additional  doctors  and  nurses,  together  with  fittings 
and  drugs  for  two  small  hospitals.  One  of  these  was  not 
only  presented  to  the  work  by  Mr.  W.  B.  Grieve,  the  mer- 
chant owner  of  Battle  Harbour,  but  was  got  ready  by  him 
for  immediate  occupation.  The  government  of  Newfound- 
land supplied  a  well-skilled  pilot  for  the  ship,  and  excused 
all  dues  of  every  kind. 

The  second  hospital,  though  sent  down  early  in  sections, 
could  not  be  erected  and  ready  for  use  till  the  season  was 
nearly  over.  A  smart  little  steam-launch  was  sent  out  to 
enable  the  visiting  doctor  to  reach  places  too  far  distant  in 
the  bays  to  be  served  by  the  large  yawl  or  by  her  boats. 

At  the  present  time,  1908,  the  Society  has  four  hospitals : 
one  at  Harrington  on  the  Canadian  Labrador,  one  at  St. 
Anthony  on  the  northeast  coast  of  Newfoundland,  and  the 
original  two  at  Battle  Harbour  and  Indian  Harbour. 
Indian  Harbour  is  situated  on  an  island  in  the  entrance 
to  Hamilton  Inlet,  two  hundred  miles  north  of  the  Strait 
of  Belle  Isle;  Battle  Harbour,  just  where  the  Strait  meets 
the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

An  experience  of  twenty  years  of  work  at  sea  among 
fishermen  has  proved  for  me  that  the  brotherhood  of  the 
sea,  and  possibly  the  frequent  looking  of  death  in  the  face, 
can  transcend  the  animosity  engendered  between  man 
and  man  by  sectarianism  on  the  land.  The  raison  d'etre 
of  the  Mission  is  to  commend  to  men  who  daily  face  the 
perils  and  privations  of  the  sea,  the  Gospel  of  Christ  as 
the  practical  rule  of  life.  It  labours  to  form  no  church. 
It  seeks  to  inculcate  no  submission  to  any  theories  or 
shibboleths.  It  aims  at  adherence  to  no  intellectual  dogma. 


St.  Anthony  Hospital 


Interior  of  St.  Anthony  Hospital 


THE  MISSIONS  239 

No  continuous  presentment  of  Christ's  evangel  by  hu- 
man agency  can  ever  hope  to  be  free  from  deserving  criti- 
cism. In  an  environment  where  sectarianism  is  still 
mediseval,  opposition  to  Christian  work  of  an  unsectarian 
nature  is  inevitable.  The  staff  of  this  Mission  have  felt 
it  part  of  their  privilege  and  duty  to  endeavour  to  induce 
new  social  conditions,  though  that  involved  conflict  with 
previously  existing  powers.  They  have  also  endeavoured 
to  inaugurate  enterprises  which  appeared  to  them  truer 
forms  of  charitable  work  than  the  easy  but  ever  recurring 
distribution  of  clothes  and  nourishing  food  to  people  who 
only  needed  saving  from  a  system  that  was  alone  responsible 
for  their  nakedness  and  hunger.  When  the  Gospel  comes 
in  conflict  with  what  some  consider  the  "real  business  of 
life,"  -that  is,  money-making,  —  it  should  be  prepared  for 
hostility.  The  following  brief  table  illustrates  the  inter- 
pretation which  the  Mission,  with  its  limited  capacities, 
has  considered  most  likely  to  commend  the  Gospel  in  the 
circumstances  prevailing  in  Labrador :  — 

1892.  The  hospital  vessel  Albert  sailed  from  England 
with  one  doctor  in  charge.     He  spent  three  months  on  the 
coast  holding  services,  and  treating  nine  hundred  sick  folk. 
A  large  amount  of  clothing  and  reading  matter  was  dis- 
tributed. 

1893.  Battle  Harbour  hospital  was  presented  by  friends 
in  St.  John's,  Newfoundland,  and  opened  during  the  sum- 
mer under   a   qualified   nurse   and  doctor.    The   launch 
Princess  May  was  added  to  enable  the  ship  to  do  more  work. 
Work   was  instituted  and  help  given  to  the  poorest  ac- 
cording to  their  needs ;   they  providing  wood  fuel  for  the 
steamer  in  return. 


240  LABRADOR 

1894.  Indian  Harbour    hospital  was  opened  for  the 
summer,  and  for  the  first  time  Battle  Harbour  hospital 
was  kept  open  in  winter.      The  doctor,  with  dogs  and 
sledges,  travelled  eighteen  hundred  miles  of  coast  during 
the  winter. 

1895.  The  sailing  hospital  was  replaced  by  the  steamer 
Sir  Donald,  the  gift  of  Sir  Donald  A.  Smith,  who  had  lived 
many  years  in  Labrador.      Nineteen    hundred  sick  folk 
received  treatment.     Dr.  Roddick,  of  Montreal,  presented 
the  sailing  boat  Urelia  McKinnon  to  the  Mission. 

1896.  A  small  cooperative  store  was  started  at  Red 
Bay  in  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle,  to  help  the  settlers  to  escape 
the  " truck  system"  of  trade,  and  the  consequent  loss  of 
independence  and  thrift.     Four  other  cooperative  stores 
have  since  been  opened,  with  very  beneficial  results  to  the 
poorest.    The  Sir  Donald  was  carried  out  from  her  harbour 
by  the  winter  ice,  and  found  far  at  sea,  still  frozen  in,  by 
the  seal  hunters.     She  had  to  be  sold. 

1897.  The  steam-launch  Julia  Sheridan,   given  by  a 
Toronto  lady,  replaced  the  Sir  Donald.    A  large  Mission 
hall  was  attached  to  Indian  Harbour  hospital  for  the  use 
of  the  fishermen.    Two  thousand  patients  were  treated. 
Some  orphan  children  were  taken  to  America.     The  doctors 
were  appointed  magistrates  for  Labrador,  which  enabled 
them  to  help  in  several  cases  of  right  against  might. 

1899.  Largely  through  the  munificence  of  the  Mission's 
staunch  friend,  Lord  Strathcona,  the  Canadian  High 
Commissioner,  the  steel  hospital  steamer  Strathcona  was 
built  at  Dartmouth,  England,  and  fitted  with  every  avail- 
able modern  appliance.  At  the  request  of  the  settlers, 
a  doctor  wintered  in  north  Newfoundland  and  travelled 


THE  MISSIONS  241 

all  around  the  north  coast.     The  people  cut,  hauled  out, 
and  erected  the  frame  for  a  hospital  at  St.  Anthony. 

1900.  The  Strathcona  steamed  out  to  Labrador.    The 
settlers  on  the  Newfoundland  shore  of  the  Strait  of  Belle 
Isle  completed  the  hospital  at  St.  Anthony,  and  the  Mission 
decided  to  adopt  that  place  as  a  third  station.    A  coopera- 
tive store  was  started  at  Braha. 

1901.  A    small    cooperative    lumber   mill  was   opened 
with  the  purpose  of  helping  the  settlers  of  the  poorest 
district,  who  often  faced  semi-starvation,  to  find  remun- 
erative work  in  winter.     The  schooner  Cooperator  was  pur- 
chased and  rebuilt  by  the  people  to  assist  in  the  business 
of  the  cooperative  stores. 

1902.  A  new  wing  was  added  to  Battle  Harbour  hospital, 
with  a  fine  convalescent  room  and  a  new  operating  room. 
Indian  Harbour  hospital  was  also  considerably  enlarged. 
Two  thousand  seven  hundred  and  seventy-four  patients 
received  treatment,  one  hundred  and  ten  of  these  being 
in-patients  in  the  little  hospitals.    The  launch  Julia  Sheri- 
dan was  chartered   by  the  government  and  was  directed 
by  one  of  the  medical   officers  to  suppress  an  outbreak 
of    smallpox.      Some   destitute   children   were   taken   to 
Canada. 

1903.  Some  new  outbuildings  were  added  to  the  Indian 
Harbour  hospital,  and  a   mortuary  and   store  were  built 
at  Battle  Harbour  hospital.    The  third  and  fourth  co- 
operative stores  were  started  at  West  St.  Modiste  and 
at  Flower's  Cove  to  encourage  cash  dealing  and  thrift. 

The  Princess  May  went  out  of  commission,  and  was  sold. 
Some  children  were  taken  to  Newfoundland.  The  only 
licensed  house  in  Labrador  was  closed,  the  owner  being 


242  LABRADOR 

sent  to  jail  for  the  crime  of  barratry.    The  Mission  super- 
intendent accepted  the  position  of  agent  for  Lloyd's. 

1904.  A  new  doctor's  house  was  built  at  Battle  Harbour. 
The  steam-launch  Julia  Sheridan  had  to  be  sold.     She  was 
replaced  by  a  ten-horse-power  kerosene  launch  called  by 
the  same  name.    An  orphanage  was  built  at  St.  Anthony 
hospital  to  accommodate  fifteen  children.    A  building  was 
also  added  for  teaching  loom  work  and  general  carpentering 
with  lathe  work,  and  a  teacher  engaged.    A  society  for 
writing  personally  to  lonely  families,  and  regularly  sending 
them  good  literature,  likely  to  instruct  and  help  them,  was 
successfully  organized. 

1905.  A  doctor  was  appointed  at  the  request  of  the 
people  on  the  Canadian  Labrador,  with  headquarters  at 
Harrington,  near  Cape  Whittle,  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Gulf  of  St.   Lawrence.     The   first   schooners   were   built 
at  the  lumber  mill,  which  is  now  flourishing  and  helping 
to  maintain  some  one  hundred  families.     During  the  sum- 
mer two  consulting  surgeons  from  Boston  joined  the  hos- 
pital steamer  to  help  in  the  work.    Through  the  generosity 
of  Mr.  Andrew  Carnegie,  between  thirty  .and  forty  small 
portable  libraries,  each  containing  from  fifty  to  one  hun- 
dred books,  were  distributed  along  the  coast.     A  fox  farm 
was  started  in  the  hope  of  inducing  a  profitable  industry 
in  the  breeding  of  the  more  valuable  furs. 

1906.  Through  the  help  of  friends  in  Montreal  and 
Toronto,  a  new  hospital  and  a  doctor's  house  were  built  at 
Harrington ;  a  second  kerosene  launch,  called  the  Northern 
Messenger,  was  given  for  the  work  there.     New  dog-sledges 
and  teams  were  also  given  by  the  Montreal  Weekly  Witness. 
Some  new  buildings  were  erected  at  St.  Anthony,  including 


Battle  Harbour  —  the  Hospital  on  the  Left 


A  Visitor  from  the  North 


THE  MISSIONS  243 

some  small  farm  out-buildings,  and  some  land  taken  up  from 
the  Newfoundland  government  with  a  view  to  trying  to 
introduce  cattle.  The  orphanage  was  full  for  the  first 
time.  In  connection  with  the  cooperative  store  at  Flower's 
Cove,  an  industry  of  making  sealskin  boots  has  sprung 
up,  and  fifteen  hundred  pairs  were  exported  this  summer 
(1906).  Around  these  small  industries  it  is  possible  to 
congregate  women  and  children  in  the  winter  for  the  pur- 
pose of  better  education.  This  year  a  grant  of  $500  per 
annum  to  each  hospital  was  made  by  the  Newfoundland 
government. 

1907.  A  new  wharf  with  stores  for  clothing  and  for  coal, 
and  a  large  mission  room,  were  added  to  Battle  Harbour. 
The  old  executive  building  had  to  come  down,  as  the  ac- 
commodation was  altogether  inadequate  for  the  work  that 
had  to  be  done.  Funds,  including  a  $5000  grant  from  the 
Canadian  government,  were  raised,  and  three  hundred 
reindeer  with  Lapp  attendants  were  imported,  with  the 
hope  of  starting  a  regular  industry  on  the  lines  of  that  so 
successful  in  Alaska.  Angora  goats  were  presented  by 
friends  in  the  United  States,  and  were  brought  to  the  settle- 
ments; it  is  hoped  that  these  animals  will  increase  and 
yield  the  wool  for  a  new  weaving  industry.  Several  volun- 
teers joined  the  staff ;  in  the  number  were  the  lady  in  charge 
of  the  orphanage,  the  electrical  engineer  in  charge  of  the 
general  mechanical  work,  and  a  teacher  for  night  school 
and  library  work.  The  fourth  hospital  was  kept  open  by 
a  volunteer  doctor  from  Harvard  University,  and  volunteer 
nurses  from  England.  A  highly  experienced  teacher  of 
"arts  and  crafts"  took  charge  of  the  industrial  work  at 
St.  Anthony  this  year.  The  steam-launch  Daryl  was  given 


244  LABRADOR 

to  the  Mission  by  the  Dutch  Reformed  Union  of  New  York 
City.  A  large  new  schooner  was  built  at  the  mill,  and  a 
Gloucester  schooner,  the  Lorna  Doone,  purchased  in  Boston. 
A  volunteer  doctor  was  stationed  at  the  large  summer 
fishery  at  Blanc  Sablon.  Trained  nurses  from  the  Johns 
Hopkins  hospital  took  charge  of  districts  on  each  side  of 
the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle;  nurses  teaching  sanitation  and 
tending  the  sick.  A  skilled  teacher  was  placed  at  St.  Anthony 
and  another  at  L'Anse  Amour.  Because  of  the  increasing 
consulting  and  operating  work,  an  additional  surgeon  was 
added  to  the  staff  working  either  on  the  hospital  ship  or  at 
St.  Anthony.  For  this  work  Dr.  J.  Mason  Little,  of  Boston, 
volunteered.  Mr.  W.  G.  Lindsay,  of  Queenstown,  Ireland, 
also  volunteer,  took  charge  of  the  reindeer  industry.  The 
growth  of  the  medical  work  is  shown  by  the  following 
summary  of  cases  treated  this  year  (1907) :  — 

In-patients,  193. 

Out-patients,  4720. 

Operations  under  general  anaesthetics,  80. 

A  doctor's  house  was  built  at  St.  Anthony.  A  new  motor- 
launch  was  given  in  Washington  for  the  doctor's  use,  and 
navigated  down  to  the  coast  by  volunteers  from  Yale  Uni- 
versity. Several  additional  volunteer  nurses  and  workers 
gave  their  aid  during  the  open  season.  A  large  cooperative 
store  was  started  at  St.  Anthony.  Electric  power  and 
electrical  therapeutic  apparatus  were  there  installed.  A 
permanent  nursing  centre  was  built  at  Forteau. 

The  condition  of  the  fishermen  and  their  families  in  the 
far-off  places,  even  of  Newfoundland  itself,  are  described 
in  many  places  by  many  people.  I  may  quote  here  from 
Admiral  Sir  W.  R.  Kennedy,  well  known  as  an  author,  and 


THE  MISSIONS  245 

well  able  to  judge,  as  he  spent  much  time  visiting  per- 
sonally from  place  to  place  when  patrolling  with  his  ships 
in  the  western  part  of  the  North  Atlantic.  He  writes:  — 

"  On  our  visit  round  the  island  we  met  with  sights 
enough  to  sicken  one,  and  we  felt  ashamed  to  think  that 
these  poor  creatures  were  British  subjects  like  ourselves. 
On  part  of  Labrador  the  people  were  actually  starving  last 
winter,  owing  to  a  bad  fishing  season,  and  many  would 
have  starved  altogether  had  it  not  been  for  a  steamer 
wrecked  on  their  coast,  loaded  with  bullock  and  flour." 

The  same  observer,  writing  in  1881,  says:  — 

"  These  poor  people,  ground  down  as  they  are  by  the 
detestable  '  truck  system,'  live  and  die  hopelessly  in  debt, 
living  from  hand  to  mouth  without  a  shilling  to  call  their 
own.  Possibly  education  may  in  time  awaken  them  to  a 
sense  of  their  degradation,  but  at  present  there  seems  no 
remedy  for  this  evil.  A  bad  season  throws  hundreds  of 
these  unfortunates  upon  the  government,  and  no  less  than 
$100,000  is  paid  out  annually  in  pauper  relief  among  a 
total  population  of  180,000." 

On  my  own  first  cruise  along  the  Labrador  coast,  coming 
straight  from  a  happier  land,  I  was  deeply  impressed  with 
the  ruling  terror  of  poverty  and  semi-starvation  implied 
by  the  conditions  then  prevailing.  The  nakedness  of  the 
people  was  an  insistent  and  deplorable  feature  ever  facing 
the  doctor  as  his  calling  made  him  a  witness  of  the  mean 
material,  miserable  flannelet  or  cotton,  within  the  reach  of 
a  folk  living  in  a  subarctic  climate.  The  wretched  monot- 
ony of  their  cheap  (truly  the  most  expensive)  foods ;  the 
small,  bare,  squalid  huts;  the  ignorance  and  apathy  of 
men  and  women;  the  absolute  neglect  of  the  crudest  sanita- 


246  LABRADOR 

tion,  were  all  seen  to  be  parts  of  a  great,  cruel,  vicious 
circle  in  which  these  thousands  were  living.  Neverthe- 
less, from  the  very  first,  I  was  not  a  pessimist.  With 
vastly  more  certainty  to-day,  I  hold  to  the  view  that  the 
circle  can  be  broken,  all  these  people  freed  and  elevated, 
and  a  sterling  race  of  workers  happily  preserved. 

The  Deep-sea  Mission  has  set  itself  to  help  solve  this 
problem,  not  merely  by  telling  these  men  of  the  tenets  of 
the  .Christian  faith,  as  new  facts  of  which  they  have  never 
heard.  The  solution  appears  to  the  Mission  to  lie  rather 
in  example  than  in  precept.  The  method  aimed  at  is  to 
illustrate  in  practice  the  attitude  Christ  would  assume  to-day 
in  the  varying  phases  of  the  fisherman's  life. 

From  the  inception  of  this  work  no  man  has,  therefore, 
ever  been  engaged  by  the  Deep-sea  Mission  in  the  capacity 
of  priest  or  clergyman.  Its  staff  has  been  always  confined 
to  laymen  and  to  women  specially  trained  in  the  various 
departments  of  work  allotted  to  them. 

To  the  sick  the  message  has  been,  last  year:  four 
hospitals,  three  power-launches  carrying  medicine-cases, 
and  in  winter  well-equipped  dog-sleighs,  stout  teams,  and 
many  thousands  of  miles  covered  in  visits  from  Natasquahan 
in  the  Gulf  of  Nain  on  the  northeast  coast,  and  from  Port 
Sanders  on  the  west  to  Whooping  Harbour  on  the  east  coast 
of  Newfoundland. 

Within  reach  of  the  naked,  over  $2000  worth  of  clothing 
has  been  placed,  their  independence  being  carefully  pre- 
served by  work  demanded  in  return  wherever  the  recipients 
were  able-bodied. 

In  relation  to  equity,  complaints  have  been  brought  be- 
fore the  medical  officer  as  honorary  magistrate,  and  as  far 


Mission  S.  S.  "Strathcona 


THE  MISSIONS  247 

as  possible  settled ;  claims  considered  and  as  far  as  possible 
adjusted,  over  the  three  thousand  miles  travelled  by  the 
hospital  steamers,  which  has  had  many  times  to  resolve 
itself  into  a  court  of  justice.  In  several  cases  injustice  has 
been  prevented,  wrong-doing  has  been  punished,  and  all 
along  that  coast  efforts  have  been  made  to  render  it  possible 
for  right  to  be  done,  and  respect  for  the  law  to  be  engen- 
dered. 

In  view  of  the  terrible  ignorance  of  ordinary  health  pre- 
cautions that  was  costing  the  people  so  dearly,  and  in  re- 
lation to  the  treatment  of  young  children  and  methods  of 
sanitation,  printed  rules  and  catechisms  have  not  only  been 
distributed,  but  taught  from  end  to  end  of  the  district. 
The  medical  officers  are  encouraged  by  the  steadily  increas- 
ing observance  of  sanitary  rules. 

To  aid  in  destroying  the  oppressive  " truck  system"  of 
trade,  which  keeps  its  poor  victims  in  a  sort  of  apathetic 
satisfaction  with  a  hopeless  state  of  slavery,  cooperative 
distributive  stores  were  established,  which  have  paid  good 
dividends,  cheapened  articles  of  necessity,  and  brought 
also  within  reach  of  the  people  an  opportunity  to  become 
free  of  debt  and  servile  dependence  on  those  from  whom 
they  obtained  supplies.  This  service  has  been  such  an 
unqualified  success  that  it  is  bidding  fair  to  outdo  even 
the  medical  work  as  a  valuable  interpretation  of  the  mes- 
sage of  love.1 

1  Sir  Henry  McCallum,  a  recent  governor  of  Newfoundland,  in 
a  private  letter  dated  in  1901,  says:  "One  thing  you  will  be  rejoiced 
to  hear,  the  ministry  has  introduced  legislation  for  bringing  into  force 
the  Truck  Act  of  1831.  This  is  one  of  the  most  important  steps  in 
the  history  of  Newfoundland.  By  the  Truck  Act,  supplies  cannot  dis- 
charge a  debt  or  balance.  Not  only  is  the  supplier  liable  to  severe 


248  LABRADOR 

In  relation  to  ignorance:  where  once  scarcely  a  single 
settler  could  read  or  write,  and  where  ignorance  always 
meant  serious  disadvantage  in  economic  relations,  travel- 
ling loan  libraries  have  been  established,  small  schools 
helped,  and  now  and  again,  as  it  was  possible,  teachers 
supplied.  Indifference  and  apathy  had  to  be  met  with 
education  as  the  corrective  message  of  affection. 

To  the  absolute  helplessness  of  orphan  childhood  there 
can  be  only  one  Christian  sermon;  that  was  first  preached 
by  carrying  the  child  to  another  country  where  it  could 
be  fed  and  clothed  by  an  orphanage  with  a  volunteer  nurse 
to  mother  the  children. 

Some  of  the  poverty  caused  by  the  impossibility  of 
obtaining  remunerative  work  has  been  relieved  through 
the  industry  of  the  lumber  mill,  through  the  industries 
of  schooner,  barge,  and  boat  building,  sealskin  boot  mak- 
ing, and  through  other  small  efforts  to  use  the  country's 
own  resources.  It  is  hoped  that  in  digging  and  drying  peat, 
in  working  the  local  clay,  and  in  weaving  homespuns, 
much  may  yet  be  done;  experiments  in  all  these  lines  are 
in  progress. 

Open  hostility  to  the  liquor  traffic  has  always  been  the 
attitude  of  the  Mission.  In  the  most  populous  areas  pro- 
hibition has  been  secured.  Illicit  rumsellers  have  been 
ferreted  out  and  fined,  or  otherwise  punished.  In  St. 

punishment,  but  the  debt  or  balance  still  holds  good  in  spite  of  sup- 
plies having  been  given,  and  can  be  sued  for.  Also,  if  in  the  absence 
of  shops  or  passing  suppliers  necessaries  of  life  have  to  be  given  by 
employees,  they  must  be  at  cost  price  for  cash,  the  price  for  outfits 
being  a  definite  percentage  above  St.  John's  prices  to  cover  cost  of 
freight  and  charges.  The  trouble  is,  however,  we  have  good  laws 
but  bad  customs,  and  poor  execution  of  law." 


THE  MISSIONS  249 

John's  itself,  where  fifty  saloons  have  provided  the 
entertainment  for  the  thousands  of  our  Labrador  fisher- 
men who  resort  there,  a  large  temperance  institute  on 
modern  lines  is  in  course  of  erection. 

To  the  " shut-in"  folk,  to  the  unusually  isolated,  to  those 
with  no  friends  outside,  the  message  took  the  form  of  a 
society  of  volunteer  lady  correspondents,  who  try  to  keep 
in  individual,  personal  contact  with  the  troubles  and 
needs  of  the  men  and  women  whose  names  are  allotted  to 
them. 

In  the  great  need  of  milk  for  children,  need  of  meat  to 
ward  off  scurvy,  and  need  for  an  additional  source  of  revenue 
for  the  people,  the  best  advocate  for  the  message  may  be 
the  introduction  of  reindeer ;  and  a  herd  of  three  hundred 
of  these  animals  has  been  introduced  into  Labrador  and 
Newfoundland. 

The  actually  starving  have  been  admitted  to  hospital 
for  feeding  pure  and  simple.  On  many  occasions  the  home- 
less and  travelling  strangers  have  been  entertained.  As 
far  as  possible,  the  hospitals  have  always  stood  for  hotels 
as  well. 

That  Christ  would  interpret  the  love  of  the  Father  in 
Heaven  to  His  children  on  this  coast  merely  by  the  erection 
of  churches,  the  duplication  of  religious  services,  the  in- 
sisting on  an  orthodox  intellectual  attitude  by  doctrinal 
methods,  has  not  been  the  premise  on  which  the  work 
has  been  developed.  To  say  that  the  results  are  imper- 
fect is  to  say  the  work  is  human  work.  To  say  that  visible 
progress,  acknowledged  progress,  has  been  made,  is  a  simple 
statement  of  fact,  —  a  statement  which  would  meet  with 
the  subscription  of  every  member  of  the  present  Mission 


250  LABRADOR 

staff  on  the  Labrador.  Each  one  of  my  noble  colleagues 
in  the  work  sees  betterment  every  year;  we  believe  that, 
if  this  work  be  kept  supported,  time  is  on  our  side,  and  we 
are  working  for  the  time  when  no  mission  need  work  among 
these  men  of  Labrador,  for  they  will  be  self-sustained  and 
powerful  in  their  simple,  wholesome  life  by  the  sea. 


CHAPTER  IX 

REINDEER  FOR  LABRADOR 
BY  W.  T.  GRENFELL 

IT  has  been  shown  that  almost  all  species  of  deer  are 
susceptible  to  domestication,  and  that  under  intelligent 
management  they  can  be  raised  for  a  profit.  Venison  is 
chemically  almost  identical  with  beef,  and  when  in  good 
condition  is  fully  as  nutritious.  It  is  palatable,  and  fetches 
a  good  price  in  the  market,  twenty-five  to  thirty  cents  per 
pound  being  no  uncommon  price  in  the  larger  cities. 
The  horns  and  hide  are  also  valuable. 

The  range  of  many  of  the  most  valuable  deer  was  once 
far  wider  than  at  present,  and  there  are  vast  sections  of 
the  earth  now  lying  useless  which  could  with  ease  support 
herds  of  these  valuable  food-producing  animals,  if  anything 
approaching  the  energy  and  capital  expended  on  the  im- 
provements and  propagation  of  vegetable  food-supplies 
were  devoted  to  them. 

In  the  course  of  ages  the  upheavals  and  subsidences  of 
the  earth's  surface  have  made  new  countries  with  environ- 
ments suitable  for  deer;  yet  these  lands  are  untenanted 
by  deer  solely  because  large  tracts  of  water  have  isolated 
the  lands  and  left  barriers  impassable  for  the  animals. 
In  this  way  vast  areas  now  lie  vacant  which  could 
nurture  many  of  these  animals  for  the  service  of  man. 
Peary's  discovery  of  the  white  reindeer  which  are  maintain' 

251 


252  LABRADOR 

ing  themselves  far  north  of  the  Arctic  Circle,  in  spite  of  the 
almost  Stygian  darkness  of  the  long  winters  and  in  spite 
of  the  minimal  food-supply  available,  shows  that  even 
when  Nature  displays  the  very  least  generosity,  animals  of 
this  family  possess  a  phenomenal  fitness  to  survive.  More- 
over, it  has  also  been  shown  by  countless  experiments  with 
many  species  of  animals,  that  by  careful  treatment  of  those 
introduced  into  new  environments,  traits  can  in  time  be 
developed  that  will  enable  the  species  to  flourish  in  the 
new  home ;  whereas  even  had  they  been  able  to  reach  the 
very  same  region  in  the  ordinary  course  of  nature,  they 
would,  unaided  by  such  development,  not  have  persisted. 

The  natural  distribution  of  the  reindeer  is  almost  entirely 
limited  to  the  subarctic  regions.  Wet  and  cold  offer  no 
terrors  to  them ;  the  humblest  lichen  affords  them  a  source 
of  nutriment ;  only  the  very  deepest  snowfalls  can  prevent 
their  digging  down  to  their  food-supply;  and  they  can 
range  and  multiply  so  far  north  that  even  their  one  enemy, 
the  timber-wolf,  cannot  reach  them.  The  wonderful  hoofs 
of  these  members  of  the  ungulate  family  are  faced  with  an 
ever  renewing  hard  exterior,  which,  like  the  beaver's  tooth, 
is  only  made  sharper  by  being  used,  and  which  enables 
the  deer  to  cut  down  even  through  snow  protected  with  an 
icy  covering.  At  the  same  time  they  possess  large  dew- 
claws,  or  hooflets,  which  increase  the  spread  of  their  large 
splay-feet,  and  enable  the  deer  to  travel  and  escape  danger 
over  snow  in  which  any  of  our  common  cattle  would  be 
hopelessly  engulfed  and  destroyed. 

The  experiments  of  introducing  domestic  reindeer  into 
Alaska  were  first  undertaken  by  the  famous  missionary, 
Dr.  Sheldon  Jackson,  and  have  been  since  assumed  and 


REINDEER   FOR   LABRADOR  253 

prosecuted  to  a  marvellously  successful  issue  by  the  United 
States  government.  These  experiments  have  conclusively 
proved  the  adaptability  of  this  particular  animal  to  do- 
mestication in  the  Arctic  for  the  service  of  mankind.  Along 
the  sea- shore,  especially,  the  natives  have  readily  taken  to 
the  task  of  propagating  and  using  them,  and  already  whole 
settlements  are  being  supplied  from  these  new  herds.  One 
Eskimo  woman  surnamed  " Reindeer  Mary"  has  even  risen 
to  wealth,  owning  many  hundreds  of  deer,  and,  what  is  more 
important,  shown  herself  capable  in  this  way  of  consider- 
able intellectual  development.  She  thus  indicates  one  line 
at  any  rate,  along  which  the  natives  of  Alaska  may  hope 
to  escape  extinction  through  the  increasing  contact  and 
competition  with  the  advancing  white  men. 

Few  other  animals  on  the  earth's  surface  offer  as  much 
to  man  with  so  little  outlay.  With  scarcely  any  aid, 
races  of  men  can  subsist  on  what  these  beasts  *alone  can 
provide.  For  transport  they  have  been  shown,  under 
right  circumstances,  to  be  able  to  compete  with  the  Eskimo 
dog  in  speed  and  endurance.  On  the  Alaskan  tundra, 
where  the  snowfall  is  much  like  that  of  Labrador,  they  have 
been  an  unqualified  success.  On  journeys  they  can  find 
their  own  food  by  the  way  —  an  item  most  important,  for 
the  dogs  are  obliged  to  carry  this  additional,  and  by  no 
means  inconsiderable,  burden  with  them.  Reindeer  are 
now  used  not  only  for  packing  over  open  land  uncovered 
with  snow  in  summer-time,  when  dogs  are  entirely  useless, 
but  they  are  in  regular  use  for  running  the  United  States 
mail  service  in  the  depth  of  an  Arctic  winter.  Geldings 
are  said  to  be  far  more  readily  trained  to  harness  than 
stags,  and  are  easier  to  keep  in  good  physical  condition. 


254  LABRADOR 

At  a  pinch,  one's  steeds  may  be  killed  and  eaten  with 
relish,  while  the  carcass,  where  meat  supplies  are  scarce,  is 
always  of  incomparable  value.  The  tongues  and  kidneys 
form  great  delicacies,  and  the  tongues  may  be  smoked  for  ex- 
port. A  good-sized  stag  will  weigh  three  hundred  pounds, 
and  has  for  meat  alone  fetched  $50  in  the  Alaskan  markets. 
The  large,  thickly  haired  skin  of  caribou  or  of  the  Lapland 
reindeer  is  invaluable  for  many  purposes,  —  for  boots, 
clothing,  sleeping-bags,  tents,  and  blankets.  These  skins 
need  scarcely  any  preparatory  treatment.  Dehaired  and 
dressed,  they  make  most  satisfactory  clothing  for  use  in 
cold  climates.  The  sleek,  dark-brown  hair  of  the  early 
fall  affords  a  very  beautiful  material  for  ladies'  jackets 
or  motor  coats,  and  picked  skins  for  such  purposes  should 
well  repay  exportation ;  two  dollars  apiece  is  the  present 
local  price  for  Labrador  deer  skins.  Some  of  our  deer  have 
snow-white  skins  in  winter,  and  the  hair  is  as  thick  as  a 
cocoanut  fibre  mat. 

Moccasins  manufactured  from  the  thinner  deer  skins  make 
the  warmest  foot-gear  known.  The  heavier  stag  skins  fur- 
nish admirable  light,  soft,  flexible  over-clothes.  They  are 
perfectly  wind  proof,  and,  when  dressed  for  use,  fetch  fifty 
cents  to  one  dollar  per  pound  weight.  Stretched,  undressed, 
they  are  sold  by  the  pound  as  parchment ;  this,  cut  into 
strips,  is  rolled  up,  and  sold  as  babbage,  out  of  which  all 
the  fillings  for  snow-shoes  are  made.  Of  this,  also,  are  made 
the  lashings  for  our  sledges  and  the  harness  for  our  dogs. 
The  tough  thongs  show  remarkable  elastic  strength  as 
they  feel  the  jarring  and  jolting  of  the  rough  trails.  The 
very  tendons  that  are  useless  as  food  are  amongst  our  most 
valuable  acquisitions,  affording  our  women  all  the  sewing 


EEINUEEE  FOR  LABRADOR  255 

material  they  need  for  making  boots,  skin-boats  (or  kayaks), 
and  clothing.  These  animal  tendons  are  taken  and  dried, 
and  fetch  from  ten  to  fifty  cents  for  each  animal.  They 
strip  easily  into  single  fibres,  and  these  separate  threads 
form  a  strong  sewing  material,  which  resists  water,  and  yet, 
when  used  in  boots  intended  to  be  water-tight,  swells  up 
as  soon  as  the  boots  are  immersed  in  moisture.  In  this 
way  leakage  through  the  needle  holes  is  prevented.  The 
tendons  do  not  rot  easily,  nor  do  they  tear  the  skin  sub- 
stances, for  they  contract  and  expand  with  that  material. 
Even  the  horns  and  hoofs  are  valuable,  and  furnish  many 
of  the  household  essentials  of  the  natives.  Some  of  these 
various  manufactured  products  can  be  exported  to  the 
European  markets.  Reindeer  may  thus  largely  increase  the 
earning  capacity  of  any  region,  by  converting  its  unsalable 
material  into  valuable  products.  The  fresh  rich  milk  of 
the  does  in  the  summer  has  also  supplied  us  with  what  is 
a  vital  necessity,  and  one  which  was  obtainable  in  Labrador 
in  no  other  way ;  while  the  excellent  and  easily  made  cheeses 
afford  a  method  of  storing  the  nutriment  in  a  palatable 
and  assimilable  form  without  any  necessary  outlay  for  a 
preserving  plant. 

Reindeer  have  shown  themselves  to  be  regular  breeders, 
comparing  more  than  favourably  with  ordinary  cattle  stock. 
Reindeer  herds  may  be  expected  to  at  least  double  them- 
selves in  three  years.  Does  will  breed  the  second  year, 
and  after  that  with  great  regularity  bear  one  fawn  as 
a  rule,  though  occasionally  two.  Only  a  comparatively 
few  stags  are  needed  to  serve  a  large  number  of  does.  So 
large  were  our  own  Newfoundland  fawns  at  the  end  of 
their  first  season,  in  this  our  first  year  of  experiment,  that 


256  LABRADOR 

many  of  the  yearlings  were  covered  by  the  stags.  The 
domesticated  herds  in  Siberia  have  thus  increased  to  such 
an  extent  that  it  is  possible  to  buy  full-grown  animals  at 
fifty  cents  per  head,  and  Mr.  Vanderlip,  in  his  Search  for 
a  Siberian  Klondike,  states  that  he  could  purchase  them 
as  low  as  twenty-five  cents  a  head  as  food  for  his  dogs. 
Similarly,  George  Kennan  tells  me  that  he  bought  many 
at  fifty  cents  apiece  for  dog  food  in  Siberia.  It  has  even 
been  stated  that  the  fecundity  of  reindeer  may  be  liable  to 
become  a  positive  nuisance. 

In  the  bot-fly  the  deer  has  an  enemy  which  greatly 
worries  him;  but  which  does  not  appear  seriously  to  injure 
him.  The  fly  pierces  the  outer  skin  and  leaves  the  egg 
underneath,  where  the  larva  grows  and  develops  through 
the  winter,  in  probably  the  only  place  where  it  would  not 
freeze.  In  the  spring  the  fly  hatches  out  and  leaves  its 
birthplace.  These  large  bot  larva?  projecting  under  the 
skin  are  picked  off  and  eaten  by  the  Alaskans  as  a  choice 
delicacy.  In  the  ethmoid  cells  of  these  deer,  at  the  root 
of  the  nose  close  to  the  skull,  there  are  also  always  to  be 
found  a  number  of  large  maggots  in  various  stages  of  de- 
velopment. These  give  rise  to  a  coryza,  fortunately  not 
fatal,  which  leads  the  animal  to  sneeze  out  the  larva?  in 
great  quantities.  We  have  otherwise  found  no  disease 
likely  to  trouble  the  recently  imported  reindeer  in  New- 
foundland. 

During  fifteen  years  of  medical  mission  work  on  the  coast 
of  North  Newfoundland  and  Labrador,  I  have  discovered 
that  one  out  of  every  three  of  our  deaths  on  the  coast  is 
due  to  tuberculosis;  that  one  out  of  every  three  native 
babies  died  before  reaching  the  age  of  one  year.  More- 


REINDEER  FOR  LABRADOR  257 

over,  rickets,  scurvy,  multiple  neuritis,  blindness  from 
corneal  ulcerations  in  marasmic  children,  and  other  diseases 
of  insufficient  nourishment  were  rife  among  a  people  en- 
joying a  bracing,  pure  air,  undefiled  by  human  or  other 
exhalations,  and  in  a  country  entirely  free  of  endemic 
diseases.  There  were  no  milk-producing  animals  on  all 
our  coasts  except  a  couple  of  cows  and  a  handful  of  goats. 
The  trading  system  and  the  people's  poverty  put  even  the 
tinned  article  out  of  the  question.  We  were  wont  to  see 
ill-fed  mothers,  without  milk  to  suckle  their  babes,  chewing 
hard  bread,  and  thus  after  predigesting  it  in  their  own  mouths, 
trying  to  maintain  life  in  their  wizened  offspring,  till  they 
should  attain  the  age  at  which  nature  furnishes  them  with 
the  salivary  glands,  and  enables  them  to  convert  "loaf" 
into  the  assimilable  sugars  for  themselves. 

Milk,  milk,  milk,  seemed  to  us  the  great  cry  from  the 
coast.  It  seemed  impossible  to  supply  it  from  either 
sheep  or  cows  or  goats  on  any  large  scale,  since  every 
family  is  obliged  to  maintain  at  least  half  a  dozen  dogs 
for  hauling  fuel  and  for  travelling,  and  thus  every  village 
had  a  throng  of  fifty  to  one  hundred  of  these  hungry,  half- 
fed  beasts.  The  dogs,  even  at  long  distances  from  their 
own  homes,  go  hunting  exactly  like  wolves  in  large  packs, 
and  have  killed  the  cattle  as  fast  as  it  has  been  introduced. 
Thus  it  seemed  impossible  that  we  could  maintain  cattle 
and  dogs  together,  and  our  medical  staff  had  been  compelled 
to  do  the  best  it  could  with  a  scanty  supply  of  tinned  milk. 
In  any  case,  cows  and  goats  need  feeding  in  winter,  and 
imported  hay  cost  us  $40  a  ton.  A  cow  eats  two  tons,  even 
on  a  ration  diet  during  our  long  winter,  and  it  would 
cost  us  therefore  twice  as  much  as  the  cow  was  worth 


258  LABRADOR 

for  her  winter  hay.  All  our  people  are  forced  by  the  neces- 
sity of  their  poverty  to  resort  to  the  outer  seaboard  during 
the  whole  of  our  four  warm  months.  There  the  Arctic 
current  renders  us  liable  to  sudden  frosts  at  night,  and  so 
gardening  is  unremunerative.  Only  one  or  two  of  our 
salmon-fishers  who  remain  up  the  inlets  all  summer  can 
collect  the  plentiful  wild  hay  that  grows  there.  The  ex- 
periments of  the  Grand  River  Pulp  Company  in  raising 
green  oats  or  barley  for  fodder  on  the  shore  of  Hamilton 
Inlet  have  been  successful,  but  do  not  bear  directly  on  the 
problem  of  procuring  milk  supplies  on  the  outer  coast,  where 
most  of  our  people  live. 

It  was  in  this  dilemma  that  I  turned  to  the  Rev.  Sheldon 
Jackson,  to  learn  the  results  and  prospects  of  his  experi- 
ments with  Siberian  and  Lapland  reindeer  in  Alaska, 
which  is  a  somewhat  similar  coast,  and  I  went  to  Wash- 
ington to  get  our  information  at  first  hand.  Meanwhile 
Sir  William  MacGregor,  governor  of  Newfoundland,  collected 
and  sent  to  Kew  Botanical  Gardens  specimens  of  all  our 
mosses  and  lichens,  and  received  from  them  a  completely 
favourable  report  as  to  the  suitability  of  our  most  abundant 
forms  of  vegetation  to  support  these  deer.  Favouring  the 
conviction  that  we  were  plunging  into  no  unwise  specula- 
tion, we  had  the  evidence  of  the  abundant  natural  herds 
of  caribou,  known  to  exist  in  the  barren  lands  west  of 
Hudson  Bay,  as  well  as  the  more  direct  evidence  of  the  com- 
paratively large  herds  of  caribou  on  the  Labrador  plateau, 
from  which  our  native  Indians  still  draw  almost  their 
entire  food-supply.  Moreover,  we  are  familiar  with  the 
large  numbers  of  caribou  maintaining  themselves  against 
all  odds  (including  the  extensive  forest  fires)  in  Newfound- 


REINDEER   FOR   LABRADOR  259 

land.  These  deer  are  of  the  same  species  as  our  domestic 
reindeer  (Cervus  tarandus),  though  of  slightly  different 
varieties,  the  barren-land  caribou  and  the  Canadian  wood- 
land caribou  being  about  the  same  size,  but  both  of  rather 
smaller  growth  than  the  Newfoundland  woodland  variety. 
This  difference  might  reasonably  be  accredited  to  ages  of 
access  to  a  superior  food-supply,  and  this  has  been  one 
factor  to  influence  us  in  keeping  temporarily  our  small 
experimental  herd  on  the  south  side  of  the  Straits  of  Belle 
Isle.  The  herds  in  the  Canadian  barren-land  are  phe- 
nomenally large.  The  photographs  taken  by  Mr.  J.  B. 
Tyrrell  show  interminable  serried  ranks  on  the  march,  re- 
sembling with  their  long,  slight  horns  a  vast  army  of  spear- 
men. In  1909  a  herd  of  half  a  million  of  these  barren-land 
caribou  was  reported  from  Dawson  City  as  travelling  along 
the  Tanana  River  beyond  Sixty-mile  River.  The  pro- 
cession was  described  as  twenty  miles  wide. 

It  seems  to  have  been  shown  that  deer,  freed  from  the 
fear  of  man,  have  a  great  predilection  for  associating  with 
domestic  cattle.  In  New  England,  once  they  learn  they 
have  nothing  to  fear  from  man,  deer  will  come  down  among 
the  cattle  almost  into  the  farm-yard.  Thus,  the  further 
hope  that  the  young  of  the  wild  species  might  be  cut  out, 
corralled,  and  raised  with  a  domestic  herd  without  any  fear 
of  their  again  returning  to  the  wild,  seems  to  be  assured. 
Also  it  has  been  shown  that  the  two  varieties  can  inter- 
breed successfully.  On  one  occasion  a  Newfoundland  cari- 
bou joined  our  herd;  it  so  closely  resembled  our  own  deer 
that  an  English  friend  tried  to  knock  up  the  rifle  of  the 
Lapp  herder  who  was  shooting  it  from  twenty  yards  away. 
Again,  two  of  these  same  caribou  joined  a  section  of  the 


)00  I.M'.ltAhOU 

IK  id    -.Id  by  IIM  l.o  Mi     M;.v  on  heeton  of  Grand  Lake,  find 

i'  in. nix  d   \\ilh   In      niinn;il     Iwo  d;.y  ;  f.oining  in  and  Out  of 

hJHCOII.'ll    \\llll    l.li.  hlle    l.tiier    <>[     hi;.    L'Mne    OflftH    WaH- 

d<  I'd  "||   |.,i    (hire  week  :  wil.h  t.heir  wild  e.ouxin;-:  and  th(;n 

i.  I  MI  ii'  d.   .1      il    |.i>  l<  i  i  in;'.  (he  le         f  renuous  life. 

I  n<  "in  dl  we  had  heard,  we  ;  et.  to  work,  and  col- 

lected M  .inn  r.r  $10,000  hy  puhlie  uh M-ripl.ion,  r:hi(;fly  by 
i  lie  lirlpdl  I  lie  i'.u:i<>ti  '/'m n. r, -, ///,  ;md  in  ;nl(Jil.ion  \\\(\  Cana- 

<llMI.  l.(|r.;il  I)r|,;,|-!lll<-|.l  of  A  /rjei  1 1 1  1 1  PC  VOt  ed  $.")()()().  The 
I. 'i  K  .-I  pun-li'i  in;'  ;ind  shipping  the  deer  ;nid  of  .s(;r;uring 
lli-  n  herders  w:i  inlnidcd  lo  Mr.  I-'nuifis  Woodof  London, 
Mii^l.-ind.  \\!u»  vnliininrily  proceeded  to  Norway  and  Lap- 
l.-ind  I'm-  I  he  purpose.  Three  hundred  deer  were  eventually 
pun  h.-ised  of  these,  two  hundred  and  fifty  were  does  of 
MII  M:-,e  !o  beMr  I'M\\II-  in  I  he  spring,  and  fifty  were  stags; 
I  hey  \\eiv  lo  br  delivered  on  the  beach  at  Altenfjord  on 
the  north  coast  of  Lapland  in  lat.  71°  north,  at  a  cost  of 
ss  -0  apiece.1  A  contract  for  thirty  tons  of  the  moss 
kiu>\\  n  MS  reindeer  moss,  or  Iceland  moss  (rangifereria) ,  was 
MiTMnged.  The  moss  was  to  be  gathered  and  stored  on 
the  highlands  to  await  transport  by  the  deer  themselves, 
on  the  pulkjvs,  or  native  sledges.  The  contract  with  the 
Laplander  agent  ran  as  follows:  — 

"  Israel  N.  Mella  acknowledges  hereby  having  sold  to  Mr. 
Francis  11.  Wood,  of  London.  2.">0  female  reindeer,  three 
years  old,  sound,  fresh,  prime  deer,  for  a  sum  of  30  Kr. 
each  delivered  on  board  the  ship  in  Bugten,  Altenfjord; 
also  25  tame  four-year-old  drawing  deer  for  the  sum  of 

1  On  board  tt»  steamer  ready  for  sea,  they  cost  $16.74  per  head; 
fended  in  Labrador,  they  cost  $51.49  per  head. 


LABRADOR 


Kr.  40  each;  also  25  three-year-old  buck  deer  (oxen), 
price  35  Kr,  each,  all  the  deer  prime,  all  the  deer  delivered 
on  the  ship  at  Bugten  between  November  25th  and  30th, 
1907,  Also  500  loads  of  reindeer  moss,  at  150 


per  load,  at  the  sum  of  12  Kr,  per  load,  delivered  on 
the  ship  at  Bugten  between  November  25th  and  30th,  1907, 
Also  eight  good  trained  reindeer  dogs,  25  Kr,  each,  I 
undertake  to  procure  four  Lapp  families  for  the  expedition 
on  the  lowest  terms  possible;  for  the  work  of  yarding, 
taking  care  of  the  deer;  also  food  for  the  deer  until  the  ship 
comes,  between  November  25th  and  30th,  there  shall  be 
paidine(Mr,Mella)Kr,500,  In  the  Kr,  500  is  included  the 
engaging  of  the  families,  I  acknowledge  by  this  having 
received  for  500  loads  of  reindeer  moas,  Kr,  6,000;  also  half 
the  purchase  price  of  the  reindeer,  Kr,  4,688;  afco  there 
be  paid  to  me  (Mr,  Mel  Ja)  the  advances  made  to  the 


families,  and  the  remaining  half-price  of  the  purchase  money 
of  the  reindeer  in  Bugten  on  the  delivery  of  the  reindeer 
and  the  moss  on  the  ship, 

"  (Signed)  ISRAEL*.  MELLA, 
"  Witness:  DUTA  AUXE,  July  29th,  1907," 

Unfortunately  the  whiter  was  very  late,  and  it  was  im- 
possible to  haul  until  after  Christmas,  —  a  fact  whkh  made 
tonnage  for  sea  transport  much  harder  to  secure  and  much 
more  expensive.  Indeed,  it  was  only  with  extreme  diffi- 
culty a  steamer  was  secured  at  all  to  carry  the  deer  so  late 
intheyear,  She  had  to  be  fitted  with  staus  to  prevent  the 
deer  being  thrown  about  and  damaged  hi  rough  weather, 
A  contract  was  entered  upon  to  carry  the  herd  of  three 
hundred  animals  from  Lapland  to  Labrador  for  18262, 
A  bonus  of  fifty  cents  per  bead  was  to  be  paid  the  captain 
for  every  animal  that  was  landed  in  good  condition, 


262  LABRADOR 

Following  is  the  essential  matter  of  the  charter  contract ; 

LONDON,  6th  July,  1907. 

It  is  hereby  agreed  between  the  Owners  of  the  good  steamer 
11  Anita,"  and  Francis  H.  Wood,  181  Queen  Victoria  St., 
London,  Charterers,  that  the  said  Owners  will,  between  25th 
November  and  30th  November,  place  at  the  disposal  of  the 
said  Charterers  at  a  port  in  NORTH  NORWA  Y  in  charterers' 
option,  to  be  declared  in  good  time  before  steamer's  readiness, 
the  above-mentioned  steamer  for  the  conveyance  of  three  hun- 
dred head  of  reindeer  and  fodder,  which  the  steamer  shall 
be  fitted  to  carry  under  experienced  Captain's  supervision 
to  the  satisfaction  of  Charterers'  reasonable  requirements  to 
prevent  mortality. 

The  Reindeer  are  to  be  supplied  to  the  steamer  as  quickly  as 
they  can  be  received  by  the  steamer. 

As  soon  as  the  reindeer  fodder  and  cattlemen  are  on  board  the 
steamer  is  to  proceed  to  ST.  ANTHONY,  Cape  Bauld,  New- 
foundland, to  land  the  reindeer;  afterwards  proceeding  to 
Lewis  port  to  land  50  deer. 

It  is  understood  that  the  Harbour  accommodation  at  both 
ST.  ANTHONY  and  Lewis  port  is  good  and  easy  of  access. 

For  the  carrying  of  the  reindeer  the  steamer  is  to  receive  a 
lump  sum  freight  of  ^1700  (seventeen  hundred  pounds) 
sterling. 

Four  cattlemen  (Laplanders)  are  to  be  provided  by  the 
charterers.  Owners  are  to  provide  sufficient  additional  cattle- 
men to  assist  in  looking  after  the  reindeer  on  the  way  out. 

The  steamer  is  to  be  fitted  under  experienced  Captain's  super- 
vision to  the  satisfaction  of  charterers'  agents'  reasonable 
requirements  to  prevent  mortality,  for  the  conveyance  of  the 
reindeer  by  Owners  at  their  expense  and  in  their  time. 


REINDEER  FOR  LABRADOR  26^ 

£1300  of  the  freight  to  be  paid  in  cash  in  London  on  completion 
of  loading  in  Norway;  balance  of  freight  to  be  paid  in  cash 
in  London  on  receipt  of  cable  advices  that  the  reindeer  have 
been  landed. 

Charterers  are  to  provide  sufficient  food  for  the  reindeer. 
The  steamer  is  to  supply  the  requisite  fresh  water  for  the 
reindeer  in  accordance  with  charterers'  reasonable  require- 
ments ;  also  food  and  sleeping  accommodation  for  the  cattle- 
attendants. 

Should  ST.  ANTHONY  or  Lewis  port  be  inaccessible  by 
reason  of  ice  on  steamer's  arrival,  the  whole  of  the  cargo  is 
to  be  landed  at  whichever  port  is  free  of  ice.  If  both  ports  are 
inaccessible  on  account  of  ice,  the  steamer  shall  proceed  to 
the  nearest  safe  open  port,  where  the  cargo  is  to  be  landed 
and  freight  to  be  paid  as  if  the  steamer  had  performed  the 
voyage  as  above. 

Owners  not  to  be  responsible  for  mortality. 

The  steamer  to  have  liberty  to  call  at  any  ports  in  any  order, 
to  sail  without  pilots,  and  to  tow  and  assist  vessels  in  distress, 
and  to  deviate  for  the  purpose  of  saving  life  or  property. 

It  is  agreed  by  charterers  that  the  ports  of  loading  and  dis- 
charge shall  be  such  as  steamer  can  reach,  always  being  afloat, 
the  animals  being  brought  to,  and  taken  from,  alongside  by 
charterers,  steamer  to  go  alongside  any  accessible  and  safe 
wharf,  dock  or  craft  as  ordered  by  charterers. 

Owners  to  give  charterers  fourteen  days'  notice  of  steamer's 
readiness,  also  ample  notice  when  and  where  steamer  will  be 
fitted  out. 

It  was  further  necessary  to  insure  the  deer  against  accident, 
and  the  contract  was  made  as  follows :   owners  to  pay  in- 


264  LABRADOR 

surers  $38.88  per  cent  less  rebate  of  $13.50  per  cent  if  no 
claim  was  made.  ;  No  claim  did  arise. 

The  herd  set  sail  on  December  30,  and,  after  a  very  rough 
voyage  of  twenty-one  days,  sighted  ice  off  the  Labrador 
coast.  She  eventually  anchored  in  a  bay  on  the  North 
Newfoundland  coast,  about  eight  miles  from  the  harbour 
that  we  had  chosen  as  a  wintering  place  for  the  deer. 
During  the  night  a  heavy  onshore  wind  drove  the  ice  into 
this  bay,  and  pushed  the  steamer  from  her  anchors  and  on  the 
rocks,  —  a  position  from  which  she  was  only  subsequently 
rescued  after  considerable  damage.  The  deer  were  mean- 
while landed  on  the  broken  slob-ice  with  the  result  that  they 
scattered  in  every  direction,  some  even  disappearing  over 
the  horizon  seaward  and  many  falling  into  the  water 
between  the  large  pans  of  ice.  The  Lapp  herders  at  once  led 
ashore  some  of  the  more  sedate  beasts  with  bells  around 
their  necks,  and  tethered  them  at  varying  distances  along 
the  coast,  as  lures  to  the  others.  This  ruse  proved  most 
successful,  and  by  an  accurate  count  made  at  a  round-up 
three  weeks  later,  every  one  of  the  three  hundred  was  found 
in  the  herd.  Lieutenant  W.  G.  Lindsay  of  Cork,  Ireland, 
who  had  had  some  experience  in  Mexico  ranching,  has  been 
in  charge  of  this  experiment  from  that  time. 

The  deer  at  once  took  kindly  to  their  new  environment, 
being  allowed  to  run  wild  all  day,  though  brought  in  near 
camp  every  night.  Each  day  two  herders,  with  dogs,  fol- 
lowed the  wandering  herd  and  brought  them  nearly  to  the 
same  place  in  the  evening.  The  deer  never  wandered  far; 
on  two  or  three  occasions  a  single  individual  was  missing 
and  got  perhaps  as  far  as  twenty  miles  away,  but  straying 
never  presented  any  serious  trouble.  More  serious  at  first 


EEINDEER  FOR  LABRADOR  265 

were  two  successive  glitters,  or  sharp  thaws  followed  by 
frost,  which  covered  the  snow  with  a  hard  ice  coat  and  made 
it  difficult  for  the  deer  to  dig  down  to  their  food.  In  spite, 
however,  of  all  difficulties  and  the  long  voyage,  they 
steadily  gained  in  weight,  and  so  far  as  we  can  tell,  not 
one  of  the  pregnant  does  lost  her  fawn. 

On  the  following  pages  is  the  expense  account  of  the 
enterprise :  — 


266  LABRADOR 

FRANCIS  H.  WOOD  IN  ACCOUNT 


To  Cash  per  Mr.  Peters         .......  £1,570     2  7 

"       "    Mr.  Reed,  of  Boston          .....  1,312     411 

"       "    Miss  Brodribb            ......  20     0  0 

Sundry  Contributions  per  "  Toilers  of  the  Deep  "   .          .  3  11  6 

Interest  on  Deposit         .          .          .          .          .          .         .  9  13  9 

Cash  Anglo-Newfoundland  Development  Company,  sale 

of  50  deer    .........  513  19  2 

Cash  Anglo-Newfoundland  Development  Company,  sale 

of  4  dogs     .........  5  10  0 

Cash  Anglo-Newfoundland  Development  Company,  re- 

payment advance  of  wages  to  Lapp  Families       .         .  32  17  6 

Rebate  on  Insurance  (see  contra)    .....  76  19  0 


£3,544  18     5 


EEINDEER  FOR  LABRADOR 


267 


WITH  REINDEER  FUND 

PURCHASE    ACCOUNT 

By  Cost  of  300  Reindeer,  as 
per  contract  with  Israel 
Mella  .  .  .  .  Kr.  9,375 

"    Cost  of  moss,  as  per  con- 
tract     ....     Kr.     6,000 
'    Cost  of  8   Lapp  dogs  for 
herding     deer,     as    per 
contract         .          .          .     Kr.        200 

"  Allowance  for  providing 
yard  at  Bugten  and 
herding  deer  between 
November  25th  and 
30th,  as  per  contract  .  Kr.  500 

"    Payment  to  Agent  for  as- 
sistance in  making  con- 
tract and  superintend- 
ing shipment,   etc.         .     Kr.     1,800 
Kr.   17,875  = 

"  F.  H.  Wood's  travelling  expenses  to 
Norway  to  purchase  deer,  etc. 

SHIPMENT   AND    EMBARKATION 

EXPENSES 

By  cost  of  feeding  deer  from  November 
30th  to  December  12th  while  wait- 
ing for  ship,  extra  for  fittings,  and 
sundry  expenses  connected  with  em- 
barkation, telegrams,  and  postages  . 

"  Payment  to  owners  of  Anita  for 
freight 

"  Present  of  2/-  a  head  to  Captain  for 
each  deer  landed  alive  .  .  . 

"  Cost  of  insuring  deer  against  all  risks 
at  £8  per  cent  less  rebate  of  54/- 
per  cent  if  no  claim  arose  (see  contra) 

DISBURSEMENTS    ON    ACCOUNT   OF 
MAINTENANCE 

By  Advances  made  to  4  Lapland  Families 

on  account  of  wages 

"  Stores  and  provisions  for  re-sale  to 
Lapps,  including  Port  Dues  (£3  Is. 
2d.)  in  London  .... 

(     Balance  in  hand  for  maintenance  ex- 
penses forwarded  to  Newfoundland  . 
Grand  total 


£982     2  10 

50  0  0=  £1032  2  10  = 
$16.74  per 
head 


206  11     1 

1,700     0     0 

30     0     0 


206  16  6  =  £2143  77  = 
$34.75  per 
head 


82     3  11 


26  14     2 


260     9  11 
£3,544   18     5 


$51.49,  total 
per  head 
landed  St. 
Anthony 


268  LABRADOR 

Our  attempt  to  use  the  stags  for  rapid  transit  has  not 
been  altogether  successful.  At  hauling  logs  and  other 
weights  on  the  boat-like  "pulkas,"  or  on  our  more  adaptable 
"  catamarans/'  at  a  walking  pace  they  succeeded  admirably, 
each  deer  pulling  as  much  as  four  or  five  dogs.  But  when 
pace  was  the  criterion  of  success  they  failed  at  the  first. 
For  though  they  could  go  like  the  wind  when  they  wished, 
they  did  not  often  go  fast  when  we  wished,  and  we  had  to 
be  contented  with  the  Lapps'  assurance  that  they  only 
needed  experience.  In  this  respect  the  deer  have  certainly 
improved  this  second  winter  very  considerably;  but  still 
we  have  not  been  able  to  consider  them  as  rivals  in  speed 
to  our  dogs.  Their  timid  natures  seemed  to  make  them 
flurried  when  an  excess  of  speed  is  demanded  on  a  down 
grade,  and  their  habit  of  suddenly  stopping  ceased  to  be 
amusing,  when  it  would  cause  you,  with  your  loaded  sled, 
to  roll  over  and  over  with  your  team  to  the  bottom  of  a 
steep  incline.  I  am  assured,  however,  that  this  is  only  a 
difficulty  to  be  overcome,  and  my  Alaskan  informant,  who 
for  many  years  has  driven  a  mail  train  with  reindeer, 
assures  me  that  it  takes  a  reindeer  stag  three  seasons' 
work  really  to  find  himself.  If,  however,  for  any  reason  we 
are  unable  to  entirely  replace  our  dogs  with  deer  for  rapid 
transit,  we  shall  proceed  as  we  have  locally,  by  killing  off 
all  the  worst  dogs  and  enforcing  the  existing  laws,  which 
compel  all  dogs  roaming  at  large  to  wear  a  heavy  clog  or 
carry  one  paw  through  a  ring  round  the  neck.  I  have 
repeatedly  driven  my  own  dog-team  through  the  herd  this 
winter  without  trouble. 

On  several  occasions  when  we  have  tethered  our  beasts 
at  night  they  have  either  pulled  adrift,  or  chewed  through 


REINDEER   FOR   LABRADOR  269 

the  skin  line  that  held  them,  and  so  escaped.  But  as  a 
rule  they  have  at  once  found  the  herd  and  returned  to  it, 
even  though  it  may  have  been  feeding  many  miles  away  at 
the  time.  At  other  times,  certain  deer  have  shown  a  pro- 
pensity to  select  certain  particular  spots  for  grazing,  and 
have  repeatedly  left  the  main  herd  and  returned  to  the 
ground  of  their  own  selection.  The  main  herd,  as  a  rule, 
get  up  and  feed  from  daylight  to  about  11  A.M.,  then  lie 
down  and  rest  until  about  4  P.M.,  about  which  hour  a  stag 
would  get  up  and  walk  round  restlessly.  If  he  came  too 
near  another,  the  latter  would  strike  viciously  at  him  with  his 
head,  as  if  deploring  the  fact  that  the  time  had  arrived  for 
renewed  activity.  He  would,  however,  soon  arise  as  if 
under  protest,  and  join  the  moving  group  till  all  the  herd 
was  afoot.  Then,  without  apparently  any  reason,  it  would 
seem  to  occur  to  a  stag  that  to  migrate  ten  miles  northwest 
or  southeast  would  be  advantageous,  and  off  he  would  go 
at  a  staid  walk,  the  whole  herd  falling  in  and  following  him 
like  a  funeral  procession. 

The  time  for  fawning  came  with  May,  and  Mr.  Lindsay 
took  the  deer  to  highlands  as  free  as  possible  of  the  then 
treacherous  brooks  and  lakes,  which  were  opening  beneath 
the  spring  sun.  Our  herd  was  now  reduced  to  two  hundred 
does  and  fifty  stags,  for  we  had  sent  south  the  fifty  deer 
sold  to  a  large  lumber  concern,  three  hundred  miles  to  the 
south.  These  latter  had  all  reached  their  destination  safely 
after  their  long  march,  only  one  stag  dying  after  arrival. 
They  were  to  be  used  for  carrying  supplies  over  snow  to 
far-off  logging  camps. 

As  far  as  we  could  count,  the  does  threw  one  hundred  and 
sixty-eight  fawns,  and  of  these  only  eight  were  born  dead  or 


270  LABRADOR 

perished  in  the  brooks  and  thickets.  We  also  lost  two  deer 
by  dogs  during  the  year,  and  found  one  doe  shot  with  buck- 
shot, so  that  exactly  one  year  after  arrival,  our  two  hundred 
and  fifty  numbered  four  hundred  and  five.  Among  these 
deer  the  fawns  were  so  large  by  October,  when  the  rutting 
season  came  on,  that  some,  at  least,  were  covered  by  the 
stags ;  but  with  what  result  we  are  yet  unable  to  tell. 

All  summer  long  the  deer  had  chosen  the  high  green- 
covered  hills  close  to  the  sea,  greatly  enjoying  and  rapidly 
fattening  on  the  salty  food.  They  ate  mostly  the  young 
grass  and  new  green  leaves,  apparently  making  little  dis- 
crimination, except  that  as  they  did  not  seem  to  use  the 
moss  on  which  they  must  rely  in  winter,  one  might  have 
suggested  (probably  untruthfully)  that  they  were  specially 
saving  that  for  consumption  when  nothing  else  would  be 
available. 

The  magnificent  antlers  on  the  older  stags  proved  a 
danger  to  others,  and  after  one  had  been  killed  by  a  bad 
wound  in  the  side,  we  dehorned  the  rest,  with  the  exception 
of  their  brow  antlers,  which  we  considered  sufficient  to 
enable  the  deer  to  keep  up  their  courage  and  spirit  of  play. 
After  the  fawns  had  run  six  full  weeks  with  their  mothers, 
that  is,  by  the  beginning  of  August,  the  herd  was  driven  by 
the  dogs  every  day  into  a  large  corral  built  for  the  purpose, 
and  sixty  does  were  milked  each  time.  While  suckling  their 
fawns,  we  could  not  expect  to  get  very  much  milk  at  best 
from  each.  They  gave  us,  however,  a  pint  of  a  very  rich, 
creamy  milk  per  head.  This  tasted  more  like  cow's  milk 
than  anything  I  know  of,  and  had  none  of  the  flavour 
familiar  to  that  of  the  goat.  I  have  unfortunately  no 
analysis  of  its  component  parts  with  me,  but  would  judge  it 


REINDEER  FOR  LABRADOR  271 

would  take  at  least  one-quarter  part  of  water  to  reduce  it 
to  the  standard  of  cow's  milk.  This  being  an  experimental 
year,  beyond  now  and  again  sending  a  supply  round  to  our 
nearest  hospital  and  to  neighbours,  we  made  no  attempt 
at  a  systematic  distribution  of  it.  That  will  naturally  be 
a  difficult  matter  until  we  can  either  divide  our  herd  or  get 
sufficient  quantities  of  milk  to  make  it  worth  while  to 
distribute  it  widely.  The  milk  was,  however,  readily  made 
by  our  Lapp  herders  into  a  very  delectable  and  easily  digest- 
ible cream  cheese, — a  commodity  which  we  found  it  easy  to 
carry  on  our  sledge  trips  during  the  winter.  It  did  not 
freeze,  and  formed  an  excellent  addition  to  our  diet. 

Our  next  effort  will  be  to  capture  and  rear  with  our  do- 
mesticated animals  a  number  of  the  young  of  the  woodland 
caribou,  which  roam  in  great  numbers  near  us,  and  also 
to  obtain  some  of  the  barren-land  variety,  if  we  possibly 
can,  for  a  similar  purpose.  In  view  of  the  immense  area 
of  land  that  surrounds  us,  many  thousand  square  miles  of 
moss-covered  Newfoundland  and  Labrador  which  are  well 
able  to  support  reindeer,  we  are  still  exceedingly  optimistic 
as  to  the  outcome  of  this  venture.  For  stock  raising  alone 
it  should  certainly  prove  remunerative.  The  experience 
in  Alaska  entirely  justifies  this  conclusion,  where  now  the 
government  has  twenty  thousand  of  these  beasts  in  its 
herds. 

A  report  direct  from  the  herd,  dated  March,  1909, 
states  that  the  herd  is  in  splendid  condition:  the  stags 
fat  and  sleek,  the  does  all  well,  and  no  losses.  Even  those 
returned  in  bad  condition  by  schooner  (from  the  lumber 
camp  mentioned)  have  picked  up  during  a  hard  winter, 
and  appear  to  promise  well  for  fawning  in  the  spring. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE   DOGS 
BY  W.  T.  GRENFELL 

HUMAN  life  in  Labrador  has  been  so  largely  dependent 
on  dogs  that  a  brief  chapter  devoted  to  them  is  almost 
essential. 

The  real  Labrador  dog  is  a  very  slightly  modified  wolf. 
A  good  specimen  stands  two  feet  six  inches,  or  even  two 
feet  eight  inches  high  at  the  shoulder,  measures  over  six 
feet  six  inches  from  the  tip  of  the  nose  to  the  tip  of  the  tail, 
and  will  scale  a  hundred  pounds.  The  hair  is  thick  and 
straight ;  on  the  neck  it  may  be  six  inches  in  length.  The 
ears  are  pointed  and  stand  directly  up.  The  appearance 
generally  is  that  of  a  magnified  Pomeranian.  The  legs 
look  short,  compared  with  the  massive  body.  The  eyes  are 
Japanese,  and  give  the  animal  a  foxy  look  about  the  face. 
The  large,  bushy  tail  curves  completely  over  on  to  the  back, 
and  is  always  carried  erect.  The  colour  is  generally  tawny, 
like  that  of  a  gray  wolf,  with  no  distinctive  markings,  but 
a  beautiful  black  and  white  breed  has  grown  up,  and  fur- 
nishes the  handsomest  dogs.  The  general  resemblance  to 
wolves  is  so  great  that  at  Davis  Inlet,  where  wolves  come 
out  frequently  in  winter,  the  factor  has  seen  his  team  mixed 
with  a  pack  of  wolves  on  the  beach  in  front  of  the  door,  and 
yet  could  not  shoot,  being  unable  to  distinguish  one  from 

272 


THE  DOGS  273 

the  other.  Settlers  have  succeeded  in  getting  good  skins 
by  pegging  out  a  female  dog  in  heat,  and  shooting  the  wolves 
that  come  down  after  her. 

The  wolves  themselves  are  larger  than  the  dogs.  They 
may  measure  in  length  as  much  as  seven  feet  eight  inches, 
from  nose  to  tail.  They  are  very  bold;  on  one  occasion 
wolves  lurked  around  a  solitary  house  in  Big  Bay  till  they 
had  carried  off  the  four  dogs,  one  by  one,  and  left  only  after 
capturing  the  cat.  The  dogs  retain  these  same  ancestral 
habits.  Some  summer  settlers  at  Batteau  have  goats  at 
their  small  shacks.  About  ten  miles  away  at  Red  Point 
lived  a  hungry  team  of  dogs.  One  night  a  goat  was  missing. 
The  crime  was  traced  to  the  dogs.  Men  with  guns  waited 
their  return,  with  no  result  except  much  loss  of  time.  The 
dogs  never  came  near  the  settlement  by  day.  Yet,  before 
the  people  left,  the  dogs  had  successfully  carried  off  every 
goat  without  suffering  any  losses. 

On  another  occasion  my  own  leading  dog,  a  black  bitch 
from  Cape  Chidley,  ran  away  from  the  hospital  in  early 
spring.  She  was  seen  near  a  neighbouring  village,  killing 
sheep.  Three  had  been  slaughtered  by  her  on  land,  and  she 
had  driven  two  more  out  on  to  a  rocky  island,  where  she 
swam  off  and  slew  them.  With  a  long  shot  the  sheep-owner 
wounded  her,  and  she  fled  into  the  woods,  but  still  did  not 
return  home.  He  hauled  the  carcass  near  the  edge  of  the 
woods,  and  sat  up  for  her.  True  to  her  wolfish  instinct, 
she  returned  to  her  quarry  by  night,  and  so  met  her  fate. 

Our  dogs  know  little  or  no  fear,  and,  unlike  the  wolves, 
will  unhesitatingly  attack  even  the  largest  polar  bear. 
On  one  occasion  a  man's  dogs,  travelling  along  smooth  sea 
ice,  scented  a  white  bear  and  started  off  like  the  wind. 


274  LABRADOR 

They  suddenly  turned  a  point  and  ran  right  into  him,  so 
that  the  traces  tangled  round  the  bear  before  the  astonished 
driver  had  time  to  unlash  his  gun.  As  soon  as  he  could, 
he  cut  the  traces,  but  even  in  harness  the  dogs  kept  Bruin 
at  bay.  Though  the  bear  stood  up  to  fight  on  his  hind  legs, 
the  dogs  managed  to  get  in  some  good  bites  without  being 
hurt.  On  another  occasion  a  man  brought  me  a  specially 
valued  dog  that  a  bear  had  squeezed.  The  bear  had  been 
sighted  some  distance  off  on  the  ice-floe,  and  the  dogs  were 
slipped  to  hold  him  up  for  the  hunter.  By  the  time  he 
arrived  on  the  spot,  they  had  the  bear  practically  killed. 
But  two  had  been  damaged  by  him,  one  clawed  and  one 
squeezed. 

The  Labrador  wolf  has  never  been  known  to  kill  a  man. 
Yet  on  several  occasions  single  men  have  fallen  in  with  them. 
One  man  told  me  that  a  pack  followed  him  almost  to  his 
own  door,  that  they  stopped  when  he  stopped,  and  came 
as  close  as  ten  yards.  He  had  no  gun  and  no  means  of 
defence,  yet  they  never  touched  him.  The  Labrador  dog 
has  much  the  same  respect  for  man.  He  is,  moreover, 
affectionate  and  playful.  You  can  easily  make  a  pet  of 
him,  if  you  treat  him  well.  He  is  generally  harmless  to 
children  when  he  is  decently  looked  after,  but  a  team 
of  dogs  together,  however  quiet,  are  never  safe  to  strangers. 
Even  a  single  dog,  if  kicked  about,  badly  fed,  and  left  to 
be  worried  by  the  neighbouring  dogs  every  day  of  his  life, 
cannot  be  trusted. 

The  wolf  will  track  a  deer  day  after  day  till  he  captures 
it.  Again  and  again  our  trappers  have  seen  evidence  of  the 
indefatigable  zeal  and  indomitable  resolution  of  a  single 
wolf  in  following  a  caribou  herd;  and  observers  all  agree 


THE  DOGS  275 

that  each  time  the  track  spells  the  shadow  of  death.  A 
settler  told  me  the  story  of  a  doe  caribou  which,  in  the  early 
summer  of  1906,  he  saw  brought  to  bay  on  the  middle  of 
a  pond  by  a  single  wolf.  The  ice  had  thawed  out,  and  it 
was  necessary  for  the  wolf  to  swim  off  to  get  at  the  deer. 
The  wolf,  after  long  hesitation  in  taking  to  the  water; 
which  it  apparently  hates,  swam  off,  fought  the  caribou, 
and  though  repeatedly  knocked  down  by  her  fore  hoofs, 
at  last  pulled  her  down. 

Our  dogs,  taking  the  scent  of  a  caribou  trail,  even  when 
in  harness,  will  forget  all  discipline,  and  they  will  almost 
tear  a  komatik  and  driver  to  pieces  in  their  eagerness  to 
give  chase.  I  have  known  of  a  team  that  thus  ran  away, 
and  some  of  them  never  came  back.  In  all  probability  they 
had  been  killed,  for  an  Eskimo  dog  never  loses  his  way. 

The  dogs  very  seldom  perish  for  want  of  food,  and  then 
only  under  circumstances  of  an  extraordinary  nature,  such 
as  being  adrift  on  the  floe-ice.  The  Eskimo  dog  takes 
kindly  to  the  water  in  summer.  He  will  go  in  fearlessly 
after  fish.  When  the  caplin  run  ashore,  the  dogs,  half 
starved  after  the  winter  (like  most  of  the  other  animals), 
almost  live  in  the  water,  eating  their  fill  till  they  are  like 
ambulatory  barrels.  I  have  watched  them  patiently  hunt- 
ing flatfish  in  shallow  water.  They  dive  their  heads  under 
water  when  they  feel  the  fish  wriggle  under  their  feet. 
Twice  I  have  had  half-breed  dogs  who  would  dive  to  the 
bottom  in  two  to  two  and  a  half  fathoms  of  water,  and  bring 
up  stones  wrapped  in  white  paper.  This  accomplishment 
served  me  well  on  one  occasion.  From  the  edge  of  the 
shore  ice  I  had  shot  a  seal  swimming  in  the  open  water 
alongside.  My  leading  dog,  which  I  unharnessed,  dived 


276  LABRADOR 

to  ,the  bottom,  and  brought  the  seal  to  the  surface  by  the 
flipper. 

I  am  inclined  to  think  the  half-breed  dogs  are  the  clever- 
est also  in  memorizing.  In  1907  I  was  driving  a  distance 
of  seventy  miles  across  country.  The  path  was  untravelled 
for  the  winter,  and  was  only  a  direction,  not  being  cut  and 
blazed.  The  leading  dog  had  been  once  across  the  previous 
year  with  the  doctor.  The  " going"  had  then  been  very 
bad;  with  snow  and  fog,  the  journey  had  taken  three  days. 
A  large  part  of  the  journey  lay  across  wide  lakes,  and  then 
through  woods.  As  neither  I  nor  my  friends  on  the  other 
komatiks  had  been  that  way  before,  we  had  to  leave  it 
to  the  dog.  He  went  so  quickly  and  so  confidently  that  it 
grew  almost  weird  to  sit  behind  him.  Several  times  I  called 
a  halt  to  examine  the  direction  and  leads.  Without  a  single 
fault,  as  far  as  we  knew,  he  took  us  across,  and  we  accom- 
plished the  whole  journey  in  twelve  hours,  including  one 
and  a  half  hours  for  rest  and  lunch. 

No  amount  of  dry  cold  seems  to  affect  the  dogs.  They 
sleep  out  on  the  coldest  nights,  frequently  choosing  the  most 
exposed  places,  and  apparently  disdaining  any  shelter. 
I  have  almost  had  to  dig  them  out  from  new  snow  in  the 
mornings.  They  will  stay  in  the  water  any  length  of  time 
in  summer  when  the  water  is  from  40  to  43°  F.  I  have  seen 
a  dog  mistake  the  buoy  on  a  net  for  a  stick  thrown  by  his 
master.  He  swam  out,  seized  it,  and  tried  to  pull  it  ashore. 
We  went  in  and  had  tea,  and  when  we  came  out  again,  the 
dog  was  still  pulling  at  the  buoy.  Yet,  in  winter,  the  dogs 
dread  the  water,  and  it  is  very  difficult  to  drive  them 
through.it.  They  seem  also  to  have  an  instinct  telling  them 
when  ice  cannot  be  depended  on,  and  it  is  rare  that  they 
fall  through,  unless  being  urged  on  by  a  driver. 


THE  DOGS  277 

In  training  a  leader,  a  female  is  generally  chosen  as  less 
likely  to  be  damaged  by  the  others  fighting  with  her,  — • 
an  accident  which,  at  certain  times,  would  cost  a  man  his 
life.  The  ideal  team  is  a  clever  mother  followed  by  a  dozen 
of  her  own  pups.  Mixed  teams,  however  powerful,  are 
never  so  good.  The  dogs  soon  learn  to  turn  at  the  word  of 
command .  The  whole  team  will  sometimes  learn  t o  "  turn ' ' 
without  waiting  for  the  leader ;  but  that  is  rare.  The  dogs 
get  to  know  their  own  places  in  a  team,  and,  if  allowed  to 
run  loose  for  any  cause,  such  as  an  accident  or  sickness,  will 
nearly  always  come  and  run  in  their  places.  I  have  had 
so  much  trouble  with  a  dog  doing  that  and  getting  repeat- 
edly run  over  for  his  pains,  that  I  have  had  to  lash  him  on 
the  komatik  to  save  his  life. 

There  can  be  no  question  that  the  dogs  love  to  be  driven. 
They  go  perfectly  wild  with  excitement  when  they  are  in 
harness.  The  komatik  must  be  lashed  to  a  stump  or  stone, 
and  the  line  cut  only  when  the  driver  is  ready  to  go.  The 
team  then  shoots  off  like  an  arrow  from  a  bow. 

They  are,  of  course,  flesh  eaters,  and,  by  nature,  purely 
carnivorous,  only  touching  meal  and  farinaceous  foods  when 
compelled  by  dire  hunger.  During  my  years  in  Labrador 
they  have  killed  two  children  and  one  man,  and  eaten 
another.  In  the  case  of  the  second  man  the  evidence  went 
to  show  that  he  was  not  killed  by  the  dogs,  though  his  dead 
body  was  devoured  by  them.  In  that  case  (winter  of  1906), 
a  man,  his  wife,  and  son  got  lost.  Their  bodies  were  found 
only  when  the  snow  melted  away  during  the  following 
summer.  Of  the  owner  of  the  dogs  only  the  bones  were 
discovered.  As  the  dogs  returned  in  good  condition  after 
a  fortnight's  absence,  all  of  them  were  shot.  The  other 


278  LABRADOR 

man  killed  (also  in  1906)  was  driving  home,  and  had  badly 
fed,  savage  dogs.  He  was  apparently  beating  them, 
when  they  fell  on  him  and  nearly  tore  him  to  pieces.  Each 
of  the  two  children  fell  down  in  the  midst  of  a  pack  that 
had  begun  fighting. 

The  dogs  will  kill  almost  any  kind  of  domestic  animal 
quite  naturally.  I  was  passing  a  house  one  day  into  which 
an  elderly  lady  was  driving  a  goat.  I  heard  a  shout  and 
noticed  my  leading  dog  was  calmly  proceeding  on  the  way, 
dragging  the  unfortunate  goat  in  his  mouth  by  the  hind  leg. 
Our  traces,  harness,  and  all  fastenings  are  made  of  sealskin, 
and  these  the  dogs  love  to  eat,  but  most  will  readily  learn 
not  to  do  so.  I  have  had  dogs  which  would  not  eat  their 
skin  shoes  that  we  put  on  them  to  save  their  feet  against  the 
cutting  of  the  ice  crust.  At  the  same  time  my  sealskin 
whip  has  often  been  eaten,  a  deed  which  one  scarcely  knew 
whether  to  attribute  to  bad  taste  or  to  great  sagacity. 

There  is  nothing  an  Eskimo  dog  likes  more  than  a  fight. 
The  moment  the  noise  of  a  fight  breaks  the  silence,  every 
dog  in  hearing  will  fly  off  at  full  speed  to  the  spot  and  "  chip 
in."  Members  of  one  team  will,  as  a  rule,  stick  together; 
a  whole  team  will  saunter  out,  and  try  to  lure  passers-by 
into  a  melee.  As  a  rule,  however,  all  dogs  will  bite  the  first 
to  fall,  and  if  one  has  the  misfortune  to  be  thrown  on  his 
back,  it  is  nearly  certain  his  fate  is  sealed.  It  is  marvellous 
how  soon  they  can  kill  the  enemy.  I  have  known  it  done 
in  two  minutes,  a  great  fang  finding  a  billet  in  the  carotid 
artery.  I  had  purchased  a  fine  dog  for  a  leader  one  year, 
and  on  the  first  trip  left  him  tied  with  the  team  in  harness 
while  I  went  to  pay  a  visit.  He  was  dead  and  partly  eaten 
when  I  returned. 


THE  DOGS  279 

The  natives  always  use  great  whips  with  a  lash  as  long 
as  thirty  feet.  With  that  the  driver  can  strike  any  dog 
he  wishes,  even  at  full  gallop.  The  length  of  the  handle  is 
immaterial.  Indeed,  I  have  known  an  Eskimo  kill  many 
partridges  (or  spruce  grouse)  by  flicking  them  with  a  whip 
which  had  no  handle  at  all.  Any  good  hand  with  a  whip 
will  drive  nails  into  a  post  with  it,  and  will  cut  a  hole 
almost  through  a  door-panel. 

For  endurance,  few  animals  can  equal  our  dogs.  As  I 
have  said  before,  cold  seems  absolutely  immaterial.  At 
50°  F.  below  zero,  a  dog  will  lie  out  on  the  ice  and  sleep 
without  danger  of  frost-bite.  He  may  climb  out  of  the 
sea  with  ice  forming  all  over  his  fur,  but  he  seems  not  to 
mind  one  iota.  I  have  seen  his  breath  freeze  so  over  his 
face  that  he  had  to  rub  the  coating  off  his  eyes  with  his  paws 
to  enable  him  to  see  the  track.  I  have  driven  him  from 
daylight  to  dark  on  bright  spring  days  when  a  couple  of 
hours  of  such  exposure  would  blind  the  unprotected  eyes 
of  most  men.  I  have  never  yet  known  a  dog's  eyes  to 
suffer  at  all. 

No  dog  is  fed  more  than  once  a  day,  and  one  might  almost 
say  no  dog  is  ever  given  all  he  wants  to  eat.  Yet  a  team 
will,  when  unavoidable,  go  two  and  three  days  without  food 
on  a  journey,  and  yet  show  scarcely  a  sign  of  fatigue.  To 
feed  its  puppies,  a  dog  will  vomit  the  food  it  has  eaten  itself. 

For  speed  and  endurance  it  is  difficult  to  surpass  these 
wonderful  animals.  An  old  friend,  a  Hudson's  Bay  factor 
at  Moose  Factory,  in  a  letter  describing  a  journey  he  re- 
cently made  with  ten  dogs,  and  nearly  a  thousand  pounds' 
weight  on  the  komatik,  says :  "  We  covered  the  one  hundred 
and  eighty  miles  of  distance  in  two  and  a  half  days,  and  the 


280  LABRADOR 

dogs  showed  no  signs  of  slacking  when  we  drew  up."  With 
a  half-breed  team  of  only  seven  dogs,  I  have  myself  travelled 
seventy  miles  a  day  over  a  hilly  country,  but  there  were  only 
two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  on  the  komatik.  On  this 
journey  there  was  time  allowed  for  midday  rest  for  lunch 
and  the  boiling  of  the  kettle. 

The  Eskimo  dog  never  barks.  But  he  howls  exactly 
like  a  wolf,  in  sitting  posture  with  the  head  upturned. 
One  dog  will  start  every  dog  in  ear-shot.  This  keeps  a 
traveller  awake,  and  so  the  people  have  invented  many 
charms,  one  of  which  consists  in  seizing  the  band  of  your 
shirt  in  your  teeth  and  chewing  it  till  the  noise  stops. 

During  twenty  years  we  have  known  of  no  cases  of  hy- 
datid  cysts  due  to  the  dangerous  form  of  tapeworm  such 
as  is  transmitted  by  dogs  in  Greenland.  Indeed,  even  dis- 
temper and  mange  are  very  rare  among  Eskimo  dogs. 
Though  every  family  keeps  half  a  dozen  at  least,  not  a  single 
case  of  hydrophobia  has  been  known. 

The  great  beauty  of  a  dog-team  is  that  it  seems  to  banish 
all  conventionalities.  You  can  go  anywhere  and  every- 
where with  no  roads,  no  hedges,  no  walls,  no  restrictions 
but  your  own  will;  and  that  will,  without  rein  or  bridle, 
you  make  your  dog's  will.  Dogs  can  carry  you  up  almost 
the  steepest  snow  slope  and  down  again  in  safety.  They 
do  not  slip  or  sink  in,  and  if  they  fall  over  even  a  high  cliff 
in  the  winter,  they  are  very  rarely  hurt.  They  seem  to 
understand  what  you  say,  and  so  form  a  far  better  com- 
panion than  a  horse.  They  are  automobiles  which  need  no 
handling  of  their  machinery.  They  enjoy  travelling  almost 
more  than  their  masters  enjoy  it.  They  learn  to  love  you 
as  only  a  dog  will,  and  if  it  were  not  for  their  occasional  out- 


THE  DOGS  281 

breaks  of  wickedness,  they  would  make  the  best  of  com- 
panions. As  it  is,  I  know  of  no  greater  pleasure  possible 
than  a  large,  strong  team,  a  good  leader,  a  brisk,  bright 
spring  day,  and  a  really  long  journey  to  go. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  COD  AND  COD-FISHERY 
BY  W.  T.  GRENFELL 

LABRADOR  is  as  yet  a  land  of  specialized  industries.  The 
endless  problem  of  food  and  clothing  has  made  the  native 
Eskimo  a  hunter  of  seals ;  the  native  Indian  has  preferred 
the  deer;  the  incoming  whites,  while  importing  their 
flour  and  woven  cloths,  have  found  their  good  genius  in  the 
cod.  Nearly  three  hundred  years  ago  it  was  known  that 
this  fish  was  plentiful  on  the  southern  coast  of  the  penin- 
sula, and  ever  since  the  cod-fishery  has  been  more  or  less 
vigorously  pursued  on  the  Labrador.  In  former  times  the 
herring,  and  always  the  salmon,  has  furnished  minor  parts 
in  the  harvest  from  the  coastal  waters,  but  it  is  remarkable 
that,  in  Newfoundland  and  Labrador,  "fish"  is  a  synonym 
merely  for. cod;  a  local  law  has  stated  that  salmon  is  not 
fish.  Other  members  of  the  Gadidse  family,  as  the  hake, 
tusk,  haddock,  whiting,  coalfish,  pollack,  ling,  and  whiting- 
pout,  are  absent  or  present  in  negligible  quantities.  A 
flounder  is  the  only  noteworthy  representative  of  the  flat- 
fish family.  The  halibut  is  found  only  in  deep  water,  far 
from  shore. 

For  many  reasons  the  humble  cod  has  a  just  claim  to 
preeminence  among  the  food-fishes.  As  food  for  man,  cod 

282 


THE  COD  AND   COD-FISHERY  283 

is  the  bread  of  the  sea.  He  may  be  called  the  bread  and 
butter,  for  more  surely  than  any  other  marine  species  does 
he  supply  a  food  of  which  the  white  man's  palate  does  not 
tire.  His  flesh  is  rich  and  gelatinous,  without  being  fatty. 
Every  particle  of  his  body  is  useful  to  man.  The  skin  and 
bones  make  excellent  glue.  The  tongue  and  swim-bladder 
are  rare  delicacies  when  well  cooked,  and  have  also  been 
used  as  raw  material  in  the  manufacture  of  isinglass.  The 
refined  cod-liver  oil  is  among  the  most  sterling  remedies 
yet  devised  for  man's  bodily  weakness,  which  so  often  leads 
to  deadly  phthisis.1  The  refuse  oil  may  be  employed  for 
tanning  purposes;  the  offal  is  very  valuable  manure.  In 
Norway  and  Iceland,  the  dried  heads  have  been  largely  used 
as  food  for  cattle.  The  roe  is  an  excellent  bait,  and  forms 
a  notable  part  of  the  Norwegian  annual  export.  On 
Arctic  shores  the  well-dried  bones,  for  lack  of  other  material, 
have  been  used  for  fuel.  For  curing  purposes,  the  cod  is 
unsurpassed.  Belonging  to  the  Anacanthini,  or  spineless 
fish,  he  can  be  rapidly  deprived  of  bone  and  entrails  without 
danger  to  the  fisherman's  hands. 

A  fresh  codfish  weighing  6.6  pounds  contains  as  much  as 
5.4  pounds  of  water.  When  well  cured,  it  will  weigh  2.2 
pounds,  of  which  16.5  ounces  is  nutritive  matter,  4.5  ounces 
is  salt,  and  12.5  ounces  is  water.  Compared  with  fresh 
beef,  the  nutritive  value  of  the  dried  cod  is  as  9  to  10,  and 
the  cost  is  less  than  one-half  that  of  beef  at  average  prices. 
It  is  said  that  a  Newfoundland  fish  contains  more  nutriment 

1  Four  hundred  Lofoten  cod  give  a  barrel  of  oil,  but  it  takes  twice 
as  many  to  give  a  barrel  of  the  refined,  medicinal  oil.  The  product 
rotted  out  is  called  cod  oil;  that  for  drinking,  cod-liver  oil.  About 
thirty-six  hundred  livers  of  Labrador  cod  go  to  the  barrel  of  twenty- 
five  gallons. 


284  LABRADOR 

than  an  equally  heavy  fish  from  the  French  banks.  In 
Europe,  fresh  cod  is  regarded  as  best  for  table  use  when 
caught  in  the  coldest  months,  December  to  February. 
The  relatively  high  nutritive  value  of  the  Newfoundland- 
Labrador  fish  is  probably  to  be  explained  in  large  part 
by  the  fact  that  all  the  year  round  the  sea  temperatures  are 
at  least  as  low  as  those  which  bring  the  European  cod  into 
best  condition. 

<  The  fish  can  be  preserved  in  wet  bulk  all  winter  by  putting 
enough  salt  between  adjacent  layers  to  prevent  them  from 
touching  one  another.  It  may  also  be  preserved  as  dry 
bulk  in  piles  covered  over  and  well  pressed  down.  But 
the  fish  may  be  cured  by  no  other  means  whatever  than  by 
splitting  open  the  carcass  and  hanging  it  up  in  the  sun  to 
dry.  Many  of  the  ancient,  foreign  names  for  the  animal 
have  apparently  been  derived  from  the  fact  that  from  times 
immemorial  the  flesh  of  the  drying  split  fish  has  been 
made  tenderer  by  beating  the  carcass  with  clubs.  The 
Norwegians  call  the  animal  the  "stock"  (stick)  fish;  in 
Spanish  it  is  "baccalhao"  (from  Lat.  bacvlum,  a  staff,  rod, 
or  small  stick);  in  Italian,  "mazza"  (a  club);  in  Gaelic, 
"gad"  (rod).  The  Greeks  called  the  fish  "bacchi"  (rods). 
In  English  the  name  "stock-fish"  covers  the  haddock, 
ling,  and  hake,  as  well  as  the  cod.  The  Labrador  Eskimo 
always  preserve  cod  by  hard  drying  without  salt.  The 
white  man,  of  course,  has  devised  his  own  methods  of  curing 
the  cod  by  smoking  it  like  the  salmon,  or  of  turning  it  as 
steaks  or  in  boneless  rolls,  ready  for  immediate  use,  but  the 
commonest  method  is  still  that  by  dry  salting,  as  it  has  been 
for  so  many  centuries.  Since  these  many  virtues  as  a  food- 
fish  must  be  multiplied  by  the  inconceivable  numbers  of 


ffff 


On  the  March 


Waiting  for  Their  Master 


THE  COD  AND   COD-FISHERY  285 

individuals,  the  title  "King  of  the  food-fishes"  is  justified, 
even  against  the  herring. 

Each  female  lays  from  three  to  nine  million  eggs  each  year, 
generally  in  the  months  from  February  to  May,  inclusive. 
The  fish  spawns  rapidly.  As  the  females  are  " ripening," 
the  roe  or  ovaries  are  so  large  that  they  fill  the  mother's 
body  and  actually  tend  to  prevent  her  feeding.  So  far  as 
it  goes,  this  is  a  fortunate  protection  for  the  species,  since, 
during  this  important  period  in  her  life,  the  female  is  thereby 
less  liable  to  be  caught  on  a  bait.  The  males  seem  to  out- 
number the  females  considerably,  but  the  balance  is  main- 
tained for  reproduction- by  the  fact  that  the  roe  of  the  aver- 
age female  is  two  or  three  times  as  heavy  as  the  milt  of  the 
average  male. 

Though  the  eggs  contain  no  oil  globule,  they  float  in  the 
water.  The  milt  also  floats,  and  as  its  units  are  present 
in  inestimable  quantities,  the  fertilization  of  the  eggs, 
which  takes  place  in  the  open  water,  is  insured.  It  is  made 
yet  more  certain  by  the  fact  that  during  the  spawning  season 
the  cod  aggregate  into  immense  shoals  in  shallow  water. 
This  free  floating  is  a  great  protection  to  the  eggs,  as  they 
cannot  be  browsed  up  in  bulk  off  the  bottom,  like  the  spawn 
of  herring,  which  adheres  in  masses  to  the  rocks  and  gravels. 
The  young  cod  grows  rapidly,  and  in  twelve  months  is  about 
sixteen  inches  long,  and  in  twenty-four  months  is  a  mature 
fish  about  twenty-four  inches  long.  As  a  rule,  however,  it 
will  not  breed  until  it  is  three  years  old.  Its  youth  is  largely 
spent  in  eating  its  own  brothers  and  sisters  and  cousins, 
and  also  in  escaping  being  eaten.  The  career  of  any  indi- 
vidual is  apt  to  be  a  checkered  one,  and  it  is  only  one  out  of 
many  that  succeeds  "in  realizing  any  aspirations  he  may 


286  LABRADOR 

have  to  a  humble  corner  on  a  fishmonger's  slab."  During 
his  life  he  seems  singularly  free  from  diseases,  but  blindness 
and  rickets  (unaccompanied  by  fever)  have  been  found  not 
infrequently.  The  blindness  may  be  due  to  mechanical 
injuries  or  to  exposure  to  too  much  light  during  the  long 
days  of  the  north.  Rickety  fish  often  have  humped  backs. 

The  largest  codfish  of  which  I  have  record  on  this  coast 
scaled  one  hundred  and  two  pounds,  and  was  five  feet  six 
inches  long.  The  record  on  the  English  coast  is  seventy- 
eight  pounds,  with  length  of  five  feet  eight  inches ;  this  fish 
was  caught  in  1755,  and  was  sold  for  the  sum  of  one  shilling. 
The  largest  recorded  cod  on  the  Newfoundland  Banks  was 
caught  by  Captain  Stephen  May  in  1838;  the  weight,  after 
the  fish  was  gutted,  was  one  hundred  and  thirty-six  pounds  ! 
Another  cod  holds  the  record  on  the  American  coast; 
he  was  caught  by  Captain  Atwood,  who  found  him  to  scale 
one  hundred  and  sixty  pounds.  In  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence 
and  on  the  east  coast  of  Labrador,  the  fish  are  of  smaller 
average  size  than  on  the  banks  off  Newfoundland  and  the 
United  States.  The  fish  from  the  far  north,  near  Cape 
Chidley,  are  both  shorter  and  thinner  than  those  taken  at 
the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle.  The  average  Labrador  cod  taken 
in  the  trap-net  is  about  twenty  inches  long,  and  weighs 
between  three  and  four  pounds.  Those  caught  on  hook 
and  line  in  the  autumn  are  much  larger  and  heavier. 

The  monster  cod  once  caught  off  Roc  kail  and  the  Hebrides 
in  the  early  days  of  those  fisheries  have  disappeared.  Pre- 
sumably they  held  a  kind  of  monopoly  of  all  food  that  came 
along,  and  thus  assumed  the  first  chances  in  swallowing 
baited  hooks.  It  may  be  noted  that  the  cod  is  never  large 
enough  to  be  completely  free  from  the  danger  of  being  eaten 


THE  COD  AND   COD-FISHEBY  287 

alive,  for  seals  are  quite  indifferent  on  that  point.  The 
cod  must  rarely  die  of  old  age. 

The  actual  company  enjoyed  by  these  gregarious  crea- 
tures may  be  observed  any  season  on  the  Labrador,  when 
the  great  schools  of  cod  are  feeding  on  the  living  caplin, 
as  the  latter,  themselves  in  countless  hosts,  run  inshore  to 
feed.  The  water  is  then  often  literally  black  with  cod,  and 
so  eager  are  they  after  their  food  that  the  air  over  the  school 
is  alive  with  fish  jumping  after  their  prey.  Additional  ex- 
citement in  the  water  is  furnished  by  the  dogfish,  sharks, 
seals,  or  herring-hogs,  which  follow  the  cod  from  interested 
motives.  Cartwright,  in  1776,  gives  the  following  descrip- 
tion of  such  a  school  :  "  Observing  many  codfish  to  come 
close  inshore,  where  the  water  was  deep,  I  laid  myself  flat 
on  the  rock,  took  a  caplin  by  the  tail,  and  held  it  in  the 
water  in  expectation  that  a  cod  would  take  it  out  of  my 
fingers.  Nor  was  I  disappointed,  for  almost  immediately 
a  fish  struck  at  it  and  seized  it.  And  no  sooner  had  one 
snatched  away  the  caplin  than  another  sprang  out  of  the 
water,  and  actually  caught  a  slight  hold  of  my  finger  and 
thumb.  Had  I  dipped  my  hand  in  the  water,  I  am  con- 
vinced they  would  soon  have  made  me  repent  of  my  folly, 
for  they  are  a  very  greedy,  bold  fish."  A  similar  sight  was 
presented  at  one  point  on  the  coast  last  year  (1908),  good 
sizable  fish  jumping  out  of  the  water  after  bait  and  landing 
on  the  rocks,  so  that  they  were  actually  taken  without 
any  trouble  beyond  that  of  picking  them  up. 

Fortunately  for  themselves  and  for  the  world,  they  are 
gifted  with  the  most  extraordinary  digestive  powers ;  they 
certainly  do  their  honest  best  to  convert  everything  that 
comes  into  their  way  into  that  which  will  ultimately  benefit 


288  LABRADOR 

mankind.  I  have  myself  taken  three  small  cod  and  twenty- 
seven  caplin  from  the  stomach  of  one  postprandial  fish 
and  have  seen  an  excellent  gold  ring  taken  from  the  stomach 
of  another.  A  book  in  three  volumes  was  taken  from  the 
stomach  of  a  codfish  off  Lynn,  England,  and  presented  to 
the  vice-chancellor  of  Cambridge  University.  Scissors, 
oil-cans,  old  boots,  testify  to  the  catholicity  of  the  cod's 
appetite.  Captain  Hill,  who  lost  his  keys  over  the  side  in 
the  North  Sea,  had  them  returned  to  him  from  the  inside  of 
a  codfish.  Two  full-grown  ducks  have  been  found  in  a 
cod's  stomach ;  the  birds  were  quite  fresh,  and  had  appar- 
ently been  swallowed  alive.  An  entire  partridge,  a  whole 
hare,  six  (small)  dogfish,  an  entire  turnip,  a  guillemot 
(beak,  claws,  and  all),  a  tallow  candle,  have  all  betrayed 
the  omnivorous  leanings  of  some  of  our  friends.  But  per- 
haps their  devotion  to  business  is  best  shown  by  the  number 
of  stones  taken  from  their  interiors  and  merely  swallowed 
for  the  sake  of  the  corallines  which  had  grown  on  the  stones. 
Lobsters,  crabs,  whelk  shells,  and  the  like,  swallowed  au 
naturelle  do  not  seem  to  require  any  special  digestive  pre- 
cautions. A  Newfoundland  fisherman  had  the  melancholy 
duty  of  forwarding  a  wedding-ring  found  in  a  cod's  stomach 
to  the  family  of  a  lady  who  was  lost  off  the  Newfoundland 
coast  in  the  steamship  Anglo-Saxon. 

The  question  whether  there  is  any  diminution  in  the 
supply  of  the  cod  on  the  Labrador  is  an  interesting  and 
important  one.  If  it  be  granted  that  there  is  such  diminu- 
tion, it  is  still  an  open  question  whether  man  has  been  re- 
sponsible for  the  change.  All  the  millions  of  fish  taken 
annually  out  of  these  waters  must  represent  but  an  ex- 
tremely minute  fraction  of  the  total  "run"  along  the 


The  Sea  of  Ice 


Newfoundland  Schooners  working  North 


THE  COD  AND   COD-FISBERT  289 

thousand  miles  of  coast.  It  is  conceivable  that  the  codfish 
host  is  so  evenly  balanced  against  the  host  of  its  natural 
sea-water  enemies  that  even  the  small  human  inroad  on 
the  numbers,  especially  on  the  numbers  of  females,  may  in 
time  produce  a  sensible  thinning  out  of  the  shoals.  But 
we  have  as  yet  no  good  proof  that  this  is  the  case.  The 
fish  are  protected  from  man  by  the  long  winter  months; 
from  November  to  June,  or  even  July,  they  are  safe  from 
that  enemy  at  least,  for  the  ice  shuts  man  out  from  the  sea. 
Those  places  where  the  largest  catches  were  made  years 
ago  are  still  usually  the  best  berths,  e.g.  Griffin's  Harbour. 
That  fact  seems  significant,  for,  in  some  measure  like  the 
salmon,  the  cod  is  a  local  fish  and  tends  to  return,  year  after 
year,  to  the  section  of  the  coast  where  he  was  born.  It 
follows,  therefore,  that,  if  man  were  causing  a  diminution 
in  the  numbers  of  the  cod,  the  best  berths  of  former  times 
would  be  less  likely  to  be  the  best  berths  now.  Though  the 
herring  and  mackerel  have  largely  disappeared  from  the 
Labrador  coast  during  the  last  half  century,  they  have 
certainly  not  been  exterminated  by  fishermen.  The 
quantities  taken  of  these  two  fish  have  been  far  too  small 
to  effect  that  result.  The  ancient  fishery  off  Yarmouth, 
England,  has  taken  ten  thousand  times  more  herring  than 
have  ever  been  captured  on  the  Labrador,  yet  the  annual 
taking  off  the  English  coast  is  still  remarkable. 

However,  the  majority  of  Labrador  fishermen  think  that 
the  cod  are  diminishing  in  numbers  along  the  whole  coast. 
They  refer  to  the  partial  or  complete  abandonment  of  the 
northern  summer  stations  at  Windsor  Harbour,  Fanny's 
Harbour,  Aillik,  Long  Tickle,  etc.,  where  the  industry  once 
flourished.  Other  arguments  run  to  the  effect  that  the 


290  LABRADOR 

Jersey  and  American  firms  who,  years  ago,  conducted  large 
operations  on  the  coast,  had  to  give  them  up,  owing  to  the 
scarcity  of  fish ;  that  well-off  families  have  fallen  into  pov- 
erty and  want,  and  that  many  have  left  the  coast ;  that  float- 
ing craft  have  to  keep  going  farther  and  farther  afield; 
that  large  bays,  which  attracted  settlers  on  account  of  the 
local  abundance  of  cod,  are  now  deserted ;  that  some  places 
along  the  Labrador  fail  every  year  nowadays ;  that,  not- 
withstanding the  large  mesh  now  compelled  by  government, 
the  fish  taken  are  now  of  smaller  average  size  than  formerly ; 
that  the  catch  is  not  proportionate  to  the  increased  outfit ; 
and  that  the  bank  fisheries  have  been  depleted  both  abso- 
lutely and  relatively.  The  pessimists  argue  further  that 
the  cod-fishery  runs  risk  of  approaching  the  failures  recorded 
for  the  lobster,  salmon,  seal,  and  even  the  trout,  all  of  which 
have  been  signally  depleted  by  man ;  the  whales  and  whalers 
are  steadily  diminishing.  Walrus  has  been  banished  from 
the  Labrador.  All  along  the  Labrador  there  are  bullies 
and  fishing-boats,  once  in  regular  use,  now  lying  up  and 
rotting  on  the  shore. 

That  the  government  once  leaned  to  this  view  was  shown 
by  the  establishment  of  a  codfish  hatchery  in  Newfound- 
land, not  for  biological  experiment,  but  for  hatching  young 
fish  for  restocking  the  bays.  Subsequently,  under  Sir 
William  White  way,  the  hatchery  was  closed  down.  Some 
fishermen  thought  the  plan  a  success ;  others  thought  it  a 
failure. 

In  judging  the  case,  the  obvious  precaution  must  be  taken 
that  too  much  reliance  be  not  placed  on  the  testimony  of 
a  few  individual  captains;  as  the  number  of  men  and 
amount  of  capital  engaged  in  the  industry  increase,  the 


THE  COD  AND   COD-FISHEEY  291 

chances  of  failure  of  cargo  for  the  single  schooner  are  in- 
creased. There  are  simply  not  enough  "best  berths" 
to  go  round  when  the  list  of  schooners  increases  beyond 
a  certain  point.  Quite  independently  of  man's  interfer- 
ence, the  harvests  of  the  sea,  like  those  on  the  land,  may 
naturally  swing  in  cycles.  So  long  ago  as  1775  there  was  a 
complete  failure  of  the  cod-fishery  along  the  north  side  of 
Belle  Isle  Strait;  yet  this  latest  year  (1908)  the  "crop" 
has  been  unusually  good.  It  may  well  be  that  the  inshore 
fishing  is  now  in  a  period  of  relatively  lean  years,  to  be 
followed  by  a  period  of  fat  years,  —  the  whole  swing  of  the 
industrial  pendulum  being  utterly  uncontrolled  by  the 
relatively  insignificant  takings  of  the  summer  fleet  on  the 
Labrador.  Neither  science  nor  the  practical  industry 
has  yet  obtained  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  sea  to  declare 
the  whole  law  which  governs  the  annual,  much  less  the 
age-to-age,  swelling  or  recession  of  the  finny  flood. 

In  any  event  the  cod  seem  to  be  as  plentiful  as  ever  in 
deep  water.  The  use  of  long  lines  by  banking  vessels  along 
the  Labrador  is  growing  steadily  in  importance.  The 
failure  of  many  a  schooner  to  find  cargo  may  be  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  trap-net  is  the  only  method  of  capture  em- 
ployed. The  deepest  water  in  which  I  have  seen  traps 
set  is  eighteen  fathoms.  If  for  any  reason  the  fish,  though 
as  plentiful  as  ever,  do  not  come  right  home  to  the  rocks, 
the  captain  outfitted  with  trap-net  only  might  wrongly 
report  on  this  question  of  a  possible  diminution  in  the 
numbers  of  the  cod  in  Labrador  seas. 

One  important  cause  governing  the  nearness  of  the 
approach  of  the  cod  in  any  year  to  the  actual  coast-line  is 
undoubtedly  the  temperature  of  the  water.  This  may 


292  LABRADOR 

affect  the  fish  directly,  or  may  control  the  distribution 
of  the  other  animals  on  which  he  feeds,  thus  affecting  the 
cod  himself  indirectly.  The  cod  will  not  feed  in  water 
under  34°  F.  He  prefers  temperatures  ranging  between 
35°  F.  and  42°  F.  On  the  cod-bearing  Norwegian  waters 
the  hottest  month  is  August,  when  the  surface  of  the  sea 
averages  43.5°  F.  (12.8°  C.) ;  ten  fathoms  down  it  averages 
41.9°  F.  (11°  C.),  and  twenty  fathoms  from  the  surface, 
37°  F.  (5.6°  C.).  The  coldest  month  is  February,  when  the 
averages  are :  surface,  32°  F.  (0°  C.) ;  at  ten  fathoms,  33.8° 
F.  (1.25°  C.);  at  twenty  fathoms,  36.5°  F.  (2.5°  C.).  From 
the  few  observations  I  have  taken  of  the  Labrador,  the 
average  surface  temperature  in  summer  varies  from  40° 
to  45  °  F.  In  the  summer  of  1900,  Mr.  R.  A.  Daly  of  the 
Brown-Harvard  expedition  made  some  serial  readings  of 
the  temperatures  in  the  coastal  waters  on  days  when  abun- 
dant cod  could  be  taken  from  the  schooner  on  which 
the  temperatures  were  determined.  Two  carefully  cali- 
brated thermometers  gave  accordant  results.  A  few  ex- 
amples of  the  serial  readings  may  be  of  interest  as  showing 
how  very  cold  may  be  the  water  in  which  the  cod  appears 
to  thrive.  The  tables  also  indicate  the  density  of  the 
water  as  collected  in  a  "Mill"  bottle  at  various  depths. 
The  rapid  changes  of  temperature  and  of  salinity  in  a  few 
fathoms  are  noteworthy. 

FIRST  SERIES 

At  anchor,  three  and  one-half  miles  west  of  Cape  Pomi- 
adluk,  Labrador;  8  P.M.,  July  31.  Air  temperature, 
11.3°  C.  (52.3°  F.). 


THE  COD  AND   COD-FISHERY 


293 


TEMPERATURE,  t 

DEPTH  IN  FATHOMS 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  AT 
TEMPERATURE  t 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Surface 

7.0° 

44.6° 

1.01965 

1 

5.7 

42.1 

1.02045 

2 

5.5 

41.9 

1.02060 

3 

5.3 

41.5 

1.02065 

4 

2.1 

35.9 

1.02220 

5 

.4 

32.7 

1.02355 

6.5  (bottom) 

.3 

32.5 

1.02390 

4. 


SECOND  SERIES 

At  anchor  in  Summer's  Cove,  Aillik  Bay ;  noon,  August 
Many  cod  jigged,  at  all  depths  from  three  to  ten  fathoms. 


DEPTH  IN  FATHOMS 

TEMPERATURE,  t 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  AI 
TEMPERATURE  t 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Surface 

6.2° 

43.1° 

1.01980 

1 

5.7 

42.1 

1.01980 

2 

3.5 

38.3 

1.02070 

3 

8.2 

37.0 

1.02125 

4 

1.2 

34.2 

.02285 

5 

.5 

32,9 

.02355 

6 

.3 

32.5 

.02375 

7 

.1 

32.2 

.02385 

8 

-  .2 

31.7 

.02420 

9 

-  .2 

31.7 

1.02450 

10 

-  .3 

31.5 

1.02485 

11 

-   .3  + 

31.4 

1.02490 

12 

-   .5 

31.1 

1.02495 

13  (bottom) 

-   .55 

31.0 

1.02510 

294 


LABRADOR 


Even  in  late  summer  the  temperature  of  the  water 
in  the  (ice-free)  northern  fiords  remains  very  low.  This 
fact  is  illustrated  in  the  groups  of  serial  readings  taken 
during  a  visit  of  the  same  party  to  Nachvak  Bay.  One 
such  group  is  represented  in  a 

THIRD  SERIES 

Locality,  on  rocky  bar  three  miles  east  of  Hudson's 
Bay  Company  station  in  Nachvak  Bay  and  about  seventeen 
miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  fiord ;  2  P.M.  ,  September  4, 1900. 
Air  temperature,  about  12.5°  C.  (44.5°  F.). 


TEMPERATURE,  t 

DEPTH  IN  FATHOMS 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  AT 
TEMPERATURE  t 

Cent. 

Fahr. 

Surface 

3.9° 

39.0° 

1.02380 

1 

3.3 

37.9 

1.02430 

3 

2.2 

36.0 

1.02510 

5 

.5 

32.9 

1.02595 

10 

.4 

32.7 

1.02600 

14i 

.3 

32.5 

1.02620 

From  these  (hitherto  unpublished)  observations  obtained 
in  1900,  it  appears  that  the  water  of  the  northern  fiords, 
at  depths  greater  than  about  twenty  fathoms,  never  rises 
sensibly  above  the  freezing-point  of  fresh  water. 

There  is  little  doubt  that  the  cod  does  not  travel  far  in 
its  annual  migration.  After  spawning,  the  school  simply 
moves  out  into  deeper  water  on  the  slopes  of  the  con- 
tinental plateau  or  on  the  Grand  Banks.  There  in  depths 
of  from  eighteen  to  seventy  fathoms  they  browse  about. 


THE  COD  AND   COD-FISHERY 


295 


Though  this  fish  prefers  such  a  range  of  depth,  it  may  be 
trapped  in  water  as  shallow  as  two  fathoms  or  as  deep  as 
three  hundred  fathoms.  To  the  most  favoured  depths  the 
animal  retires  after  the  spawning  season,  which  is  also  that 
of  optimum  temperature  along  the  immediate  Labrador 
shore,  has  been  passed.  In  rhythmic  fashion  the  cod 
returns  each  year  to  its  birthplace  with  the  shoal,  and 
haunts  the  same  neighbourhood  throughout  its  short  season 
of  inshore  life. 


NORTH 
LATITUDE 

LOCALITY 

ARRIVAL 

CLOSE  OF  FISHERY 

DURATION  OP 
FISHERY 

51°  30' 

Cape  Bauld 

June  20 

October  20 

122  days 

52° 

Chateau  Bay 

June  20 

October  1 

102  days 

53°  24? 

Batteau 

July  12 

October  1 

80  days 

54°  26' 

Indian  Harbour 

July  15 

October  1 

78  days 

54°  56' 

Cape  Harrison 

July  18 

October  1 

75  days 

55°  27' 

Hopedale 

July  20 

October  1 

73  days 

55°  52' 

Davis  Inlet 

July  28 

October  1 

65  days 

56°  33' 

Nain 

July  28 

October  1 

65  days 

57°  30' 

Okkak 

July  28 

October  1 

65  days 

58°  30' 

Hebron 

August  15 

September  15 

32  days 

The  shoal  arrives  on  the  coast  about  a  week  later  for 
every  degree  of  latitude  farther  north.  But,  as  codfish 
are  spread  over  the  whole  coast  of  over  a  thousand  miles 
simultaneously  during  August  and  September,  the  later 
arrival  in  the  north  cannot  be  due  to  a  south-to-north  move- 
ment of  the  same  individual  fish  in  a  single  shoal.  The 
first  fish  at  St.  Anthony  (on  the  Treaty  shore  of  Newfound- 
land) appear  about  May  25;  those  at  Cartwright,  about 
July  25.  In  Europe  the  advance-guard  reach  the  Nor- 


296  LABRADOR 

wegian  coast  in  January,  host  following  host  in  a  north- 
easterly direction.  Sometimes  they  are  delayed  by  the 
coldness  of  the  season,  and  may  then  not  run  in  until  March. 
Professor  Hind  has  prepared  the  preceding  table  of  arrival 
and  departure  in  average  years  at  different  latitudes  on  the 
Labrador.  It  may  be  noted  that  the  cod  of  the  western 
Atlantic  coast  ranges  from  Cape  Hatteras  to  the  Gulf  of 
Boothnia  in  lat.  75°  north. 

The  smaller  fish  leave  the  shore  first ;  the  larger  ones  re- 
main on  the  near  banks  till  well  into  November,  when  they 
withdraw  into  deeper  water.  Buffon  said  they  retired  to 
the  polar  seas,  but  it  seems  impossible  that  they  go  very 
far.  Some  Labrador  cod  are  known  to  winter  on  the  Grand 
Banks,  as  some  with  Frenchmen's  banking  hooks  sticking 
in  their  mouths  have  been  captured  by  the  Labrador  crews. 

As  cod  began  to  show  real  or  apparent  failure  on  the  New- 
foundland coast,  and  then  on  the  Grand  Banks,  the  great 
fleet  of  fishing  vessels  began  to  turn  its  bows  northward. 
First,  a  few  venturesome  fishermen  crossed  the  Strait  of 
Belle  Isle  without  having  wetted  a  line  or  net,  and  risked 
their  summer's  catch  off  the  Labrador  coast.  These  early 
pioneers  were  richly  rewarded,  and  others  soon  followed 
in  their  wake.  As  it  became  imperative  for  more  and  more 
families  to  seek  a  living  from  Labrador,  many,  who  had  no 
means  of  obtaining  schooners  of  their  own,  managed  to 
find  their  way  north  as  "freighters,"  with  their  more 
fortunate  brethren.  Arrived  on  the  Labrador,  a  family 
of  " freighters"  builds  a  rude  summer  "tilt"  at  some  spot 
suggested  by  their  previous  experience,  and  then  fish  from 
the  land  in  small  boats,  returning  in  the  same  way  in  the 
autumn.  Thus  commenced  the  great  exodus  of  men, 


THE  COD  AND   COD-FISHERY  297 

women,  and  children  that  every  year  starts  for  Labrador 
from  Newfoundland  as  soon  as  the  ice  of  winter  breaks  up 
and  the  journey  becomes  possible.  At  length  these  so- 
called  summer  settlers  pushed  as  far  north  as  Cape  Harri- 
gan,  and  the  floaters  as  far  as  Cape  Chidley.  Of  late  years, 
however,  an  ebb  tide  has  set  in,  and  more  fish  is  taken  in 
the  Straits  and  along  the  southern  shore  than  in  the  north, 
and  many  of  the  northern  summer  settlements  have  been 
abandoned. 

On  first  consideration  the  Labrador  voyage  does  not 
sound  particularly  enterprising.  But  there  are  features 
about  it  which  are  not  immediately  apparent.  The 
entire  living  of  these  pioneers  depends  on  the  fishery,  for 
the  fur  catching  in  Newfoundland  is  almost  a  negligible 
quantity  as  far  as  most  of  the  men  are  concerned.  Only 
of  late  years  has  enough  work  at  the  Sydney  (Nova  Scotia) 
mines  or  steel  works,  or  at  the  iron  mines  on  Bell  Island, 
Newfoundland,  been  available,  in  case  a  family  is  left  with 
nothing  for  the  winter.  Even  that  is  not  open  to  all. 
Labradormen  have  only  one  string  to  their  bows,  so  that 
the  daily  increasing  anxiety  from  not  finding  fish  as  the 
summer  wears  away  tells  heavily  on  the  skipper.  I  re- 
member one  poor  fellow  tying  an  anchor  round  his  neck 
and  jumping  over  the  side  of  the  schooner  in  the  night. 
He  came  up  with  the  cable  in  the  morning. 

The  mainstay  of  many  of  these  men  to-day,  especially 
the  southern  men,  is  the  little  plot  of  land  at  home,  which 
is  attended  by  the  aged  or  by  those  incapacitated  and  able 
to  be  spared  from  the  long  Labrador  voyage.  On  this 
home  patch  they  grow  enough  potatoes,  cabbages,  and 
turnips  to  "put  them  through  the  winter,"  if  only  a  hand- 


298  LABRADOR 

fill  or  two  of  flour  is  available.  Most  of  the  homesteads 
also  have  a  few  sheep,  and  possibly  a  cow  as  well.  Most  of 
the  fishermen  spin  their  own  wool,  and  make  their  own 
boots  from  the  skins  of  their  cattle  and  of  seals  which  they 
tan  in  their  net  barking  pots.  They  have  thus  no  fear  of 
utter  destitution. 

Still,  I  have  seen  many  of  these  people  showing  in  the 
spring  all  the  signs  of  meagre  diet  through  the  long  winter 
months.  Unfortunately,  to  keep  a  cow  or  garden  is  practi- 
cally impossible  in  the  north,  owing  to  the  numbers  of  dogs 
used  on  the  coast.  Moreover,  when  the  whole  family  has  to 
leave  for  Labrador  and  the  home  must  be  closed,  unless 
a  neighbour  can  be  found  to  look  after  things,  the  supplies 
from  the  tiny  "farm"  are  necessarily  cut  off. 

The  schooners  in  the  financial  reach  of  most  of  the  men 
are  home-made  products  of  soft  wood,  i.e.  spruce  and  fir 
cut  from  their  own  bays,  and  mostly  only  iron-fastened. 
The  vessels  are  often  very  small  and  also  cheaply  found  in 
the  most  necessary  of  all  their  outfit,  the  holding  gear. 
They  have  to  carry  such  quantities  of  fishing  gear  that  they 
•  are  very  crowded  on  deck,  as  well  as  below.  The  crew 
need  so  many  boats  that  throughout  most  of  the  long 
voyage  the  small  schooner  will  have  to  tow  one  or  two  be- 
hind. This  necessity  very  considerably  impairs  the  sea- 
going quality  of  the  schooner.  The  salt  nets  and  puncheons 
for  oil  are  bulky;  spare  canvas  and  gear,  if  the  crew  is 
fortunate  enough  to  be  able  to  afford  any,  fill  much  of  the 
remaining  space.  When,  therefore,  the  time  comes  to  take 
in  "freighters,"  men,  women,  and  children,  with  all  their 
personal  and  fishery  outfit  as  well,  it  is  little  wonder  that 
the  dangers  and  discomforts  are  greatly  increased. 


THE  COD  AND   COD-FISHERY  299 

Many  times  I  have  seen  these  vessels  with  the  space 
below  decks  divided  only  by  chalk  marks  on  the  inner 
lining  of  the  hold,  to  indicate  the  few  feet  allotted  to  each 
crew  and  family.  The  separation  of  sexes  and  privacy 
for  women  is  inadequate  at  best,  and  frequently  to  all 
intents  and  purposes  absent.  I  have  attended  confinements 
and  almost  every  kind  of  sickness  in  these  vessels  where  one 
could  scarcely  stand  up.  I  have  seen  suffering  aboard  them 
that  I  trust  none  of  my  own  kith  and  kin  will  ever  have  to 
experience.  The  natural,  simple  kindness  of  the  fishermen 
surely  stands  them  in  good  stead.  The  fact  that  crowds 
of  women  and  children  are  battened  down  in  the  holds  of 
these  vessels  in  rough  weather  is  too  suggestive  to  need 
detailed  description.  The  carrying  of  single  girls  on  these 
vessels  has  led  to  many  troubles  also,  and  I  have  never 
ceased  to  deplore  the  carrying  of  females  as  part  of  the  crews 
of  fishing  vessels  that  are  months  away  from  home  and 
civilization.  It  is  a  matter  of  profound  gratitude  that  the 
opening  up  of  other  work  is  lessening  the  necessity  for  it, 
but  it  should  long  ago  have  been  made  illegal.  • 

The  freighters  are  often  so  close  to  the  decks  and  beams 
that  it  is  impossible  even  to  sit  up  without  care.  When 
the  weather  is  rough,  the  hatches  must  be  closed,  and  then 
no  daylight  can  get  below.  Meanwhile  the  "lumber" 
makes  it  impossible  to  get  about  on  deck  in  a  breeze  to 
handle  the  vessel.  Such  schooners,  therefore,  have  to  pick 
their  way  along  the  shore,  "keep  inside  all  the  runs,"  and 
always,  if  possible,  get  an  anchorage  at  night.  This  be- 
comes doubly  essential  on  the  return  voyage  in  the  autumn, 
when  the  sudden  storms  sweep  down  off  the  high  land  and 
the  proverbial  gales  of  the  "roaring  forties"  make  it  hard 


300  LABRADOR 

for  even  well-found  craft  of  that  tonnage  to  live  through 
them. 

Owing  to  the  method  of  fishing,  it  is  of  paramount  im- 
portance to  secure  a  good  place  for  the  trap-net.  A  fisher- 
man may  have  built  a  summer  house  and  stage,  have  left 
boats  and  gear  and  salt  on  the  coast,  and  yet  if  he  comes 
down  a  day  after  another  man,  he  may  find  his  trap-net 
berths  already  seized  by  the  crew  of  some  schooner  an- 
chored near.  The  late  comer  may,  therefore,  after  all, 
have  little  chance  of  getting  a  cargo  or  "  voyage.77  He  has 
usually  no  chance  of  going  elsewhere  to  look  for  one.  Fish 
"sets  in  shore77  as  soon  as  the  ice  opens,  possibly  even 
before.  " Snapper77  men  will  be  able,  by  going  early,  to 
run  home  with  a  "voyage77  from  the  southernmost  section 
of  the  coast,  and  get  down  in  time  for  another  in  the  far 
north,  before  it  is  too  late  for  fish.  The  result  is  that  the 
rush  north  commences  long  before  the  ice  is  gone,  and  craft 
are  everywhere  pushing  north  through  lanes  and  leads  in 
the  ice,  taking  incalculable  risks  which  occasionally  end 
in  disaster.  The  admirable  skill  and  magnificent  handling 
of  their  vessels  succeed  in  averting  accidents  to  a  degree 
which  surprises  one  the  more  he  is  familiar  with  the  in- 
cidents of  such  a  journey. 

As  if  these  were  not  sufficient  troubles,  the  heavy  fogs 
which  do  prevail  at  times  off  the  Labrador  coast  are  most 
common  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  and  not  a  single  pre- 
caution in  the  way  of  a  warning  bell  or  fog-horn  has  yet 
been  placed  to  help  the  schooners  from  one  end  of  Labrador 
to  the  other,  except  the  Canadian  station  at  Point  Amour, 
sixty  miles  up  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle,  where  there  is  a  steam 
fog-horn.  Until  two  years  ago,  not  a  single  light  of  any 


THE  COD  AND   COD-FISHERY  301 

kind  whatever  existed  along  this  same  area,  and  now  only 
two  small  lighthouses  on  dark,  wintry  nights  serve  to  guide 
these  fisherfolk  along  more  than  one  thousand  miles  of  coast. 
This  fact  becomes  more  significant  when  one  remembers 
that  most  of  the  craft  are,  as  has  been  stated,  obliged  to 
run  along  the  reefs  and  islands,  and  are  not  able  to  keep  to 
the  open  sea  and  run  home  "  on  the  outside."  The  average 
mariner  would  consider  that  at  least  a  good  chart  of  the 
journey  on  which  the  vessels  were  bound  was  a  prime  es- 
sential, without  which  no  one  would  be  likely  to  venture. 
But  regretfully  we  must  add  that  no  such  thing  exists. 
The  present  survey  is  so  imperfect  that  in  many  places  only 
dotted  outlines  indicate  the  actual  shore-line,  while  many 
shoals  and  hidden  dangers  are  either  inaccurately  placed 
or  not  marked  at  all. 

Fortunately,  the  tides  of  the  southern  part  of  Labrador 
are,  as  far  as  navigation  goes,  practically  unimportant, 
though  they  are  often,  and  more  especially  with  northwest 
to  northeast  winds,  too  strong  for  the  big  nets. 

The  rise  and  fall  of  the  tide  is  about  six  feet  as  far  as 
Cape  Harrigan.  But  as  Cape  Chidley  is  neared,  the  tides 
grow  stronger  and  rise  higher,  till  in  Hudson  Strait  they 
rise  thirty-five  to  forty  feet,  and  run  six  to  eight  knots  an 
hour.  Boiling  whirlpools  and  eddies  seethe  in  the  current 
of  Gray  Straits,  and  navigation  in  a  schooner  is,  even  at 
best,  both  difficult  and  dangerous. 

In  view  of  all  the  dangers,  one  must  feel  proud  of  this 
crowd  of  emigrant  fisherfolk,  —  proud  of  their  physical 
courage,  their  self-reliant  resourcefulness,  of  that  big  heart 
which  makes  them  willing  to  " venture  out"  early  each 
summer. 


302  LABRADOR 

Progress  in  methods  of  catching  the  fish  more  quickly 
and  safely,  and  with  less  personal  exposure,  has  also  marked 
the  lapse  of  the  years,  though  the  primeval  hand-line  and 
hook  is  still  the  only  gear  to  which  many  of  the  poorer  men 
can  attain.  A  hook-and-line  man  with  work  and  tolerable 
fortune  should  catch  an  average  of  fifty  quintals  a  year. 
As  he  has  practically  no  expense  but  the  purchase  of  salt, 
his  average  catch,  along  with  his  other  possible  sources  of 
revenue,  will  afford  a  living.  He  has  less  anxiety  as  he 
has  no  valuable  nets  to  lose,  —  for  which  many  mortgage 
all  they  possess  and  then  lose  the  nets.  He  is  certain  never 
to  make  an  absolute  blank,  and  he  has  considerably  more 
time  for  other  work.  But  he  can  never  nowadays  get 
"  rich  "  in  worldly  possessions,  and  therefore  nearly  all  aspire 
to  "get  twine,"  if  they  can. 

The  main  difficulty  with  hook-and-line  fishing  is  the 
difficulty  of  obtaining  bait.  Caplin  are  excellent  bait, 
but  when  they  are  plentiful,  cod  can  feed  on  live  ones,  and, 
being  glutted,  do  not  take  the  hook  well.  When  cod  are 
plentiful  still  on  the  banks,  the  caplin  have  left  the  fishing 
grounds.  Lance,  a  fish  like  a  small  eel,  have  to  be  hauled 
at  the  bottoms  of  inlets  far  from  the  fishing  grounds,  and 
even  then  are  not  always  obtainable.  Crews  of  men  have 
to  spend  all  day  rowing  to  get  enough  to  supply  the  com- 
bined crews  that  have  spared  a  man  apiece  to  send  them. 
Most  bait,  to  be  of  service,  must  be  quite  fresh.  The  enter- 
prising Captain  Bartlett  of  Turnavik,  Mr.  Croucher  at 
Battle,  Mr.  Grant  at  Blanc  Sablon,  now  use  small  steamers 
for  no  other  purpose  than  to  get  bait  and  carry  fish  and 
salt.  Squids  are  seldom  obtainable  in  Labrador.  But 
some  men  have  barrels  of  salt  squids  sent  down.  They 


THE  COD  AND   COD-FISHEET  303 

are  useful,  but  not  the  best,  and  cost  the  fishermen  fifteen 
to  fifty  cents  per  hundred.  They  are  tough,  and  hold  well 
on  a  hook.  Mussels  would  be  used  if  they  would  hold  on 
the  hooks.  Bits  of  sea-gulls  that  the  men  shoot  for  the 
purpose  are  also  employed.  Even  artificial  bait  has  been 
tried  with  modified  success,  —  rubber  fish  with  hooks  at- 
tached. Little  net  bags  enclosing  baits  of  mussels  and 
gelatine  —  an  invention  of  Mr.  John  Hay  ward  —  have  been 
used  with  some  success. 

But  the  bait  question  is  ever  the  hook-and-liner's  worst 
difficulty.  The  tendency  is  to  give  up  the  puzzle  and  use 
what  is  known  as  a  jigger,  a  piece  of  lead  the  shape  of  a 
fish,  with  two  enormous  hooks  projecting  from  the  bottom. 
This  is  " jigged"  up  and  down  about  a  fathom  from  the 
bottom,  and  sometimes  hooks  fish  very  quickly.  It  naturally 
sticks  into  the  fish  anywhere  it  strikes  him,  and  the  result 
is  that  many  fish  get  away  with  bellies  ripped  open,  eyes 
pulled  out,  etc.  The  shoals  seem  to  follow  these  injured 
fish  off  the  ground,  though  rather  for  the  purpose  of  eating 
them  than  from  fear  of  a  similar  fate.  In  some  districts 
the  use  of  the  jigger  is  forbidden,  as  it  is  believed  to  be 
detrimental  to  the  fishery. 

The  first  advance  in  methods  seems  to  have  been  putting 
more  than  one  hook  on  a  line,  till  the  present  system  of  long 
lines,  called  "bultows"  or  "trawls,"  with  as  many  as  three 
thousand  hooks  on  a  line,  was  developed.  Lines  up  to  seven 
miles  in  length  have  been  used.  This  is  still  a  very  favour- 
ite method,  and  is  practically  within  reach  of  the  poorest. 
Many  large  cargoes  are  now  "made"  on  the  inshore  grounds 
in  this  way,  as  they  have  been  made  for  many  years  on  the 
Grand  Banks  far  out  at  sea.  But  even  this  method  has  its 


304  LABRADOR 

drawbacks.  It  involves  both  great  risks  and  great  per- 
sonal exposure.  It  allows  so  many  wounded  fish  to  escape 
that  it  is  prohibited  altogether  along  many  sections  of  the 
coast.  This  prohibition  is  accomplished  by  getting  local 
laws  sanctioned  by  the  Legislature  and  included  in  the 
annual "  Fishery  Laws."  In  one  place  it  was  enforced  by  the 
residents  at  the  end  of  their  long  guns ;  as  they  say,  "  As  well 
be  hung  as  starve."  Oddly  enough,  at  the  opposite  side 
of  the  sandy  beach  where  they  live,  hand-lining  has  been 
ruined  by  west-coast  boats  with  bultows,  and  the  people 
who  live  there  have,  in  consequence,  fallen  on  very  evil 
times. 

For  this  purpose  the  bottom  beam  and  other  trawls  of 
the  old  country  were  found  useless.  Quite  recently  the 
enterprising  firm  of  Bowring  Brothers  purchased  a  modern 
steam  trawler,  and  tried  all  around  the  coast  and  islands, 
but  met  with  so  little  success  that  the  attempt  has  been 
abandoned.  Gill-nets,  which  came  next,  are  but  little 
used  for  cod.  Cod  seem  ordinarily  too  lazy  in  disposition 
even  to  put  their  heads  hard  enough  into  a  mesh  to  be 
caught.  This  is,  of  course,  very  unlike  the  more  agile 
salmon  and  trout.  The  large-mesh  cod  net,  however, 
anchored  on  the  bottom,  still  has  its  advocates,  and  at  times 
many  cod  become  entangled  in  the  leaders  of  the  trap-nets. 

The  advent  of  the  large  seine-nets  marked  a  very  material 
advance  in  the  rapidity  with  which  the  fish  could  be  taken, 
and  it  is  still  at  certain  times  and  places  the  most  success- 
ful method  known.  The  net  itself  is  an  expensive  affair. 
It  is  on  an  average  eighty  feet  deep  and  over  seven  hundred 
feet  in  length.  It  has  corks  on  the  top  to  keep  its  upper 
end  on  the  surface  and  leads  on  the  bottom  to  keep  the 


THE  COD  AND   COD-FISHERY  305 

foot  down.  It  needs  a  great  deal  of  rope  to  work  it,  and, 
as  a  rule,  a  large  crew  of  men.  On  an  average,  such  a  net 
contains  five  hundred  pounds  of  twine,  and  costs,  ready  to 
go  into  the  water,  about  $500.  The  crew  of  the  long, 
specially  constructed  boat  numbers  seven  men,  one  of  whom 
is  the  " seine  master";  he  directs  the  oarsmen,  himself 
standing  up  forward  on  the  lookout  for  shoals  of  fish. 
This  net  can  be  used  only  in  more  or  less  shallow  water, 
where  tides  are  slack  and  where  the  bottom  is  smooth  and 
perfectly  sandy.  The  purse-seine,  a  variety  which  can  be 
pulled  together  into  a  bag  below,  and  so  fished  far  from 
land  in  deep  water,  is  not  used  on  our  coast.  To  enable 
the  master  to  see  fish  in  ten  fathoms  of  water,  he  uses  a 
"  fish  glass, "  a  metal  funnel  with  a  plain  glass  bottom,  which 
he  pushes  down  below  the  ruffled  surface  of  the  sea.  An 
advantage  of  the  purse-seine  net  is  that  the  fisherman 
pursues  the  fish  with  it,  instead  of  waiting  for  them  to  come 
to  him.  It  satisfies  also  the  mind  restless  to  be  hunting 
and  working,  rather  than,  like  the  lazy  spider,  merely 
sitting  down  and  taking  the  chance  of  the  prey  coming 
voluntarily  along. 

The  latest  contrivance,  however,  and  the  one  now  gener- 
ally used,  is  called  a  cod  trap.  It  is  practically  nothing 
but  a  large  room  with  walls  and  floor  of  twine,  and  the  sur- 
face of  the  sea  for  a  roof.  It  has  a  door  on  the  landward, 
into  the  middle  of  which  passes  an  upright  net  partition, 
called  a  leader.  The  leader  is  made  to  the  land  or  rocks 
along  which  the  fish  are  wont  to  swim  and  feed  in  their 
great  shoals.  When  the  room  or  trap  is  seen  by  the  crew 
in  the  boat  overhead  to  contain  fish,  the  doors  are  pulled 
up,  and  then  the  floor  is  passed  over  the  boat  till  all  the  fish 


306  LABRADOR 

can  be  baled  out  with  large  dippers.  In  this  way  as  many 
as  one  hundred  quintals  of  fish  have  on  many  occasions 
been  caught  at  one  haul,  so  that  a  whole  year's  wages  can 
be  easily  earned  if  there  is  one  fortnight's  good  trapping 
in  the  year.  Nevertheless,  as  fish  do  not  go  to  every  point 
every  year,  some  fishermen  who  rely  entirely  on  their  traps 
will  sometimes  make  an  absolute  blank  of  it.  The  trap 
is,  moreover,  exceedingly  expensive,  with  its  strong  ropes, 
heavy  anchors,  and  immense  weight  of  twine.  A  good  one 
costs  between  $300  and  $400,  containing  three  hundred  and 
fifty  to  five  hundred  pounds  of  twine.  It  is  about  three  hun- 
dred and  fifty  feet  in  circumference,  eighty  feet  deep,  and 
may  need  a  leader  from  fifty  to  sixty  fathoms  long.  In 
shallow  waters,  as  in  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle,  the  trap  may 
be  only  thirty  feet  deep.  Being  very  heavy  and  unwieldy, 
it  is  often  an  impossible  task  to  take  it  up  in  time  to  avoid 
bad  weather,  or  quickly  enough  to  save  it  from  driving  ice. 
The  result  is  that  in  the  sudden  storms  to  which  the  coast 
is  liable,  great  losses  occur.  Honest  men  are  suddenly 
thrown  into  hopeless  debt,  as  they  have  had  to  raise  the 
net  on  credit,  and  perhaps  their  sole  method  of  getting 
a  voyage  is  lost  in  a  moment. 

The  old  two-handed  jacks,  or  bully  boats,  which,  in  the 
autumn  months,  used  to  venture  far  off  from  the  land  with 
hand-lines,  now  lie  rotting  on  the  rocks  at  all  the  harbours 
on  the  coast.  The  fishery  is  developing  into  a  great  gamble. 
A  man  casts  all  he  has  and  all  he  can  borrow  on  a  single 
issue.  At  times  it  renders  him  a  magnificent  and  rapid 
return.  If  the  fish  come  to  his  trap  he  obtains  a  sudden 
wealth,  whereas  if  the  fish  do  not  come  he  goes  home  a 
broken  man. 


THE  COD  AND   COD-FISHERY  307 

In  many  cases  the  merchants  and  traders  own  traps,  and 
the  crew  operating  the  trap  take,  as  their  share,  one-half 
or  three-quarters  of  the  first  caught.  Some  traders  give 
even  four-fifths  of  the  catch  to  the  planter  who  works  the 
trap  for  them.  But  the  latter  is  expected  to  turn  in  all  the 
fish  he  catches  to  the  man  who  supplies  the  net,  and  to 
purchase  all  his  stores  from  him  also.  That  is,  he  will  be 
really  paid  in  kind,  and  a  balance  due  him  will  be  carried 
over  on  the  books  more  often  than  paid  in  cash.  This, 
however,  has  changed  for  the  better  in  late  years,  and  the 
payment  of  cash  balances  is  becoming  more  common  year 
by  year. 

When  the  fish  is  actually  landed  on  the  stages,  it  is  still 
far  from  becoming  cash,  and  it  runs  all  sorts  of  risks  and 
dangers  before  it  gets  to  market.  Originally  all  Labrador 
fish  went  to  St.  John's  for  exportation ;  to-day  much  of  it 
is  exported  direct.  We  have  as  yet  no  cold-storage  traffic. 

The  fish  is  cured  systematically.  A  table  with  notches 
in  suitable  places  is  fixed  in  a  covered  stage  running  out 
over  the  sea.  To  this  a  removable  front  with  supports  is 
added  each  spring  after  the  ice  goes,  and  taken  in  during  the 
autumn.  A  shoot  on  the  right  hand  of  the  splitter  through 
this  temporary  part  of  the  stage  carries  the  offal,  consisting 
of  the  head  and  entrails,  into  the  water  below.  The  boat 
ties  to  the  front  of  the  stage,  and  the  fish  are  picked  up  with 
"pews"  and  thrown  upon  the  pounds  built  up  on  the  top. 
One  person,  usually  a  woman  or  child,  picks  up  the  fish 
and  puts  them  on  the  table  to  the  right  of  the  "header" 
and  the  "throater,"  who  stands  on  the  side  of  the  table 
near  the  sea.  The  throat  is  cut  with  one  hand,  while  the 
other  hand  passes  the  carcass  to  the  header,  who  tears  off 


LABRADOR 

the  head,  scoops  out  the  entrails,  and  rapidly  passes  on  the 
body  to  the  splitter.  The  splitter  sits  or  leans  standing 
on  the  opposite  side,  and  keeps  the  stream  of  fish  running 
on  in  the  same  way,  the  good  portion  falling  into  a  large 
tub  of  water,  the  bones  falling  out  through  the  shoot. 
Meanwhile,  a  washer  stirs  the  tub  and  removes  the  washed 
bodies.  These  he  wheels  off  and  piles  up  in  rows,  the  salter 
following  along  with  a  barrow  of  salt.  With  a  wooden 
shovel  the  salter  shakes  over  the  rows  the  amount  of  salt 
appropriate  to  the  market  for  which  the  fish  is  destined. 
To  save  salt,  men  sometimes  throw  the  fish  bodies  into  tubs 
of  pickle,  making  the  pickle  strong  enough  for  a  raw  potato 
to  float  in  it.  It  takes  about  one  pound  of  salt  to  salt 
a  pound  and  a  half  of  cod.  Washing  out  again  takes  one 
minute  per  fish.  Salt  wastes  in  bulk  when  stored,  and 
there  is  a  constant  anxiety  lest  too  much  salt  should  be 
stored,  or,  far  worse,  there  should  not  be  enough  salt  to  meet 
a  sudden  big  catch  of  fish.  This  has  often  been  the  case, 
and  I  have  seen  many  a  quintal  spoil  and  nets  full  of  fish 
not  being  hauled  because  no  salt  was  obtainable. 

To  dry,  fish  needs  sun  and  a  proper  set  of  the  wind.  The 
actual  work  of  catching  is  not  over  till  late  in  the  year,  and 
at  that  time  the  right  combination  of  a  westerly  wind  and 
a  bright,  not  too  hot  sun  does  not  come  very  often.  The 
least  rain,  fog,  or  frost  makes  both  drying  and  shipping 
impossible.  While  awaiting  a  clear  day,  the  fish  may  be 
quickly  stacked  under  shelter,  or  at  least  turned  face  down 
in  small  " yaffles,"  or  bundles.  The  fish's  own  thick  skin 
is  a  fair  waterproof  cover.  Birch  rinds,  and  even  canvas 
bags,  are  used  by  some  of  the  more  enterprising  men.  Fish 
that  gets  wet  once  or  twice  never  dries  really  white,  especially 


THE  COD  AND   COD-FISHERY  309 

around  the  edges.  Hot  sun  also  spoils  fish  very  quickly; 
sunburnt  fish  turns  black  and  slimy.  This,  however,  is 
not  so  likely  to  happen  in  the  bracing  climate  which,  in  that 
respect  at  least,  is  adapted  to  the  fisherman's  needs.  The 
most  interesting  and  skilled  part  of  the  curing  process  is  the 
splitting  of  the  fish,  the  removal  of  the  backbone.  Women 
may  cut  off  the  head  and  take  out  the  entrails.  They  also 
wash  out  and  even  salt  the  bulks,  but  a  really  smart  split- 
ter is  always  the  best  man  on  a  "  room  "  or  a  vessel. 
Good  men  have  been  said  each  to  split  a  hundred  quintal 
between  morning  and  evening;  that  is,  have  cut  out  the 
spine,  from  head  to  tail,  of  ten  thousand  cod  in  one  day. 
Moreover,  the  bone  must  be  all  neatly  removed,  and  the 
flesh  must  not  be  injured.  I  have  timed  a  good  splitter  who 
finished  fourteen  fish  in  a  minute,  whereas  I  myself  took 
nearly  a  minute  to  a  fish,  and  then  did  it  poorly. 

The  method  of  paying  fishermen  in  Labrador  has  been, 
as  in  Newfoundland,  almost  entirely  a  barter  system. 
The  merchant  fits  out  all  " planters,"  who  really  carry  on 
the  fishery.  In  return,  he  expects  all  the  fish  caught. 
He  then  gives  him  a  " winter's  diet"  out  of  the  proceeds, 
if  they  are  large  enough;  if  not,  the  planters  expect  the 
diet  on  credit.  They  do  not  expect  to  turn  in  money 
earned  in  other  ways  towards  this  debt,  and  the  law  pro- 
hibits money  earned  at  the  seal-fishery  being  stopped  for 
cod-fishery  debts.  In  the  spring  a  new  outfit  on  credit 
is  called  for,  and  thus  large  debts  pile  up,  which  the  mer- 
chants know  they  can  never  expect  to  collect  in  full,  and 
which  the  planter  soon  begins  to  consider  he  does  not  really 
owe.  They  have  been  called  red-letter  debts. 

An  example  may  be  given.     In  1896  one  firm  of  mer- 


310  LABRADOR 

chants  trading  in  Labrador  assigned.  Their  creditors  found 
on  their  books  as  " assets"  the  debts  of  four  hundred  and 
eleven  souls,  including  women  and  children,  people  who 
are  among  the  very  poorest;  these  people  owed  the  firm 
over  $64,000.  The  value  of  these  " assets"  was  returned 
as  "nil." 

Thus  the  system  was  wofully  bad  for  both  parties. 
The  fisherman,  generally  illiterate,  was  at  the  absolute 
mercy  of  the  merchant,  and  lived  and  died  a  slave  and  in 
debt.  The  merchant  was  often  ruined  by  bad  debts. 
For  not  only  did  some  fisherman,  imitating  Ananias,  only 
turn  in  part  of  the  catch  and  represent  it  as  the  whole,  but 
often  he  became  hopeless  and  apathetic,  and  lost  all  stimu- 
lus to  do  his  best.  Again,  some  men  would  temporarily 
give  to  friends  who  had  good  credit  the  bulk  of  their  catch, 
in  order  to  prevent  its  being  absorbed  in  payment  of  their 
own  debt.  The  fish  thus  held  back  might  be  bartered  or 
sold  to  outside  traders  for  goods  such  as  tinned  milk,  sugar, 
and  such  " luxuries"  which  they  could  not  hope  to  obtain 
on  credit  from  their  own  merchant.  To  prevent  such 
frauds,  a  kind  of  espionage  had  to  be  exerted,  and  the 
catches  of  a  suspected  planter  were  watched  as  the  season 
progressed.  Convicted  planters  were  turned  off  from 
their  merchants  and  no  one  would  take  them  on.  Thus 
resulted  in  the  end  the  worst  cases  of  poverty,  —  cases,  to 
my  mind,  not  caused  by  the  bad  fishery,  but  by  the  bad 
system. 

Of  late  years,  things  have  been  improving,  and  a  more 
general  cash  basis  has  come  into  vogue,  though  still  there 
is  room  for  improvement. 

The  planter  himself  must  have  men  to  help  him,  and  these 


THE   COD  AND   COD-FISHERY  311 

he  can  either  ship  for  wages,  or  engage  on  shares  paid 
out  of  the  "  voyage."  The  pay  of  the  shipped  man  has  risen 
to  $100,  and  even  to  $130,  with  food  for  the  season.  For 
that  sum  he  must  do  everything  the  master  tells  him  that 
will  benefit  the  voyage,  and  may  be  called  on  to  work  all 
hours  of  the  night  and  day  from  the  first  of  May  to  the  first 
of  November.  It  increases  the  " gamble"  considerably  to 
have  all  shipped  men.  If  you  "miss  the  fish"  and  earn 
nothing,  you  are  still  liable  for  all  wages,  but  if  you  strike 
the  fish,  you  will  make  very  large  profits.  For  a  man  is 
well  worth  $300  in  a  good  year.  Little  as  their  wage  seems, 
most  of  the  men  prefer  employment  under  this  system. 
They  at  least  will  have  flour  and  molasses  for  their  families, 
whatever  happens,  these  wages,  less  advances  for  oil- 
skins, boots,  etc.,  being  always  paid  in  cash. 

The  shareman  in  this  country  usually  agrees  for  "half 
his  hand."  That  is,  the  catch  is  divided  by  the  number  of 
men,  including  the  owner  or  planter,  and  each  shareman 
gets  half  a  share.  He  has  no  expenses  except  clothing. 
Often  the  planter  cannot,  however,  obtain  men  on  these 
terms,  and  is  obliged  to  take  a  full-share  man.  These 
men  feed  and  clothe  themselves  and  provide  their  own  salt, 
but  take  a  full  share  of  fish.  The  more  men  a  planter 
engages,  the  more  fish  he  can  handle  and  expect  to  catch, 
but  the  more  numerous  are  the  shares  into  which  the  catch 
must  be  divided.  On  an  average,  the  shareman  gets  every 
eighth  fish  out  of  the  trap  for  himself.  It  has  often  puzzled 
me  how  the  hired  man  with  $100,  less  expenses,  could  live, 
much  less  feed  his  family ;  at  best  he  can  scarcely  do  more 
than  merely  exist. 

The  following  statements  taken  at  random  will  illustrate 


312 


LABRADOR 


how  pitiful  is  the  living  of  a  hook-and-line  man  in  a  poor 
year.  Both  men,  A.  B.  and  C.  D.,  are  well  known  to  me 
as  capable  and  industrious.  One  cannot  wonder  that  they 
may  be  in  perpetual  debt  to  the  merchant. 

A.  B.  is  a  " handy  man";  his  wife  is  dead  and  he  has 
eight  children,  most  of  whom  are  young..  His  financial 
year  may  be  described  in  informal  bookkeeping  thus:  — 


INCOME 

EXPENSES 

Caught  on  hook  and  line, 
30  qtl.  of  fish  at  $3.20     $96.00 

Nails,    oakum,     paint, 
rope,  etc  

$400 

Salmon,   none;    easterly 
seas  destroyed  nets 
Oil  from  codfish,  balanced 
against  salt  for  fish 
Winter  work,  logging  for 
mill  .......     44.00 

Hooks  and  line    .     .     . 
16  bbls.  flour  (cheapest 
possible)      .... 
5  bags  hard  bread    .     . 
50  gal.  molasses  .     .     . 
12  Ib.  cheapest  tea 

2.50 

80.00 
19.00 
22.50 
4.80 

$140.00 
Balance  against  A.  B.       10.80 

10  Ib.  oleomargarine  . 
1  bbl.  salt  pork       .     . 

2.00 
16.00 

$150.80 

$150.80 

A.  B.  had  no  potatoes  for  seed,  no  cabbage  seed;  no 
money  for  powder,  shot,  caps,  crockery,  kerosene,  matches, 
boots,  oilskins,  clothing,  house  repairs,  tools,  bedclothes, 
etc. ;  no  luxuries,  no  doctor's  fees,  no  church  expenses. 

C.  D.  has  a  wife,  two  small  sons,  and  three  small  daughters, 
owns  no  nets,  shared  this  year  in  two  salmon-nets  with  an- 
other man.  His  account  for  the  year  stands:  — 


THE  COD  AND   COD-FISHERY 


313 


INCOME 

EXPENSES 

Caught  on  hook  and  line 
12  qtl.  of  cod       ...  $38.40 
Value  of  oil  from  same  at 
30^  per  gal  6.00 
Share  of  salmon,  1£  qtl.    .       7.50 
Work  on  roads   ....       3.00 
Herring,  one  bbl.     .     .     .       2.00 
Work  on   lumber  and  at 

Boat,  $5  ;  salt,  $6  ;  lines 
and  hooks,  $2.50    .     .  $13.50 
Fishing  boots,  $4;   oil- 
skin, $3.50    ....       7.50 
Flour,    13   bbl.    at    $5; 
molasses  45  gal  .  at  45^     85.25 
Hard  bread,  $11.  40;  tea, 
$4.00    15  40 

mill    55  00 

Oleomargarine  $1  *  ker- 

Potatoes sold      ....     14.00 

osene,  $2  3.00 

$125.90 
Balance  against  C.  D.    .         .75 

Kettle,     $1  ;      matches, 
thread,    needles,    and 
soap      2.00 

$126.65 

$126.65 

It  will  be  observed  that  C.  D.  has  not  nearly  enough  fats 
in  his  food-supply  to  sustain  him  properly  even  in  a  warm 
climate.  Like  A.  B.  he  lacks  most  of  the  civilized  neces- 
saries and  luxuries  of  every  description. 

The  most  important  change  that  has  of  late  years  come 
over  our  fisheries  has  been  the  one  most  needed  of  all;  that 
is,  the  chance  of  obtaining  remunerative  work  during  the 
long  winter,  when  the  fishery  is  out  of  the  question.  Now- 
adays, a  man  who  fails  need  not  see  semi-starvation  and 
scurvy,  and  even  death,  overtake  his  family  before  he  can 
again  find  a  source  of  supplies.  Such  results  of  starva- 
tion I  have  seen  more  than  once.  Pulp  and  lumber  mills, 
mines,  and  other  industries  may  now  afford  work  for 
most  of  those  who  return  south  from  Labrador  before  they 
" freeze  in"  for  the  winter.  A  somewhat  similar  improve- 


314  LABRADOR 

merit  has  followed  in  Labrador  itself,  though  trapping  fur- 
bearing  animals  is  there  naturally  the  second  string  to  the 
settler's  bow. 

Few  fishermen  grow  rich.  Some,  however,  are  able  to 
put  by  considerable  sums,  and  there  are  as  happy  and  com- 
fortably provided  families  among  our  fisherfolk  as  can  be 
found  among  any  artisan  class  in  the  world.  The  very 
nature  of  the  calling  begets  a  healthy  body,  a  simple 
nature,  and  an  easily  contented  mind.  Unaccustomed  to 
luxuries,  the  lack  of  material  wealth  causes  no  vain  regrets. 
Inured  as  they  are  to  privations,  the  smallest  acquisition 
gives  pleasure.  They  may  not  aspire  to  have  servants 
under  them ;  they  are  their  own  masters  at  least  throughout 
their  working  days.  They  have  an  interest  in  and  love 
for  their  occupation,  the  like  of  which  one  can  scarcely 
credit  to  a  factory  hand,  who  is  always  making  a  piece 
of  a  complicated  whole,  and  never  finishing  a  job,  or 
can  credit  to  a  clerk  on  a  high  stool  everlastingly  add- 
ing up  figures.  The  men  love  their  calling,  and  with 
sound  reason.  For  sheer  love  of  it,  I  know  several,  who, 
after  trying  Canada  or  the  United  States,  have  returned 
eventually  to  their  old  occupation  as  being  "a  far  better 
job."  In  what  other  calling  are  poor,  working,  unedu- 
cated men  so  able  to  enjoy  the  luxury  of  independence,  the 
prize  which  riches  might  seem  able  to  purchase  for  the 
wealthy  only,  and  yet  to  which  many  rich  men  never  in 
any  way  attain ! 

When  the  French  Revolution  began,  the  fishers  of  cod 
on  the  Newfoundland-Labrador  shores  were  already  estab- 
lished in  their  more  prosaic  industry.  In  1812  the  catch 
of  fish  on  the  Labrador  and  French  shore  combined  is 


THE  COD  AND   COD-FISHEKY  315 

said  to  have  been  29,500  hundredweight.     The  catch  in 
some  of  the  later  years  may  be  given:  — 

In  1814 44,650  hundredweight 

1821 49,652  hundredweight 

1823 40,399  hundredweight 

1824  .      '  .        .        .         .  42,240  hundredweight 

In  1845  two  hundred  vessels  from  Newfoundland,  mostly 
from  Conception  Bay,  went  to  Labrador ;  they  are  reported 
to  have  employed  five  thousand  men.  In  1851  it  was 
estimated  that  seven  hundred  vessels  went  to  the  Labra- 
dor from  Newfoundland,  carrying  from  ten  to  fifteen  thou- 
sand men;  their  catch  was  computed  to  be  between  one 
hundred  and  sixty  thousand  and  one  hundred  and  eighty 
thousand  hundredweight.  Harvey  states  that  in  1880 
from  one  thousand  to  twelve  hundred  schooners  carrying 
over  thirty  thousand  people  went  to  Labrador;  of  these 
about  one  hundred  vessels  were  from  Canada. 

Prior  to  1860  no  accurate  account  was  kept  as  to  the 
annual  takings  in  Labrador.  The  trade  report  issued  by 
His  Excellency,  Sir  William  MacGregor,  in  1906,  states  that 
for  the  thirty  years  preceding  the  average  annual  export 
of  dry  codfish  from  the  whole  colony  of  Newfoundland  has 
been  1,246,664  quintals  (hundredweight)  at  an  average 
value  of  $4,830,079.  The  report  shows  the  average  annual 
export  direct  from  Labrador  in  various  periods  to  have 
totalled  as  follows:  — 

1860-64  ....  192,051  hundredweight 

1865-66  ....  197,885  hundredweight 

1873-77  ....  300,854  hundredweight 

1878-82  ....  371,681  hundredweight 

1885-89  ....  216,434  hundredweight 


316 


LABRADOR 


1890-94  ....  257,314  hundredweight 

1895-99  ....  220,150  hundredweight 

1900-04  ....  219,948  hundredweight 

1905-06  ....  296,553  hundredweight 

Besides  the  fish  exported  directly  each  year,  an  average 
of  three  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  quintals  is  carried  from 
Labrador  to  Newfoundland  and  exported  thence.  This 
gives  a  mean  annual  output  from  Labrador  of  about  six 
hundred  thousand  quintals.  In  1906  and  1907  the  figures 
are:  — 


EXPORTED  DIRECT 

VALUE 

SENT  TO 
NEWFOUNDLAND 

VALUE 

1906,    250,857  quintals 
1907,   289,493  quintals 

$1,030,492 
1,013,227 

545,000  quintals 
345,000  quintals 

$2,180,000 
1,380,000 

GRAND  TOTAL 


VALUE 

1906  

795  857  quintals 

$3  210  499 

1907  

634  493  quintals 

2  393  227 

In  1905,  342,219  quintals,  valued  at  $1,237,329,  were 
exported  direct  from  the  Labrador.  In  1907  the  entire 
export  of  dried  codfish  from  Newfoundland  and  Labrador 
amounted  to  1,422,445  quintals,  valued  at  $7,873,172. 
The  total  product  of  the  fisheries  for  the  colony  in  that  year 
was  valued  at  $10,058,052. 

The  average  price  during  these  years  has  varied  very 
considerably,  but  on  the  whole  has  tended  to  improve, 


THE  COD  AND   COD-FISHERY  317 

and  has  reached  as  high  for  Labrador  fish  as  $4  and  even 
$4.20  per  quintal,  that  for  shore  or  Newfoundland  fish 
having  reached  an  average  of  $5.30.  This  difference  in 
price  needs  explanation.  It  arises  from  the  fact  that  cer- 
tain markets  prefer  the  fish  drier  and  harder  salted  than  do 
other  markets.  In  Labrador  the  fine  days  for  drying  fish  are 
rare  after  the  fishery  is  over;  it  is,  therefore,  better  to 
ship  the  fish  damper,  or,  as  people  say,  "with  only  a  day's 
sun,"  rather  than  wait  perhaps  weeks  to  be  able  to  dry 
the  fish  hard.  There  is,  however,  one  other  alternative, 
and  that  is  to  take  the  fish  south  "green"  or  unwashed  in 
salt,  and  finish  the  cure  in  Newfoundland.  If  a  man  has 
few  fish  and  plenty  of  help,  he  can  thus  employ  himself 
at  a  remunerative  wage  to  raise  the  value  of  his  Labrador 
catch  to  that  of  shore  fish.  But  if  he  has  much  fish  and 
work  to  do  on  his  little  farm  at  home,  or  perhaps  other 
better  "paying  work,"  then  he  will  ship  direct  from  Labra- 
dor. It  must  be  remembered  that  drying  the  fish  entails 
loss  of  weight,  and  after  all  it  may  pay  better  to  sell  ten 
quintals  at  $3.50  a  quintal  than  dry  the  same  fish  to 
eight  quintals  and  sell  at  $4  or  even  $5  a  quintal.  More- 
over, some  of  the  schooners  have  so  many  "freighters" 
and  their  gear  to  carry  to  and  fro  that  they  are  unable  to 
take  their  fish  to  Newfoundland  whether  they  would  wish 
it  or  not,  while  the  merchants  who  have  ordered  steamers 
or  schooners  to  go  to  Labrador  for  loads  are  so  anxious 
for  the  fish  to  reach  the  markets  early,  that  they  will  give 
at  times  considerable  bonuses  over  the  price  arranged  by 
the  Chamber  of  Commerce.  Last  year  men  who  refused 
$3.60  spot  cash  in  Labrador  realized  only  $3  to  $3.20  in 
St.  John's. 


318  LABRADOR 

The  rapid  loading,  and  the  accepting  of  all  the  fish 
"Tal  qual,"  i.e.  just  as  it  comes  along,  greatly  encourages 
bad  fish-making,  and  as  the  loading  often  goes  on  by  flares 
after  night,  sometimes  unsound  fish  will  be  slipped  in,  and 
a  whole  cargo  injured  or  even  spoiled.  Moreover,  the  fish 
does  not  receive  so  severe  a  culling  on  the  Labrador  as  it 
does  in  Newfoundland,  and,  indeed,  is  generally  taken  with- 
out culling.  The  merchants  run  very  considerable  risk  in 
exporting  fish.  The  hiring  of  their  vessels,  small  as  most  of 
them  are,  is  an  expensive  business,  and  the  small  margin 
left  for  profits  when  there  has  been  a  keen  competition  in 
prices  to  "finish  a  vessel/7  has  left  many  an  enterprising 
man  sorry  he  ever  " touched  it."  The  vessels  used  are 
mostly  square-rigged  schooners,  and  old-fashioned  small 
brigs  and  brigantines.  Indeed,  the  industry  is  serving  the 
useful  purpose  of  helping  to  perpetuate  this  very  interesting 
class  of  vessels,  which  everywhere  else  is  becoming  extinct. 
These  vessels  represent  a  distinct  bond  with  the  mother 
country,  for  they  are  mostly  Welsh,  with  some  from  Devon- 
shire. They  are  handled  by  the  type  of  sailor  of  long  ago, 
men  whom  one  would  expect  to  step  off  Amyas  Lee's  vessel 
on  its  return  from  the  Indies.  These  men  are  possessed  of 
the  material  which  made  their  prototypes  so  desirable  an 
asset  to  their  country.  They  are  sailors  to  the  soles  of  their 
boots,  and  amongst  them  are  many  of  the  most  simple, 
God-fearing,  contented  men  I  have  ever  seen.  The  masters 
are  generally  part  owners,  and  often  mess  with  their  crews 
as  with  a  party  of  friends.  Many  a  helpful  hand  do  they 
lend  our  fishermen,  for  the  vessels  are  bound  to  be  out  here 
by  a  certain  date.  Being  slow  and  uncertain,  the  vessels 
often  arrive  two  months  early,  and  even  have  to  wait  three 


THE  COD  AND    COD-FISHERY  319 

months  for  their  complement  of  fish.  During  all  that  time 
their  crews  are  the  good  geniuses  of  the  little  havens  in 
which  they  are  anchored,  and  the  ''skipper"  and  his  medi- 
cine-chest are  in  continual  demand. 

The  itinerary  of  these  visitors  is  somewhat  as  follows: 
September,  leave  Labrador  for  the  Mediterranean ;  thence 
in  December  to  their  homes ;  then  cargo  of  slate  or  ore  pos- 
sibly to  Hamburg;  in  March,  to  Cadiz  for  salt;  then  to 
Labrador  by  June,  and  so  on  back  again.  Once  home  in 
the  year,  if  all  goes  well.  They  make  a  modest  living,  and 
are  able  to  retire  before  old  age  incapacitates  them.  Some 
are  lost  in  the  "  roaring  forties/'  the  latitudes  in  which  they 
mostly  ply  their  calling,  and  many  are  the  stories  of  heroism 
and  suffering  on  these  vessels  that  the  sea  could  unfold. 
On  one  occasion  a  skipper,  deserted  by  his  crew  at  Bonne 
Esperance,  sailed  his  square-rigged  schooner  across  the 
Atlantic  alone  to  Gibraltar  with  a  cargo  of  fish.  Sometimes 
they  will  carry  fish  to  the  West  Indies  or  Brazil,  and  then 
possibly  return  with  molasses  to  St.  John's  before  taking 
a  final  cargo  to  the  Mediterranean.  I  have  seen  a  vessel 
leave  in  late  October  with  ice  on  her  sides,  and  every  one 
muffled  up.  In  three  days  she  will  run  into  the  warm 
atmosphere  of  the  Gulf  current,  the  men  will  be  in  their 
shirt-sleeves,  and  a  few  days  later  they  will  be  eating  fresh 
fruit  in  Spain.  A  very  favourite  holiday  among  these  men 
is  to  get  a  lift  across  as  far  as  Genoa,  and  perhaps  work 
a  passage  out  from  Gibraltar,  or  come  out  again  by  way  of 
England. 

Naturally  there  is  considerable  rivalry  in  making  quick 
passages.  The  westward  passages  are  always  longest, 
the  prevailing  winds  in  the  North  Atlantic  being  from 


320  LABRADOR 

southwest  to  northwest.  But  the  following  examples  show 
what  can  be  done  under  favourable  circumstances :  — 

The  square-rigged  schooner  William  ran  from  Labrador 
to  Patras,  Greece,  in  twenty-three  days.  The  square- 
rigged  schooner  Red  Rose  took  only  seventeen  days  to 
reach  Genoa  from  Labrador.  The  fore-and-aft  vessels  can 
make  fast  round-trip  passages.  Captain  McCrea's  fore- 
and-aft  schooner  Clara  left  Harbour  Grace,  reached  Gi- 
braltar in  sixteen  days;  lay  there  thirteen  days;  went  to 
Patras,  Greece ;  lay  there  fourteen  days ;  returned  to  Cadiz, 
loaded  with  salt,  and  was  back  in  Harbour  Grace  in  ninety- 
eight  days.  In  my  own  fore-and-after,  the  Albert,  I  left 
St.  John's  and  was  anchored  in  Great  Yarmouth,  England, 
in  twelve  and  a  half  days.  No  doubt  quicker  passages  have 
been  made  than  any  of  these. 

Of  late  years,  Norwegian  and  Danish  vessels,  being 
"cheaper,"  have  partly  taken  the  trade  from  British  mer- 
chants, but  there  are  still  firms  patriotic  enough  to  pay 
more  in  order  to  secure  British  bottoms. 

Italy  is  the  best  market  for  Labrador  fish  to-day,  though 
up  to  1904  Spain  took  most  from  us.  Spain  and  Greece 
take  quite  a  large  quantity  still.  Of  late  years  the  United 
Kingdom  has  not  taken  so  much,  the  ports  to  which  we 
export  being  Liverpool,  Exeter,  and  Bristol.  The  Portu- 
guese and  Brazilians,  who  are  the  largest  consumers  of  dry 
cod,  like  it  very  hard,  and  nearly  all  their  fish  goes  from 
Newfoundland.  The  fish  culled  out  as  not  suitable  for 
other  markets  is  shipped  to  the  West  Indies  at  a  lower 
price. 

The  culling  of  the  fish  is  a  most  important  measure,  and 
though  as  a  rule  the  men  will  avoid  a  "cull"  if  possible,  it 


THE  COD  AND   COD-FISHERY  321 

is  really  distinctly  to  their  own  interest.  In  self-defence, 
every  buyer  of  fish  should  agree  to  insist  on  it.  For  the 
fish  really  varies  immensely  in  value  according  to  the  qual- 
ity, and  that  depends  far  more  on  the  making  or  curing 
than  on  the  fish,  except  that  big  fish  are,  as  a  rule,  more 
salable  than  small  ones.  Remove  the  cull  and  sell  the  fish 
"Tal  qual,"  and  at  once  all  incentive  to  spend  time  on  clean- 
liness disappears.  It  is  almost  like  putting  a  premium  on 
laziness  and  carelessness.  As  the  Newfoundland  and  Lab- 
rador fish  must  compete  in  Europe  with  Norwegian  and 
even  French  fish,  the  whole  colony  suffers  with  the  loss  of 
the  good  name  of  its  marketed  fish.  It  is  an  all-important 
issue  to  almost  every  one  in  the  colony,  as  all  are  more  or 
less  dependent  on  King  Cod. 

The  printed  forms  on  which  receipts  for  fish  are  given  by 
a  large  firm  to  its  dealers  or  fishermen,  show  clearly  how 
common  it  is  to  accept  all  Labrador  fish  as  of  the  same 
value :  — 

Received  from 

Qtl.    Ib. 
Large 

Merchantable  fish 

Medium 

Small 

Madeira 

West  Indies 

Tal  qual 

Inferior 

Damp 

Dun 

Slimy 

Labrador         

and  also  casks  of  gallons  of  oil. 


322  LABRADOR 

To  cure  and  dry  a  single  quintal  of  fish  uses  salt  and  time, 
and  costs  money,  but  it  often  pays  to  cure  the  catch  when 
it  is  not  too  large,  for  the  price  per  quintal  then  rises  so 
much  that  the  net  profit  is  actually  greater.  Five  and  one- 
quarter  barrels  of  Cadiz  salt  or  six  and  one-half  barrels  of 
Liverpool  salt  (29.7  gallons  to  barrel)  will  cure  2205  pounds 
of  cod,  —  that  is,  1435-1462  pounds  of  salt  to  2205  pounds 
of  dry  cured  fish.  Salt  comes  to  from  twenty-five  to  thirty 
cents  per  quintal  of  dried  fish. 

The  markets  are  subject  to  very  rapid  fluctuations.  A 
cargo  scheduled  for  a  certain  port  may  arrive  just  too  late, 
find  the  port  glutted  with  other  arrivals,  and  have  to  proceed 
farther,  which  means  fresh  port  dues  and  expenses.  There 
is  thus  a  veritable  race  both  in  loading  and  in  making  the 
transatlantic  journey.  This  has  led  to  the  employment 
of  steamers  to  carry  the  fish;  then  the  merchant  finds 
the  new  difficulty  that  steamers  large  enough  to  pay  ex- 
penses are  likely  to  flood  any  local  market  to  which  they 
are  consigned. 

Again,  the  consignee  has  at  times  thrown  the  cargo  back 
on  the  merchant's  hands,  the  condition  of  the  fish  not  equal- 
ling that  which  he  desires  and  to  which  he  feels  entitled. 
Sometimes  the  whole  cargo  will  be  actually  returned  to 
Newfoundland.  This,  however,  is  so  ruinous  to  the  mer- 
chant that  he  generally  arranges  for  an  arbitration  to  be 
held,  and  lower  prices  may  be  agreed  upon.  The  result  is 
some  incentive  to  protest  against  accepting  the  agreed 
price.  In  addition,  there  is  always  the  element  of  risk, 
unavoidable  by  the  merchant,  that  the  quality  of  the  fish 
may  have  deteriorated  on  the  passage.  Very  large  losses 
have  been  made  in  this  way  by  individuals,  who  are  in  turn 


THE  COD  AND   COD-FISHERY  323 

compelled  to  bring  losses  on  the  fish-catchers  when  it  is 
imperative  for  the  merchant  to  compound  with  his  creditors. 
The  element  of  chance,  that  a  bad  voyage  may,  after  all, 
turn  out  a  good  one,  adds  another  attraction  to  fishing, 
however  monotonous  it  may  appear.  The  love  of  a  gamble 
is  innate  in  man.  Of  late  years  there  has  been  a  consider- 
ably larger  quantity  of  fish  exported  by  smaller  men,  but 
the  tendency  is  to  confine  the  actual  export  process  to 
the  larger  firms. 

Naturally  the  Norwegian  catch  influences  the  total  supply 
very  materially,  and  a  failure  there  means  better  prices 
here.  The  French  can  scarcely  afford  to  export  fish,  for 
they  are  paid  such  high  bounties  for  taking  it  to  France. 

Happily  for  the  fish-catcher,  the  markets  for  salt  fish 
are  not  only  opening  up  wonderfully,  but  the  price  obtain- 
able has  also  been  steadily  increasing,  and  has  risen  from 
2.22  cents  per  pound  to  4.74  cents  in  the  last  six  years. 
This,  more  than  anything  else,  explains  the  general  pros- 
perity of  our  people.  For  the  rise  in  the  market  price  is 
out  of  all  proportion  to  any  increase  in  the  amount  of  fish 
taken.  There  is  good  reason  to  suppose  that  this  rise  in 
price  will  be  maintained  as  long  as  the  article  exported 
is  properly  cured.  The  wealth  and  numbers  of  the 
peoples  requiring  this  produce  are  steadily  increasing,  and 
other  proteid  foods  are  rising  in  price  synchronously.  It 
seems,  therefore,  that  in  this  respect  our  future  is  still  in 
our  own  hands,  and  that  there  are  yet  halcyon  days  in  store 
for  our  folk  that  "go  sailing  out  into  the  deep." 

The  import  duties  imposed  by  our  customers  vary 
greatly.  France  prohibits  foreign  cod  altogether,  with  a 
tariff  of  $4.68  per  quintal,  besides  giving  bounties  to  her  own 


324  LABRADOR 

men.  Spain  charges  $2.34  per  quintal,  Italy  40  cents  only, 
Greece  38  cents,  Portugal  12.14,  Brazil  $1.39,  United  States 
84  cents;  Persia,  of  all  countries,  free  import,  and  the 
United  Kingdom,  free  as  usual !  France  pays  50  francs 
to  each  member  of  a  crew  drying  fish  away  from  France; 
30  francs  to  each  member  of  a  crew  drying  the  fish  in  France ; 
approximately  10  francs  on  every  quintal  of  salt  fish  shipped 
to  transatlantic  countries;  16  francs  per  quintal  on  ship- 
ments to  cisatlantic  countries;  a  bounty  of  20  francs 
on  cod  roe  brought  back  to  France.  So  that  besides  the 
prohibitive  duty  on  the  fish  of  other  countries,  grants  to 
foster  French  fisheries  amount  to  approximately  one  and 
one-quarter  million  dollars  per  annum.  That  means  that, 
if  our  fishermen  were  accorded  similar  privileges,  they  could 
almost  afford  to  catch  fish,  get  the  bounty,  and  give  the 
fish  away. 

These  important  duties  and  bounties  show  that  some 
countries  do  not  value  the  codfish  much,  or  they  would 
welcome  it  in  freely  as  a  cheap  food-stuff.  Yet  they  strive 
all  they  can  to  make  their  own  men  go  and  catch  it.  Great 
are  the  mysteries  of  statesmanship  ! 

Now  the  value  to  the  human  race,  or  any  section  of  it, 
of  a  particular  calling  or  industry  or  commodity  cannot  be 
measured  altogether  by  the  dollars  each  brings  the  govern- 
ment or  the  number  of  people  it  employs,  though  we  are 
apt  to  apply  these  standards.  If  we  did  so,  the  liquor 
traffic  would  be  classed  among  the  most  valuable  to  the 
race.  Yet  while  the  fishery  is  productive  and  constructive, 
the  liquor  trade  is  destructive,  both  of  human  capacity 
and  of  material.  Probably  of  all  industries  the  one  of 
first  importance  to  the  British  race  is  that  which  involves 


THE   COD  AND   COD-FISHERY  325 

the  following  of  the  sea.  For  in  the  art  of  man-making  no 
environment  can  surpass  it;  and  sea-power  means  world- 
power. 

Few  landsmen  have  ever  given  a  thought  to  the  influence 
exerted  on  mankind  by  the  humble  codfish.  Nations  have 
jealously  watched  these  dreary  wastes  of  icy,  fog-bound 
waters,  and  spent  human  lives  by  the  thousands  in  the 
years  that  are  gone  in  the  endeavour  to  turn  the  food  and 
money  that  these  finny  hosts  spell  into  their  own  treasuries, 
and  to  gain  also  the  environment  involved  and  its  evolu- 
tionary advantages.  As  early  as  1368  kings  were  granting 
rights  to  fish  for  cod  in  the  North  Sea.  Henry  the  Fifth 
paid  compensation  to  the  king  of  Denmark  for  damage 
done  by  the  English  cod-fishermen  to  his.  The  Cabots'  dis- 
covery of  this  north  land  opened  up  a  great  source  of  human 
food-supply  which  has  been,  and  will  be,  of  greater  value 
than  the  diamonds  of  Golconda  or  the  gold  mines  of  the 
Rand.  It  was  landlubbers  ignorant  of  the  value  of  these 
northern  seas  that  made  Canada  in  1813  lightly  give  back  to 
Newfoundland  the  coast  from  Blanc  Sablon  to  Cape  Chidley ; 
made  England  lightly  give  back  to  France  the  islands  of  Mi- 
quelon  and  St.  Pierre,  and  the  rights  of  fishing  on  the  Treaty 
coast ;  and  permitted  the  American  fishermen  the  privileges 
of  the  treaty  of  1818.  Our  debt  to  this  small  denizen  of  the 
deep  is  far  greater  than  those  consider  it  who  only  view  the 
fishery  from  a  gastronomical  or  economical  standpoint. 
Strange  as  it  may  seem,  the  codfish  has  been  an  invaluable 
factor  in  preserving  and  evolving  that  genius  of  the  British 
race,  which  in  God's  providence  at  the  time  of  the  Invincible 
Armada  alone  allowed  us  to  persist  still  free  among  the  great 
powers.  That  genius,  which  four  hundred  years  ago  pre- 


326  LABRADOR 

served  us  from  national  crippling  or  from  absolute  deletion 
from  the  roll  of  great  nations,  is  in  danger  of  being  lost  by 
the  general  increase  of  wealth  and  luxury. 

I  shall  here  only  suggest  the  debt  that  the  Catholics  of 
Europe  owe  the  codfish.  The  vast  amount  they  consume 
is.  the  best  proof  of  the  value  at  which  they  estimate  him. 
But  I  can  suppose  that  the  family  circle  on  many  a  Friday 
night  would  sit  around  the  table  with  blank  faces  if  it  were 
not  for  this  additional  virtue  of  our  friend,  viz.  his  gratify- 
ing faculty  for  passing  muster  as  eligible  for  dinner  before 
an  ecclesiastical  inquisition  which  has  placed  all  our  staple 
articles  under  the  ban.  And  for  this  discernment  the  world 
in  return  owes  the  authorities  of  the  Church  a  very  real 
debt,  inasmuch  as  they  so  directly  encourage  in  this  way  a 
calling  so  invaluable  to  mankind. 

Thus  it  cannot  be  said  that,  in  praising  the  codfish,  we 
have  exaggerated  his  virtues.  Not  only  has  he  bred  a 
healthy  race;  he  has  invigorated  a  weak  one.  His  oil 
has  enabled  us  to  battle  successfully  with  the  subtlest  en- 
emy of  our  race,  the  tubercle  bacillus,  even  in  the  face  of 
all  the  wonderful  discoveries  of  modern  science  and  the 
hoards  of  money  lavished  on  other  methods.  A  couple  of 
years  ago,  when  the  supply  of  cod-liver  oil  was  short,  the 
crude  article  rose  in  value  in  a  couple  of  months  from  forty 
cents  a  gallon  to  $4  a  gallon  direct  from  the  barrel. 

May  the  men  of  Labrador  never  need  the  emasculating 
paternal  legislation  of  our  neighbours  in  Europe,  or  the 
bounty  system  of  "  presents  for  good  boys  that  venture  out 
to  sea"  !  When  the  world  beholds  the  spectacle  of  the  Eng- 
lish, as  a  race  that  will  not  venture  forth  on  the  mighty 
waters  without  being  stimulated  by  such  adventitious  aid, 


THE  COD  AND   COD-FISHERY  327 

taxing  those  who  have  to  stay  home,  then  indeed  may  we 
pray  again  for  our  good  genius  in  the  form  of  a  codfish. 
If  ever  that  day  comes,  may  our  friend  be  put  on  the  national 
flag,  and  let  him  rank  three  codfish  with  three  lions. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE   SALMON-FISHERY 
BY  W.  T.  GRENFELL 

OF  the  four  varieties  of  salmon  in  Labrador,  —  Salmo 
solar,  Salmo  trutta,  Salmo  immaculatus,  and  Salmo  hudson- 
icus,  —  only  the  first  two  are  of  commercial  importance. 

Salmo  solar  is  a  noble  fish.  In  strength,  beauty,  and 
spirit  he  is  certainly  superior  to  any  others  in  the  Labrador 
waters.  He  is  found  from  end  to  end  of  the  coast,  but  less 
abundantly  in  the  north,  where  he  remains  a  shorter  time 
than  in  the  south.  He  arrives  during  the  period  between 
the  latter  part  of  June  and  the  end  of  July ;  and,  after  brows- 
ing about  on  the  coast  for  a  month  or  so,  proceeds  up  the 
rivers  to  breed.  It  appears  that  for  some  time  he  runs  in 
and  out  of  the  river  mouth,  as  if  to  accustom  himself  to 
the  change  to  fresh  water. 

The  salmon  is  really  a  river  dweller,  a  luxurious  fellow 
with  a  winter  home  in  the  sea,  but  in  most  countries  two- 
thirds  of  his  life  is  spent  in  the  rivers.  So  strong  a  homing 
instinct  does  he  possess,  that  he  can  hardly  be  kept  back 
from  returning  to  his  own  particular  river,  the  place  of  his 
birth  and  the  abode  of  his  first  year.  This  has  been  shown 
by  marking  live  salmon  taken  at  the  head  of  a  river,  carrying 
them  around  to  another  river,  the  source  of  which  was  quite 
close  to  their  own,  but  whose  mouth  was  the  opposite  side  of 
a  great  stretch  of  land.  Three  weeks  later  some  of  the 
marked  fish  were  caught  in  their  own  pool  again.  In 

328 


THE    SALMON-FISHERY  329 

Alaska  a  barrier  of  sand  and  gravel  was  once  formed  across 
the  mouth  of  a  river  by  a  phenomenal  storm.  The  river 
was,  however,  able  to  percolate  through.  When  the  salmon 
returned  to  their  river,  so  determined  were  they  to  get  up, 
they  threw  themselves  out  of  the  water  on  to  the  pebbly 
beach,  and  some  at  least  succeeded  in  wriggling  and  jump- 
ing till  they  reached  the  other  side.  The  natives  profited 
by  the  experience,  though  the  devotion  of  the  salmon 
deserved  a  better  fate.  Only  three  things  will  apparently 
keep  salmon  from  their  own  home,  —  pollution  of  the  river, 
insuperable  natural  barriers,  and  man's  persecutions.  All 
these  three  are  one,  and  that  one  is  Death.  If  the  summer 
is  early  and  the  water  warm,  well  and  good;  they  return 
to  their  river  early.  If  it  is  late,  they  are  content  to  "  bide." 
If  it  becomes  too  cold  after  they  arrive,  they  will  return 
to  the  sea  and  go  up  again  later.  In  these  adventurous 
journeys  the  larger  fish  are  the  leaders.  Obstacles  are  only 
things  to  be  overcome.  They  will  leap  ten  feet  out  of  the 
water  up  a  cataract.  With  successive  leaps  they  will 
climb  a  fall  of  thirty  feet.  They  will  go  on  jumping  till 
they  are  dashed  to  pieces  and,  bruised  and  dying,  are 
borne  down  on  the  bosom  of  the  river  they  loved,  back  to 
a  tomb  in  the  great  deep  out  of  which  they  came.  The 
zeal  of  Kim  and  his  old  Lama  in  search  of  the  river  of  the 
arrow  was  no  greater  than  that  of  this  kingly-spirited  fish. 
The  fact  that  he  can  no  longer  people  our  rivers  is  no  fault 
of  his.1 
This  very  persistence  of  the  salmon  is  his  own  undoing. 

1  A  most  interesting  fact  noticed  about  salmon  by  Mr.  W.  G.  Gosling 
is  the  existence  in  certain  rivers  below  the  falls  of  pot-holes  scooped 
out  by  the  water  in  the  solid  rock.  While  watching  salmon  leap  up 


330  LABRADOR 

I  have  lain  on  a  high  perpendicular  rock,  watching  the  gill- 
net  stretched  across  the  pool  of  clear,  transparent  water. 
I  have  seen  the  approach  of  the  victim  and  his  friends  on 
the  journey,  the  courage  with  which  he  charged  the  net. 
If  only  he  would  give  way,  he  might  yet  go  free.  But  he 
knows  no  yielding,  and  is  not  satisfied  till  the  tough  twine 
has  passed  over  his  head,  caught  behind  his  gills,  and  then 
it  is  too  late  to  save  himself . 

But  we  will  follow  the  more  successful  fish  that  reach  the 
home  of  a  former  year.  Once  in  their  pool,  the  mother  fish 
finds  a  suitable  sandy  or  fine  gravelly  spot  in  shallow  water, 
where  the  ground  is  soft  and  deep,  and  the  current  not  too 
boisterous.  Often  enough  it  is  the  nest  of  a  sea-trout  before 
her,  but  of  that  she  takes  little  account.  Throwing  herself 
on  her  side,  she  scoops  out  a  "redd,"  or  nest,  by  flapping  her 
tail,  and  in  this  she  deposits  a  number  of  eggs.  She  then 
returns  into  deeper  water,  coming  to  and  fro  to  her  nest  to 
lay  more  eggs  for  several  days,  till  she  has  laid  as  many  as 
five  hundred  for  every  pound  she  weighs.  Each  time, 
her  male  partner  accompanies  her,  depositing  the  milt 
required  to  fertilize  the  eggs.  Since  they  entered  the  river, 
they  have  avoided  one  source  of  danger  by  taking  no  food, 
and  they  subsist  on  the  fat  accumulated  on  the  rich  pastures 
outside  the  river.  Indeed,  the  beautiful  pink  of  their  flesh 
depends  on  the  crustaceans  they  have  there  devoured. 

the  falls,  he  noticed  first  one  and  then  another,  that  failed  to  clear 
the  fall,  totally  disappear.  A  careful  search  revealed  the  fish  head 
down  and  only  their  tails  out  of  deep  little  pot-holes.  He  caught 
the  fish  for  food,  but  was  surprised  to  find  the  hole  full  at  the  bottom 
of  bones  of  salmon  that  had  no  doubt  perished  miserably  in  the  same 
way.  It  shows  that  salmon  at  times  come  head  first  down  into  the 
water  when  diving,  like  an  expert  human  being. 


THE  SALMON-FISHERY  331 

One  result  of  their  abstinence  is  a  peculiar  pinched  and 
hungry  look  on  the  male  fish's  face.  His  jaws  grow  hard 
and  hooked,  and  he  is  thus  able  to  fight  the  many  battles 
that  lie  before  him,  with  far  better  chance  of  damaging  his 
enemy. 

The  " spent"  salmon  are  called  "kelts."  They  are  so 
weakened  that  they  fall  an  easy  prey  to  any  strong  enemy 
they  may  meet.  Like  eels,  many,  if  not  most,  salmon  die 
after  spawning.  With  scanty  gratitude  men  have  advised 
giving  the  poor  salmon  no  protection  at  that  time  on  the 
theory  that  the  spent  adults  will,  in  order  to  recover,  if 
they  ever  do  recover,  destroy  in  the  process  more  young 
fish  than  they  are  worth.  On  the  other  hand,  as  the  kelts 
are  not  worth  eating  at  that  time,  and  are  thought  by  some 
observers  to  be  poisonous,  it  is  poor  policy  to  capture  them. 
A  fisherman  who  had  taken  a  number  was  once  asked  by  a 
" protective"  enthusiast,  if  it  was  not  true  they  were  not 
good  to  eat  in  that  state.  The  fisherman  replied  "  That's 
true,"  but  with  a  wink  added,  "  Them's  not  bad  kippered." 

The  eggs  of  the  salmon  are  remarkable.  They  are  round 
and  about  one-quarter  inch  in  diameter,  of  a  pink  colour, 
elastic,  so  that  they  bounce  like  a  ball  off  a  board.  They 
will  hatch  out  in  a  month,  but  if  it  is  too  cold,  and  cir- 
cumstances are  not  right,  like  a  caterpillar  in  a  chrysalis, 
they  just  wait  till  the  conditions  are  more  to  their  liking. 
They  can  be  carried  in  ice  for  thousands  of  miles ;  stored 
in  this  way,  they  have  been  carried  and  successfully  propa- 
gated in  India,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand. 

The  adult  fish  also  can  stand  great  ranges  of  temperature ; 
he  may  be  caught  as  far  south  as  lat.  37°  north  and  as  far 
north  as  lat.  70°  north.  The  salmon  so  fill  some  rivers 


332  LABRADOR 

that  when  the  waters  subside  with  the  advance  of  summer, 
the  odour  of  rotting  fish  on  the  banks  and  in  the  branches  of 
trees  is  said  to  be  positively  poisonous.  On  Kadiak  Island 
in  the  North  Pacific  they  are  so  abundant  in  certain  rivers 
that  the  fish  " interfere  with  the  progress  of  canoes."  The 
variety  found  in  Cook's  Inlet  averages  four  feet  in  length, 
and  weighs  fifty  pounds.  The  natives  here  kill  in  their 
primitive  way  some  twenty-five  thousand  fish  per  year, 
which  provides  for  each  person  the  moderate  allowance  of 
four  hundred  and  thirty  pounds,  or  about  four  pounds  a 
day  the  year  round. 

Once  hatched  out,  the  little  salmon,  or  parr,  is  handi- 
capped for  three  weeks  by  the  large  umbilical  sac  on  which 
he  subsists.  He  is  fain,  therefore,  to  hide  away  closely 
among  the  stones,  for  many  creatures  are  fond  of  him. 
Insect  larvae,  beetles,  crustaceans,  large  fish,  rats,  and  even 
diving  birds,  are  all  anxious  to  take  him  in.  If  he  survives, 
he  remains  in  the  river  for  one  or  two  full  years.  During 
this  time  he  has  grown  to  a  sizable  fish  of  a  couple  of  pounds' 
weight,  but  his  full  glory  does  not  appear  until,  in  his  third 
spring,  he  assumes  his  glittering  silver  armour.  He  is  then 
known  as  a  "smolt,"  and  attains  the  dignity  of  venturing 
into  the  unknown  immensity  of  the  ocean,  with  his  fellows 
of  his  own  age,  as  they  go  forth  in  the  wake  of  the  great 
salmon. 

In  the  river  the  samlet,  or  parr,  is  not  troubled  with  the 
scruple  of  his  parents,  and  feeds  voraciously.  But  it  is 
not  until  he  reaches  the  great  sea  that  he  begins  to  grow 
at  all  rapidly.  It  has  been  said  that  he  will  grow  from  a 
few  ounces  to  as  many  pounds  in  three  months.  He  may 
return  to  winter  a  second  time  in  the  pools  and  lakes,  a  full- 


THE  SALMON-FISHERY  333 

grown  grilse.  This  pleasure  is,  however,  generally  deferred 
till  the  fourth  spring,  when  the  fish  arrives  in  all  the  pride 
of  silver  and  with  all  the  well-known  energy  of  a  three-  to 
six-pound  grilse.  Those  who  have  felt  the  rush  and  jump 
of  these  exquisite  creatures  on  the  end  of  a  light  line  in 
rapid  water  know  the  marvel  of  their  agility.  The  males 
are  at  this  time  mature,  but,  as  a  rule,  do  not  spawn.  They 
seem  simply  to  have  a  good  time  in  the  upper  reaches  and, 
not  until  the  fifth  year,  when  they  have  grown  to  the  weight 
of  ten  pounds  at  least,  do  they  feel  called  upon  to  assume 
the  duties  of  the  head  of  a  family. 

The  grilse,  from  their  agility  or  smaller  size,  are  fairly 
successful  in  escaping  the  cod-trap  leaders.  They  even 
pass  through  the  salmon-nets  in  the  rivers,  and  the  rod- 
and-line  fishing  for  these  is  still  excellent  in  many  Labrador 
rivers.  Eagle  River  still'  gives  good  sport  for  salmon,  and 
an  enterprising  Hudson's  Bay  factor  is  trying  to  arrange 
a  summer  hotel  for  visitors  near  the  large  pools.  Sandhill 
Bay  River  also  gives  good  fishing.  The  late  General  Dash- 
wood  came  two  years  in  succession  from  England  to  fish 
in  this  river. 

Many  of  the  other  rivers  would  doubtless  afford  sufficient 
attraction  if  only  they  were  given  a  fair  trial.  But  as  yet 
little  is  known  about  them.  A  party  in  a  steam-yacht, 
visiting  Byron  Bay  in  1907,  claim  to  have  had  good  sport 
there,  but  we  had  no  accurate  details  of  their  actual  catch. 
Landlocked  salmon  are  very  common  in  the  lakes  and  upper 
reaches  of  the  Hamilton  Inlet.  One  feature  that  tells  most 
in  favour  of  the  rivers  on  the  Labrador  coast  belonging  to 
Newfoundland,  is  that  no  rivers  are  reserved  for  clubs  or 
private  owners,  and  visitors  may  visit  or  fish  any  or  all  at 


334  LABRADOR 

their  own  will.  No  fishing  tackle  can  be  obtained  on  the 
coast.  Silver  Doctors,  Jock  Scotts,  Soldier  Palmers,  Dur- 
ham Rangers,  and  Fairies  are  all  good  flies  on  the  Labrador 
rivers. 

Why  salmon  leap  at  a  fly  at  all,  is  much  debated.  The 
need  for  food  does  not  alone  seem  to  explain  the  habit, 
which  has  persisted  from  the  smolt  days  of  their  youth. 
A  much  greater  puzzle  is,  Why  are  salmon  timid  to-day, 
voracious  to-morrow?  Why  will  every  salmon  refuse  to 
look  at  a  fly  at  nine  o'clock,  but  at  nine  fifteen  o'clock  every 
salmon  in  the  pool  will  leap  at  any  fly  one  likes  to  try  ? 

The  salmon  that  return  to  the  rivers  in  the  winter  lose 
their  bright  colour.  The  males  become  dark  in  the  back, 
and  have  a  dark  red  colour  developed  on  the  sides  and  belly. 
The  females  are  a  dark,  dusty  gray,  somewhat  resembling 
coalfish.  Their  flesh  becomes  white,  and  they  are  useless 
for  eating.  Early  in  the  fifteenth  century,  it  was  a  capital 
offence  to  kill  salmon  out  of  season. 

The  Labrador  salmon  are  said  to  be  the  best  in  the  world 
for  eating.  The  cold  waters  seem  to  produce  a  specially 
vigorous,  well-fleshed  fish.  The  salmon-fishery  in  Labra- 
dor preceded  the  cod-fishery  by  many  years.  The  former 
was  much  the  more  valuable  then.  With  salmon  catch 
and  fur  trade  the  resident  white  population  grew  up  and 
flourished ;  with  the  destruction  of  the  salmon  those  people 
have  fallen  into  poverty,  and  even  into  starvation. 

In  the  history  of  the  Labrador  settlers  we  may  read  the 
pitiable  story  of  the  blotting  out  of  these  valuable  fish. 
The  increasing  quantity  of  twine  used  on  the  outside  for 
codfish  offers  no  prospect  that  the  salmon  will  assume 
their  former  abundance. 


THE    SALMON-FISHERY  335 

As  long  ago  as  1774,  at  any  rate,  the  Alexis  River,  and 
soon  after  the  Eagle  and  other  grand  rivers  of  Sandwich 
Bay,  were  completely  net-barred.  Of  late  years  the  "  bay- 
men,  "  or  livyeres,  have  been  slowly  obliged,  owing  to  the 
increasing  scarcity  of  the  salmon  and  to  the  declining 
price  of  salt  salmon  in  the  market,  to  abandon  this  fishery 
and  try  for  cod. 

The  transition  stage  is  a  time  of  great  misery  for  the  poor 
settlers.  Their  nets,  small  boats,  outfit,  and  habits  are  all 
calculated  for  the  peaceful  fishery  in  the  bays;  for  the 
rougher  fishery  outside  they  have  neither  gear,  education, 
or  inclination.  Many  try  to  do  both.  But  the  cod  arrive 
on  the  coast  before  the  salmon  take  to  the  rivers,  and  these 
men  are  very  apt  to  make  a  blank  year,  entailing  great  pri- 
vations on  their  own  and  other  families. 

Whether  man  can  decrease  the  number  of  cod  or  herring 
in  the  deep  sea  is  uncertain,  but  that  by  netting  rivers  you 
can  empty  them  of  salmon,  is  a  well-ascertained  fact.  The 
former  great  abundance  of  this  fish  on  the  Labrador  is 
well  emphasized  in  the  following  few  extracts  from  the 
journals  of  the  inimitable  Major  Cartwright  in  1775-1785. 
In  July,  1775,  he  writes  of  the  Eagle  River:  "We  have 
140  tierce  (casks)  ashore,  but  have  had  to  take  up  two  nets, 
as  fish  get  in  too  fast."  "The  big  pool  is  so  full  of  salmon, 
you  could  not  fire  a  ball  into  it  without  injuring  some." 
Even  the  animals  seemed  to  know  the  wonders  of  this  river, 
which  must  have  been  almost  as  well  stocked  as  the  Eraser 
River  in  British  Columbia.  Cartwright  describes  "remains 
of  thousands  of  salmon  killed  by  white  bears  round  the 
pool."  His  famous  description  of  some  fourteen  white 
and  black  bears  that  he  saw  fishing  in  the  pool  is  quite 


336  LABRADOR 

unique.  In  1776,  August  7  to  11,  Cartwright  took  1230 
salmon  from  the  pool  in  one  week.  "  At  Paradise  we  have 
214  tierce  ashore.  Few  escape  there."  In  his  " artless'7 
poem  he  writes  :  — 

"...  salmon  up  fresh  rivers  take  their  way, 
For  them  the  stream  is  carefully  beset;  few  fish  escape." 

That  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  for  he  says,  "  My  ten  nets, 
each  forty  fathoms  long,  fastened  end  to  end,  stretch  right 
across  the  stream." 

On  July  17,  1779, 

"In  Eagle  River  we  are  killing  750  salmon  a  day,  or 
35  tierce,  and  we  would  have  killed  more  had  we  had  more 
nets.  Three  hundred  and  fifty  tierce  ashore  already  at 
Paradise.  If  I  had  more  nets,  I  could  have  killed  a 
thousand  tierce  alone  at  this  post,  the  fish  averaging  from 
15  to  32  pounds  apiece.  At  Sandhill  Cove  two  men  have 
240  tierce  ashore,  and  would  have  had  more,  but  we  had  no 
more  salt." 

From  June  23  to  July  20,  in  Eagle  River,  he  killed 
12,396  fish,  or  300  tierce.  In  1782  he  writes :  "  Little  or  no 
salmon  at  Cartwright,  only  80  tierce."  In  1786  he  writes : 
"We  have  490  tierce  in  White  Bear  River,  and  Paradise 
R.  and  165  tierce  at  Charles  Hr."  Naturally  enough  the 
archaic  story  of  the  clause  in  the  apprentice's  indentures, 
that  he  was  "not  to  be  forced  to  eat  salmon  more  than 
thrice  a  week"  is  told  of  Labrador  in  these  days. 

In  1818  Mr.  Pinson  was  getting  two  hundred  tierce  of 
salmon  at  Cartwright.  He  received  a  bounty  of  three 
shillings  per  quintal  for  this  shipment  to  England. 

In  1864  Mr.  Stone's  average  catch  at  Henley  was  sixty 


THE  SALMON-FISHERY  337 

tierce  for  a  season.  The  entire  catch,  as  given  in  the  Gov- 
ernment Blue  Book  for  1906,  was  eight  hundred  and  twenty 
tierce,  valued  at  $16,437.  The  catch  in  1907  was  seven 
hundred  and  fifteen  tierce,  valued  at  $16,057. 

This  catch  cannot,  however,  represent  much  more  than 
half  the  amount  caught,  for  nearly  every  trap-net  used  in 
the  cod-fishery  catches  salmon  in  its  leaders,  and  these  are 
salted,  smoked,  and  carried  to  Newfoundland.  I  have 
known  three  hundred  salmon  taken  in  one  day  in  a  cod- 
trap. 

The  trap  leaders  specially  used  for  salmon  are  set  out 
from  points  exactly  as  cod-trap  leaders  are,  and  being  four 
inches  instead  of  six  inches  in  mesh,  stop  much  smaller 
fish.  In  this  way  a  very  large  number  of  small  salmon 
are  taken  every  year,  and  in  the  opinion  of  many  people, 
the  traps  do  more  damage  to  the  salmon  than  the  river  nets. 

Rivers  in  Labrador  are,  as  a  rule,  not  now  barred,  but 
practically  all  that  are  of  any  value  are  illegally  netted. 
It  seems  that  a  prescriptive  right  has  grown  up  with  some 
residents  to  fish  rivers  in  defiance  of  the  law,  and  the  only 
one  on  which  a  fish  warden  is  appointed  is  regularly  netted 
at  least  three  miles  above  its  mouth.  If,  however,  these 
rivers  received  the  protection  the  laws  of  the  country  nomi- 
nally afford  them,  there  is  no  reason  why  they  should  not 
again  become  as  attractive  to  visitors  and  sportsmen  as 
those  of  the  Canadian  Labrador. 

The  regular  method  used  to  catch  salmon  in  Labrador 
is  to  set  the  gill-net  from  the  land.  These  nets  are  fastened 
by  a  mooring  to  a  "shore  fast"  and  run  straight  off  to  sea. 
The  salmon  seldom  swim  more  than  a  few  feet  below  the 
surface,  so  the  nets  are  fastened  to  a  line  of  corks  on  a 


338  LABRADOR 

"head  rope,"  and  hang  down  perpendicularly.  The  legal 
mesh  is  not  less  than  six  inches  in  diagonal  measure.  At 
the  outer  end,  the  line  of  nets,  called  a  "fleet,"  is  held  by 
heavy  anchors,  and  then  a  pound  is  formed  by  turning 
back  with  another  net  at  an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees  in 
the  direction  from  which  the  salmon  are  expected  to  strike. 
At  times  yet  another  net  is  added,  so  that  the  triangular 
pound  is  closed,  leaving  merely  a  door.  The  salmon  do 
not  strike  a  net  in  daytime  so  readily  as  do  sea-trout. 
They  seem,  however,  to  get  confused  in  the  pound,  and  in 
this  most  are  taken. 

The  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  who  are  by  far  the  largest 
salmon  buyers  on  the  coast,  own  many  nets.  They  also 
own  houses,  or  "posts,"  as  they  are  called,  at  all  the  best 
points  of  land  in  the  long  inlets,  and  the  planters  use  these 
and  turn  in  half  their  fish  as  rent.  For  the  balance  they 
get  goods  from  the  company's  store. 

Most  of  the  salmon  catchers  are  fur  trappers,  although 
those  who  live  on  the  outside  land  do  little  or  no  "furring." 
Indeed,  many  have  fallen  into  poverty  and  have  neither 
traps,  safe  guns,  ammunition,  nor  even  clothing  and  food 
to  enable  them  to  get  out  and  face  the  Arctic  cold  of  winter. 
This  is  now  the  poorest  class  of  men  in  Labrador. 

Formerly  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  had  a  large  salmon 
cannery  in  Eagle  River.  The  building  is  still  standing,  but 
the  trade  has  been  abandoned  for  want  of  sufficient  fish 
to  maintain  a  scale  of  business  large  enough  to  enable  them 
to  compete  with  British  Columbia  and  other  places.  The 
salmon  industry  is  generally  in  a  bad  way,  as»ohe  price  of  the 
salted  article  has  steadily  declined,  till  this  year  instead  of 
$6  and  even  $8,  only  $3  a  hundredweight  was  paid.  The 


THE  SALMON-FISHERY  339 

Hudson's  Bay  Company  gave  far  the  highest  prices  on  the 
coast  these  last  two  years.  Were  it  not  for  them,  the  fishery 
would  be  practically  abandoned. 

Last  year;  1908,  a  ne.w  method  was  tried.  Mr.  E.  Gibb 
of  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  brought  over  a  large  tank  steamer, 
in  which  to  carry  home  to  England  live  fish.  He  is  fishing 
in  a  way  new  to  Labrador,  pursuing  the  fish  with  a  floating 
trap-net.  What  will  be  the  outcome  of  the  venture,  it  is 
impossible  to  foretell.  He  has  brought  houses,  men,  and 
tackle.  Three  trips  in  a  year  would  fully  satisfy  him. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

THE    HERRING    AND    OTHER    FISH 
BY  W.  T.  GRENFELL 

THE  immense  value  of  the  herring  to  the  world  has  been 
known  for  centuries.  One  thousand  years  ago  our  ances- 
tors in  England  knew  its  virtues.  To-day  it  is  of  no  less, 
but  rather  of  greater,  importance.  With  the  increasing 
population  of  the  earth's  surface,  with  the  ever  growing 
need  for  food-supplies,  we  can  ill  afford  to  neglect  any  pre- 
caution that  might  tend  to  the  development  and  main- 
tenance of  so  immensely  valuable  an  industry  as  that  of 
catching  herring.  In  this  Labrador  once  had  its  share. 
Alas,  to-day  the  glory  of  the  Labrador  herring-fishery  has 
departed,  and  only  a  few  paltry  barrels  find  their  way  to 
the  markets. 

So  important  has  this  industry  been,  that  Professor  Hux- 
ley calculated  that  at  least  three  billion  herrings  were,  in  an 
average  year,  killed  for  food  of  man  in  the  North  Sea  and 
the  open  Atlantic.  As  these  herring  average  eight  ounces 
at  a  minimum,  the  immense  weight  of  food,  one  billion  five 
hundred  million  pounds,  speaks  for  itself  of  its  importance 
to  the  human  race.  For  herring  is  a  fat  fish.  Lying 
in  Lerwick  Harbour,  among  nine  hundred  herring  boats, 
I  have  seen  the  oil  set  free  in  the  splitting  of  captured  her- 
ring cover  the  surface  of  that  immense  harbour  so  thickly 
that,  though  the  vessels  would  be  sailing  in  and  out  with  a 
stiff  breeze,  not  a  ripple  of  any  sort  would  be  visible.  It  left 

340 


THE  HERRING   AND   OTHER  FISH  341 

a  most  marked  impression  on  the  mind.  One  of  those  fat 
herring,  taken  straight  from  the  water,  then  split  and  grilled 
on  a  gridiron  over  an  open  fire,  will  actually  catch  fire  from 
his  own  fat. 

But  in  Labrador  our  herring  have  won  a  well-earned 
reputation  for  being  facile  princeps  among  the  world's  her- 
ring; only  those  from  the  Icelandic  and  Shetland  waters 
can  compare  with  them.  The  Labrador  fish  run  to  seven- 
teen, or  even  more  inches  in  length  and  weigh  nearly  one 
pound  apiece. 

Kings  and  queens  have  worshipped  at  the  shrine  of  the 
herring.  William  Berkelzon  of  Flanders,  in  about  1300, 
discovered  how  to  cure  led  herring,  and  generally  how  to 
preserve  them  better  for  food.  After  his  death,  Charles 
the  Fifth  erected  a  monument  to  his  memory,  visited  his 
grave,  and  there  prayed  for  his  soul.  Mary  of  Hungary, 
in  a  somewhat  appropriate  way,  paid  tribute  to  our  bene- 
factor by  sitting  on  his  tomb  and  eating  a  red  herring.  In 
North  Scotland  there  is  an  old  saying,  "No  herrings,  no 
weddings."  The  "common"  herring  is  not  taken  in  the 
Pacific  or  Mediterranean,  but,  nevertheless,  has  a  great 
range,  —  from  Cape  Hatteras  to  Spitzbergen  and  the  White 
Sea. 

The  one  failing  of  the  herring,  and  the  one  thing  that  still 
keeps  hope  up  that  he  may  return  to  Labrador,  is  his  incon- 
stancy. He  seems  to  disappear  according  to  some  subtle 
law  of  nature  which  has  baffled  all  the  skill  of  scientists, 
and  has  eluded  all  the  speculations  of  fishermen.  History 
records  that  European  herring  were  to  be  found  in  vast 
quantities  in  the  year  1020  A.D.,  and  during  the  following 
periods:  the  twelfth  century,  1260-1341,  the  fifteenth 


342  LABRADOR 

century,  1550-1590,  1660-1680,  1747-1808,  1857-1878, 
and  also  of  recent  years.  Such  large  quantities  have  been 
taken  in  the  North  Sea  these  past  two  years  that  all  previous 
records  have  been  eclipsed.  They  disappeared  from  the 
Norwegian  coast  from  1655-1699,  and  again  from  1784- 
1808.  In  1871  they  almost  entirely  disappeared  again. 

The  old  theory  that  all  the  herring  lived  in  one  vast  race 
in  the  polar  seas  and  made  a  circular  tou^  of  the  waters  they 
are  found  in,  was  eloquently  described  by  Buffon,  but  is 
now  abandoned.  There  is  little  doubt  that  many  separate 
shoals  exist,  and  that  they  do  not  retire  into  ocean  abysses, 
or  mid-ocean,  where  they  cannot  be  taken.  When  they 
leave  the  shore,  they  probably  feed  on  the  slopes  in  moderate 
depths  near  the  coast  they  frequent.  They  have  been 
captured  in  one  hundred  fathoms  of  water  off  the  New- 
foundland coast.  They  are  easily  affected  by  temperature, 
preferring  a  temperature  of  55°  F.  But  they  are  caught  in 
water  as  cold  as  37°  F.,  and  the  Scottish  fishery  is  mostly  in 
water  at  41-42°  F. 

The  eggs  (thirty-one  thousand,  on  the  average,  to  each 
fish)  which  sink  and  stick  to  the  bottom  are  eaten  in  vast 
quantities  by  many  species  of  animals  in  the  waters.  It 
is,  obviously,  of  great  importance  that  the  egg  stage  should 
be  as  brief  as  possible.  Nature  seems  to  furnish  the  in- 
stinct, therefore,  to  seek  water  at  55°  F.,  the  optimum 
temperature  for  rapid  hatching.  In  any  case  it  is  probable 
that  in  the  Labrador  polar  current  which  carries  the  tem- 
perature of  30°  F.  in  subsurface  layers,  the  herring  is  not 
likely  to  breed  at  all.  This  view  coincides  with  the  actual 
observations  that  herring  do  not  spawn  north  of  the  Mag- 
dalene Islands  and  the  west  coast  of  Newfoundland. 


THE  HERRING   AND   OTHER   FISH  34S 

It  is  impossible  to  believe  that  man  has  had  any  hand 
whatever  in  driving  herring  from  the  Labrador.  The  her- 
ring-fishery on  this  coast  has,  at  best,  been  on  a  very  small 
scale.  Professor  Huxley  states  that  even  in  the  North  Sea 
man  cannot  be  responsible  for  as  much  as  five  per  cent  of 
the  herring  killed.  From  the  time  of  the  egg  to  the  full- 
grown  fish  this  huge  family  of  the  herring  is  preyed  upon  by 
larva,  crustacean,  and  sea- worm.  "  All  that  men  take  would 
not  compromise  one  school  of  twelve  square  miles  area, 
and  there  must  be  scores  of  such  in  the  North  Sea."  If 
every  herring  lays  thirty-one  thousand  fertilized  eggs,  and 
all  but  two  of  the  family  are  killed  every  year  by  their 
enemies,  the  herring  would  still  maintain  their  vast  num- 
bers. "Man,"  says  Professor  Huxley,  "is  only  one  of  a 
great  cooperative  society  of  herring  catchers,  and  the  larger 
share  he  takes,  the  less  there  is  for  the  rest  of  the  company." 

The  herring  seems  specially  adapted  for  man's  use.  Like 
the  cod,  he  has  no  poisonous  nor  pain-wreaking  spines ;  he 
herds  together  so  as  to  be  caught  quickly  in  vast  quantities  ; 
and  he  can  be  easily  preserved.  He  is  a  deep-sea  fish,  and 
is  thus  not  dependent  on  refuse  food  in  shallow  water. 
Young  herring  fetch  a  high  price  as  "white  bait."  "A 
large  proportion,"  says  Professor  Goode,  "pass  under  the 
name  of  'French  sardine.''  Some  are  canned  in  spices 
and  sold  under  the  still  more  imaginative  name  of  "  brook 
trout."  If,  however,  they  have  been  feeding  on  crustaceans 
with  hard  shells,  these,  being  undigested,  putrefy  very  rapidly 
and  spoil  the  herring.  Herring  barred  inside  a  seine  are, 
therefore,  as  a  rule,  safer  to  cure  if  left  for  two  or  three  days 
in  the  net  while  digestion  is  finished. 

Though  the  herring  have  small  teeth  on  their  tongues 


344  LABRADOR 

and  the  roofs  of  their  mouths,  they  feed  by  sieving  the  water 
through  gill-rakers  armed  with  teeth  and  fine  spines,  which 
catch  the  small  copepods,  etc.,  and  gently  guide  them  down 
their  throats. 

They  spawn  in  spring  and  autumn,  but  the  same  herring 
only  spawns  once  a  year,  and  they  do  not  spawn  till  eighteen 
months  old.  The  danger  to  the  herring  increases  immensely 
when  they  come  into  the  shallower  waters  for  this  or  any 
purpose.  It  seems,  therefore,  another  provision  of  nature 
that  they  should  be  a  swift-swimming  fish  and,  after  spawn- 
ing, leave  rapidly  for  deep  water. 

Dr.  Moses  Harvey,  the  historian,  writing  in  1880,  says 
the  average  export  of  herring  from  Labrador  was  50,000  to 
70,000  barrels  for  the  years  immediately  preceding.  In 
1880,  20,000  barrels  were  exported;  in  1881,  33,330  barrels; 
in  1908,  only  180  barrels.  As  many  as  500  barrels  have 
been  taken  in  one  haul  at  Snug  Harbour.  Captain  Hennesy 
described  to  me  how,  thirty  years  ago,  he  sailed  through 
millions  of  herring  north  of  Cape  Mugf ord ;  their  vast  bulk 
made  the  surface  of  the  sea  oily. 

There  are  many  superstitions  about  herring,  and  the 
reasons  advanced  for  their  not  " coming  in"  have  been  of 
every  conceivable  kind.  To  change  this  luck,  some  amusing 
ceremonial  " charms"  have  been  invented,  such  as  dressing 
a  fisherman  in  a  striped  shirt  and  riding  him  around  the 
town  in  a  wheelbarrow.  Another  valuable  recipe  was  to 
pick  out  herring  with  red  fins  without  letting  them  touch 
wood,  and  then  pass  them  round  and  round  the  scudding 
pole  as  many  times  as  the  number  of  lasts  of  herring  you 
hoped  to  capture  next  autumn.  A  "  last "  means  1320  her- 
rings. Less  amusing  was  the  burning  alive,  two  centuries 


THE  HEREIN G   AND   OTHER   FISH  345 

ago,  of  men  and  women  supposed  to  be  bringing  evil  luck 
in  the  fishery.  Laws  have  existed  in  England  forbidding 
the  taking  of  herring  between  sunrise  and  sunset,  under  the 
idea  that  the  nets  turned  the  fish.  An  Irish  law  forbade 
nets  to  be  out  between  sundown  on  Saturday  and  sunrise 
on  Monday.  Probably  the  best  laws,  however,  are  no  laws 
at  all,  until  more  definite  knowledge  is  possessed  as  to  the 
real  causes  of  the  movement  of  the  herring. 

A  great  deal  of  the  value  of  the  cured  article  depends 
upon  the  methods  of  cure,  and  much  skill  is  needed  to  be 
really  successful.  In  Europe  the  fish  is  pickled  round, 
not  being  split  at  all ;  in  America  they  are  split  and  cured ; 
in  Holland  the  belly  is  clipped  off  with  scissors.  The  va- 
riety of  barrel  is  also  an  important  point.  The  wood  once 
used  with  us  was  hard,  clear  spruce.  But  the  Labrador 
barrel  industry  has  died  with  the  departure  of  the  herring. 
For  more  reasons  than  one  many  have  been  left  sorrowing 
for  a  friend  of  wrhom  we  are  all  fond  in  every  way  and  whose 
loss  we  deeply  deplore. 

Mackerel  are  not  taken  in  Labrador,  except  occasionally 
on  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  St. Lawrence.  The  range  of  this 
fish  is  from  Belle  Isle  Strait  to  Cape  Hatteras.  In  general 
the  lack  of  variety  of  round  fish  on  the  Labrador  is  com- 
pensated only  by  the  abundance  and  quality  of  the  cod  and 
salmon. 

None  of  the  marketable  flatfish  of  Europe  and  America 
frequents  our  waters.  Absent  is  the  succulent  sole,  the 
delectable  plaice,  the  toothsome  turbot  and  brill.  The 
witch  sole,  deep-water  denizen  though  he  is,  pays  us  no 
visits.  Of  all  these  prime  fish,  only  a  stray  halibut  wander- 
ing in  from  the  enormous  schools  that  frequent  the  great 


346  LABRADOR 

banks  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  from  our  shores,  pays 
tribute  to  our  Vikings  of  Peace,  the  acknowledged  masters 
of  the  mighty  Atlantic,  even  among  the  rocks  of  Labrador. 

His  name,  halibut,  probably  means  "holy  plaice," 
"holy"  because  a  favourite  food  on  holy  days.  He  is  often 
found  in  water  as  deep  as  two  hundred  and  fifty  fathoms. 
He  prefers  to  live  in  water  approaching  the  temperature 
of  32°  F.,  or  that  where  fresh  water  would  freeze,  and  he 
ranges  from  the  fortieth  parallel  of  north  latitude  to  the 
Arctic  Ocean.  The  larger  specimens  attain  lengths  of  eight 
or  nine  feet  and  weights  of  four  hundred  pounds;  some- 
times these  giants  have  lived  to  so  great  age  that  large 
barnacles  may  be  found  growing  on  the  skin,  much  as  bar- 
nacles grown  on  an  old  whale.  It  takes  a  hand  winch  to 
haul  up  a  big  fish,  and  four  or  five  men  to  get  him  over  the 
side.  Where  only  two  men  operate  the  dory,  the  usual 
plan  is  to  list  the  gunwale  over  level  with  the  water  and 
then  rush  the  fish  and  water  in  together.  The  halibut 
has  sometimes  had  his  revenge  by  capsizing  the  little  craft. 
On  one  occasion  a  Gloucester  vessel  had  brought  a  sick  man  of 
their  crew  to  our  hospital,  and,  wishing  to  express  gratitude, 
offered  us  a  fresh  halibut.  We  gladly  accepted,  the  change 
of  diet  being  very  welcome.  We  were  a  little  surprised, 
however,  to  see  later  four  stalwart  men  coming  up  the 
platform  with  a  fish  swung  on  poles  —  the  fish  the  size 
of  a  porpoise  !  The  fish  smokes  most  excellently,  the  pieces 
then  much  resembling  good  Wiltshire  hams  in  appearance. 

Halibut  are  eminently  fitted  to  survive.  They  are  very 
swift  and  powerful,  have  large  mouths  with  fearful,  sharp 
teeth.  They  have  a  most  catholic  appetite  that  readily 
embraces  a  few  dozen  younger  brothers  or  sisters  if  these  get 


THE  HEEEING  AND   OTHER   FISH  347 

in  the  way.  Half  a  barrel  of  flatfish  was  taken  out  of  the 
stomach  of  a  single  halibut. 

This  fish;  though  commanding  good  prices,  does  not  form 
a  Labrador  export,  the  banking  fishery  being  carried  on  by 
our  American  cousins.  These  come  to  us  as  early  as  April, 
sail  round  the  south  end  of  the  ice-floe,  and  so  reach  the 
banks;  or,  if  leaving  in  February,  make  straight  for  the 
south  coast  of  Greenland  and  try  to  get  north  by  keeping 
outside  the  two  currents  of  drifting  coast-ice.  On  one 
occasion  the  skipper  of  a  Boston  vessel  came  to  a  hospital 
before  our  harbour  ice  had  all  gone,  and  we  gave  him  a 
drive  round  on  the  ice  with  our  dog-sleigh,  as  he  had  never 
seen  dogs  travelling.  The  main  impression  on  his  mind 
seemed  to  be  "To  think  we  had  ripe  strawberries  before  I 
left  home  a  fortnight  ago  !" 

In  Europe  and  America  the  dab  (Hippoglossoides 
limandoides)  flourishes  in  both  cold  and  warm  waters. 
In  his  youth  he  is  a  free-swimming,  upright  fish,  but  takes 
to  tying  on  one  side  on  the  bottom.  He  shows  his  adapt- 
ability by  causing  the  under  eye  to  travel  round  over  his 
nose,  as  this  eye  would  be  useless  looking  down  on  the 
ground.  He  has  fine,  shiny  scales.  In  Dublin  he  is  called 
the  smeareen,  and  is  much  eaten  by  the  poorer  classes. 
On  the  New  England  coast  he  passes  as  the  "mud  dab," 
but  on  his  arrival  in  New  York  he  further  shows  his  adapt- 
ability by  assuming  the  name  of  the  "American  sole." 
In  Labrador  he  is  classed  with  the  "offal"  and  contempt- 
uously thrown  away.  The  dogs,  however,  appreciate  his 
qualities  better,  and  one  often  in  the  spring  sees  a  dog 
wading  about  looking  or  feeling  for  the  dab  in  the  mud, 
and  then  quickly  diving  down  and  bringing  the  struggling, 


348  LABEADOR 

squirming  fish  ashore,  there  to  be  swallowed  alive.  The 
dab's  hope  of  safety  lies  in  escaping  notice,  and  this  he  does 
whenever  he  is  at  rest.  He  flaps  about  till  he  settles  in  the 
mud;  the  mud  which  he  has  stirred  up  falls  again,  and 
covers  all  but  his  eyes  and  nose.  At  largest,  the  fish 
reaches  twenty  inches  in  length,  and  weighs  up  to  two 
pounds.  He  remains  all  winter.  As  he  is  the  first  fish  to 
be  taken  when  our  ice  goes,  he  is  speared  by  the  boys,  and, 
when  food  is  short,  cooked  and  eaten.  But  herring  so  soon 
follow  the  departure  of  the  ice  that  even  in  this  season  the 
dab  is  seldom  used.  Visitors,  however,  esteem  him  highly 
whenever  the  native  cook  will  condescend  to  prepare  him 
for  table.  Probably  it  is  the  ugly  face  with  huddled-up  eyes 
and  distorted  mouth  that  tells  here  against  his  popularity. 

The  cause  of  his  ugliness  is  explained  elsewhere  by  a 
strange  legend.  It  is  said  that  when  the  fish  were  sum- 
moned to  settle  who  should  be  king,  the  plaice  was  late, 
delaying  to  paint  on  some  of  his  beautiful  red  spots.  When 
he  heard  the  election  was  already  over,  his  mouth  so  twisted 
in  disdain  it  never  came  straight  again.  A  still  older  legend 
accounts  for  his  being  coloured  only  on  one  side.  It  runs 
that  Moses,  having  caught  one,  proceeded  to  cook  it  over 
an  oil  lamp,  but  when  one  side  was  broiled  and  grilled, 
threw  the  fish  into  the  sea. 

The  winter  fluke  (Pseudo-pleuronectes  Americanus) ,  the 
cousin  of  the  dab,  closely  resembles  him  in  size  and  ap- 
pearance, and  is  found  here,  as  he  is  all  along  the  North 
America  coast,  south  to  Cape  Cod. 

The  lump-fish  (Cyclopterus  lumpus)  is  very  common  with 
us,  but  is  practically  useless.  We  have  been  too  stupid 
to  find  a  use  for  him,  except  as  a  fertilizer.  He  has  de- 


THE  HERRING  AND   OTHER  FISH  349 

veloped  a  sucker  on  his  belly,  with  which,  being  a  lazy  fish, 
he  fastens  himself  upside  down  on  any  moving  thing,  and 
will  then  drift  about  without  the  trouble  of  swimming. 

The  common  sculpin,  or  scavenger,  exists  all  along  the 
coast.  There  are  two  varieties,  Coitus  scorpioides  and  C. 
Grcenlandicus.  He  really  consists  of  a  large  mouth,  an 
indefinitely  distensible  belly,  a  voracious  and  omnivorous 
appetite,  and  an  outside  coat  of  sharp  spikes.  One  can 
scarcely  credit  him  with  feelings,  for  when  fishing  with  the 
sharp  jigger  for  cod,  the  same  sculpin  will  run  for  the  hook 
again  and  again,  though  the  barb  may  in  the  earlier  capture 
have  been  in  almost  any  part  of  the  anatomy.  Sometimes 
a  fisherman  has  had  to  oblige  him  by  leaving  him  on  deck 
in  order  to  avoid  the  worry  of  repeatedly  hauling  in  the  line 
with  the  useless  fish  adhering.  Our  dogs,  however,  make 
nothing  of  his  horny  and  thorny  exterior,  and  eat  him  with 
great  gusto,  always  commencing  by  biting  off  his  tail. 
At  a  pinch,  the  sculpin  would  be  very  useful  in  sustaining 
human  life. 

Another  fish  that  stands  by  us  all  the  winter  is  the  rock 
cod.  He  is  much  like  a  small  cod  in  appearance,  but  darker, 
with  partly  iridescent  sides.  He  remains  about  the  har- 
bours. As  a  matter  of  fact,  he  is  "not  at  all  bad  eat- 
ing/' but  is  considered  by  the  fishermen  very  inferior  to  the 
true  cod,  and  is  always  rejected  from  those  they  export. 
He  is,  however,  dried  up  with  the  smaller  cod,  which  are 
not  split,  but  simply  salt-sprinkled.  They  are  kept  for 
winter  use  under  the  name  of  "rounders."  He  is  also 
taken  through  the  ice  in  winter,  and  has  frequently  shared 
with  the  lowly  clam  and  mussel  the  honour  of  preserving 
the  life  of  those  in  one  of  these  scattered  communities. 


350  LABRADOR 

Hake  or  haddock  are  rarely  seen  in  Labrador.  The  former 
fish  is  easily  distinguishable  by  his  silvery  armoured  coat, 
and  the  latter  by  the  black  marks  on  his  shoulders,  irrev- 
erently attributed  to  the  fingers  of  St.  Peter,  who  is  said 
to  have  pulled  him  out  of  the  water  to  pay  taxes,  with  the 
money  in  the  fish's  mouth.  Why  the  spots  are  black, 
tradition  does  not  say. 

It  seems  to  surprise  most  people  that  the  shark  is  found 
in  Labrador,  as  he  is  always  associated  with  tropical  waters. 
The  variety  we  have  is  the  sleeper,  Somniosus  microcepha- 
lies, the  little-headed,  sleepy  shark.  He  has  a  large  body 
up  to  fifteen  feet  long,  and  fully  lives  up  to  his  name.  He 
feeds  on  offal  thrown  overside,  earning  the  name  of  gurry 
shark;  he  is  the  most  despised  of  our  ocean  fauna.  He 
frequently  gets  caught  in  the  sunken  nets  for  seals,  though 
not  nearly  as  often  as  he  deserves,  for  he  browses  along  the 
nets,  eating  out  the  seals.  In  most  cases  his  energy  is  not 
sufficient  to  make  him  push  into  the  net.  A  ten-foot  shark 
has  a  mouth  contour  of  two  feet,  and  a  gullet  proportional. 
It  is  said  that  he  eats  live  whales,  biting  huge  pieces  out 
of  the  abdominal  blubber ;  but  I  cannot  believe  him  smart 
enough  to  do  this.  So  sharp  are  his  teeth  that  he  will  sculp 
all  the  fat  and  skin  off  a  dead  seal,  without  taking  two  bites 
at  one  piece.  I  have  taken  from  his  stomach  nearly  every 
bit  of  a  seal's  skin  and  fat  in  one  long  string  the  width  of  the 
shark's  mouth,  almost  as  one  takes  off  the  peel  from  an 
orange  or  an  apple.  On  one  occasion  we  found  in  a  shark" 
the  carcass  of  a  red  dog,  which  we  had  left  on  a  pan  of  ice 
to  drift  out  to  sea  a  week  previously.  The  sleeper  shark 
seems  to  have  little  capacity  for  pain.  Captain  At  wood 
reports  that  after  driving  a  scythe  right  through  one's 


THE  HERRING  AND   OTHER   FISH  351 

stomach,  it  came  placidly  back  and  went  on  feeding  off 
the  same  dead  whale  in  the  same  place.  In  large  numbers 
these  sharks  haunt  the  ice-fields,  where  the  sealers  have 
left  the  mutilated  carcasses  of  the  young  seals.  I  have 
driven  a  boat-hook  into  one  bigger  than  myself,  as  it  lay 
basking  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  hauled  it  easily 
out  on  the  ice  without  its  making  any  notable  resistance. 
On  one  occasion,  with  the  help  of  a  couple  of  men,  I  hauled 
out  five  from  one  hole  through  the  ice  in  this  same  way. 

The  only  commercially  important  part  of  the  sleeper  is 
the  liver,  which  yields  fifteen  to  thirty  gallons  of  very  ex- 
cellent oil;  for  the  purpose  of  securing  this  oil  a  shark- 
fishery  grew  up  on  the  coasts  of  Norway  and  Iceland.  Our 
fishermen  sometimes  use  a  lump  of  its  skin-covered  flesh 
for  scrubbing  the  floor.  The  flesh  is  white  and  nauseous, 
and  even  our  dogs,  voracious  as  they  are,  will  scarcely  eat 
it.  This  shark  seems  quite  indifferent  to  man's  presence, 
and  is  not  a  man-eater.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  conceive 
that  the  shark's  stomach  should  still,  by  some  races  of  hu- 
man beings,  be  considered  the  gate  of  heaven;  and  that 
living  children  be  offered  by  mothers  to  its  rapacity  that 
the  children  may  enter  paradise  through  that  probably 
most  repulsive  of  all  forms  of  death. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE   OCEAN  MAMMALS 
BY  W.  T.  GRENFELL 

To  compensate  the  Labradormen  in  some  small  degree  for 
the  loss  of  herring  and  the  depreciation  of  salmon,  a  whale- 
fishery  has  sprung  up.  The  great  success  made  in  killing 
sulphur-bottom,  finback,  and  humpback  whales,  in  North 
Newfoundland,  led  to  a  hope  of  great  things  from  them  for 
Labrador.  But  the  numbers  killed  have  been  very  limited.1 
The  whales  themselves  are,  however,  so  intensely  interesting, 
it  is  worth  while  referring  to  the  various  sorts  one  is  liable 
to  see  in  Labrador. 

The  whale  is,  of  course,  really  a  land  animal,  but  he  has 
left  his  native  element,  and  taken  to  a  roving,  nautical  life. 
Now  his  legs  are  not  necessary  for  locomotion ;  hence  they 
have  become  rudimentary  and  are  enclosed  in  his  thick, 
rubbery,  oily  skin.  The  arms  are  not  used  in  swimming, 
but  simply  for  preserving  the  animal's  balance  or  for 
grasping  the  baby  whale  when  it  is  in  danger. 

Of  all  the  adaptations  of  these  strange  beasts  to  their 
environment,  perhaps  none  is  more  remarkable  than  the 
arrangement  for  hearing.  The  whale  has  no  need  of  the 
sense  of  smell,  but  he  does  need  to  hear  the  approach  of  an 

1  In  reading  the  records  of  the  Moravian  Missions  for  the  years 
1780  to  1850,  one  is  greatly  struck  by  the  number  of  dead  whales  men- 
tioned as  having  been  discovered,  from  time  to  time,  on  the  coast. 

352 


THE  OCEAN  MAMMALS  353 

enemy.  Because  of  the  enormous  pressures  which  must 
be  endured  by  the  animal,  the  external  opening  of  the  ear 
is  reduced  to  the  diameter  of  a  crow-quill,  whereas  the 
opening  of  the  ear  into  the  nose  —  the  Eustachian  tube  — 
is  very  large.  Deafness,  following  the  closing  of  this  tube 
by  adenoid  growths  in  children,  has  made  most  of  us  know 
of  the  existence  of  this  second  "  ear-hole."  The  whale 
actually  hears  through  his  nose,  in  a  way  similar  to  that 
by  which  a  person  listens  "  open-mouthed."  The  eyes  are 
very  small ;  this  is  not  a  disadvantage,  fixed  as  the  eyes  are 
in  such  positions  that  the  animal  can  see  well  neither  ahead 
nor  astern.  Sight  can  hardly  be  much  used  as  a  feeding 
sense;  think  of  looking  for  your  food  when  you  have  to 
catch  millions  of  tiny  creatures,  like  copepods,  to  satisfy 
your  appetite !  It  has  been  said  that  a  whale  brought  to 
land  does  not  die  of  asphyxiation,  for  he  can  breathe  an 
hour  or  two  at  least ;  that,  on  the  other  hand,  he  does  die 
of  starvation.  He  must  eat  incessantly  or  die. 

On  a  fine  morning  on  the  Labrador  coast,  I  have  counted 
a  dozen  whales  in  a  single  school.  Now  and  again  a  huge 
tail  would  emerge  from  the  water  and  lash  the  surface 
with  its  full  breadth,  making  a  sound  like  the  firing  of  a 
cannon,  while  the  silence  of  the  stillness  was  otherwise 
broken  only  by  the  noise  of  their  blowing,  as  they  rolled 
lazily  along  on  the  surface.  I  have  seen  the  thresher  whales 
making  their  huge  prey  hurl  his  whole  immense  body  clear 
out  of  the  water,  only  to  fall  back  with  the  splash  of  a 
waterfall,  and  the  noise  of  a  thunderclap,  to  be  stabbed  by 
the  swordfish  below,  or  eaten  alive  by  the  fearful  jaws  of 
his  enemy. 

In  order  to  remain  below  water  so  long  as  they  do  (a 

2A 


354  LABRADOR 

full-grown  male  can  stay  down  one  hour),  whales  have 
a  huge  reservoir  of  blood  in  vessels  situated  in  the  front  of 
the  chest,  like  the  pipes  of  a  water-cooler.  This  blood 
he  overoxygenates  by  repeated  spoutings.  A  whaler  can 
tell  by  the  number  of  blows  exactly  how  long  the  ani- 
mal will  remain  below  on  his  sounding.  To  aerate  the 
blood  thoroughly,  a  male  sperm  whale  blows  about  sixty 
times,  once  every  ten  seconds.  The  females  blow  for  about 
four  minutes,  and  do  not  remain  down  so  long  as  the  males. 
The  elastic,  compressible  skin  is  equally  compressed  by  the 
water  at  great  depths;  in  a  marvellous  manner  the  vital 
organs  are  relieved  of  dangerous  pressure,  while  an  auto- 
matic water-bag  valve  fills  and  closes  the  nostrils  so  that 
no  water  is  forced  in. 

Six  species  frequent  the  Labrador  coast,  though  only 
four  kinds  are  still  common,  —  the  finback,  humpback, 
sulphur-bottom,  and  white  whale.  A  specimen  of  the 
largest,  the  sulphur-bottom,  so  called  from  the  colour  of 
his  body,  has  been  taken  with  a  length  of  ninety-five  feet 
and  a  circumference  of  thirty-nine  feet.  The  weight  of  this 
animal  was  estimated  to  be  two  hundred  and  ninety-four 
thousand  pounds.  Think  of  the  awful  power  of  the  tail 
that  can  not  only  propel  this  mass  at  fifteen  knots  an  hour, 
but  can  actually  hurl  it  clean  out  of  water  into  the  air! 

In  this  animal  the  baleen,  or  whalebone,  hanging  from 
the  roof  of  his  mouth,  weighed  eight  hundred  pounds  and 
reached  four  feet  in  length,  or  somewhat  less  than  half 
the  length  of  the  "bone"  in  an  adult  right  whale.  There 
were  no  fewer  than  three  hundred  plates  on  each  side. 
He  gave  one  hundred  and  ten  barrels  of  oil.  So  large  is  the 
mouth  of  a  sulphur-bottom  that  a  boat  can  row  into  it. 


THE  OCEAN  MAMMALS  355 

The  jaw-bone  may  be  sixteen  to  eighteen  feet  long.  It  took 
four  of  us  a  whole  afternoon,  with  axes  and  swords  mounted 
on  pike  handles,  to  cut  out  one  bone  and  carry  it  to  our 
steamer.  One  had  to  walk  almost  in  the  footsteps  of  Jonah 
to  get  at  the  articulation,  so  far  back  is  it  in  the  body. 
Yet  the  gullet  of  this  whale,  where  full-grown,  is  only  a  few 
inches  in  diameter.  In  reality,  his  mouth  is  a  vast  trap 
for  food,  the  more  of  which  is  caught  the  larger  the  mouth  is 
developed.  Their  food  is  very  simple,  being  almost  entirely 
small  crustaceans  of  the  shrimp  variety  which  they  sieve 
out  of  the  deep  water  as  they  swim  along.  Occasionally 
they  swallow  a  caplin  or  herring,  which  gets  in  the  way. 
No  whale  is  ever  killed  in  a  starved  condition,  not  even  a 
blind  one,  of  which  several  have  been  captured. 

The  finback  is  the  commonest  whale  on  the  coast.  He 
runs  only  to  about  sixty-five  feet  in  length,  and  in  proportion 
gives  less  oil  than  the  sulphur-bottom.  The  humpback  is, 
at  times,  scarcely  worth  catching,  giving  very  little  oil. 
He  may  be  seventy  to  seventy-five  feet  long,  and  has  bone 
up  to  three  feet  in  length.  When  freshly  killed,  the  young 
humpback  affords  excellent  food  for  man.  Indeed,  were 
it  not  for  the  prejudice  against  them,  these  " mountains  of 
meat"  would  be  considered  a  most  Desirable  food-supply. 
A  few  of  us  on  the  coast  have  used  it,  fresh,  salted,  and 
tinned.  It  is  too  hard  in  salt,  but,  tinned,  is  really  good 
meat,  with  not  enough  characteristic  qualities  for  the  or- 
dinary man  to  tell  it  from  tinned  beef.  The  tinning,  as  an 
industry,  seems  to  be  abandoned,  but  in  a  country  where 
vegetables  are  absent,  cattle  impossible,  and  our  wild  meat 
supplies  diminishing  with  the  years,  the  immense  amount 
of  nourishing  material  would  seem  a  most  desirable  ad- 


356  LABRADOR 

junct  to  the  diet  of  all.  The  poor  people  especially  welcome 
this  meat,  for  it  is  scarcely  more  expensive  than  the  can  it 
is  put  into.  Preserved  frozen  for  winter,  whalefish  would 
help  to  prevent  the  scurvy,  which  often  affects  the  people 
in  spring  after  the  long  winter  of  isolation. 

The  white  whale  is  a  slender,  graceful  animal  about 
twenty  feet  long.  His  skin  forms  excellent  leather,  called 
" porpoise  hide";  it  is  very  impervious  to  water.  The 
adult  is  as  big  as  two  dozen  calves.  He  weighs  about 
twenty-five  hundred  pounds,  and  gives  one  hundred  gallons 
of  oil.  These  whales  were  very  common  in  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence,  and  are  still  found  there.  They  play  in  schools, 
jumping  out  of  the  water,  enjoying  life  much  like  porpoises. 
They  have  been  caught  in  cod-trap  nets,  getting  tangled 
up  in  the  twine,  and  in  1907  some  sixty  were  caught  in  the 
big  seal-nets  set  at  Cape  Chidley  by  the  Moravian  mis- 
sionaries. They  are  voracious  beasts,  eating  alive  almost 
every  kind  of  fish  in  the  sea.  They  even  kill  and  eat  our 
seals.  But  the  white  whale  is  paid  back  in  his  own  coin  by 
the  much  more  powerful  threshers,  who  are  very  partial 
to  his  flesh. 

The  thresher,  or  killer  whale  (Orca  gladiator) ,  is  himself 
only  twenty  feet  in  length,  but  he  is  the  fiercest  of  all  our 
sea  animals,  and  is  a  perfect  buccaneer  and  pirate.  He  has 
a  back  fin  about  six  feet  long  which  reveals  his  presence  as 
he  swims  along  near  the  surface.  With  it  he  is  said  by 
some  to  beat  his  prey.  Many  are  the  battles  that  have  been 
described  between  this  beast  and  his  larger  kindred. 
Captain  Atwood  tells  of  three  attacking  an  enormous  cow 
sperm  whale  and  her  huge  offspring  in  shallow  water.  They 
killed  the  calf  and  drove  off  the  mother,  badly  wounded, 
after  which  they  came  back  and  ate  the  baby. 


THE  OCEAN  MAMMALS  357 

The  grampus,  thirty  feet  long,  and  the  porpoises,  or 
herring  hogs  (eight  to  ten  feet  long),  are  allowed  to  pursue 
their  way  untroubled  by  the  fishermen.  Both  animals 
have  large  teeth,  and  consume  large  quantities  of  fish.  The 
teeth  interlock  so  that  their  slippery,  scaly  prey  cannot 
escape.  The  fish  often  run  into  nets  and  shallows  to  escape 
them.  Porpoise  and  grampus  are  not  only  hard  to  catch, 
but  are  of  very  little  value  when  taken.  Like  all  the  larger 
whales,  they  are  mammals,  and  suckle  their  young  swimming 
along  on  their  side.  The  nipple  is  retractile,  and  may  be 
drawn  back  into  a  slit  or  fold  in  the  breast,  so  that  it  is 
scarcely  visible  as  the  animal  lies  on  deck.  Having  shot 
a  suckling  mother  on  one  occasion,  we  tried  the  milk.  It 
was  very  rich,  and  had  a  somewhat  fishy  taste.  Porpoise 
meat  is  exceedingly  good  for  eating. 

The  sperm  whale,  or  cachalot,  is  not  now  a  denizen  of  our 
coast,  where,  however,  he  makes  occasional  visits.  In 
1892  a  monster,  some  eighty  feet  long,  ran  into  the  rocks 
near  Battle  Harbour,  and,  I  presume,  finding  them  hard  as 
his  own  adamantine  skull,  got  somewhat  confused;  for 
he  continued  to  battle  with  the  rocks  till  he  stranded  and 
perished.  He  was  towed  into  the  harbour  and  flensed  in 
an  amateur  way.  The  head  was  one-third  as  long  as  his 
body.  The  head  contained  two  large  tanks,  called  the  case, 
and  out  of  this  the  oil  was  pumped.  One  hundred  and  forty 
gallons  were  taken.  The  oil  helps  to  float  the  huge  jaw- 
bones. The  lower  jaw  had  fifty  large,  conical  teeth  of 
solid  ivory,  several  inches  apart.  The  teeth  of  the  cachalot 
were  at  one  time  almost  venerated  in  Fiji  and  other  sea 
islands,  and  disastrous  wars  and  many  murders  have  re- 
sulted from  disputes  as  to  their  possession.  The  food  of 


358  LABRADOR 

the  sperm  is  fish,  and  any  flesh  it  can  catch,  especially 
large  cephalopods.  It  is  said  that  out  of  the  stomach  of 
one  cachalot,  thirteen  porpoises  and  fourteen  seals  were  cut. 

The  usual  food  of  the  whale  is  the  octopus,  or  giant  squid, 
which  flourishes  in  deep  water  off  the  Labrador.  An  octopus 
arm  no  less  than  twenty-seven  leet  long  was  reported  as 
taken  from  the  mouth  of  a  captured  cachalot.  Even  the 
white  whale  falls  victim  to  this  most  masterful  animal 
in  the  sea.  The  sperm  whales  travel  in  schools,  the  boys 
and  girls  in  separate  companies,  and  each  in  charge  of  one 
or  two  old  folk.  The  big  bulls  maintain  an  absolute  pro- 
prietary right  to  the  harem  until  deposed  by  some  able 
and  aspiring  youngster. 

The  narwhale,  like  all  the  others,  is  retiring  steadily 
before  the  advent  of  the  white  man,  and  is  now  seldom 
taken  on  our  shores,  though  in  the  north  it  is  still  occa- 
sionally killed.  Its  front  left  canine  tooth  grows  directly 
forward  out  of  its  mouth,  and  is  twisted  round  and  round 
itself  or  its  fellow-tooth,  making  a  solid  ivory  tusk  ten  feet 
long.  The  fish  itself  is  only  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  long.  It 
is  said  to  use  the  tusk  for  digging  food,  such  as  shell-fish, 
from  the  mud. 

There  are  now  two  whale  factories  in  Labrador.  One 
at  L'Anse  au  Loup  was  closed  for  want  of  whales.  One 
situated  at  Cape  Charles  has  been  running  for  four  years. 
Another  at  Hawke's  Harbour,  forty  miles  to  the  north  of 
the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle,  has  run  for  two  years,  and  kills 
most  fish.  The  whales  apparently  come  from  the  north- 
ward during  the  season. 

Hunting  the  whales  is  certainly  a  most  exciting  industry, 
and  I  can  imagine  no  more  thrilling  moment  than  when  the 


THE  OCEAN  MAMMALS  359 

big  fish  rises  for  the  last  time  right  under  the  bow,  and  the 
harpooner  makes  his  shot.  The  small,  fast  steamers,  with 
the  harpoon  gun  mounted  on  a  swivel  on  the  fore  poop 
deck,  are  still  handled  by  Norwegians  trained  to  the  work. 
In  rough  and  fine  weather  one  sees  them  darting  here  and 
there  and  everywhere.  The  first  puzzle  to  the  visitor  is 
as  to  how  these  tiny  craft  ever  managed  to  steam  across 
the  great  Atlantic.  Two  at  least  have  been  lost,  —  one  on 
a  reef ;  one  disappeared  on  the  passage.  They  steam  about 
fifteen  knots  per  hour,  which  is  far  faster  than  any  whale 
swims,  unless  he  is  badly  frightened.  As  the  monster, 
which  is  as  large  as  the  steamer,  blows  alongside,  and 
one  holds  one's  breath  involuntarily,  the  harpooner  quite 
silently  indicates  with  one  hand  to  the  helmsman  which 
way  to  put  the  helm,  keeping  his  other  hand  on  the  gun- 
stock.  Then  there  is  a  commotion  right  ahead,  a  sensation 
as  if  the  vessel  were  running  to  destruction  on  a  huge  rock, 
a  bang,  and  then,  —  nothing  but  the  whirr  of  the  line 
as  it  flies  out  through  the  pulleys.  It  is  indeed  a  trying 
time.  Either  there  is  $1500  on  the  end  of  the  line  or, 
perhaps,  another  tedious  and  fruitless  search  for  days  or 
weeks.  No  wonder  that  on  one  occasion  when  I  witnessed 
what  scarcely  ever  happens,  a  real  old  expert  harpooner 
make  a  clean  miss,  his  language  burst  as  if  from  a  safety- 
valve,  and  was  "frequent  and  painful  and  free."  By  a 
careful  and  merciful  arrangement,  when  the  harpoon  goes 
home,  the  start  of  the  whale  pulls  a  trigger  which  is  one  of 
the  flukes  of  the  barbed  iron.  This  fires  an  explosive  charge 
in  the  fish,  and  will  more  often  than  not  kill  him  immediately. 
If,  however,  the  harpoon  strikes  him  in  the  tail,  or  again, 
if  it  goes  through  a  thin  portion  and  does  not  explode,  there 


360  LABRADOR 

is  likely  to  be  trouble.  With  the  powerful  engine  going 
full  speed  astern,  the  whale  will  tow  the  steamer  ahead, 
they  say,  at  several  knots  an  hour.  It  seems  never  to 
face  the  enemy  voluntarily ;  and  though  one,  after  sounding, 
came  up  through  the  engine-room  floor  and  sank  the  vessel, 
it  probably  did  so  by  chance  in  its  dying  agony  or  "  flurry." 
A  sunken  whale  can  only  be  raised  by  steam  power,  and 
once  it  is  dead,  it  will  otherwise  remain  down  till  putre- 
faction sets  in.  Then  after  eight  or  nine  days  the  retained 
gases  bring  it  to  the  surface.  In  Iceland  where  the  fishery, 
after  fifty  years'  prosecution,  has  destroyed  the  supply  of 
inshore  whales,  a  sunk  whale  is  sometimes  buoyed  and  left 
for  another  steamer  to  haul  home.  But  the  smell  is  then 
so  dreadful,  and  the  oil  so  brown  and  so  inferior  in  value, 
that  this  delay  in  cutting  up  is  avoided  as  often  as  possible. 
Here  on  the  Labrador  the  dying  whale  is  hauled  alongside 
and  given  the  coup  de  grace  with  a  long  lance,  or  possibly 
a  second  bomb  may  be  fired  into  him.  A  long,  hollow  rod 
is  then  driven  in,  a  force-pump  is  attached,  and  the  great 
leviathan  is  inflated  like  a  foot-ball.  His  tail  is  now  triced 
up  to  the  rigging,  the  flukes,  as  a  rule,  being  cut  off  for 
convenience.  Thus  he  is  carried  in  triumph  home  to  the 
factory,  or  anchored  off  while  another  victim  is  sought  for. 
Till  late  years  the  carcass  was  a  waste  product  and  was 
allowed  to  float  away  or  rot  in  the  neighbouring  coves. 
There  it  fouled  the  air  and  water  and  made  the  very  rocks 
greasy  and  offensive.  Now  with  the  excellent  machinery 
the  meat  is  cut  up  and  treated  with  heat  and  acid.  Almost 
one-third  as  much  good  oil  is  thus  extracted  as  is  pumped 
from  the  "case"  in  the  head.  .  The  flesh  is  then  passed 
along  from  the  vats  to  be  dry  heated  with  the  crushed 


THE  OCEAN  MAMMALS  361 

bones,  and  converted  into  a  valuable  fertilizer,  which  is 
put  into  sacks  for  exportation.  Little  or  nothing  of  the 
carcass  is  wasted;  the  blood  itself  goes  into  fertilizer. 

Even  during  the  few  years  the  industry  has  been  prose- 
cuted, it  would  seem  as  if  the  whales  had  decreased  in 
number. 

In  1904  two  companies  fished  and  killed  153  whales, 
valued  at  $73,440. 

In  1905  three  companies  fished  and  killed  149  whales, 
valued  at  $42,318. 

In  1906  two  companies  fished  and  killed  85  whales. 

In  1907  two  companies  fished  and  killed  94  whales. 

Of  the  149  whales  killed  in  1905  there  were  five  sulphur- 
bottoms,  101  finbacks,  43  humpbacks.  A  fall  in  the  price 
of  oil  and  the  inferior  quality  of  the  catch  accounted  for 
the  great  drop  in  value  from  the  previous  year. 

If  codfish  and  salmon  are  essential  to  the  white  inhabitants, 
seals  and  walrus  are  none  the  less  the  mainstay  of  the 
aboriginal  coast  dwellers  —  the  Eskimo.  Alas  for  these 
people,  the  increasingly  vigorous  prosecution  of  the  seal- 
fishery  from  Newfoundland  with  larger  and  larger  steamers 
has  already  begun  to  tell  on  the  numbers  of  the  seals,  and 
especially  on  the  commonest  and  most  valued,  the  harp 
seal  (Phoca  Grcenlandica) .  The  Eskimo  of  Labrador  are 
slowly  being  driven  back  and  dying  out  before  the  tide  of 
white  population,  and  there  can  be  no  question  that  im- 
proved rifles,  improved  seal-nets,  and  the  steam  sealers 
have  been  potent  factors  in  their  downfall.1  No  one 

1  Fortunately  one  of  the  Eskimo's  favourite  seals,  the  "netsek," 
does  not  come  south  at  all,  but  whelps  in  holes  excavated  by  it  in  the 
solid  body  of  the  great  ice  pans. 


362  LABRADOR 

more  clearly  recognizes  this  or  more  deeply  deplores  it 
than  one  of  the  best  authorities,  Dr.  Fridjof  Nansen.  The 
hood-seal  fishery  of  East  Greenland,  once  a  great  in- 
dustry, has  long  ago  ceased  to  exist.  It  began  in  1761, 
and  by  1884  it  was  already  failing,  yet  only  one  million 
seals  had  been  killed.  Every  year  the  white  communities 
in  Labrador  are  finding  it  less  worth  while  to  prosecute  the 
seal-fishery.  And  now  the  land  being  also  denuded  of  its 
once  plentiful  game,  many  settlements  have  disappeared. 
In  1795  it  was  considered  a  poor  seal  year  when  eleven  hun- 
dred were  killed  at  Battle  Harbour ;  one  hundred  and  fifty 
seals  would  be  a  good  year's  catch  there  now.  Professor 
Hornaday  of  New  York  declares  that  "  every  large  terres- 
trial mammal  species  is  being  killed  off  faster  than  it 
breeds."  The  same  may  be  said  of  most  of  the  aquatic 
mammals. 

I  am  safe  in  saying  that  along  the  whole  coast  of  Labrador 
not  more  than  fifty  walrus  are  now  killed  in  the  year.  One 
was  killed  near  Cape  Mekattina  in  the  Gulf,  last  year  (1908). 
I  have  not  heard  of  any  other  having  been  seen  in  the  Gulf 
during  the  sixteen  years  I  have  known  it.  Most  are  killed 
by  the  Eskimo  at  Okkak,  Hebron,  and  Ramah.  They  are 
more  numerous  around  Cape  Chidley,  but  there  are  fewer 
people  there  to  kill  them.  Great  herds  were  said  to  have 
once  existed  on  the  Magdalene  Islands.  In  1641  a  vessel 
hunting ''as  far  south  as  Sable  Island  secured  as  many  as 
four  hundred  pair  of  walrus  tusks.  In  1750  they  were  very 
plentiful  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  Yet  in  1841  so  rare 
had  they  become,  one  was  reported  killed  "as  far  south 
as  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence."  It  may  be  noted  that  the 
walrus  are  not  migratory  in  habit.  Even  in  the  polar 


THE  OCEAN  MAMMALS  363 

seas  it  would  seem  they  are  getting  scarcer,  and  the  huge 
herds  once  so  common  are  now  seldom  seen.  The  ex- 
tinction of  the  walrus  in  Hudson  Bay  will  mean  death  to 
many  of  the  only  class  of  human  beings  able  to  flourish 
in  that  environment.  Nevertheless,  the  increasingly  fatal 
weapons  of  modern  civilization  are  being  directed  against 
the  walrus  for  the  paltry  return  they  give  the  white  man 
or  for  "pure  sport." 

Surely  the  time  has  come  to  extend  some  protection  to 
the  northern  people  by  preserving  almost  their  sole  food- 
supply.  Professor  Henry  Elliot  describes  the  absolute 
destitution  of  two  villages  of  three  hundred  Eskimo,  whom 
he  knew  personally  and  regarded  as  a  superior  race  of 
Eskimo;  their  starvation,  in  this  case,  resulted  from  the 
fact  that  a  special  movement  of  the  ice  that  year  deprived 
them  of  walrus.  A.  P.  Low  records  the  death  of  every 
single  soul  in  a  Hudson  Bay  community  from  starvation 
because  the  whalers  had  supplied  modern  weapons  to  neigh- 
bouring Eskimo,  who  were  then  employed  in  destroying  the 
only  walrus  (for  export  of  the  skins)  available  to  the  fated 
settlement.  Were  it  in  my  power,  I  would  most  certainly 
close  for  " civilized"  walrus  hunting  all  the  water  to  the 
west  of  Labrador  and  Baffin's  Bay,  and  thus  prevent  the 
intentional  or  the  unintentional  robbing  of  another  people's 
means  of  existence. 

After  all,  the  walrus  catch  is  of  no  great  value  to  the 
white  man.  The  dense  skin  from  a  half  inch  to  three  inches 
in  thickness  is  useful  only  for  a  few  special  purposes.  The 
ivory  of  the  tusks  keeps  its  colour  well,  but  is  very  faulty, 
and  not  large  enough  for  the  manufacture  of  billiard  balls. 
It  is  of  comparatively  little  value.  I  once  bought  from  a 


364  LABRADOR 

trader  here  a  whole  boxful  of  tusks  at  thirty  cents  a  pound. 
The  largest  tusks  I  have  had  from  a  Labrador  walrus 
weighed,  when  cleaned  and  dried,  six  and  one-quarter 
pounds.  Possibly  a  very  extraordinary  pair  might  weigh 
ten  pounds. 

The  old  male  walrus  would  scale  twenty-five  hundred 
pounds,  be  about  fifteen  feet  long,  and  has  measured  as 
much  around  the  waist.  They  are  clumsy,  lethargic  beasts, 
gregarious  and  monogamous.  They  are  slow  in  the  water, 
and  dead  slow  on  the  land,  advancing  by  hauling  painfully 
along  by  their  fore  flippers,  or  if  hurrying  into  the  water 
"  rolling  over  anyhow."  Amusing  accounts  have  been 
written  as  to  how  they  wait  for  succeeding  waves  to  heave 
them  out  on  sandy  beaches,  rather  than  scramble  up  them- 
selves ;  when  thousands  are  together,  the  last  comers  lie  on 
top  of  the  earlier  arrivals,  simply  because  they  are  too 
apathetic  to  move  on.  They  appear  to  have  a  fair  sense 
of  smell,  but  not  to  rely  on  sight  or  sound  for  protection 
from  their  enemies,  among  whom  is  the  polar  bear. 

Professor  Elliot  describes  how  he  watched  a  herd  basking 
on 'an  Alaskan  beach,  and  before  one  dodged  off  to  sleep, 
it  poked  the  next  one  and  woke  it  up.  This  grape-vine 
telegraph  seemed  to  be  for  the  purpose  of  having  one  always 
somewhat  on  the  alert.  They  are  shy  and  harmless, 
digging  up  clams  with  their  tusks  for  food,  and  also  browsing 
on  some*  of  the  seaweeds.  They  have  been  known  to  attack 
a  kayak,  or  boat,  but  only  when  wounded  or  when  defending 
their  young.  They  use  their  tusks  for  helping  themselves 
out  on  an  ice  edge. 

Though  to  Europeans  of  so  little  value,  to  an  Eskimo 
the  walrus  may  mean  everything,  —  meat,  clothing,  light, 


THE  OCEAN   MAMMALS  365 

housing,  boats,  weapons,  nets  (from  plaited  bowel) ;  every- 
thing necessary  can  be  got  from  a  good  walrus.  However, 
the  skin  of  the  ring  seal  or  the  bay  seal  is  the  Eskimo's 
usual  clothing.  Only  the  blown  and  dried  gut,  which  is 
sewn  with  sinew  and  makes  an  excellent  oilskin  jumper, 
and  is  mostly  used  in  kayaking,  is  obtained  from  the  walrus. 

The  meat  is  black,  and  to  us  offensive.  We  were  walking 
along  the  beach  one  day,  and,  while  crossing  a  pebbly  ridge, 
felt  it  move  up  and  down  as  if  it  were  on  soft  rubber.  We 
moved  a  few  top  layers  of  stones,  and  found  an  immense 
cache  of  raw  walrus  meat  left  against  next  winter.  An- 
other cache  we  saw  barred  into  the  end  of  a  sea-worn  cave. 
This  was,  however,  so  odoriferous,  we  could  only  suppose 
it  was  in  reserve  for  the  dogs.  A  sick  Eskimo  boy  that  we 
had  for  twelve  months  as  a  patient  would  at  first  eat  no 
"kablenak"  food.  We  had  to  keep  a  supply  of  dried 
walrus  meat  that  looked  like  tarred  leather.  This  he  would 
tear  in  strips  with  his  teeth  and  eat  raw,  somewhat  as  men 
chew  plug  tobacco.  The  tusks  are  the  greatest  prize,  how- 
ever, for  on  these  the  Eskimo  depend  for  their  harpoon  tops, 
the  bone  being  heavy  and  curved  exactly  as  they  like  it. 
We  brought  out  one  year  a  few  iron  harpoon  tops  for  some 
northern  friends.  But  I  found  they  did  not  use  them, 
greatly  preferring  the  native  tusk  tops.  These  are  most 
skilfully  made ;  they  are  purposely  divided  into  three  pieces 
so  that  when  the  harpooned  walrus  puts  a  heavy  strain  on 
the  line,  the  pieces  come  apart,  leaving  the  barbed  head 
inside  the  animal.  Thus  the  weapon  itself  does  not 
break. 

The  harp  seal  (Phoca  Grcenlandica)  is  far  the  most  abun- 
dant seal  on  the  Labrador.  In  the  late  autumn  he  comes 


366  LABRADOR 

south  from  Melville  Sound  and  from  even  more  northern 
waters  during  November  to  February;  at  this  season  the 
East  Coast  men  set  gill-nets  for  them.  About  the  first 
of  March  they  bring  forth  their  young  on  the  ice-floes  off 
the  coast,  and  also  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  as  far  as  the 
Magdalene  Islands,  and  even  Nova  Scotia.  For  this  they 
herd  together  in  tens  of  thousands  on  the  floating  ice, 
which  under  ordinary  circumstances  should  afford  them 
safety.  But  at  this  time  when  they  are  absolutely  unable 
to  escape,  the  Newfoundlanders  hunt  them  in  large  steamers, 
and  kill  immense  numbers  of  the  babies  by  clubbing  them. 
From  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  to  five  hundred 
thousand  is  the  average  number  thus  destroyed  annually. 
The  babies  are  quite  white,  called  "  white-coats,"  and  are 
almost  all  born  on  the  same  day,  and  also  take  to  the  water 
on  the  same  day,  three  weeks  later.  The  baby  fur  comes 
off  at  this  time.  He  is  then  called  a  "  ragged-coat."  The 
fur  of  still-born  babes  does  not  come  off,  and  the  skins  are 
therefore  more  valuable  and  are  called  "cats." 

During  these  (generally  three)  weeks,  the  ice  has  been 
drifting  rapidly  to  the  south.  The  mother  seal  has  kept 
a  blow-hole  open  up  through  the  ice  near  where  she  left 
the  baby,  and  through  this  she  has  been  away  fishing 
every  day.  She  gives  such  rich  milk  that  her  offspring 
can  be  almost  seen  to  grow.  They  are  so  fat  that  I  have 
seen  them  looking,  in  their  ice  cradles,  like  bladders  full  of 
lard,  as  they  lay  on  their  backs  in  the  hot  sun,  fanning 
themselves  with  their  flippers.  The  mother  at  last  forces 
the  pup  to  take  to  the  water,  and  a  mysterious  instinct  at 
once  teaches  him  to  "go  north,  young  man."  This  he  does 
in  leisurely  fashion,  and  by  the  end  of  May  these  "beating 


THE  OCEAN  MAMMALS  367 

seals/'  as  they  are  called,  have  mostly  passed  along  the 
Labrador  coast. 

When  these  poor  creatures  are  killed,  the  waste  is  terrible. 
I  have  seen  three  or  four  thousand  bodies  of  young  seals, 
freshly  stripped  of  their  furry  jackets,  left  to  rot,  or  be  a 
prey  for  sharks,  as  the  case  may  be.  The  sealing  industry 
is  a  very  popular  one,  however,  in  Newfoundland.  The 
sealing  masters  are  the  great  men  of  the  fishery,  and  there 
can  be  no  question  that  from  the  sealer's  point  of  view, 
the  adventure,  the  call  for  pluck  and  hardihood,  and  the 
gamble  of  it,  beyond  the  few  dollars  each  man  may  make, 
are  great  attractions.  It  is  not  true,  so  far  as  I  have  seen, 
that  brutalities,  such  as  flaying  alive,  are  ever  practised. 
Nor  can  any  one,  knowing  the  men  as  intimately  as  I 
do,  ever  believe  them  capable  of  any  such  abominable 
atrocities. 

The  " beater  seal"  returns  as  a  "bedlamer"  with  his 
fellow-beaters  left  from  the  previous  year,  when  the  old 
seals  come  south  next  winter.  He  plays  about  among  the 
floes,  and  returns  again  north  in  the  spring,  to  come  back 
a  " young  harp"  the  third  winter,  ready  to  do  his  share  in 
maintaining  the  race.  Often,  however,  he  does  not  breed 
till  the  fourth  year,  when  he  assumes  the  dignity  and  name 
of  an  "  old  harp."  The  saddle,  or  harp,  is  a  large,  bilateral, 
black,  wing-shaped  patch  across  his  back  showing  well  on 
the  lighter,  drab-coloured  skin  of  the  rest  of  his  body. 

Even  when  the  dangers  of  the  ice-floes  are  over,  where 
many  old  seals,  as  well  as  the  young,  are  slaughtered,  the 
harp  is  still  not  safe  on  his  northern  journey.  In  May  and 
June,  along  the  shores  of  Labrador  huge  frame  nets  are  put 
out  from  a  capstan  on  the  land.  The  great  room  of  net 


368  LABRADOR 

has  a  doorway  which,  once  the  seals  have  entered  the  room, 
is  raised  by  winding  up  the  capstan  on  the  land.  As  the 
seals  trim  the  shores,  and  even  follow  round  the  bays  on 
their  long  journey,  many  are  caught  in  this  way.  I  have 
known  one  settler's  family  to  take  nine  hundred  seals,  while 
three  hundred  to  four  hundred  forms  a  catch  by  no  means 
unusual.  Not  nearly  so  many  seals,  however,  are  taken 
nowadays,  spring  or  autumn,  and  one  can  see  many  aban- 
doned capstans  standing  on  rocky  points.  At  one  little 
Labrador  settlement  a  trapper  of  the  name  of  Jones  be- 
came so  rich  through  regular  large  catches  of  seals  that  he 
actually  had  a  carriage  and  horses  sent  from  Quebec,  and 
a  road  made  to  drive  them  on;  while  he  had  a  private 
musician  hired  from  Canada  for  the  whole  winter  to  per- 
form at  his  continuous  f eastings.  I  was  called  on  awhile 
ago  to  help  to  supply  clothing  to  cover  the  nakedness  of  this 
man's  grandchildren. 

Yet  another  mode  of  welcome  the  poor  harp  gets  from 
southerners,  when  it  leaves  its  northern  home  to  visit  us. 
That  is  given  with  buck-shot  and  musket,  ball  and  rifle. 
The  process  is  called  swatching,  and  is  carried  on  by  two 
men  in  a  light  rodney,  or  punt,  which  is  sometimes  provided 
with  runners.  The  seals  are  bound  to  rise  in  the  "  ponds, " 
or  fissures,  between  the  great  pans  of  the  Arctic  floe,  to  take 
breath.  The  plan  is  to  "get  by  a  likely  lead  of  water," 
builds  "gaze, "  or  shelter,  out  of  ice  blocks,  and  "bide  your 
time."  You  must  be  absolutely  alert  to  get  any  seals.  I 
have  myself  chosen  a  small  lead  and  watched,  lying  down 
with  rifle  ready  loaded,  cocked,  and  pointed,  and  yet  many 
times  a  great  harp  has  noiselessly  put  up  his  head  and 
shoulders  and  gone  down,  leaving  only  a  ripple  on  the  sur- 


I 


31 


THE  OCEAN  MAMMALS  369 

face,  before  I  could  draw  a  bead  on  him.  Then  for  a  short 
time  he  floats  at  this  time  of  the  year,  and  you  must  rush  off 
your  boat,  or  throw  your  many-hooked  jigger  over  him,  and 
haul  him  quickly  up  on  to  the  ice,  if  you  are  strong  enough 
to  do  so. 

If  the  seals  are  basking  on  the  ice  as  the  boat  approaches, 
the  men  shout  and  wave,  and  even  fire  under  the  seal,  which 
seems  to  so  frighten  him  that  he  remains  staring  into  space, 
till  they  land  and  club  him  with  the  rifle.  As  the  slain 
animal  does  not  move,  the  others  think  there  can  be  no 
danger,  and  will  at  times  allow  a  man  to  land  and  shoot 
or  club  them  every  one. 

Our  next  most  important  seal  is  the  bay  seal.  He  is  a 
small  seal,  weighing  only  about  one  hundred  pounds  and 
looking  rather  dingy  in  a  drab  coat  with  faded  black  mark- 
ings. Nor  are  they  very  numerous,  never  being  seen  in 
herds.  Yet  they  will  probably  outlast  all  the  others,  being 
the  most  adaptable  to  their  varied  environment.  They  are 
found  in  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic,  in  Europe,  Asia,  and 
America,  and  in  the  south  seas.  They  can  bear  heat  or 
cold.  I  have  shot  them  when  driving  my  komatik  over 
a  frozen  arm  of  the  sea,  tolling  them  into  range  by  lying 
flat  down  and  waving  my  feet  to  represent  a  seal ;  I  have 
also  secured  them  in  the  hot  summer  when  the  mosquitoes 
and  the  heat  have  made  the  period  of  waiting  almost  un- 
bearable. Bay  seals  are  equally  at  home  in  salt  water  or 
fresh.  Some  of  our  rivers  are  almost  ruined  for  ordinary 
fishing  by  the  number  of  bay  seals  that  infest  their  pools. 
This  "  robber  of  the  river,"  to  use  the  name  of  the 
salmon  fisherman,  is  there  shown  no  mercy  by  the  fisher- 
men, and  cannot  possibly  escape.  -The  seals  will  watch 

2B 


370  LABRADOR 

the  salmon  nets  so  carefully,  and  eat  the  struggling  cap- 
tives  so  rapidly,  that  there  is  little  wonder  most  fisher- 
men are  "agin  them.77  I  have  known  a  seal  haunt  a  net 
so  persistently  that  to  get  any  fish  the  owner  had  to  watch 
all  the  while  at  one  end  of  it,  and  even  then  the  seal  was 
so  "well  adapted  to  his  environment77  that  he  would  almost 
snap  off  the  fisherman's  hand  as  he  raced  to  be  first  to  dis- 
entangle the  salmon.  The  bay  seals  are  captured  by  our 
people  in  nets  anchored  to  the  bottom.  When  diving,  the 
seals  become  "meshed77  and  are  soon  drowned,  as  they 
cannot  rise  to  breathe. 

The  seals  can  travel  a  considerable  distance  over  land 
and  can  remain  for  long  periods  out  of  water.  The  harbour 
seal  (Phoca  vitulina)  breeds  and  lives  in  Seal  Lake,  one 
hundred  miles  inland  from  Richmond  Gulf  and  eight 
hundred  feet  above  the  sea.  In  winter  this  seal  leaves  for 
islands  in  the  open  where  the  sea  does  not  freeze.  The  bay 
seals  of  the  coast  breed  on  the  land  in  caves,  rocks,  or  beaches. 
I  have  seen  them  many  times  with  their  young.  When 
the  baby  is  born,  he  is  a  dusky  white,  but  he  soon  assumes 
a  most  beautiful  silvery  coat  mottled  with  black,  which 
he  wears  for  a  year.  During  this  time  he  is  called  a 
"ranger/7  and  his  skin  makes  the  most  attractive  clothing, 
sleeping-bags,  pouches,  etc. 

At  three  years  the  ranger  becomes  a  "doter77  and  is 
a  breeding  seal.  The  young  are  born  in  April  and  May 
in  southern  Labrador,  and  later  on  as  one  gets  farther  north. 
The  young  seal  is  able  to  take  to  the  water  at  once.  It  is 
said  that  the  "baby-hair77  is  cast  inside  the  mother  before 
his  birth. 

Clever  as  the  modern  circus  "feature77  shows  seals  to  be, 


THE  OCEAN  MAMMALS  371 

they  are  easily  decoyed  in  the  manner  above  described. 
Once,  however,  the  biter  got  bitten.  For  one  of  our  Eskimo, 
who  had  hidden  himself  in  a  sealskin  bag  and  was  lying  on 
a  favourite  basking  rock  flapping  his  legs,  was  mistaken  for 
a  seal  by  a  passer-by  on  the  shore,  who  promptly  sent  a 
bullet  through  him. 

The  large,  gentle  eye  makes  the  seal's  appearance  ex- 
ceedingly attractive,  and  those  inclined  to  be  sentimental 
have  found  in  him  a  great  scope  for  their  effusions.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  he  eats  his  prey  alive.  He  will  take  a  bit 
out  of  a  fish,  and  leave  the  rest  to  struggle  away  and  die 
slowly.  They  are  fierce  fighters,  and  will  catch  and  eat 
birds  swimming  on  the  surface  of  the  water.  One  was  seen 
devouring  a  salmon  alive.  The  seal  swallowed  him  by 
inches,  swimming  a  mile  while  the  struggle  lasted.  It 
seemed  an  open  question  whether  he  would  succeed  or  not. 
Another  seal  was  seen  to  capture  a  gull  on  the  water,  but 
the  persistent  harrying  he  got  from  the  rest  of  the  birds 
persuaded  him  to  let  the  wounded  victim  go. 

The  ringed  seal,  Phoca  hispida,  so  dearly  loved  of  Green- 
landers,  and  so  prized  by  their  people  for  clothing,  is  rare 
in  Labrador,  only  a  few  specimens  being  taken,  and  those 
in  the  extreme  north. 

Nor  does  the  hooded  (or  hood)  seal  (Cystophora  cristata) 
come  much  to  the  shore.  Indeed,  the  ringed  seal  is  a 
glacial  seal,  and  the  hood  a  pelagic  and  glacial  seal.  The 
hoods  breed  in  the  ice  off  our  shores  in  March,  a  little  later 
than  the  harps,  and  their  baby,  dark  on  the  back,  is  called 
a  "  blue-coat."  The  old  ones  are  slightly  larger  than  the 
harps,  and  the  skin  is  covered  with  black  patches.  The 
strange  bag  on  the  head,  which  is  inflated  from  the  nose, 


372  LABRADOR 

is  probably  only  an  ornament  like  a  crest.  Some  think  it 
is  specially  provided  to  protect  its  nose  from  seal  bats  or 
clubs,  —  of  course  an  impossible  theory,  for  sufficient  time 
has  not  yet  elapsed  for  Nature  to  have  evolved  armour 
against  the  sealers  in  the  ice-field,  any  more  than  she  has 
yet  provided  for  the  ideal  requirements  of  twentieth  century 
foot-ball  man.  The  hood  seal  has  been  so  far  exterminated 
in  its  favourite  resort  between  Greenland  and  Iceland,  that 
the  fishery  has  had  to  be  abandoned. 

This  seal  displays  great  strength,  courage,  and  affection  in 
defending  its  young,  and  I  have  seen  a  whole  family  die 
together  on  a  pan  of  ice  not  twelve  yards  square.  Four 
men  with  wooden  seal  bats  did  the  killing,  but  not  before 
the  male  had  caught  one  club  in  his  mouth  and  cleared  his 
enemies  off  the  pan  by  swinging  it  from  side  to  side.  The 
old  seal,  which  must  have  weighed  fully  two  thousand 
pounds,  was  hoisted  on  board  whole  (or  unsculped),  so  as 
not  to  delay  the  steamer.  He  was  apparently  quite  dead. 
As,  however,  he  came,  over  the  rail,  the  strap  broke,  and 
he  fell  back  into  the  sea.  The  cold  water  must  have  re- 
vived him,  for  I  saw  him  return  to  the  same  pan  of  ice, 
distinguishable  by  the  blood  stains  left  by  the  recent 
battle,  and  now  some  little  distance  astern.  The  edge 
of  the  pan  was  almost  six  feet  above  water,  but  he  leaped 
clear  over  the  edge,  and  landed  almost  in  the  spot  where 
his  family  had  met  their  tragic  fate.  The  men  immediately 
ran  back  and  killed  him  with  bullets.  He  was  this  time 
sculped,  and  so  brought  aboard. 

The  strength  of  the  hood  seal  is  also  well  illustrated  by 
the  fact  that  he  can  descend  for  food  to  a  depth  of  sixty 
or  even  ninety  fathoms.  This  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  a 


THE  OCEAN  MAMMALS  373 

deep-sea  fish  called  "bergylt,"  which  only  lives  between 
those  depths,  has  been  found  in  his  stomach. 

The  last,  and  largest  of  our  seals  is  the  gray  seal  (Hali- 
chcerus  grypus).  We  measured  one  eleven  feet  long,  with 
a  girth  of  eight  feet.  No  doubt,  however,  larger  ones  have 
been  killed.  These  seals  are  practically  devoid  of  hair, 
make  the  best  possible  material  for  covering  kayaks,  and 
for  the  manufacture  of  water-tight  feet  for  boots.  The 
skin  of  the  harp  seal  is  used  for  the  legs  and  for  the  bottoms 
as  well,  when  the  boots  are  to  be  used  in  the  coldest  weather, 
because  this  skin  is  so  much  softer,  and  allows  freer  move- 
ment; but  the  gray  sealskin  is  much  more  resistant  to 
water.  The  gray  seal  is  generally  shot  as  he  plays  along 
the  ice  edges,  but  is  occasionally  meshed  in  sunken  nets. 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE   BIRDS 
BY  CHARLES  WENDELL  TOWNSEND,  M.D. 

FROM  an  ornithological  point  of  view,  Labrador  has  an 
interesting  past  as  well  as  present.  The  great  Audubon 
testified  to  the  wonderful  interest  of  Labrador  to  the  orni- 
thologist, by  visiting  this  country  in  1833.  His  writings 
contain  frequent  reference  to  the  observations  he  made 
at  that  time,  and  he  states  in  his  Labrador  Journal  that  he 
executed  or  partly  executed  seventeen  plates  of  birds  during 
his  brief  sojourn  of  two  months  on  these  shores. 

Since  Audubon's  times  there  have  been  sad  changes  in 
the  bird  life  of  this  country.  Two  species  have  become 
extinct;  namely,  the  great  auk  and  the  Labrador,  or  pied, 
duck.  The  former  bred  in  great  numbers  on  Funk  Island 
off  the  near-by  coast  of  Newfoundland,  but  was  slaughtered 
mercilessly  during  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  and  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  centuries.  Cartwright  de- 
scribes the  capture  of  one  of  these  flightless  birds,  not  far 
from  the  southern  coast  of  Labrador.  He  says,  calling 
the  bird  by  its  common  name  of  "penguin":  "We  were 
about  four  leagues  from  Groais  Island  at  sunset  [Mon- 
day, August  5,  1771]  when  he  saw  a  snow  [sailing-vessel] 
standing  in  for  Croque.  During  a  calm  in  the  afternoon, 
Shuglawina  went  off  in  his  kyack  in  pursuit  of  a  penguin; 

374 


THE  BIRDS  375 

he  presently  came  within  a  proper  distance  of  the  bird, 
and  struck  his  dart  into  it;  but,  as  the  weapon  did  not 
enter  a  mortal  part,  the  penguin  swam  and  dived  so  well, 
that  he  would  have  lost  both  the  bird  and  the  dart,  had  he 
not  driven  it  near  enough  the  vessel  for  me  to  shoot  it." 
The  last  auk  seen  alive  was  in  1852. 

The  Labrador  duck  doubtless  occurred  in  abundance  in 
past  times  along  the  Labrador  coast.  Audubon  was  shown 
nests  supposed  to  belong  to  this  species,  but  he  saw  none 
of  the  birds,  and  there  is  much  doubt  as  to  the  identity  of 
the  nests.  Cartwright  speaks  in  his  Journal  several  times 
of  shooting  pied  ducks,  and  there  are  reasons  to  believe 
that  these  were  Labrador  ducks,  although  the  evidence  is 
of  course  not  absolute.  That  this  duck  is  now  extinct, 
there  seems  no  doubt,  as  none  has  been  seen  or  shot  since 
about  1874. 

Another  bird  which  seems  to  be  going  the  same  way 
towards  extinction,  a  bird  which  has  been  in  times  past 
perhaps  the  most  characteristic  bird  of  Labrador,  is  the 
Eskimo  curlew.  This  bird  visited  the  coast  regions  in 
countless  multitudes  every  autumn  on  its  southward  mi- 
gration. Professor  Packard,  writing  of  the  Eskimo  curlew 
in  1860  in  Labrador,  says :  — 

"On  the  10th  of  August  the  curlews  appeared  in  great 
numbers.  On  that  day  we  saw  a  flock  which  may  have 
been  a  mile  long  and  nearly  as  broad;  there  must  have 
been  in  that  flock  four  or  five  thousand  !  The  sum  total 
of  their  notes  sounded  at  times  like  the  wind  whistling 
through  the  ropes  of  a  thousand-ton  vessel ;  at  others  the 
sound  seemed  like  the  jingling  of  multitudes  of  sleigh- 
bells." 


376  LABRADOR 

The  birds  were  delicious  eating.  They  fattened  almost 
to  bursting  on  the  Empetrum,  or  curlewberry,  so  abundant 
along  the  coast.  The  fishermen  kept  their  guns  loaded, 
and  shot  into  the  great  flocks  as  they  wheeled  by,  bringing 
down  many  a  fat  bird.  About  1888  or  1890  the  curlew 
rapidly  diminished  in  numbers,  and  at  the  present  day 
perhaps  a  dozen  or  two,  or  possibly  none  at  all,  are  seen  in 
a  season. 

The  rocky  islands  which  line  the  Labrador  coast  have 
always  been  favourite  breeding  places  for  various  water- 
birds,  chief  among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  puffin, 
black  guillemot,  the  common  and  Brunnich's  murres, 
razor-billed  auk,  great  black-backed  gull,  glaucous  gull, 
herring  gull,  Arctic  tern,  common  and  double-crested  cor- 
morants, and  American  and  Greenland  eider-ducks.  These 
formerly  bred  abundantly  all  along  the  coast,  and  before 
the  arrival  of  the  white  man  paid  a  comparatively  small  and 
unimportant  tribute  to  the  greed  of  polar  bears,  Eskimos, 
and  Indians.  This  natural  pruning,  as  it  might  be  called, 
had  little  or  no  influence  on  the  numbers  of  the  birds. 
White  men,  however,  with  their  insatiable  greed  and  their 
more  systematic  methods,  have  created  havoc  in  the  ranks 
of  these  interesting  water-fowl.  In  Audubon's  time  the 
vile  business  of  "egging,"  as  it  was  called,  was  at  its  height, 
and  the  horrors  of  the  business  are  graphically  pictured  by 
the  great  ornithologist.  He  describes  a  shallop  with  a  crew 
of  eight  men :  — 

" There  rides  the  filthy  thing!  The  afternoon  is  half 
over.  Her  crew  have  thrown  their  boat  overboard,  they 
enter  and  seat  themselves,  each  with  a  rusty  gun.  One 
of  them  sculls  the  skiff  towards  an  island,  for  a  century 


THE  BIRDS  377 

past  the  breeding  place  of  myriads  of  guillemots,  which 
are  now  to  be  laid  under  contribution.  At  the  ap- 
proach of  the  vile  thieves,  clouds  of  birds  rise  from  the 
rock  and  fill  the  air  around,  wheeling  and  screaming  over 
their  enemies.  Yet  thousands  remain  in  an  erect  posture, 
each  covering  its  single  egg,  the  hope  of  both  parents. 
The  reports  of  several  muskets  loaded  with  heavy  shot  are 
now  heard,  wiiile  several  dead  and  wounded  birds  fall 
heavily  on  the  rock  or  into  the  water.  Instantly  all  the 
sitting  birds  rise  and  fly  off  affrighted  to  their  companions 
above,  and  hover  in  dismay  over  their  assassins,  who  walk 
forward  exultingly,  with  their  shouts  mingling  oaths  and 
execrations.  Look  at  them !  See  how  they  crush  the 
chick  within  its  shell,  how  they  trample  on  every  egg  in 
their  way  with  their  huge  and  clumsy  boots.  Onward 
they  go,  and  when  they  leave  the  isle,  not  an  egg  that  they 
can  find  is  left  entire.  .  .  .  The  light  breeze  enables  them 
to  reach  another  harbour  a  few  miles  distant,  one  which 
like  the  last  lies  concealed  from  the  ocean  by  some  rocky 
isle.  Arrived  there,  they  react  the  scene  of  yesterday, 
crushing  every  egg  they  can  find.  For  a  week  each  night 
is  passed  in  drunkenness  and  brawls,  until,  having  reached 
the  last  breeding  place  on  the  coast,  they  return,  touch  at 
every  isle  in  succession,  shoot  as  many  birds  as  they  need, 
collect  the  fresh  eggs,  and  lay  in  a  cargo." 

The  days  of  commercial  egging  have  long  since  passed 
and  the  laws  against  egging  and  shooting  the  nesting  birds 
are  now  fairly  enforced  in  Canadian  Labrador.  In  New- 
foundland Labrador,  however,  there  seems  to  be  no  pre- 
tence of  bird  or  egg  protection.  The  inhabitants  and  the 
summer  fishermen  appear  to  consider  the  eggs  and  the 
breeding  parents  as  godsends  to  eke  out  their  scanty  larder. 
Knowing  every  rock  on  the  coast  as  these  men  do,  they  can 
easily  keep  in  touch  with  the  birds  and  rob  them  of  their 


378  LABRADOR 

treasures.  When  I  was  in  Labrador  in  the  summer  of  1906, 
the  fishermen  made  no  concealment  of  the  fact  that  they 
took  all  the  eggs  and  killed  all  the  birds  they  could.  They 
often  carried  their  guns  with  them  when  they  visited  their 
fish-traps.  In  the  spring  and  fall  great  numbers  of  migrat- 
ing ducks,  and  even  gulls,  are  shot  as  they  stream  through 
the  narrow  tickles. 

The  Eskimo  dogs  are  not  fed  in  summer,  and,  foraging 
for  themselves,  they  ransack  the  coast  and  undoubtedly 
destroy  many  eggs  and  young,  not  only  of  the  larger  water- 
birds,  but  also  of  other  ground  nesting  birds,  such  as  pipits 
and  horned  larks. 

It  is  sincerely  to  be  hoped  that  the  wonderful  nursery 
for  water-birds  in  Labrador  will  not  be  entirely  depopulated, 
but  that  sufficient  protection  for  the  breeding  birds  will  be 
given,  and  that  speedily,  lest  it  be  soon  too  late. 

Notwithstanding  these  inroads  on  the  birds,  Labrador  is 
still  of  great  interest  to  the  ornithologist,  and  it  may  be 
well  to  take  up  in  turn  some  of  the  characteristic  birds  l 
to  be  found  at  the  present  day  in  the  three  faunal  zones 
into  which  the  Labrador  peninsula  may  be  divided,  — 
the  Arctic  Zone,  the  Hudsonian  Zone,  and  the  Canadian 
Zone. 

The  Arctic  Zone  includes  the  barren  grounds  above  the 
limit  of  tree  growth  on  all  the  larger  hills  and  mountains  in 
the  interior,  the  whole  northern  portion  as  far  south  as 
about  lat.  58°,  and  the  entire  coastal  strip  of  varying 

1  In  a  recent  study  of  the  birds  of  Labrador  by  Dr.  Glover  M. 
Allen  and  myself,  we  have  recorded  two  hundred  and  thirteen  species 
and  subspecies  of  birds  for  the  Labrador  peninsula,  as  shown  in  the 
list  in  the  Appendix. 


THE  BIRDS  379 

width  from  Natashquan  on  the  southern  coast  along  the 
shore  of  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle,  the  entire  eastern  coast, 
and  the  Hudson  Bay  coast  south  to  about  the  region  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Great  Whale  River. 

Two  characteristic  Arctic  birds,  which  the  visitor  along 
the  southern  and  eastern  coast  will  be  most  likely  to  see, 
are  the  American  pipit  and  the  horned  lark.  These  are 
common  everywhere  along  the  coast,  building  their  nests 
in  the  deep  moss  of  the  barren  hills.  Both  birds  are  grace- 
ful walkers  along  the  ground,  and  the  pipit  distinguishes 
itself  by  its  habit  of  constantly  wagging  its  tail  up  and  down. 
Both  birds  are  interesting  singers,  and  both  indulge  in  flight 
songs,  each  in  its  own  peculiar  manner.  The  pipit  suddenly 
springs  up  into  the  air,  mounting  nearly  vertically,  but 
circling  slightly.  Up,  up  it  goes,  singing  repeatedly  a  simple 
refrain,  die  whee,  che  whee,  with  a  vibratory  resonance  on 
the  whee.  Attaining  an  eminence  of  perhaps  two  hundred 
feet,  it  checks  itself  and  at  once  begins  its  descent.  Down 
it  goes,  faster  and  faster,  repeating  its  song  at  the  same 
time  faster  and  faster.  Long  before  it  reaches  the  ground, 
it  sets  its  wings  and  tips  from  side  to  side  to  break  its 
descent.  During  the  performance  it  may  emit  its  refrain 
eighty  times. 

The  horned  lark,  on  the  other  hand,  mounts  silently  into 
the  air  in  irregular  circles,  until  it  becomes  a  mere  speck  in 
the  sky.  Here  it  alternately  flaps  its  wing  and  sails,  emit- 
ting a  jingling,  squeaking,  but  not  unpleasing,  song.  This 
performance  continues  for  several  minutes,  during  which 
the  bird  repeats  its  song  many  times.  Then  the  song  ceases, 
and  the  bird  dives  to  the  earth  as  silently  as  it  rose.  Oc- 
casionally the  song  is  given  from  the  ground.  The  song 


380  LABRADOR 

resembles  in  kind  but  not  in  quality  the  famous  song  of 
the  English  skylark. 

Another  common  bird  in  this  coastal  strip  is  one  that 
is  also  a  dweller  farther  south,  an  inhabitant  of  the  eastern 
United  States ;  namely,  the  savanna  sparrow,  and  strangely 
out  of  place  does  it  seem  here. 

In  the  more  northern  parts  of  the  Arctic  Zone  of  Labrador 
are  to  be  found  the  Lapland  longspur,  the  wheatear,  possibly 
the  white  wagtail,  the  snow-bunting,  snowy  owl,  rock 
ptarmigan,  Reinhardt's  ptarmigan,  the  white,  gray,  and 
black  gyrfalcons,  and  the  American  rough-legged  hawk, 
although  these  four  last-named  birds  may  be  found  even 
on  the  southern  coast. 

The  American  rough-legged  hawk  is  a  splendid  broad- 
winged  bird  almost  black  in  colour.  It  may  sometimes  be 
seen  poised  motionless  for  several  minutes  at  a  time  over 
the  brow  of  a  hill,  sustaining  itself  like  a  kite  by  the  air 
currents.  The  gyrfalcons  have  more  pointed  wings,  and 
the  whiteness  of  the  plumage  of  the  white,  or  Iceland,  species 
makes  it  very  conspicuous  among  the  dark  crags  where 
it  nests. 

The  two  ptarmigans  already  mentioned,  as  well  as  the 
willow  ptarmigan,  which  is  found  in  the  region  of  tree  growth 
of  the  Hudsonian  Zone,  resemble  their  compatriot,  the 
Arctic  hare,  not  only  in  becoming  white  in  winter,  but  also 
in  possessing  shaggy  feet  at  this  season,  —  feet  densely 
tufted  with  hair  in  one  case,  with  feathers  in  the  other. 
This  tufting  probably  acts  in  the  manner  of  snow-shoes 
to  prevent  sinking  into  the  deep  snow,  and  not  merely 
to  keep  the  feet  warm.  The  generic  name  of  the  ptarmigan 
is  Lagopus,  which  means  rabbit-footed.  In  the  same  way 


THE  BIRDS  381 

the  snowy  owl's  feet  are  well  padded  and  tufted  with 
feathers. 

The  change  of  colour  in  the  ptarmigan  from  the  brown 
and  mottled  plumage  of  summer  to  the  snowy  white  of 
winter  is  due  not  to  any  mysterious  change  in  the  feathers 
themselves,  but  to  the  moulting  of  the  brown  feathers  and 
to  their  replacement  by  others  of  a  different  colour.  Both 
plumages  are  wonderfully  protective,  and  it  is  as  difficult 
to  see  the  brown  bird  amid  its  barren  surroundings  in  sum- 
mer as  it  is  to  see  the  white  bird  amid  the  snow  and  ice 
in  winter. 

While  the  coastal  strip  is  under  consideration,  it  will  be 
well  to  speak  of  the  water-birds  that  breed  along  the  shore. 
Of  the  small  wading  birds  one  of  the  most  interesting  is 
the  northern  phalarope,  not  much  larger  than  a  "peep," 
that  bears  the  name  of  "gale  bird"  on  the  Labrador  coast, 
"sea-goose"  on  the  New  England  coast.  It  has  a  habit 
of  riding  the  water  both  of  the  sea  and  of  the  reedy  pools 
like  a  miniature  goose  or  duck.  On  the  shores  of  these 
reedy  pools  along  the  coast,  the  females  lay  the  eggs,  but 
confide  to  the  males,  smaller  and  less  brightly  plumaged 
birds,  the  duties  of  incubation  and  caring  for  the  young, 
while  they  go  gadding  in  companies  off  at  sea.  Least  and 
spotted  sandpipers  and  semipalmated  plover  also  breed 
on  the  Labrador  coast,  but  most  of  this  group  go  farther 
north  to  raise  their  young. 

Of  the  divers,  the  loon  and  red-throated  loon  breed  com- 
monly near  fresh-water  ponds,  and  are  to  be  met  with  in 
considerable  numbers  along  the  coast.  The  black-throated 
loon  is  occasionally  found  in  the  northern  portions. 

The  puffin,  or  parroquet,  as  it  is  universally  called  in 


382  LABRADOR 

Labrador,  breeds  at  favourable  spots  all  along  the  coast,  but 
it  is  to  be  seen  in  greatest  abundance  in  the  Straits  of  Belle 
Isle  near  Bradore.  Here  it  breeds  in  great  numbers  at 
Parroquet  Island,  a  small  island  of  crumbling  red  sand- 
stone in  which  it  burrows  and  lays  its  single  egg.  The 
puffin  is  a  good  bird  to  watch  from  a  steamer,  for  it  allows 
of  close  approach  before  it  attempts  to  get  out  of  the  way. 
After  nervously  dabbing  with  its  bill  at  the  water  a  few 
times,  it  either  dives  or  flies  away.  In  both  cases  it  may 
be  said  to  fly  away,  for  in  diving  it  flops  out  its  wings  as 
it  goes  down,  and  continues  to  use  them  under  water  in 
flight.  Whether  swimming  on  the  surface,  or  in  aerial 
flight,  the  shape  and  appearance  of  puffins  are  characteristic. 
They  are  short  and  apoplectic  in  form,  being  devoid  of 
a  neck.  Their  large  red  bills  and  gray  eye-rings,  which 
suggest  spectacles,  and  the  dark  band  about  the  neck,  give 
them  a  comical  appearance. 

The  black  guillemot,  or  sea  pigeon,  is  perhaps  the  most 
ubiquitous  bird  along  the  coast.  It  breeds  securely  in 
deep  fissures  among  the  rocks.  Its  black  plumage,  relieved 
by  the  large  white  patches  on  its  wings,  makes  it  very  con- 
spicuous. Both  the  common  and  Briinnich's  murres 
breed  along  the  coast,  although  in  sadly  diminished 
ranks  as  compared  with  their  former  abundance.  Each 
species  lays  a  single  egg  on  the  rocky  ledges.  The  egg 
varies  greatly  from  a  delicate  blue  or  bluish  green  to  a 
buffy  white,  and  is  wonderfully  spotted  or  streaked  with 
various  shades  of  brown.  It  is  pyriform  in  shape,  so  that 
it  is  less  liable  to  roll  off  its  precarious  perch. 

The  razor-billed  auk,  or  tinker,  is  also  to  be  found  breed- 
ing on  the  rocky  islands,  except  where  the  greed  of  man  has 


THE  BIRDS  383 

exterminated  it.  Its  broad,  sharp  bill  in  summer  at  once 
distinguishes  it  from  the  murre,  as  well  as  its  habit  of  cock- 
ing up  its  tail  as  it  swims.  In  its  short  neck  it  resembles 
the  puffin,  but  it  is  a  larger  bird,  and  as  it  flies  away,  it  shows 
a  black  line  in  the  middle  of  its  back  between  white  sides, 
while  the  puffin  looks  black  from  the  same  point  of  view. 
The  dovekie,  or  little  auk,  breeds  farther  north,  but  is  found 
along  the  coast  during  the  migrations  and  in  winter. 

Of  the  gull  family  it  is  possible  to  mention  only  a  few 
here.  Perhaps  the  most  beautiful  in  flight  are  the  hunters 
of  the  sea,  the  jaegers,  who  rob  the  other  gulls  and  terns 
of  their  prey.  A  pomarine  jaeger  in  the  black  phase  twist- 
ing and  turning  in  pursuit  of  a  white  kittiwake  is  indeed 
a  beautiful  sight.  The  kittiwakes  breed  on  the  high  cliffs 
of  the  northern  Labrador  coast,  but  may  be  seen  in  great 
flocks  anywhere  along  the  shore.  An  assembly  of  several 
thousand  of  these  beautiful  white  birds  settling  on  the 
water  and  rising  to  whirl  about  like  gusts  of  snow  driven 
by  the  wind,  is  a  wonderful  sight.  Their  cries  suggest  the 
syllables  kittiwake. 

The  great  black-gulled  gull  and  herring  gull  are  such 
familiar  birds  in  winter  farther  south  that  they  need  not 
be  mentioned  here,  but  one  must  not  omit  to  speak  of  the 
glorious  glaucous,  or  burgomaster,  gull.  This  bird,  as  large 
as  a  great  black-backed  gull,  breeds  on  the  eastern  coast 
in  moderate  numbers.  The  purity  of  its  plumage  vies 
with  that  of  the  Arctic  ice  that  often  surrounds  it.  The 
long  feathers  of  the  wings  are  spotless  white,  instead  of 
being  marked  as  in  the  herring  gull.  The  adults  have 
a  gray-blue  mantle  on  the  back,  while  the  immature  birds 
lack  this  mantle  and  are  of  a  universal  whiteness  slightly 
tinged  with  buff. 


LABRADOR 

Among  the  tube-nosed  swimmers,  the  greater  and  sooty 
shearwaters  may  sometimes  be  found  in  summer  in  flocks 
of  several  thousand  along  this  rugged  coast.  These  birds, 
however,  do  not  breed  here.  In  fact,  they  are  spending 
their  winter  in  the  neighbourhood,  for  they  breed  in  the 
Antarctic  regions  in  their  summer,  our  winter.  Wilson's 
petrel  also  wanders  here  in  the  same  way,  while  the  stormy 
petrel  wanders  from  its  breeding  grounds  along  the  coast 
of  the  British  Isles.  Leache's  petrel,  however,  is  a  true 
inhabitant,  and  breeds  on  the  Labrador  coast.  Both  the 
common  and  the  double-crested  cormorant,  weird-looking 
birds,  commonly  called  "  shags,"  breed  on  the  southern 
shore.  A  small  colony  of  gannets  also  are  still  to  be  found 
there. 

Many  species  of  ducks  migrate  along  the  Labrador  coast, 
seeking  and  returning  from  their  breeding  places  farther 
north.  Others  breed  on  the  coast  or  in  the  interior  on  the 
shores  of  rivers  or  ponds.  Perhaps  the  most  conspicuous 
bird  in  this  group,  one  that  still  attempts  to  hide  its  nest 
from  devastating  man  or  Eskimo  dog,  along  the  shores  of 
the  sea-coast,  is  the  American  eider.  In  its  nest  it  lays  from 
five  to  eight  large,  pale  greenish  eggs  slightly  tinged  with 
olive.  These  eggs  it  protects  and  keeps  warm  with  the 
eider-down  which  it  plucks  from  its  breast.  They  are 
large  birds,  and  generally  fly  in  single  file  low  over  the  water. 
The  strikingly  marked  males,  with  the  black  bellies  and 
white  breasts,  necks,  and  backs,  are  easily  recognized.  The 
female  is  a  great  brownish  bird,  looking  very  dark  in  some 
lights,  and  entirely  lacks  distinctive  markings.  Both  sexes 
have,  however,  a  characteristic  way  of  holding  the  bill 
pointing  obliquely  downward  at  an  angle,  instead  of  straight 


THE  BIRDS  385 

out  before  them  like  most  ducks.  The  king  eider,  a  wonder- 
fully marked  bird,  breeds  in  scanty  numbers  along  the 
coast,  and  the  Greenland  eider  is  a  breeder  in  the  northern 
parts  of  the  country. 

The  three  species  of  scoters,  or  sea-coots,  as  they  are 
called,  breed  in  the  interior,  but  numbers  of  each  species  are 
always  to  be  found  in  summer  along  the  sea-coast.  A  small 
duck  that  is  diminishing  in  numbers  still  breeds  in  the 
interior  of  Labrador  along  the  course  of  streams.  This  is 
the  harlequin  duck,  as  curiously  variegated  in  colours  as  is 
the  individual  for  which  it  is  named.  After  the  breeding 
season,  this  bird  resorts  to  the  salt  water. 

Of  the  geese,  the  Canada  goose  alone  breeds  commonly 
in  the  interior  of  Labrador,  and  is  often  caught  by  the 
natives  during  its  helpless  moulting  period. 

The  heron  and  rail  family  are  represented  in  Labrador 
by  but  few  species,  and  those  mostly  stragglers. 

The  upper  limit  of  the  Hudsonian  Zone  coincides  with 
the  upper  limit  of  the  tree  growth.  The  lower  limit  cannot 
be  accurately  placed,  for  it  glides  imperceptibly  into  the  Ca- 
nadian Zone.  There  are  frequently  offshoots  and  islands  of 
the  Canadian  Zone  in  favourable  localities  in  the  Hudsonian 
Zone,  just  as  there  are  offshoots  and  islands  of  the  Hud- 
sonian Zone  in  the  Arctic  Zone.  The  most  characteristic 
Hudsonian  bird  and  one  that  clings  closely  to  the  out- 
skirts of  the  Arctic  Zone,  often  indeed  invading  its  territory, 
is  the  white-crowned  sparrow,  well  called  the  aristocrat  of 
its  family.  A  most  distinguished-looking  individual  he  is, 
with  his  snow-white  crown  and  white  bars  over  the  eyes. 
The  area  of  the  white  crown  is  enlarged  when  he  erects  it 
in  pride  or  passion,  or  when  the  wind  blows  it  up.  This  is 

2c 


386  LABRADOR 

the  familiar  dooryard  bird  of  the  bleak  Labrador  coast. 
He  sings  from  the  roof  of  the  turf-covered  tilt,  or  from  the 
cross-stays  of  the  fishing  schooner  in  the  narrow  tickle. 
He  contentedly  picks  up  crumbs  and  insects  about  the 
houses  and  makes  his  nest  in  the  thickets  of  spruces  or 
firs  that  are  unable  to  struggle  more  than  two  or  three 
feet  above  the  earth.  His  call  note  is  characteristic  and 
easily  recognized,  a  metallic  chink.  He  also  has  a  sharp, 
chipping  alarm  note.  His  song  is  pleasing,  although  it  has 
not  the  familiar  charm  of  his  cousin,  the  Peabody  bird,  or 
the  power  and  brilliancy  of  that  of  the  fox  sparrow.  It 
sounds  something  like  more  wet^wetter-wet-chezee.  There  is 
a  long  and  somewhat  mournful  stress  laid  on  the  first  note, 
and  a  buzz  not  easily  expressed  in  words  comes  near  the  end. 

Another  Hudsonian  bird  that  frequents  the  stunted 
trees  and  bushes  on  the  borders  of  the  Arctic  Zone  is  the 
tree  sparrow.  The  chestnut  crown  and  large  black  spot 
on  the  otherwise  spotless  breast  make  it  easily  recognized. 
His  song  is  simple  and  easily  memorized,  seet-seet,  —  sit- 
iter  —  sweet-sweet. 

Two  other  sparrows  are  common  and  characteristic  of 
this  zone.  The  Lincoln's  sparrow,  discovered  by  Audubon 
in  Labrador  and  named  by  him  after  his  young  friend  Tom 
Lincoln,  resembles  closely  the  song  sparrow  of  more  south- 
ern regions.  Its  disposition,  however,  is  very  different,  for 
it  is  a  most  retiring  bird,  skulking  out  of  sight  in  the  bushes 
if  it  but  suspects  that  it  is  an  object  of  interest.  Instead 
of  mounting  to  a  conspicuous  post  to  sing  like  its  cousin, 
the  song  sparrow,  it  is  apt  to  select  the  interior  of  a  fir  bush 
for  this  performance,  and  the  listener  often  looks  in  vain 
for  the  songster.  The  song  is  varied,  but  partakes  at  times 


THE  BIRDS  387 

of  the  warbling  character  of  the  song  of  the  purple  finch 
and  of  the  wren.  It  is  wild  and  mournful,  and  well  fits 
its  surroundings. 

Of  a  different  type  is  the  fox  sparrow.  A  large,  hand- 
some, rather  showily  dressed  bird  is  he,  one  that  does  not 
hide  his  light  under  a  bushel.  As  a  musician  he  takes  first 
rank.  He  is  a  performer  of  high  merit.  His  clear  and 
flutelike  notes  ring  out  with  great  purity,  yet  his  song 
has  not  the  charm  of  some  simpler  bird  melodies.  . 

The  redpoll  belongs  also  in  this  zone,  although  it  hardly 
appears  to  have  a  local  habitation,  such  a  restlessly  wan- 
dering bird  is  it.  Its  chug  chug  as  it  flies  recalls  the  white- 
winged  crossbill's  call  note,  and  its  sweet  dee-ar  resembles 
closely  the  similar  note  of  its  cousin  goldfinch.  Frequently 
in  the  breeding  season  it  waxes  melodious  in  its  own  way, 
and  flies  about  in  irregular  circles,  alternately  chug  chugging, 
and  emitting  a  finely  drawn  rattle  or  trill. 

The  Tennessee  warbler  and  the  Wilson's  warbler  are  both 
found  in  this  zone,  the  former  a  very  plain,  inconspicuous 
bird,  the  latter  bright  yellow  with  a  glossy  black  cap.  The 
Tennessee  warbler  is  as  inconspicuous  in  its  habits  as  in  its 
plumage,  and  retires  to  the  depths  of  thickets  when  the 
observer  endeavours  to  learn  its  secrets.  The  Wilson's 
warbler,  on  the  other  hand,  does  not  hesitate  to  display 
.its  charms  at  close  range,  and  sings  its  simple  little  song. 

Two  other  birds,  both  fine  singers,  may  be  mentioned 
here,  for  they  belong  in  this  Hudsonian  Zone;  namely,  the 
ruby-crowned  kinglet  and  Alice's  thrush.  That  the  di- 
minutive kinglet  can  produce  such  a  loud  and  wonderfully 
clear  and  varied  song  is  always  a  surprise  and  delight. 
The  Alice's  thrush  is  a  common  bird  in  the  scrubby  woods 


388  LABRADOR 

on  the  edge  of  the  Arctic  Zone.  Its  call  note  resembles 
at  times  the  call  of  the  night-hawk,  at  times  the  call  of  the 
veery.  Its  song,  which  may  be  heard  in  the  long  summer 
twilight  of  Labrador  even  after  nine  o'clock,  is  interesting 
and  beautiful.  It  begins  with  a  single  or  double  note, 
followed  by  a  long  veery-like  vibration,  sweet  yet  mournful. 

The  Canadian  Zone  includes  the  wooded  region  of  south- 
ern Labrador.  Its  limits  cannot  be  accurately  defined,  and 
the  birds  of  this  and  the  Hudsonian  Zone  intermingle. 
Sheltered  valleys  often  enable  the  Canadian  birds  to  ex- 
tend far  north  into  the  region  of  the  Hudsonian  class. 

It  is  impossible  in  the  space  of  this  chapter  to  do  more 
than  mention  a  few  of  the  characteristic  birds.  The 
spruce  grouse  and  the  Canadian  ruffed  grouse  here  take 
the  place  of  the  willow  ptarmigan  of  the  Hudsonian  Zone 
and  the  rock  ptarmigan  of  the  Arctic  Zone.  The  spruce 
grouse  is  so  tame  or  so  stupid  that  it  is  often  caught  by 
a  noose  on  a  short  stick.  The  Labrador  jay  is  a  sub- 
species of  the  Canada  jay,  and  resembles  its  cousin  closely 
in  its  pilfering  habits  and  in  the  variety  and  weirdness  of 
its  call  or  conversational  notes.  The  young  of  the  year 
are  dark  plumbeous  in  colour,  and  resemble  large  cat-birds. 
Pine  grosbeaks,  white- winged  and  American  crossbills, 
and  pine  siskins  are  all  to  be  found  here  on  the  borders  of 
the  Hudsonian  and  Canadian  zones.  They  are  all  de- 
pendent for  their  food-supply  on  the  cone  crop  of  the  spruces 
and  firs.  When  the  crop  fails,  they  wander  widely  in  winter 
and  visit  more  southern  localities.  The  common  warbler, 
whose  range  extends  throughout  the  wooded  area  even 
to  the  edge  of  the  Arctic  Zone,  is  the  black-poll  warbler, 
whose  simple  song  can  often  be  heard  in  little  islands  of 


THE  BIRDS  389 

struggling  spruces  among  the  barren  rocks.  The  Hud- 
sonian  chickadee  is  also  found  here. 

Still  more  southern  and  more  Canadian  in  their  distribu- 
tion are  the  olive-sided  and  yellow-bellied  flycatchers, 
the  white-throated  sparrow,  and  purple  finch.  The  well- 
known  Peabody  song  of  the  white-throated  sparrow  recalls 
the  pastures  of  Maine.  This  song  has  a  charm  and  beauty 
unsurpassed  even  by  the  songs  of  more  power  and  com- 
plexity. The  magnolia,  myrtle,  bay-breasted,  yellow- 
palm,  black-throated  green,  and  Canadian  warblers,  and 
northern  water-thrush  are  also  found  in  these  more  southern 
regions.  The  winter  wren,  golden-crowned  kinglet,  black- 
capped  chickadee,  olive-backed  thrush,  and  hermit  thrush 
also  occur  here.  The  divine  song  of  the  hermit  thrush  heard 
in  the  wilds  of  Labrador  is  indeed  an  inspiration. 

There  remain  to  be  added  a  few  wide-ranging  birds  that 
have  not  been  included  in  these  classes.  The  northern 
raven  may  be  mentioned  first.  While  the  American  crow 
is  rarely  found  in  Labrador,  and  then  only  in  the  southern 
part,  the  raven  takes  its  place  throughout  the  country, 
especially  on  the  sea-coast.  Here  they  build  their  nests 
in  inaccessible  recesses  in  the  rocky  cliffs.  No  need  have 
they  when  snow  covers  the  ground  of  a  change  like  the 
ptarmigan  to  white  plumage  for  protective  purposes. 
Their  wits  alone  are  sufficient.  Their  harsh  cra-ak  or 
cru-uk  at  once  distinguishes  them  from  the  crow  with  its 
familiar  caw.  Their  larger  size  cannot  be  depended  upon 
as  a  distinguishing  mark,  for  in  vast  surroundings  one  can 
with  difficulty  judge  of  size.  The  rounded  tail  of  the  raven 
is  a  good  field  mark,  for  the  tail  of  the  crow  is  nearly  even. 

Of  the  four  species  of  swallows  found  in  northern  New 


390  LABRADOR 

England,  all  but  the  eave-swallow  have  been  observed  in 
Labrador.  The  strong  flying  robin  abounds  in  various 
parts  of  Labrador,  pushing  its  way  even  to  the  very  edge 
of  the  Arctic  Zone.  It  is  a  strange  experience  to  hear  the 
familiar  morning  chorus  of  the  robin  in  bleak  Labrador, 
and  to  find  it  building  its  nest  on  an  Eskimo  hut. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

THE   FLORA 
BY  E.  B.  DELABARRE 

THE  writer  of  this  chapter  is  unwilling  to  allow  it  a  place 
in  this  book,  unless  his  readers  will  be  truly  indulgent  and 
permit  him  to  preface  it  with  a  brief  note  of  personal  apol- 
ogy. It  must  be  read  only  with  the  clear  understanding 
that  it  is  written  not  by  an  expert  in  botany,  but  by  one 
who,  with  the  limited  skill  of  an  amateu'r,  studied  the  plants 
of  Labrador  during  a  long  summer's  visit,  and  since  then 
has  read  with  eager  interest  all  that  he  could  find  bearing  on 
the  subject.  Such  a  person  naturally  lacks  the  technical 
knowledge  and  trained  judgment  of  a  botanist  by  profes- 
sion, especially  in  matters  of  nomenclature,  of  important 
but  not  easily  observed  detail,  of  good  insight  into  real 
causes  and  conditions.  So  the  present  writer  would  gladly 
have  persuaded  a  more  competent  person  to  take  his  place. 
Some  day  the  real  experts  will  correct  a  large  number  of 
inadequacies  in  this  description.  But  until  they  are  ready, 
it  seems  inevitable  that  a  chapter  like  this  must  be  contrib- 
uted by  one  who  is  merely  a  general  observer  and  ardent 
lover  of  nature,  and  who  happens  to  have  been  on  the  field, 
even  though  he  lack  an  equipment  sufficient  to  guard  him 

391 


392  LABRADOR 

from  making  many  errors.1    There  is  need,  then,  of  indul- 

1  In  a  previous  chapter  on  this  subject,  in  a  "  Report  of  an  Expedi- 
tion to  Labrador  in  1900,"  published  as  a  Bulletin  of  the  Philadelphia 
Geographical  Society,  I  unfortunately  allowed  a  number  of  errors  to 
occur,  especially  in  exact  nomenclature.  I  welcome  this  opportunity 
to  atone  for  them  as  well  as  is  now  possible.  I  stated  there  that  I  had 
myself  attempted  only  the  more  easy  identifications,  lying  well  within 
the  capacity  of  the  amateur;  that,  aside  from  a  few  special  kinds,  I 
had  submitted  my  collection  to  Professor  Bailey  of  Brown  University 
for  the  correct  naming  of  specimens ;  and  that  he  had  submitted  all 
doubtful  cases  to  Professors  Robinson  and  Fernald  of  Harvard  Uni- 
versity for  approval  or  revision.  In  making  these  statements,  I 
seemed  to  involve  all  these  eminent  authorities  in  responsibility  for 
the  errors  that  were  included.  But,  through  no  fault  of  others,  I 
received  a  mistaken  impression  as  to  the  finality  of  many  of  Pro- 
fessor Bailey's  identifications,  failing  sometimes  to  distinguish  be- 
tween his  confident  namings  and  his  mere  suggestions,  and  as  to  the 
extent  to  which  they  had  received  verification  from  the  professors  at 
Harvard.  I  now  feel  it  a  pleasure  and  a  duty  to  apologize  to  these 
three  men,  who  cannot  be  held  accountable  in  any  degree  for  mistakes 
that  were  due  wholly  to  my  own  misunderstandings.  This  case  is  an 
illustration  of  the  difficulty  met  with  by  an  amateur  who  wishes  to 
describe  strange  and  interesting  places  that  he  has  seen,  in  guarding 
himself  against  error,  and  especially  in  attaching  correct  names  to 
the  objects  he  has  observed. 

Since  then  Professor  Fernald  has  kindly  revised  my  collection, 
and  tells  me:  "The  plants  are  now  correctly  named,  I  think,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  upon  which  I  dare  not  venture  a  determination." 
Space  is  lacking  here  to  indicate  all  the  changes  that  are  necessary 
in  my  published  list.  Some  new  names  are  secured,  some  individual 
numbers  of  plants  must  be  credited  elsewhere  than  as  given.  But 
mistaken  conclusions  in  using  the  list  may  be  largely  guarded  against 
by  realizing  that  the  following  names  are  apparently  all  that  need  to 
be  omitted  entirely,  or  altered  to  another  variety  or  species,  or  given 
a  more  modern  nomenclature:  Dicentra  Canadensis,  Draba  nivalis, 
Lychnis  apetala,  Sagina  procumbens,  Dryas  octopetala,  Saxifraga 
Hirculus,  Epilobium  alpinum,  var.  majus,  Archangelica,  Aster  radula, 
Taraxacum  dens-leonis,  Andromeda  polifolia,  Ledum  latifolium,  Pyrola 
rotundifolia  et  var.,  Vaccinium  Canadense,  V.  Vitis-Idaea,  Primula 


THE  FLORA  393 

gence  from  the  readers  of  this  account.  But  if  this  be 
generously  extended,  the  writer  permits  himself  to  hope 
that,  however  inadequate  his  description  may  be  and  how- 
ever subject  to  later  correction,  it  may  serve  largely  to 
increase  the  enjoyment  of  visitors  to  this  fascinating 
country,  by  enabling  them  to  understand  more  fully  the 
great  interest  and  attractiveness  of  its  plant  life. 

Some  few  visitors  to  Labrador  return  with  an  impres- 
sion that  it  is  a  bleak  and  forbidding  country,  rude,  cruel, 
unattractive,  bare  of  vegetation.  But  to  many  others  it 
seems  full  of  beauty,  of  attractiveness,  and  even  of  a  rich 
and  appealing  fertility.  The  latter  is  the  truer  view,  for 
it  is  the  one  gained  by  those  who  observe  with  more  seeing 
eyes.  Really,  the  wealth  and  variety  and  brilliancy  of  the 
Labrador  growths  and  flowers  are  very  striking  to  one  who 
can  see  them  at  all  understandingly.  Very  little  knowl- 
edge of  botany  and  love  of  plants  are  needed  to  realize  this 
fact.  An  added  ability  to  recognize  and  name  the  more 
common  forms  naturally  increases  enormously  one's  ap- 
preciation and  satisfaction,  and  is  not  difficult  to  acquire. 
It  is  as  important  for  real  enjoyment  and  profit  as  to  possess 
a  similar  outline  knowledge  of  the  geological  forms  of  the 
land  and  of  the  causes  that  have  moulded  its  scenic  features. 
It  will  not  cost  a  great  amount  of  additional  labour  to  gain 
an  even  more  intimate  understanding  of  the  plants,  —  of 

Misstassinica,  Gentiana  propinqua,  Pedicularis  flammea,  Polyganum 
littorale,  Betula  nana,  Luzula  arcuata,  L.  hyperborea,  Eriophorum 
alpinum,  Poa  laxa,  Lycopodium  lucidulum;  omit  also,  but  leave  the 
synonym  given  with  it :  Comarum  palustre,  Potentilla  rubens.  In  a 
majority  of  cases  these  corrections  do  not  imply  that  the  plants  thus 
called  in  this  and  earlier  lists  do  not  exist  in  Labrador,  but  that  it  is 
now  possible  to  give  them  more  accurate  names. 


394  LABBADOE 

some  of  their  special  means  of  adaptation  to  their  environ- 
ment, of  causes  of  the  particular  kinds  and  particular 
structures  that  occur,  of  their  relation  to  food-supply, 
soil  and  climate,  and  to  insect  life.  If  the  observer  start 
with  some  ability  to  make  analyses  of  flowers,  and  with  a 
simple  equipment  of  books1  to  aid  in  the  identification  of 
specimens,  he  will  soon  gain  acquaintance  with  all  the  more 
commonly  occurring  plants.  If,  in  addition  to  this,  he  be 
expert  in  botany,  or  will  make  a  carefully  selected  and 
annotated  collection  and  submit  it  to  some  capable  botanist 
at  home  for  identification,  he  may  possibly  be  rewarded  by 
the  discovery  of  species  and  varieties  hitherto  unknown  in 

1  Of  books,  among  the  most  useful  will  be :  — 

1.  As  aids  to  analysis:  — 

Britton,  Manual  of  the  Flora  of  the  Northern  States  and  Canada. 
Britton  and  Brown,  Illustrated  Flora  of  the  Northern  States  and 

Canada. 

Gray:    Synoptical  Flora  of  North  America  (incomplete). 
Gray:   New  Manual  of  Botany,  7th  ed.,  rearranged  and  revised  by 

B.  L.  Robinson  and  M.  L.  Fernald,  1908. 

2.  For  an  understanding  of  forms  and  distribution :  — 
Schimper:    Plant  Geography  upon  a  Physiological  Basis.     Oxford, 

1904. 

Dawson :  The  Geological  History  of  Plants. 
Hooker:   Distribution  of  Arctic  Plants. 

3.  For  lists  of  plants  already  reported  from  Labrador :  — 

See  lists  of  books  in  Delabarre's  Report  of  Expedition  to  Labrador 

(Philadelphia   Geographical  Society,    1902),  pp.  172,  194,  197. 

But  for  their  inadequacy,  see  previous  footnote. 

Professor  Fernald,   our  most  expert  authority  on  far  northern 

plants,  informs  me  that  nearly  all  the  published  lists  of  Labrador 

plants  contain  many  errors.     Recent  studies  have  given  a  much  more 

intimate  acquaintance  with  the  northern  flora,  and  thus  all  the  old 

lists  need  critical  revision.     It  is  impossible,  therefore,  to  give  an 

accurate  list  of  all  plants  thus  far  observed  as  occurring  in  Labrador, 

under  their  correct  names.     The  whole  matter  must  be  decided  finally 

by  competent  authorities 


THE  FLOE  A  395 

that  region,  which  still  offers  large  opportunities  for  botani- 
cal as  well  as  for  other  kinds  of  exploration. 

Few  localities  will  better  repay  the  amateur  or  even  the 
professional  botanist  than  this,  either  in  aesthetic  gratifi- 
cation or  in  opportunity  for  scientific  research.  Labrador 
is  one  of  the  most  southerly  of  all  countries  that  have  a 
predominantly  Arctic  vegetation.  It  is  sufficiently  far  to 
the  south  to  show  transitional  belts  between  the  temperate 
and  Arctic  zones,  as  well  as  those  more  strictly  Arctic.  Like 
all  far  northern  lands,  it  presents  an  amazing  wealth  of 
strikingly  coloured  flowers,  so  thickly  sown  as  in  many 
places  to  resemble  a  cultivated  garden.  Add  to  this  the 
exceedingly  great  picturesqueness  of  its  scenery,  its  unex- 
plored lofty  mountains,  higher  perhaps  than  any  others  on 
the  Atlantic  side  of  the  Americas,  its  fairly  easy  accessibility, 
and  the  decidedly  tolerable  nature  of  its  brief  summers; 
then  its  attractiveness  and  charm  to  those  who  know  it  will 
be  easy  of  comprehension. 

Botanically,  Labrador  may  be  considered  best  by  divid- 
ing it  into  two  regions  of  markedly  different  aspect,  — 
the  interior  and  the  coast.  Of  the  former  but  little  is 
known,  except  that  it  is  covered  with  trees  of  good  growth, 
extending  almost  to  the  northern  extreme  of  the  country. 
These  interior  portions  possess  essentially  a  cold  temperate, 
not  an  Arctic,  type  of  flora.  Our  knowledge  of  their  plants 
is  derived  mainly  from  journeys  across  it  in  several  direc- 
tions by  Dr.  Low  of  the  Canadian  Geological  Survey,  and 
from  the  visit  of  Mr.  Bryant  to  the  Grand  Falls.1  Its 

1  For  these  descriptions,  see  Ann.  Rep.  Geol.  Survey  of  Canada, 
Part  L,  Vol.  VIII,  1896;  and  Bulletin  of  Philadelphia  Geographical 
Club,  March,  1904.  Other  earlier  expeditions  through  the  interior, 


396  LABRADOR 

wealth  in  accessible  timber  is  considerable,  and  already 
large  mills  have  been  established  near  the  head  of  Hamil- 
ton Inlet. 

The  coastal  region,  with  which  all  the  rest  of  this  chapter 
will  be  concerned,  presents  a  vegetation  of  a  decidedly 
Arctic  type.  A  cold  ocean  current  from  the  north  bathes 
its  shores,  bringing  with  it  ice-floes  until  the  last  of  July, 
and  icebergs  throughout  the  rest  of  the  summer.  Innu- 
merable snow-drifts  linger  from  winter  back  again  to  winter 
in  favourable  places  on  the  land.  Yet  for  two  months  of 
summer,  at  least,  the  days  are  long,  and  the  temperature 
does  not  fall  to  the  freezing-point  even  at  night.  Pictur- 
esque hills  in  the  south,  and  in  the  north  towering,  untrodden 
mountains  rise  directly  out  of  the  sea  and  expose  their 
flanks  and  summits  to  the  unbroken  force  of  the  winds. 
The  soil  is  thin,  and  through  it  the  bare  rock  frequently 
protrudes.  There  is  usually  no  lack  of  moisture  in  soil  or 
air,  and  many  places,  especially  in  the  relatively  lower 
elevations  of  the  south,  are  decidedly  boggy. 

The  characteristic  features  of  an  Arctic  flora  are  usually 
attributed  to  the  need  it  has  for  struggle  and  protection 
against  severe  cold.  Schimper  has  shown  that  this  factor 
itself  has  almost  no  direct  influence.  The  greatest  cold 
known  anywhere  is  in  Siberia,  in  a  region  where  forests 
still  flourish.  No  special  protective  devices  against  cold 
are  known ;  if  any  exist,  they  consist  probably  in  the  internal 
structure  of  the  protoplasm  itself,  not  in  any  observable 
external  modifications.  The  observable  peculiarities  of 

and  the  more  recent  ones  of  Hubbard,  Wallace,  and  Mrs.  Hubbard, 
while  adding  largely  to  knowledge  of  the  country,  have  contributed 
little  to  botanical  information. 


THE  FLOE  A  397 

the  vegetation  are  protections  not  against  cold,  but 
against  dryness.  Even  with  an  abundance  of  moisture  in 
the  soil,  it  may  not  be  readily  available  for  the  plant.  The 
soil  is  cold,  the  bogs  are  rich  in  humous  acids,  the  water  of 
the  shores  is  full  of  soluble  salts.  All  these  conditions, 
which  are  the  prevailing  ones  throughout  the  northern 
country,  are  unfavourable  to  the  ready  absorption  of  water 
by  the  plant,  and  hence  lead  to  physiological  dryness. 
This  is  further  increased  by  the  lack  of  protection  against 
drying  winds,  which  tend  to  produce  strong  transpiration. 
A  plant  whose  water  supply  is  limited,  whether  in  wet  or  in 
dry  soil,  must  guard  against  too  great  transpiration,  espe- 
cially under  conditions  where  this  tends  to  be  large.  It 
hence  assumes  a  xerophilous  structure,  or  one  fitted  to  con- 
tend with  physiological  dryness.  In  this  respect  the  flora 
of  Arctic  climates,  of  alpine  heights,  of  bogs,  of  sea-shore, 
and  of  deserts  will  closely  resemble  one  another,  though  the 
particular  devices  adopted  may  vary  with  different  con- 
ditions. 

Except  in  the  rarer  situations  of  sheltered  valleys  or 
sunny  slopes,  with  relatively  warmer  soil,  water  free  from 
acids,  and  protection  from  wind,  the  flora  of  Labrador  may 
be  considered  as  universally  adopting  one  form  or  another 
of  the  various  means  fitted  to  protect  it  from  too  great 
dryness.  It  becomes  an  absorbingly  interesting  study  to 
observe  the  different  ways  in  which  this  object  is  accom- 
plished. The  most  evident  devices  are  the  following :  — 

1.  A  well-developed  system  of  roots  for  the  absorption 
of  nutrient  materials  and  of  water. 

2,  A  low  and  often  stunted  growth.     This  characteristic, 
as  a  special  modification,  applies  of  course  to  plants  that 


398  LABRADOR 

are  usually  shrubs  or  trees  rather  than  to  those  of  a  naturally 
low,  herbaceous  type.  The  former  are  of  very  few  species, 
mostly  willows,  alder,  and  birch,  and  a  few  evergreens. 
The  height  of  these  will  vary  much,  and  will  be  determined 
largely  by  the  degree  of  their  protection  from  drying  winds, 
whether  by  the  conformation  of  the  land  or  by  a  winter 
covering  of  snow.  In  very  exposed  situations  they  will  be 
lacking,  or  will  lie  close  to  the  ground,  or  will  have  become 
modified  into  a  special  low-growing  species,  such  as  the 
interesting  and  widely  spread  willow,  Salix  herbacea,  each 
plant  of  which  bears  but  two  or  three  leaves  on  a  single 
unbranching  stem,  attaining  only  a  fraction  of  an  inch  in 
height.1 

3.  Reduction  in  surface  of  leaves.  These  tend  to  be 
small  and  thick  (Empetrum,  Ericacece)  or,  if  thin,  either  long 
and  narrow  (Crutiferce,  Caryophyllacece,  Salicacece,  ever- 
greens, grasses,  etc.),  or  deeply  lobed  (Pedicularis,  some 
Rosaceae),  or  much  wrinkled  with  strong  veins  (Rubus  arc- 
ticus,  R.  Chamcemorus) ,  or  pinnately  divided  (Leguminosce, 
Filices).  The  latter  form  gives  them  an  increased  surface 
without  disadvantage,  because  of  their  special  mobility, 

^ownsend  (in  Along  the  Labrador  Coast,  1907)  gives  a  few 
measured  examples  of  these  stunted  growths.  He  found,  for  example, 
a  larch  9  inches  high  and  f  inch  in  diameter,  that  was  32  years  old ;  in 
another  case,  a  balsam  fir  13  inches  high,  2  inches  diameter,  with  27 
inches  spread,  54  years  old.  These  remind  me  of  the  pasture  apple 
trees  of  New  England,  in  whose  case  the  stunting  agent  is  not  drying 
winds,  but  browsing  cows.  Much  the  same  effect  is  produced,— "a 
lower,  thicker,  stockier  growth,  even  at  great  age.  I  measured  one  in 
western  Massachusetts,  for  instance,  that  proved  to  be  40  years  old, 
yet  was  less  than  5  feet  in  height,  with  an  average  diameter  of  2  inches 
a  little  above  a  much  thickened  base,  and  a  total  spread  of  about 
7  feet. 


THE  FLORA  399 

whereby  the  leaflets  may  open  out  in  moderate  illumina- 
tion and  close  together  under  conditions  where  transpira- 
tion tends  to  be  excessive,  in  strong  wind  or  hot  sun. 
Another  device  consists  in  folding  back  the  edges  of  the 
leaves  underneath  (Cassiope  tetragona,  Ledum,  Pinguicula) ; 
and  still  another,  in  crowding  them  thickly  together  (Cas- 
siope, Bryanthus).  All  of  these  many  modifications  have 
the  one  object  of  securing  a  reduced  or  reducible  transpir- 
ing surface,  and  almost  all  the  plants  of  Labrador  adopt 
one  or  another  of  these  methods  of  accomplishing  it.  The 
examples  given  are  only  illustrative,  and  might  be  increased 
many  fold  under  almost  every  heading. 

4.  Increase  in  thickness  of  the  leaf  and  of  its  cuticle. 
Many  leaves  are  tough  and  leathery  (Ericaceae,  Empetrum) ; 
or  have  thick,  strong  cuticle  (grasses  and  sedges) ;  or  develop 
a  waxy,  resinous,  or  varnished  coating  on  the  under  side 
or  on  both    (Andromeda,    Vaccinium   Vitis-Idcea,  Pyrola, 
some  Salices,  evergreens). 

5.  Development  of  water-storing  cells  in  stem  or  leaves, 
the  latter  becoming  thick  and  succulent.     This  is  not  of 
very  common  occurrence.     It  is  found,  however,  for  ex- 
ample, in  saxifrages,  Sedum,  and  Sphagnum. 

6.  Protection  of  the  stomata  from  the  influences  that 
tend  to  cause  evaporation  through  them.     This  may  be 
secured  by  (1)  turning  away  the  under  side  oc  the  leaf  from 
sun  and  wind,  as  in  the  pinnately  divided  leaves  men- 
tioned already ;   (2)  sinking  the  stomata  in  the  leaf-surface 
(Andromeda,  Empetrum);    (3)  covering  the  under  side  of 
the  leaf  and  sometimes  also  its  upper  side  and  the  stem  with 
a  protecting  layer  of  hairs  or  tomentum,  which  may  vary 
greatly  in  length  and  thickness,  from  a  mere  silvery  or 


400  LABRADOR 

bronzed  dust,  or  a  short,  thick  fuzz,  or  tomentum,  to  a  felted 
growth  of  longer  hairs  (most  Ericacece  and  Salices,  Draba, 
some  Potentate,  Cerastium,  Dryas,  Papaver,  Antennaria, 
and  many  others. 

7.  Development  of  a  tendency  to  grow  a  thick  rosette 
of  leaves  at  the  base  (Arabis,  Draba,  Antennaria,  Lychnis, 
Pinguicula,  many  saxifrages),  or  to  mass   themselves  in 
close,  thick  clumps  or  cushions  (Diapensia,  Silene,  Sedum, 
saxifrages).    These  tendencies   are  similar  to  the  one  al- 
ready mentioned  of  crowding  the  leaves  closely  together 
on  the  stem.    They  may  develop  in  species  which  in  more 
favourable  locations  grow  apart  from  one  another,  and 
have  their  leaves  more  evenly  distributed  along  the  stem. 

8.  An  occasional  tendency,  in  case  of  difficulty  in  absorb- 
ing nutriment  from  the  soil,  to  develop  devices  for  trapping 
and  absorbing  insects.     Insects  are  not  numerous  in  Lab- 
rador, with  the  exception  of  mosquitoes  and  flies,  but  a  few 
plants  there  are  partially  carnivorous  (Drosera,  Pinguicula, 
Sarracenia).    They  appear  to  be  confined  almost  wholly 
to  the  marshes  of  the  more  southerly  part  of  the  country. 

9.  While  physiological  dryness  is  extremely  unfavourable 
to  vegetable  growth,  and  necessitates  special  devices  for  the 
absorption  and  conservation  of  moisture,  it  is,  on  the  other 
hand,  very  favourable  to  the  reproductive  functions.     Ac- 
cordingly, the  number  of  flowers  is  large,  •  and  appears  the 
larger  on  account  of  the  crowding  of  all  varieties  into  one 
short  season,  and  by  contrast  with  the  lack  of  luxuriance 
in  vegetative  shoots  and  foliage.     Many  of  the  flowers  are 
large  and  brilliant  in  colouring,  and  nowhere  is  there  any 
lack  of  them  in  abundance,  unless  in  situations  most  severely 
open  to  the  winds  or  destitute  of  soil. 


THE  FLORA  401 

Such  are  the  main  characteristics  of  xerophytes.  They 
constitute  the  great  bulk  of  the  flora  of  Labrador,  since 
almost  all  its  physical  conditions  —  bog,  sea-shore,  thin 
soil,  cold  ground,  drying  winds  —  are  such  as  to  exert  a 
xerophilous  influence.  Hygrophytes  (reaching  their  ex- 
treme in  Aquatics),  adapted  to  conditions  of  easily  avail- 
able moisture,  and  Tropophytes,  adapted  to  alternating 
seasons  of  moisture  and  of  dryness,  are  of  much  rarer 
occurrence.  The  former  are  characterized  by  weakly 
developed  roots,  more  luxuriant  vegetal  growth,  great 
expansion  of  the  transpiring  surfaces.  Tropophytes  are 
hygrophilous  during  the  summer,  the  season  of  mois- 
ture, and  xerophilous  during  the  winter,  which  is  physio- 
logically dry.  They  secure  this  change  either  by  shed- 
ding their  hygrophilous  leaves;  or  by  dying  down  to  the 
ground  as  a  whole;  or,  as  in  evergreens,  by  developing 
shoots  which  are  hygrophilous  only  when  young,  turning 
xerophilous  as  they  mature. 

Thus  a  relative  lack  of  available  moisture  is  one  of  the 
chief  features  determining  the  general  appearance  of  the 
vegetable  covering  of  the  Labrador  landscape.  Other 
factors,  such  as  cold,  wind,  and  physical  nature  of  the  soil, 
derive  their  influence  mainly  from  their  tendency  to  limit 
the  supply  of  available  water,  or  to  increase  transpiration. 
Each  of  them,  however,  has  some  direct  influence  besides. 
Thus  it  is  said  that  cold  tends  to  make  leaves  broader  and 
shorter,  with  bent  margins  and  loss  of  irregularity  in  mar- 
gin (mosses,  Ericacece),  and  is  favourable  to  the  develop- 
ment of  sexual  organs ;  though  the  real  influence  even  here 
may  be  perhaps  not  cold  directly,  but  dryness  and  the  short- 
ness of  the  season  of  growth.  Wind  not  only  favours  trans- 

2D 


402  LABRADOR 

piration,  but  directly  increases  the  tendency  to  low,  shrubby 
growth,  and  favours  anemophilous  adaptations  (i.e.  those 
using  the  agency  of  the  wind)  for  pollination  and  for  dis- 
semination of  fruits.  Differences  in  the  nature  of  the  soil  in 
Labrador  would  seem  to  be  not  great,  and  to  derive  their 
importance  mainly  from  their  ability  to  conserve  moisture, 
free  from  admixture  with  growth-hindering  acids  and  salts. 

There  are,  however,  some  further  direct  and  important 
influences.  One  of  them,  not  often  mentioned  but  very 
evident,  is  the  scarcity  of  insects  that  aid  in  pollination. 
The  proportion  of  flowers  that  are  anemophilous,  or  wind 
fertilized,  as  compared  with  those  that  solicit  insect  aid, 
is  considerable,  as  might  be  anticipated  from  the  fact  that 
flower-haunting  insects  are  rare.  Yet  there  are  many 
flowers  of  the  latter  type,  though  mainly  of  species  that  do 
not  absolutely  depend  upon  insects  for  the  fertility  of  their 
seeds. 

Another  positive  influence  is  the  relatively  protracted 
illumination  during  the  period  of  growth.  This,  like  many 
other  influences  operative  here,  has  been  shown  to  have  a 
tendency  to  diminish  herbaceous  growth,  affecting  the  size 
both  of  the  plant  and  of  its  leaves;  and  to  favour  repro- 
duction. The  devices  that  protect  against  too  great  trans- 
piration often  serve  at  the  same  time  to  secure  protection 
against  excessive  and  prolonged  illumination. 

Finally,  the  shortness  of  the  season  of  growth  is  of  large 
importance.  It  is  this  which  forces  a  large  proportion  of 
the  plants  that  are  to  survive  under  the  conditions  which 
Labrador  supplies,  to  develop  in  a  previous  season  the  em- 
bryonic preparations  for  the  leaves  and  flowers  that  are 
to  appear  the  following  summer.  Hence  is  derived  the 


THE  FLOEA  403 

magical  rapidity  of  appearance  of  vegetation  and  of  flowers, 
almost  coincident  with  the  disappearance  of  the  snows. 
Hardly  does  the  ground  become  clear  of  snow  before 
flowers  are  there  in  its  place.  Not  only  is  there  barely 
any  transition  between  winter  and  spring,  but  all  kinds  of 
flowers  follow  upon  one  another  so  quickly  that  spring,  sum- 
mer, and  autumn  are  all  rolled  into  one  quickly  coming  and 
quickly  disappearing,  brief,  brilliant,  and  glorious  summer 
season.  This  is  the  main  factor  that  introduces  a  difference 
into  the  floral  character  of  different  latitudes.  In  all  of 
them  the  same  conditions  are  present  otherwise,  —  the  ex- 
posure to  winds,  the  coldness  of  the  soil,  and  other  influences 
that  conduce  to  physiological  dryness,  —  but  the  season 
grows  shorter  as  one  advances  farther  north,  and  high 
latitude  will  thus  conserve  more  and  more  the  plants  of 
the  spring-blooming  type,  that  prepare  their  blossoms  and 
growths  a  season  beforehand,  and  tend  to  exterminate 
those  that  come  more  slowly  to  maturity.  In  some  places 
plants  relatively  unfitted  will  survive,  but  will  lose  some 
of  their  characteristics  as  the  season  of  growth  becomes 
shorter.  Thus,  Rubus  Chamcemorus  and  Rubus  arcticus, 
which  are  abundant  and  fertile  in  Newfoundland,  the  writer 
found  to  be  much  more  rarely  fertile  in  Labrador  and  to 
increase  in  rarity  toward  its  northern  extreme;  and  it  is 
said  that  R.  Chamcemorus  survives,  but  is  without  flowers, 
at  its  most  northern  station.  In  some  cases  the  length  of 
the  season  suffices  for  flowers,  but  not  for  fruits  and  seeds. 
In  such  cases  it  would  seem  to  be,  not  the  temperature 
itself,  as  Schimper  puts  it,  but  the  length  of  time  during 
which  the  warmer  temperatures  persist,  that  determines 
the  surviving  species  and  their  reproductiveness. 


404  LABRADOR 

All  of  these  influences  together,  the  most  important  of 
which  are  evidently  the  amount  of  available  moisture  and 
the  length  of  the  season  of  temperatures  favourable  to 
growth,  determine  the  characteristics  of  vegetation  on  the 
coast  of  Labrador.  The  prominent  features  that  result 
have  most  of  them  been  already  described.  A  few  others, 
however,  still  remain  to  be  considered.  One  of  them  is 
the  great  variability  of  the  flowers.  I  observed  it  myself 
markedly  in  several  species.  In  Rubus  Chamcemorus  and 
R.  arcticus,  the  petals  and  calyx  lobes  ranged  in  number 
almost  indiscriminately  between  four  and  six;  and  in  the 
former  the  ends  of  the  calyx  lobes  were  sometimes  single- 
pointed  and  sometimes  toothed,  the  number  of  teeth  vary- 
ing, and  its  leaves  were  often  spotted  or  even  entirely 
coloured  with  deep  purple.  In  Ledum  palustre,  var.  dilata- 
tum,  flowers  of  the  same  cluster  showed  no  constancy  in  the 
number  of  their  stamens,  any  number  from  five  to  eleven 
being  present.  Sedum  Rhodiola  is  very  variable.  In 
flowers  of  the  same  plant  I  found  petals  ranging  in  number 
from  three  to  seven,  sepals  from  three  to  five,  scales  from 
two  to  four,  stamens  from  five  to  thirteen,  and  pistils  from 
two  to  nine.  In  Cornus  Canadensis,  I  noticed  one  variety 
with  six  upper  leaves  arranged  in  a  whorl,  with  each  side 
of  the  four-sided  stem  grooved,  and  with  greenish  white 
flowers;  another  with  three  pairs  of  opposite  leaves,  only 
two  of  the  sides  grooved,  and  flowers  dark  purple  or  maroon, 
both  calyx  and  corolla;  and  a  third  with  characteristics 
between  these  two.  Pedicularis  also,  to  my  inexpert  bo- 
tanical eye,  seemed  to  present  a  greater  variability  than 
could  be  accounted  for  by  the  number  of  already  reported 
species. 


THE  FLORA  405 

Of  fruits,  the  most  common  are  such  as  depend  on  dis- 
semination by  wind  or  by  birds  and  other  animals.  A  few 
species  depend  on  other  methods  mainly,  as  in  case  of  the 
large  easily  floating  bladders  or  pods  of  Oxytropis  and 
other  legumes,  or  of  large  seeds  that  rarely  find  their  way 
far  from  the  parent  plant.  But  the  families  best  repre- 
sented in  individuals,  and  largely  also  in  species,  are  such 
as  bear  small  berries  (Ericaceae,  Empetrum)  attractive  to 
animals,  or  numerous  small  light  seeds,  or  spores,  easily 
spread  abroad  by  the  wind  (mosses,  grasses,  Cruciferce, 
Caryophyllacece,  Compositce) . 

The  regions  of  Arctic  vegetation  possess  relatively  fewer 
species  and  varieties  than  more  favoured  localities,  and  most 
of  these  are  the  same  as  those  growing  in  the  colder  tem- 
perate zones.  As  Hooker 1  points  out,  uniformity  in 
physical  characters  and  absence  of  those  changing  con- 
ditions which  we  assume  to  be  stimulants  to  variation 
(different  combinations  of  conditions  of  heat,  light,  mois- 
ture, and  mineral  characters)  give  uniformity  in  vegetation. 
Hooker  gives  the  total  number  of  flowering  species  in 
Arctic  Europe  as  616,  in  Arctic  East  America  as  379,  in 
Greenland  as  207.  On  the  other  hand,  he  estimates  that 
5800  species  exist  in  temperate  Australia.  Gray's  New 
Manual  of  Botany  (7th  ed.,  1908)  enumerates  about 
4000  species  of  flowering  plants  and  ferns,  belonging 
to  over  150  families,  from  the  central  and  northeastern 
United  States  and  Canada.  But  in  Greenland,  according 
to  Schimper,  there  are  only  386  species  of  vascular  plants, 
belonging  to  53  families.  Labrador  shows  similarly  a 

1  Joseph  D.  Hooker,  Distribution  of  Arctic  Plants.  Trans.  Linnean 
Society,  1862,  Vol.  XXIII,  p.  251. 


406  LABRADOR 

relatively  low  number  of  species  and  families.  It  is  im- 
possible to  give  exact  figures.  We  have  already  noticed 
both  that  all  these  northern  lands  are  still  insufficiently 
explored,  and  that  the  nomenclature  of  their  known  plants 
needs  careful  revision.  The  figures  quoted  from  Hooker 
and  Schimper  cannot  be  regarded  as  accurate.  Yet  with 
all  the  revision  to  which  they  may  be  subject,  the  large 
difference  existing  between  Arctic  and  temperate  regions 
remains  strikingly  true,  and  its  degree  is  probably  fairly 
well  indicated  by  the  figures  given.  The  writer  has  at- 
tempted a  calculation  for  Labrador,  based  on  all  the  reports, 
reliable  or  otherwise,  known  to  him  in  January,  1905;  but 
its  results,  for  the  foregoing  reasons,  must  not  be  regarded 
as  very  exact.  According  to  it,  there  occur  in  Labrador 
not  far  from  425  species  of  vascular  plants,  belonging  to 
50  families.  In  addition  to  these  there  are  about  300 
species  of  bryophytes  and  fungi  so  far  discovered.  The 
number  of  species  in  the  orders  best  represented  is  as  fol- 
lows: Composite  36,  Ericaceae  31,  Cruciferce  30,  Roseacece 
29,  Cyperacece  28,  Graminece  27,  Caryophyllacece  26,  Salica- 
cece  19,  Saxifragacece  19,  Ranunculacece  19,  Scrophulariacece 
14.  The  number  of  species  in  the  genera  best  represented 
is:  Carex  21,  Salix  17,  Potentilla  11,  Saxifraga  11,  Draba 
11,  Ranunculus  10,  Arenaria  9,  Epilobium  9,  Vaccinium  7, 
Pedicularis  7,  Lycopodium  7,  Stellaria  6,  Poa  6. 

Having  now  studied  the  main  influences  affecting  the 
flora  of  Labrador,  and  the  characteristic  features  of  its 
plants  resulting  therefrom,  we  are  in  a  position  to  consider 
the  general  appearance  of  the  Labrador  landscape  near  the 
coast,  so  far  as  it  is  determined  by  vegetable  life.  It  will 
be  necessary  to  distinguish  several  different  regions  or 


THE  FLOE  A  407 

typical  situations,  each  with  its  own  peculiar  aspect.  We 
may  conveniently  divide  these  into  the  areas  of  forest,  of 
sea-shore,  and  of  the  tundra,  and  the  latter  again  into  sev- 
eral subdivisions. 

1.  The  forest  region  is  best  described  by  Low.1    He  says : 

"The  southern  half  of  the  Labrador  Peninsula  is  included 
in  the  subarctic  forest  belt,  as  described  by  Professor  Ma- 
coun.  Nine  species  of  trees  may  be  said  to  constitute  the 
whole  arborescent  flora  of  this  region.  These  species 
are:  Betula papyri/era  Michx.,  Populus  tremuloides  Michx., 
Populus  balsamifera  Linn.,  Thuya  occidentalis  Linn., 
Pinus  banksiana  Lam.,  Picea  alba  Link.,  Picea  nigra 
Link.,  Abies  balsamea  Marsh,  and  Larix  Americana 
Michx.  The  distribution  of  the  forest  areas  and  the  range 
of  the  various  trees  depend  on  several  factors,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned,  position  as  regards  latitude, 
height  above  sea-level,  distance  from  sea-coast,  and  char- 
acter of  the  soil,  all  of  which  are  important.  The  forest 
is  continuous  over  the  southern  part  of  the  peninsula  to 
between  latitudes  52°  and  54°,  the  only  exceptions  being 
the  summits  of  rocky  hills  and  the  outer  islands  of  the  At- 
lantic coast.  To  the  northward  of  latitude  53°,  the  higher 
hills  are  treeless  and  the  size  and  number  of  the  barren 
areas  rapidly  increase.  In  latitude  55°,  more  than  half  the 
country  is  treeless,  woods  being  only  found  about  the  mar- 
gins of  small  lakes  and  in  the  valleys  of  the  rivers.  Trees 
also  decrease  in  size,  until,  on  the  southern  shores  of  Un- 
gava  Bay,  they  disappear  altogether.  .  .  .  The  tree  line 
skirts  the  southern  shore  of  Ungava  Bay  and  comes  close 
to  the  mouth  of  the  George  River,  from  which  it  turns 
south-southeast,  skirting  the  western  foot-hills  of  the  At- 
lantic coast  range,  which  is  quite  treeless,  southward  to 
the  neighbourhood  of  Hebron,  in  latitude  58°,  where  trees 

1  A.  P.  Low,  Report  on  Explorations  in  the  Labrador  Peninsula, 
Ann.  Rep.  Geol.  Survey  of  Canada,  1896,  Part  L,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  30  ff. 


408  LABRADOR 

are  again  found  in  protected  valleys  at  the  heads  of 
the  inner  bays  of  the  coast.  At  Davis  Inlet,  in  latitude 
56°,  trees  grow  on  the  coast  and  high  up  on  the  hills,  the 
barren  grounds  being  confined  to  the  islands  and  head- 
lands, which  remain  treeless  to  the  southward  of  the  mouth 
of  Hamilton  Inlet.  These  barren  islands  and  bare  head- 
lands of  the  outer  coast,  along  with  the  small  size  of  the 
trees  on  the  lowlands,  have  caused  a  false  impression  to  be 
held  regarding  much  of  the  Atlantic  coast,  which  from 
Hamilton  Inlet  southward  is  well  timbered  about  the 
heads  of  the  larger  bays  and  on  lowlands  of  the  small 
river- valleys.  .  .  .  Picea  nigra  is  the  most  abundant 
tree  of  Labrador  and  probably  constitutes  over  ninety 
per  cent  of  the  forest.  .  .  .  Larix  Americana  is  probably 
the  hardiest  tree  of  the  subarctic  forest  belt;  it  grows 
everywhere  throughout  the  Labrador  Peninsula,  and  is 
probably  next  in  abundance  to  the  black  spruce.  .  .  . 
Throughout  the  forest  belt,  the  lowlands  fringing  the 
streams  and  lakes  are  covered  with  thickets  of  willows 
and  alders.  As  the  semi-barrens  are  approached,  the 
areas  covered  by  these  shrubs  become  more  extensive, 
and  they  not  only  form  wide  margins  along  the  rivers  and 
shores  of  the  lakes,  but  with  dwarf  birches  occupy  much  of 
the  open  glades.  The  willows  and  birches  grow  on  the 
sides  of  the  hills,  above  the  tree  line,  where  they  form  low 
thickets  exceedingly  difficult  to  pass  through.  Beyond 
the  limits  of  the  true  forest,  similar  thickets  of  Arctic 
willows  and  birches  are  found  on  the  low  grounds,  but  on 
the  more  elevated  lands  they  grow  only  a  few  inches  above 
the  surface.  In  the  southern  region,  the  undergrowth 
in  the  wooded  areas  is  chiefly  Labrador  tea  (Ledum  latifo- 
Hum)  and  laurel  (Kalmia  glauca),  which  grow  in  tangled 
masses,  from  two  to  four  feet  high,  and  are  very  difficult  to 
travel  through.  In  the  semi-barrens  this  undergrowth 
dies  out,  and  travel  across  country  is  much  easier  in  conse- 
quence. In  the  southern  regions  the  ground  is  usually 


THE  FLOE  A  409 

covered  to  a  considerable  depth  with  sphagnum,  which 
northward  of  51°  is  gradually  replaced  by  the  white  lichens 
or  reindeer  mosses  (Cladonia),  which  grow  freely  every- 
where throughout  the  semi-barren  and  barren  regions." 

The  traveller  along  the  coast,  who  penetrates  but  a  short 
distance  into  the  interior,  will  find  little  evidence  of  this 
forest  area,  except  in  sheltered  places  at  the  heads  of  bays. 
Of  the  trees  and  shrubs  mentioned  by  Low,  I  found  only 
Abies  (no  farther  north  than  Hamilton  Inlet),  Larix,  Picea, 
—  and  none  of  these  evergreens  were  seen  north  of  Hebron, 
—  and,  mainly  in  dwarf  forms,  Alnus,  Betula,  and  Salix. 
Nowhere  did  I  find  thickets  of  undergrowth  that  offered 
any  obstacle  to  travel. 

2.  The  most  common  plants  characteristic  of  the  sea- 
shore are  seaside  sandwort  (Arenaria  peploides),  sea- 
lungwort  or  ice-plant  (Mertensia  maritima),  Potentilla 
anserina  and  tridentata,  a  few  large  Umbelliferce  (Ccelopleu- 
rum  actceifolium,  Conioselinum  Canadense,  Ligusticum 
Scoticum),  and  one  or  two  species  of  Plantago.  Iris  and 
Lathyrus  maritimus  also  are  not  unusual  in  the  more  south- 
erly regions.  Besides  these,  almost  all  of  the  more  common 
plants  of  the  tundra  may  occur  close  to  the  sea-shore.  On 
sandy  places,  which  are  rather  rare  in  Labrador,  and  which 
are  exposed  preeminently  to  the  effect  of  high  winds  and 
scanty  water,  the  number  is  more  limited.  For  example, 
on  one  low  sand-dune  which  I  studied  at  Pottle's  Cove, 
close  by  the  entrance  to  Hamilton  Inlet,  in  latitude  54°, 
I  found  only  the  plants  enumerated  below,  though  many 
others  grew  on  the  rocky  heights  in  the  near  vicinity.  The 
more  abundant  are  italicized,  the  rest  were  rarer. 

a.  In  the  more  exposed  situations  exclusively:    Arctos- 


410  LABRADOR 

taphylos  alpina,  Betula  glandulosa,  Empetrum  nigrum, 
Abies  balsamea,  Juniperus  communis,  Picea  nigra,  Boletus. 
6.  In  the  more  sunny  and  protected  situations  exclu- 
sively :  Rubus  arcticus,  Potentilla  tridentata,  Taraxacum, 
Polyganum  viviparum. 

c.  In  both,  but  mainly  in  the  more  exposed :  Cerastium 
alpinum,  V actinium  Vitis-Idosa,  var.  minus,  Rhinanthus 
Crista-galli,  Sdix  Brownii. 

d.  In  both,  but  mainly  in  the  more  protected:   Draba 
incana,    Coelopleurum    actseifolium,    Cornus    Canadensis, 
Achillea  millefolium,  Solidago    macrophylla,   a   fine  thin 
unknown  grass. 

e.  In  both  about  equally:   Stellaria  longipes,  Lathy rus 
maritimus,  Sedum  Rhodiola,  Elymus  arenaria,  Poa  pra- 
tensis,    var.   domestica,   Barbula    ruralis,   Brachythecium, 
Hylocomium  splendens. 

At  Ford  Harbour,  a  little  farther  north  (56°),  the  follow- 
ing additional  species  (some  but  not  all  of  the  above  being 
present  also)  were  found  in  a  similar  situation:  Arenaria 
Grcenlandica,  Silene  acaulis,  Astragalus  alpinus,  Oxytropis, 
Saxifraga  Grcenlandica,  Epilobium  latifolium,  E.  spicatum, 
Antennaria,  Solidago  multiradiata,  var.  scopularum,  Tarax- 
acum officinale,  var.  palustre,  Pyrola  grandiflora,  Vacci- 
nium  uliginosum,  Polyganum  Islandicum,  Salix  herbacea, 
S.  Uva-ursi,  Polytricum  commune,  Lycoperdon,  Festuca 
rubra,  Hieroehloe  alpina,  Car  ex  rigida. 

3.  The  open  country  uncovered  by  forest,  whose  highest 
growths  are  low  shrubs  or  shrubby,  stunted  forms  of  trees, 
and  which  are  more  or  less  continuously  carpeted  with 
Arctic  plants  of  many  kinds,  is  called  the  tundra.  It  is 
'the  formation  that  will  be  most  often  met  with  by  the  voy- 


THE  FLOEA  411 

ager  along  the  coast;  and  since  Labrador,  as  at  present 
geographically  limited,  and  as  it  must  always  be  known  to 
the  great  majority  of  visitors,  is  but  little  more  than  a 
coast-line,  the  tundra  is  the  characteristic  Labrador  for- 
mation. "  Beyond  the  last  stunted  trees,"  says  Schimper/ 
aso  far  as  ice  does  not  cover  the  ground,  the  frigid  desert, 
or  tundra,  almost  alone  dominates  Arctic  mainlands  and 
islands.  Only  in  the  less  cold  and  therefore  chiefly  southern 
tracts  in  the  Arctic  zone,  in  more  favourable  localities  a  few 
less  insignificant  formations  exist;  for  instance,  willow- 
bushes  and  small  meadows  on  river-banks  and  in  fiords,  or 
even  formations  of  dwarf  shrubs,  which  consist  of  a  denser 
growth  of  the  same  evergreen,  small-leaved,  shrubby  species 
as  appear  singly  in  the  tundra  between  mosses  and  lichens. 
Dwarfed  growth,  a ,  distinctly  xerophilous  character,  the 
predominance  of  mosses  and  lichens,  the  incomplete  cover- 
ing of  the  ground,  —  these  features  are  everywhere  charac- 
teristic of  the  tundra.  ...  In  the  less  cold  tundra  dis- 
tricts, more  soil  is  occupied  by  vegetation  than  unoccupied ; 
even  wide  tracts  can  have  a  continuous  carpet  of  lichens. 
Where  the  climate  is  most  rigorous,  the  vegetation  forms 
only  widely  separated  patches  on  the  bare,  usually  stony 
soil." 

Conditions  in  Labrador  are  such  as  to  make  possible  the 
close  continuous  growth  almost  everywhere.  It  is  inter- 
rupted only  by  the  occasional  intrusion  of  unfavourable  or 
improved  surroundings.  These  are  of  four  types:  the 
summits  of  the  higher  mountains;  protruding  areas  of 
sparsely  covered  rocks  and  gravels ;  collections  of  water  in 

1  A.  F.  W.  Schimper,  Plant  Geography  upon  a  Physiological  Basis. 
p.  685.  Oxford,  1904. 


412  LABRADOR 

low  depressions,  forming  moors ;  and  well-watered,  sunny 
slopes.  The  first  three  of  these  are  emphasized  forms  of 
the  tundra;  the  last  departs  from  the  tundra  type,  form- 
ing oases  in  it. 

(a)  The  alpine  conditions  of  the  higher  mountains,  which 
are  confined  almost  wholly  to  the  northern  half  of  the 
country,  are  unfavourable  to  any  form  of  life.     The  summits 
consist  of  broken  masses  of  rock,  a  Felsenmeer  of  rough  and 
continuous  boulders  of  various  size.    Among  these,  only 
scattered  clumps  of  struggling  plants  can  find  footing  and 
the  essential  conditions  for  living.    The  number  of  indi- 
viduals, even  among  the  mosses  and  lichens,  is  small,  and 
the  species  are  few.     On  one  summit  (Mt.  Faunce,  4400  feet, 
latitude  59°)  I  found  above  3300  feet  only  the  following: 
Cerastium  alpinum,  Draba  fladnitzensiz,  Saxifraga  ccespitosa, 
S.  rivularis,  S.  nivalis,  Papaver  nudicaule,  Sedum  ?,  Luzula 
confusa,  mosses  (Andrecea  petrophila,  Bryumf,  Pogonatum 
alpinum  or  urnigerum,  P.  capillare,  Racomitrium  lanugino- 
sum),  and  lichens  (Alectoria  diver  gens,  A.nigricans,  Cetraria 
arctica,  C.  cuculata,  Sphcerophoron  coralloides,  Stereocaulon 
denudatum,  S.  tomentosum,  Theloschistes  polycarpus,  Umbili- 
caria  proboscidea) . 

(b)  On  protruding  rocks  but  few  plants  grow,  in  low,  flat, 
spreading  cushions.    Areas  of  gravel  are  also  but  little 
hospitable  to  plants,  and  their  covering  is  consequently 
scanty.    The  plants  'that  find  it  possible  to  survive  there 
are  to  some  extent  identical  with  those  already  described 
as  growing  well  in  sand.    They  are  pioneers  among  plants, 
such  as  can  take  root  and  nourish  themselves  on  the  bare 
rock-grains  and  moisture;    and  their  decay  makes  richer 
soil  for  others  to  grow  in.    The  species  of  most  common 


THE  FLOBA  413 

occurrence  which  I  found  in  such  situations  are :  Oxytropis 
campestris  (rare),  Arctostaphylos  alpina,  Loiseleuria  pro- 
cumbens  (rare),  Vaccinium  uliginoswn,  V.  Vitis-Idcea,  var. 
minus,  Diapensia  Lapponica  (growing  in  little  rounded 
mounds  on  its  own  previous  growth,  very  branchy,  showing 
yearly  additions  outward  and  upward,  —  one  specimen  I 
examined  was  three  inches  in  diameter  and  one  and  a  half 
inches  high  in  the  centre) ;  willows,  Empetrumnigrum,  Carex 
rigida  (rare),  Festuca  brevifolia  (rare);  three  mosses  (Di- 
cranum,  Polytricum  strictum,  Racomitrium  lanuginosum) , 
and  a  lichen  ( Umbilicaria) .  Dead  roots  and  branches, 
especially  of  the  willows  and  Ericaceae,  were  frequent,  and 
on  them  grew  other  varieties  of  moss.  Labrador  tea  and 
grasses  flourished  on  the  edges  of  these  bare  patches,  where 
some  soil  had  already  been  formed. 

(c)  "  Shallow  depressions  of  the  tundra,  where  the  water 
of  melted  snow  and  ice  accumulates  in  the  soil,  become 
swamps  in  the  form  of  tundra-moor,  and  there  a  scanty  peat 
bears  a  thin  layer  of  sphagnum  with  a  few  small  phanero- 
gams. Such  places  correspond  physically  but  not  physi- 
ologically to  the  oases  of  the  dry  desert"  (Schimper). 
The  moor  presents  many  features  that  are  unfavourable  to 
the  life  of  plants.  Humous  acids  are  abundant  and  pre- 
vent the  easy  absorption  of  moisture;  mineral  substances 
are  hard  to  obtain,  "  owing  to  the  great  distance  of  the  vege- 
tation from  the  mineral  substratum  and  to  the  absorptive 
influence  of  humus,  rendering  it  difficult  for  the  plants  to 
obtain  soluble  salts";  nitrogen  is  abundant,  but  in  such 
form  that  the  moor  is  among  the  poorest  of  soils  in  easily 
assimilable  nitrogenous  substances.  Sphagnum  is  the 
characteristic  and  most  abundant  plant  in  such  situations, 


414  LABRADOR 

"Its  spongy,  water-absorbing  cushions/'  which  "  keep  even 
the  highest  parts  of  the  moor  permanently  saturated  with 
water. .  .  .  gradually  grow  in  height,  while  the  lower  parts 
pass  over  into  sphagnum  peat "  (Schimper).  The  following 
list  of  other  plants  growing  in  moors  is  that  given  by 
Schimper,  with  those  of  known  occurrence  in  Labrador 
italicized.  Some  are  characteristic  of  high-moor:  Viola 
palustris,  Vaccinium  oxycoccus,  Andromeda  polifolia,  Be- 
tula  nana.  Others  are  preeminently  meadow-moor  species : 
Epilobium  palustre,  E.  tetragonum,  Senecio  aquaticus, 
S.  paludosus,  Gentiana  pneumonanthe,  several  species 
of  Carex.  Many  others  that  are  essentially  moor  plants 
occur  also  in  dry  stations  without  peat:  Vaccinium 
Vitis-Idcea;  or  on  meadow  moors:  Drosera  rotundifolia, 
Comarum  palustre,  Pedicularis  palustris,  Salix  repens, 
species  of  Eriophorum,  many  species  of  Carex.  Many 
moor  plants  compensate  for  their  disadvantages  by  be- 
coming carnivorous:  Drosera,  Pinguicula  vulgaris,  Sar- 
racenia  pur  pur  ea. 

(d)  By  far  the  most  favourable  and  fertile  situations  in 
the  whole  country  are  the  sunny  slopes,  exposed  to  the 
south,  which  are  abundantly  fed  by  water  from  melting 
snow-drifts,  on  which  the  water,  not  becoming  stagnant, 
has  no  opportunity  to  accumulate  humous  acids .  Schimper 
describes  them  thus :  — 

u  The  physiological  analogues  in  the  tundras  of  the  desert 
oasis  are  Heat-oases  —  sunny  slopes  protected  from  the 
drying  winds  —  upon  which  the  sunbeams  fall  almost  per- 
pendicularly, and  thus  warm  the  water  in  the  soil  so  that 
plants  can  obtain  it  in  actual  abundance.  Such  stations 
frequently  resemble  the  flower-beds  of  a  garden.  Accord- 
ing to  Nathorst :  — 


THE  FLORA  415 

"  '  The  plants  of  the  slopes  are  in  many  respects  the  most 
interesting.  The  majority  of  them  occur  as  strongly 
developed  individuals,  which  here  appear  to  thrive  per- 
fectly, and  apparently  can  ripen  their  seeds  annually. 
This  naturally  is  true  of  the  good  localities,  namely,  of  the 
slopes  that  soon  become  free  from  snow.  Here  one  has  an 
opportunity  of  being  able  to  observe  the  remarkable  in- 
fluence of  the  sun's  rays.  Slopes,  that  a  short  time  before 
were  covered  with  snow,  a  few  days  later  are  adorned  with 
several  flowers ;  the  development  of  these  can  proceed  so 
rapidly  that  one  soon  finds  fruit  as  well,  as  in  the  case  of 
Draba.  Here  one  sees  sometimes  quite  blue  mats  of  Pole- 
monium  pulchellum,  or  red  ones  of  Saxifraga  oppositifdia, 
with  a  varied  mixture  of  other  tints,  yellow,  white,  green. 
.  .  .  When  the  plants  of  the  slopes  occur  in  the  plains, 
they  are  not  usually  so  well  developed  as  on  the  slopes,  but 
the  difference  in  this  respect  is  much  greater  in  some 
plants  than  in  others/  ; 

The  plants  growing  on  these  slopes  are  for  the  most  part 
more  flourishing  individuals  of  the  same  species  that  are 
found  on  the  surrounding  tundra.  I  myself  noticed  only 
a  few  that  seemed  confined  to  these  or  similar  situations : 
Ranunculus  pygmceus,  R.  hyperboreus,  Linn&a  borealis, 
Gentiana  nivalis.  Many  others  might  probably  yet  be 
discovered  by  careful  attention  to  the  influence  of  this 
particular  situation. 

Such  aspects  of  the  vegetable  growths  of  Labrador  as 
have  thus  far  been  described  may  be  considered  as  excep- 
tional. The  predominant  form  of  vegetation  qn  or  near 
the  coast  is  that  of  the  true  tundra  itself.  Its  appear- 
ance as  it  occurs  throughout  Labrador  I  cannot  better 
describe  than  in  words  which  I  have  already  used : 1  — 

1  Report  of  the  Brown- Harvard  Expedition  to  Labrador,  Geo- 
graphical Society,  Philadelphia,  1902,  pp.  129  ff.,  168  ff. 


416  LAB BADGE 

"The  interior  is  said  to  be  well  wooded  and  far  from 
barren,  even  almost  to  the  northern  extremity.  But  near 
the  coast  one  rarely  sees  trees  of  any  notable  size.  At 
Hopedale  and  Nain  there  are  small  groves  near  the  mission 
stations ;  but  elsewhere  we  met  them  only  deep  in  the  bays 
and  in  sheltered  valleys  a  considerable  distance  —  five  or 
ten  miles  at  least  —  inland.  Thus,  when  not  entirely 
lacking,  they  form  an  unobtrusive  feature  in  the  usual 
landscape.  The  low  vegetation  that  predominates  clothes 
the  country  with  a  close  green  mantle,  but  leaves  its  shape 
and  natural  outline  unconcealed.  Inorganic  nature  reveals 
herself  in  her  own  primeval  character,  leaving  all  the 
strength  and  charm  and  variety  that  she  can  assume  naked 
to  observation.  There  is  little  of  softness,  little  of  the 
attraction  that  vigorous  organic  life  can  add;  though  the 
green  of  the  low  plants,  the  grays,  reds,  and  browns  of 
mosses  and  lichens,  the  blues  and  whites  and  pinks  and 
yellows  of  the  flowers,  add  a  suggestion  of  this,  yet  in  a  way 
that  never  interferes  with  the  stern  grandeur  of  the  lifeless 
masses. 

"The  more  northern  landscapes  differ  from  those  thus 
far  described  mainly  in  the  facts  that  the  greater  heights 
attained  lead  to  grander  impressions  of  massiveness  and 
strength,  and  involve  greater  ruggedness  and  variety  of 
form ;  and  that  the  softening  influences  of  soil,  water,  and 
vegetation  are  present  to  a  far  less  degree.  .  .  .  Plant 
life  is  still  abundant  on  the  lower  levels,  but  finds  little 
hospitality  on  the  bleak  higher  slopes.  .  .  . 

"The  great  mass  of  the  vegetation  of  Labrador  consists 
of  low  forms.  It  grows  so  thickly  and  vigorously  in  the 
thin  soil,  however,  that  the  country  never  gives  the  impres- 
sion of  being  lifeless  and  barren.  In  the  far  south,  es- 
pecially on  moist  lowlands,  sphagnum  is  often  a  prevailing 
growth.  But  aside  from  its  rather  rare  supremacy,  almost 
everywhere  we  went  we  found  the  curlewberry  (Empetrum 
nigrum)  and  the  so-called  caribou-moss  (Cladonia,  really  a 


THE  FLOE  A  417 

white  lichen)  together  forming  an  almost  continuous  green 
and  gray  sward,  touched  with  red  in  the  autumn.  The 
berries  of  the  curlew  are  exceedingly  numerous,  and  those 
of  the  previous  season  still  cling  thickly  to  the  vine  among 
the  green  new  ones,  and  even  until  the  latter  begin  to  ripen 
in  the  middle  of  August.  In  the  midst  of  this  continuous 
curlew  and  moss  grow  occasional  clumps  of  grasses  of  many 
kinds,  and  a  great  variety  of  flowering  plants.  Perhaps 
the  most  common  of  the  latter  are  the  Ericacece.  Some  of 
them  are  berry-bearing,  with  inconspicuous  flowers,  par- 
ticularly the  blueberry  (V actinium  Pennsylvanicum  and 
V.  uliginosum),  the  mountain  cranberry  (V.  Vitis-Idcea), 
and  the  bearberry  (Arctostaphylos  alpina).  Others  have 
more  prominent  flowers,  such  as  the  omnipresent  Labrador 
tea  (Ledum),  together  with  the  somewhat  less  universal 
Loiseleuria  and  Bryanthus.  These  are  all  exceedingly 
abundant  in  the  southern  half  of  the  peninsula,  but  extend 
variously  far  to  the  north.  The  white  clusters  of  the 
Ledum  and  the  purple  umbels  of  the  Bryanthus  are  very 
conspicuous.  In  the  autumn,  the  red-turning  leaves  of  the 
Arctostaphylos  are  the  most  attractive  of  the  season's 
colourings.  There  is  also  a  large  number  of  other  plants 
that  are  constantly  met  with,  though  few  of  them  are  so 
nearly  omnipresent  and  continuous  as  are  most  of  those 
already  mentioned.  The  bake-apple,  or  cloudberry  (Rubus 
Chamcemorus)  grows  thickly  as  far  north  as  Hebron,  but 
very  thinly  beyond.  We  could  find  but  very  few  of  its  ripe 
berries  in  Labrador,  though  in  Newfoundland  they  seem 
to  be  common.  Associated  with  its  single  white  flowers 
are  frequently  seen  the  showy,  rose-coloured  ones  of  the 
Arctic  raspberry  (Rubus  arcticus) .  This  also,  so  far  as  our 
experience  could  determine,  had  about  the  same  limits  and 
was  equally  rare  in  fruit .  Bunch-berry  (Cornus  Canadensis) 
is  likewise  very  common,  especially  in  the  south,  and  grows 
in  thick  groups.  Dense  tufts  of  the  white-flowered  Dia- 
pensia  Lapponica  and  of  the  beautiful  mosslike  pink 

2s 


418  LABEADOE 

Silene  acaulis  greet  the  eye  continually.  Astragalus  and 
Oxytropis,  Dryas,  a  great  variety  of  saxifrages,  Sedum, 
Pedicularis,  the  violetlike  Pinguicula,  and  many  inconspic- 
uous Cruciferce  and  Caryophyllacece  complete  the  list  of 
forms  more  universally  present  in  the  early  part  of  the 
season. 

"  After  the  beginning  of  August,  when  we  had  reached 
a  higher  latitude,  the  character  of  the  vegetation  changed 
considerably.  Caribou-moss,  curlewberry,  blueberry,  and 
Arctostaphylos  still  remained  the  most  continuous  growths. 
But  the  flowers  began  to  change  to  more  autumnal  forms. 
The  Arctic  goldenrod  (Solidago  Virga-aurea  and  S.  macro- 
phylla)  appeared  abundantly.  The  large  showy  pink 
flowers  of  the  Epilobium  and  the  thick  pink  heads  of 
Lychnis  were  very  prominent.  Yellow  Arnica  alpina  and 
delicate  blue  harebells  (Campanula)  were  common.  A 
yellow  poppy  (Papaver  nudicaule),  with  early  deciduous 
petals,  was  not  infrequent  on  the  hilltops.  A  strikingly 
beautiful  flower,  though  a  rare  one,  was  the  small  twin- 
flower  (Linncea  borealis) .  Fungi,  including  Boleti,  Russulce, 
and  various  agarics,  also  became  very  abundant  toward 
the  close  of  the  summer ;  they  were  fairly  numerous  in  the 
north,  and  the  moist  woods  about  Nain  and  Hopedale  were 
full  of  them." 

Thus  far  we  have  considered  what  are  the  main  types  and 
characteristics  of  the  plant  forms  that  occur  in  Labrador 
and  the  causes  that  make  these  predominant ;  and  what 
are  the  main  features  and  less  frequent  varieties  of  its 
landscape,  in  so  far  as  they  are  supplied  by  its  floral  cover: 
ing.  If  now  we  consider  the  affinities  of  the  plants  of  this 
region  with  those  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  a  number  of 
curious  and  unexpected  facts  present  themselves.  Who, 
for  instance,  would  anticipate  that  the  northern  parts  of 
America  possess  many  more  plants  like  those  of  Arctic 


THE  FLORA  419 

Europe  than  Greenland  does?  Or  that  there  are  many 
plants  here  identical  with  those  growing  on  the  southern 
slopes  of  the  Alps,  which  are  altogether  lacking  in  northern 
Europe?  Or,  still  more  strangely,  that  one  must  seek  in 
the  Arctic  regions  of  America,  and  not  in  Europe,  for  the 
closest  resemblances  to  the  plants  that  flourished  in  the 
far  distant  Miocene  age  in  central  Europe?  Yet  so  we 
are  assured  by  competent  authorities.  To  these  facts  we 
may  add  the  following  statements  from  Hooker :  — 

The  polar  regions  have  relatively  fewer  species  and  vari- 
eties than  have  other  regions.  The  flora  of  all  its  parts  is 
largely  identical  or  closely  similar,  but  is  unequally  dis- 
tributed. Of  all  Arctic  regions,  Greenland  exhibits  the 
greatest  poverty  in  number  of  species.  Many  Scandina- 
vian plants  have  found  their  way  westward  to  Greenland, 
but  have  stopped  short  on  its  west  coast,  without  crossing 
to  America;  many  American  types  terminate  as  abruptly 
on  the  west  coast  of  Baffin's  Bay,  not  crossing  to  Green- 
land and  Europe;  Greenland  contains  actually  much  fewer 
species  of  European  plants  than  have  found  their  way 
eastwards  from  Lapland  by  Asia  into  Western  and  Eastern 
Arctic  America;  the  Scandinavian  vegetation  has  in  every 
longitude  migrated  across  the  tropics  of  Asia  and  America, 
while  plants  typical  of  these  continents  which  have  found 
their  way  into  the  Arctic  regions  have  remained  restricted 
to  their  own  meridians. 

These  facts,  at  first  seemingly  inexplicable,  and  actually 
so  under  existing  conditions  of  sea,  land,  and  temperature, 
naturally  have  their  explanation  in  the  evolutionary  and 
geological  history  of  our  globe.  Most  of  them  will  be 
understood  clearly  from  the  following  account  given  by 


420  LABRADOR 

Hooker,1  which  in  all  essential  points  agrees  with  the  the- 
ories advanced  in  the  latest  edition  (10th)  of  the  Encyclo- 
paedia Britannica:  — 

"It  appears  to  me  difficult  to  account  for  these  facts, 
unless  we  admit  Mr.  Darwin's  hypotheses,  first,  that  the 
existing  Scandinavian  flora  is  of  great  antiquity,  and  that 
previous  to  the  glacial  epoch  it  was  more  uniformly  dis- 
tributed over  the  polar  zone  than  it  is  now ;  secondly,  that 
during  the  advent  of  the  glacial  period  this  Scandinavian 
vegetation  was  driven  southward  in  every  longitude,  and 
even  across  the  tropics  into  the  south  temperate  zone; 
and  that  on  the  succeeding  warmth  of  the  present  epoch, 
those  species  that  survived  both  ascended  the  mountains 
of  the  warmer  zones,  and  also  returned  northward,  accom- 
panied by  aborigines  of  the  countries  they  had  invaded 
during  their  southern  migration.  ...  If  it  be  granted 
that  the  polar  area  was  once  occupied  by  the  Scandinavian 
flora,  and  that  the  cold  of  the  glacial  epoch  did  drive  this 
vegetation  southwards,  it  is  evident  that  the  Greenland 
individuals,  from  being  confined  to  a  peninsula,  would 
be  exposed  to  very  different  conditions  to  those  of  the 
great  continents.  In  Greenland  many  species  would,  as 
it  were,  be  driven  into  the  sea,  that  is,  exterminated; 
and  the  survivors  would  be  confined  to  the  southern  por- 
tion of  the  peninsula,  and  not  being  there  brought  into 
competition  with  other  types,  there  could  be  no  struggle 
for  life  amongst  their  progeny,  and  consequently  no  selec- 
tion of  better-adapted  varieties.  On  the  return  of  heat, 
these  survivors  would  simply  travel  northwards,  unaccom- 
panied by  the  plants  of  any  other  country.  In  Arctic  Amer- 
ica and  Asia,  on  the  other  hand,  where  there  was  a  free 
southern  extension  and  dilatation  of  land  for  the  same 
Scandinavian  plants  to  occupy,  these  would  multiply 
enormously  in  individuals,  branching  off  into  varieties  and 

1  Distribution  of  Arctic  Plants,  pp.  253  f. 


THE  FLORA  421 

subspecies,  and  occupy  a  larger  area  the  farther  south  they 
were  driven.  .  .  .  Hence,  on  the  return  of  warmth,  many 
more  Scandinavian  species  would  return  to  Arctic  America 
and  Asia  than  survived  in  Greenland;  some  would  be 
changed  in  form,  because  only  the  favoured  varieties  could 
have  survived  the  struggle." 

The  summer  visitor  to  Labrador,  whether  scientist  or 
pleasure-seeker,  may  naturally  be  expected  to  have  an 
interest  not  only  in  the  scientific  aspects  of  its  flora,  but 
also  in  the  possibilities  it  presents  of  making  additions  to 
his  food -supplies.  These  are  meagre,  but,  so  far  as  they  go, 
of  a  very  satisfactory  nature.  Garden  vegetables,  berry- 
bearing  plants,  and  fungi  nearly  exhaust  the  list  of  com- 
monly known  plants  that  is  available  for  this  purpose. 
The  former  are  raised  sparingly  in  the  fishing  villages  of 
the  southern  portion  of  the  coast,  and  by  the  missionaries 
at  the  Moravian  stations  as  far  north  as  Nain.  Edible 
berries  are  exceedingly  abundant,  especially  blueberries, 
Arctic  cranberries,  and  curlewberries.  The  last  two  kinds 
require  cooking  to  make  them  palatable,  but  then  are  de- 
licious. The  cloudberry,  or  bake-apple  (Rubus  Chamcemo- 
rus)  is  abundant  in  some  few  parts  of  the  country,  and  is 
much  esteemed  by  the  natives.  Raspberries  also  are  found 
in  some  localities. 

The  fungi  of  Labrador  have  as  yet  received  but  little 
study.  The  most  common  kinds,  both  of  which  are  easily 
identified  by  any  one  with  a  very  slight  knowledge  of  fungi, 
are  apparently  various  species  of  Boletus  and  of  Russula. 
These  grow  in  considerable  numbers  almost  everywhere. 
Several  other  kinds  of  fungi  are  obtainable  in  smaller 
quantities.  They  need  much  further  investigation,  and 


422  LABRADOR 

their  study  offers  a  problem  for  further  research,  attractive 
for  both  economic  and  scientific  reasons. 

Mention  may  also  well  be  made  of  certain  growths  which, 
while  not  ordinarily  attractive  as  foods,  may  yet  serve  in 
emergency  to  sustain  life  for  an  indefinite  period.  A  list 
and  description  of  a  number  of  such  "  emergency  foods/' 
easily  available  at  any  season  of  the  year,  has  recently 
been  given  by  Ernest  Thompson-Seton  (Country  Life  in 
America,  September,  1904,  Vol.  VI,  p.  438).  After  enu- 
merating several  small  forms  of  animal  life  that  may  serve 
in  this  way,  he  describes  and  pictures  the  plants.  Among 
them  are  several  abundant  lichens  (Cetraria  or  Iceland  moss, 
Cladonia  or  reindeer  moss,  Umbilicaria  or  rock-tripe), 
the  outer  and  inner  (but  not  the  middle)  bark  and  the 
buds  of  aspen  (Populus  tremuloides) ,  the  shoots  of  spruce 
and  tamarack,  the  inner  bark  of  willows  and  birch.  Most  of 
these  need  to  be  well  dried  at  first,  and  then  either  roasted 
or  boiled  for  a  long  time.  It  is  evident  that  a  knowledge 
of  these  plants  and  of  their  nutritious  qualities  might  on 
occasion  prove  of  the  utmost  value  to  the  traveller  in  these 
regions.  The  party  of  Sir  John  Franklin  lived  almost  ex- 
clusively on  such  diet  for  over  three  months.  "  Lowly  in 
the  scale  of  diet  as  they  are  in  the  scale  of  organic  nature," 
says  Mr.  Seton,  "the  rock-tripes  are  yet  reliable  friends  of 
man,  and  no  one  should  travel  in  these  vast  inhospitable 
regions  without  a  knowledge  of  their  appearance,  their 
qualities,  and  the  best  methods  of  preparing  them  -for 
human  food."  1 

1  Some  of  the  edible  plants  here  mentioned  are  of  very  common 
occurrence  in  all  these  northern  lands.  The  list  here  mentioned  could 
doubtless  be  largely  extended. 


THE  FLORA  423 

A  great  deal  of  work  is  yet  to  be  done  by  careful  ob- 
servers before  the  full  nature  of  the  Labrador  flora  can  be 
satisfactorily  known.  As  yet  only  its  more  superficial  as- 
pects have  been  reported.  Hardly  any  attempt  has  been 
made  to  determine  the  influence  of  different  types  of  situ- 
ations, and  to  enumerate  the  plants  that  flourish  in  each. 
It  is  but  a  rough  preliminary  survey  that  has  thus  far  been 
accomplished.  There  must,  moreover,  still  remain  many 
species  of  plants  undiscovered.  Every  new  visit  to  the 
country  results  in  fresh  finds.  A  large  number  of  species 
has  been  found  in  near-by  regions  as  yet  unknown  in  Lab- 
rador, but  probably  occurring  there.  A  striking  instance  of 
this  probability  seems  to  be  presented  by  the  Cyperacece. 
According  to  methods  of  calculation  already  explained, 
which  cannot  be  very  exact,  forty-seven  of  them  seem  to 
have  been  reported  from  adjacent  localities,  and  only  twenty- 
eight  from  Labrador.  Other  instances  of  similar  impor- 
tance will  probably  be  found.  Especially  large  rewards 
may  probably  be  expected  from  further  investigations  of 
the  mosses,  lichens,  hepatics,  and  fungi.  A  considerable 
number  ol  those  brought  back  by  the  writer  in  1900  seemed 
to  be  new  for  that  locality,  so  far  as  previous  records 
showed. 

Labrador  is  no  longer  the  inaccessible  land  of  mystery 
it  was  a  few  years  ago.  Its  marvellous  scenery  and  varied 
charm  are  sure  to  attract  more  and  more  visitors  year  by 
year.  Many  will  go  for  technical  study,  and  will  find  a 
rich  field  for  its  pursuit.  Most  will  be  drawn  by  the  love 
of  an  outdoor  life,  by  the  desire  for  adventure  or  for  ser- 
viceableness  in  the  Mission,  by  the  opportunity  for  seeing 
and  enjoying  a  strange  and  fascinating  country.  It  is 


424  LABRADOR 

for  these  latter  mainly  that  this  chapter  has  been  written. 
The  more  they  can  understand  and  observe  of  the  great 
wild  garden  that,  if  really  seen  and  intimately  known,  makes 
impossible  any  thought  of  barrenness,  the  larger  will  be 
their  pleasure.     However  small  the  knowledge  with  which 
he  starts,  no  one  need  be  deterred  from  attempting  to  gain 
a  larger  comprehension  of  these  matters,  so  significant  for 
the  correct  interpretation  of  the  true  nature  of  a  country. 
If  these  be  its  features  in  which  he  is  most  interested,  he 
will  at  least  add  enormously  to  his  own  satisfaction  and 
insight.     By  making  a  carefully  selected  and  well-annotated 
collection  of   plants,  he   may  also,  on  submitting   it  to 
reliable  experts,  make  some  extension  to  the  list  of  re- 
corded varieties  and  species  that  occur  there.     If  he  will 
prepare  himself  as  well  as  possible  beforehand  and  then 
make  some  special  study  of  still  unsettled  points,  such  aa 
the  edibility  of  various  plants,  the  particular  features  of 
certain  especially  variable  species  and  of  the  conditions 
under  which  they  occur,  the  influence  of  particular  situa- 
tions, soils,  and  conditions,  he  may  well  hope  to   make 
contributions  to  new  knowledge.     Plenty  of  such  oppor- 
tunities  are   still  open  to  the  amateur.     In  spite  of  his 
own  unfortunate  experience  in  admitting  errors  into  his 
published  description,  the  writer  still  does  not  hesitate  to 
encourage  amateurs  in  endeavouring  to  make  really  new 
additions   to    knowledge   in  this  far  from  fully  explored 
field.    The  mistakes  of  an  amateur  may  well  be  forgiven 
and  gradually  corrected,  if  he  does  not  pretend  to  be  any- 
thing more ;  and  confession  of  the  difficulties  met  with  by 
one  of  them  may  help  to  eliminate  similar  troubles  in  the 
future,  and  to  render  only  real  discoveries  liable  to  pub- 


THE  FLORA  425 

lication.  To  make  this  more  certain,  the  amateur  must 
always  know  the  authorities  to  whom  he  may  surely 
appeal  for  final  verification,  and  must  leave  to  the  pro- 
fessional and  expert  botanist  all  the  more  delicate  questions 
of  identification  and  the  critical  settlement  of  problems 
concerning  structure,  influence,  and  conditions. 


CHAPTER   XVII 

ANIMAL    LIFE    IN    LABRADOR 
BY  WILFRED  T.  GRENFELL 

THE  struggle  for  life  among  the  Labrador  mammals  is  well 
worthy  the  title.  The  state  of  the  soil,  climate,  temperature, 
with  the  resulting  conditions  especially  of  the  Flora,  make  it 
possible  for  only  well-adapted  and  vigorous  animals  to  live  at 
all.  The  difficulty  of  survival  is  increased  by  the  constant 
warfare  among  themselves,  many  having  to  live  by  preying 
on  the  others.  The  squirrel  is  never  safe  from  the  lynx, 
the  caribou  from  the  wolf,  the  rabbit  from  the  fox.  The 
snow  betrays  every  movement,  and  in  winter  the  weaker 
run  a  constant  risk  of  extinction.  Even  our  birds  force 
upon  us  the  fact  that  .the  dire  conditions  of  life  induce  in 
them  no  sentimental  feelings  of  mercy.  On  one  occasion  my 
retriever  brought  me  too  fat  auks  which  he  had  caught  on 
the  frozen  bay,  long  after  most  birds  have  left  us.  It  was 
Sunday  morning,  and  to  spare  the  prejudices  of  the  people 
I  was  visiting,  I  forebore  to  carry  them  into  the  village. 
On  the  ground,  however,  the  tracks  of  fox  and  lynx  warned 
me  that  the  birds  were  not  safe.  Accordingly  I  hung 
them  high  up  in  a  tree.  On  returning  a  little  later  I  found 
nothing  but  bones  and  feathers  —  an  owl  had  probably 
visited  my  cache.  Another  time,  having  done  the  same 
thing  with  three  fat  partridges,  we  caught  the  robbers 
flagrante  delicto.  -They  proved  to  be  two  small  Canada 
jays.  One  very  cold  day,  the  sea  being  covered  with  young 

426 


ANIMAL   LIFE  IN  LABRADOR  427 

ice,  I  noticed  a  belated  dovekie  cheerfully  diving  after  food 
among  the  slob,  while  the  waters  froze  to  our  oars  as  we 
rowed.  His  pluck  and  contentment  in  such  a  lonely  place 
made  us  feel  very  warmly  toward  him.  As  we  watched  he 
rose  to  wing,  apparently  to  follow  his  friends  to  their  more 
southern  home.  He  had  not  risen  a  hundred  yards,  how- 
ever, when  a  hawk  swooped  on  him  like  lightning  from  the 
cliff,  and  returned  leisurely  to  his  eyry  with  the  struggling 
little  fellow,  there  to  tear  to  pieces  alive  our  poor  little 
friend. 

Moreover,  now,  man,  their  main  enemy,  is  increasing  in 
numbers.  Besides  his  accumulated  experience  and  his  new 
destructive  methods  and  weapons,  he  is  continually  en- 
croaching more  and  more  on  their  territory.  Every  single 
animal  lives  in  terror  of  man,  yet  none  ever  attacks  him  if 
there  be  any  other  alternative,  unless  it  be  his  own  half-fed 
dogs.  All  their  efforts  are  directed  towards  escape.  To 
afford  themselves  protection  some  of  the  weaker,  such  as 
the  caribou,  hare,  partridge,  and  ermine,  change  the  colour 
of  their  coat  with  the  seasons.  Nearly  all  grow  longer  hair 
and  put  on  their  best  fur  against  the  terrible  cold  of  winter. 
The  fat  in  the  skins  of  the  out-of-season  fur  is  due  to  this 
effort,  and  is  so  sure  a  sign  of  poaching  out  of  season  that 
pelts  showing  fat  on  the  inside  are  not  allowed  by  law  to  be 
sold  or  to  pass  customs.  Our  seals  and  birds  acquire  cor- 
responding coats  of  fat,  so  that  the  former  will  float  when 
killed.  They  are  able  to  enjoy  the  bitterest  weather  div- 
ing under  the  ice  —  while  the  birds  have  energy  enough 
stored  in  that  form  to  enable  them  to  accomplish  their  long 
journeys  to  South  America,  the  Antilles,  and  even  to  Asia 
and  Europe,  without  needing  to  stop  to  replenish  their 


428  LABRADOR 

stock.     Black  bear  and  woodchuck  use  this  fat  as  food  to 
enable  them  to  sleep  through  the  discomforts  of  winter. 

Most  of  the  mammals  have  their  special  senses  developed 
to  an  extraordinary  degree.  The  wild  goose  and  the  eagle 
can  both  see  better  than  we  can  even  with  the  aid  of  a 
telescope,  while  huge  owls  prefer  the  dark  for  clear  vision. 
A  wolf  or  a  beaver  can  tell  the  scent  of  an  old  trail  of  a 
man  who  has  only  passed  once,  and  that  hours  before.  A 
fox  will  hear  the  feeble  chirrup  of  a  mouse  all  across  a 
marsh.  Strangely  enough,  none  of  the  mammals  rely  on 
sight  for  protection.  Scent  is  no  use  down  wind  and  very 
little  over  water.  Hearing  is  an  exceedingly  unreliable 
guide  as  to  direction,  while  sight  would  appear  to  be 
valuable  under  all  circumstances.  A  seal  often  loses  its 
life  through  its  inability  to  know  what  it  is  looking  at.  It 
will  put  its  head  and  shoulders  out  of  water  every  minute 
to  try  and  make  out  a  man,  and  will  come  close  up  to  him. 
I  shall  never  forget  my  first  caribou,  and  the  "buck  fever7' 
which  made  me  fire  nine  times  at  him.  I  was  lying  in  a 
perfectly  open  marsh,  and  the  animal,  which  was  looking 
straight  at  me,  simply  stood  and  sniffed  the  air  and  stared 
helplessly.  The  powder  was,  of  course,  smokeless.  A  friend, 
kneeling  also  in  a  perfectly  exposed  marsh,  by  simply  stay- 
ing still,  tolled  a  fox  so  close  to  him,  that  when  he  eventually 
fired,  the  shot,  going  like  a  bullet,  nearly  spoiled  a  valuable 
pelt.  But  foxes  differ  —  all  are  not  so  foolish.  A  beaver 
will  look  at  you  down  wind  from  only  a  few  yards  away, 
and  yet  not  distinguish  anything  unusual.  As  shy  an  ani- 
mal as  a  marten  will  show  no  fear  so  long  as  you  keep  still. 
Slow,  steady  movement  or  stillness  always  inspires  confi- 
dence. 


ANIMAL   LIFE  IN  LABRADOR  429 

Speed  is,  of  course,  one  invaluable  safeguard  to  our  ani- 
mals, but  dogged  endurance  is  nearly  always  too  much  for 
them.  A  wolf  cannot  catch  a  caribou  on  a  straight  run,  nor 
a  fox  a  rabbit,  but  once  they  get  a  really  fresh  trail  they  are 
pretty  sure  to  kill.  I  have  seen  the  tracks  of  the  chase  of  a 
fox  by  a  lynx.  Round  and  round  the  lake  they  went,  the 
huge  leaps  of  the  lynx  giving  him  an  enormous  advantage 
over  the  pitter  patter  of  the  fox  —  which  was  evidently 
speedier.  But  we  found  the  trace  of  the  final  act :  a  bit  of 
fur  and  a  few  tracks  of  blood. 

None  of  our  animals  live  very  long,  except  the  whales, 
some  of  which  are  said  to  live  a  thousand  years.  Judging  by 
the  immense  barnacles  which  grow  upon  their  skins,  it  is  easy 
to  believe  it  of  some  of  the  hoary  monsters  which  the  .whalers 
tow  into  our  factories.  We  consider  that  a  fox  or  a  caribou 
of  fifteen,  or  a  wolf  of  twenty  years,  are  in  their  dotage.  I 
remember  one  old  black-beaked  gull  which  has  been  in  cap- 
tivity thirty-two  years.  Solemnly  each  year  she  makes 
half  a  dozen  nests  in  different  places,  finally  laying  three 
unfertilized  eggs  in  one,  with  the  regularity  of  clockwork. 

The  numbers  of  animals  killed  by  man  each  year  vary 
greatly.  Thus  in  1910  and  1911  large  numbers  of  foxes 
were  killed,  while  in  1911-1912  scarcely  a  fox  was  caught 
and  all  fur  was  scarce.  The  reasons  attributed  were  that 
in  1910  the  mice  and  learnings  were  very  few  and  the  foxes 
had  to  come  to  the  outer  trapping  grounds,  hunting  food 
nearer  the  land-wash,  and  their  hunger  made  them  readily 
take  bait.  In  1911  mice  were  again  very  plentiful,  and 
some  foxes  certainly  went  farther  inland  for  them.  Some 
were  caught,  but  probably  too  large  a  toll  of  breeders  had 
been  taken  the  year  previous. 


430  LABRADOR 

Canis  occidentahs.  —  The  timber  wolf  of  Labrador  seems 
to  be  deficient  in  the  noble  qualities  allotted  to  him  else- 
where.    I  can  find  no  account  of  his  having  courage  to 
attack  even  an  unarmed  man,  though  on  several  occasions 
men  have  been  followed  by  small  packs  of  wolves  almost 
to  their  doors.     I  heard  of  one  boy  who  was  attacked  by  a 
wolf,  but  he  fired  his  gun  in  its  face  and  ran  away  without 
waiting  to  see  what  happened.     It  seems  certain  that  they 
kill  defenceless  animals  merely  for  the  pleasure  of  killing 
them.     Settlers  have  many  times  described  to  me  how 
they  have  found  carcasses  of  freshly  killed  deer  within  a 
short  distance  of  one  another,  only  the  tongues  having  been 
eaten  and  the  windpipe  torn  out.    This  method  of  killing 
may  account  for  the  tongue  being  eaten,  owing  to  its 
attachment  to  the  larynx.     The  wolves  have  frequently 
come  out  and  mixed  with  the  Eskimo  dogs,  killing  and  eat- 
ing them.    This  has  been  used  to  their  destruction  by  peg- 
ging out  sluts,  and  so  attracting  the  wolves  within  range. 
One  trapper  while  tailing  his  traps  noticed  that  he  was 
being  followed  by  three  wolves.     On  his  return  to  the 
spot  where  he  had  left  a  bag  of  flour  he  found  that  the 
wolves  had  been  circling  round  it,  but  had  been  afraid  to 
touch  it.     On  stooping  to  pick  it  up  he  heard  a  growl  close 
to  him,  and  a  single  wolf  stood  facing  him  snarling.     With 
considerable  coolness  he. stood  still  and  took  time  to  load 
his  muzzle-loading  gun.     The  wolf  meanwhile  was  walking 
around.    The  other  two  wolves  did  hot  show  up  out  of  .the 
thicket.      When  he  was  ready  he  shot  and  killed  the  one 
in  sight,  whereupon  the  other  two  dashed  out  of  the  thicket 
and  fled.    This  man  has  had  a  very  large  experience  with 
our  wild  animals.    The  wolf  in  question  was  far  advanced  in 


ANIMAL  LIFE  IN  LABRADOR  431 

starvation,  and  only  'the  pangs  of  hunger  gave  the  poor 
beast  the  courage  to  face  a  man.  I  have  in  my  collection 
the  skull  of  a  large  wolf  which  had  killed  itself  by  eating 
sticks.  A  piece  the  exact  width  of  the  mouth,  cut  off  by 
the  two  large  lateral  teeth,  had  sprung  across  the  mouth 
like  a  bow,  and  the  pressure  on  each  end  had  absorbed  the 
alveolus  of  the  jaw,  so  that  the  stick  was  right  through  on 
both  sides  above  the  teeth.  The  pressure  had  also  ab- 
sorbed the  bone  above  it,  and  eaten  a  long  hole  the  size  of 
the  stick  through  the  base  of  the  skull,  and  so  probably  in- 
fected the  brain.  The  stick  is  still  in  situ  in  the  skull. 

The  method  by  which  the  wolves  destroy  the  caribou  was 
hotly  debated  some  time  ago.  I  append  two  detailed  de- 
scriptions from  eye-witnesses.  Mr.  Flowers  of  Hamilton 
Inlet,  hunting  with  his  brother,  noticed  a  full-grown  caribou 
flying  at  top  speed  across  the  barrens.  From  the  hill  on 
which  they  were  they  watched  it  through  their  field  glasses, 
and  noticed  it  mount  a  neighbouring  steep  ascent  at  the 
same  matchless  pace,  and  then  suddenly  stop  and  lie  down. 
Very  shortly  a  large  timber  wolf  came  flying  by.  As  soon 
as  it  sighted  the  caribou  it  turned  off  and  ran  to  leeward, 
making  a  long  circle  as  if  afraid  to  go  near.  Probably  it 
had  had  experiences  before.  Soon  after  two  more  wolves 
came  along,  and  one  of  these  also  started  to  circle  round. 
The  other,  however,  went  straight  at  the  deer  from  behind, 
while  its  attention  was  drawn  the  other  way.  It  ran  right 
in  under  the  forelegs  and  grabbed  the  deer  high  in  the 
throat.  The  deer,  a  fine  old  stag,  reared  up  on  his  hind 
legs,  the  wolf  still  holding  on.  The  deer  then  went  down 
and  tried  to  knee  the  wolf  to  pieces  against  the  hard 
ground.  Just  at  that  moment  one  of  the  party  shot  the 


432  LABRADOR 

deer,  with  the  result  that  all  three  wolves  got  safely  away. 
The  deer  would  certainly  have  been  killed  anyhow. 

In  the  second  case,  the  deer,  a  doe,  took  to  the  water 
and  swam  off  to  a  small  islet.  The  wolf,  a  single  one,  only 
followed  after  a  long  delay,  and  did  not  seem  very  anxious 
for  the  fight  when  he  first  landed.  However,  when  he  did 
begin,  the  deer  succeeded  in  knocking  him  down  three 
times  by  rising  on  her  hind  legs.  But  the  wolf  got  hold 
by  the  throat,  and  the  caribou  would  probably  have  been 
quickly  killed,  even  if  a  shot  had  not  at  that  moment 
ended  her  life.  In  other  cases  I  have  known  them  to  be 
hamstrung,  or  disabled,  by  the  wolf  biting  the  small  of  the 
back. 

Rangifer  arcticus,  or  Rangifer  caribou  (Caribou).  —  The 
young  are  easily  tamed  and  very  affectionate.  One  which 
I  had  as  a  companion  on  our  steamer  would  always  bleat 
after  me  as  I  left  the  side  in  a  boat,  would  follow  me  where- 
ever  I  went  on  the  land,  and  would  swim  off  after  me  again 
when  I  left  the  shore.  If  it  was  in  the  field  and  heard  my 
voice  it  would  at  once  rush  to  me,  and  would  stand  up  on 
its  hind  legs  and  batter  the  palings  in  its  attempts  to  ac- 
company me  when  I  left.  They  have  also  been  tamed  and 
used  for  traction  in  Newfoundland,  in  isolated  instances. 
Only  the  woodland  variety  are  commonly  found  in  the 
south  of  Labrador,  and  these  have  not  noticeably  diminished. 
Their  paths  suggest  that  for  ages  they  have  been  there  in 
great  numbers  —  just  as  they  still  are  on  the  barren  lands 
to  the  west  of  the  Bay.  The  almost  extravagant  supply  of 
their  food  which  now  goes  unused  in  Labrador  would  insure 
protected  herds  great  abundance  and  permanence  of  food. 

Lutra  Canadens  is  (Canada  Otter).  — These  animals  are 


ANIMAL   LIFE  IN  LABRADOR  433 

among  our  most  reliable  furs.  They  do  not  seem  to  have 
appreciably  decreased.  They  make  rude  lairs  under  the 
snow  near  some  open  running  water.  They  seem  able  to 
catch  fish  whenever  they  wish  to  do  so,  summer  or  winter, 
but  whether  they  merely  outswim,  or  simply  pounce  on 
their  prey  like  a  hawk,  is  doubtful.  They  never  seem 
to  starve  like  wolves  and  foxes,  being  almost  always  in 
good  condition.  No  water  at  all  adheres  to  their  coats, 
so,  unlike  a  dog,  they  appear  not  to  " freeze  up."  They 
are  among  our  most  enduring  animals.  A  friend  described 
how  he  had  seen  a  fox  on  one  occasion  sight  an  otter,  and 
at  once  attack  it.  The  otter,  however,  turned  on  his 
assailant  and  damaged  him  so  badly  that  he  was  glad  to 
escape  with  his  pelt  in  a  woful  condition  for  the  fur  market. 
Their  characteristic  urub"  is  so  evident  on  the  snow  that 
they  are  easily  marked  down,  and  by  waiting  quietly  can 
readily  be  shot  in  the  water. 

I  had  a  similar  story  told  me  of  an  otter  and  a  lynx. 
The  lynx,  waiting  in  hiding,  pounced  on  the  otter  as  he  came 
out  of  a  pond  with  a  fish.  But  the  otter  gave  such  a  good 
account  of  himself  that  the  cat  fled. 

Ursus  Americanus.  —  The  black  bear  is  one  of  our 
commonest  furs.  As  he  is  large  and  his  flesh  excellent  eat- 
ing, he  is,  unfortunately,  always  shot  at  sight,  though  his 
skin  in  summer  is  practically  valueless.  The  meat  is  like 
dark  mutton.  He  is  a  most  harmless  creature,  and  I  can 
get  no  record  of  even  a  mother  with  her  family  (generally 
two)  having  been  dangerous  to  man.  A  trapper  on  snow- 
shoes  in  the  spring  came  on  a  bear  just  out  of  his  cave. 
He  gave  chase,  and,  owing  to  the  deep,  soft  snow,  the  bear 
had  no  chance  of  getting  away.  Seeing  that  it  was  fight  or 

2F 


434  LABRADOR 

die,  the  bear  attacked,  only  to  learn,  however,  that  against 
modern  guns  he  had  no  chance.  The  poor  beast's  attack 
was  entirely  due  to  his  inability  to  avoid  death.  Apropos 
of  caves,  the  black  bear  is,  of  all  our  mammals,  the  one 
which  looks  out  most  for  his  personal  comfort.  With  us 
they  "cave  up"  and' sleep  for  about  six  months  to  avoid 
the  cold  of  winter.  I  once  purchased  a  young  cub  taken 
from  its  dead  mother  soon  after  its  birth.  When  October 
came,  we  placed  a  barrel  in  the  bear's  run  to  see  if  he  would 
know  how  to  make  a  nest,  not  having  had  any  opportunity 
of  a  "school  of  the  woods."  He  took  to  it,  however,  with 
apparent  zest,  and  no  less  efficiently  for  lack  of  education. 
He  lined  the  barrel  with  grass  and  moss,  and  padded  it  all 
tight  and  solid  with  his  paws,  almost  as  a  man  would  do. 

On  one  occasion  a  trapper  on  his  fur  path  found  a  con- 
venient hole  into  a  cave  under  a  cliff.  He  crept  in,  lighted 
a  small  lantern  which  he  carried,  and,  after  having  his 
supper,  lay  down  to  sleep.  In  the  night  a  noise,  as  of 
some  visitor,  awakened  him,  and  he  turned  up  his  lantern 
to  find  a  large  bear,  standing  as  high  as  the  roof.  He 
promptly  shot  the  bear  and  got  outside,  where,  by  waiting, 
he  got  two  others. 

Their  fondness  for  sweets,  and  especially  molasses,  occa- 
sionally gets  them  into  trouble.  One  time  a  trapper  hauled 
over  $200  worth  of  food  to  one  of  the  huts  on  his  fur  path. 
When  he  came  back  he  found  a  big  hole  through  the  roof 
and  most  of  his  food  spoilt.  He  nailed  up  the  hole  twice 
as  strong  and  headed  up  the  barrel  of  molasses.  On  his 
next  visit  he  found  that  bears  had  again  got  in,  broken  the 
top  of  his  barrel,  and  eaten  all  his  molasses. 

These  bears  also  eat  fish  along  the  land- wash,  as  well  as 


ANIMAL   LIFE  IN  LABEADOE  435 

berries,  and  will  occasionally  catch  fish  in  the  ponds  and 
pools.  Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  keep  them  as 
pets,  and  I  did  succeed  in  keeping  two  for  quite  a  long 
period.  The  general  experience  is,  however,  that  they  re- 
main bears,  and  are  not  to  be  trusted.  They  have  a  habit 
of  playfully  hitting  with  their  paws,  and  their  long  nails 
inflict  very  nasty  scratches.  I  have  had  more  than  one 
experience  of  this. 

Gulo  luscus  L.  —  The  wolverine  is  considered  by  all  our 
trappers  as  the  wiliest  of  our  wood  folk.  He  will  reach 
under  a  trap  and  turn  it  over  so  that  it  will  go  off  safely, 
almost  every  time.  Rather  than  go  into  a  lynx  house  by 
the  open  door,  which  is  of  course  guarded  by  a  leg  trap, 
he  will  dig  down  under  the  back  of  it,  and  come  up  inside, 
and  thus  get  what  he  wants,  viz.  the  bait.  He  is  far  the 
most  persistent  trap  robber.  Not  satisfied  with  having 
eaten  all  he  needs,  he  will  take  a  marten  out  of  a  trap  and 
bury  it,  and  then  following  the  man's  trail  all  along  the  fur 
path,  he  will  rob  any  and  all  of  the  other  traps  as  he  passes. 
The  Indians  have  a  tradition  that  the  wolverine  never  eats 
a  marten,  but  simply  steals  them  out  of  wantonness  and 
buries  them.  I  have  known  of  one  of  these  beasts  stealing 
fourteen  marten  at  one  time,  and  these  were  suspended  in  a 
tilt.  In  the  same  way  he  will  climb  a  tree  and  rob  a 
scaffolded  cache  of  food.  Their  endurance  is  perfectly  re- 
markable. An  old  wolverine  was  caught  by  the  fore  leg 
in  a  steel  " jumper"  trap  at  Paradise;  fourteen  days  later 
he  was  sighted  and  shot  at  Dove  Brook,  a  good  twenty-five 
miles  away.  The  steel  trap  and  chain  were  still  on  the 
poor  beast's  leg,  which  was  not  frozen.  When  first  seen 
he  was  carrying  the  trap  in  his  mouth,  and  quite  a  large 


436  LABRADOR 

ball  of  ice  had  formed  on  it,  apparently  where  the  saliva 
had  made  it  sticky  and  the  snow  had  balled  on  it ;  yet  the 
poor  brute  was  marching  along  on  his  journey.  A  wolverine 
taken  in  a  trap  shows  fierce  fight  and  endurance.  From 
the  latter  fact  have  arisen  some  of  the  stories  of  his  cun- 
ning. Thus,  a  wolverine  in  a  trap  was  hit  over  the  head 
by  a  hunter,  and  "  killed."  But  as  soon  as  the  trapper 
stooped  to  pick  him  up,  he  jumped  up  and  bit  him.  On 
another  occasion  a  wolverine  lay  "dead"  while  the  trap 
was  taken  off  his  leg,  whereupon  he  immediately  leaped  up 
and  ran  away. 

The  red  squirrels  are  very  numerous  and  very  tame.  One 
frequently  finds  their  caches  of  food  in  holes  in  the  ground 
or  in  stumps.  They  will  also  make  their  way  into  houses 
and  stores,  appropriating  biscuits,  bread,  and  other  pro- 
visions. At  Rigolet,  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company's  agents 
have  twice  found  collections  of  biscuits  amounting  to 
nearly  a  barrelful,  which  the  little  fellows  had  carried  off 
and  stored  for  winter.  Their  skins  are  of  little  value,  but 
the  animals  are  not  bad  eating  when  proteid  food  is  scarce. 

Castor  Canadensis.  —  The  Labrador  beaver  has  been  abso- 
lutely protected  by  law  for  many  years,  and  in  some  of  the 
rivers  near  the  East  Coast,  which  are  only  hunted  by  single 
settlers,  has  become  quite  numerous.  The  hunters  are 
most  law-abiding,  for  it  is  very  easy  to  sell  the  skins,  and 
there  is  practically  no  one  in  Labrador  to  enforce  the  law. 
Their  sturdy  honesty,  however,  has  not  permanently  saved 
the  beaver.  The  roaming  Indians  found  the  animals  extend- 
ing farther  up  the  rivers  on  to  their  own  more  central  hunt- 
ing grounds,  and  followed  them  down-stream  to  the  coast, 
killing  every  animal  which  they  met  with  as  they  went 


ANIMAL   LIFE  IN  LABRADOR  437 

along.  Being  short  of  food,  as  they  always  are,  and  the 
meat  of  the  beaver  being  most  succulent,  there  was  a  double 
incentive,  for  they  would  carry  the  skins  away  and  sell 
them  on  the  Gulf  Shore,  where  these  Indians  go  for  sup- 
plies and  for  their  religious  ceremonies.  Meanwhile,  they 
not  only  kill  beavers,  but  all  the  other  fur  which  the  white 
settlers  depend  upon  for  their  living.  We  have  had  more 
than  once  to  take  refuge  under  the  fact  that,  though  we  are 
magistrates,  we  are  not  policemen. 

The  beaver  is  the  gentlest  of  our  wood  folk,  strong,  heavy, 
and  active.  He  is  entirely  devoted  to  peace;  even  when 
caught  when  coming  out  of  his  house  by  a  man's  hand,  he 
will  not  turn  and  bite,  but  will  allow  himself  to  be  lifted 
out  of  the  water  and  then  dealt  with  at  leisure.  The  humble 
muskrat  is  often  caught  lodging  in  the  house  of  his  larger 
congener,  who  appears  not  to  mind  this  intrusion  on  his 
family  circle.  Otters,  also,  have  been  seen  to  enter  occupied 
beaver  houses,  and  though  it  seems  unworthy  of  them,  they 
have  been  found  guilty  of  killing  their  hosts. 

One  trapper  told  me  that  he  was  watching  a  beaver 
house,  waiting  to  stake  the  last  door  as  soon  as  the  owner 
of  the  house  returned.  The  ice  was  quite  clear,  but  four  or 
five  feet  thick.  Hearing  some  animal  crackling  and  creak- 
ing along  the  bank,  he  lay  and  watched.  Presently  he  saw 
a  pair  of  otters  swim  out  under  the  ice  and  enter  the  still 
open  door  of  the  beaver  house. 

On  his  logging  brook,  Mr.  Harry  Crowe  had  dammed 
the  brook  in  order  to  raise  the  level  for  log  floating.  This 
happened  to  interfere  with  a  beaver  whose  house  was  just 
above,  so  he  had  to  build  the  house  higher  and  higher  till 
ft  was  like  an  Eiffel  Tower.  But  one  night  he  carne  down- 


438  LABRADOR 

stream  to  see  what  the  matter  was.  Finding  the  dam,  he 
coolly  pulled  out  the  mud  and  caulking,  and  lowered  the 
level  again  to  suit  his  pleasure.  When,  however,  the 
loggers  rebuilt  the  dam,  the  beaver  very  philosophically 
moved  house  and  rebuilt  in  a  pool  much  higher  up-stream. 

Erethizon  dorsatum  picinum.  The  porcupine  is  not  very 
common,  but  is  considered  by  our  settlers  as  the  best  eat- 
ing of  any  of  the  animals.  The  flavor  differs  with  the 
season,  and  it  is  best  in  summer  and  fall,  when  he  lives 
mostly  on  berries.  In  the  spring  he  is  apt  to  be  "  sprucy, "  as 
at  that  time  he  lives  in  the  trees,  and  eats  practically  noth- 
ing but  bark.  As  he  prefers  the  soft  bark,  he  often  kills 
the  trees,  but  though  he  destroys  our  small  firs,  often  as 
many  as  a  hundred  in  a  winter,  he  is  not  so  numerous  as  to  be 
a  serious  economic  danger.  Perhaps  it  is  as  well  that  our 
herbivorous  mammals  choose  different  ways  of  meeting  the 
winter.  Thus,  the  bears  sleep,  the  rabbits  eat  young 
birch,  the  squirrel  stores  food,  the  porcupine  keeps  to 
conifers.  In  spite  of  his  succulency  he  has  little  to  fear 
from  his  enemies  —  except  man.  His  short  thick  quills 
are  barbed  as  well  as  sharp,  and  many  a  dog,  wolf,  or  fox 
has  attempted  his  life  at  the  cost  of  their  own.  Once  a 
quill  gets  well  set  in,  every  movement  drives  it  on,  so  that 
festering  sores  are  caused  all  over  the  body.  Dogs  get  them 
in  their  tongues,  and  I  have  seen  a  fox  skin  spoiled  by  big 
sores  left  from  the  wounds  of  the  quills. 

Thalarctus  maritimus.  —  Most  specimens  of  the  polar 
bear  which  are  taken  now  have  come  south  on  the  floe  ice 
in  pursuit  of  the  seal  herds  which  have  their  young  on  it  at 
about  the  latitude  of  North  Newfoundland.  They  are  our 
greatest  travellers.  I  have  found  no  instances  of  their 


ANIMAL  LIFE  IN  LABRADOR  439 

attacking  man ;  yet  a  large  one  will  stand  six  to  seven  feet 
high,  on  his  hind  legs,  and  weigh  about  1200  pounds. 
After  having  been  carried  south  on  the  ice  they  are  saga- 
cious enough  to  find  their  way  north  again,  even  if  they  have 
to  take  to  the  land  to  do  so.  Every  year  a  ragged  line  of 
straggling  polar  bears  lands  somewhere  between  St.  John's 
and  Cape  Chidley,  and  all  immediately  seem  to  start  on 
their  long  trip  to  the  north.  I  have  followed  their  trail 
over  barren  land  and  thick  woods  to  the  edge  of  the 
Straits  of  Belle  Isle.  The  bear  went  straight  north  all  the 
while,  swimming  over  to  Labrador.  It  seems  to  us  that 
they  must  have  some  magnetic  sense,  as  no  one  ever  heard 
of  one  going  south  by  mistake.  They  will  loiter  on  the 
outer  islands,  eating  the  eggs  of  the  numerous  sea  birds  as 
they  travel.  It  would  seem  that  they  are  conscious  of 
having  one  black  spot,  their  nose.  In  approaching  a  seal 
on  the  ice,  they  have  been  seen  to  hide  it  in  the  snow,  and 
in  swimming  after  ducks  they  sink  their  whole  body  under 
water,  and  leave  only  their  black  nose  out,  so  as  to  toll 
the  birds  nearer. 

I  have  myself  seen  a  polar  bear  swimming  at  least  three 
miles  out  from  land,  in  the  open  sea,  and  with  no  ice 
about.  He  too  was  bound  north.  When  shot  he  floated 
fairly  high  in  the  water,  so  we  judged  he  could  remain 
swimming  as  long  as  he  liked.  They  are  not  fleet  or  agile 
enough  to  escape  from  dogs,  and  many  times  the  Komatik 
dogs  have  run  them  down,  and,  on  one  occasion  at  least, 
killed  the  bear  without  any  assistance  from  man.  In  the 
water  they  have  been  killed  frequently  by  the  fishermen, 
with  an  axe,  or  even  blows  from  an  oar,  or  seal  bat.  They 
do  not  swim  fast,  but  they  dive  well.  We  lost  one  this 


440  LABRADOR 

way  in  rough  water,  the  white  foam  making  it  impossible 
to  distinguish  him  when  he  came  up.  I  have  known  a 
large  bear  to  get  at  the  seal  oil  in  a  headed-up  hard  wood 
puncheon,  and  actually  break  the  staves,  presumably  with 
blows  from  his  paw.  Their  flesh  has  a  fishy  flavor,  but  the 
natives  value  the  meat  very  highly. 

Phoca  Greenlandica. — The  seal  was  once  almost  innumer- 
able, but  is  now  getting  scarce,  owing  to  the  pelagic  fishing 
during  the  breeding  season.  They  are  of  immense  value 
to  the  residents  for  the  skin,  fat,  and  meat.  They  seem  to 
share  the  magnetic  sense  of  the  bears  and  birds.  A  baby 
seal  six  weeks  old  is  called  a  "  beater,"  and  goes  straight 
north  almost  at  once.  That  he  does  not  permanently  lose 
his  way  as  he  wanders  off  into  the  mouths  of  our  big  bays 
is  a  difficult  fact  to  explain  otherwise. 

Odobenus  rosmarus.  —  A  walrus  was  killed  at  St.  Anthony 
on  the  northeast  coast  of  Newfoundland  in  the  spring  of 
1910.  They  are  still  occasionally  taken  along  the  east 
coast  of  Labrador,  but  are  gradually  being  driven  north. 

Lynx  Canadensis.  —  The  lynx  is  getting  decidedly  scarcer. 
His  size  and  strength  puts  him  with  us  among  our  most 
destructive  animals.  His  skin  has  risen  to  about  ten  times 
the  value  it  had  twenty  years  ago.  A  trapper  told  me  a 
story  of  two  lynx  who  regularly  hunted  and  rounded  up  a 
fox.  I  myself  have  seen  where  one  had  run  down  a  fox 
and  killed  him.  Another  trapper  described  seeing  two 
lynx  attack  an  otter,  which,  however,  got  away  safely. 

Putorius  vison. — The  mink  has  the  habits  of  the  otter 
and  preys  on  fish. 

Arctorus  ignavus.—Ou?  woodchucks  hibernate  in  the 
winter  like  bears.  Our  people  have  to  leave  their  houses  in 


ANIMAL   LIFE  IN  LABRADOR  441 

the  bays  and  come  to  the  outer  islands  to  fish  in  the  summer. 
They  plant  their  gardens  before  leaving,  and  more  than 
one  woodchuck,  burrowing  in  under  a  paling,  has  lived 
happily  all  summer  at  the  expense  of  the  family  who  are 
fishing. 

Vulpes  rubricosa. — The  fox  has  pups  of  varying  colors 
from  red  to  black.  The  silver  and  black  coloured  ones  are 
now  being  bred  in  many  places  for  their  pelts,  especially  in 
Nova  Scotia.  They  have  now  got  a  law  in  Labrador  pro- 
hibiting the  export  of  live  wild  foxes,  in  order  to  encourage 
the  fox  farming  industry,  which  has  just  begun  in  1912. 
A  single  pair  of  the  animals  alive  has  fetched  as  much  as 
$10,000,  while  1100  pounds  sterling  is  said  to  have  been 
paid  by  the  late  King  Edward  for  a  single  skin  for  his 
Queen.  Two  silvers  bred  together  will  throw  silver  pups  for 
certain  after  three  generations.  At  present  they  breed  only 
once  a  year,  but  it  is  supposed  that  in  ease  and  domesticity 
they  may  be  induced  to  breed  oftener,  like  their  conquerors, 
the  dogs.  They  are  exceedingly  sly.  I  made  an  attempt 
to  propagate  foxes  for  several  seasons  before  the  movement 
became  general,  but  my  animals  always  lost  or  destroyed 
their  young.  This  presumably  was  due  to  the  fact  that  we 
failed  to  prevent  streams  of  visitors  from  getting  access  to 
the  pens.  The  silvers  are  always  more  sly  than  the  reds. 
I  had  a  red  and  a  patch  fox  which  would  scream  with  joy 
whenever  they  saw  me  approaching  the  pen,  and  run  to  me 
like  a  dog.  The  adult  is  apparently  not  so  clever  as  he  is 
supposed  to  be;  though  there  are  many  stories  of  foxes 
tolling  geese  and  shell  birds  to  shore  by  either  walking  up 
and  down  and  showing  only  their  tail,  or  lying  quietly  down 
•and  waving  it.  As  I  have  seen  the  same  result  occur 


442  LABRADOR 

when  my  retriever  has  been  running  up  and  down  quite 
visibly  on  the  bank,  it  is  possible  that  the  manoeuvre  really 
needs  no  supposition  of  especial  cunning  to  explain  it. 

A  hunter  in  spring,  on  soft  snow,  will  easily  tire  a  fox  out 
and  run  him  down.  Unlike  most  animals,  foxes  will  eat 
one  another. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

CONSERVATION   AND    EXPLORATION   IN   LABRADOR 
By  WILFRED  T.  GRENFELL 

IT  is  patent  to  the  most  casual  observer  that  coincident 
with  the  increase  of  population  in  any  country  the  weaker 
creatures  must  inevitably  go  to  the  wall.  This  is  as  true 
of  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  as  it  is  of  the  lower  animal 
kingdom.  Before  men,  armed  with  modern  weapons  of 
destruction,  and  with  ever  increasing  means  of  transport, 
almost  all  the  barriers  behind  which  weaker  Nature  shelters 
herself  are  disappearing.  In  the  Northwest  the  buffalo 
and  the  elk  lands  had  to  give  way  before  cultivation,  the 
prairies  almost  to  the  Arctic  Circle  are  submitting  to  the 
taming  hand  of  man,  and  the  entrance  of  roads  and  rail- 
way tracks  and  growing  townships  ultimately  make  it 
practically  impossible  and  even  inadvisable  to  protect  and 
preserve  the  wild  creatures  in  their  natural  habitat.  It  is 
true  that  some  animals  can  be  domesticated  and  properly 
propagated  in  captivity,  and  so  saved  from  extinction ;  but 
many  others  must  be  lost  to  mankind  unless  large  areas 
can  be  found  where  natural  conditions  make  it  easy  and 
economically  wise  to  assign  sanctuaries  for  them.  Unfor- 
tunately there  seems  to  be  a  low  level  limit  beyond  which 
it  is  impossible  for  a  particular  species  to  recuperate,  and  this 
is  especially  the  case  with  birds.  On  the  other  hand  it  has 
been  shown  that  instinct  teaches  animals,  and  birds  in  par- 
ticular, the  districts  in  which  they  are  safe,  however  small 

443 


444  LABRADOR 

those  regions  may  be.  Note  the  gulls  in  our  large  har- 
bours, and  the  ducks  and  other  sea  birds  which  are  safe  in 
the  middle  of  a  city  like  San  Francisco  and  feed  fearlessly 
in  huge  numbers  in  the  lake  at  Oakland,  while  a  mile  or 
two  away,  where  gunners  lie  in  wait  for  them,  they  are  shy 
and  unapproachable  unless  deceived  by  decoys. 

Nowhere  in  the  world  could  be  found  a  better  natural 
reserve  than  Labrador.  The  impenetrable  ice  barrier 
which  shuts  it  in  in  winter  has,  so  far  at  least,  defied  the 
entrance  of  rapid  transit  and  its  vast  area  of  over  half  a 
million  square  miles,  except  for  its  fringe  of  population 
along  the  seaboard,  and  its  now  roaming  Indians,  is  still 
practically  uninhabited. 

Its  vast  barrens,  its  enormous  superficial  fresh-water 
area,  and  its  almost  bare  mountain  sides  seem  to  foretell 
that,  however  scientific  are  men's  methods  of  farming,  huge 
tracts  must  always  in  all  probability  be  unoccupied  by  man. 
Of  course  in  these  days,  when  faith  in  the  unity  of  elements 
is  receiving  currency,  there  is  a  possibility  that  if  the  ele- 
ments are  transmutable,  in  some  way  Laurentian  gneisses 
may  be  turned  into  gold,  or  even  butter.  No  one  can  deny 
possibilities !  But  except  for  the  likely  establishment  of 
some  few  mines,  geology  seems  to  tell  the  same  story  as 
regards  Labrador  —  that  large  areas  of  it  will  long  be  un- 
profitable for  man's  occupation. 

As  a  consequence,  Labrador  is  still  practically  a  land  of 
pirates  on  Nature,  or,  as  Hesketh  Pritchard,  in  his  delight- 
ful book,  Through  Trackless  Labrador,  puts  it,  we  are  '"a 
purely  predatory  people  on  a  barren  but  luxuriant  coast." 

The  end  can  only  be  what  might  be  expected  when  the 
golden  goose  is  killed  —  those  who  lived  off  its  eggs  will 


CONSERVATION    AND    EXPLORATION  445 

starve.  So  true  is  this  that  Professor  W.  A.  Stearns,  orni- 
thologist, who  wintered  on  our  coast,  described  Labrador  as 
"a  long  barren  coast,  the  miserable  home  of  half-starved 
humanity." 

Any  one  who  was  to  judge  of  the  future  of  Labrador  by 
such  a  category  as  follows  might  have  some  excuse  for 
pessimism :  - 

All  natives,  both  Eskimo  on  the  seacoast  and  Indians  in 
the  interior,  are  decreasing  in  numbers,  and  even  the  white 
settlers  are  scarcely  holding  their  own.  About  one  hundred 
Indians  who  came  out  only  last  winter  had  to  live  on  the 
charity  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Post  at  Davis  Inlet  till  May 
or  starve. 

Walrus,  practically  gone. 

Whales,  seriously  diminished. 

Codfish,  shoals  scarcer  and  far  more  uncertain  than 
formerly. 

Capelin,  not  nearly  so  abundant. 

Seals,  so  seriously  diminished  that  the  lack  of  food  and 
clothing  which  they  formerly  provided  is  one  chief  cause 
of  the  depopulation  of  the  country. 

Herring,  once  world  famous,  now  no  longer  fished  at  all. 

Salmon,  spasmodic,  but  greatly  diminished. 

Trout,  never  a  serious  industry,  but  not  at  all  what  it 
was. 

White  bear,  only  very  occasionally  seen  now. 

Black  bear,  and  all  other  fur-bearing  animals,  so  much 
scarcer  that  in  spite  of  trappers  covering  the  country  from 
as  far  in  as  Lake  Petitsikapau  and  thence  to  the  coast  of 
St.  Augustine,  the  total  catch  is  getting  annually  smaller. 

Great  auk,  Labrador  duck,  oyster  catcher,  —  extinct. 


446  LABRADOR 

Eskimo  curlew,  in  thousands  twenty  years  ago,  now 
practically  extinct.  (I  got  four  in  September,  1912.) 

Eider  duck,  much  scarcer,  once  they  lived  on  every  island. 
Now  very  few  nest  on  the  coast  at  all. 

Canada  goose,  still  plentiful. 

Black  duck,  widgeon,  teal,  and  pintail,  markedly  fewer. 

Willow  grouse,  so  variable  that  it  is  hard  to  gauge  their 
numbers. 

Spruce  grouse,  scarcer. 

Puffins,  guillemots,  auk,  noticeably  less. 

Woodland  caribou,  scarcer. 

Barren  Land  caribou,  uncertainly  met  with.  Mrs.  Hub- 
bard  and  Mr.  Pritchard  think  still  plentiful. 

At  best  it  is  a  disheartening  list,  especially  when  we 
have  to  add  that  in  a  country  so  hard  to  reforest  vast 
areas  of  the  excellent  pulp  timber  have  been  destroyed  by 
fire. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  fact  remains  that  these  waters 
are  ideal  for  shoals  of  fish  which  are  more  valuable  now 
than  ever ;  that  seals  can  flourish  in  immense  herds  on  the 
coast,  and  still  pay  a  reasonable  tax  without  serious  re- 
sults, while  aviation  and  motoring  is  making  their  pelts 
exceedingly  valuable. 

For  long-haired  and  dark  furs  this  environment  cannot 
be  excelled,  and  every  year  the  price  of  good  pelts  advances. 
They  average  more  than  100  per  cent  more  on  this  coast 
than  they  did  twenty  years  ago.  Moreover,  the  country 
can  support  enormous  numbers  of  deer,  and  thus  yield  a 
huge  quantity  of  proteid  food  which  is  increasingly  needed 
by  the  outside  world.  This  is  clearly  shown  both  by  ex- 
periment and  by  Nature.  Again,  its  numerous  rivers  and 


CONSERVATION    AND    EXPLORATION  447 

estuaries,  if  properly  guarded,  can  afford  a  supply  of  salmon 
and  trout  far  superior  in  quality  to  the  warm  water  fibrous 
fish  of  the  North  Pacific. 

Mr.  Hesketh  Pritchard  and  other  writers  have  claimed 
that  for  travellers  Labrador  will  one  day  be  the  Norway  of 
North  America,  when  once  the  means  for  comfortable 
transport  along  its  magnificent  seaboard  is  obtainable.  But 
if  its  wild  life  is  all  destroyed,  and  as  it  has  no  historical 
monuments  to  boast  of,  it  must  lose  a  great  deal  of  its 
attractive  possibilities,  just  for  want  of  scientific  attention 
and  capital.  One  other  lamentable  feature  which  cannot 
help  striking  the  intelligent  observer  is  the  immense  waste 
of  Labrador.  There  is  as  yet  no  cold  storage  to  improve 
the  value  of  exports.  All  offal  of  cod  and  all  coarse  fish 
are  wasted.  Capelin  and  herring  are  put  to  no  commercial 
value.  Norway  last  year  showed  a  record  of :  — 

Waste  herring  ground  to  flour $709,412 

Extracted  herring  oil 258,376 

Gauno  made  from  cods'  heads 336,211 

Cod  roes     . 312,543 

$1,616,542 

Our  innumerable  berries  rot  where  they  grow.  There 
has  been  no  attempt  whatever  at  the  adaptation  of  plants 
or  animals.  Immense  water  powers  and  vast  pulp  lands 
are  yet  entirely  undeveloped.  Our  coast  is  poorly  lighted 
and  charted ;  yachts  are  practically  unable  to  visit  us. 
Nothing  is  done  with  fresh-water  pearls,  mussels,  kelp,  and 
other  possible  sources  of  revenue.  Some  advance,  however, 
has  been  made.  In  summer  there  are  wireless  telegraph 
Stations  nearly  halfway  down  our  coast,  and  a  small 


448  LABRADOR 

steamer  has  been  detailed  to  visit  along  the  northern  two 
hundred  miles  as  far  as  Cape  Chidley.  This  northern  part 
is  much  the  most  picturesque  section  of  Labrador.  But 
the  vessel  is  still  sadly  inadequate  for  tourist  traffic.  The 
British  Government  has  at  last  detailed  a  vessel  for  im- 
proving the  surveys  of  the  Labrador  coast,  and  Dr.  Louis 
King  of  Ottawa  has  done  some  excellent  work  on  detecting 
the  presence  of  icebergs  in  thick  weather.  The  Hudson 
Bay  Route  is  also  approaching  a  working  basis.  It  has 
been  suggested  also  that  steamers  making  the  round  trip 
from  the  Bay  to  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  call  at  Labrador 
ports  on  the  way. 

Personally  I  feel  convinced  that  a  winter  port  at  Cape 
Charles  in  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle  could  be  made  accessible 
all  the  year  round. 

Many  prospectors  and  timber  cruisers  have  been  ranging 
Labrador,  and  the  universal  decision  has  been  that  valuable 
pulp  areas  exist.  A  rush  on  land  followed,  and  every  acre, 
including  barrens  and  lakes,  was  applied  for  and  granted. 
Companies  were  formed  and  attempts  made  to  sell  stock 
on  the  London  and  New  York  markets.  Each  year  we 
have  been  informed  that  some  area  would  certainly  be 
worked.  Plans  with  the  minutest  details  have  been  sent 
in,  and  we  had  a  request  from  one  company  to  find  them  a 
doctor.  But  nothing  has  yet  begun,  though  it  cannot  be 
doubted  that  the  logs  are  there  in  abundance.  The  diffi- 
culties of  shipping,  the  long  winter,  and  the  lack  of  either 
roads,  railways,  or  telegraphs  has  militated  sorely  against 
such  plans  materializing.  Now,  however,  it  does  seem  that 
a  large  syndicate,  with  a  three-million-dollar  capital,  is  to 
start  in  the  spring,  and  if  it  does,  it  may  be  one  more  plea 


CONSERVATION    AND    EXPLORATION  449 

for  a  Labrador  railway.  A  second  large  lumber  concern 
has  also  given  us  notice  that  they  intend  to  commence 
operating  this  winter.  But  the  snow  is  on  the  hills,  and 
the  ice  making,  and  there  are  as  yet  no  arrivals. 

Our  reindeer  experiment  has  advanced  considerably. 
Next  spring  a  herd  goes  to  North  Labrador  in  charge  of 
some  herders  from  that  section,  who  have  been  trained  at 
St.  Anthony.  Only  a  small  number  of  people,  and  conse- 
quently few  dogs  are  there,  and  these  latter  are  the  greatest 
menace  to  the  success  of  the  reindeer.  A  herd  of  fifty, 
with  three  of  our  herders,  left  in  1911  for  Athabasca  and  a 
small  herd  of  six  has  been  privately  purchased  for  the 
Indians  of  lower  Quebec.  We  have  had  some  trouble  with 
the  people  killing  our  reindeer  while  hunting  for  caribou. 
But  the  Newfoundland  Government  has  not  yet  been  willing 
to  create  the  north  end  of  the  island  as  a  national  preserve 
for  the  herd.  We  have  found  out  that  the  same  reindeer  can 
no  more  be  expected  to  be  ranched  for  meat,  to  be  milked  for 
dairy  purposes,  and  to  haul  and  drive  successfully,  than  can 
cattle  or  any  other  animals.  Formerly  we  expected  too  much 
from  them.  For  packing  in  summer  they  are  all  right,  and 
in  deep  snow  in  early  winter  better  for  driving  than  dogs. 
The  herd  for  ranching  must  be  separate  from  the  dairy  ani- 
mals, and  the  latter  must  be  taken  from  their  fawns. 
Only  the  ox  deer  are  used  by  us  for  hauling,  which  they  do 
most  excellently,  though  they  are  slow  for  driving.  With 
only  a  very  small  sum  for  upkeep  the  herd  must  support 
itself,  and  so  dairy  experiments  on  any  large  scale  have 
had  to  be  postponed. 

In  the  fall  of  1911  the  first  shipment  of  carcasses  for  the 
market  from  the  Alaskan  reindeer  herds  was  permitted. 
2a 


450  LABEADOE 

One  hundred  and  twenty-five  carcasses  were  sent  up  in  cold 
storage,  and  realized  from  twenty-five  to  seventy-five  cents 
a  pound. 

We  have  now  one  thousand  deer,  having  sold  fifty, 
killed  over  one  hundred  for  meat  for  hospital,  and  lost  one 
hundred  and  fifty  through  straying,  illegal  killing,  and  acci- 
dents. We  have  now  given  an  option  on  four  hundred  of 
the  animals  to  a  company  that  is  proposing  to  start  in 
ranching  on  a  commercial  basis  for  the  London  and  New 
York  markets.  This  is  one  of  the  ends  which  we  most 
desire,  as  it  will  give  the  industry  that  lasting  hold  on  the 
country  which  will  ensure  its  permanence  and  extension, 
without  which,  and  the  government  backing  such  as  is 
given  in  Alaska,  it  must  remain  on  a  very  small  scale  as  a 
mission  enterprise.  The  experiment  needs  more  money  to 
make  it  mature  quickly,  otherwise  it  must  attain  its 
results  very  slowly.  It  is  impossible  to  replace  the  dogs 
till  there  are  enough  deer  to  take  their  place.  Commercializ- 
ing at  once  part  of  the  scheme  seems  anyhow  to  us  to  be 
absolutely  essential  unless  more  money  can  be  placed  behind 
it  in  some  other  way. 

One  exceedingly  helpful  circumstance  is  the  advent  to 
Labrador  of  a  large  fur-farming  concern.  The  great  success 
made  of  fox  farming  in  Nova  Scotia  and  Maine  has  en- 
couraged this  enterprise,  and  there  is  every  prospect  of  its 
becoming  a  great  success.  Small  receiving  stations  have 
been  established  all  along  the  coast,  and  Mr.  Clarence 
Birdseye,  the  manager  in  charge,  is  creating  a  central  farm. 
He  is  a  trained  naturalist  of  proved  ability,  having  done 
three  years'  service  in  the  field,  under  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment at  Washington.  With  characteristic  energy  he  has 


CONSERVATION    AND    EXPLORATION  451 

already  succeeded  in  getting  two  laws  passed  to  prevent  the 
exportation  of  live  wild  foxes,  and  also  of  digging  and  de- 
stroying their  burrows  in  summer.  He  anticipates  that  in 
future  he  may  add  mink,  marten,  and  even  otter  and  beaver 
breeding  to  his  work. 

Enthusiastic  prospectors  continue  to  seek  for  the  gold 
that  the  finds  in  the  similar  belt  of  rocks  in  the  middle  and 
far  Northwest  have  suggested.  Gold  discoveries  in  Baffin 
Land  sent  four  expeditions  flying  down  there  this  summer. 

In  short,  everything  seems  to  point  to  the  fact  that 
Labrador  will  come  to  her  own  in  the  not  very  distant 
future. 


APPENDICES 

I 

INSECTS   OF   LABRADOR 

The  Insects,  excluding  the  Beetles 
BY  CHARLES  W.  JOHNSON 

OUR  knowledge  of  the  insects  of  Labrador  is  based  largely  on 
the  various  papers  by  Alpheus  S.  Packard.  The  lists  of  the  species 
recorded  in  these  papers  were  later  brought  together  and  pub- 
lished in  his  work,  The  Labrador  Coast.  In  this  work  about  two 
hundred  and  twenty  species  are  mentioned.  A  few  additional 
species  from  the  interior  are  listed  in  A.  P.  Low's  Report  on  Ex- 
plorations in  the  Labrador  Peninsula.1  These,  with  a  few  scattered 
species,  make  the  total  number  about  two  hundred  and  fifty. 
This  is  a  small  number  if  we  consider  the  whole  Labrador  penin- 
sula, but  a  large  number  when  we  take  into  account  the  limited 
amount  of  entomological  work  which  has  been  done  and  the  small 
area  covered. 

A.  P.  Low  defines  the  southern  boundary  of  the  Labrador  pen- 
insula as  a  straight  line  extending  nearly  east  from  the  south  end 
of  James  Bay,  near  lat.  51°,  to  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  near 
Seven  Islands,  in  lat.  50°.  This  gives  a  clearly  defined  geograph- 
ical area,  which,  bordered  by  Arctic  seas,  and  a  more  elevated 
interior,  gives  quite  uniform  climatic  conditions,  and  would  make 
it  possible  to  study  the  insect  fauna  to  better  advantage  than  if 
it  were  limited  by  political  boundaries. 

The  section  from  which  nearly  all  the  insects  have  been  collected 
(the  immediate  coast-line)  is  in  that  portion  of  the  boreal  region 
which  has  been  designated  as  Arctic,  the  flora  and  fauna  of  which 
are  largely  governed  by  the  effect  of  the  winds  from  the  cold  Arctic 
seas.  On  the  other  hand,  a  short  distance  inland,  we  enter  the 
subarctic  forest  belt,  or  Hudsonian  Zone,  with  a  much  richer 
insect  fauna  than  could  exist  on  the  bleak,  storm-swept  coast, 

1Am.  Rep.  Geol.  Survey  of  Canada,  Vol.  VIII,  1895. 
453 


454  APPENDIX  I 

The  close  proximity  of  the  wooded  section  in  the  more  southern 
portion  and  the  narrowness  of  the  so-called  Arctic  Zone  causes 
it  to  be  inhabited  during  the  summer  by  many  species  from  the 
strictly  Hudsonian  area  to  the  west  and  south,  even  though  condi- 
tions are  not  favourable  for  their  permanent  existence.  Botan- 
ically  the  two  zones  are  quite  clearly  denned,  but  from  an  entomo- 
logical standpoint  it  would  be  difficult  to  draw  the  line. 

Taking  the  country  as  a  whole,  the  two  hundred  and  forty 
recorded  species  probably  represent  less  than  thirty-five  per  cent 
of  the  insects  which  will  be  found  to  inhabit  this  region.  It  is 
somewhat  difficult  to  make  an  estimate  of  the  number  of  species 
in  the  more  northern  latitudes,  where  the  tendency  is  toward  vast 
numbers  of  individuals  and  few  species,  and  where  the  insects 
with  incomplete  metamorphosis  are  poorly  represented.  There 
are,  however,  many  reasons  for  considering  that  our  knowledge 
of  the  insects  of  Labrador  is  very  imperfect.  The  country  with 
its  comparatively  rich  flora  (over  five  hundred  species)  presents 
quite  favourable  conditions  for  insect  life,  a  fact  which  is  shown 
by  the  large  number  of  species  recorded  from  the  so-called  Hudson 
Bay  region,  and  the  tendency  of  species  in  northern  latitudes  to 
extend  entirely  across  the  continent.  There  has  been  an  almost 
total  neglect  of  the  Diptera,  or  flies,  the  order  most  prevalent  in 
boreal  regions,  only  fifteen  species  being  recorded,  while  from 
Alaska,  for  example,  two  hundred  and  seventy-six  species  represent- 
ing one  hundred  and  thirty-eight  genera  and  thirty-six  families 
were  obtained  by  Professor  Trevor  Kincaid  of  the  Harriman  expe- 
dition during  the  summer  of  1899. 

Under  each  order  will  be  given  a  brief  account  of  our  present 
knowledge  of  the  insects  of  this  region,  with  notes  on  their  habits, 
distribution,  and  other  features  of  general  interest. 

I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  H.  H.  Newcomb  for  the  loan  of  some 
butterflies,  to  Mr.  J.  A.  Cushman  for  photographs,  and  to  Miss 
L.  R.  Martin  for  drawings  illustrating  this  article. 

The  Diptera,  or  two-winged  insects,  comprise  what  are  popu- 
larly known  as  flies,  midges,  gnats,  and  mosquitoes.  .1  have  stated 
that  this  is  a  very  much  neglected  order,  but  I  am  told  that  they 
never  neglect  the  visitor;  in  fact  we  would  probably  know  more 
about  the  flies  of  Labrador  if  they  were  not  quite  so  attentive. 
They  constitute  the  most  annoying,  and  at  times  an  almost'  un- 
bearable, feature  of  the  short  summer,  nature  seeming  to  strive 
to  make  up  in  individuals  what  it  lacks  in  species.  It  seems 
remarkable  that  insects  can  increase  in  such  numbers  in  so  short 
a  time,  and  under  conditions  apparently  so  unfavourable,  but 
cold  does  not  seem  to  hinder  the  development  of  certain  species. 
Professor  John  B.  Smith,  in  his  work  on  the  mosquitoes  of  New 


APPENDIX  I  455 

Jersey,  has  positively  proved  that  during  the  early  days  of  Feb- 
ruary, in  water  just  above  the  freezing  temperature,  the  larva  of 
Culex  canadensis  hatches  from  the  egg.  A  wingless  snow  gnat 
(Chionea  valgd)  is  found  only  during  the  winter  in  the  northern 
United  States  and  Canada,  crawling  on  the  snow  with  the  ther- 
mometer as  low  as  15°  above  zero.  There  are  many  other  insects 
which  seem  to  thrive  under  similar  conditions. 

Another  feature  which  enables  Diptera  to  withstand  most  un- 
favourable climatic  conditions  is  their  diversity  of  habit ;  aquatic, 
parasitic,  herbivorous,  and  carnivorous,  they  feed  upon  almost 
everything  from  living  tissue  to  the  most  putrid  and  decayed  animal 
and  vegetable  matter,  and  are  thus  liable  to  be  widely  distributed 
through  commerce.  Many  of  the  blood-thirsty  species  breed  in 
water,  the  larva  of  the  mosquito  living  in  swamps  and  stagnant 
pools,  while  those  of  the  black-fly  frequent  the  rapidly  running 
streams.  These  conditions,  existing  to  so  great  an  extent  through- 
out the  interior,  present  very  favourable  breeding  places  for  these 
insects,  and  render  some  districts  practically  uninhabitable  by  man. 

A  great  similarity  prevails  throughout  the  whole  dipterous 
fauna  of  the  more  northern  regions.  Many  are  circumpolar  in 
their  distribution,  others  differ  so  slightly  that  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  determine  them  from  descriptions,  and  comparison  with 
European  specimens  is  necessary.  That  they  have  not  become 
more  differentiated  is  probably  due  to  the  uniform  climatic  condi- 
tions under  which  they  have  existed.  In  numbers  the  Diptera 
extend  farther  into  the  Arctic  region  than  any  other  order  of 
insects,  therefore  presenting  one  of  the  best  groups  for  tracing 
boreal  distribution. 

The  flies  include  most  of  the  many  species  of  insects  which 
infest  mammals  and  birds.  Of  these  parasites  some  may  be  ex- 
ternal, others  internal.  Their  generally  small  size  and  the  indif- 
ference of  trappers  and  most  collectors  of  animals  and  birds  to 
their  existence,  is  one  of  the  principal  reasons  for  our  lack  of 
knowledge  of  these  forms,  especially  from  more  northern  latitudes. 
It  is  doubtful  if  there  is  an  animal  or  bird  which  is  entirely  free 
from  a  parasite.  While  these  are  probably  less  numerous  in  the 
colder  region,  the  conditions  are  quite  favourable,  and  they  are 
undoubtedly  more  abundant  than  is  generally  supposed. 

There  are  two  species  of  flies  of  which  we  know  but  little,  but 
which  we  do  know  infest  the  caribou.  They  belong  to  the  family 
(Estridse,  popularly  known  as  bot-flies.  The  habits  of  one  of  the 
species  are  apparently  similar  to  those  of  the  sheep  bot-fly.  A 
description,  therefore,  of  what  is  known  of  the  latter  species  may 
aid  in  studying  the  life  history  of  the  one  infesting  the  caribou. 

The  fly  of  the  sheep-bot  is  about  one-half  of  an  inch  in  length, 


456  APPENDIX  I 

very  rapid  in  its  actions,  and  consequently  not  readily  seen  when 
flying.  Its  small  size  and  obscure  colouring  would  also  prevent 
its  detection  when  at  rest  in  protected  places  during  cold,  wet- 
days,  for  it  only  flies  during  the  dry,  warmer  days,  at  which  time 
the  female  attempts  to  deposit  its  young  larvae  in  the  nostrils  of 
the  sheep.  The  eggs  of  the  sheep  bot-fly  are  retained  until  hatched 
in  the  oviduct,  and  emerge  as  young  larvae  or  maggots.  The 
appearance  of  one  of  these  flies  among  a  flock  of  sheep  causes  con- 
siderable alarm,  and  they  try  various  ways  to  prevent  it  from 
depositing  its  young  larvae.  They  huddle  together,  lie  down  and 
bury  their  noses  in  the  dirt,  and  even  raise  a  cloud  of  dust  to  deceive 
their  enemy.  When  deposited  in  the  nose  of  the  sheep,  the  young 
maggot,  by  means  of  small  hooks  and  spines,  begins  its  migrations 
upward  through  the  nostrils  to  the  frontal  sinuses.  The  move- 
ment of  the  larva,  as  it  increases  in  size,  greatly  irritates  the  poor 
victim,  and  it  makes  many  attempts,  by  sneezing  and  snorting, 
to  rid  itself  of  the  parasite.  This  is  rarely  accomplished,  however^ 
until  the  larva  reaches  maturity,  when  it  detaches  itself  from' 
the  mucous  membrane,  reaches  the  nose,  and  is  expelled  by  the 
violent  snorting  of  its  host. 

The  grub  remains  about  ten  months  in  the  nasal  cavity  of  the 
sheep.  After  leaving  the  sheep  it  pupates  and  remains  in  that 
state  from  four  to  six  weeks,  when  the  adult  fly  makes  its  ap- 
pearance. 

Dr.  Grenfell  informs  me  that  in  all  of  the  heads  of  the  caribou 
that  he  has  examined,  he  has  found  parasitic  larvae,  usually  just 
below  the  ethmoid.  The  injury  done  the  caribou  by  this  parasite 
is  not  known,  nor  do  we  know  the  species,  as  neither  the  larva  nor 
fly  has  been  secured.  It  probably  belongs  to  the  genus  Cephalo- 
myia.  To  work  out  its  life  history  and  determine  the  species 
would  prove  an  interesting  subject  for  investigation. 

The  second  species  infesting  the  caribou  is  a  subcutaneous  para- 
site, which  may  prove  to  be  the  same  as  the  reindeer  bot-fly  (GEde- 
magena  tarandi).  If  not,  it  is  a  closely  related  species,  with  a 
life  history  probably  similar  to  that  of  the  ox  bot-fly,  or  warble 
(Hypoderma).  The  eggs  are  deposited  on  and  fastened  to  the 
hairs  in  a  similar  manner  to  those  of  the  horse  bot-fly,  and  always 
in  a  position  within  reach  of  the  animal's  mouth,  as  on  the  ^  fore 
legs  and  sides.  In  licking  itself  the  animal  transfers  these  eggs 
to  the  mouth,  the  saliva  rapidly  dissolves  the  hard  egg  cases,  and 
the  young  larvae  already  formed  within  are  liberated.  These 
young  spiny  larvae  pass  by  way  of  the  oesophagus  through  the 
tissues  of  the  animal  to  the  subcutaneous  tissue  along  the  back, 
forming  large  tumours  or  swellings  before  reaching  maturity.  When 
the  larva  has  attained  its  full  size,  it  bores  its  way  out  and  drops 


APPENDIX  I  457 

to  the  ground,  into  which  it  enters  and  pupates.  It  remains  in 
this  dormant  stage  about  four  weeks,  when  the  fly  emerges,  soon  to 
lay  another  lot  of  eggs.  The  larval  period  lasts  about  ten  months, 
the  presence  of  the  larvae  causing  inflammation,  loss  of  flesh,  and 
injury  to  the  skin.  Dr.  Grenfell  says  that  he  has  seen  a  skin  so 
perforated  that  it  was  practically  impossible  to  cut  from  it  a  pair 
of"  moccasins.  Mr.  Owen  Bryant  informs  me  that  the  caribou  of 
Newfoundland  are  infested  by  what  is  apparently  the  same  fly. 
The  reindeer  bot-fly  is  found  in  Alaska. 

The  birds  and  mammals  of  Labrador  would  indicate  the  pres- 
ence of  other  families  of  insects.  In  the  Diptera  should  be  found 
members  of  the  family  Hipposcidae,  popularly  called  the  louse-fly, 
from  their  habits  of  living  parasitically  upon  birds  and  animals. 
They  have  flattened  bodies  adapted  for  moving  readily  between 
the  feathers  and  hairs.  Some  species  have  wings,  while  in  others 
the  wings  are  obsolete  or  wanting.  The  term  Pupipara  is  applied 
to  this  group  on  account  of  its  remarkable  mode  of  reproduction. 
The  eggs  hatch  within  the  body  of  the  parent,  the  larva  being 
retained  and  nourished  until  full  grown  and  ready  to  change  to 
the  pupa.  These  flies  are  most  commonly  observed  on  the  hawks 
and  owls,  although  many  other  birds  are  infested.  The  owl-fly 
(Olfersia  americana)  lives  upon  the  great-horned  owl.  The 
Pseudolfersia  maculata  Coq.  ( =  fumipennis)  infests  the  osprey  and 
loon,  while  on  blackbirds  and  other  small  birds  are  frequently 
found  the  more  common  bird-fly,  Ornithomyia  pallida.  Many 
species  of  the  Mallophaga,  or  bird-lice,  are  probably  present  on 
various  species  of  birds. 

The  horse-flies,  or  gad-flies,  are  represented   by  the  two  most 
prominent  genera  —  Chrysops,  or  deer-flies,  and  Tabanus,  or  true 
horse-flies.     Both  are  at 
times  very  annoying,  es- 
pecially   in    the    woods, 
swarming  about  in  great 
numbers  and  frequently  FlG-  4- 

giving  sharp  bites.     Pack-  Larva  of  the  Horse-fly, 

ard,  in  referring  to  these 

flies,  says:  "Half  a  dozen  frightful  horse-flies  of  gigantic  stature 
hovered  about.  Now  and  then,  when  we  are  not  watching,  they 
will  settle  down  on  our  hands  and  bite  terribly,  making  a  wound 
which  does  not  heal  for  days."  I  am  told  the  natives  call  them 
" waps,"  probably  a  corruption  of  "wasps."  They  are  not  as  active 
on  a  cloudy  day,  and  a  strong  breeze  will  usually  disperse  them. 

The  three  species  of  Chrysops  are  all  black  forms  with  the 
usual  broad  black  band  on  the  centre  of  the  wing.  Chrysops 
excitans  (PL,  Fig.  1)  has  two  of  the  basal  segments  of  the  abdomen 


458  APPENDIX  I 

yellowish  on  the  sides  with  a  large  gray  triangle  on  the  second 
segment.  Chrysops  mitis  has  the  abdomen  entirely  black,  with 
faint  triangles  of  grayish  hairs.  Chrysops  sordidus  is  distinguished 
by  having  the  first  and  second  segments  of  the  abdomen  marked 
with  yellow  on  the  sides,  and  the  posterior  margins  of  all  the  seg- 
ments narrowly  bordered  with  gray,  and  a  dorsal  row  of  small 
triangles.  The  species  are  all  of  about  the  same  size,  a  little  less 
than  a  half  inch  in  length,  C.  excitans  as  a  rule  being  a  little  larger 
than  the  other  two. 

The  larger  horse-flies  are  represented  by  at  least  six  species, 
all  belonging  to  the  group  with  hairy  eyes.  These  were  formerly 
separated  from  the  genus  Tabanus  and  placed  in  the  genus  Therio- 
plectes,  but  they  are  now  united,  the  character  used  in  separating 
them  being  probably  only  of  subgeneric  value.  The  two  most  promi- 
nent species  are  Tabanus  flavipes,  or  the  yellow-footed  horse-fly,  and 
Tabanus  zonalis,  or  banded  horse-fly  (PL,  Fig.  2).  They  are  nearly 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  length,  with  wings  spreading  an  inch  and 
a  quarter ;  black,  with  the  posterior  margins  of  the  abdominal  seg- 
ments bordered  with  a  band  of  golden-yellow  hair;  the  wings  are 
brownish,  tinged  with  yellow  toward  the  base.  The  two  species 
closely  resemble  each  other,  but  can  be  readily  separated  by  the 
latter's  having  the  tubercle  in  front  of  the  base  of  the  wing  reddish, 
and  the  yellow  bands  of  the  abdomsn  broader,  with  slight  ante- 
rior projections  on  the  second  and  third  segments.  The  Tabanus 
auripilus  of  northern  Europe  is  closely  related  to  flavipes.  Another 
species  of  about  the  same  size  is  Tabanus  affinis  (PL,  Fig.  3); 
it  is  a  dark  brownish  black,  with  the  sides  of  the  abdomen  red. 
The  little-headed  horse-fly,  Tabanus  microcephalus,  is  about  one- 
half  inch  in  length ;  the  head  is  comparatively  small,  not  exceeding 
the  width  of  the  thorax ;  the  abdomen  is  marked  with  three  rows 
of  conspicuous  grayish  triangles.  The  northern  horse-fly,  Ta- 
banus septentrionalis,  is  similar  in  general  appearance,  but  with  a 
larger  head  and  less  prominent  abdominal  markings.  The  sixth 
species,  Tabanus  illotus,  is  distinguished  from  the  preceding  one 
by  the  broad,  distinctly  excised,  third  antennal  joint,  and  faint 
brown  clouding  on  the  cross- veins. 

The  larvae  of  the  horse-flies  (Fig.  4)  are  aquatic  or  subaquatic, 
living  either  in  the  mud  in  streams  and  swamps,  or  in  wet  earth 
adjacent  to  springs.  The  eggs  are  placed  on  plants  overhanging 
the  water  or  in  very  wet  situations.  The  eggs  hatch  in  about  a 
week,  and  the  young  larvae  drop  into  the  water  or  mud.  The 
larva?  are  carnivorous,  feeding  upon  other  insects  and  snails,  and 
probably  repaying  to  some  extent  their  annoyance  when  adult. 
They  are  cylindrical,  tapering  gradually  toward  the  end,  and 
usually  translucent,  whitish,  and  in  some  of  the  larger  species 


FIG.  I.     Chrysops  excitans 
(enlarged) 


FIG.  3.     Tabanus  affinis 


FIG.  8.     Sirex  flavicornis 


FIG.  2.     Tabanus  zonalis 


FIG.  5.     Tipula  tesselata 


FIG.  9.     Brenthus  frigga 


APPENDIX  I  459 

frequently  banded  with  brown  or  black.  They  possess  great  ex- 
tensile and  retractile  powers,  which  enable  them  to  move  quite 
rapidly  through  the  mud  and  decaying  vegetable  matter.  When 
captured  they  are  restless  and  active;  if  held  carelessly  in  the 
closed  hand  they  use  their  mandibles  freely,  puncturing  the  skin 
and  causing  severe  pain. 

The  family  Tipulidae,  or  the  crane-flies,  as  they  are  popularly 
called  in  reference  to  their  long,  slender  legs,  constitute  a  very 
conspicuous  group  of  flies  which  extends  well  into  the  Arctic 
region.  Six  species  have  been  recorded  from  Labrador,  but  there 
are  probably  four  or  five  times  this  number.  The  large  tessellated 
crane-fly,  Tipula  tessellata  (PL,  Fig.  5),  is  over  an  inch  in  length,  with 
spotted  wings  and  dark  body  covered  with  a  grayish  pollen.  The 
northern  crane-fly,  Tipula  septentrionalis,  is  a  smaller  species, 
with  darker  wings  marked  with  white  and  black.  The  larvae  of 
this  group  live  either  in  damp,  decaying  vegetation,  or  in  wet 
earth  and  water. 

Of  the  mosquitoes  of  Labrador  we  only  know  that  they  are  abun- 
dant and  constitute  a  very  annoying  feature,  but  from  a  systematic 
standpoint  we  know  very  little.  Specimens  collected  by  Dr. 
C.  W.  Townsend  and  Dr.  G.  M.  Allen  were  submitted  to  Dr.  H.  G. 
Dyer,  who  says:  "I  have  looked  over  your  specimens,  and  find 
that  they  unfortunately  belong  to  that  group  of  JEdes  which  can- 
not be  determined  with  any  certainty  without  the  larvae.  I  have 
been  able  to  separate  most  of  the  species  from  regions  collected 
over,  but  as  these  come  from  Labrador,  it  is  possible  that  they 
represent  new  species,  which  would  have  differential  larvae,  but 
be  very  close  as  adults.  These  are  some  of  the  early  spring  species, 
which  in  Labrador  are  doubtless  the  dominant,  if  not  the  only 
occurring,  species." 

Closely  related  to  the  Culicidae,  or  mosquitoes,  are  the  Chiro- 
nomidae,  or  midges.  Four  or  five  species  of  this  family  have  been 
collected,  but  among  them  are  no  representatives  of  the  biting 
forms.  To  the  genus  Ceratopogon  belong  the  "punkies,"  or 
"  biting  gnats,"  which  the  Indians  call  the  "no-see-um."  These 
very  minute  but  annoying  insects  are  sometimes  abundant  in  north- 
ern Maine,  and  especially  noticeable  just  after  sunset  when  there 
is  no  wind.  They  may  possibly  extend  into  southern  Labrador. 

The  black-fly,  Simulium  (Fig.  6),  is  an  even  more  formidable 
pest  than  the  mosquito,  for,  unlike  the  latter,  it  makes  its  appear- 
ance only  on  the  bright  sunny  days  and  disappears  during  the 
cloudy  weather.  In  describing  their  attacks,  Packard  says:  "The 
armies  of  black-flies  were  supported  by  light  brigades  of  mosquitoes. 
They  fly  into  our  faces ;  they  do  not  bite  hard,  like  the  mosquitoes, 
but  the  vampires  suck  long  and  deep,  leaving  great  clots  of  blood. 


460 


APPENDIX  I 


FIG.  6. 
The  Black-fly. 


No  wonder  that  these  entomological  pests  are  a  perfect  barrier 
to  inland  travel,  and  that  few  people  live  during  the  summer  away 
from  the  sweep  of  the  high  winds  and  dwell  on  the  exposed  shores 
of  the  coast  to  escape  these  torments."  The 
larva  of  the  black-fly  (Fig.  7)  lives  in  the  swiftly 
flowing  streams,  while  those  of  the  mosquito 
are  found  in  stagnant  water,  and  as  "  one-third 
of  the  area  is  given  up  to  ponds  and  streams," 
conditions  are  very  favourable  for  their  increase. 
There  are  many  other  species  of  flies,  fully 
as  interesting  as  the  biters.  The  little  Doli- 
chopodidae  and  Empididse  are  each  represented 
by  four  or  five  species;  the  bright-coloured 
Syrphidae,  by  about  twelve  species,  including 
such  forms  as  Syrphus  contumax,  S.  diver sipes, 
Melanosto  mamellinum,  Eristalis  bastardi,  and 
Helophilus  glacialis;  the  Tachinidae,  or  para- 
sitic flies,  by  the  large  Echinomyia  florum ;  the 
Muscidae,  or  house-flies,  by  the  "blow-fly"  (Calliphora  vomitorid), 
the  blue  flesh-fly  (Cynomyia  cadaverind),  the  common  green  carrion- 
fly  (Lucilia  ccesar),  and  the  dark  blue  (Phormia  terrce 
novce) .  Hosts  of  Anthomyidae  are  yet  to  be  determined, 
while  the  Scatophagidse  are  represented  by  the  widely 
distributed  Scatophaga  stercoria,  furcata,  and  islandica. 
The  order  Hymenoptera  includes  the  bees,  wasps,  ants, 
saw-flies,  etc.  Notwithstanding  their  diversity  of  habit, 
it  is  one  of  the  orders  which  diminishes  greatly  in  num- 
bers as  we  approach  the  more  Arctic  regions.  Only 
twenty-six  species  have  been  recorded  from  Labrador. 
Further  research  will,  however,  increase  this  number, 
especially  in  the  Ichneumonidae,  or  parasitic  species. 

The  large  percentage  of  Phyllophaga,  or  leaf-eaters, 
is  very  marked,  eleven  of  the  above  numbers  represent- 
ing this  group.  They  belong  to  the  family  Tenthri- 
dinidae,  popularly  known  as  saw-flies,  a  term  derived 
from  a  peculiar  structure  on  the  under  side  of  the  last 
abdominal  segment  of  the  female,  consisting  of  a  pair 
of  chitinous,  sawlike  pieces  with  which  she  cuts  little  the  Black> 
pockets  in  the  leaves  in  which  to  deposit  her  eggs.  fly- 

Many  of  the  saw-flies  are  injurious  to  the  spruce,  larch,  willow, 
birch,  and  other  trees  and  plants,  often  completely  defoliating 
them.  The  larvae  resemble  some  of  those  of  the  butterflies  and 
moths,  but  can  be  quite  readily  distinguished  by  having  from 
twelve  to  sixteen  prolegs,  or  abdominal  feet,  while  the  true  cater- 
pillars have  as  a  rule  only  ten.  Various  species  of  the  genus  Ne- 


APPENDIX  I  461 

matus  infest  the  spruce,  willow,  and  birch.     Euura  orbitalis  makes 
a  gall  on  the  willow. 

Closely  allied  to  the  saw-flies  are  the  Xylophaga,  or  wood-eating 
Hymenoptera,  comprising  the  family  Siricidae,  or  horntails,  the 
females  being  provided  with  a  long,  hornlike  ovipositor  adapted  for 
boring,  as  the  eggs  are  laid  in  solid  wood  on  which  the  larvae  feed. 
Two  species  are  recorded  from  Labrador.  The  large  and  beautiful 
Sirex  flavicornis  (PL,  Fig.  8),  with  its  handsome  livery  of  deep  black 
and  orange-yellow,  seems  to  be  quite  common.  The  male  is  smaller 
and  darker  than  the  female,  the  yellow  being  confined  to  the  four 
middle  segments  of  the  abdomen,  at  the  end  of  which  there  is  only 
a  short  triangular  projection.  It  differs  so  much  from  the  female 
that  for  a  long  time  it  masqueraded  under  the  name  of  Sirex  ab- 
dominalis.  In  more  southern  localities  this  insect  infests  the 
white  pine,  but  in  this  region  it  probably  lives  in  the  spruce.  Sirex 
cyaneus,  a  dark  blue  species,  has  been  recorded  from  Hopedale. 
We  should  naturally  expect  to  find  one  of  the  large  ichneumon 
flies  (Thalessa  or  Rhyssa)  with  very  long  ovipositors,  which  para- 
sitizes the  horntails  farther  south. 

There  are  a  large  number  of  parasitic  species  belonging  to  the 
family  Ichneumonidse.  Packard  collected  about  twenty -five 
species,  only  five  of  which  have  been  determined.  He  also  records 
two  or  three  species  of  Chalcidse.  Both  of  these  groups  are  prob- 
ably mostly  parasitic,  as  the  various  species  of  moth. 

Two  species  of  ants  are  recorded,  —  the  large  Campanotus  her- 
culeanus,t  or  black  carpenter  ant,  which  builds  extensive  nests 
in  logs  and  stumps  and  even  living  trees,  and  Formica  sanguined, 
or  the  "slave  makers."  It  would  be  interesting  to  note  the  habits 
of  this  species  in  the  more  northern  latitudes.  The  white-faced 
hornet,  or  paper-making  wasp  (Vespa  maculata],  has  been  recorded 
from  the  more  southern  portions  of  the  peninsula,  and  Vespa  nor- 
vegica  from  Caribou  Island.  Five  species  of  bumblebees  (Bombus) 
have  been  collected,  some  of  which  have  a  wide  band  of  dark  orange- 
red  pile  on  the  abdomen.  There  are  probably  a  number  of  the 
smaller  bees,  such  as  Andrena  and  Halictus,  several  species  of 
which  often  appear  very  early  in  the  spring  in  more  southern 
latitudes. 

The  order  Lepidoptera,  or  the  butterflies  and  moths,  is  not  only 
very  well  represented,  but  includes  many  rare  and  interesting 
species.  Upwards  of  one  hundred  and  fifteen  have  been  recorded, 
of  which  number  eighteen  are  butterflies.  Among  the  latter  are 
four  species  of  the  smaller  Fritillaries,  —  Brenthus  frigga  (PL,  Fig.  9), 
B.  polaris,  B.  triclaris,  and  B.  chariclea.  They  are  similar  in  appear- 
ance, the  upper  surface  of  the  wings  being  reddish,  marked  with 
black,  while  the  under  side  of  the  hind  wings  bears  a  series  of 


462  APPENDIX  I 

whitish  spots  or  markings.  A  larger  species,  Argynnis  atlantis, 
the  "mountain  silver-spot,"  has  been  recorded  from  the  interior 
of  the  peninsula.  It  may  prove  to  be  only  an  accidental  visitor, 
although  two  species  of  violets,  the  food  plant  of  the  Fritillaries, 
are  recorded  as  far  north  as  Hopedale.  Papilio  turnus,  the 
yellow  swallow-tail,  has  also  been  recorded  from  the  interior. 

The  northern  white  butterfly  (Pontia  napi,  variety  frigida) 
varies  greatly  in  different  localities,  and  consequently  has  received 
many  varietal  names.  The  wings  are  white,  with  the  veins  on  the 
under  side  more  or  less  broadly  marked  with  gray,  with  the  tip  of 
the  fore  wings  and  the  hind  wings  pale  yellow.  The  larvae  feed  on 
various  species  of  the  Cruciferous  plants,  especially  turnip  and 
mustard. 

The  smaller  yellow,  or  sulphur,  butterflies  are  represented  by 
three  or  four  species,  —  Eurymus  palceno,  nastes,  and  pelidne  or 
labradorensis.  The  large  "white-j  butterfly,"  Eugonia  j-album 
(PL,  Fig.  10),  is  marked  with  dull  yellow  and  reddish  brown,  irregularly 
maculated  with  black,  with  a  spot  of  white  near  the  tip  of  the  wing, 
and  the  outer  margin  with  a  double  crenulated  line;  the  hind 
wing  is  reddish  brown,  black  along  the  anterior  margin,  with  a 
central  patch  of  white;  the  under  side  consists  of  various  shades 
of  grayish  brown,  giving  a  woody  or  mossy  effect,  and  when  the 
insect  is  at  rest  presenting  an  interesting  example  of  protective 
coloration.  The  larvae  feed  on  birch.  It  has  been  taken  as  far 
north  as  Okkak. 

The  barren-ground  butterfly,  or  Arctic  satyr,  (Eneis  jutta  (PL, 
Fig.  11),  is  circumpolar,  being  found  in  the  more  northern 'parts  of 
both  the  eastern  and  western  continents.  The  colour  of  the  fore 
wings  is  a  dark  brown,  with  six  yellowish  spots  of  varying  sizes  near 
the  outer  margin  and  somewhat  blending  into  the  brown,  spots 
with  or  without  central  points  of  black;  the  hind  wing  has  four 
yellowish  patches,  the  anal  one  with  a  small  black  spot ;  the  under 
side  is  brownish,  the  hind  wings  being  mottled  with  gray  and  closely 
resembling  the  moss-covered  ground  and  rocks.  A  closely  related 
species,  the  "White  Mountain  butterfly"  ((Eneis  norma,  variety 
semidea),  is  very  similar  in  colour,  and  its  habits  have  been  so 
nicely  described  by  Mr.  A.  H.  Scudder  that  I  quote  the  following :  — 

"As  soon  as  one  alights  it  tumbles  upon  one  side  with  a  sudden 
fall,  but  not  quite  to  the  surface,  exposing  the  under  side  of  the 
wings  with  their  marbled  markings  next  the  gray  rocks  mottled 
with  brown  and  yellow  lichens,  so  that  the  ordinary  passer-by 
would  look  at  them  without  observing  their  presence :  it  is  an  ob- 
vious case  of  protective  resemblance.  The  surface  is  generally  ex- 
posed so  as  to  receive  the  fullest  rays  of  the  sun,  or  else  the  creature 
falls  so  as  to  let  the  wind  sweep  over  it,  its  base  to  the  windward." 


APPENDIX  I  463 

The  larva  of  the  Arctic  satyr  feeds  on  carax.  It  has  been  found 
at  Nam,  Hopedale,  and  Square  Island  Harbour  during  the  months 
of  June  and  July.  (Eneis  norma,  varieties  semidea  (ceno)  and  bore, 
are  recorded  from  Strawberry  Harbour  and  Hopedale,  collected 
August  3. 

The  little  "Arctic  bluet,"  Agriades  aquilo  (Polyommatus  franklinii 
Curtis),  which  Packard  refers  to  as  "half  skipping  and  half  flying 
over  the  lichened  boulders,"  has  been  taken  at  Sloop  Harbour, 
Henley  Harbour,  and  Hopedale,  July  19  to  August  15.  In  the  in- 
terior of  the  peninsula,  one  of  the  varieties  of  the  "Spring  Azure" 
—  LycoBna  (Cyaniris)  ladon,  variety  lucia  —  has  been  collected.  Its 
colour  is  a  pale  violet,  the  wings  having  a  broad  blackish  border 
in  the  female ;  under  side  of  the  wings  is  light  gray,  flecked  with 
brownish  black.  The  wings  expand  about  one  inch.  It  feeds 
on  a  great  variety  of  plants,  especially  Cornus. 

Two  species,  of  the  Hesperidae,  or  skippers,  are  recorded.  The 
Pamphila  comma,  representing  the  variety  "catena  Stand.,"  is  also 
found  in  northern  Scandinavia  and  Lapland.  The  other  species 
is  Hesperia  centaurece  Ramtx 

The  family  Arctiidse  is  represented  by  only  four  species.  One 
of  the  tiger-moths  (Apantesis  quenseli),  a  small  black  species  with 
the  fore  wings  tessellated  with  white,  is  also  found  throughout 
Arctic  America,  Europe,  and  Asia,  and  on  Mount  Washington, 
New  Hampshire,  and  the  Swiss  Alps.  The  great  tiger-moth, 
Arctia  caia,  has  dark  brown  fore  wings  marked  with  white,  and 
bright  red  hind  wings  spotted  with  black.  It  is  also  circumpolar 
in  its  distribution.  The  large  and  beautiful  "St.  Lawrence  tiger- 
moth,"  Hyphoraia  parthenos  (PL,  Fig.  12),  with  its  bright  reddish 
brown  fore  wings  spotted  with  yellow,  and  bright  yellow  hind 
wings  banded  with  black,  is  recorded  from  the  Moravian  stations. 

The  Noctuida?,  or  owlet-moths,  number  about  forty  species, 
and  form  a  very  interesting  group  worthy  of  a  great  deal  of  study. 
Professor  Packard  refers  to  those  boreal  forms  as  follows:  — 

"The  moths  were  all  Arctic  species,  and  when  at  rest  so  harmo- 
nized in  colour  with  the  lichens  and  other  vegetation  in  which  they 
nestled  as  to  entirely  deceive  me.  And  yet  what  was  the  use  of 
practising,  even  unconsciously  to  themselves,  this  deception? 
The  answer  was  not  far  off  —  there  was  a  shore  lark,  or  some  such 
bird,  flitting  about  and  running  over  the  rocks,  busily  searching 
for  just  such  moths  as  these,  and  the  only  hope  of  safety  for 
the  insects  from  their  sharp  eyes  was  in  their  resemblance  to  the 
lichens." 

The  forty  species  are  divided  among  some  fourteen  genera 
According  to  the  more  modern  classification,  the  more  prominent 
of  these  being  Mamestra,  Pachnobia,  Hadena,  Semiophora,  Anarta 


4G4  APPENDIX  I 

(PI ,  Fig.  13),  Noctua,  and  Syngrapha.  To  this  family  belong  the 
cutworms  and  many  other  injurious  species.  The  larvse  vary  con- 
siderably in  appearance,  and  feed  upon  a  great  variety  of  plants. 

The  Geometridae,  or  measuring-worms,  are  so  named  from  the 
peculiar  looping  gait  of  the  larvse,  as  if  measuring  the  surface  over 
which  they  move.  There  have  been  recorded  about  twenty  species. 
The  family  Lipariidse  is  represented  by  Gyncephom  rossii;  and  the 
Hepialidae,  or  ghost-moths,  by  Hepialus  hyperboreus  and  mus- 
telinus. 

The  family  Pyralidse,  numbering  about  eight  species;  the 
Crambid^e,  or  "close  wings/'  some  six  species;  the  Tortricidse, 
or  leaf-rollers,  —  a  term  derived  from  the  habit  of  many  of  the 
larvae,  —  with  about  twenty  species ;  and  the  Tineidse,  which  con- 
tains the  clothes-moths  and  a  number  of  the  leaf-miners,  and  rep- 
resented by  some  ten  species,  comprise  the  smaller  species,  and 
constitute  in  part  what  are  commonly  classed  as  the  Microlepi- 
doptera. 

The  caddis-flies  constitute  one  of  the  most  interesting  groups 
of  aquatic  insects.  They  belong  to  the  order  Trichoptera,  or 
hairy-winged  insects.  At  first  sight  many  of  these  resemble  a 
moth,  but  with  a  closer  acquaintance  no  one  need  confuse  the  two. 
The  peculiar  habits  of  the  larvse  of  the  various  species  form  one 
of  the  most  interesting  studies  of  insect  life.  A  bundle  of  little 
sticks,  or  a  tube  made  of  coarse  grains  of  sand,  moving  mysteriously 
about  the  bottom  of  a  stream  or  spring  is  apt  to  attract  the  atten- 
tion of  the  most  casual  observer,  but  how  few  know  what  these  are. 
They  are  the  cases  of  the  caddis-worms,  the  larvse  of  the  caddis- 
flies,  built  to  protect  their  soft  bodies  from  their  enemies.  What 
adds  so  much  to  their  interest  is  that  each  species  has  a  very  differ- 
ent method  of  house  building,  some  preferring  wood,  others  stone, 
but  the  caddis  carpenters  and  masons  do  not  always  build  in  the 
same  manner.  Some  place  the  sticks  crosswise,  while  others 
arrange  them  longitudinally ;  some  have  the  curious  habit  of 
decorating  by  fastening  shells,  etc.,  to  the  outside  of  their  houses; 
others  make  a  case  largely  composed  of  pieces  of  leaves.  The 
numerous  masons  seem  to  be  very  particular  about  the  size  of  the 
stones  and  the  shape  and  position  of  their  domiciles.  One  will 
make  a  beautiful  tube  of  sand,  unattached,  in  which  it  wanders 
to  all  parts  of  the  stream ;  another  will  make  a  spiral  tube  so  closely 
resembling  a  snail-shell  as  to  lead,  a  conchologist  to  describe  it  as  a 
mollusk.  One,  commonly  observed  in  running  streams,  is  made 
of  a  few  small  pebbles  attached  to  a  large  stone.  Some  of  the 
dwellers  in  these  rude  homes  are  also  fishermen  and  construct  a 
funnel-shaped  net  at  their  doors,  with  the  opening  upstream. 
Their  nets  are  made  of  silken  threads,  such  as  are  used  in  fastening 


FIG.  15.     y£shna  constricta 


FIG.  12.     Hyphoraia  parthenos 


FIG.  11.     CEneis  jutta 


FIG.  10.     Eugonia  j-album 


FIG.  16.     Leucorhina  hudsonica 


FIG.  13.     Anarta 


APPENDIX  I 


465 


together  the  stones  and  sticks.  In  some  species  the  entire  case  is 
made  of  silk.  Some  five  or  six  species  have  been  recorded  from 
Labrador.  Limnophilus  subpunctatus  is  a  common  species  which 
is  also  found  in  Lapland.  Desmataulius  planifrons  is  recorded  by 
Professor  Packard  from  Okkak. 

The  Hemiptera,  or  true  bugs,  are  poorly  represented,  —  two 
leaf -hoppers,  including  Deltocephalus  debilis;  a  small  bug,  Trigono- 
tylus  ruficornis ;  and  one  of  the  "water-boat-man,"  Corisa,  are 
all  that  have  been  discovered.  Equally  scarce  are  the  Orthoptera, 
only  one  species  of  grasshopper,  Melanoplus,  having  been  recorded. 

The  Odonata,  or  dragon-flies,  are  among  the  most  active  and 
swift-flying  of  insects,  darting  back  and  forth  over  the  ponds  and 
streams  and  turning  suddenly  as  they  seize 
any  unfortunate  midge  that  comes  within 
their  reach;  or  alighting  on  the  tip  of  a 
dead  stick  or  reed  from  which  vantage- 
point  they  can  swoop  like  hawks  upon 
their  prey.  Thus  they  are  in  many  sec- 
tions of  the  country  known  by  the  popular 
name  of  mosquito  hawks. 

The  dragon-fly  lays  her  eggs  in  the 
water,  where  the  young  or  nymphal  stages 
are  passed.  The  nymph  (Fig.  14)  is  a 
clumsy,  awkward  creature,  crawling  over 
the  mud  and  among  decaying  vegetation, 
where  it  will  lie  partly  concealed  until  its 
unsuspecting  victim  comes  within  reach 
of  its  extensible  lower  lip,  which  is  armed 
with  a  pair  of  jawlike  hooks.  They  are 
voracious  feeders  and  not  at  all  particular, 
for  young  fish  are  frequent  victims.  They 
are,  however,  to  be  classed  among  the 
beneficial  insects,  for  they  undoubtedly 
destroy  great  numbers  of  the  pestiferous  gnats,  mosquitoes,  and 
flies. 

After  moulting  several  times,  the  nymph,  when  it  attains  its 
full  size,  crawls  out  upon  some  stick  or  plant,  the  skin  splits  longi- 
tudinally along  the  back,  and  the  adult  dragon-fly  emerges.  The 
life  of  the  adult  is  from  twenty  to  forty  days,  depending  on  cli- 
matic conditions,  the  more  northern  latitudes  being  unfavourable. 
About  three  hundred  species  are  known  from  the  whole  of  North 
America,  of  which  only  eight  have  thus  far  been  collected  in  Labra- 
dor, including  such  large  and  widely  distributed  species  as 
JEshna  constricta  (PI,  Fig  15),  M.  crenata,  M.  septentrionalis,  the 
type  of  which  was  from  Labrador,  four  species  of  the  genus  Somato- 


FIG.  14. 
Nymph  of  the  Dragon-fly. 


466 


APPENDIX  I 


chlora,  two  of  which  were  originally  described  from  this  region, 
and  Leucorhina  hudsonica  (PL,  Fig.  16). 

The  May-flies,  or  day-flies,  belong  to  the  order  Ephemenda, 
an  application  which  refers  to  the  short  lives  of  the  imagoes.  They 
represent  one  of  the  more  primitive  groups,  with  mouth-parts 
rudimentary  or  almost  wanting  in  the  adult,  as  they  do  not  feed 
during  their  few  hours  of  existence  as  winged  insects.  The  wings 
are  delicate,  with  a  fine  network  of  veins ;  the  hind  wings  are  much 
smaller  than  the  fore  wings,  or  sometimes  wanting ;  the  abdomen 
bears  two  or  three  long,  many-jointed,  bristlelike  appendages, 
while  the  antennae  are  very  short.  In 
the  nymph  or  the  wingless  aquatic  stage 
their  life  is  a  long  one,  in  some  species 
often  extending  to  two  or  three  years. 
The  nymphs  are  interesting  objects  of 
the  streams  and  lakes,  clinging  to  the 
under  sides  of  stones  and  sticks  and  feed- 
ing on  the  smaller  animal  and  plant  life. 
They  are  readily  recognized  by  having 
their  sides  fringed  with  tracheal  gills, 
two  or  three  caudal  appendages,  and  feet 
with  single  claws.  When  the  nymph 
attains  its  full  size,  it  rises  to  the  sur- 
face, the  cuticle  along  the  back  suddenly 
splits,  and  a  frail-winged  creature  appears, 
but  this  is  not  the  true  imago ;  it  is  what 
is  known  as  the  subimago  stage.  In  a 
short  time  another  moulting  takes  place, 
and  we  have  the  adult  day-fly.  This 
subimago  stage  is  unknown  in  any  other 
order  of  insects.  Potamanthus  marginatus, 
the  only  species  recorded  from  Labrador, 
also  occurs  in  northern  Europe. 

Somewhat  resembling  the  nymphs  of 
the  day-flies  are  those  of  the  stone-flies,  belonging  to  the  order 
Plecoptera,  or  plaited-winged  insects.  These  can,  however,  be 
easily  separated,  the  gills  being  in  the  form  of  tufts  of  short  hairs 
on  the  thorax  and  behind  each  leg,  and  not  on  the  sides  of  the 
abdomen.  The  feet  have  two  claws,  the  legs  being  usually  fringed 
with  hairs,  and  there  are  two  caudal  processes.  They  are  found 
in  streams  which  are  quite  rapid,  as  they  require  more  aerated 
water  than  the  nymphs  of  the  day-flies.  Reaching  its  full  size, 
the  nymph  (Fig.  17)  crawls  out  upon  the  rocks  or  trees,  the  skin 
splits  along  the  back,  and  the  adult  appears. 
The  full-grown  stone-fly  (Fig.  18)  is,  however,  very  different  in 


FIG.  17. 

Nymph  of  the  Stone-fly. 


APPENDIX  I 


467 


FIG.  18. 
The  Stone-fly. 


appearance  from  the  day-fly.  The  body  is  flattened,  the  antennae 
are  quite  long,  the  fore  wings  narrow,  and  noticeably  smaller  than 
the  hind  wings.  Some  of  the  smaller  species  appear  very  early  in 
the  spring,  long  before  the  snow  has  melted. 
Three  species  have  been  recorded  from  this 
region,  —  the  large  Pteronarcys  regalis,  Perla 
sp.,  and  one  of  the  small  green  Chloroperla. 

The  Thysanura,  popularly  known  as  the 
bristle-tails  or  spring-tails,  constitute  the  most 
primitive  group  of  insects.  Although  not 
recorded  from  Labrador,  there  is  little  doubt 
that  the  order  is  represented,  for  they  seem 
to  thrive  under  very  unfavourable  conditions. 
The  snow-flea  (Achorutes  nivicold),  a  minute, 
blue-black  insect,  is  exceedingly  abundant  in 
the  snow  in  New  England  and  Canada,  and 
undoubtedly  extends  nortrrward.  A  closely 
allied  species,  Podura  humicola,  is  found  in 
Greenland. 

While  the  spiders  do  not  belong  to  the  true 
insects,  but  constitute  a  separate  class  known 
as  Arachnida,  they  are  very  frequently  re- 
ferred to  in  connection  with  insects.  Spiders  are  distinguished 
by  having  four  pairs  of  legs,  the  head  and  thorax  united,  forming 
the  cephalothorax  and  an  unsegmented  abdomen.  Eleven  species 
have  been  recorded,  including  several  of  the  genus  Lycosa,  or  run- 
ning spiders,  two  of  the  " orb-weavers "  (Epiera),  and  a  "tube- 
weaver"  (Clubiond).  A  Myriopoda  (Millepede)  is  recorded  from 
Square  Island. 

The  Beetles 
BY  JOHN  D.  SHERMAN,  JR. 

A  LIST  of  the  beetles  and  other  insects  of  Labrador  was  pub- 
lished as  long  ago  as  the  summer  of  1888  by  the  late  A.  S.  Packard 
of  Brown  University,  and  reprinted  in  his  book.  The  Labrador 
Coast.  This  list  included  about  sixty  different  kinds  of  beetles 
collected  at  various  places  along  the  coast,  many  of  them  gathered 
by  himself  in  1860  when  he  made  his  first  trip  to  Labrador,  and 
most  of  the  others  by  Dr.  Robert  Bell.  Even  before  Packard's 
visit  to  Labrador,  several  insects  from  the  Hudson  Bay  region  had 
been  mentioned  and  described  by  the  well-known  British  ento- 
mologist, Kirby.  This  was  in  1837. 

„  During  the  last  two  or  three  years  the  writer,  through  the  kind 
assistance  of  Dr.  Grenfell,  has  had  the  good  fortune  to  receive  a 


468  APPENDIX  I 

large  number  of  Labrador  beetles  from  correspondents  living  at 
the  following  points:  West  St.  Modest  (Ernest  Doane),  Red 
Bay  (W.  Y.  Pike),  Cape  Charles  (Albert  Pye),  Nain  (Chesley  Ford), 
Nachvak  (George  Ford),  and  Fort  Chimo  (Duncan  Matheson). 

These  men,  without  any  previous  experience  in  insect  collecting, 
succeeded  in  finding  seven  or  eight  thousand  beetles  representing 
over  eighty  distinct  species,  some  of  them  less  than  one-sixteenth 
of  an  inch  long.  Their  success  in  this  occupation  of  hunting 
beetles  —  an  unusual  one  to  say  the  least  —  seems  truly  remark- 
able, and  the  men  selected  by  Dr.  Grenfell  certainly  lived  up  to 
his  opinion  of  their  cleverness  and  very  much  more  than  fulfilled 
my  own  expectations. 

A  very  large  percentage  of  the  beetles  sent  to  me  from  Labrador 
have  been  feebly  developed,  and  I  have  noticed  the  same  condi- 
tion in  collecting  beetles,  particularly  water-beetles,  above  the 
tree  line  in  the  White  Mountains.  So  it  would  seem  that  insect 
life  in  these  cold  countries  does  not  attain  the  average  and  normal 
full  development  found  in  our  warmer  climates. 

Beetles  are  at  once  separated  from  all  other  insects  by  their 
hard  shell  and  elytra,  two  horny  wing  covers  meeting  on  the  back 
in  a  straight  line  and  covering  the  real  wings,  which,  like  those  of 
flies  and  wasps,  are  formed  of  delicate  membranes.  In  some  beetles 
these  real  wings  are  only  feebly  developed, 
being  but  little  used,  and  a  few  species  have 
no  true  wings  at  all,  but  only  the  hard  wing 
covers. 

More  than  one-third  of  all  the  known  Lab- 
rador beetles  belong  to  one  family  (Carabidae) . 
The  species  of  this  family  are  carnivorous, 
feeding  on  other  forms  of  animal  life,  and 
are  commonly  called  ground  beetles,  as  they 
are  usually  found  upon  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  under  stones,  logs,  or  dead  leaves, 
or  around  the  roots  of  plants,  in  moss,  and 
in  similar  places.  The  Labrador  forms  are 
all  of  dark  colours,  though  a  few  have  a 
FIG.  19.  metallic  lustre,  and  nearly  all  are  of  graceful 

Carabus  chamissonis.      form. 

A  typical  Labrador  beetle  of  this  family  is 

shown  in  Figure  19.  It  is  an  opaque  black  insect  a  little  over' half 
an  inch  long,  and  it  is  known  to  scientists  as  Carabus  chamissonis 
Fisch.  This  beetle,  like  a  great  many  others  of  the  Labrador  species, 
is  found  in  Alaska,  and  above  the  tree  line  on  Mount  Washington. 
It  occurs  also  in  Greenland. 

A  large  number  of  the  beetles  of  Labrador  are  generally  distrib- 


APPENDIX  I 


469 


FIG.  20. 
Pelophila  ulkei. 


uted  throughout  the  northern  part  of  America,  occurring  through- 
out Canada,  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior,  and  on  our  high  moun- 
tains, both  the  White  Mountains  and  the 
Rockies.  Several  of  them  are  found  in  the 
Arctic  regions  of  Europe  and  Asia  as  well.  It 
is  not  strange  that  forms  of  life  sufficiently  hardy 
arid  sturdy  to  live  in  these  far  northern  coun- 
tries have  been  vigorous  enough  to  spread  over 
such  a  large  territory. 

The  insect  represented  in  Figure  20  (Pelo- 
phila ulkei  Horn),  on  the  other  hand,  is,  so  far 
as  known,  peculiar  to  the  Labrador  country 
and  the  Hudson  Bay  region,  though  a  closely 
allied  form  is  found  in  Alaska.  The  Labrador 
species  is  about  three-eighths  of  an  inch  long, 
and,  though  entirely  black,  is  of  peculiarly  grace- 
ful form.  It  is  quite  flat,  and  slender  and  very 
shining,  and  has  several  distinct  punctures  and 
tubercles  upon  the  wing  covers.  Another  beetle 
of  the  same  genus  (Pelophila  rudis  Lee.)  is  also  found  in  Lab- 
rador, though  it  is  very  rare.  It  is  about  the  same  size  as  the 
former  species,  but  the  outer  border  of  the  wing  cases  is  dark  red. 
The  mere  difference  of  colour  does  not,  of  course,  make  it  a  different 
species,  but  these  two  beetles  can  easily  be  separated  in  this  way, 
without  recourse  to  more  scientific  distinctions. 

Several  of  the  Labrador  Carabidse  belong  to  the  genera  Ptero- 
stichus  and  Amara,  and  are  proportionately  more  elongate  and 
narrower  than  the  two  beetles  illustrated. 
Most  of  these  species  are  of  blackish  colours, 
but  there  is  one  kind  (Amara  similis  Kirby) 
which  is  often  metallic  green  or  purple  on  the 
upper  side  of  the  body,  with  reddish  legs. 
Amara  similis  is  another  one  of  the  Labra- 
dor forms  found  in  Mount  Washington,  and 
it  has  recently  been  found  in  the  Green 
Mountains  of  Vermont. 

In  a  region  where  there  are  so  many 
pools  and  ponds  and  so  much  water,  we  find 
that  water-beetles  are  very  common  indeed. 
These  belong '  mostly  to  the  family  Dy tis- 
cidse,  and  are,  like  the  ground-beetles,  car- 
nivorous, feeding  on  tadpoles,  aquatic  insects, 
and  small  fish.  My  desire  to  obtain  two  particular  members  of 
thfs  family  was  what  first  interested  me  in  Labrador  insects. 

One  of  these  beetles  (Agabus  arcticus  Payk)  is  shown  in  Figure  21. 


FIG.  21. 

Agabus  arcticus. 


470 


APPENDIX  I 


It  was  first  described  from  Lapland,  and  is  very  common  in  Lab- 
rador, but  occurs  nowhere  else  in  America.  It  is  a  narrow,  slender 
insect  one-quarter  of  an  inch  long,  yellowish  brown,  with  the  head 
and  a  band  across  the  thorax  (or  middle  portion  of  the  body) 
black.  The  wing  cases  are  quite  rough  and  uneven. 

The  other  beetle  which  1 
sought  in  the  beginning  from 
my  Labrador  friends  (Agabus 
infuscatus  Aube)  is  appar- 
ently even  more  common 
there  than  the  one  in  the 
illustration.  It  has  been  re- 
corded from  Mount  Wash- 
ington and  Lake  Superior, 
but  it  is  certainly  not  com- 
mon at  either  of  these  points. 
It  is  shorter  and  more  robust 
than  Agabus  arcticus;  the 
wing  covers  are  brown,  the 
head  and  thorax  black. 

The  large  water-beetle 
shown  in  the  next  figure  (No. 
22  Dytiscus  dauricus  Gebl) 
is  one  of  the  largest  of  the 
Labrador  beetles,  being  an 
inch  and  a  quarter  long.  It 
is  greenish  black,  with  the 
borders  of  the  thorax  and  of  the  wing  covers  yellow.  The  under  side 
of  the  body  is  yellow,  with  several  black  lines  and  markings.  The 
beetles  of  the  genus  Dytiscus  are  probably  the  most  highly  devel- 
oped of  all  beetles.  The  males  have  the  three  basal  joints  of  the 
front  tarsi  (the  last  segment  of  the  leg)  enormously  dilated  and 
enlarged  into  a  large  circular  disk,  the  under  side  of  which  is  cov- 
ered with  a  large  number  of  palettes,  some  large,  some  small.  The 
middle  legs  are  similarly  modified,  but  to  a  less  degree.  These 
disks  are  of  use  in  enabling  the  beetle  to  cling  to  objects,  and  are 
probably  also  very  sensitive  organs.  The  females  do  not  have 
these  disks  at  all,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  they  often  have  deep 
grooves  or  furrows  extending  longitudinally  halfway  or  more  along 
the  wing  covers. 

While  speaking  of  water-beetles,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that 
they  all  possess  real  wings  and  are  capable  of  flying  great  distances. 
In  countries  where  there  are  artificial  lights,  the  beetles  are  often 
attracted  to  them  and  are  sometimes  found  many  miles  away  from 
any  water. 


FIG.  22. 
Dytiscus  dauricus. 


APPENDIX  I 


471 


FIG.  23. 
Silpha  lapponica. 


•  The  next  beetle  which  is  shown  (Silpha  lapponica  Hbst.,  Fig.  23) 
belongs  to  a  family  whose  members  are  scavengers  feeding  on  decay- 
ing animal  matter.  This  beetle  is  very  common  in  Labrador, 
living,  no  doubt,  on  dead  fish.  As  seen  in  the  illustration,  it  is 
rather  a  square-shaped  beetle,  black,  covered 
with  a  yellowish  pubescence.  It  is  about 
five-eighths  of  an  inch  long.  The  wing  cases 
are  covered  with  very  prominent  small  tu- 
bercles arranged  in  rows;  the  antennae,  or 
feelers,  are  thickened  at  the  end  as  in  other 
allied  forms.  Silpha  lapponica  occurs  nearly 
everywhere  in  North  America  except  in  the 
southeastern  states.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of 
Europe  also,  but  there  it  is  confined  to  the 
Arctic  regions. 

In  general  the  Arctic  species  are  more  in- 
clined to  extend  toward  the  temperate 
climates  to  the  south,  here  in  America,  than 
in  Europe.  The  northerly  and  southerly  di- 
rection of  our  American  mountain  ranges 
enables  the  insect  forms  of  the  two  climates  to  maintain  a  geograph- 
ical connection  and  specific  identity.  In  Europe,  the  mountains 
funning  from  east  to  west  have  tended  to  form  a  definite  boundary 
for  both  Arctic  and  southern  species,  so  that  there  the  allied  forms 
of  the  two  regions  have  either  remained  distinct  or  become  so, 
through  separation  from  one  another.  This  interesting  fact  was 
pointed  out  by  Mr.  Schwarz  some  years  ago. 

Another  Labrador  beetle  quite  generally  distributed  in  Europe, 
Asia,  and  America,  through  commerce,  is  the  " bacon  beetle" 
(Dermestes  lardarius  Linn. ,  Fig.  24) .  The  beetle 
is  about  one-third  of  an  inch  long  and  brown- 
ish black,  with  a  yellow  band  extending  across 
the  front  of  the  wing  cases.  Its  larva  lives  on 
preserved  animal  food  products,  such  as  hams, 
bacon,  old  cheese,  and  in  dried  skins,  hair,  etc. 
The  last  two  of  Mr.  JoutePs  figures  represent 
two  members  of  the  family  CerambycidaB. 
Both  of  these  beetles  are  quite  large,  and  have 
very  long  antenna?,  or  feelers,  like  the  other 
species  of  this  family. 

Criocephalus  agrestis  Kirby  (Fig.  25)  is  a 
^on^'  narrow,  brownish  beetle  varying  consid- 
erably in  size,  with  two  or  three  curious  depres- 
sions in  the  thorax,  and  two  longitudinal  ridges  extending  along 
each  wing  case.  The  species  is  found  generally  in  the  northern 


FIG.  24. 

Dermestes  lardarius. 


472 


APPENDIX  I 


FIG.  25. 

Criocephalus  agrestis. 


parts  of  our  continent  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.     Its  larva 

feeds  on  the  wood  of  living  pine 
trees,  boring  its  way  out  to  the 
surface. 

Pachyta  liturata  Kirby  (Fig.  26) 
is  not  so  common  as  the  preced- 
ing, but  is  found  over  practically 
the  same  wide  territory.  It  is 
much  shorter,  being  only  three  • 
quarters  of  an  inch  long,  and  the 
sides  of  the  body  are  not  parallel, 
as  in  that  species.  The  wing 
cases  are  light  yellow,  faintly 
marked  with  black,  and  when 
folded  the  insect  is  very  much 
wider  and  thicker  at  the  middle 
of  the  body  than  at  either  extrem- 
ity. On  each  side  margin  of  the  thorax  is  a  small  spine. 

Beetles  belonging  to  several  other  families  besides  those  I  have 

mentioned   are   found   in   Labrador.     Byrrhus   Americanus   Lee., 

a  small,  convex,  silky,  greenish  black  beetle 

was  taken  by  Professor   Packard  on  the 

stems  of  the  "Labrador  tea,"  and  several 

specimens  of  this  and  another  smaller,  close- 
ly allied  kind  have  been  sent  to  me.     The 

beetles  of  the  family  Byrrhida3  are  common 

in  northern  climates,  living  in  mossy  places, 

around  the  roots  of  plants,  etc. 

Then    there    are    some    small    snapping 

beetles  of  the  family  Elateridse,  and  some 

BuprestidaB  (whose  larvse  are  wood-borers). 

Also   some   species   of  weevils  which    are 

bark-borers,  and   a   few  beetles  which  we 

might  expect  to  find  upon  the  blossoms  of 

plants.    The  regular  leaf  and  plant  beetles, 

however,  are  conspicuous  by  their  absence, 

though  very  likely  some  of  them  may  be 

found  in  Labrador.     None  were  found  by 

Dr.  Packard,  and  I  have  not  received  any. 

There   is   no   doubt  that  there  are  many  species  of   Labrador 

beetles  besides  those  already  known.     The  additions  made  to  former 

records  by  Dr.  Grenf  ell's  friends  show  this  clearly  enough,  and   if 

these  men  continue  the  search,  we  can  probably  look  for   many 

more  important  captures  from  this  very  interesting  region. 


FIG.  26. 

Pachvta  liturata. 


II 

THE   MARINE   CRUSTACEA 
BY  MARY  J.  RATHBUN 

CRUSTACEA  are  the  most  conspicuous  invertebrate  animals  on 
the  coast  of  Labrador  by  reason  of  their  vast  numbers,  brilliant 
colours,  swift  movements,  and  diversity  of  form.  The  shallow 
water  fauna  is  most  abundant  on  the  northern  and  southern  shores, 
especially  in  Ungava  Bay  and  from  Hamilton  Inlet  southward 
and  westward,  where  the  harbours  are  enriched  by,  the  silt  of 
numerous  rivers  and  the  land  slopes  gradually  into  the  sea.  Vari- 
ous kinds  of  Amphipods  and  other  small  forms  swarm  under  the 
rocks  and  in  masses  of  algae  or  in  pools  of  water.  Along  most  of 
the  Atlantic  coast,  however,  the  bays  are  barren  and  rocky,  with 
little  seaweed,  and  there  are  few  large  streams  carrying  down 
sediment  to  form  muddy  and  sandy  bottoms;  the  rocks  at  the 
water's  edge  are  precipitous,  supporting  a  narrow  line  of  Fucus, 
which  gives  shelter  only  to  the  common  sand-flea.  In  quiet  eddies 
in  the  passages  between  the  islands  which  fringe  the  coast,  condi- 
tions are  more  favourable  for  the  development  of  life.  Here  the 
dredge  rewards  the  collector  with  spidery  crabs  and  darting  shrimps.1 

The  species  found  in  Labrador  are  not  numerous,  nor  are  they 
peculiar  to  the  peninsula,  but  in  general  range  from  Cape  Cod  to 
Greenland,  while  many  extend  to  Europe  or  are  Arctic  in  distri- 
bution, in  not  a  few  cases  reaching  into  Bering  Sea  and  the  North 
Pacific  Ocean. 

The  common  shore-crab,  or  rock-crab  (Cancer  irroratus),  of  the 
New  England  coast  is  also  the  shore-crab  of  Labrador,  but  has  not 
been  found  north  of  Hamilton  Inlet.  It  occurs  frequently  under 
stones  in  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle.  Occasionally  it  is  caught  and 
eaten  by  the  natives.  The  shell  is  broadly  oval,  with  nine  saw- 
teeth on  each  side,  and  is  speckled  with  fine  red  or  brown  dots; 
the  claws  are  stout  and  similar  in  size  and  shape,  and  there  are 
four  pairs  of  smooth,  flattened  walking  feet. 

Three  other  crabs  inhabit  the  coasts  of  Labrador,  but  live  offshore 
in  depths  varying  from  a  few  fathoms  to  fifty  or  more.  They 
belong  to  the  group  popularly  known  as  spider-crabs,  on  account 
of  their  relatively  long  and  slender  legs,  but  differ  widely  from  the 

1  Cf.  Packard,  The  Labrador  Coast. 
473 


474  APPENDIX  II 

common  round-bodied  spider-crabs  of  the  eastern  coast  of  the 
United  States.  The  largest  (Chionoecetes  opilio)  has  a  rough, 
flattened  back,  semicircular  behind  and  narrowed  in  front,  with 
a  short  bifid  beak  and  very  long,  flat  legs  armed  with  small  spines. 
This  crab  attains  a  large  size,  sometimes  having  a  span  of  over 
two  and  a  half  feet,  with  the  shell  itself  five  inches  in  width.  The 
smaller  species  are  much  alike,  and  are  known  as  toad-crabs,  from 
a  fancied  resemblance  to  that  batrachian ;  their  shells  are  two  or 
three  inches  long,  shield-shaped,  one  having  lateral  wings  on  the 
forward  half  (Hyas  coarctatus) ,  while  the  other  has  not  (Hyas 
araneus) ;  the  beak  is  short  and  broad,  and  split  through  the 
middle.  Like  most  of  the  family  to  which  they  belong,  they 
have  the  habit  of  attaching  to  their  backs  foreign  substances,  like 
seaweed,  bryozoans,  and  sponges,  which  are  held  in  place  by 
hooked  hairs  on  the  surface  of  the  crab.  In  this  way  the  carapace, 
and  the  legs  also,  may  become  entirely  hidden  by  a  miniature 
forest  which  serves  to  protect  the  crab  from  its  enemies.  Never- 
theless, many  individuals  find  their  way  into  the  stomachs  of 
fishes.  This  is  true  not  only  of  crabs  and  shrimps,  but  of  smaller 
crustaceans,  such  as  schizopods  and  amphipods,  which  are  con- 
sumed in  great  quantities  by  cod  and  other  large  fish  as  well  as  by 
whales  and  shore-birds. 

Only  two  hermit-crabs  are  known  on  the  coast,  but  in  favourable 
spots  they  are  abundant  from  low-water  mark  to  perhaps  fifty 
fathoms.  They  are  quite  different  in  appearance  and  behaviour 
from  true  crabs.  The  eyes  are  not  incased  in  sockets  or  orbits, 
the  antennae  are  long,  the  claws  are  very  unequal  in  size,  —  the 
right  (in  these  species)  always  the  larger,  —  and  the  walking  legs 
are  four  in  number.  The  hinder  part  of  the  body  is  soft,  tapering, 
and  asymmetrical,  as  it  has  to  accommodate  itself  to  the  shape  of 
the  gasteropod  shell  which  forms  the  crab's  dwelling.  Each  indi- 
vidual appropriates  a  dead  shell,  and  is  never  seen  without  it 
except  when  the  increasing  size  of  the  inmate  compels  it  to  seek  a 
larger  tenement.  The  transfer  from  one  shell  to  another  is  made 
with  striking  rapidity,  the  little  creature  being  very  active  and 
wary  and  on  the  lookout  for  its  stronger  enemies.  Although  it 
crawls  about  with  the  body  covered  by  the  shell,  and  the  limbs 
extruded,  yet  it  is  capable  of  retreating  entirely  into  its  domicile 
and  closing  the  aperture  with  its  claws.  The  two  Labrador  species 
are  very  similar ;  one  (Pagurus  pubescens)  has  claws  covered  with 
stout  spines  and  with  hairs  which  retain  particles  of  mud  and  sand, 
while  the  claws  of  the  other  (Pagurus  krtfyeri)  are  rough,  with  finer 
and  more  numerous  spines,  and  are  almost  devoid  of  hair ;  there  is 
a  difference,  too,  in  the  shape  of  the  left  or  smaller  claw :  the  outer 
surface  of  the  prismatic  hand-joint  is  narrow  and  lanceolate  in 


APPENDIX   II  475 

P.  pubescens,  and  about  four  times  as  long  as  wide,  while  in  P. 
krtfyeri  it  is  obliquely  triangular,  between  two  and  three  times  as 
long  as  wide.  The  eyes  of  P.  pubescens  are  longer  than  those  of 
P.  krfyeri,  so  that  the  slender  scale  at  the  base  of  the  outer  antennae 
does  not  reach  the  end  of  the  eye  in  the  former  but  does  in  the 
latter.  By  far  the  easiest  way  to  distinguish  these  two  forms  is 
by  the  colour  pattern;  in  P.  pubescens  the  bands  of  red  on  the 
walking  feet  are  dispos?d  across  the  middle  of  each  segment,  while 
in  P.  krtfyeri  they  run  across  the  articulations  between  the  segments. 

The  common  lobster  of  New  England  extends  to  southern 
Labrador  and  occurs  in  abundance  on  the  coasts  of  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence.  It  has  been  found  as  far  north  as  Henley  Harbour 
(52°  north  lat.),  and  extends  perhaps  a  few  miles  farther.  Its 
absence  along  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Labrador  is  explained  by  the 
lower  temperature  produced  by  the  Arctic  current,  which  flows 
southward  close  to  the  shore.  While  many  lobsters  are  trapped 
in  the  shallow  bays  of  the  southern  coast,  the  catch  is  not  sufficient 
to  supply  a  cannery.  The  lobsters  appear  to  be  all  fished  out 
when  the  traps  are  first  set,  and  various  attempts  to  operate  can- 
neries have  had  to  be  abandoned.1 

There  are  fourteen  species  of  shrimps  known  on  the  Labrador 
coast,  varying  in  length  from  a  half  inch  to  four  or  five  inches. 
They  agree  in  having  the  abdomen  or  posterior  part  of  large  size, 
and  generally  extended  to  the  full  length,  though  sometimes  bent 
at  a  right  angle  instead  of  being  folded  up  under  the  thorax,  as  in 
the  crabs.  The  shrimps  are  further  marked  by  a  spreading  tail 
fan  composed  of  the  terminal  segment,  or  tail,  and  the  two  pairs 
of  appendages  attached  to  the  preceding  segment.  In  one  of 
the  most  abundant  species  (Sclerocrangon  boreas] ,  of  a  pale  brownish 
red  colour  with  a  chestnut  stripe  along  the  sides,  the  skin  is  hard 
and  rough,  the  body  is  stout  in  front,  tapering  posteriorly,  the  tiny 
claws  which  arm  the  first  pair  of  trunk  legs  are  of  curious  shape 
peculiar  to  the  family  Cragonidaa,  the  palmar  portion  being  oblong 
and  bearing  a  small  spine  in  place  of  the  well-known  thumb  or 
immovable  finger  of  the  lobster  and  most  shrimps,  while  a  slender 
movable  finger  lies  transversely  or  across  the  end  of  the  palm. 

One  of  the  largest  shrimps  is  Pandalus  montagui,  which  is  abun- 
dant especially  in  weeds  on  a  clear,  pebbly  bottom ;  it  is  compressed 
laterally  and  armed  with  a  long,  slender,  swordlike  rostrum  or  beak, 
with  a  row  of  sharp  spines  on  its  middle  line;  the  antennae  may 
be  as  long  as  the  rest  of  the  animal,  and  the  legs  are  all  slender 
without  conspicuous  claws.  The  red  colour  which  plays  a  promi- 

1  Of.  Herrick,  The  American  Lobster,  in  Bull.  U.  S.  Fish  Comm. 
for  1895,  pp.  14-15. 


476  APPENDIX  II 

nent  part  in  all  these  shrimps  is  here  arranged  in  obliquely  trans- 
verse lines  or  bars  on  the  body,  and  in  specks,  blotches,  or  rings 
on  the  legs. 

In  the  numerous  species  of  Spirontocaris,  the  body  is  shaped 
as  in  the  preceding,  but  the  beak  is  much  shorter  and  variously 
shaped  and  toothed,  but  always  thin  and  compressed.  The  first 
pair  of  legs  have  small  but  well-defined  claws ;  those  of  the  second 
pair  are  notable  in  being  very  slender  and  in  having  the  wrist  or 
antepenultimate  segment  divided  into  many  small  pieces  jointed 
together  and  tipped  with  a  minute  claw. 

Besides  the  true  shrimps  there  swarm  at  the  surface  numbers 
of  transparent  schizopods,  or  cleft-footed  shrimps,  known  as 
Mysis,  which  swim  in  immense  shoals,  and  form  the  main  food  of 
the  sea-trout.  These  shrimps  are  of  small  size,  an  inch  or  less 
in  length,  with  large,  dark  eyes,  and  have  seven  instead  of  five 
pairs  of  trunk-legs,  devoid  of  claws,  but  each  provided  with  an 
appendage  adapted  for  swimming.  The  eggs  are  carried  by  the 
female  in  a  marsupial  pouch  beneath,  which  has  suggested  the 
name  of  "opossum-shrimp. " 

The  Cumacea  are  still  smaller  crustaceans,  half  an  inch  or  less 
in  length,  distinguished  by  having  the  anterior  half  very  robust, 
the  posterior  half  slender,  the  eyes  sessile,  not  stalked  as  in  the 
crabs  and  shrimps,  the  carapace  leaving  five  segments  of  the  trunk 
exposed,  the  antepenultimate  segment  of  the  body  the  longest, 
the  tail  fan  composed  of  three  branches.  They  are  abundant  in 
sand  at  the  depth  of  a  few  fathoms. 

The  Phyllocarida,  or  leaf-shrimps,  so  called  on  account  of  the 
laminar  or  leaflike  expansions  with  which  their  legs  are  provided, 
are  represented  by  Nebalia  bipes,  which  was  dredged  by  Dr.  Pack- 
ard at  the  mouth  of  Henley  Harbour  in  four  to  twenty  fathoms. 
This  little  creature,  less  than  an  inch  in  length,  is  most  remarkable 
for  the  great  size  of  its  ancestors,  whose  paleozoic  remains  measure 
nearly  two  feet. 

The  Amphipods,  or  sand-fleas,  are  by  far  the  most  abundant 
of  the  Crustacea,  both  in  species  and  individuals.  They  are  found 
on  the  sand  near  high-water  mark,  in  seaweed,  and  among  rocks 
in  shallow  water,  and  may  be  dredged  at  any  depth.  None  is  of 
large  size ;  individuals  range  from  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  to 
an  inch.  Many  of  them  hop  like  fleas.  Others  move  rapidly 
while  lying  flat.  They  act  as  scavengers,  often  nearly  consuming 
a  dead  fish  before  it  can  be  hauled  in.  They  are  sessile-eyed, 
laterally  compressed,  somewhat  crescent-shaped,  with  rounded 
backs,  and  usually  of  stout  build.  An  exception  is  the  slim  skele- 
ton-shrimp, Caprella,  which  clings  to  finely  branched  seaweed 
and  is  so  flexible  that  it  can  bend  itself  into  a  ring.  Another 


APPENDIX  II  477 

slender  form  (Eridhonius  difformis)  inhabits  the  delicate  tubes  of 
a  hydroid,  while  a  third  (Hyperia  medusarum) ,  as  its  name  signi- 
fies, lives  in  the  stomach  cavity  of  a  jellyfish.  The  Euthemisto 
is  a  surface-swimming  amphipod,  and  in  sufficient  numbers  forms 
an  acceptable  meal  for  hungry  fishes,  as  examination  of  their 
stomachs  has  proven.  Gammarus  locusta,  the  common  amphipod, 
or  scud,  is  the  most  noticeable  species  of  the  shore,  being  very 
abundant  between  tide-marks.  These  creatures  are  of  an  olive 
Igrown  or  light  chestnut-brown  colour,  much  like  that  of  the  Fucus 
they  inhabit.  They  skip  about  on  their  sides,  and  on  entering 
the  water  swim  rapidly  with  the  back  downward  or  sideways. 

The  isopods,  unlike  the  amphipods,  are  flattened  above,  and 
are  usually  of  a  uniform  width  throughout  their  length ;  in  many 
cases  all  their  legs  are  about  the  same  size,  whence  the  name 
"isopod."  They  also  have  sessile  eyes  and  are  usually  of  small 
size,  the  largest  ones  in  the  Labrador  fauna  being  the  two  Mesi- 
dotea,  which  are  about  three  inches  long  and  taper  at  the  posterior 
end  to  a  sharp  point.  The  most  slender  form  is  Arc-turns  baffini, 
which  may  attain  a  length  of  nearly  two  inches,  with  antennae 
even  longer.  Several  species  are  parasitic,  as  the  fish-louse,  Mga 
psora,  which  lives  on  the  skin  of  the  cod  and  halibut ;  the  shrimp 
parasite,  Phryxus  abdominalis,  a  hemispherical,  distorted  little 
lump  of  an  isopod  occurring  under  the  abdomen  of  various  species 
of  Spirontocaris  and  Pandalus;  and  a  similar  but  smaller  form 
which  attaches  itself  to  the  schizopod,  Mysis  oculata.  The  last 
two  isopods  exhibit  great  sexual  dimorphism,  the  females  being 
vastly  larger  than  the  males  and  of  wholly  different  appearance. 
Other  parasites  belong  to  different  orders  of  Crustacea. 

The  copepods  live  mostly  on  the  external  surface  or  in  the  gill 
cavity  of  fishes,  to  which  they  cling  by  means  of  claws  and  sucking 
disks.  They  are  represented  by  Lepeophtheirus  salmonis,  parasitic 
on  salmon  and  sea-trout.  This  species  is  distinguished  in  the 
female  by  a  metallic  lustre  and  by  long,  slender  egg  strings.  An- 
other species  is  Lerncea  branchialis,  variety  sigmoidea,  in  which  the 
female  is  fixed  in  one  position  for  life,  having  lost  all  trace  of  appen- 
dages save  those  which  fasten  her  to  the  host,  while  the  male  is 
reduced  to  minute  size,  and,  although  capable  of  motion,  adheres 
to  some  part  of  the  body  of  the  female. 

Occasionally  a  hermit-crab  is  infested  with  one  of  the  Rhizo- 
cephala  (Peltogaster) ,  parasites  which  are  allied  to  the  Cirripedia, 
or  barnacles,  but  are  degenerate  forms  with  saclike,  unsegmented 
bodies  without  limbs;  their  antennas  are  modified  into  rootlike 
processes,  which  bury  themselves  in  the  host,  from  which  they 
derive  nourishment. 

The  barnacles  reported  from  Labrador  all  belong  to  the  sessile 


478  APPENDIX  II 

variety  known  as  acorn-shells.  They  are  found  here,  as  every- 
where, incrusting  stones,  wharves,  shells,  and  other  objects.  The 
body  of  the  animal  is  surrounded  by  a  shell,  composed  of  six  or 
more  plates,  and  in  the  shape  of  an  irregular  cone  with  the  top 
cut  off;  the  base  of  the  cone  is  attached  to  the  object  incrusted, 
while  the  small  end  is  closed  by  a  shelly  operculum  which  may  be 
opened  at  will.  The  feathery  tentacles,  which  are  modified  feet, 
are  then  extended  and  kept  constantly  waving.  The  smallest 
species,  Balanus  balanoides,  is  the  commonest,  and  is  known  as  the 
rock-barnacle.  A  large  species,  Coronula  diadema,  two  inches  in 
diameter  and  with  a  very  thick  shell,  lives  on  the  surface  of  whales. 
Balanus  porcatus  has  been  found  fossil  at  Hopedale  and  Caribou 
Island  in  beds  of  sandy  clay  and  coarse  gravel  which  are  exposed 
between  tide-marks  and  extend  beneath  the  water. 

It  seems  not  inappropriate  to  include  in  our  list  two  forms  which 
live  in  pools  of  fresh  water  close  to  the  sea ;  one  of  these  is  a  schizo- 
pod,  Mysis  relicta,  which  also  inhabits  Lake  Superior,  Lake  Michigan, 
and  the  lakes  of  northern  Europe.  It  is  so  closely  related  to  a 
certain  marine  form  as  to  suggest  a  common  origin.  At  Indian 
Tickle  abound  the  "fairy  shrimps,"  or  branchiopods,  in  which  the 
gills  or  branchiae  are  situated  on  the  feet,  the  eyes  are  large  and 
stalked,  and  the  tail  is  long  and  slender.  These  shrimps  are  able 
to  live  in  pools  which  are  dry  for  long  periods,  as  the  eggs,  when 
dried,  preserve  their  vitality  for  an  indefinite  time.  They  swim 
with  the  back  downward,  and  the  gills  are  bright  orange. 


Ill 

THE  MOLLUSKS 
BY  CHARLES  W.  JOHNSON 

THE  summer  visitor,  or  even  the  native  Labradorian,  can  know 
little  about  the  mollusks  of  Labrador  unless  he  be  provided  with 
suitable  appliances  for  dredging  in  moderate  depths  of  water. 
The  great  mass  of  pack-ice  which  bounds  the  shore  for  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  year  is  a  destructive  agency,  preventing  the  possibility 
of  existence  of  what,  in  more  southern  latitudes,  is  termed  the 
littoral  fauna.  Beyond  the  area  affected  by  the  ice,  however, 
there  is  a  rich  and  varied  fauna,  with  constant  surprises  awaiting 
the  collector  with  suitable  facilities  for  dredging.  Not  only  is 
the  number  of  species  quite  large,  but  these  are  also,  in  many 
cases,  individually  abundant.  Occasionally  one  of  the  larger,  rare 
gasteropoda  finds  its  way  into  the  dredge,  alluring  one  to  further 
activity,  with  the  prospect  of  new  species  in  this  comparatively 
neglected  region.  The  fauna  is  Arctic,  the  southern  boundary  of 
the  Arctic  province  being  the  limit  of  floating  ice,  which  on  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  North  America  extends  to  southern  Newfoundland. 
Many  of  the  species  are  circumpolar  in  their  distribution,  or  rep- 
resented by  closely  related  forms  or  local  variations,  having  un- 
doubtedly a  common  origin. 

Several  annotated  catalogues  of  the  mollusks  of  Labrador  have 
been  published.  Professor  A.  S.  Packard,  in  1863  (Canadian 
Naturalist  and  Geologist,  Vol.  VIII,  p.  412),  published  "a  list  of 
the  animals  dredged  near  Caribou  Island,  southern  Labrador, 
during  July  and  August,  I860."  The  list  contains  seventy-eight 
species  of  mollusks.  In  1867,  Professor  Packard  (Memoirs  Boston 
Soc.  Nat.  History,  Vol.  I,  p.  262)  published  in  connection  with  a 
paper  on  the  glacial  phenomena  of  Labrador  "a  view  of  the  recent 
invertebrate  fauna"  in  which  are  recorded  one  hundred  and  eight 
species  of  mollusks.  Miss  Katherine  J.  Bush,  in  1883  (Proceed- 
ings U.  S.  Nat.  Museum,  Vol.  VI,  p.  236),  recorded  seventy-nine 
species  obtained  by  the  expedition  under  Mr.  W.  A.  Stearns  in 
1882.  The  collection  was  made  at  various  points  between 
Forteau  Bay  and  Dead  Island.  Again,  in  1891,  Professor  Packard, 
in  his  work,  The  Labrador  Coast,  published  a  list  of  one  hundred 
and  twenty-nine  species,  including  all  those  in  the  previous  lists. 

479 


480  APPENDIX  III 

There  are  many  other  works  bearing  on  the  Mollusca  of  Labrador, 
including  Gould's  Invertebrata  of  Massachusetts  (2  ed.),  1870;  Sars's 
Mollusca  Regionis  Arcticce  Norvegice,  1878;  Friele's  Den  Norske 
Nordhavs  Expedition,  Mollusca;  etc. 

The  following  remarks  are  based  partly  on  the  above  papers, 
and  partly  on  a  collection  of  shells  made  by  Mr.  Owen  Bryant 
during  the  summer  of  1908.  A  partial  study  of  these  adds  several 
species  to  the  fauna.  Very  little  is  said  by  writers  in  regard  to 
the  mollusks  of  this  region  being  used  for  food.  The  common 
clam  (My a  arenaria)  is  reported  plentiful  in  the  more  southern 
portions,  but,  living  in  deeper  water,  it  is  no  doubt  more  difficult 
to  obtain  than  in  more  southern  latitudes,  while  in  the  more  north- 
ern portions  of  the  coast  it  is  probably  rare  or  wanting.  The 
truncated  clam  (Mya  truncatd),  a  closely  related  species,  but 
apparently  less  abundant,  extends  farther  northward  than  the 
common  clam.  The  habit  of  these  two  species  of  burying  deep 
in  the  mud  and  sand,  with  only  their  long  siphons  extending  to 
the  surface,  makes  it  practically  impossible  to  obtain  them  by 
dredging,  while  flats  exposed  at  low  tide  and  subject  to  freezing 
would  be  too  cold  for  their  existence.  A  smaller  shell  related  to 
the  Mya  is  the  little  nestling  shell  (Saxicava  arctica),  which,  living 
in  various-shaped  cavities  in  the  rocks,  etc.,  is  therefore  frequently 
very  irregular  in  form.  They  usually  measure  about  an  inch, 
though  sometimes  reach  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length. 

There  are  two  scallops  which  frequent  the  waters  of  this  region. 
The  great  scallop  (Pecten  magellanicus) ,  locally  known  by  the  name 
of  "pussel,"  is  found  in  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle.  It  is  excellent 
eating,  the  large  adductor  muscle  being  removed  and  fried  in  lard 
or  butter.  The  Iceland  scallop  (Pecten  islandica)  is  found  along 
the  entire  coast  in  from  ten  to  fifty  fathoms ;  it  is  also  doubtless 
good  eating,  but  more  difficult  to  obtain.  The  edible  mussel 
(Mytilus  edulis)  is  reported  from  the  entire  coast ;  it  spins  numer- 
ous silken  threads  called  the  byssus,  by  which  it  attaches  itself  to 
various  objects.  In  some  places  it  is  extensively  used  for  food, 
usually  boiled  and  pfckled  in  spiced  vinegar.  The  horse  mussel 
(Modiolus  modiolus)  is  found  in  the  more  southern  part ;  it  also  spins 
a  byssus  and  nestles  in  chinks  and  cavities.  The  great  seaweed, 
'or  kelp  (Laminaria  digitata),  frequently  attaches  to  this  shell 
and,  after  attaining  its  great  size,  the  force  of  currents  and  waves 
tears  the  shell  from  its  mooring  and  carries  it  to  other  places,  or  it 
is  ruthlessly  cast  upon  the  beach  to  die.  Two  other  mussels  are 
commonly  dredged,  the  black  mussel  (Modiolaria  nigra),  and  the 
discordant  mussel  (Modiolaria  discors),  with  part  of  the  valves 
ribbed  and  part  smooth. 

Two  species  of  cockles,  or  heart-shells,  are  commonly  associated 


APPENDIX  III  481 

in  from  ten  to  fifty  fathoms.  The  Greenland  cockle  (Serripes 
gronlandicus)  is  about  three  inches  in  length,  nearly  smooth, 
with  only  a  few  obsolete  ribs  on  the  ends ;  the  young  is  thin,  and 
beautifully  mottled  with  reddish  purple.  The  hairy  heart-shell 
(Cardium  ciliatum)  is  about  two  inches  in  length,  with  about 
thirty-six  acute  radiating  ribs  on  each  valve.  The  shell  is  covered 
with  a  yellowish  epidermis,  forming  rows  of  stiff  bristles  on  the 
edge  of  the  ribs.  The  common  cockle  of  Europe  (Cardium  edule) 
is  largely  used  for  food.  •  It  is  probable  that  both  of  these  are  also 
edible.  Perhaps  the  most  common  shell  of  the  coast  is  Macoma 
calcarea,  quantities  being  brought  up  with  each  dredge.  When  on 
a  muddy  or  sandy  bottom,  the  thin  epidermis  is  usually  eroded, 
giving  the  shell  a  chalky  appearance.  Another  characteristic 
bivalve  of  the  more  northern  waters  is  the  little  brown  clam, 
Astarte,  of  which  four  or  five  species  are  to  be  found  along  the 
Labrador  coast.  They  are  about  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  quarter 
in  length,  somewhat  triangular  in  form,  thick,  with  prominent 
concentric  ridges,  and  a  dark  brown  epidermis.  Related  to  Astarte 
is  Venericardia  borealis,  which  has  radiating,  instead  of  concentric, 
ridges. 

Other  bivalves  which  are  constantly  being  caught  in  the  dredge 
are  the  little,  round,  glossy  brown  Nucula  tennis,  the  polished 
greenish  brown  Yoldia  myalis,  and  the  pointed  Leda  pernula  with 
a  greenish  epidermis  and  fine  concentric  lines.  This  group  can  be 
readily  recognized  by  having  numerous  minute  teeth  along  the  hinge. 
There  are  a  number  of  other  bivalves  which  are  occasionally 
brought  up  by  the  dredge,  including  a  group  with  thin,  pearly  shells, 
represented  by  Thracia  myopsis,  Pandora  glacialis,  and  Lyonsia 
arenosa. 

Some  of  the  rivers  and  streams  of  the  interior  contain  the  fresh- 
water clam,  or  pearl  mussel  (Margaritana  margaritiferd) ,  a  species 
which  is  also  found  in  northern  Europe  and  Asia.  It  sometimes 
yields  very  handsome  pearls,  and  I  have  seen  a  few  beautiful  ones, 
which  were  said  to  have  come  from  Labrador. 

The  Gastropoda,  or  the  univalves,  as  they  are  often  popularly 
called,  slightly  exceed  the  bivalves  in  the  number  of  species. 
They  seem,  however,  to  be  less  abundant  individually,  especially 
the  larger  ones.  The  most  prominent  of  the  larger  forms  belong 
to  the  family  Buccinida?,  or  whelks.  The  common  whelk  (Buc- 
cinum  undatum)  is  found  along  the  entire  coast.  In  northern 
Europe,  where  this  species  is  abundant,  it  forms  an  extensive 
article  of  food.  They  make  an  excellent  soup ;  or  boiled,  until 
they  can  be  easily  removed  from  the  shell,  they  can  be  either 
fried  in  fat  until  brown,  or  eaten  with  pepper  and  vinegar.  There 
are'  six  or  seven  other  species  of  whelks  on  the  Labrador  coast, 
2i 


482  APPENDIX  III 

including :  Buccinum  cyaneum,  B.  ciliatum,  B.  gouldi,  B.  donovani, 
and  B.  tottenii,  dredged  in  from  five  to  thirty  fathoms,  and  asso- 
ciated with  Chrysodomus  despedus,  Tritonofusus  kroyeri,  variety 
cretaceus,  and  Tritonofusus  spitzbergensis  Reeve  (Sipho  lividus 
Morch).  To  these  Mr.  Bryant  has  added  the  true  Tritonofusus 
islandicus  and  the  large  brown  Beringius  largillierti  with  its  big 
protoconch.  Trophon  dathratus  is  a  slender,  waxy,  white  shell, 
with  about  twelve  thin,  elevated,  longitudinal  ribs,  while  between 
the  ribs  are  numerous  slight  spiral  lines.  'In  almost  every  dredge, 
we  find  the  little  hairy-keeled  shell,  Trichotropis  borealis,  and 
equally  common  the  small,  cancellated  Admete  couthouyi,  belong- 
ing to  the  family  CancellariidaB.  Another  conspicuous  group  of 
shells,  which  may  appropriately  be  called  the  little  "  tower-shells," 
is  represented  by  three  species,  —  Turritella  erosa,  T.  reticulata, 
and  Turritellopsis  acicula.  Professor  Packard  records  a  dozen 
species  of  Bela,  little  high-spired  shells,  the  most  northern  repre- 
sentatives of  the  family  Pleurotomidae.  The  little  pearly  Marga- 
ritas are  quite  common  in  some  localities ;  Margarita  groenlandica, 
M.  tinerea,  M.  argentata,  and  M.  helicina  are  the  principal  species. 
The  sea-snails  are  represented  by  three  species.  Natica  dausa  is 
found  in  almost  every  haul  of  the  dredge.  It  is  readily  distin- 
guished from  the  others  by  having  a  calcareous  opercula,  and  the 
umbilicus  entirely  covered  by  a  callus.  Lunatia  heros  is  recorded 
from  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle,  and  L.  groenlandica  from  fifteen  fath- 
oms in  Chateau  Bay.  A  large  and  interesting  shell  is  the  Aporrhais 
occidentalis,  allied  to  the  "pelican's  foot"  (Aporrhais  pes-pelicani) 
of  Europe,  but  having  the  lip  entire  and  not  lobed  as  in  that 
species.  It  was  dredged  in  numbers,  at  Gready  and  Egg  harbours, 
in  seven  to  twenty  fathoms.  Three  species  of  limpets  are  also  re- 
corded, Acmoea  testudinalis,  A.  rubella,  and  Lepta  cceca,  the  latter 
being  the  most  plentiful. 

A  remnant  of  the  littoral  fauna,  of  more  southern  regions,  exists 
in  the  presence  of  a  few  species  of  the  family  Litorinidse.  The 
•'periwinkle,"  Littorina  litorea,  is  reported  by  Stearns  as  rare; 
L.  palliata  is  recorded  from  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle,  while  L.  rudis 
is  not  uncommon  along  the  whole  coast.  Living  in  the  crevices 
of  the  damp,  spray-covered  rocks,  above  the  direct  effects  of  the 
ice,  they  are  able  to  withstand  the  Arctic  conditions. 

Shells  are  frequently  covered  with  a  light  pink  or  reddish  col- 
oured, stony  alga?  (Lithothamnion  polymorphuni) ,  frequently 
referred  to  as  <;  Nullipores."  Clinging  to  the  rocks  and  shells 
covered  with  this  reddish  growth,  we  find  the  little  red  chitons,  Tra- 
chydermon  rubrum  and  Tonicella  marmorea,  so  closely  resembling  it 
in  colour  as  to  almost  escape  detection.  This  was  especially  notice- 
able in  the  collection  made  by  Mr.  Bryant  at  Gready  Harbour,  in 


APPENDIX  III  483 

twelve  fathoms,  where  the  shells  were  quite  thickly  covered  with 
the  red  algae.  Seventeen  specimens  of  both  species  of  the  red 
chitons  were  obtained.  The  chitons  are  now  placed  in  a  separate 
order,  Amphineura,  and  represent  the  lowest  type  of  the  Mollusca. 
They  have  a  shell  consisting  normally  of  eight  plates,  hence  the 
name  Polyplacophora,  the  many-plate  bearer,  is  applied  to  the 
most  important  of  the  two  suborders. 

A  group  of  beautiful  creatures  when  living,  but  very  difficult  to 
preserve,  are  the  Nudibranchs,  or  the  naked-gilled  Mollusca.  The 
large  and  handsome  Dendronotus  arborescens,  with  a  row  of  tree- 
like gills  on  each  side  of  the  back,  and  branching  appendages  on  the 
head,  was  obtained  by  Professor  Packard  in  Henley  Harbour, 
at  a  depth  of  four  fathoms.  A  species  of  Eolis  is  also  reported 
from  the  same  harbour,  and  Coryphella  diver sa  from  L'Anse  au 
Loup.  A  group  of  small  shells,  which  are  usually  present  in  each 
haul  of  the  dredge,  are  known  as  Tectibranchs.  They  are  re- 
lated to  the  Nudibranchs,  but  have  the  gills  covered,  and  usually 
a  shell  varying  considerably  in  form  in  the  different  families. 
Cylichna  alba,  Retusa  pertenuis,  Philine  lima,  Scaphander  punctos- 
triata,  and  Diaphana  hiemalis  are  the  principal  species. 

Each  haul  of  the  dredge  brings  in  many  other  forms  of  animal 
life  besides  Mollusca.  The  large  brachiopod,  Hypothyris  psit- 
tacea,  is  frequently  obtained  in  from  eight  to  fifteen  fathoms,  while 
attached  to  the  shells  are  a  number  of  species  of  the  beautiful 
incrusting  Polyzoa,  or  Bryozoa,  and  the  minute  Foraminifera. 

Among  the  interesting  objects  of  the  more  open  Arctic  sea  are 
the  little  Pteropods,  or  wing  shells.  Packard  reports  great  numbers 
of  the  little  Arctic  pteropod  Limacina  helicina  off  Cape  Webuc, 
and  says  they  are  like  winged  sweet-peas,  the  shape  of  the  body 
and  colour  suggesting  the  resemblance.  Another  species,  Clione 
limacina,  with  long  wings  and  bright  red  tints,  belongs  to  the  shell- 
less  group  Gymnosomata.  They  sometimes  appear  in  such  num- 
bers as  to  actually  discolour  the  surface  of  the  water.  They  are 
said  to  afford  food  for  the  Greenland  whale.  The  pteropods 
usually  come  to  the  surface  in  the  greatest  numbers  during  the 
night,  and  can  be  caught  by  using  a  towing-net. 

The  land  mollusks  of  Labrador  are  few  and  scarce.  The  slug 
Agriolimax  agrestis  is  reported  by  Packard  from  Strawberry 
Harbour,  together  with  the  little  Pupilla  hoppii,  Vitrina  angelicce, 
and  Euconulus  fulva,  variety  fabricii.  They  occur  under  spruce 
bark  and  chips  in  the  damp  verdure,  and  represent  the  few  truly 
Arctic  species  found  also  in  southern  Greenland. 


IV 

LIST  OF  THE  MAMMALS  OF  LABRADOR 
BY  OUTRAM  BANGS 

AT  Dr.  Grenf ell's  request  I  have  prepared  the  following  list  of 
the  mammals  of  the  Labrador  peninsula.  As  I  had  before  written 
a  list  of  the  mammals  of  this  region,1  it  was  very  simple  to  compile 
the  present  one,  which  is  merely  the  old  one  corrected  and  brought 
up  to  date. 

In  this  list  political  divisions  of  the  region  are  disregarded,  and 
the  area  considered  includes  the  whole  Labrador  peninsula  lying  to 
the  northward  of  a  line  joining  the  mouth  of  the  river  St.  Lawrence 
and  the  foot  of  James  Bay. 

I  am  able  to  say  very  little  about  the  habits  of  the  various  forms 
of  mammalian  life,  occurring  in  the  great  Labrador  peninsula, 
knowing  them  myself  only  from  museum  specimens,  but  under  each 
species  or  subspecies  the  distribution,  so  far  as  it  is  known,  is  given, 
the  first  reference  is  cited,  and  where  a  form  was  described  from 
Labrador  the  type  locality  is  mentioned. 

I  believe  the  list  to  be  practically  complete ;  the  species  are  all 
given  by  the  names  in  current  use  by  the  best  systematists. 
I  trust  it  may  prove  of  some  help  to  those  interested  in  the  biota  of 
the  great  peninsula. 

1.  BALUENA  GLACIALIS  Bonnat. 

Balcena  glacialis   (Right  whale)    Bonnat.     Tab.  Encycl.   Ceta- 

logil,  p.  3.     1789. 

Formerly  common  on  east  and  south  coasts,  now  nearly  exter- 
minated. 

2.  BAL^NA  MYSTICETUS  Linn.     Bow  head ;   Greenland  whale. 
Balcena  mysticetus  Linn.     Fauna  Suecica,  Vol.  II,  p.  16.     1761. 

Hudson  Bay  and  Hudson  Strait,  along  the  edge  of  the  ice. 

3.  MEGAPTERA  NODOSA  Bonnat.     Humpbacked  whale. 
Balcena  nodosa  Bonnat.     Tab.  Encycl.  CetalogiL,  p.  5.     1789. 

Common  on  south  and  east  coasts. 

1  American  Naturalist,  Vol.  XXXII,  No.  379,  July,  1898,  pp.  489- 

484 


APPENDIX  IV  485 

4.  BAL^ENOPTERA  ACUTO-ROSTRATA  Lacep.     Little-piked  whale. 
Balcenoptera    acuto-rostrata  Lacep.     Hist.   Nat.   Get.,   Vol.   I, 

p.  197.     1803-4. 
Common  close  inshore  along  the  east  and  north  coasts. 

5.  BAL^NOPTERA  PHYSALUS  Linn.     Common  finback. 
Balcena  physalus  Linn.     Syst.  Nat.,  Ed.  X,  Vol.  I,  p.  75.     1858. 

Common  along  the  coasts. 

6.  BAL^NOPTERA  BOREALIS  Lesson.     Pollock  whale. 
Balcenoptera  borealis  Lesson.     Hist.  Nat.  Get.,  p.  342.     1828. 

A  rare  species. 

7.  BAL^NOPTERA  MUSCULUS  Linn.     Sulphur-bottom. 

Balcena  musculus  Linn.     Syst.  Nat.,  Ed.  X,  Vol.  I,  p.  76.     1758. 
Common  all  along  the  coast. 

8.  PHYSETER  MACROCEPHALUS  Linn.     Sperm  whale. 

Physeter  macrocephalus  Linn.     Syst.  Nat.,  Ed.  X,  Vol.  I,  p. 

76.     1758. 
Very  rare  in  Labrador  waters,  one  record  by  Packard. 

9.  HYPEROODON  AMPULLATUM  Forster.     Bottle-nosed  whale. 
Balcena  ampullatum  Forster.     Kalm's  Travels  in  North  Am., 

Vol.  I,  p.  18.     1770. 
Common  on  the  northern  coast. 

10.  DELPHINAPTERUS  LEUCAS  Pallas.    White  porpoise. 
Delphinus  leucas  Pallas.     "It.  iii,  p.  84,  t.  iv." 

Common  everywhere  along  the  Labrador  coasts. 

11.  MONODON  MONOCERAS  Linn.     Narwhale. 
Monodon  monoceras  Linn.     Ed.  X,  p.  75.     1758. 

Common  all  along  the  Labrador  coasts. 

12.  ORCINUS  ORCA  Linn.     Killer. 

Delphinus  orca  Linn.     Syst.  Nat.,  Ed.  X,  Vol.  I,  p.  77.     1758. 
Common  on  the  east  coast. 

13.  GLOBICEPHALA  MELAS  Traill.     Black  fish;    pilot  whale. 
Delphinus  melas  Traill,  Nicholson's  Journal,  Vol.  XXII,  p.  81. 

1809. 

Recorded  from  Newfoundland,  probably  occurring  on  the  south 
coasts  of  Labrador,  a  migratory  species. 

14.  PHOCLENA  PHOCLENA  Linn.     Harbour  porpoise. 

Delphinus  phoccena  Linn.     Syst.  Nat.,  Ed.  X,  Vol.  I,  p.  77.   1758. 
Found  commonly  along  the  south  and  east  coasts. 

15.  LAGENORHYNCHUS  ACUTUS  Gray.     Striped  porpoise. 
Delphinus  acutus  Gray.     Spicil.  ZooL,  p.  2.     1828. 

Occurs  along  south  and  east  coasts. 

16.  DELPHINUS  DELPHIS  Linn.     Common  dolphin. 

Delphinus  delphis  Linn.    Syst.  Nat.,  Ed.  X,  Vol.  I,  p.  77.     1758. 
South  and  east  coasts. 

17.  TURSIOPS  TRUNCATUS  Montagu.     Bottle-nosed  dolphin. 


486  APPENDIX  IF 

Delphinus  truncatus  Montagu.     Memos.  Wernerian  Soc.,  Vol. 

Ill,  p.  75.     1821. 

Common  on  the  south  and  east  coasts. 

I  am  under  the  greatest  obligation  to  Dr.  Glover  M.  Allen  for 
helping  me  prepare  this  list  of  the  Labrador  cetaceans.  Many  of 
the  species  were  observed  and  identified  by  him  during  a  cruise 
along  the  coast  in  the  summer  of  1906. 

18.  PARALCES  AMERICANUS  Clinton.    Moose. 

Cervus  americanus  Clinton.    Letters  on  Nat.  Hist,  and  Int. 

Resources  of  New  York,  p.  193.     1822. 

Low  is  in  doubt  whether  or  not  the  moose  enters  the  south- 
western limits  of  Labrador.  It  is  occasionally  killed  in  the  region 
about  Lake  Edward,  Quebec. 

19.  RANGIFER  CARIBOU  Gml.     Woodland  caribou. 

Cervus  tarandus  y.  caribou  Gmelin.  Syst.  Nat.,  Vol.  I,  p.  177. 
1789. 

Reported  by  Low  to  now  be  very  rare,  —  almost  exterminated, 
—  though  formerly  abundant  throughout  the  wooded  regions. 
Low  also  says  that  the  destruction  of  the  woodland  caribou  has 
resulted  in  the  dying  off,  from  actual  starvation,  of  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  interior  Indians,  which,  in  its  turn,  has  caused  a  great 
increase  in  the  numbers  of  the  fur-bearing  animals. 

Mr.  Ernest  Doane  took  specimens  at  Black  Bay  in  September, 
1898,  and  sent  me  three  fine  adult  females  and  a  male. 

20.  RANGIFER    ARCTICUS    Richardson.     Barren-ground     caribou. 
Cervus  tarandus  var.  a.  arctica  Richardson.     F.  B.  A.,  Vol.  I, 

p.  241.     1829. 

According  to  Low,  the  barren-ground  caribou  still  ranges  in 
immense  herds  over  the  barrens  and  semi-barrens,  south  to  the 
Mealy  Mountains,  between  Hamilton  Inlet  and  Sandwich  Bay. 

21.  SCIURUS  HUDSONICUS  HUDSONicus  Erxl.     Northern  pine  squir- 

rel ;  red  squirrel. 

Sciurus  vulgaris  c.  hudsonicus  Erxl.    Mammalia,  p.  416.    1777. 
Type  Locality.     Hudson  Strait. 

Common  in  the  wooded  regions,  and  extending  into  the  semi- 
barrens.  Goldthwaite  took  specimens  at  Rigolet.  Turner  took 
specimens  at  Fort  Chimo  and  at  Forks,  Northwest  River,  and 
Doane  sent  me  a  large  series  from  Black  Bay. 

22.  ARCTOMYS  IGNAVUS  Bangs.     Labrador  woodchuck. 
Arctomys  ignavus  Bangs.     Proc.  New  Eng.  Zool.  Club,  Vol.  I, 

p.  13.     1899. 

Type  Locality.     Black  Bay,  Labrador. 

Common  throughout  southern  Labrador,  in  the  region  about 
Black  Bay  and  L'Anse  au  Loup. 

Low  speaks  of  a  woodchuck  as  common  in  the  country  between 


APPENDIX  IV  487 

Lake  St.  John  and  the  East  Main  River ;  this  may  possibly  be  an- 
other form,  —  Arctomys  monax  empetra  Pallas. 

23.  SCIUROPTERUS  SABRINUS  MAKKOViKENSis  Sornborger.     Labra- 

dor flying  squirrel. 

Sciuropterus  sabrinus  makkovikensis  Sornborger.     Ottawa  Nat- 
uralist, Vol.  XIX,  p.  48.     June,  1900. 
Type  Locality.     Makkovik. 

Rather  generally  distributed  throughout  the  wooded  region, 
though  apparently  not  common  anywhere.  The  Labrador  form 
is  a  very  well-marked  subspecies. 

24.  CASTOR  CANADENSIS  CANADENSIS  Kuhl.     Canadian  beaver. 
Castor  canadensis  Kuhl.     Beitrdge  zur  Zoologie,  p.  64.     1820. 

Low  says  the  beaver  is  common  in  the  wooded  regions,  and 
extends  into  the  semi-barrens,  where  food  is  found.  I  have  seen  no 
Labrador  specimens. 

25.  Mus  NORVEGICUS  Erxleben.    Brown  rat ;   Norway  rat. 
Mus  norvegicus  Erxleben.     Syst.  Reg.  Anim.,  Vol.  I,  p.  381. 

1777. 

Doane  took  one  Norway  rat  at  Black  Bay,  November  30,  1899. 
This  is  the  only  specimen  I  ever  saw  from  Labrador.  I  have  never 
received  specimens  of  the  house  mouse,  Mus  musculus  Linn.,  from 
Labrador,  though  it  must  undoubtedly  occur  there. 

26.  PEROMYSCUS  MANICULATUS  MANICULATUS  Wagner.    Labrador 

deer-mouse. 
Hesperomys  maniculatus  Wagner.     Weigmann's  Archiv.,  Vol. 

XI,  p.  148.     1845. 

Type  Locality.  "The  Moravian  settlements  in  Labrador." 
Common  throughout  the  peninsula  south  at  least  to  Hamilton 
Inlet.  The  Labrador  deer-mouse,  like  many  of  its  congeners,  is  apt 
to  take  up  its  abode  in  buildings  and  huts  like  the  house  mouse,  and 
in  Labrador  seems  to  be  much  more  abundant  in  such  places  than 
in  the  woods  and  among  rocks.  I  have  examined  very  large  series 
of  this  species. 

27.  PHENACOMYS  LATIMANUS  Merriam.    Small  yellow-faced  phena- 

comys. 
Phenacomys  latimanus  Merriam.    North  Am.  Fauna,  No.  2, 

p.  34.     1889. 

Type  Locality.     Fort  Chimo,  Ungava,  Labrador. 
Probably    of   general    distribution    in    the    drier    semi-barrens. 
Known  from  Labrador  only  by  the  specimens  sent  to  Washington 
by  Turner. 

28.  PHENACOMYS  CELATUS  CELATUS  Merriam.    Large  yellow-faced 

phenacomys. 

Phenacomys  celatus  Merriam,  North  Am.  Fauna,  No.  2,  p.  33. 
1889. 


488  APPENDIX  IV 

This  northern  form  has,  so  far  as  I  know,  been  taken  in  the  Labra- 
dor peninsula  only  at  Fort  Chimo,  Ungava,  whence  it  ranges  west 
at  least  to  Godbout,  Quebec. 

29.  PHENACOMYS    CELATUS    CRASSUS    Bangs.     South    Labrador 

phenacomys. 
Phenacomys  celatus  crassus  Bangs.     Proc.  New  Eng.  Zool.  Club, 

Vol.  II,  p.  39.     1900. 
Type  Locality.     Rigolet,  Labrador. 

This  is  a  southern  form  occurring  in  the  eastern  forest  belt  from 
L'Anse  au  Loup  north  at  least  to  Hamilton  Inlet :  it  is  much  larger 
than  true  P.  celatus,  being  the  largest  member  of  the  genus  yet  known. 

30.  EVOTOMYS  UNGAVA  Bailey.     Ungava  red-backed  mouse. 
Evotomys  ungava  Bailey.     Proc.  Biol.  Soc.  Wash.,  p.  130.     1897. 
Type  Locality.     Fort  Chimo,  Labrador. 

Probably  restricted  to  the  barrens  and  semi-barrens.  Turner 
reported  the  species  to  be  abundant  at  Fort  Chimo,  but  apparently 
did  not  send  many  specimens  to  Washington. 

The  differences  between  this  and  the  next  species  appear  to  be 
as  great  as  between  any  two  members  of  the  genus  Evotomys. 

31.  EVOTOMYS  PROTEUS  Bangs.     Hamilton  Inlet  red-backed  mouse. 
Evotomys  proteus  Bangs.    Proc.  Biol.  Soc.  Wash.,  p.  137.    1897. 
Type  Locality.     Rigolet,  Hamilton  Inlet,  Labrador. 

Very  abundant  at  Hamilton  Inlet,  and  probably  throughout  the 
wooded  regions.  Goldthwaite  took  a  large  series  at  Rigolet,  and 
Doane  found  it  very  abundant  in  the  woods,  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Black  Bay. 

32.  MICROTUS     PENNSYLVANICUS    LABRADORius    Bailey.      Small 

Labrador  vole. 
Microtus  pennsylvanicus  labradorius  Bailey.     Proc.  Biol.  Soc. 

Wash.,  p.  88.     April  30,  1898. 
Type  Locality.     Fort  Chimo,  Ungava,  Labrador. 
This  little  vole  probably  occurs  only  in  the  barrens  and  semi- 
barrens.     It  can  be  told  from  M.  enixus  by  its  smaller  size,  shorter, 
more  hairy  tail,  by  its  smaller,  flatter  skull,  with  shorter  rostrum 
and   nasals,   and   smaller,    shorter,  incisive   foramina,    differently 
shaped  zygoma,  and  larger  auditory  bullae.     There  are,  probably, 
colour  differences  also,  but  I  have  seen  alcoholic  specimens  only. 
Turner  took  many  specimens  at  Fort  Chimo. 

33.  MICROTUS  ENIXUS  Bangs.     Larger  Labrador  vole. 
Microtus  enixus  Bangs.     Am.  Nat.,  Vol.  XXX,  p.  105.     1896. 
Type  Locality.     Rigolet,  Hamilton  Inlet,  Labrador. 

Probably  common  throughout  all  the  wooded  regions,  its  range 
extending  north  to  the  semi-barrens  and  meeting  that  of  M.  penn- 
sylvanicus labradorius. 

Goldthwaite  took  a  large  series  at  the  type  locality.     I  have 


APPENDIX  IV  489 

examined  three  specimens  in  the  collection  of  the  Geological  Survey 
of  Canada,  from  "50  miles  north  of  Fort  George."  Turner  took 
quite  a  number  at  Fort  Chimo,  and  Doane  secured  a  large  series 
at  Black  Bay. 

34.  MICROTUS    CHROTORRHINUS    RARUS    Bangs.     Labrador    rock 

vole. 
Microtus  chrotorrhinus  rarus  Bangs.    Proc.  Biol.  Soc.  Wash., 

Vol.  XII,  p.  187.     1898. 
Type  Locality.     Black  Bay,  Labrador. 
Known  only  from  Black  Bay,  where  Doane  secured  a  good  series. 

35.  FIBER  ZIBETHICUS   AQUILONIUS    Bangs.     Labrador   muskrat. 
Fiber  zibethicus  aquilonius  Bangs.     Proc.  New  Eng.  Zool.  Club, 

Vol.  I,  p.  11.     1899. 

Type  Locality.     Rigolet,  Hamilton  Inlet. 

Common  throughout  the  southern  wooded  region,  and  found, 
though  probably  not  in  such  abundance,  north  to  the  barren  and 
to  Fort  Chimo. 

36.  SYNAPTOMYS  INNUITUS  INNUITUS  True.    True's  bog  lemming. 
Mictomys  innuitus  True.     Proc.  Nat.  Mus.,  Vol.  XVII,  No. 

999.     Advance  sheet.     April  26,  1894. 
Type  Locality.     Fort  Chimo,  Labrador. 
Known  at  present  only  by  the  type. 

37.  SYNAPTOMYS    INNUITUS    MEDIOXIMUS    Bangs.    Intermediate 

bog  lemming. 
Synaptomys   innuitus   medioximus    Bangs.     Proc.    New   Eng. 

Zool.  Club,  Vol.  II,  p.  40.     1900. 
Type  Locality.     L'Anse  au  Loup. 

This  form,  larger  than,  and  otherwise  different  from,  true  S. 
innuitus  of  Fort  Chimo,  is  at  present  known  only  by  two  specimens, 
—  one,  the  type  from  L'Anse  au  Loup,  and  the  other  from  Hamil- 
ton Inlet. 

38.  DICROSTONYX  HUDSONIUS  Pallas.     Hudson  Bay  lemming. 
Mus  hudsonius  Pallas.     Glir.  p.  203.     1778. 

Type  Locality.     Labrador. 

Found  throughout  the  barrens  and  on  the  treeless  hills,  south  at 
least,  to  Hamilton  Inlet. 

39.  ZAPUS  HUDSONIUS  LADAS  Bangs.     Labrador  jumping  mouse. 

•  Zapus  hudsonius  ladas  Bangs.     Proc.  New  Eng.  Zool.  Club, 

Vol.  I,  p.  10.     1899. 

Type  Locality.     Rigolet,  Hamilton  Inlet. 

Abundant  in  the  southern  wooded  region,  about  Black  Bay,  etc., 
and  extending  northward,  along  the  coast,  to  beyond  Hamilton 
Inlet. 

49.   NAP^OZAPUS  INSIGNIS  ABIETORUM   Preble.     Northern  wood- 
land jumping  mouse. 


490  APPENDIX  IV 

Zapus  (Napceozapus)  insignis  dbietorum  Preble.     North  Am. 

Fauna,  No.  15,  p.  36.     1899. 

I  have  seen  but  one  Labrador  specimen  of  this  species,  a  mounted 
example  from  the  Geological  Survey  of  Canada  collection,  taken 
by  Low  at  Hamilton  River. 

41.  ERETHIZON  DORSATUM  PICINUM  Bangs.     Labrador  porcupine. 
Erethizon  dorsatus  picinus  Bangs.     Proc.  New  Eng.  Zool.  Club, 

Vol.  II,  p.  37.     1900.  3 

Type  Locality.     L'Anse  au  Loup,  Labrador. 
Common  and  generally  distributed  from  the  St.  Lawrence,  north 
to  the  semi-barrens. 

42.  LEPUS  LABRADORIUS  Miller.     Labrador  polar  bear. 

Lepus  labradorius  Miller.    Proc.  Biol.  Soc.  Wash.,  Vol.  XIII, 

p.  39.     1899. 

Type  Locality.     Fort  Chimo,  Ungava. 

Of  general  distribution  in  the  barrens  and  semi-barrens  of  Labra- 
dor, occasionally  reaching  so  far  south  as  Hamilton  Inlet.  Turner 
took  specimens  at  Fort  Chimo  and  Solomon  Island. 

43.  LEPUS  AMERICANUS  AMERICANUS  Erxl.   American  varying  hare. 
Lepus  americanus  Erxl.     Syst.  Reg.  Anim.,  p.  330.     1777. 
Type  Locality.     South  side  of  Hudson  Strait. 

Common  throughout  the  wooded  region,  and  extending  into 
the  edge  of  the  barrens.  Goldthwaite  took  fourteen  specimens  at 
Hamilton  Inlet. 

44.  PHOCA  VITULINA  Linn.     Harbour  seal. 

Phoca  vitulina  Linn.     Syst.  Nat.,  Vol.  I,  p.  38.     1758. 

Common  along  the  whole  coast,  and  in  the  lower  parts  of  the 
rivers.  It  is  also,  according  to  Low,  found  in  many  of  the  fresh- 
water lakes  of  the  interior,  and  the  Indians  assert  that  these  fresh- 
water seals  never  leave  the  lakes.  This  should  be  carefully  looked 
into,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  collectors  in  Labrador  may  be  able 
to  take  some  of  these  fresh-water  seals. 

One  skull  in  Bangs 's  collection  from  Okkak,  obtained  by  Sorn- 
borger  from  the  Eskimo. 

45.  PHOCA  HISPIDA  Schreber.     Ringed  seal. 

Phoca  hispida  Schreber.     Sdugt.,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  312,  PI.  LXXXVI. 

1775.     (Vide  Thomas.     Zoologist,  p.  102.     1898.) 
Common  along  the  entire  Labrador  coast. 

46.  PHOCA  GROENLANDICA  Fabricius.     Harp  seal. 

Phoca  grcenlandica  Fabricius.     Muller's  Zool.  Dan.  Prod.,  Vol. 

VIII.     1776. 
Common  along  the  whole  Labrador  coast. 

47.  ERIGNATHUS  BARBATUS  Fabricius.     Bearded  seal. 

Phoca  barbata  Fabricius.    Muller's  Zool.  Dan.  Prod.,  Vol.  VIII 
1776. 


APPENDIX  IV  491 

Low  reports  this  seal  to  be  rare  in  the  St.  Lawrence  and  in  south- 
ern Labrador,  but  more  common  northward,  —  in  Hudson  Strait, 
Hudson  Bay,  and  James  Bay. 

48.  HALICHCERUS  GRYPUS  Fabricius.     Gray  seal. 

Phoca  grypus  Fabricius.     Skriv.  af.  Naturh.-Selsk.,  Vol.  I,  ii, 

p.  167,  PL  XIII,  Fig.  4.     1791. 
Rare  along  the  Labrador  coast. 

49.  CYSTOPHORA  CRISTATA  Erxleben.     Hooded  seal. 

Phoca  cristata  Erxleben.     Syst.  Reg.  Anim.,  p.  590.     1777. 
Not  common  along  the  Labrador  coast. 

50.  ODOBENUS  ROSMARUS  Linn.     Atlantic  walrus. 

Phoca  rosmarus  Linn.     Syst.  Nat.,  Ed.  X,  Vol.  I,  p.  38.     1758. 

Now  restricted  to  northern  Labrador,  reaching  south  only  to 

about  Nachvak.     Formerly  abundant  along  the  whole  Labrador 

coast.     A  fine  pair,  tf  and  ? ,  skulls  in  Bangs 'a  collection,  obtained 

by  Sornborger  from  the  Eskimo  at  Okkak. 

51.  LYNX  CANADENSIS  CANADENSIS  Kerr.     Canada  lynx. 
Lynx  canadensis  Kerr.     Anim.  King.,  p.  157.     1792. 

Common  within  the  wooded  area  from  the  Atlantic  coast  to  Hud- 
son Bay,  Low. 

52.  VULPES  RUBRICOSA  BANGSI  Merriam.     Labrador  red  fox. 
Vulpes  rubricosa   bangsi   Merriam.     Proc.    Wash.  Acad.   Sci., 

Vol.  II,  p.  667.     1900. 

Type  Locality.     L'Anse  au  Loup,  Labrador. 
Common  throughout  the  whole  of  Labrador  from  the  St.  Lawrence 
to  Hudson  Strait. 

53.  VULPES  LAGOPUS  UNGAVA  Merriam.     Labrador  white  fox. 
Vulpes  lagopus  ungava  Merriam.     Proc.  Biol.  Soc.  Wash.,  Vol. 

XV,  p.   170.     1902. 
Type  Locality.     Fort  Chimo,  Ungava. 

The  Arctic  fox  is  abundant  in  the  barren-grounds  and  extends 
south  to  about  Lake  Michikamaw  and  to  Nichicum.  Along  both 
coasts  it  pushes  rather  farther  south ;  on  the  Atlantic  to  Hamilton 
Inlet,  and  rarely  even  to  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle ;  on  the  coast  of 
James  Bay  to  its  southern  part. 

Two  skulls  in  Bangs  'a  collection  from  Hebron,  obtained  by 
Sornborger. 

54.  CANIS  OCCIDENTALIS  Richardson.     Timber-wolf. 

Canis  lupus,  occidentalis  Richardson.     F.  B.A.Mamm.,  p.  60. 

1829. 

According  to  Low,  the  timber-wolf  is  now  very  rare  in  the  southern 
wooded  region,  owing  to  the  extermination  of  the  woodland  caribou. 
It  is  still  common  in  the  barrens  and  semi-barrens  of  the  north. 
-  One  skull  in  Bangs's  collection  from  Hopedale,  collected  by 
Sornborger. 


492  APPENDIX  IV 

55.  CANIS  ALBTJS  Joseph  Sabine.     Arctic  wolf. 

Cam's   lupus  —  albus   Joseph    Sabine.     Franklins   Narrative. 

Appendix,  p.   655.     1823. 
Occasionally  taken  in  northern  barren-grounds,  Low. 

56.  LUTRA  CANADENSIS  CANADENSis  Schreber.     Canada  otter. 
Mustela  lutra  Canadensis  Schreber.    Saugthiere,  PL  CXXVI,  B. 

Low  states  the  otter  to  be  common  throughout  the  wooded 
region  and  to  range  northward  into  the  semi-barrens.  One  skull 
in  Bangs's  collection  from  Okkak,  Sornborger.  Turner  sent  one 
specimen  to  Washington  from  "Forks/'  Ungava.  (Although  it 
appears  in  the  catalogue,  it  cannot  now  be  found.)  Doane  took 
specimens  at  Black  Bay. 

57.  MEPHITIS  MEPHITICA  Shaw.     Canada  skunk. 

Viverra  mephitica  Shaw.    Museum  Leverianum,  p.  172.     1792. 

Said  by  Stearns  to  be  found  occasionally  on  the  southern  coast 

of  Labrador.     I  found  it  common  at  Lake  Edward,  Quebec,  and 

it  is  probable  that  its  range  does  reach  Labrador,  though  I  never 

have  seen  a  specimen  from  that  region. 

58.  GULO  LUSCUS  Linn.     American  wolverine. 

Ursus  luscus  Linn.    Syst.  Nat.,  Ed.  X,  Vol.  I,  p.  47.     1758. 

Abundant  throughout  Labrador,  especially  northward  to  Hudson 
Strait. 

Two  skulls  from  Okkak  in  Bangs's  collection,  obtained  by  Sorn- 
borger. Turner  sent  one  specimen  to  Washington  from  Fort  Chimo. 
Doane  sent  me  some  beautiful  specimens  from  L'Anse  au  Loup. 

In  Labrador  the  wolverine  is  usually  called  "badger." 

59.  PUTORIUS  VISON  VISON  Schreber.     Little  black  mink. 
Mustela  vison  Schreber.     Saugt.,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  463.     1778. 

Low  says  the  mink  is  found  only  in  the  southern  part  of  Labrador, 
seldom  occurring  north  of  East  Main  and  Hamilton  rivers.  Doane 
sent  me  four  specimens  from  Black  Bay. 

60.  PUTORIUS  CICOGNANII  CICOGNANII  Bonap.    Small  brown  weasel. 
Mustela  cicognanii  Bonap.    Fauna,  Italica,  Mamm.,  p.  4.    1838. 

Reported  by  Low  to  be  common  everywhere  south  of  tree  limit. 

Goldthwaite  took  two  specimens,  $  and  ?,  at  Rigolet.  Turner 
took  one  at  "Forks,"  Ungava.  Doane  sent  me  a  fine  series  from 
Black  Bay  and  L'Anse  au  Loup. 

One  would  expect  to  find  Putorius  cicognanii  richardsoni  Bonap. 
replacing  the  present  form  in  the  western  and  northern  barrens, 
and  very  possibly  it  does,  but  I  have  seen  no  specimens  from  that 
region. 

61.  MUSTELA  AMERICANA  BRUMALIS  Bangs.     Labrador  marten; 

sable. 

Mustela  brumalis  Bangs.     Amer.  Nat.,  Vol.   XXXI,    p.  162. 
February,  1897. 


APPENDIX  IV  493 

Type  Locality.     Okkak,  Labrador. 

Formerly  I  thought  that  the  marten  of  southern  Labrador  would 
prove  to  be  true  M .  americana,  but  specimens  sent  me  by  Doane 
from  L'Anse  au  Loup  are  M.  a.  brumalis,  and  I  now  doubt  the  ex- 
istence in  Labrador  of  two  forms. 

The  Labrador  subspecies  is  a  fine  large,  dark -coloured  mar- 
ten, and  is  generally  distributed  throughout  the  wooded  regions. 

62.  MUSTELA   PENNANTII   PENNANT!!   Erxl.     Pennants's   marten; 

fisher. 

Mustela  pennantii  Erxl.     Syst.  An.,  p.  479.     1777. 
Pennants 's  marten,  according  to  Low,  rarely  enters  the  south- 
western limits  of  Labrador,  not  occurring  east  of  Mingan  nor  north 
of  Mistassini. 

63.  URSUS  AMERICANTJS  Pallas.     Black  bear. 

Ursus  americanus  Pallas.    Spicil.  Zool.,  fasc.  XIV,  p.  5.    1780. 

Ursus  americanus  sornborgeri  Bangs.     Amer.  Nat.,  Vol.  XXXII, 
p.  500.     1898. 

Type  Locality.     Okkak,  Labrador. 

Of  general  distribution  throughout  Labrador,  north  to  tree  limit. 
At  one  time  I  thought  the  Labrador  black  bear  was  separable 
as  a  subspecies  and  named  it  W.  a.  sornborgeri,  but  since  then  I 
have  examined  a  large  number  of  additional  skulls  and  find  none 
of  the  characters  on  which  I  based  the  subspecies  to  hold  good, 
most  of  these  skulls  being  indistinguishable  in  size  or  in  any  other 
way  from  skulls  from  Nova  Scotia,  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  etc., 
with  which  I  compared  them. 

In  my  former  list  I  included  Ursus  richardsoni  Swainson  —  the 
barren-ground  bear  —  on  the  strength  of  reports  that  Low  had  of 
it  from  the  Nascaupee  Indians.  I  am  now  inclined  to  discredit  these, 
so  far  as  Labrador  is  concerned.  Indians  everywhere  have  many 
traditions  that  persist  in  a  remarkable  manner,  and  often  they  are 
borrowed  from  tribes  that  live  at  a  distance.  I  can  find  no  evidence 
that  the  barren-ground  bear  occurs  in  the  barrens  of  Labrador,  and 
until  it  is  actually  known  to  be  there  it  must  be  struck  from  a  list 
of  the  mammals  of  Labrador. 

64.  THALARCTOS  MARITIMUS  Linn.     Polar  bear;  ice  bear. 

Ursus  maritimus   Linn.     Syst.  Nat.,  Ed.  XII,  Vol.  I,  p.  70. 

1766. 

Low  says  the  polar  bear  ranges  south  along  the  Atlantic  coast  of 
Labrador  occasionally  as  far  as  the  Strait  of  Belle  Isle,  and  in 
Hudson  Bay  to  Charleton  Island.  The  species  seldom  goes  far 
inland,  except  to  produce  its  young.  Sornborger  told  me  that  the 
polar  bear  is  very  common  and  resident  in  northern  Labrador. 

'Four  skulls  in  Bangs's  collection,  all  obtained  by  Sornborger  of 
the  Eskimo  at  Hebron  and  Okkak. 


494  APPENDIX  IV 

65.  SOREX  PERSONATUS  Miscix  Bangs.     Labrador  shrew. 

Sorex  personatus  miscix  Bangs.     Proc.  New  Eng.  ZooL  Club., 

Vol.  I,  p.  15.     1899. 
Type  Locality.    Black  Bay,  Labrador. 

Common  throughout  the  Labrador  peninsula  from  Fort  Chimo 
south. 

66.  CONDYLURA  CRiSTATA  Linn.     Star-nosed  mole. 

SOREX  CRISTATUS  Linn.     Syst.  Nat.,  Ed.  X,  Vol.  I,  p.  53.     1758. 
Goldthwaite  saw  and  fully  identified  a  star-nosed  mole  that  the 
dogs  had  caught  at  Rigolet. 

Doane  sent  me  a  female  from  Black  Bay,  taken  October  20,  1898. 

67.  MYOTIS  LUCIFUGUS  LUCIFUGUS  Le  Conte.     Little  brown  bat. 
Vespertilio   lucifugus  Le  Conte.     McMurtries'  Cuvier,  Appen- 
dix, p.  431.     1831. 

Low  supposed  the  bats  seen  by  him  on  Hamilton  River  and  at 
Lake  Mistassini  to  belong  to  this  species.  I  took  this  bat  at  Lake 
Edward,  Quebec,  and  Miller  (North  Am.  Fauna,  No.  13,  p.  63) 
records  it  from  Godbout  and  Ottawa,  Quebec,  and  from  James 
Bay,  Ontario.  It  is  also  found  in  Newfoundland. 

68.  MYOTIS  SUBULATUS  SUBULATUS  Say.     Say's  bat. 
Vespertilio  subulatus  Say.    Long's  Exped.  to  Rocky  Mts.,  Vol.  II, 

p.  65,  footnote.     1823. 

Reported  by  Stearns  from  Natashquan.  Miller  (North  Am. 
Fauna,  No.  13,  p.  76)  records  specimens  from  Mount  Forest  and 
North  Bay,  Ontario,  and  Godbout  and  Ottawa,  Quebec. 


LIST  OF  THE  BIRDS  OF  LABRADOR 

With  brief  annotations 

By  CHARLES  W.  TOWNSEND,  M.D.,  and 

GLOVER  M.  ALLEN,  PH.D.1 

1.  COLYMBUS  HOLBCELLI.     Holbo3lPs  grebe. 
Rare  transient  visitor. 

2.  COLYMBUS  AURITUS.     Horned  grebe. 
Rare  transient  visitor ;  possibly  breeds. 

3.  GAVIA  IMBER.     Loon. 
Common  summer  resident. 

4.  GAVIA  ARCTICUS.     Black-throated  loon. 

Summer  resident,  not  uncommon  in  the  north ;  rare  in  the  south. 

5.  GAVIA  LUMME.     Red-throated  loon ;   "whabby." 
Common  summer  resident. 

6.  FRATERCULA  ARCTICA.     Puffin;   "paroquet." 
Abundant  summer  resident. 

7.  CEPPHUS  GRYLLE.     Black  guillemot ;  "sea-pigeon." 
Abundant  summer  resident. 

8.  CEPPHUS  MANDTII.     Mandt's  guillemot. 
Summer  resident. 

9.  URIA  TROILE.     Murre. 

Common  summer  resident  in  south ;  a  few  winter. 

10.  URIA  LOMVIA.     Brunnich's  murre. 
Common  summer  resident ;  a  few  winter. 

11.  ALCA  TORDA.     Razor-billed  auk ;  "tinker." 
Common  summer  resident ;  a  few  winter. 

[PLAUTUS  IMPENNIS.     Great  auk;  "penguin."] 
Extinct. 

12.  ALLE  ALLE.     Dovekie;  "bull-bird." 
Abundant  transient  and  winter  visitor. 

13.  MEGALESTRIS  SKUA.     Skua;  "sea-hen." 
Accidental  visitor. 

14.  STERCORARIUS  POMARINUS.     Pomarine  jaeger;   "boVn." 
Common  summer  visitor ;  probably  breeds  in  north. 

'*  Vide  The  Birds  of  Labrador,  Proc.  Boston  Soc.  of  Nat.  Hist.,  Vol.  33, 
No.  7,  July,  1907. 

495 


496  APPENDIX  V 

15.  STERCORARIUS  PARASITICUS.     Parasitic  jaeger. 
Common  summer  visitor ;  perhaps  breeds  in  north. 

16.  STERCORARIUS  LONGICAUDUS.     Long-tailed  jaeger. 
Rare  summer  resident. 

17.  PAGOPHILA  ALBA.     Ivory  gull;  "ice  partridge." 
Common  winter  visitor. 

18.  RISSA  TRIDACTYLA.     Kittiwake ;  "tickler." 
Abundant  summer  resident. 

19.  LARUS  GLATJCUS.    Glaucous  gull. 
Common  summer  resident ;  a  few  winter. 

20.  LARUS  LEUCOPTERUS.     Iceland  gull. 
Rare  transient  or  winter  visitor. 

21.  LARUS  MARINUS.     Great  black-backed  gull ;  "saddle-back." 
Common  summer  resident. 

22.  LARUS  ARGENTATUS.    Herring  gull. 
Common  summer  resident. 

23.  LARUS  DELAWARENSIS.     Ring-billed  gull. 
Uncommon  summer  resident,  locally  in  south. 

24.  LARUS  PHILADELPHIA.     Bonaparte's  gull. 
Common  transient ;  autumnal  visitor  in  south. 

25.  XEMA  SABINII.     Sabine's  gull. 
Rare  transient  visitor. 

26.  STERNA  CASPIA.     Caspian  tern. 
Very  rare  summer  resident  in  south. 

27.  STERNA  HIRUNDO.     Common  tern. 
Common  summer  resident  in  south. 

28.  STERNA  PARADIS^EA.    Arctic  tern. 
Common  summer  resident,  locally. 

29.  STERNA  ANTILLARUM.     Least  tern. 
Extirpated. 

30.  FULMARUS  GLACIALIS.    Fulmar. 
Common  summer  visitor. 

31.  PUFFINUS  GRAVIS.     Greater  shearwater. 
Abundant  summer  visitor. 

32.  PUFFINUS  FULIGINOSUS.    Sooty  shearwater. 
Common  summer  visitor. 

33.  PROCELLARIA  PELAGICA.    Stormy  petrel. 
Rare  summer  visitor. 

34.  OCEANODROMA  LEUCORHOA.    Leach's  petrel. 
Common  summer  resident  in  south. 

35.  OCEANITES  OCEANICUS.    Wilson's  petrel. 
Uncommon  summer  visitor. 

36.  SULA  BASSANA.     Gannet. 
Uncommon  summer  resident,  locally. 

37.  PHALACROCORAX  CARBO.     Cormorant. 
Common  summer  resident,  locally. 


APPENDIX  V  497 

38.  PHALACROCORAX  DILOPHUS.     Double-crested    cormorant; 

shag. 
Common  summer  resident,  locally. 

39.  MERGANSER  AMERICANUS.     American  merganser. 
Rare  summer  resident. 

40.  MERGANSER  SERRATOR.     Red-breasted  merganser. 
Common  summer  resident. 

41.  LOPHODYTES  CUCULLATUS.     Hooded  merganser. 
Rare  summer  resident. 

42.  ANAS  BOSCHAS.     Mallard. 
Rare  transient  visitor. 

43.  ANAS  OBSCURA.    Black  duck. 
Common  summer  resident. 

44.  ANAS  OBSCURA  RUBRIPES.     Red-legged  black  duck. 
Common  summer  resident. 

45.  MARECA  AMERICANA.     Baldpate ;  American  widgeon. 
Rare  transient  visitor. 

46.  NETTION  CRECCA.     European  teal. 
Accidental  visitor. 

47.  NETTION  CAROLINENSIS.     Green-winged  teal. 
Rare  summer  resident. 

48.  QUERQUEDULA  DiscoRS.     Blue-winged  teal. 
Very  rare  summer  resident. 

49.  SPATULA  CLYPEATA.     Shoveller. 
Accidental  visitor. 

50.  DAFILA  ACUTA.     Pintail. 
Very  rare  transient  visitor. 

51.  AYTHYA  AMERICANA.     Redhead. 
Very  rare  transient  visitor. 

52.  AYTHYA  MARILA.     Greater  scaup  duck. 
Rare  summer  resident  in  northwest. 

53.  CLANGULA  AMERICANA.    American  golden-eye ;  whistler. 
Common  summer  resident. 

54.  CLANGULA  ISLANDICA.    Barrow's  golden-eye. 
Rare  transient  visitor  and  summer  resident. 

55.  CHARITONETTA  ALBEOLA.     Buffle-head ;   "  sleepy  diver/' 
Rare  transient  visitor. 

56.  HARELDA  HYEMALIS.     Old-squaw;  "hound." 
Common  summer  resident  in  northern  parts. 

57.  HISTRIONICUS  HISTRIONICUS.    Harlequin  duck ;  "lord  and  lady." 
Common  summer  resident  in  northern  parts. 

[CAMPTOLAIMUS  LABRADORIUS.     Labrador  duck.     Extinct.] 

58.  SOMATERIA  MOLLISSIMA  BOREALis.     Northern  eider;  Greenland 

eider. 

Abundant  summer  resident  north  of  Hamilton  Inlet. 
2K 


498  APPENDIX  V 

59.  SOMATERIA  DRESSERI.     American  eider ;  "sea-duck  ";  "metik." 
Common  summer  resident  in  southern  part. 

60.  SOMATERIA  SPECTABILIS.     King  eider;  "king  duck." 
Abundant  transient  visitor;    not  uncommon    summer  resident 

in  the  north. 

61.  OIDEMIA  AMERICANA.    American  scoter  ;  "butter-bill  coot." 
Common  transient  visitor ;  rare  summer  resident. 

62.  OIDEMIA  DEGLANDI.     White-winged  scoter;  "brass-wing diver." 
Abundant  summer  resident. 

63.  OIDEMIA   PERSPICILLATA.     Surf  scoter;   "bottle-nosed  diver." 
Abundant  summer  resident. 

64.  ERISMATURA  JAMAICENSIS.     Ruddy  duck. 
Uncommon  summer  resident  on  shores  of  Hudson  Bay. 

65.  CHEN  HYPERBOREA  NIVALIS.     Greater  snow  goose;   "wavey." 
Very  rare  summer  resident  in  northwest ;  common  transient  visitor 

on  shores  of  Hudson  Bay. 

66.  CHEN  C^RULESCIUS.     Blue  goose;   "blue  wavey." 
Common  transient  visitor  on  shores  of  Hudson  Bay. 

67.  ANSER  ALBIFRONS  GAMBELI.    American  white-fronted  goose. 
Accidental  visitor. 

68.  BRANTA  CANADENSIS.     Canada  goose. 
Common  summer  resident. 

69.  BRANTA  BERNICLA  GLAUCOGASTRA.    White-bellied  brant. 
Abundant  transient  visitor  locally. 

70.  OLOR  COLUMBIANUS.     Whistling  swan. 
Very  rare  summer  resident  in  northwest. 

71.  BOTAURUS  LENTIGINOSUS.     American  bittern. 
Very  rare  summer  resident  in  southwest. 

72.  ARDEA  HERODIAS.     Great  blue  heron. 
Accidental  visitor. 

73.  FLORIDA  CCERRLEA.     Little  blue  heron. 
Accidental  visitor. 

74.  NYCTICORAX    NYCTICORAX     N^VIUS.    Black-crowned    night- 

heron. 
Accidental  visitor. 

75.  RALLUS  VIRGINIANUS.    Virginia  rail. 
Accidental  visitor. 

76.  PORZANA  CAROLINA.     Sora. 
Accidental  visitor. 

77.  FULICA  AMERICANA.     American  coot. 
Accidental  visitor. 

78.  CRYMOPHILUS  FULICARIUS.     Red  phalarope. 
Common  transient  visitor ;  rare  summer  resident. 

79.  PHALAROPUS  LOBATUS.     Northern  phalarope. 
Common  summer  resident. 


APPENDIX  V  499 

80.  GALLINAGO  DELICATA.    Wilson's  snipe. 
Rare  summer  resident. 

81.  MACRORHAMPHUS  GRISEUS.     Dowitcher. 
Rare  transient  visitor. 

82.  TRINGA  CANUTUS.    Knot. 
Uncommon  transient  visitor. 

83.  ARQUATELLA  MARITIMA.    Purple  sandpiper. 
Rare  transient  and  winter  visitor. 

84.  ACTODROMAS  MACULATA.     Pectoral  sandpiper. 
Common  autumnal  transient  visitor. 

85.  ACTODROMAS  FUSCICOLLIS.     White-rumped  sandpiper. 
Common  transient  visitor. 

86.  ACTODROMAS  MINUTILLA.     Least  sandpiper ;  "peep." 
Common  summer  resident. 

87.  PELIDNA  ALPINA  SAKHALINA.     Red-backed  sandpiper ;  Ameri- 

can dunlin. 
Uncommon  transient  visitor. 

88.  EREUNETES  PUSILLUS.     Semipalmated  sandpiper ;  "peep." 
Common  summer  resident,  locally. 

89.  CALIDRIS  ARENARIA.     Sanderling. 
Common  transient  visitor. 

90.  LIMOSA  N^EMASTICA.     Hudsonian  godwit. 
Very  rare  transient  visitor. 

91.  TOTANUS  MELANOLEUCUS.     Greater  yellow-legs. 
Common  summer  resident. 

92.  TOTANUS  FLAVIPES.     Yellow-legs. 
Uncommon  transient  visitor. 

93.  HELODROMAS  SOLITARIUS.     Solitary  sandpiper. 
Uncommon    summer  resident. 

94.  TRYNGITES  SUBRUFICOLLIS.     Buff-breasted  sandpiper. 
Very  rare  transient  visitor. 

95.  ACTITIS  MACULARIA.     Spotted  sandpiper. 
Common  summer  resident. 

96.  NUMENIUS  HUDSONICUS.     Hudsonian  curlew. 
Uncommon  autumn  transient  visitor. 

97.  NUMENIUS  BOREALIS.     Eskimo  curlew;   "the  curlew." 
Formerly  abundant  autumn  transient  visitor ;  now  very  rare. 

98.  SQUATAROLA  SQUATAROLA.     Black-bellied  plover. 
Common  transient  visitor. 

99.  CHARADRIUS  DOMINICUS.     American  golden  plover. 
Uncommon  autumn  transient  visitor. 

100.  ^EGIALITIS  SEMIPALMATA.    Semipalmated  plover;  "ring-neck.  * 
Common  summer  resident. 

101.  ARENARIA  MORINELLA.     Ruddy  turnstone. 
Common  transient  visitor. 


500  APPENDIX  V 

102.  ILEMATOPUS  PALLIATUS.     American  oyster-catcher. 
Extirpated ;  formerly  summer  resident. 

103.  CANACHITES  CANADENSIS!,     Hudsonian  spruce  grouse. 
Common  permanent  resident. 

104.  BONASA  UMBELLUS  TOGATA.     Canadian  ruffed  grouse. 
Not  uncommon  permanent  resident  in  southern  part. 

105.  LAGOPUS  LAGOPUS.     Willow  ptarmigan. 
Common  permanent  resident  in  wooded  portions. 

106.  LAGOPUS  RUPESTRIS.     Rock  ptarmigan. 

Common  permanent  resident  in  treeless  portions,  except  in  extreme 
north. 

107.  LAGOPUS  RUPESTRIS  REINHARDTI.     Reinhardt's  ptarmigan. 
Common  permanent  resident  in  the  extreme  north. 

108.  PEDIOCLETES  PHASIANELLUS.     Sharp-tailed  grouse. 
Uncommon,  permanent  resident  in  western  Labrador. 

109.  ECTOPISTES  MIGRATORIUS.     Passenger-pigeon. 
Formerly  very  rare,  now  extirpated. 

110.  ZENAIDURA  MACROURA'.     Mourning  dove. 
Accidental  visitor. 

111.  CATHARTES  AURA.     Turkey  vulture. 
Accidental  visitor. 

112.  CIRCUS  HUDSONIUS.     Marsh-hawk. 
Very  rare  summer  resident  in  the  south. 

113.  ACCIPITER  VELOX.     Sharp-shinned  hawk. 
Very  rare  summer  resident  in  the  south. 

114.  ACCIPITER  COOPERI.     Cooper's  hawk. 
Rare  summer  resident  in  the  south. 

115.  ACCIPITER  ATRICAPILLUS.     American  goshawk. 
Uncommon  permanent  resident. 

116.  BUTEO  BOREALIS.     Red-tailed  hawk. 
Very  rare  summer  visitor. 

117.  ARCHIBUTEO  LAGOPUS  SANCTI-JOHANNIS.    American  rough- 

legged  hawk. 
Very  common  summer  resident. 

118.  AQUILA  CHRYS^TOS.     Golden  eagle. 
Very  rare  permanent  resident. 

119.  HALIAETUS     LEUCOCEPHAL-US    ALASCANUS.    Northern    bald 

eagle. 
Rare  summer  resident. 

120.  FALCO  ISLANDUS.     White  gyrfalcon. 
Common  permanent  resident. 

121.  FALCO  RUSTICOLUS.     Gray  gyrfalcon. 
Rare  winter  visitor. 

122.  FALCO  RUSTICOLUS  GYRFALCO.     Gyrfalcon. 
Rare  visitor. 


APPENDIX   V  501 

123.  FALCO  RUSTICOLUS  OBSOLETUS.     Black  gyrfalcon. 
Common  permanent  resident. 

124.  FALCO  PEREGRINUS  ANATUM.     Duck-hawk. 
Common  summer  resident. 

125.  FALCO  COLUMBARIUS.     Pigeon-hawk. 
Common  summer  resident. 

126.  FALCO  SPARVERIUS.     American  sparrow-hawk. 
Rare  summer  visitor. 

127.  PANDION  HALIAETUS  CAROLINENSIS.     American  osprey. 
Common  summer  resident  in  south. 

128.  Asio  ACCIPITRINUS.     Short-eared  owl. 
Common  summer  resident. 

129.  SYRNIUM  VARIUM.     Barred  owl. 
Very  rare  summer  visitor  in  the  south. 

130.  CRYPTOGLAUX  TENGMALMI  RICHARDSONI.    Richardson's  owl 
Rare  permanent  resident. 

131.  CRYPTOGLAUX  ACADICA.     Saw-whet  owl. 
Rare  summer  resident. 

132.  MEGASCOPS  ASIO.     Screech  owl. 

Very  rare  summer  visitor  in  southern  part. 

133.  ASTO  MAGELLANICUS  HETEROCNEMis.     Labrador  horned  owl. 
Common  permanent  resident. 

134.  NYCTEA  NYCTEA.     Snowy  owl. 
Not  common  permanent  resident. 

135.  SURNIA  ULULA  CAPAROCH.     American  hawk-owl. 
Common  permanent  resident. 

136.  COCCYZUS  ERYTHROPHTHALMUS.     Black-billed  cuckoo. 
Very  rare  summer  visitor  in  south. 

137.  CERYLE  ALCYON.     Belted  kingfisher. 
Common  summer  resident  in  southwest. 

138.  DRYOBATES  VILLOSUS  LEUCOMELAS.     Northern  hairy  wood- 

pecker. 
Uncommon  summer  resident  in  south. 

139.  DRYOBATES  PUBESCENS  MEDIANUS.     Northern  downy  wood- 

pecker. 
Common  permanent  resident  in  southern  half. 

140.  PICOIDES  ARCTICUS.     Arctic  three-toed  woodpecker. 
Common  permanent  resident  north  to  tree  limit. 

141.  PICOIDES  AMERICANUS.     American  three-toed  woodpecker. 
Common  permanent  resident  north  to  tree  limit. 

142.  COEAPTES  AURATUS  LUTEUS.     Northern  flicker. 
Uncommon  summer  resident  in  southern  half. 

143.  CHORDEILES  VIRGINIANUS.     Night-hawk. 
'  Common  summer  resident  in  south. 

144.  TROCHILUS  COLUBRIS.     Ruby-throated  hummingbird. 
Very  rare  summer  resident. 


502  APPENDIX  V 

145.  TYRANNUS  TYRANNUS.     Kingbird. 
Rare  summer  resident  in  south. 

146.  SAYORNIS  PHCEBE.     Phoebe. 
Very  rare  summer  resident  in  south. 

147.  NUTTALLORNIS  BORBALis.     Olive-sided  flycatcher. 
Very  rare  summer  resident  in  southwest. 

148.  EMPIDONAX  FLAVIVENTRIS.     Yellow-bellied  flycatcher. 
Common  summer  resident  in  southwest. 

149.  EMPIDONAX  TRAILLII  ALNORUM.     Alder  flycatcher. 
Not  uncommon  summer  resident  in  southwest. 

150.  OTOCORIS  ALPESTRIS.     Horned  lark ;  shore  lark. 
Abundant  summer  resident  throughout  the  Arctic  Zone,  especially 

on  coast. 

151.  PERISOREUS  CANADENSIS  NIGRICAPILLUS.     Labrador  jay. 
Abundant  permanent  resident  in  forested  regions. 

152.  CORVUS  CORAX  PRINCIPALS.     Northern  raven. 
Common  permanent  resident. 

153.  CORVUS  BRACK YRYNCHOS.    American  crow. 
Uncommon  summer  resident  in  the  south. 

154.  XANTHOCEPHALUS  XANTHOCEPHALUS.    Yellow-headed  black- 

bird. 
Accidental  visitor. 

155.  EUPHAGUS  CAROLINUS.    Rusty  blackbird. 
Common  summer  resident. 

156.  PINICOLA  ENUCLEATOR  LEUCURA.     Pine  grosbeak. 
Common  summer  resident ;  winters  in  southern  portion. 

157.  CARPODACUS  PURPUREUS.     Purple  finch. 
Common  summer  resident  in  south. 

158.  LOXIA  CURVIROSTRA  MINOR.    American  crossbill. 
Uncommon  summer  resident ;  may  winter. 

159.  LOXIA  LEUCOPTERA.    White-winged  crossbill. 
Common  permanent  resident. 

160.  ACANTHIS  HORNEMANNII.     Greenland  redpoll. 
Abundant  winter  visitor  in  the  north. 

161.  ACANTHIS  HORNEMANNII  EXILIPES.    Hoary  redpoll. 
Abundant  permanent  resident  in  the  north. 

162.  ACANTHIS  LINARIA.    Redpoll. 
Abundant  permanent  resident. 

163.  ACANTHIS  LINARIA  ROSTRATA.      Greater  redpoll. 
Common  winter  visitor ;  rare  summer  resident  in  the  north. 

164.  ASTRAGALINUS  TRiSTis.    American  goldfinch. 
Accidental  visitor. 

165.  SPINUS  PINUS.     Pine  siskin. 
Uncommon  summer  resident  in  the  south. 

166.  PASSERINA  NIVALIS.    Snowflake ;  snow  bunting. 


APPENDIX  V  503 

Abundant  summer  resident  in  the  north;  winter   visitor  in  the 
south. 

167.  CALCARIUS  LAPPONICUS.     Lapland  longspur. 

Abundant  summer  resident  in  the  north ;  winter  visitor  in  the  south. 

168.  PASSERCULUS  SANDWICHENSIS  SAVANNA.     Savanna  sparrow. 
Very  common  summer  resident. 

169.  ZONOTRICHIA  LEDCOPHRYS.     White-crowned  sparrow., 
Abundant  summer  resident. 

170.  ZONOTRICHIA  ALBICOLLIS.    White-throated  sparrow,, 
Common  summer  resident  in  south. 

171.  SPIZELLA  MONTICOLA.    Tree  sparrow. 
Common  summer  resident. 

172.  JUNCO  HYEMALIS.     Slate-coloured  junco. 
Uncommon  summer  resident. 

173.  MELOSPIZA  CINEREA  MELODIA.     Song  sparrow. 
Uncommon  summer  resident  in  southwest. 

174.  MELOSPIZA  LINCOLNI.     Lincoln's  sparrow. 
Common  summer  resident  in  south. 

175.  MELOSPIZA  GEORGIANA.    Swamp  sparrow. 
Common  summer  resident  in  southwest. 

176.  PASSERELLA  ILIACA.     Fox  sparrow. 
Common  summer  resident  in  south. 

177.  HIRUNDO  ERYTHROGASTER.    Barn  swallow. 
Very  rare  summer  resident. 

178.  IRIDOPROCNE  BICOLOR.    Tree  swallow. 
Common  summer  resident  locally. 

179.  RIPARIA  RIPARIA.     Bank  swallow. 
Common  summer  resident  in  a  few  localities. 

180.  AMPELIS  CEDRORUM.     Cedar  waxwing. 
Rare  summer  resident. 

181.  LANIUS  BOREALIS.    Northern  shrike. 
Not  uncommon  summer  resident. 

182.  HELMINTHOPHILA  RUBRICAPILLA.     Nashville  warbler. 
Very  rare  summer  visitor  in  the  south. 

183.  HELMINTHOPHILA  PEREGRINA.    Tennessee  warbler. 

Not  uncommon  summer  resident  in  Hudsonian  Zone.  i 

184.  DENDROICA  .ESTIVA.     Yellow  warbler. 
Common  summer  resident  locally  in  the  south. 

185.  DENDROICA  OERULESCENS.     Black-throated  blue  warbler. 
Accidental  visitor. 

186.  DENDROICA    CORONATA.     Myrtle    warbler;     yellow-rumped 

warbler. 
Common  summer  resident,  chiefly  in  Canadian  Zone. 

187.  DENDROICA  MACULOSA.     Magnolia  warbler. 
Common  summer  resident  in  Canadian  Zone. 


504  APPENDIX   V 

188.  DENDROICA  CASTANEA.     Bay-breasted  warbler. 
Very  rare  summer  resident. 

189.  DENDROICA  STRIATA.     Blackpoll  warbler. 
Very  common  summer  resident. 

190.  DENDROICA  BLACKBURNLE.     Blackburnian  warbler. 
Rare  summer  resident  in  the  south. 

191.  DENDROICA  VIRENS.     Black-throated  green  warbler. 
Common  summer  resident  in  the  south. 

192.  DENDROICA  VIGORSII.     Pine  warbler. 
Very  rare  summer  resident. 

193.  DENDROICA  PALMARIUM  HYPOCHREPEA.     Yellow-palm  warbler 
Rare  summer  resident  in  the  south. 

194.  SEIURUS  AUROCAPILLUS.     Oven-bird. 
Rare  summer  resident  in  the  south. 

195.  SEIURUS  NOVEBORACENCIS.     Water-thrush. 

Not  uncommon  summer  resident  in  wooded  portions. 

196.  GEOTHLYPIS    TRICHAS    BRACHIDACTYLA.     Northern    yellow 

throat. 
Common  summer  resident  in  south. 

197.  WILSONIA  PUSILLA.     Wilson's  warbler. 
Common  summer  resident  in  south. 

198.  WILSONIA  CANADENSIS.     Canadian  warbler. 
Rare  summer  resident  in  south. 

199.  SETOPHAGA  RUTICILLA.     American  redstart. 
Common  summer  resident  in  south. 

200.  MOTACILLA  ALBA.     White  wagtail. 
Accidental  visitor. 

201.  ANTHUS  PENSILVANICUS.     American  pipit. 
Abundant  summer  resident  throughout  Arctic  Zone. 

202.  OLBIORCHILUS  HIEMALIS.     Winter  \\ren. 
Uncommon  summer  resident  in  south. 

203.  SITTA  CANADENSIS.     Red-breasted  nuthatch. 
Uncommon  summer  resident  in  south. 

204.  PARUS  ATRICAPILLUS.     Chickadee. 
Not  uncommon  summer  resident  in  south. 

205.  PARUS  HUDSONICUS.     Hudsonian  chickadee. 
Abundant  permanent  resident. 

206.  REGULUS  SATRAPA.     Golden-crowned  kinglet. 
Common  summer  resident  in  south. 

207.  REGULUS  CALENDULA.     Ruby-crowned  kinglet. 
Common  summer  resident  in  south. 

208.  HYLOCICHLA  FUSCESCENS.     Wilson's  thrush. 
Rare  summer  resident  in  south. 

209.  HYLOCICHLA  ALICIA.     Gray-cheeked  thrush ;    Alice's  thrush. 
Common  summer  resident. 


APPENDIX   V  505 

210.  HYLOCICHLA  USTULATA  SWAINSONII.     Olive-backed  thrush. 
Common  summer  resident  in  southwest. 

211.  HYLOCICHLA  GUTTATA  PALLASII.     Hermit  thrush. 
Common  summer  resident  in  south. 

212.  MERULA  MIGRATORIA.     American  robin. 
Abundant  summer  resident. 

213.  SAXICOLA  CENANTHE  LENCORHOA.     Greenland  wheatear. 
Rare  summer  resident. 

ADDITIONAL   SPECIES 

Observed  by  CHARLES  W.  TOWNSEND,  M.D.,  and 
A.  C.  BENT,  in  1909. 

214.  ^EGIALITIS  MELODA.     Piping  plover. 
Rare  summer  resident  in  south. 

215.  CYANOCITTA  CRTSTATA.     Blue  jay. 
Accidental  visitor  in  south. 

216.  MNIOTILTA  VARIA.     Black  and  white  warbler. 
Not  uncommon  summer  resident  in  south. 


VI 

LIST  OF  CRUSTACEA  ON  THE  LABRADOR  COAST 
BY  MARY  J.  RATHBUN 

Compiled  from  various  lists  published  by  DR.  PACKARD/  PROFES- 
SOR SMITH/  and  DR.  ORTMANN/  from  collections  in  the  U.  S.  National 
Museum,4  obtained  by  MR.  LUCIEN  M.  TURNER/  in  1882  and  1883, 
and  by  MR.  OWEN  BRYANT,"  in  1908. 

BRACHYURA 

Cancer  irroratus  Say.    Hamilton  Inlet 7  (Packard) ;  Caribou  Island 
(Packard). 

1  PACKARD,  A.  S.,  JR.,  "A  List  of  Animals  dredged  near  Caribou 
Island,  Southern  Labrador,  during  July  and  August,  1860,"  The 
Canadian  Naturalist  and  Geologist,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  401-429,  Pis. 
I-II,  December,  1863. 

PACKARD,  A.  S.,  JR.,  "Observations  on  the  Glacial  Phenomena  of 
Labrador  and  Maine,  with  a  View  of  the  Recent  Invertebrate  Fauna 
of  Labrador,"  Mem.  Boston  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  Vol.  I,  pp.  210-303,  Pis. 
VII- VIII,  1867. 

PACKARD,  A.  S.,  "Life  and  Nature  in  Southern  Labrador,"  Amer. 
Nat.,  Vol.  XIX,  pp.  269-275,  365-372,  1885. 

2 SMITH,  SIDNEY  I.,  "List  of  the  Crustacea  dredged  on  the  Coast 
of  Labrador  by  the  Expedition  under  the  Direction  of  W.  A.  Stearns, 
in  1882,"  Froc.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  218-222,  1883. 

SMITH,  SIDNEY  I.,  "Review  of  the  Marine  Crustacea  of  Labrador," 
Proc.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  Vol.  VI,  pp.  223-232,  1883. 

SMITH,  S.  I.,  "List  of  Crustacea  from  Port  Burwell  collected  by 
Dr.  R.  Bell  in  1884,  in  Observations  on  the  Geology,  Mineralogy, 
Zoology,  and  Botany  of  the  Labrador  Coast,  Hudson's  Strait  and  Bay." 
By  Robert  Bell.  Appendix  IV,  pp.  57DD-58DD.  Geol.  and  Nat. 
Hist.  Survey  of  Canada,  1884,  Montreal.  Pp.  1DD-62DD. 

3  ORTMANN,  A.  E.,  "Crustacea  and  Pycnogonida  collected  during 
the  Princeton    Expedition  to    North  Greenland,"  Proc.  Acad.   Nat. 
Sci.  Phila.,  Vol.  LIII,  1901,  pp.  144-168,  1  text  figure. 

4  By  permission  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

5  Determined  by  Prof.  S.  I.  Smith. 

6  By  permission  of  Mr.  Bryant  in  advance  of  his  report  on  the 
expedition. 

7  On  p.  203  of  The  Labrador  Coast,  Packard  says  that  the  shore- 
crab  occurs  south  of  Hamilton  Inlet. 

506 


APPENDIX  VI  507 

ChionoBcetes  opilio  0.  Fabricius.  Off  northern  Labrador,  10-15 
fms.  in  stomachs  of  fish  (Packard) ;  Henley  Harbour  (Smith) ; 
Chateau  Bay,  30-50  fms.  (Packard) ;  Strait  of  Belle  Isle,  10-50 
fms.  (Packard). 

Hyas  araneus  Linn.  Outside  of  Hebron,  60  fms.,  gravel  (Bry- 
ant); off  Fish  Island,  75  fms.,  mud,  and  Nain,  7  fms.,  mud 
(Bryant) ;  Domino  Run,  0-1  fm.  (Ortmann) ;  Battle  Harbour, 
12-14  fms.  (Ortmann) ;  Henley  Harbour  (Smith) ;  near  Cari- 
bou Island,  common  (Packard) ;  L'Anse  au  Loup  and  Forteau 
Bay,  15-25  fms.,  sand,  kelp,  and  dirt  (Stearns) ;  abundant 
along  the  whole  coast,  5-50  fms.  (Packard). 

Hyas  coarctatus  Leach.  Henley  Harbour,  shallow  water  and  8  fms. 
(Smith),  30  fms.  (Packard);  Temple  Bay  (Smith);  near 
Caribou  Island,  common  (Packard). 


ANOMURA 

Pagurus  pubescens  Kr0yer.  Hopedale,  10  fms.  (Packard) ;  Egg 
Harbour,  7  fms.,  mud  (Bryant) ;  Dead  Island,  1-3  fms., 
rocky  (Smith) ;  Fox  Harbour,  3  fms.,  sand  (Smith) ;  Battle 
Harbour,  0-1  fm.  (Ortmann) ;  Henley  Harbour,  shoal  water 
(Smith) ;  Temple  Bay,  10  fms.  (Smith) ;  Strait  of  Belle  Isle, 
50  fms.  (Packard) ;  L'Anse  au  Loup,  10-15  fms.,  sandy 
(Smith) ;  abundant  on  the  whole  coast  from  low-water  mark 
to  50  fms.  (Packard). 

Pagurus  kroyeri  Stimpson.  Port  Burwell  (Smith) ;  Nachvak,  in 
stomach  of  cod  (Turner) ;  outside  of  Hebron,  60  fms.,  gravel 
(Bryant) ;  off  Fish  Island,  75  fms.,  mud  (Bryant) ;  halfway 
from  Cape  Mugford  to  Hebron,  60  fms.,  mud,  sand  (Bryant) ; 
Port  Manvers,  30  fms.,  sticky  mud  (Bryant) ;  Nain,  7  fms., 
mud  (Bryant) ;  Shoal  Tickle  near  (southeast  of)  Nain  (Bryant) ; 
Dead  Island,  nullipore  (Smith) ;  Henley  Harbour,  3-15  fms. 
(Smith) ;  Temple  Bay,  10  fms.,  rocky  (Smith) ;  not  so  abun- 
dant as  P.  pubescens  (Packard). 


MACRURA 

Homarus  americanus  Milne  Edwards.  South  of  Hamilton  Inlet 
(Packard) ;  Henley  Harbour,  rare  (Packard) ;  near  Caribou 
Island,  common  (Packard). 

Crago  septemspinosus  Say.  Caribou  Island,  very  large  and  abun- 
dant on  mud  flats  (Packard). 

Sclerocrangon  boreas  Phipps.  Labrador  Reef,  Ungava  (Turner) ; 
Port  Burwell  (Smith) ;  Komaktorvik  Bay,  5  fms.,  rocky 


508  APPENDIX   VI 

(Bryant) ;    Nachvak,  cod  stomach   (Turner) ;    Egg  Harbour, 

7  fms.,  mud  (Bryant) ;  Dead  Island,  1-3  fms.,  rocky  (Smith), 
Square  Island,  30  fms.  (Packard) ;  Henley  Harbour,  4-10  fms., 
one  with  a  Pontobdella  an  inch  long  attached  to  under  surface 
(Packard) ;    Strait  of  Belle  Isle,  10  fms.  (Packard) ;    Caribou 
Island,  8  fms.  (Packard) ;  L'Anse  au  Lpup,  8-10  fms.  (Smith). 

Nectocrangon  dentata  Rathbun  =  ]V.  lar  Smith,  not  Owen.  Nach- 
vak1 (Turner) ;  outside  of  Hebron,1  60  fms.,  gravel  (Bryant) ; 
Nain,1  7  fms.,  mud  (Bryant) ;  Shoal  Tickle  l  near  (southeast  of) 
Nain  (Bryant),  Egg  Harbour,1  7  fms.,  mud  (Bryant);  Dead 
Island,2  nullipore  (Smith) ;  Square  Island,2  30  fms.  (Packard) ; 
Henley  Harbour,1  10  fms.  (Smith) ;  near  Caribou  Island,2 
10  fms.,3  mud,  rare  (Packard). 

Sabinea  septemcarinata  Sabine.  Halfway  from  Cape  Mugford  to 
Hebron,  60  fms.,  mud,  sand  (Bryant) ;  Thomas  Bay,  15  fms. 
(Packard). 

Spirontocaris  grcenlandica  J.  C.  Fabricius.  Port  Burwell  (Smith)  ; 
Komaktorvik  Bay,  5  fms.,  rocky  (Bryant) ;  Nachvak,  in  cod 
stomach  (Turner) ;  Egg  Harbour,  7  fms.,  mud  (Bryant) ; 
Dead  Island,  1-4  fms.  (Smith) ;  Square  Island,  15-30  fms. 
(Packard) ;  Domino  Harbour,  7  fms.  (Packard) ;  Fox  Harbour, 
1  fm.  (Smith) ;  Strait  of  Belle  Isle,  10  fms.  (Packard) ;  Cari- 
bou Island,  14  fms.  (Packard) ;  L'Anse  au  Loup,  10-15  fms. 
(Smith). 

Spirontocaris  spina  Sowerby.  Nachvak  (Turner) ;  outside  of 
Hebron,  60  fms.,  gravel  (Bryant) ;  Shoal  Tickle  near  (southeast 
of)  Nain  (Bryant) ;  Egg  Harbour,  7  fms.,  mud  (Bryant) ; 
Square  Island,  15-30  fms.,  not  common  (Packard) ;  Henley 
Harbour,  shoal  water  and  10-15  fms.  (Smith) ;  Temple  Bay, 
rocky  (Smith),  near  Caribou  Island,  frequent  in  10-50  fms. 
(Packard). 

Spirontocaris  phippsii  Kreyer.  Port  Burwell  (Smith) ;  Kornak- 
torvik  Bay,  5  fms.,  rocky  (Bryant) ;  Nachvak  (Turner) ;  outside 
of  Hebron,  60  fms.,  gravel  (Bryant) ;  halfway  from  Cape  Mug- 
ford  to  Hebron,  60  fms.,  mud,  sand  (Bryant) ;  Shoal  Tickle 
near  (southeast  of)  Nain  (Bryant) ;  Battle  Harbour,  12-14  fms. 
(Ortmann) ;  Domino  Harbour,  7  fms.  (Packard) ;  off  Belles 
Amours,  10  fms.,  rocky  (Packard,  as  turgida) ;  L'Anse  au  Loup, 

8  fms.  (Smith). 

Spirontocaris  polaris  Sabine.     Labrador  Reef,  Ungava,  pale  flesh 

1  Specimens  examined  by  the  present  writer. 

2  Probably  this  species. 

3  In  Packard's  first  list  (1863)  the  depths  are  erroneously  given  in 
feet. 


APPENDIX  VI  509 

colour,  not  active  (Turner) ;  Port  Burwell,  68  mm.  long 
(Smith) ;  Nachvak  (Turner) ;  outside  of  Hebron,  60  fms., 
gravel  (Bryant) ;  Dead  Island,  3  fms.,  seaweed  (Smith) ; 
Square  Island,  15-30  fms.  (Packard),  Strait  of  Belle  Isle, 
10  fms.  (Packard). 

Spirontocaris  fabricii  Kr0yer.  Labrador  Reef,  Ungava  (Turner) ; 
Port  Burwell  (Smith) ;  Nain,  7  fms.,  mud  (Bryant) ;  Shoal 
Tickle,  near  (southeast  of)*  Nain  (Bryant) ;  Egg  Harbour, 
7  fms.,  mud  (Bryant) ;  Dead  Island,  3  fms.  (Smith) ;  Fox  Har- 
bour, 1  fm.  (Smith) ;  Henley  Harbour,  10-15  fms.  (Smith) ; 
Domino  Harbour,  7  fms.,  not  common  (Packard) ;  L'Anse  au 
Loup,  15  fms.,  sand,  and  on  rocky  bottom  (Smith) ;  Forteau 
Bay,  20  fms.  (Smith). 

Spirontocaris  gaimardii  Milne  Edwards.  Komaktorv.ik  Bay,  5 
fms.,  rocky  (Bryant),  varying  toward  belcheri;  halfway  from 
Cape  Mugford  to  Hebron,  60  fms.,  mud,  sand  (Bryant),  varying 
toward  belcheri;  Nain,  7  fms.,  mud  (Bryant),  varying  towards 
belcheri;  Shoal  Tickle  near  (southeast  of)  Nain  (Bryant) ; 
Hopedale,  10  fms.,  (Packard) ;  Egg  Harbour,  7  fms.,  mud 
(Bryant) ;  Square  Island,  30  fms.  (Packard) ;  Henley  Harbour 
and  Sloop  Harbour,  8  fms.  (Packard) ;  Caribou  Island,  15  fms. 
(Packard) ;  common  (Packard) . 

Spirontocaris  gaimardii  belcheri  Bell.  Nachvak  (Turner) ;  off 
Fish  Island,  outside  of  Hebron,  75  fms.,  mud  (Bryant) ;  Henley 
Harbour,  10  fms.  (Stearns),  varying  toward  typical  gaimardii; 
L'Anse  au  Loup,  8-15  fms.  (Stearns). 

Spirontocaris  stoneyi  Rathbun.  Shoal  Tickle,  near  (southeast  of) 
Nain  (Bryant). 

Spirontocaris  macilenta  Kr0yer.  Off  Fish  Island,  75  fms.,  mud 
(Bryant) ;  halfway  from  Cape  Mugford  to  Hebron,  60  fms., 
mud,  sand  (Bryant) ;  Shoal  Tickle  near  (southeast  of)  Nain 
(Bryant) ;  Square  Island,  15-30  fms.,  rare  (Packard). 

Pandalus  montagui  Leach.  Port  Burwell  (Smith) ;  Nain,  7  fms., 
mud  (Bryant) ;  Hopedale,  10  fms.  (Packard) ;  Egg  Harbour, 
7  fms.,  mud  (Bryant) ;  Sloop  Harbour,  6  fms.  (Packard) ; 
Henley  Harbour,  20  fms.  (Packard) ;  Temple  Bay,  10  fms., 
rocky  (Smith) ;  L'Anse  au  Loup,  8-15  fms.  (Smith) ;  Forteau 
Bay,  20  fms.  (Smith). 

SCHIZOPODA 

Mysis  oculata  O.  Fabricius.  Port  Burwell  (Smith) ;  Komak- 
torvik  Bay,  5  fms.,  rocky  (Bryant) ;  Dead  Island  (Smith) ; 
Caribou  Island  (Packard) ;  swarms  in  tidal  pools  and  abundant 
along  the  whole  coast  (Packard). 


510  APPENDIX    VI 

My  sis  mixta  Lilljeborg.      Ungava   in    stomach    of    murre,    Uria 

columba  (Turner);  Rigolet,  not  common  (Turner). 
My  sis  relicta  Loven.     Indian  Harbour,  fresh  water  (Bryant). 

PHYLLOCARIDA 

Nebalia  bipes  Fabricius.  Mouth  of  Henley  Harbour,  4-20  fms. 
(Packard). 

CUMACEA 

Diastylis  rathkii  Kr0yer.  Mouth  of  Koksoak,  Ungava  (Turner)  ; 
Fox  Harbour,  3  fms.,  sand,  abundant  (Smith) ;  Belles  Amours, 
6  fms.,  Thomas  Bay,  15  fms.,  mud,  Square  Island,  15-30  fms., 
Henley  Harbour,  8  fms.,  Chateau  Bay,  Long  Island,  15  fms. 
(Packard);  common  in  10-50  fms.  (Packard). 

Diastylis  quadrispinosus  G.  O.  Sars.  Off  Belles  Amours,  4-6  fms. 
(Packard,  The  Labrador  Coast,  p.  113.  Not  given,  however, 
in  his  list  of  Crustacea  and  perhaps  confused  with  the  preced- 
ing). 

ISOPODA  * 

Leptochelia  filum  Stimpson.  Caribou  Island,  8  fms.,  sandy,  rare 
(Packard). 

Gnathia  cerina  Stimpson.  Chateau  Bay,  Long  Island,  15  fms., 
sandy  (Packard). 

dEga  psora  Linn.  Port  Burwell  (Smith) ;  Nachvak  (Turner) ; 
Strait  of  Belle  Isle,  on  under  side  of  cod  (Packard) ;  north  shore 
of  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  (Whiteaves). 

Arcturus  baffini  Sabine.     Port  Burwell  (Smith). 

Mesidotea  entomon  Linn.     Nachvak  (Turner). 

Mesidotea  sabini  Kr0yer.  Halfway  from  Cape  Mugford  to  He- 
bron, 60  fms.,  mud,  sand  (Bryant). 

Synidotea  marmorata  Packard.  "Cock  Capelin,"  Gready  Har- 
bour (Bryant) ;  Sloop  Harbour,  Kyuetarbuck  Bay,  7  fms.,  sandy, 
reddish  brown  (Packard) ;  Battle  Harbour  (Ortmann) . 

Asellus  aquaticus  Linn.  Hopedale  and  Square  Island,  com- 
mon in  soil  under  stones,  etc.,  in  company  with  Limax  (Packard). 

Jcera  marina  O.  Fabricius.  Indian  Tickle  (Packard) ;  Indian 
Harbour,  Sandwich  Bay  (Packard) ;  Fox  Harbour  (Smith) ; 
Caribou  Island,  common  near  high-water  mark  (Packard) ; 
abundant  at  low  water  under  stones  (Packard). 

1  Names  revised  according  to  Richardson,  "A  Monograph  on  the 
Isopods  of  North  America,"  Bull.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus.,  No.  54,  1905. 
Isopods  in  Bryant  collection  determined  by  Dr.  Harriet  Richardson. 


APPENDIX  VI  511 

Munnopsis  typica  M.  Sars.  Halfway  from  Cape  Mugford  to  He- 
bron, 60  fms.,  mud,  sand  (Bryant) ;  off  Beachy  Island,  be- 
tween Flint  Island  and  Cape  Mugford,  80  fms.,  soft  mud 
(Bryant). 

Phryxus  abdominalis  (Kr0yer).  Port  Burwell,  on  Spirontocaris 
polaris  (Smith) ;  Nachvak,  on  S.  polaris  (Turner) ;  off  Fish 
Island,  75  fms.,  mud,  on  S.  macilenta  (Bryant) ;  halfway  from 
Cape  Mugford  to  Hebron,  60  fms.,  mud,  sand,  on  S.  macilenta 
(Bryant) ;  Nain,  7  fms.,  mud  on  S.  gaimardii  var.  (Bryant) ; 
Shoal  Tickle  near  (southeast  of)  Nain,  on  S.  macilenta  (Bryant) ; 
L'Anse  au  Loup,  on  S.  gaimardii  belcheri  (Stearns). 

Dajus  misidis  Kr0yer.  Labrador  (Packard),  probably  from  My  sis 
oculata  (Smith). 

AMPHIPODA  * 

Hyperia  medusarum  (0.  F.  Miiller).  Domino  Harbour,  found  with 
numerous  young  in  the  stomach  cavity  of  Cyanea  arctica  (Pack- 
ard);  Dead  Island  (Smith). 

Euthcmisto  libellula  Mandt.  Mouth  of  Koksoak,  Ungava  (Turner) ; 
lat.  56°  north,  long.  60°  west  (Turner). 

Socarnes  vahli  Kr0yer.     Nachvak  (Turner). 

Orchomenellaminuta  Kr0yer.    Henley  Harbour,  10-15  fms.  (Smith). 

Tryphosa  horingii  Bueck.     Labrador  (Packard). 

Anonyx  nugax  Phipps.  Port  Burwell  (Smith) ;  Fox  Harbour, 
3  fms.  (Smith) ;  Dumplin  Harbour,  Sandwich  Bay,  4  fms. 
(Packard) ;  Henley  Harbour,  10-15  fms.  (Smith) ;  off  Henley 
Harbour,  40  fms.,  3  miles  from  land,  pebbly  bottom  (Packard) ; 
Sloop  Harbour,  8  fms.  (Packard). 

Centromedon  pumilus  Lilljeborg.  Labrador,  15  fms.,  sand 
(Packard). 

Onesimus  edwardsii  Kr0yer.     Atlantic  coast  of  Labrador  (Smith). 

Pontoporeia  femorata  Kr0yer.  Fox  Harbour,  1-4  fms.  (Smith) ; 
Belles  Amours,  5-8  fms.,  muddy,  abundant  (Packard). 

Phoxocephalus  holbolli  (Kr0yer).     L'Anse  au  Loup,  15  fms.   (Smith). 

Ampelisca  macrocephala  Lilljeborg.  L'Anse  au  Loup,  10  fms. 
(Smith) ;  Henley  Harbour,  10-15  fms.  (Smith) ;  Chateau 
Bay,  30  fms.  (Packard) ;  Stag  Bay,  10  fms.,  hard  bottom 
(Packard) ;  Caribou  Island,  8  fms.,  sand  (Packard) ;  Long 
Island,  15  fms.,  sand  (Packard) ;  Strawberry  Harbour,  14 
fms.,  hard  (Packard). 

Ampelisca  eschrichtii  Kr0yer.  Mouth  of  Koksoak,  Ungava  (Turner) ; 
Ungava  Bay,  28  fms.  in  mud,  pale  yellow  (Turner) ;  Nachvak 

'  1  Names  revised  according  to  G.  O.  Sars,  An  Account  of  the  Crustacea 
of  Norway,  Vol.  I,  1895. 


512  APPENDIX  VI 

(Turner) ;  Chateau  Bay,  presumably  (Smith) ;  Caribou  Island, 

14  fms.  (Packard). 
Byblis    gaimardii    Kr0yer.      Dead    Island,    2-4    fms.     (Smith) ; 

Henley  Harbour,  10-15  fms.  (Smith) ;   Temple  Bay  (Smith) ; 

Chateau   Bay,  30  fms.  (Packard) ;    Chateau   Harbour,  Long 

Island,  15  fms.,  sand  (Packard). 
Haploops  tubicola  Lilljeborg.     Chateau  Harbour,  Long  Island,  15 

fms.,  sand  (Packard) :   Caribou  Island,  probably  (Smith) . 
Stegocephalus  inflatus  Kr0yer.     Nachvak,  in  cod  stomach  (Turner). 
Paroediceros    lynceus    M.   Sars.      Port    Burwell    (Smith) ;    Henley 

Harbour,  10-15  fms.  (Smith) ;  Henley  Harbour,  4  fms.  (Pack- 
ard) ;   Temple  Bay,  10  fms.  (Smith) ;   Caribou  Island,  8  fms., 

sand  (Packard) ;   L'Anse  au  Loup,  15  fms.  (Smith) ;   Forteau 

Bay,  20  fms.   (Smith). 
Pleustes     panoplus     Kr0yer.      Port     Burwell    (Smith) ;     Henley 

Harbour,  4  fms.,  among  weeds,  not  uncommon  (Packard) ; 

L'Anse  au  Loup,  10  fms.  (Smith). 

Paramphithoe  bicuspis  Kr0yer.  Henley  Harbour,  probably  (Smith) . 
Acanthozone  cuspidata  Lepechin.  Temple  Bay,  10  fms.  (Smith). 
Acanthonotosoma  inftatum  Kr0yer.  L'Anse  au  Loup,  8  fms., 

rocky  (Smith). 
Acanthonotosoma  serratum  0.   Fabricius.     Dead  Island,   shallow 

water  (Smith). 
Rhachotropis  aculeata  Lepechin.     Port  Burwell  (Smith) ;  Nachvak 

(Turner) ;  Square  Island,  30  fms.  (Packard) ;  Henley  Harbour, 

10-15  fms.  (Smith);   Temple  Bay,  10  fms.  (Smith). 
Halirages  fulvocinctus   M.   Sars.     Henley    Harbour,    10-20  fms.. 

hard,  weedy  bottom  (Packard). 
Apherusa  bispinosa  Bate.     Henley  Harbour,    10-20  fms.,  hard, 

weedy  bottom,  rare  (Packard). 
Calliopius   Iceviusculus   Kr0yer.     Henley   Harbour,  4  fms.,   very 

abundant   (Packard) ;    Stag  Bay,   15  fms.,   on  hard,  weedy 

bottom  (Packard). 
Pontogeneia  inermis  Kr0yer.     Square  Island,  15  fms.  (Packard) ; 

Henley  Harbour,  4  fms.  (Packard) ;  Stag  Bay,  15  fms.,  on  hard, 

weedy  bottom  (Packard). 
Amathilla    homari    J.    C.    Fabricius.     Labrador    Reef,    Ungava 

(Turner) ;   Rigolet  (Turner)  abundant  under  stones  on  beach. 
Gammarus  locusta  Linn.     Ungava  Bay,  amid  floating  ice  (Turner) ; 

Labrador  Reef,  Ungava,  abundant  under  stones  among  the  sand 

and  silt  (Turner) ;  mouth  of  Koksoak,  Ungava,  common  under 

stones  on  beach    (Turner) ;    Davis  Inlet,  common   (Turner) : 

Port  Burwell    (Smith) ;   Rigolet  (Turner) ;  Fox  Harbour,  1-4 

fms.  (Smith) ;  Gulf  coast  (Whiteaves) ;  whole  coast  (Packard) . 
Melita  dentata  Kr0yer.     Square   Island,   15-30  fms.    (Packard); 


APPENDIX  VI  513 

Henley  Harbour,  10-15  fms.  (Smith) ;    Temple  Bay,  10  fms. 

(Smith) ;  Strait  of  Belle  Isle,  15  fms.,  mud  (Packard) ;  Chateau 

Bay,  20-30  fms.  (Packard) ;  near  Caribou,  10  feet,  mud,  sand 

(Packard). 

A mphithoe  rubricata  Montagu.     Henley  Harbour,  8  fms.  (Packard). 
Ericthonius  difformis  Milne  Edwards.     Caribou  Island,  8  fms.,  sand 

(Packard). 
Unciola  irrorata  Say.     Henley  Harbour  (Smith) ;    Caribou  Island 

(Packard). 

Dulichia  porrecta  Bate.     Rarely  found  (Packard). 
Caprella  linearis   Linn.     Battle  Harbour,  12-14  fms.  (Ortmann). 
Caprella  septentrionalis  Kr0yer.     Henley  Harbour  (Smith) ;   whole 

coast,  4-30  fms.,  among  weeds  (Packard). 

OSTRACODA 
Cypridina  excisa  Stimpson.     Labrador  (Packard). 

COPEPODA 

Lerncea  branchialis  Linn.  var.  sigmoidea  Steenstrup  and  Liitken. 
Labrador  in  Stearns  collection  (Smith) ;  attached  to  skin  of 
cod  (Packard). 

Lepeophtheirus  salmonis  Kr0yer.  Ungava  Bay,  on  salmon  and  sea- 
trout  (Turner) ;  Rigolet,  on  Salmo  solar  (C.  B.  Wilson). 

BRANCHIOPODA 

Branchinecta  arctica  Verrill.  Indian  Tickle,  north  shore  of  In- 
vuctoke  Inlet,  abundant  in  a  pool  of  fresh  water  (Packard) ; 
Indian  Harbour  (Bryant). 

CIRRIPEDIA 

Balanus  porcatus  Costa.     Whole  coast,  only  in  deep  water  (Packard) . 
Balanus  crenatus  Bruguiere.     L'Anse  au  Loup,   10  fms.  (Smith) ; 

whole  coast  (Packard). 

Balanus  balanoides  Linn.     Whole  coast  (Packard). 
Coronula  diadema  Linn.     Taken  quite  frequently  from  the  skin  of 

whales  caught  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  (Packard). 

RHIZOCEPHALA 

Peltogaster  paguri  Rathke.  Henley  Harbour,  on  Pagurus  pubescens, 
shallow  water  (Smith). 

2L 


BOOKS,  ETC.,   ON  LABRADOR 

Census  of  Newfoundland  and  Labrador,  1901.  Newfoundland 
Colonial  Secretary,  St.  John's,  N.  F.,  1903.  2  vols.  8°. 

BROWNE,  PATRICK  WILLIAM.  "Where  the  Fishers  Go,"  The  Story 
of  Labrador.  New  York  (Cochrane  Pub.  Co.),  1909.  Illus. 

BRYANT,  HENRY  GRIER.     A  Journey  to  the  Grand  Falls  of  Labrador. 

New  York  (Century  Co.),  1892.     pp.  48.    8°. 
(From  the  Geographical  Club  of  Philadelphia,  Bulletin  No.  2, 
Vol.  1.) 

CABOT,  WM.  BROOKS.  In  Northern  Labrador.  Boston  (Badger, 
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CARTWRIGHT,  GEORGE  (1739-1819).  Captain  Cartwright  and  His 
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Last  Cruise  of  Miranda.     Transatlantic  Publishing  Co.,  1893. 

CARTWRIGHT,  GEORGE.  A  Journal  of  Transactions  and  Events, 
During  a  Residence  of  nearly  Sixteen  Years  on  the  Coast  of 
Labrador.  Newark  (Allin  &  Ridge),  1792.  3  vols.,  portrait 
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CHAPPELL,  EDWARD.  Voyage  of  His  Majesty's  ship  Rosamond  to 
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CILLEY,  JONATHAN  PRINCE,  JR.  Bowdoin  Boys  in  Labrador.  An 
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DELABARRE,  EDMUND  BURKE.  Report  of  the  Brown-Harvard  Ex- 
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516  BOOKS,    ETC.,    ON    LABRADOR 

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HAYDON,  A.  L.  Canada  at  Work  and  at  Play.  With  a  chapter  on 
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HIND,  HENRY  YOULE.  Exploration  in  the  Interior  of  Labrador 
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DUNCAN,  NORMAN.  Dr.  Grenf ell's  Parish.  F.  H.  Revell  Co., 
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DUNCAN,  NORMAN.     Dr.  Luke  of  the  Labrador.     F.  Revell.     1903. 

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GRENFELL,  W.  T.  Down  to  the  Sea.  New  York  (F.  H.  Revell 
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GRENFELL,  W.  T.  Off  the  Rocks.  Philadelphia  (S.  S.  Times  Co.), 
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GRENFELL,  W.  T.  Down  North  on  the  Labrador.  New  York 
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KLEINSCHMIDT,  SAMUEL.  Grammatik  der  grinlandischen  sproche 
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Labrador.  "Great  Probability,  The,  of  a  North  West  Passage  De- 
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STORER,  HORATIO  ROBINSON.  Observations  on  the  fishes  of  Nova 
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the  Boston  Journal  of  Natural  History,  Oct.,  1850.)  Boston, 
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United  States,  Hydrographic  Office.  Publications,  No.  73,  78. 
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GOSLING,  W.  G.     Labrador;   Its  Discovery,  Explanation  and  Devel- 


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in  8  maps. 

RICHARDS,  GEORGE  MILTON.  Geological  notes,  microscopical  feat- 
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Long  Labrador  Trail  N.  Y.,  1907.  pp.  289-308.) 

United  States  Coast  Survey  Sketch  showing  the  Geology  of  the  Coast 
of  Labrador.  By  Oscar  M.  Lieber.  Washington,  1860. 

PACKARD,  ALPHEUS  SPRING,  Jr.,  M.D.  (born  1839).  "Observations 
on  the  Glacial  Phenomena  of  Labrador  and  Maine  with  a  View 
of  the  Recent  Invertebrate  Fauna  of  Labrador.  Oct.  5,  1865, 
illus.  two  plates.  (In  Boston  Sec.  of  Natural  History,  Me- 
moirs, Vol.  1,  pp.  210,  303.  Boston,  1867.) 

DALY,  REGINALD  ALDWORTH.  The  Geology  of  the  Northeast  Coast 
of  Labrador.  Illustrated.  Map.  (The  Harvard  College,  Mu- 
seum of  Com.  Zoology  Bulletin.  Cambridge,  1902,  Vol.  38, 
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GLADWIN,  GEORGE  E.  Pen  and  Ink  Sketches.  "Coast  and  Har- 
bors of  Labrador,  Summer  of  1876."  Boston  (Osgood  &  Co.), 
1877.  32  heliotypes,  map.  8°. 

United  States,  Hydrographic  Office.  North  America.  East  Coast. 
Coast  of  Labrador  from  Cape  St.  Charles  to  Sandwich  Bay. 
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PROWSE,  DANIEL  WOODLEY,  Editor.  The  Newfoundland  Guide 
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(SAYER,  ROBERT,  and  BENNETT,  JOHN,  publishers.)  The  North 
American  Pilot  for  Newfoundland,  Labrador.  A  collection  of 
60  charts  and  plans  drawn  from  original  surveys,  etc.  Lon- 
don, 1779. 

WALLACE,  DILLON.  The  Long  Labrador  Trail.  New  York  (The 
Outing  Publishing  Co.). 

WALLACE,  DILLON.  The  Lure  of  the  Labrador  Wild.  The  story  of 
the  exploring  expedition  conducted  by  Leonidas  Hubbard,  Jr. 
Maps.  New  York  (F.  H.  Revell  Co.),  1905.  8°. 

TUCKER,  EPHRAIM  W.  Five  Months  in  Labrador  and  Newfoundland 
during  the  Slimmer  of  1838.  Concord  (Boyd  &  White),  1839. 
156  pp.  16°. 

United  States,  Hydrographic  Office.  Newfoundland  and  the  Labra- 
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518  BOOKS,    ETC.,    ON    LABRADOR 

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(Dana  Estes  &  Co.),  1907.  Maps,  portraits.  8°. 

TOWNSEND,  CHARLES  WENDELL.  A  Labrador  Spring.  Boston, 
(Dana  Estes  &  Co.),  1910.  Plates  and  21£  cm. 

STEARNS,  WINIFRED  ALDEN.  Labrador,  a  Sketch  of  Its  People,  Its 
Industries,  and  Its  Natural  History.  Boston  (Lee  & 
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SWEETSER,  MOSES  FOSTER.  The  Maritime  Provinces.  A  handbook 
for  travellers,  a  guide  to  maritime  provinces  of  Canada,  also 
Newfoundland  and  the  Labrador  Coast.  Boston  (J.  R. 
Osgood  &  Co.),  1875.  16°. 

ROUILLARD,  OLIVIER  EUGENE.  "La  cote  nord  du  Saint- Lauraut 
et  le  Labrador  Canadien.  Quebec  (Laflaunne  &  Proulx), 
1908.  188  pp.  8°. 

PACKARD,  ALPHEUS,  SPRING,  Jr.,  M.D.,  1839.  The  Labrador  Coast. 
A  journal  of  two  summer  cruises  to  that  region  with  notes  on 
Eskimo,  etc.  New  York  (N.  D.  C.  Hodges),  1891.  8°. 

PRICHARD,  HESKETH-HESKETH  (born  1876).  Through  Trackless 
Labrador.  New  York  (Sturgis  &  Walton  Co.),  1911.  Portraits, 
maps,  etc.  8°. 

HUARD,  VICTOR  A.  Labrador  et  Anticosti.  Montreal  (Beauchenim), 
1897.  Illus.,  map.  8°. 

HUBBARD,  MINA  BENSON  (Mrs.  Leonidas).  A  Woman's  Way 
through  Unknown  Labrador.  London  (Murray),  1908.  Por- 
traits. 8°. 

NOBLE,  Louis  LE  GRAND.  After  Icebergs  with  a  Painter.  A  sum- 
mer voyage  to  Labrador  and  around  Newfoundland.  New 
York  (Appleton  &  Co.),  1861.  12°. 

CANTO,  ERNESTO  DO.  Quern  den  o  nome  ao  Labrador  1  Ponta 
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LONG,  WM.  JOSEPH.     Northern   Trails;    Some  Studies  of  Animal 
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STEARNS,  WINIFRED  ALDEN.  Bird  Life  in  Labrador.  (Cut  from 
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Expedition  to  Hudson  Bay  and  Northwest.     C.  W.  EIFRIG,  1903- 

1904. 

The  Lure  of  the  Labrador  Wild.     DILLON  WALLACE. 
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Captain  Cook.     Charts  on  Record  Voyage,  1768. 
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TOWNSEND,    1911. 

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1909. 
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Newfoundland  and  Its  Untrodden  Ways.     J.  S.  MILLAIS. 
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Audubon.,    GRANT  EDWARDS. 
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Mawman,  London,  publishers. 
519 


INDEX 


Acadians,  settlement  of,  in  Labrador, 
31. 

Alaska,  introduction  of  reindeer  into, 
252-253. 

Albert,  Mission  yawl,  236,  237,  238. 

Alexis  River,  8. 

Allen,   Dr.  Glover  M.,  378  n.,  495. 

Anglican    church    mission,    236. 

Anglo-Newfoundland  Company,  180. 

Angora  goats,  importation  of,  243. 

Ants,  461. 

Archean   rock   formations,    85-86. 

Ashuanipi  River,  156-157. 

Ashwanipi  Lake,  derivation  of  name, 
206. 

Aspen  buds  and  bark  as  an  emer- 
gency food,  422. 

Attikonak  River  and  Lake,  156-157. 

Audubon  in  Labrador,  374,  375,  376, 
386. 

Auk,  extinction  of  the,  374;  the 
razor-billed,  382-383. 

Aulatzevik,  island  of,  59,  93. 

Avagalik  Island,  62. 

Bache,  Mount.  58. 
Baine,  Johnston  &  Company,  180. 
Bait  for  cod  fishing,  302-303. 
Barren-ground    People    and    River, 

198. 

Bartlett,  Captain,  302. 
Basement  Complex,   the,   86  ff. 
Basque  fishermen  in  Labrador,   13; 

relics  of,  164. 

Bastian,  John,  187,  206-207. 
Battle    Harbour,     Anglican     church 

mission    headquarters    at,    236; 

mission  hospital  at,  238,  239  ff. 
Bear-hunting,  47,  145,  213. 
Bear  Island,  130. 


Beaver-hunting,  204. 

Beetles,  467-472. 

Beeton,  Mayson,  260. 

Bell,   Dr.   Robert,   quoted,   123-124. 

Belle  Isle,  Strait  of,  7,  8,  27. 

Beothuk   Indians,    25. 

Berries,    varieties   of,    212-213,    421. 

Bersimis,     189;     trading-station    at, 

193;    canoes  of,   207. 
Bersimis,  Long  Portage  of  the,  191. 
Biggar,  H.  P.,  work  by,  cited,  7. 
Birds    of    Labrador,    374-390,    495- 

505. 

Bishop's  Mitre,  the,  108. 
Bissot,  Frangois,  17. 
Blanc  Sablon,  27,  29;  fishery  of,  165. 
Blandford,    Captain    Sam,    165. 
Blow-me-down,  Mount,  98. 
Boston  Transcript  reindeer  fund,  260. 
Botany  of  Labrador,  391  ff. 
Botflies  on  deer,   256,  455-456. 
Boulders,  glacial,  130. 
Bounty  system   in  French  fisheries, 

323-324. 

Bourdon,  Jean,  12. 
Bowdoin  Canyon,    Hamilton   River, 

153-155. 

Bowring  Brothers,  firm  of,  304. 
Bradore  Bay,  21. 
Brave  expedition,  81-138. 
Brest,    harbour    of,    13,    14;     early 

accounts  of,  15-17. 
Brigs  and  brigantines  in  fishing  in- 
dustry, 318. 

Brouague,  Martel  de,  21. 
"Bultows,"  303. 
Burial-places,  Indian,  159,  225. 
Business  firms  conducting  trade  with 

Labrador,  179-180. 
Butterflies,  461-462. 


521 


522 


INDEX 


Cabot,  John,  discoverer  of  Labrador, 
5-6. 

Cabots,  voyages  of  the,  6-8;  reports 
of,  on  fisheries,  13. 

Cachalot  whale,  the,  357-358. 

Canoe  bark,  207. 

Canoeing  in  Labrador,  54. 

Canoes,  for  exploration  trips,  161; 
trade  in,  207. 

Cape  Chidley,  Moravian  Mission 
station  at,  227-228. 

Caribou,  145,  158;  spearing  of,  210; 
range  of,  and  habits,  213-215; 
botflies  on,  256,  455-456;  num- 
bers of,  258-259. 

Caribou  Castle,  26. 

Carnegie,  Andrew,  portable  libraries 
from,  242. 

Carter's  Basin,   142. 

Cartier,  Jacques,  11,  138. 

Cartwright,  Major  George,  19,  24- 
27,  35;  his  opinion  of  Labrador 
quoted,  138;  description  of  a 
school  of  cod  by,  287;  quoted 
on  the  abundance  of  salmon  in 
Labrador,  335-336;  quoted  on 
capture  of  penguins,  374-375. 

Cartwright,  Hudson's  Bay  station  at, 
182. 

Castle  Mountain,  59-60. 

Charles  Harbour,  26. 

Childhood,  high  rate  of  mortality  in, 
178,  256. 

Chimo,  Indians  trading  at,  196-197, 
210. 

Class  distinctions,  absence  of,  176- 
177. 

Cliffs  along   coast,   44. 

Climate  of  Labrador,  69. 

Clothing  of  Indians,   209-210. 

Clouston,  James,  53. 

Cochrane,  Sir  Thomas,  29-30. 

Cod,  uses  of  the,  282-283;  food 
value  of,  283-284;  methods  of 
preserving,  284;  its  spawning 
habits,  285;  life  of  young,  285- 
286;  size  of,  286;  digestive 
powers  of,  287-288;  supply  of, 
288-290;  habits  of,  289,  294- 
296;  methods  of  catching,  302- 


306;  curing  of,  307-309;  sta- 
tistics of  takings  of,  314-316; 
prices  commanded  by,  316-317; 
European  markets  for,  320 ;  im- 
port duties  on,  323-324;  in- 
fluence exerted  on  mankind  by, 
324-326. 

Cod  fishery,  13,  78,  282  ff. 

Codfish  hatchery  in  Newfoundland, 
290. 

Cod-liver  oil,  326. 

Cod   trap,    the,    305-306. 

Cooperative    stores,    240,    241,    247. 

Cooper ator,  schooner,  241. 

Cormorants,  384. 

Corte-Reals,    voyages   of,    8-10. 

Courtemanche,  Augustin  de,  16-17, 
18-19,  21. 

Courts  of  justice,  travelling,  246- 
247. 

Cree  language,  219-223. 

Croucher,  Mr.,  302. 

Crustacea,  the  marine,  473-478 ;  list 
of,  506-513. 

Culling  of  codfish,     320-321. 

Curing,  of  codfish,  307-309;  of  hen 
ring,  345. 

Curlew,   the  Eskimo,  375-376. 

Curtis,  Roger,  138. 

Dab  fishing,  347-348. 

Daly,  R.  A.,  study  of  temperature  of 

coastal  waters  by,  292-294. 
Darby,  Captain  Nicholas,  22. 
Daryl,   mission  launch,   243—244. 
Davis,   John,   explorations  of,   11. 
Davis  Inlet,  11,  45;    Hudson's  Bay 

Company  post  at,  181. 
Dawe,  C.  &  A.,  180. 
Dawson,    W.    Bell,    monograph    on 

tides  by,  68  n. 

Deep-sea  Mission,  the,  236-250. 
Deer-hunting,   47,  78-79,   213-215. 
Diphtheria,  brought  by  Eskimos  from 

Buffalo    Exposition,    179,    230. 
Diseases,   179,   188,  229,  230. 
Doane,  Ernest,  468. 
Dogs,  used  in  hunting,  204;    killing 

of  cattle  by,  257 ;  description  of, 

272-273;      habits    and    general 


INDEX 


523 


traits,  273-281;  destruction  of 
eggs  and  young  birds  by,  378. 

Dog-teams,  183. 

Drunkenness,  absence  of,  176. 

Duck,  season  for  shooting,  78-79; 
breeding  habits  of,  384 ;  the  Lab- 
rador or  pied,  374-375. 

Duties  on  fish  imported  into  foreign 
countries,  323-324. 

Eagle  River,  salmon  fishing  on,  333. 

Eclipse  Channel,  59. 

Education,    problem   of,    174-175. 

Egging,  376-377. 

Eider-duck  Islands,  60. 

Eider  ducks,  60,  384-385. 

Elliot,  Henry,  363,  364. 

Emergency  foods,  422. 

English,  engaged  in  early  fisheries, 
14;  conquest  of  Canada  by,  and 
effect  on  Labrador,  22-28. 

Ericson,  Leif,  3. 

Eskimos,  Moravian  missionaries  and 
the,  33-36;  places  for  best 
study  of,  47-48;  best  educated 
people  in  Labrador,  175;  diseases 
among,  179,  229,  230;  lessening 
numbers  of,  229,  232-233 ;  cause 
of  decrease  in  numbers  of,  found 
in  lessening  numbers  of  seal  and 
walrus,  361-363.  See  Indians. 

Estotiland,  legend  of,   4-£. 

Etienne  family  of  Indians,  202-203. 

Factors,  in  Hudson's  Bay  Company 
service,  183. 

Fanny's  Harbour,  45. 

Fernandes,  Joao,  10. 

Finback    whales,    355. 

Fiords  of  Labrador,  39,  55,  57. 

Fisheries,  Labrador,  12-14,  282  ff . ; 
cod,  seal,  salmon,  and  porpoise, 
20 ;  establishment  of  sedentary, 
by  English,  and  troubles  caused 
by,  23-24;  troubles  with  foreign 
nations  over,  30 ;  business  firms 
interested  in,  180;  of  interior, 
204-207;  cod,  282-327;  salmon, 

,  328-339;  herring,  340-345;  hali- 
but, 345-347;  dab,  347-348; 


winter  fluke,  348;  lump-fish, 
348-349;  sculpin,  349;  rock 
cod,  349 ;  hake  or  haddock,  350 ; 
shark,  350-351;  whale,  352- 
361;  walrus,  362-365. 

Fishing,  on  upper  Hamilton  River, 
158. 

Fishing  customs  along  the  coast,  165- 
169. 

Fiske,  John,  quoted,  5. 

Flies  varieties  of,  84,  453  ff. 

Flora  of  Labrador,   391   ff. 

Flour  Lake,  155. 

Flower's  Cove,  cooperative  store  at, 
241. 

Fluke,  the  winter,  348. 

Flycatchers,   varieties  of,   389. 

Fog,  mistake  concerning  prevalence 
of,  70. 

Food  of  Indians,  211-215. 

Ford,  Chesley,  468. 

Ford,  George,  60,  468. 

Forest  fires,  disastrous  effect  of,  on 
game  resources,  191-192. 

Forest  growth,  Hamilton  River 
region,  147. 

Forests,  Dr.  Low's  description  of,  407- 
409. 

Forteau  Bay,  27. 

Four  Peaks,  the,  102. 

Fox  farm,  establishment  of,  242. 

Fox  sparrow,  the,  387. 

France,  encouragement  of  home  fish- 
eries by,  323-324. 

Eraser,  James  D.,  183. 

Freels,  Cape,  8-9. 

French,  depredations  by  naval  vessels 
of  the,  28;  agreement  of  tem- 
perament of,  with  the  Indian, 
194. 

French  Canadian  settlements,  14-22. 

French  fishermen,  early,  13-14. 

French  shore,  the,  14. 

Frobisher,  Martin,  voyage  of,  11. 

Fungi   of   Labrador,    421-422. 

Furs,  months  for  taking,  75-76. 

Fur  trade,  181. 

Geology  of  northeast  coast,  81-139. 
George,  Lake  of  the,  213. 


524 


INDEX 


George  River,  158. 

Gibb,  E.,  experiment  by,  in  salmon 

industry,  339. 
Gibbons,  Captain,  12. 
Gilbert  River,  8. 
Glacial  Period,  Labrador  during  the, 

114-126. 
Gnats,  84,  459. 
Gnupsson,  Eric,  3. 
God,  Indian  conception  of,  224. 
Gomez,  Estevan,  14. 
Goode,    Professor,   quoted,   343. 
Goose,  the  Canada,  385. 
Gosling,  W.  G.,  329  n. 
Grampus,  the,  357. 
Grand  Falls  of  Hamilton  River,  49, 

53,   150-153;    Indian  name  of, 

and  legend  concerning,  193. 
Grand  Lake,  142. 

Grand  River  Lumber  Company,  143. 
Grant  for  schools,   171. 
Grants,  of  fishing  and  trading  rights 

in  Labrador,  19;  of  land,  172-173. 
Gray,  Captain,  181. 
Gray  Straits,  181;    tides  in,  301. 
Greece,  market  for  Labrador  fish  in, 

320. 

"Green  fish"  catchers,   168. 
Grieve,  W.  B.,  238. 
Grinnell    Glacier,    115-116. 
Grouse,  Canadian  ruffed  and  spruce, 

388. 

Guides,  40. 

Guillemot,  the  black,  376,  382. 
Gull  Island  Lake,  148. 
Gulls,  383. 
Gyrfalcons,  white,  gray,  and  black, 

380. 

Haddock,  350. 

Hake,  350. 

Half-breeds,  hope  of  future  popula- 
tion of  Labrador  lies  in,  235. 

Halibut  fishing,   345-347. 

Hamilton  Inlet,  7,  8,  11,  19,  47,  140- 
146;  geological  theory  concern- 
ing formation  of,  137;  head 
post  of  Hudson's  Bay  Company 
at,  181;  landlocked  salmon  in, 
333. 


Hamilton  River,  46-47,  51,  52,  54; 
description  of,  146—160;  hunt- 
ing along  the,  195. 

Hamilton  Valley,  51. 

Harp  seal,  the,  365-367. 

Harrigan,  Cape,  45. 

Harrington,  mission  hospital  at, 
238  ff . 

Harvey,  Dr.  Moses,  on  herring  in- 
dustry, 344. 

Harvey  &  Company,  180. 

Haven,  Jans,  33. 

Hawk,   American  rough-legged,  380. 

Hawke  Bay,  8. 

Hay  ward,  John,  303. 

Health  conditions,  177-179,  245- 
247. 

Hebron,  Moravian  Mission  station, 
35,  102,  229-230. 

Helluland,  3. 

Herjulfson,  Bjarni,  2. 

Hermit-crabs,  474-475. 

Hermit  thrush,  389. 

Herring  fishery,  340-345. 

Hind,  Labrador  Peninsula  by,  quoted, 
216-217;  study  of  cod-fishery 
by,  295,  296. 

Hog's  Back  reef,  63. 

Holmes,  R.  F.,  53. 

Hooded  seal,  the,  371-373. 

Hook-and-line  fishing  for  cod,  302- 
304. 

Hooker,  Joseph  D.,  cited,  405,  406, 
419-421. 

Hopedale,  Moravian  Mission  station 
at,  34,  235. 

Hopwood,  Sir  Francis,  237. 

Hospital,  at  Okkak,  230-231. 

Hospitals,  of  Mission  to  Deep-sea 
Fishermen,  236  ff. 

Hospital  vessels,  236  ff. 

Hubbard,  Leonidas,  162. 

Hubbard,  Mrs.,  162-163. 

Hudson,  Henry,  12. 

Hudson's  Bay,  12. 

Hudson's  Bay  Company  in  Labrador, 
31-32,  53,  181-182;  life  at 
inland  posts  of,  158-160;  factors 
employed  by,  183. 

Hudson  Strait,  tides  in,  301. 


INDEX 


525 


Humpback  whales,  355-356. 

Hunting,  locations  for,  47;  season 
for,  78-79. 

Hunting  grounds  of  Indians,  189- 
190,  195-197,  199,  202-203,  213- 
214;  custom  regarding  infringe- 
ment on  one  another's,  203-204. 

Huxley,  Professor,  on  the  herring 
industry,  340,  343. 

Icebergs,  78. 

Iceland  moss,  422. 

Import  duties  on  Labrador  fish,  323- 
324. 

Indian  Harbour,  mission  hospital  at, 
238,  240,  241  ff. 

Indians,  taken  as  slaves  by  Corte- 
Real,  9 ;  troubles  of  French  with, 
21;  Major  Cartwright  and  the, 
25;  numbers  of,  186;  diseases 
among,  188,  229-230;  hunting 
regions  of,  189-190,  195-197, 
199,  202-203,  213-214;  migra- 
tions of,  190-191;  custom  re- 
garding infringement  on  one 
another's  grounds,  203-204; 
polygamy  among,  215;  life  of 
women,  215-216;  language  and 
dialects  of,  217-223;  religious 
beliefs  and  practices,  223-225. 

Infant  mortality,  178,  256. 

Inhabitants  of   the   coast,    164-183. 

Insects,  453-472. 

Iron  deposit,  48. 

Isle  aux  CEufs,  17. 

Isle  de  Bois,  27. 

Italy,  best  market  for  Labrador  fish, 
320. 

Jack  Lane's  Bay,  45. 

Jackson,  Dr.  Sheldon,  252,  258. 

Jacopie  Lake,  155. 

Jaeger  gull,  the,  383. 

Jay,  the  Labrador,  388. 

Jem  Lane's  Bay,  45. 

Jesuits,  no  missions  of,  in  Labrador, 

20. 

Job  Brothers  &  Company,  180. 
Jolliet,   explorations  of,    12;    sketch 

of  career  of,  17-18. 


Julia  Sheridan,  mission  launch,  240, 
241. 

Kaumajet  Mountains,  103-105,  109. 
Kayaks,  255. 
Kelts,  331. 

Kenamich  River,  142. 
Kenamow  River,  52,  142-143. 
Kennedy,  Admiral  Sir  W.  R.,  quoted, 

244-245. 
Kensington,  Minn.,  Runic  stone  at, 

4  n. 

Kiglapait  Range,  109-110. 
Killer  whales,  356. 
Killinek,    Moravian   Mission   station 

at,  227-228. 

Kinglet,   the  ruby-crowned,  387. 
Kittiwakes,  383. 
Knight,  John,  11. 

Labrador,  early  visitors  to,  1  ff.; 
John  Cabot  the  true  discoverer 
of,  5—6;  voyages  of  Cabots  to, 
6-7;  the  Corte-Reals'  voyages, 
8-10;  origin  of  name,  9-10; 
early  maps  of,  10-11;  Rut's 
and  Cartier's  voyages,  11;  later 
voyages  to,  11-12;  fisheries  the 
great  industry  of,  12-14,  282  ff.; 
French  Canadian  settlements 
along  the  Quebec  Labrador,  14- 
22;  effect  of  Fjnglish  conquest 
of  Canada  on,  22—28;  annexa- 
tion of,  to  Newfoundland,  22, 
24,  28-29;  Acadians  in,  31; 
Hudson's  Bay  Company  in,  31— 
32,  226-227;  Moravian  mis- 
sionaries in,  32-36,  226-236; 
travelled  routes  to,  36  ff.; 
physiography  of,  49  ff. ;  area 
of  peninsula,  50;  climate,  69; 
rainfall,  70 ;  summer  tempera- 
ture, 71-73;  seasons  in,  74-80; 
geology  and  scenery  of  northeast 
coast,  81-138 ;  missions  of,  226- 
250;  experiment  with  reindeer 
in,  251-271 ;  dogs  of,  272-281 ; 
fisheries  of,  282-373;  birds  of, 
374-390,  495-505 ;  flora  of,  391- 
425;  insects  and  beetles  of, 


526 


INDEX 


453-472  ;  marine  Crustacea  cf, 
473-478,  506-513  ;  mollusks  of, 
479-483  ;  mammals  of,  484-494. 

Labradorite,  93-95,  232. 

Lakes  of  the  interior,  54. 

Lake  trout,  204-205. 

Land,  acquisition  of,  by  grant  or 
purchase,  172-173. 

Landlocked  salmon,  206,  333. 

Language  and  dialects  of  the  Indians, 
193-195,  217-223. 

Lark,  the  horned,  379. 

Lemoine,  French-Montagnais  Dic- 
tionary of,  220,  221. 

Libraries,  portable,  242,  248. 

Lichens,  422. 

Lighthouses,    absence   of,    300-301. 

Lindsay,  Lieutenant  W.  G.,  244,  264. 

Liquor*  question,   175-176,  248-249. 

Little,  Dr.  J.  Mason,  244. 

Livyeres,  Labrador  settlers,  164. 

Lobsters,  475. 

Lobstick  Lake,  156. 

Loou,  the,  381. 

Lorna  Doone,   schooner,   244. 

Low,  Dr.  A.  P.,  50,  363,  427;  quoted 
on  physiography  of  Labrador, 
50-54;  chapter  on  Hamilton 
River  and  the  Grand  Falls  by, 
140-163;  quoted  on  the  Indians, 
185;  description  of  forest  region 
by,  407-409. 

Lump-fish,   the,   348-349. 

McCallum,  Sir  Henry,  quoted,  247  n. 

McCrea  &  Son,  firm  of,  180. 

MacGregor,  Sir  William,  169,  258, 
315. 

McKenzie,  Peter,  196,  213. 

McLean,  John,  32,  53,  216. 

Mackerel,  not  taken  in  Labrador,  345. 

Made  Beaver,  as  unit  of  value,  202.. 

Mail  service,  169-170,  171;  by  dog- 
teams,  183. 

Makkovik,  Moravian  Mission  station 
at,  35,  235-236. 

Mammals,  the  ocean,  352-373;  list 
of,  484-494. 

Maniquagan  River,  Indian  hunters 
on  the,  189. 


Manvers,  Port,  110,  112. 

Maps,  early,  10-11,  52;  British  ad- 
miralty charts,  12,  64-65;  of 
Moravian  missionaries,  12. 

Marconi  stations,  170. 

Markland,  3. 

Martin,   Abbe",   20-21. 

Matheson,  Duncan,  214,  442. 

Mealy  Mountains,  142,  145. 

Mendrys,   Dr.,   53. 

Merchants  carrying  on  business  in 
Labrador,  179-180. 

Merchants'  Map  of  Commerce,  15. 

Methodist  church  mission,  236. 

Mettek  Islands,  60. 

Milk,  the  demand  for,  257;  of  rein- 
deer, 270-271;  of  the  porpoise, 
357. 

Minerals,  48. 

Minerva,   Boston  privateer,   26. 

Mingan,  trading-station,  193. 

Minipi  River,  147,  148. 

Missionaries,  susceptibility  of  Indians 
to  instruction  by,  224. 

Missions,  Moravian,  181,  183,  226- 
236;  the  Labrador  Deep-sea 
Mission,  236-250. 

Mistassini,  Indians  trading  at,  201- 
202. 

Mistinisi  Lake,  214. 

Moccasins,  snow-shoe,  209;  deer 
skins  for  making,  254. 

Moisie  River,  193. 

Mollusks,  479-483. 

Montagnais  Indians,  48,  184,  186, 
196,  209,  216;  fur  trade  with, 
181;  Catholic  religion  of,  223. 

Moravian  missionaries,  charts  of,  12; 
work  of,  32-36. 

Moravian  Missions,  stations  of,  181, 
183,  227;  justification  of  trade 
methods  of,  233-235. 

Mosquitoes  in  Labrador,  69,  84,  459^. 

Mosses  as  emergency  food,  422. 

Moths,  463. 

Mountains,  44-45,  62;  considered 
geologically,  86  ff. 

Mugford,  Cape,'  107-108. 

Mugford  Tickle,  46. 

Munn  Brothers,  firm  of,   180. 


INDEX 


527 


Murres,  the,  376,  382. 
Muskrat  Falls,  Hamilton  River,  147, 
148. 

Nachvak,  Hudson's  Bay  Company 
station  at,  229. 

Nachvak  Bay,  63,  101-102. 

Nachvak  dog-teams,  183. 

Naiii,  Moravian  Mission  station  at, 
34,  231-235;  Bishop  and  Ger- 
man consul  at,  164,  231. 

Nain  Bay,  12. 

Names,  Indian,  218-219. 

Nansen,  Fridjof,  362. 

Narwhale,  the,  358. 

Nascaupee,  Fort,  158-159. 

Nascaupee  Indians,  9,  48,  184,  192, 
209 ;  meaning  attached  to  name, 
197-198;  home  of  the,  214. 

New  England  fishermen,  early  diffi- 
culties with,  23-24,  30;  visits 
of,  165-166. 

Nichicun,  Indians  at,  200-201. 

Noble  and  Pinson,  firm  of,  22,  26,  27. 

Northern  Messenger,  mission  launch, 
242. 

Northmen,  voyages  of,  to  Labrador. 
2-4. 

Northwest  River,  52,  142;  Hudson's 
Bay  station  on,  182. 

Ogua'lik,  island  of,  105-106. 
Okkak,  Moravian  Mission  station  at, 

34,  230-231. 
Old,  fate  of  the,  among  the  Indians, 

216. 
Orphans  and  orphanages,  240,  242, 

243. 
Outardes  River,   Indian  hunters  on 

the,    189. 

Packard,  A.  S.,  quoted  and  cited,  81, 

133,  375,  473,  479. 
Palliser,  Sir  Hugh,  23,  33,  35. 
Parroquet,  the,  381-382. 
Paul's  Island,  93. 
Pemmican,  making  of,  211. 
Petitsikapau  Lake,   155,   158-159. 
Petrels,  the,  384. 
Phalarope,  the  northern,  381. 


Physiography  of  Labrador,  49-69. 
Pied  duck,  the,  374-375. 
Pike-perch,  the,  206. 
Pipit,  the  American,  379. 
Place-names,  Indian,  218. 
Pletipi  River,  189. 
Polygamy  among  Indians,  215. 
Ponchartrain,  Fort,  21. 
Population,  statistics  of,  178. 
Porcupine  Rapids,  Hamilton  River, 

148. 
Princess  May,  hospital  launch,  238, 

239,  241. 
Ptarmigans,   rock,   Reinhardt's,  and 

willow,   380-381. 
Puffin,  the,  381-382. 
Pye,  Albert,  468. 

Quebec  Labrador,  29. 

Rainfall,  extent  of,  70-71. 

Ramah.  Moravian  Mission  station  at, 
35,  229;  cliffs  at,  44. 

Ranger  Lodge,  26. 

Raven,  the  northern,  389. 

Razorback,   Mount,  61,  101. 

Redpoll,  the,  387. 

Reid-Newfoundland  Company  boats, 
37-38. 

Reindeer,  introduction  of,  249;  value 
of,  when  domesticated,  251-252; 
suitability  of,  to  subarctic  region, 
252 ;  experiments  in  introducing 
into  Alaska,  252-253;  uses  of, 
as  food,  for  clothing,  etc.,  253- 
255;  propagation  of,  255-256; 
cost  of  importing,  260-267; 
arrival  of  consignment  in  Labra- 
dor, 264;  success  with,  to  date, 
268-271. 

Reindeer  moss,  422. 

Religion  of  Indians,   223-225. 

Representation,  Labrador's  lack  of, 
173-174. 

Revillon  Freres,  firm  of,  142,  182. 

Rigolet,  140,  181 ;  Methodist  mission 
headquarters  at,  236. 

Rigolet  dog-teams,  183. 

Rivers   of    Labrador,  52. 

Robertson,  Charles,  214. 


528 


INDEX 


Robertson,  Samuel,  16,  30. 

Robin,  the,  390. 

Rock  cod,  349. 

Rock-tripes,  422. 

Roddick,  Dr.,  boat  given  by,  240. 

Romaine  River,  193. 

Rorke  &  Sons,  firm  of,  180. 

Rut,  John,  11. 

Ryans,  firm  of,  180. 

Ryan's  Bay,  61,  62. 

Sabbath,  observance  of  the,  165-166. 
St.    Anthony,    mission    hospital    at, 

238,   241,   242   ff.;     cooperative 

store  at,  244. 

St.  Augustine  trading-station,  193. 
St.  Marguerite  River,  193. 
St.  Paul,  Godefroy  de,  19. 
Salmon,    206,    333;      instincts    and 

habits  of,  328-334;    destruction 

of  supply  of,   334-335;    former 

and  present  supply  of,  335-337; 

methods  of  taking,  337-338. 
Salmon  cannery,  Eagle  River,    338. 
Salmon  fishing,  46,  78,  206,  328  ff .  ; 

on  upper  Hamilton  River,   158. 
Sandgirt  Lake,  155-156. 
Sandhill  Bay  River,  salmon  fishing 

on,  333. 
Sanitary   conditions,    177-178,    245- 

247. 

Sardines,  herrings  sold  as,  343. 
Scenery  of  Labrador,  39,  44-46,  51- 

52;     relation    of,    to    geological 

formations,  85. 
Schimper,    A.    F.    W.,    quoted    and 

cited,   394,   403,   405,   411,   413, 

414-415. 

School  grant,  171. 
Schools,   denominational   system   of, 

174. 

Schooners,  fishing,  298-299,  318. 
Scotch,  success  of,  with  the  Indians, 

194. 

Scoter  ducks,  385. 
Sculpin,  the,  349. 
Sea-coots,  385. 
Seal,   the  harp,   365-366;    the  bay, 

369-370;    the  ringed,  371;    the 

hooded,  371-372;  the  gray,  373. 


Seal  hunting,  20,  144,  145,  168-169, 

361-362,  369. 
Sealskin-boot-making  industry,  243, 

248. 

Seasons  in  Labrador,  74-80. 
Seine-nets  for  cod  fishing,   304-305. 
Seven    Islands    Bay,    62. 
Seven  Islands    trading-station,   193; 

Indians  at,  196. 
Shark,  the  sleepy,  350-351. 
Shearwaters,  the,  384. 
"Shebeens,"  175. 
Shrimps,  475-476. 
Sir  Donald,  Mount,  58. 
Sir  Donald,  hospital  vessel,  240. 
Slaves,  Labrador  Indians  taken  as,  9. 
Sleds,  construction  of,  208. 
Smith,  Sir  Donald  A.,  240. 
Snow-shoes,  styles  of,  208-209. 
Spain,  market  for  fish  in,  320. 
Sparrow,  the  savanna,   380;    white- 
crowned,    385-386;     tree,    386; 

Lincoln's,  386-387;   fox,  387. 
Spearing  fish,  206. 
Sperm  whale,  the,  357-358. 
Steamers,  for  fishing  and  sealing,  168; 

for  whale  hunting,  359-360. 
Stone  age,  relics  of  the,  47-48,  58. 
Strathcona,    Lord,    182,    240. 
Strathcona,    hospital    steamer,    240— 

241. 

Striped  Island,  99. 
Sulphur-bottom    whales,    352,    354- 

355. 

Sunday,  rule  against  fishing  on,  165. 
Swaine,  Captain,  33. 
Swallows,  species  of,  389-390. 
Szkolny,  John,  5. 

Tamarack,  shoots  of,  as  an  emergency 

food,  422. 
Tasker,  Mr.  and  Mrs.,  197. 
Telegraph  system,  170-171. 
Temperature,  summer,  71-73. 
Temperatures  of  coastal  waters,  292- 

294. 

Temple  Bay,  22. 

Thompson-Seton,  Ernest,  cited,  422. 
Thoresby,  Mount,  110. 
Thresher  whales,  356. 


INDEX 


529 


Thrush,    the   Alice's,    387-388;     the 

hermit,  389. 
Tides,  43-44,  68,  301. 
Timber  land,  grants  of,   172-173. 
Torngat  Range,  100-101,  109,    111. 
Trappers,  the,  226. 
Trawl  fishing  for  cod,  303-304. 
Trees,    along   Hamilton   River,    147, 

157.     See  Forests. 
Trout,  lake,  204-205. 
Trout  fishing,  46,  78;    at  Hamilton 

Inlet,  145—146;  on  upper  Hamil- 
ton River,  158. 
Truck  Act  of  1831,  247  n. 
Truck    system    of    trade,    effort    to 

break  up,  240,  247. 
Tuberculosis,  prevalence  of,  178,  179, 

256-257. 

Tundra,  defined,  410. 
Turner,  Lucius  M.,  cited,  197,  198. 
Typhoid  fever,  brought  by  Eskimos 

from  Chicago    Exposition,   179; 

anecdote   concerning    a   patient 

with,  231. 
Tyrrell,  J.  B.,  259. 

Uinastikai,  Indian  food,  211-212. 
Ukasiksalik  (Davis  Inlet),  11,  45,  181. 
Urelia  McKinnon,  mission  boat,  240. 

Vessels,  of  Northmen  and  of  Colum- 
bus, 3;  hospital,  236  ff.;  in 
fisheries,  298-299,  318. 

Vikings,  Labrador  voyages  of,   1-4. 

Vinland,  3,  4. 

Volcanic  formations,  99  ff.,  103. 

Voyages  of  the  Cabots  and  Corte- 
Reals,  Biggar's,  7. 

Wallace,  Dillon,  162-163. 

Walrus,  killing  off  of,  362-363; 
slight  value  of,  to  the  white  man, 
363-364;  size  and  habits,  364; 
value  to  Eskimo,  364-365. 


Warblers,  Tennessee  and  Wilson's, 
387;  common  arid  black-poll, 
388-389;  Canadian  and  other 
varieties,  389. 

Waswanipi  Lake,  derivation  of  name, 
206. 

Water-birds,  381-385. 

West  St.  Modiste,  cooperative  store 
at,  241. 

Whale  factories,  358. 

Whale  hunting,  358-360. 

Whale  Island,  62. 

Whale  River,  the  smaller,  199. 

Whales,  physiology  of,  352-354; 
six  species  of,  354;  sulphur- 
bottom,  354-355;  finback,  355; 
humpback,  355-356;  white,  356 ; 
thresher,  or  killer,  356;  the 
grampus  and  porpoise,  357; 
sperm,  or  cachalot,  357-358;  the 
narwhale,  358;  food  of,  358; 
hunting  and  cutting  up  of,  358— 
361 ;  figures  of  the  industry,  361. 

Whitbourne,  quoted,  84. 

Whitefish,  in  upper  Hamilton  River, 
158;  (labradoricus),  taking  the, 
205. 

White  Handkerchief,  Cape,  44-45. 

Whiteway,  Sir  William,  290. 

Windigo,  evil  spirit,  223. 

Winokapau  Lake,  149-150. 

Wolstenholme,  Cape,  55. 

Wolves,  with  caribou  herds,  215; 
resemblance  of  Labrador  dogs 
to,  272-274;  respect  of,  for  man, 
274. 

Women,  life  of  Indian,  215-216. 

Wood,  Francis  H.,  260  ff. 

Yachting,  Labrador  as  a  field  for, 
41-44. 

Zeno,  Antonio,  narrative  of,  4—5. 
Zoar,  Moravian  Mission  station,  35. 


HHE    following   pages    contain   advertisements  of  a 
few  of  the   Macmillan  books  on  kindred  subjects. 


"  The  most  comprehensive  and  certainly  the  clearest  and  most  illumi- 
nating work  that  has  yet  been  written  on  the  history  and  present  condi- 
tions of  the  South  American  republics."  —  San  Francisco  Chronicle. 


MR.   JAMES    BRYCE'S    NEW   WORK 

SOUTH    AMERICA 

OBSERVATIONS    AND    IMPRESSIONS 

By  the  Right  Honorable  James  Bryce,  British  Ambassador 

Author  of  ' '  The  American  Commonwealth, "  "  The  Holy  Roman  Empire, "  etc. 

Colored  maps.      Cloth  covers,  gilt  top,  $2.50  net;  postpaid,  $2.70 


WORLD-WIDE  OPINIONS 

"  An  exhaustive  account  of  South  America  by  that  keen  observer  of  inter- 
national affairs,  Ambassador  James  Bryce  .  .  .  destined  to  rank  as  an  authori- 
tative work." —  N.  Y.  Times. 

"A  gift  for  which  to  thank  the  gods.  It  is  impossible  to  give  more  than  a 
faint  hint  of  all  the  wealth  of  reflection,  observation,  and  learning  in  these 
chapters.  The  whole  book  is  memorable,  worthy  of  the  topic  and  the  man." 

—  London  Daily  Chronicle. 

"A  book  which  compels  thought.  A  work  of  profound  interest  to  the 
whole  of  South  America.  Every  chapter  of  Mr.  Bryce's  book  would  provide 
material  for  an  entire  volume." 

—  Translation  from  the  State  Journal  of  St.  Paul,  Brazil. 

"A  wonderfully  fascinating  and  informative  work  .  .  .  will  enhance  Mr. 
Bryce's  reputation  as  a  keen,  scholarly,  and  analytical  commentator  on  the 
people  and  governments  of  the  world."  — Philadelphia  Record. 

"  One  of  the  most  fascinating  books  of  travel  in  our  language.  ...  A  valu- 
able political  study  of  the  chief  South  American  states."  —  London  Daily  Mail. 

"  A  comprehensive  work  devoted  to  the  continent  from  the  pen  of  the  man 
best  fitted  to  comment  impartially  on  what  he  has  witnessed.  .  .  .  This  new 
book  by  the  distinguished  ambassador  should  find  a  place  in  every  well- 
equipped  library."  —  Boston  Budget. 


THE   MAGMILLAN   COMPANY 

Publishers  64-66  Fifth  Avenue  New  York 


MACMILLAN'S   NEW   TRAVEL   SERIES 


With  the  re-issue  of  these  popular  volumes  THE  NEW  TRAVEL  SERIES  is 
inaugurated,  the  purpose  of  which  is  to  make  available  at  the  lowest  price 
possible  the  best  there  is  in  the  field  of  illustrated  books  of  travel  and  descrip- 
tion. They  are  welcome  books,  either  for  the  traveller's  use  during  his  visit, 
or  as  a  pleasant  reminder  of  bygone  days,  or  to  bring  the  different  districts 
vividly  before  the  minds  of  intending  travellers,  or  those  who  are  unable  to 
leave  home. 

EACH  VOLUME  PROFUSELY  ILLUSTRATED 

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SPANISH  HIGHWAYS  AND  BYWAYS.     By  Katharine  Lee  Bates. 
"  A  classic  in  its  domain."—  Chicago  Record-Herald. 

MEXICO:   THE  WONDERLAND  OF  THE  SOUTH.     By  W.  E.  Carson. 
"  The  best  popular  book  on  Mexico  that  we  have  seen."  —  America, 

STAGE-COACH  AND  TAVERN  DAYS.     By  Alice  Morse  Earle. 

"  This  book,  with  its  profuse  and  interesting  pictures,  should  prove  a  favorite." 

—  Buffalo  Express. 
ALASKA:   THE  GREAT  COUNTRY.     By  Ella  Higginson. 

"  A  great  book  on  a  great  subject."  —  Boston  Transcript. 

BOSTON:   THE  PLACE  AND  THE  PEOPLE.    By  M.  A.  De Wolfe  Howe. 
"  One  of  the  best  all-round  books  about  Boston  yet  published."  —  Argonaut. 

ALONG  FRENCH  BYWAYS.     By  Clifton  Johnson. 

"  Faithful,  complete,  and  well-balanced  idea  of  French  rural  life,  manners,  and  customs." 

—  Boston  Herald. 
AMONG  ENGLISH  HEDGEROWS.     By  Clifton  Johnson. 

"  The  book  deserves  to  succeed." —  The  Spectator,  London. 

THE  ISLE  OF  THE  SHAMROCK.     By  Clifton  Johnson. 

"  A  most  interesting  book,  full  of  lively  sketches  and  anecdotes." — London  Daily  Nevus. 

THE  LAND  OF  HEATHER.    By  Clifton  Johnson. 

"  Every  student  of  human  nature  will  be  pleased  with  this  entertaining  book." 

—  Brooklyn  Standard  Union. 

NEW  ENGLAND  AND  ITS  NEIGHBORS.     By  Clifton  Johnson. 

"  A  book  that  ranks  with  the  best  in  the  author's  long  list  of  entertaining  and  picturesque 
works."  —  Denver  Republican. 

NEW  ORLEANS:   THE  PLACE  AND  THE  PEOPLE.     By  Grace  King. 
"  A  useful  and  attractive  book."  —  Daily  Telegraph. 

CHARLESTON:   THE  PLACE  AND  THE  PEOPLE.     By  Mrs.  St.  Julien  Ravenel. 
"  Every  page  is  pregnant  with  interesting  fact  and  suggestion." 

—  Philadelphia  Public  Ledger. 

PHILADELPHIA:   THE  PLACE  AND  THE  PEOPLE.     By  Agnes  Repplier. 
CUBA.     By  Irene  A.  Wright. 

"  One  of  the  most  informing  of  all  books  on  the  subject." —  Pittsburg  Gazette. 
PANAMA:   THE  CANAL,  THE  COUNTRY,  AND  THE  PEOPLE.    By  Albert  Edwards. 

"  One  of  the  very  best  of  travel  books."  —  New  York  Herald. 


THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

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