LATIN GRAMMAR
FOR SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES
FOUNDED ON COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR
BY
JOSEPH H. ALLEN
JAMES B. GREENOUGH
[U1TI7BRSITT!
BOSTON
PUBLISHED BY GINN BROTHERS
3 BEACON STREET
1872
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1872, by
J. H. ALLEN AND J. B. GREENOUGH,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington.
CAMBRIDGE :
PRESS OF JOHN WILSON AND SON.
PREFACE.
OUR aim has been to prepare, within moderate com-
pass, a complete Latin grammar, to be used from the
beginning of the study of Latin until the end of a
college course. The whole has been composed from
our own point of view, and is, in all essentials, a new
and independent work. But we have used freely the
standard authorities, as well those of the older scho-
lastic as of the newer critical and scientific schools.
In several points, particularly the topical arrangement
of the Syntax, we have followed the outline sketched
a few years ago by Professor Allen, of the University
of Wisconsin.
We have endeavored to adapt the scientific (philo-
logical) method of inflection by stem and termination
to the system used by the Romans themselves and
handed down by general custom to our time. While
the five Declensions are retained, with the old distinc-
tions on which they are founded, at the same time the
true philological difference, that of stems, is fully
exhibited as the real basis of noun-forms. In the same
way the true distinctions of verb-stems are adapted
to the existing four Conjugations. We have preferred
'this to the " crude-form " system, partly because of
the practical difficulty that our lexicons do not give
VI PREFACE.
stems, but words ; chiefly, however, from the inherent
difficulty of a crude-form system in a language so
decayed as the Latin.
In respect to the actual forms of the language, we
have not thought it necessary to go back of Neue's
" Formenlehre," upon which we have relied, and which
teachers will find digested so far as seems to come
within the limits of a work like the present.
In the Syntax, our design has been to leave no
principle untouched which a student needs during his
school and college course. "We have attempted to
show, as far as possible, the reason and origin of con-
structions, for which purpose notes have been inserted
where it seemed desirable. Many things in the treat-
ment of the Subjunctive, of the Protasis and Apodosis
(in which we have followed Professor Goodwin's
analysis), of Temporal particles, of the Infinitive and
Participles, and much of the matter of the notes,
appear for the first time in a school-book, and are the
results of the authors' own investigations in Compar-
ative Grammar. The Syntax is illustrated by upwards
of a thousand examples cited from classical authorities,
principally from Cicero ; besides nearly as many brief
phrases in illustration of minor points, particularly
the use of prepositions and cases.
In Prosody and Versification we have taken a little
wider range than usual, so as to enable the student to
read metrically any poetry he will meet in his college
course.
In the typography and mechanical arrangement of
the page, we have sought to give every aid that can
be rendered in that, way to the easy comprehension of .
the subject. The sub-sections in larger type (num-
PREFACE. Vll
bered 1, 2, 3, &c.) contain of themselves a complete
outline, and we think will be found sufficient, with the
accompanying paradigms or examples, for a course
of elementary study. Details of form or structure, re-
quiring to be committed to memory only as they occur
in reading, are put in smaller type, marked a, 5, <?, &c.
And the points of philology, or special criticism, which
appear to throw valuable side-light upon the subject,
interesting chiefly to teachers or special students, are
contained in the form of Notes, not interfering at all
with the treatment in the text. By paying attention
to this subordination of topics, teachers will avoid the
serious error of crowding upon the student, prema-
turely, a mass of details, which might only perplex
and obscure his real understanding of the subject.
CAMBRIDGE, April, 1872.
V^^"^-^ S5%
^> 0? THE
IstogsO
FOR the convenience of those who may wish to follow out
special lines of study in general or comparative grammar, or to
consult original sources on the history and development of the
Latin, a list of works including the best and most recent author-
ities is here subjoined : —
BOPP: Vergleichende Grammatik des Sanskrit, etc [Indo-European lan-
guages]. 4vols. 3d Ed. Berlin, 1868-70.
The original standard work on Comparative Forms. Later researches have
corrected some erroneous details. English translation (poor), London: 1862.
The best form is a French translation, with Notes and Introductions by Michel
Breal. Paris: 1866.
CORSSEN : Aussprache, Vokalismus und Betonung der Lateinischen Sprache.
2 vols. 2d Ed. Leipzig, 1868.
The greatest work on Latin alone, treating the language in reference to its
own individual development, particularly as to the sounds (Lautlehre). In. the
comparative portion, it needs the correction of other investigators.
CURTIUS, G. : Grundziige der Griechischen Etymologic. 3d Ed. Leipsic :
1869.
Treats of Latin only by comparison; but is one of the most valuable
works on the general subject.
Erlduterungen zu meiner Griechischen Schul-grammatik. 2d Ed.
Prag. 1870. English translation ("Elucidations"), London: 1870.
Notes giving in connection with the Greek Grammar the simplest view of
the doctrine of forms.
DELBRUCK : Das Conjunctiv und Optativ, im Sanskrit und Griechischen.
Halle: 1871.
Origin of the Moods treated scientifically; should be read in connection
with a notice in N. A. Review, Oct. 1871, and "Analysis of the Latin Subjunc-
tive," by J. B. Greenough, Cambridge, 1870.
Ablativ, Localis, Instrumental im indischent etc. Berlin, 1867.
Origin of the various Ablative constructions.
FERRAR : Comparative Grammar of Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin. Lon-
don : 1869. Vol. I., including as far as Pronouns.
A convenient hand-book in English.
FICK : Vergleichendes Worterbuch der Indo-Germanischen Sprachen. Got-
tingen :' 1870.
A Dictionary of Roots and Words supposed to have existed in the Indo-
European tongue, with the corresponding words and derivatives in the variouo
a*
X NOTE.
languages. It can be used without a knowledge of German. No such book,
however, is safe to use without careful study of the laws of consonant and
vowel changes.
HOFFMANN: Die Construction der Lateinischen Zeitpartikeln. Vienna:
1860 (Pamphlet).
KUHN : See Zeitschrift.
LUBBERT : Die Syntax von Quom. Breslau : 1870.
NEUE : Formenlehre der Lateinischen Sprache. 2d Ed. Stuttgart, 1866.
Storehouse of all Latin forms, 12^)0 pages, containing the result of late text-
ual criticism. The standard work.
PEILE : Latin and Greek Etymology. 2d Ed. Macmillan : London and
Cambridge, 1872.
ROBY : A Grammar of the Latin Language, from Plautus to Suetonius.
Macmillan : London and New York, 1871. Vol. I.
A thorough treatment of Latin Etymology on the principles of comparative
grammar. Some errors have been pointed out in the N. A. Keview, Jan. 1872.
SCHLEICHER : Compendium der Vergleichenden Grammatik der Indo-
Germanischen Sprachen. 2d Ed. Weimar, 1866.
ScHWEiZER-SiDLER : Elementar- und Formenlehre der Lateinischen
Sprache, fur Schulen. Halle, 1869.
The best summary of the results of comparative grammar as applied to
Latin in short compass (137 pages).
WILLIAMS : A Practical Grammar of the Sanskrit Language. 3d Ed.
Oxford, 1864.
A very convenient Sanskrit grammar, without some knowledge of which
it is difficult to pursue the study of comparative grammar to advantage.
Zeitschrift fur vergleichender Sprachforschung . Edited by Dr. A. KUHN.
Vols. I. to XX. Berlin, 1851-1871, and still continued.
The best essays on all disputed points of comparative Philology. Indispen-
sable to correct theories of individual investigators. Each volume has an
Index ; and there is also a general index to the first ten volumes.
CONTENTS.
PART I. — ETYMOLOGY.
SECTION PAGE
1. Alphabet 1
1. Classification ; 2. Early Forms ; 3. Changes ; 4. Com-
binations; 5. Syllables.
2. Pronunciation 5
3. Quantity 6
4. Accent 7
5. Inflection 8
1. Definition ; 2. Root and Stem ; Inflected parts of
speech; 4. Particles.
6. Gender 9
1. Natural and Grammatical; 2. Rules; 3. Common
Gender; 4. Epicene.
7. Case 11
8. Declension 12
1. Declensions; 2. Rules; 3. Case-Endings.
NOUNS.
9. First Declension . 14
1. Gender; 2. Case Forms; 3. Greek Nouns.
10. Second Declension . 15
1. Nominative; 2. Stems in ro-; 3. Gender; 4. Case
Forms ; 5, 6. Nouns in er ; 7. Greek Nouns.
11. Third Declension 17
I. Vowel Stems. — 1. Stems; 2. Nominative; 3. Case
Forms ; 4. Greek Nouns.
II. Liquid Stems 19
III. Mute Stems. — 1. Labial ; 2. Lingual ; 3. Palatal ;
4. Peculiar Forms ; 6. Greek Nouns 20
IV. Rules of Gender. — 1. Nominative endings ; 2. Stems;
3. Classified List 23
Xll CONTENTS.
SECT. PAGE.
12. Fourth Declension 28
13. Fifth Declension 29
14. Irregular Nouns 30
1. Defective ; 2. Variable.
15. Proper Names 32
ADJECTIVES.
16. Inflection - 33
1. Of the 1st and 2d Declension; 2. Of 3d Declension;
3. Consonant Stems, Comparatives.
17. Comparison 38
1. Kegular; 2. Irregular; 3. Defective; 4. Adverbs;
5. Signification.
18. Numerals 41
1. Cardinal and Ordinal ; 2. Distributives ; 3. Numeral
Adverbs; 4. Multiplicatives.
PRONOUNS.
19. Personal and Reflexive 44
20. Demonstrative 45
21. Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite 47
1. Case-Forms ; 2. Compounds.
22. Correlatives 49
VERBS.
23. Structure 50
24. Moods ... 51
25. Participles 51
26. Gerund and Supine 52
27. Tenses 52
1. Classification; 2. Meaning; 3. Perfect and Imper-
fect; 4. Passive Tenses; 5. Stems.
28. Verb Forms 54
1. Personal Endings; 2. Changes of Stem; 3. Verb-
Endings.
29. Esse and its Compounds 57
30. Conjugation 60
1. First Conjugation ; 2. Second Conjugation ; 3. Third
Conjugation ; 4. Fourth Conjugation ; 5. Principal
Parts; 6. Special Forms ; 7. Parallel Forms.
31. First Conjugation 66
32. Second Conjugation 68
33. Third Conjugation 70
1. Regular ; 2. Verbs in io ; 3. Irregular Conjugation . 72
CONTENTS. Xlll
SECT. PAGE.
34. Fourth Conjugation 74
35. Deponent Verbs 75
1. Conjugation; 2. Semi-Deponents.
36. Derivative Verbs 77
37. Irregular Verbs 78
38. Defective Verbs 81
39. Impersonal Verbs .'..._ 82
40. Periphrastic Forms 83
PARTICLES.
41. Adverbs 84
1. Derivation; 2. Classification; 3. Signification.
42. Prepositions 88
1. With Cases ; 2. Meaning and Use : Examples ; 3. In
Compounds.
43. Conjunctions 93
1. Classification; 2. Classified List ; 3. Special Meaning.
44. Derivation of Words 96
1. Noun Forms ; 2. Derivation of Verbs ; 3. Compound
Words.
PART II. — SYNTAX.
45. Definitions 101
1. Sentence; 2. Subject and Predicate ; 3. Modification;
4. Phrase; 5. Clause; 6. Connectives; 7. Agree-
ment; 8. Government.
1. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.
46. Of Nouns 103
1. Appositive; 2. Predicate- Nominative.
47. Of Adjectives 105
1. Number ; 2. Gender ; 3. As Nouns ; 4. Use of Neu-
ter ; 5. Possessives ; 6. As Adverbs ; 7. Compari-
son ; 8. Superlatives of Place ; 9. Reciprocals.
48. Of Relatives 109
1. Person of Verb; 2. Gender; 3. Antecedent; 4. As
Connective ; 5. Adverbs.
49. Verbs : Rules of Argument 112
1. Plural with Collectives, &c. ; 2. Nominative Subject.
2. CONSTRUCTION OF CASES.
50. Genitive 113
1. Subjective, 114; 2. Partitive, 115 ; 3. Objective, 117 ;
4. After Verbs, 119.
XIV CONTENTS.
SECT. PAGE.
51. Dative 121
1. With Transitives, 121; 2. With Intransitives, 122;
3. Of Possession, 126 ; 4. Of Agency, 127 ; 5. Of
Service, 128; 6. Of Nearness, 128; 7. Of Advan-
tage, 129; (Ethical Dative, 130).
52. Accusative 131
1. General Use (Cognate Accusative, 131); 2. Two Ac-
cusatives ; 3. Adverbial ; 4. Special Uses.
53. Vocative 134
54. Ablative 134
1. Of Separation, 135 ; 2. Of Source, 136 ; 3. Of Cause,
137; 4. Of Agent, 138; 5. Of Comparison, 138;
6. Of Means, 139; 7. Of Quality, 141 ; 8. Of Price,
141; 9. Of Specification, 142; 10. Locative, Abla-
tive Absolute, 142.
55. Time and Place 143
1. Time ; 2. Space ; 3. Place (Locative Form, 145) ;
4. Way by which.
56. Use of Prepositions 146
3. SYNTAX OF THE VERB.
57. Use of Moods . 148
1. Indicative ; 2. Subjunctive (Independent or Depend-
ent ; 3. Hortatory ; 4. Optative ; 5. Concessive ;
6. Dubitative); 7. Imperative; 8. Infinitive (Com-
plementary, 154 ; With Subject- Accusative, 155 ;
Historical, 156).
58. Use of Tenses . , . . 157
1.. Indicative ; 2. Present (Conative, 157; Historical,
158); 3. Imperfect; 4. Future; 5. Perfect; 6. Plu-
perfect ; 7. Future-Perfect ; 8. Epistolary Tenses ;
9. Of Subjunctive ; 10. Sequence of Tenses (Primary
and Secondary, 162) ; 11. Of Infinitive.
59. Conditional Sentences 166
1. Protasis and Apodosis ; 2. Particular and General Con-
ditions ; 3. Present and Past Conditions ; 4. Future
Conditions; 5. General Conditions.
60. Implied Conditions 172
1. Condition Disguised ; 2. Condition Omitted.
61. Conditional Particles 174
1. Comparative; 2. Concessive; 3. Provisory; 4. Mean-
ing and Use.
62. Relations of Time 176
1. Use as in Protasis ; 2. Absolute and Relative Time,
(Cum temporal, 178; causal, 180).
63. Cause or Reason 181
1. With Indicative ; 2. With Subjunctive.
CONTENTS. XV
SECT. PAGE.
64. Purpose (Final Clauses) 182
1. Relatives or Conjunctions ; 2. Forms.
65. Consequence or Result (Consecutive- Clauses) . . . . 183
1. Subjunctive with ut (lie) ; 2. Of Characteristic.
66. Intermediate Clauses 185
1. Subjunctive of Citation; 2. Dependent Clauses.
67. Indirect Discourse 187
1. Indirect Narrative (Subject- Accusative, Relative Clau-
ses, Conditional Sentences, Questions), 188; 2. In-
direct Questions, 190; 3. Indirect Commands, 191.
68. Wishes and Commands 192
69. Relative Clauses (Classification of) . 193
70. Substantive Clauses 193
1. Classification ; 2. Accusative and Infinitive, 194 ;
3. Clauses of Purpose, 195; 4. Clauses of Result,
197 ; 5. Indicative with quod, 199.
71. Questions 200
1. Interrogative Particles ; 2. Double Questions ; 3. Ques-
tion and Answer.
72. Participles 202
1. Distinctions of Tense; 2. Adjective use; 3. Predi-
cate use ; 4. Future Participle ; 5. Gerundive.
73. Gerund and Gerundive 206
1. Gerund; 2. Gerundive; 3. Construction of Cases.
74. Supine 209
75. General Rules of Syntax 210
76. Arrangement • 212
1. Normal Order; 2. Emphasis; 3. Structure (Periodic).
PART III. — PROSODY.
77. Rhythm 215
78. Rules of Quantity 215
1. General Rules ; 2. Final Syllables ; 3. Penultimate
Syllables (Increment of Nouns and Ve»bs).
79. Feet 220'
80. Scanning 222
81. Metre 223
82. Forms of Verse 224
83. Early Prosody 232
84. Reckoning of Time 233
85. Measures of Value 235
APPENDIX 237
PART FIRST.
FORMS OF WORDS (ETYMOLOGY).
1. ALPHABET.
THE Latin Alphabet is the same as the English,
wanting w.
NOTE. — The letter w is found, however, in many modern Latin
words, especially proper names.
1. Classification. — The letters of the alphabet are
classified as follows : —
a. VOWELS (litterae vocales, or voice-letters) : a, e, i, o, u, y.
The following are Diphthongs (double-vowels) : ae (ae), au, eu,
oe (oe), ei, ui.
6. CONSONANTS (litterae consonantes, i.e., sounding-wiih the
vowels) : —
MUTES : Labial surd p sonant b spirant f (v) nasal m
Lingual „ t „ d ,, n
Palatal „ c(k) „ g h „ [ng]
Double Consonants, x (cs), z (ds).
LIQUIDS: 1, m, nf r. — SIBILANTS: surd s, sonant z.
The letters i (j) and u (v) at the beginning of a syllable be-
fore a vowel, also u in quis, suadeo, &c., are SEMI-VOWELS.
The consonants f, g, p, z, are never used at the end of a word.
NOTE. — The Aspirate (or breathing) h follows in inflection the
rule of palatals ; and was originally, in many words, a harsh guttural
(kh), like the Greek \, or the Spanish j. Its later sound was very
slight, and in most languages derived from Latin has quite disappeared.
Sometimes, as in aheneus (=aeneus], it seems to be used only to
separate two vowels. It is not reckoned as a consonant in Prosody.
2 EARLY FORMS. - CHANGES. [1:2>3»
2. Early Forms. — The alphabet in the time of Cicero
(N. D. ii. 37) consisted of " one and twenty letters." These
were, —
a, b, c, €b e, f, g, h, i, k, 1, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, x.
y and z were added, in words derived from Greek, i and u,
when used as consonants (" semi- vowels"), having the sound of
y and w, are generally written j and v: as, juvenis for iuuenis.
a. In early use, c was not distinguished in form or sound from
g. After the distinction was made, C was still used, convention-
ally, as the initial of names (Gaius, Gnaeus) beginning properly
with G. It came, in later use, to take the place of k, which was
retained only in abbreviations, or as the initial letter of a few
words, as Kalendae, Karthago, in which it is followed by a.
b. Till after the age of Augustus, u was never, in good use,
preceded in the same syllable by u or v. In many words, as in
volt, servos, o was written where later custom allows u ; while
c was regularly used for qu in such words as cum (for quum),
ecus (for equus), relicus (for reliquus), locuntur (for lo-
quuntur), and the like; also in cotidie (for quotidie), and
a few other words. The old forms quom (for cum) and quor
(for cur) are also found.
c. At the end of a few words, — as sed, apud, illud, —
t was anciently written instead of d. In words ending in -s,
final s was often elided (Cic. Orat. 48), as in qualist (qualis-est) ;
plenu' fidei (Senect. 1).
3. Changes. — Letters are often changed, according to
general laws of inflection (vowel-increase), or to secure an
easier or smoother sound (euphonic change) ; or have been
altered or lost through long use (phonetic decay). Of such
changes are the following : —
a. Vowels arc strengthened in inflection and derivation (vowel-
increase)'. as, ago, egi (cf. tell, told)', disco, ddceo (tf.fa(l,fell^;
sit, set)-, pendo, pondus; persono, persona; perfidus, jfidus,
foedus (cf. bind, band).
NOTE. — The primitive vowel-sound may be assumed to be a, as
in father. Starting with this, and gradually contracting the palate,
we form in succession the sound of e (a) and i (ee], leading to the
semi- vowel j (y). By contracting the lips, we in like manner form
the sound of o and u (00), leading to the semi-vowel v (iv). By
contracting both palate and lips, we form the French sound of u, —
in Greek v, and in Latin y. This, which is
called the Vowel-Scale, is of great service in
tracing the modifications of vowel-sounds. It
may be represented thus : — i» J Y v» u
1: 3-] EUPHONIC CHANGES. 3
b. Vowels are weakened by negligent pronunciation for long
periods of time (phonetic decay). Thus, on one side of the scale,
a becomes e, then i; or, on the other, becomes o, then u; while
u and i meet in the French u (y) : as, agmen, agminis ; facio,
conficio, confectum ; salio, exsulto ; sepelio, sepultus ; ebur,
eboris ; maxumus, maximus (cf. master, mister, mistress).
c. Two vowels coming together are contracted into a single
sound: as, obit (obiit), cogo (co-ago), nil (nihil), debeo (de-
hibeo), coetus (coitus), ingeni (cf. mayhem, maim).'
d. The semi-vowels j and v are lost before a vowel, contrac-
tion sometimes also takiiig place : as, obicit (6bjicit), coiiicit
(conjicit), cunctus (conjunctus), rursus (re versus), coiitio
(conventio), motum (mbvitum).
e. Between two vowels, or before m or n, s becomes r: as,
genus, generis; maereo, maestus; veternus (vetus-nus),
carmen (casmen).
f. When two consonants come together by derivation, inflec-
tion, or composition, an easier pronunciation is secured thus : —
!• The first is entirely assimilated to the second. Thus, a liquid,
— m, n, or (less frequently) r — before another liquid is changed to
that liquid [but r is not changed to m or n] : as, collego (con-lego),
corrigo (com-rego), illudo (in-ludo), illlco (in loco), intellego (inter-lego),
asellus (asin[ii]lus) . So d before 1: as in lapilius (Uipidulus) ; and b
(rarely) before a liquid: as, summitto (submitto).
2. The former is assimilated in kind. Thus : — a. A sonant before a
surd becomes surd : as, tego, texi (x=cs), tectum ; nubo, nupsi, nuptum ;
coquo, coxi, coctum. — b. A surd before a sonant becomes sonant, as in
segmentum (seco). — c. A labial nasal before a dental mute sometimes
becomes dental: contendo (com-tendo), jandudum (jam dud urn), quant us
(quamtus). — d. A dental nasal before a labial sometimes becomes labial :
as, impono (in-pono). — e. d and t before t sometimes become s (see 4) :
as, equester (equet-ter), est (edt).
3. The former is lost, having probably been first assimilated.
Thus : — a. d and t are lost before s, but sometimes only assimilated :
as, pedes (pedets), vas (vads, vadis), esse (edse, edo). — b. c and g are
lost before t and s when 1 or r precedes: as, sartus (=sarctus, sar-
cio), mulsi (=mulgsi, mulgeo), indultus (=indulgtus, indulgeo). — c. c and g"
are sometimes lost before m and n : as, examen (exagmen), luna (luc-
na), lumen (luc-men).
4. The second is partially assimilated to the first (as in English
wrecked becomes, in pronouncing, reckt) ; in this case both are often
changed. Thus, after n and 1 — rarely after other letters — t be-
comes s (the continued sound corresponding to the explosive t) : as,
mansus (=mantus, maneo), pulsus (pello), casus (cado), passus (=pattus,
pat/or), sparsus (=spargtus, spargo), tensus (tendo, but also tentus) , fixus
(figo, but fictus from Jingo), maximus (for mag-timus), lapsus (labor),
pasxus (pando).
NOTE. — After m, before s or t, p is inserted for euphony: as,
sumo, sumpsi, sumptum. So hiemps for hiems.
4 ASSIMILATION. VARIATIONS. [1:3«
</. Especially the final consonant of prepositions was assimilated
to the initial consonant of verbs.
Thus, ad is assimilated before c, g, p, t ; less regularly before
1, r, s, and rarely before m ; while before f, n, q, the form ad is
to be preferred; — ab is not assimilated, but may take the form a,
aii, or abs; — in com (con, co), m is retained before b, p, m ; is
assimilated before 1, n, r ; is changed to n before c, d, f, g, i, q,
s, v ; varies between m and n before p ; is sometimes assimilated
(otherwise n) before r andl; and loses the final m in conecto, co-
niveo, conitor, conubium ; — in usually changes n to m before b, m,
p; before 1 the better orthography retains n; — ob and sub are
assimilated before c, f, g, p, and sometimes before m ; sub also
before r; and, in early Latin, b of these prepositions sometimes
becomes p before s or t. The inseparable amb loses b before a
consonant, and m is sometimes assimilated ; — circum loses m before
a vowel ; — s of dis before a vowel becomes r, and before a conso
nant is lost or assimilated ; — the d of red and sed is generally losl
before a consonant.
NOTE. — In most of these cases the later editions prefer the
unaltered forms throughout ; but the changes given above have gooc
authority. Others, which are corruptions of the middle ages (as
assum for adsum), would better be avoided.
h. The combinations ci and ti before a vowel are found inter-
changed in many words : as in nuntlus or nuncius ; contio or con-
do ; but in these cases only one is correct : as, contio, dicio.
NOTE. — The substitution of c for t is an example of phonetic
decay, and belongs to a later period of the language. In Italian, z
and in Spanish, c, has regularly taken the place of t in such combi
nations : as in nazione, nation. The sound of s (assibilation) or of si
traceable in them led gradually to the adoption of this as the regulai
sound of c before e or i.
i. The aspirate h is occasionally used to indicate the hare
sound of c, as in pulcher for pulcer. Many words are writter
sometimes with and sometimes without an initial h: as, arene
or harena, ariolor or hariolor, erus or herus. The combina
tions ph, th, are found only in words taken from the Greek.
Jc. The following words are variously spelt in different editions
inferior or rejected forms being marked f : —
Adolescens, adulescens ; ancora, f anchora ; annulus, anulus ; arctus
artus ; cvecus, coccus ; ccelum, codum ; cceruleus, coeruleus ; causa, caussa
ccespes, cespes ; ceteri, f coderi ; ccena, ccena, cena ; condicio, t conditio ; con
jnnx, t conjux ; contio, t contio ; dicio, t ditio ; dumtaxat, duntaxat ; epi
stola, epistula ; eumdem, eundem ; exsisto, existo (and other compounds
of ex before s) ; femina, \fozmina; fenus, fcenus, foenus '; Acres, f hceres
hcedus, t hoedus ; hiems(ps), t hyems ; idcirco, t iccirco ; immo, imo ; inclutus
t inclytus ; intellego, intelliyo ; lacrima, \\acryma ; litera, littera; litus, flit
tus ; lubet, libet ; mceror, moeror; milia, f millia ; multa, mulcta ; t w, ne
nequidquam, nequiquam ; numquam, nunquam ; "f nuncio, nuntio ; paulhis
paulus ; quicquid, quidquid; religio, relligio ; retuli, rettuli ; silva, t sylva .
1. 2.] ALPHABET. PRONUNCIATION. 5
solennis, solemnis ; solers, sollers; sulfur, ^sulphur,' tamquam, tanquam ;
thesaurus, thensaurus ; thus, tus ; tiro, f tyro ; umquam, unquam ; ungo,
unguo ; verto, vorto ; also, the gerund-forms -endus or -undus ; and the
superlative -imus or -umus.
NOTE. — Many of the above variations are due to the practice of
writing from dictation, or by the ear, by which most MS. copies of
the classics were made, — a single reader often dictating to numerous
copyists, whose spelling was often corrupt, and without authority.
4. Combinations. — Two words are often united in
writing, and sometimes in sound.
a* Conjunctions or other particles are thus connected : as in
etenim, jamdiu, siquis, and siquidem.
So the adverbial combinations quare, quamobrem, &c., as in
English nevertheless, notwithstanding.
b. The verb est, is, is joined with the preceding word,
especially in the old poets, or when the two would be united by
elision : as, homost, periculumst
c. Similar contractions are found in vin' (visne), scin' (scis-
ne), sis (si vis), sodes (si audes), as in English, don't, won't.
5. Syllables. — In the division of syllables, a single con-
sonant between two vowels is to be written with the latter.
a. This rule is usually extended to double consonants, or any
combination of consonants which can be used to begin a word : as,
ho-spes, ma-gnus, di-xit.
b. In compounds, the parts should be separated : as, ab-est,
ob-latus.
NOTE. — Custom allows many other departures from the rule.
c. A syllable preceded by a vowel in the same word is called
pure; when preceded by a consonant, impure.
d. An initial syllable ending, or a final syllable beginning, with
a vowel, is called open ; otherwise, it is called close.
2. PRONUNCIATION.
1. Roman. — The Roman pronunciation of the Vowels
was, no doubt, nearly like the Italian ; which, with little
variation, is that found in most of the continental languages
of Europe. That of some of the Consonants is more uncer-
tain. In the system of pronunciation founded on ancient
6 PRONUNCIATION. QUANTITY. [2:2. 3: I,
use, the long and short vowels are sounded respectively as
follows : —
a as in father. a-rt-a~ a as in fast.
e ,, rein. % ,, met.
i ,, machine. I ,, pin.
6 ,, holy. 6 ,, wholly.
u ,, rude. u ,, full.
NOTE. — It is probable that y (also u in maxumus, &c.) was simi-
lar to the French u ; it is usually, however, sounded like i.
a. The final or unaccented open sound of the vowels is nearly
as in the last syllable of comma, yesterday, pity, hollow, cuckoo.
&. In Diphthongs, each vowel has its proper sound : thus, ae
has neai»ly the sound of ay, auof oi0t oe of oy, ui of we.
c* Of consonants, c and g are always hard, as in can, give ;
j has the sound of y, v of w, and n before palatals of ng; the
combination bs is like ps, ch like k, and ph like f.
NOTE. — The sound of the vowels and diphthongs, as above given,
has been generally adopted in this country. In regard to the conso-
nants c, g, j, v, there is still considerable difference of usage.
2. Modern* — Modern custom has generally allowed
Latin to be pronounced in each country according to the
rules of its own language. What is known as the English
Method adopts the following: —
a. The vowels and consonants have the same sound as in
English. But there are no silent letters (except in scanning verse,
by the usage called Elision) ; such words as dies, mare, audiere,
pauperiei, having each as many syllables as vowels or diphthongs.
&. By American custom, final a is pronounced in the Italian
way, as in comma. But in the monosyllables a, da, sta, qua,
some persons retain the English sound.
c. The diphthongs ae, oe, are pronounced like ee ; au like aw ;
eu like ew ; ei and ui like i in kite ; es and (in plural words) os
at the end of a word, as in the English disease, morose.
d. The consonants c and g are made soft (like s and j)
before e, i, y, ae, oe, eu ; ch is always hard, as in chasm.
3. QUANTITY.
1. Quantity is the relative time occupied in pronouncing a
syllable, — a long syllable being equal to two short ones.
3: 2. 4.] QUANTITY. ACCENT. 7
NOTE. — The distinction of Quantity was carefully observed
by the ancients, but came to be almost wholly disregarded in
later times except in the composition of Latin verse.
2. Some of the most general rules of quantity are the fol-
lowing : —
a. A vowel before another vowel is short : as in via, nYhil
&. A diphthong is long : as in aedes, foedus.
ۥ A syllable formed by contraction is long : as, ml (mini) ; .
nil (nihil) ; intrarat (intraverat) ; nemo (ne homo).
NOTE. — In many text-books and old editions, contraction is de-
noted by a circumflex : as, mi, intrarat.
d. A syllable in which a vowel is followed by two consonants,
or a double consonant, is long : as in rectus, dCLxit. Sometimes
the vowel itself is made long, as before ns in praesens.
e. A syllable in which a short vowel is followed by a mute with
1 or r is common, — that is, it may be long in verse : as, allcris.
REMARK. — Many final syllables, originally long, are always found
short in classic Latin : for example, the stem-vowel a of the first
declension.
NOTE. — The sign ("") denotes that a vowel is long; (~) that it is
short ; (-) that it is common.
For particular rules of Quantity, see § 78.
4. ACCENT.
1. The accent of Latin words never falls on the final
syllable, but is confined to one of the two preceding.
2. The following are general rules of accent : —
a. Words of two syllables are always accented on the first
syllable: as, e"rant, they were; di'es, day.
b. Words of more than two syllables are accented on the
Penult, if that is long: as, ami'cus, friend; if it is short or com-
mon, then on the Antepenult : as, dS'minus, a'lacris.
NOTE. — The Penult is the last syllable but one ; the Antepenult,
the last but two.
c. When an Enclitic is joined to a word, the accent falls on
the syllable next before the enclitic, whether long or short : as,
dea'que, amare've, tlbi'ne, ita'que, and so, as distinguished
from i'taque, therefore.
8 ACCENT. INFLECTION. [5 : I, 2
NOTE. — The acute accent (') is sometimes used to denote stress of
voice ; the grave f ), to mark an adverb or conjunction ; the circumflex
(*), the ablative in a, the perfect in ere, or & contracted syllable.
5. INFLECTION.
1. Inflection is a change made in the form of a word, tc
show its grammatical relations.
a. Changes of inflection sometimes take place in the body of a
word, but oftener in its termination : as, vox, a voice ; vocis, of
a voice ; v5co, 1 call ; v6cat, he calls ; vocavit, he has called.
b* Terminations of inflection had originally an independent
meaning, and correspond nearly to the use of prepositions or per-
sonal pronouns in English : thus, in v6cat, the termination is
equivalent to he or she ; and in vocis, to the preposition of.
c. Changes of inflection in the body of a verb usually denote
relations of time or manner, and correspond to the use of auxiliary
verbs in English : thus, in frangit (root frag-), he breaks or is
breaking, the form of the word indicates Present time or continued
action ; while in fregit, he broke or has broken, it indicates Past time
or Completed action.
2. The body of a word, to which the terminations are
attached, is called the STEM.
a. The Stem contains the idea of the word without relations ;
but, in general, it cannot be used without some termination to
express these. Thus the stem voc- denotes voice ; with -s added
it becomes vox, a voice or the voice, as the subject or agent of an
action ; with -is it becomes vocis, and signifies of a voice.
&. A still more primitive form, expressing the main idea less
definitely, and common also to other words, either in the same or
other languages, is called a ROOT. For example, the root STA is
found in the Sanskrit tistjidmi, Greek IOTTJJU, Latin sistere and
stare, German stehen, and English stand.
Again, the root of the stem voc- is v6c, which means not to
call, or / call, or calling, but merely call : and cannot be used to
mean any thing without terminations. With a it becomes v5ca-,
the stem of the present vbcamus, we call; with avi- it is the
stem of the perfect vbcavi, / called ; with ato- it becomes the
stem of the participle vocatos, called ; with ation- it becomes
the stem of vocationis, of a calling. With its vowel lengthened
it becomes the stem of vox, a voice (that by which we call) ; with
alis added it means belonging to a voice ; with iila, a little voice.
5: 3, 4- 6: I.] INFLECTION. GENDER. 9
NOTE. — Thus, in inflected languages, words are built up from
Roots, which at a very early time, long before Latin was a distinct
language, were used alone to express ideas, as is now done in
Chinese. Roots are modified into Stems, which, by inflection,
become Words. The process by which they are modified, in the vari-
ous forms of derivatives and compounds, is called Stem-building.
c. The Stem is sometimes the same with the Root: as in
due-is, fer-t; but is more frequently formed from the root,
either (1) by changing or lengthening its vowel, as in reg-is,
duc-o; (2) by the addition or insertion of a consonant, as in
tendo, pango; (3) by the addition of a terminal vowel, as in
fugis, fuga ; or (4) by derivation and composition, following the
laws of development peculiar to the language.
d. The terminations of inflection are variously modified by
combining with the final vowel or consonant of the Stem, leading
to the various forms of Declension and Conjugation.
NOTE. — A termination beginning with a vowel is called an open
affix ; one beginning with a consonant, a close affix. When a close
affix is joined to a consonant-stem, there is usually either a euphonic
change, as rexi for reg-si, or a vowel appears, as reg-i-bus. But in most
cases, what is called a connecting vowel really belongs to the stem,
as in voca-mus, regi-mus.
3. Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, and Participles have in-
flections of declension, to denote gender, number, and case;
Adjectives and Adverbs, of comparison, to denote degree ;
and Verbs of conjugation, to denote voice, mood, tense, num-
ber, and person.
4. Those parts of speech which are not inflected are called
PARTICLES : these are Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Inter-
jections, with Adverbs of time, place, and manner.
NOTE. — The term Particles is sometimes limited to such words as
mini, -ne, an (interrogative], 11011, ne (negative), si (conditional), &c.,
which are used simply to indicate the form or construction of a sen-
tence. Interjections are not properly to be classed among parts of
speech, and differ little from inarticulate sounds. For convenience,
a list is given of those in most common use, following the conjunc-
tions (p. 95).
• 6. GENDER.
.
I . The gender of Latin nouns is either natural or gram-
matical.
a. Natural gender is distinction as to the sex of the object
denoted: as, puer, boy ; puella, girl; donum, gift.
1* ~£^ -i^-^-^JSj^S^.
10 GENDER. [6: I, 2.
b» Many masculine nouns have a corresponding feminine form :
as, servus, serva, slave; cliens, clienta, client; victor, vic-
trix, conqueror. Most designations of persons (as, nauta, sailor,
miles, soldier), usually though not necessarily male, are masculine.
c. Grammatical gender is a like distinction where no sex
exists in the object, and is shown by the form of the adjective
joined with it: as, lapis magnus (M.), a great stone; manus
mea (F.), my hand.
d. A few neuter nouns are used to designate persons as belong-
ing to a class : as, mancipium tuum, your slave. Names of classes
or bodies of persons may be of either gender : as, exercitus (M.),
acies (F.), and agmen (N.), army; and the feminine operae,
workmen, copiae, troops.
NOTE. — What we call grammatical gender is in most cases the
product of the imagination at a rude age, when language was in the
course of growth. Thus a River was seen, or a Wind was felt, as a
living creature, violent and strong, and so is masculine ; a Month is a
guide or divider of tasks, and so is masculine ; and the fable of Atlas
shows how similar living attributes were ascribed to Mountains,
which, in the northern fables, are the bones of giants. Again, the
Earth, or a country or city, seems the mother of its progeny ; the Tree
shelters and ripens its fruit, as a brooding bird its nest of eggs ; and,
to this day, a Ship is always referred to by a feminine pronoun.
Again, in the East and South, the Sun, from its fierce heat and
splendor, is masculine, and its paler attendant, the Moon, feminine ;
while, among northern nations, the Sun (perhaps for its comforting
warmth) is feminine, and the Moon (the appointer of works and
days) masculine. The rules of grammatical gender only repeat and
extend these early workings of the fancy.
2. Names of Male beings, together with Rivers, "Winds,
and Mountains are masculine; names of Female beings,
Cities, Countries, Plants, of many Animals (especially Birds),
and of most abstract Qualities, are feminine.
NOTE. — Most of the above may be recognized by their termina-
tions, according to the rules of gender under the several declensions.
a. Names of Rivers are masculine, except a few, chiefly in a.
These are Albula, Allia, Druentia, Duria, Garumna, Matrdna, Mo-
sella ; also Lethe and Styx. Many are variable.
NOTE. — Names of Months are properly Adjectives, the masculine
noun mensis being understood.
&. Names of Towns, Islands, and Trees in us are feminine ;
also, many names of Plants and Gems in us.
c. Indeclinable nouns, Terms or Phrases used as nouns, and
words quoted merely for their forms, are neuter : as, nihil, nothing ;
gummi, gum ; scire tuum, your knowing ; triste vale, a sad fare-
well ; hoc ipsum diu, this same word diu ; illud ruisse, illud
ardere (Plin.), that crash, that blaze.
6:3,4- 70 GENDER. CASE. 11
3. Many nouns may be either masculine or feminine,
according to the sex of the object. These are said to be of
COMMON GENDER: as, exsul, exile; bos, ox or cow.
NOTE. — When a noun signifying a thing without life is both mas-
culine and feminine, — as, dies, day ; finis, end, — it is sometimes said
to be of Doubtful Gender.
4. A few names of animals are always connected with
adjectives of the same gender, either masculine or feminine,
independent of sex. They are called EPICENE.
Thus lepus, hare, is always masculine, and vulpes, fox, feminine.
To denote a male fox we may say, vulpes mascula ; or a female
hare, lepus femina.
7. CASE.
There are in Latin six Cases, which express the
relations of nouns to other words. They are usually
put in the following order: 1. Nominative; 2. Gen-
itive ; 3. Dative ; 4. Accusative ; 5. Vocative ; 6. Ab-
lative.
1. The NOMINATIVE is the case of the Subject of a propo-
sition: as,
pater meus adest, my father is here.
2. The GENITIVE (of) is used like the English posses-
sive ; also with many adjectives and verbs, especially those of
memory or feeling : as,
patris ejus amicus miseretur mei, his father's friend pities me.
3. The DATIVE (to or for) is the case of the Indirect
Object, and is used to denote the person whose interest is
concerned: as,
dedit mihi cultellum : magno mini usui erat, he gave me a
pocket-knife : it was of great service to me.
4. The ACCUSATIVE (objective) is the case of the Direct
Object, and is used after most prepositions : as,
pater me ad se vocavit et in hortum duxit, [my] father
called me to himt and led me into the garden.
12 CASE. DECLENSION. [7. 8: I.
5. The VOCATIVE is used in address : as,
hue veni, care mi filiole, come here, my dear little son.
NOTE. — As the Vocative is independent of the other words in a
sentence, it is by some grammarians not reckoned as a Case.
6. The ABLATIVE (by, from, with) is used with many
verbs and prepositions, especially to denote separation or
instrument: as,
in horto ludebamus, et cultello me laesit, we were playing in
the garden, and he hurt me with a knife.
NOTE. — All, excepting the nominative and vocative, are by the
ancient grammarians called " Oblique Cases."
7. In names of towns and a few other words appear traces
of another case (the LOCATIVE), denoting the place where, —
generally the same in form as the dative (§ 55. 3. c.) : as,
Romae vel Athenis esse velim, I should like to be at Eome
or Athens.
8. DECLENSION.
1. There are five Declensions, or modes of declining nouns.
They are distinguished by the termination of the Genitive
Singular, and by the final letter (characteristic) of the Stem.
DECL. 1. Gen. Sing, ae Characteristic & (anciently a)
„ 2. „ i(ius) „ 6
,, 3. ,, is ,, X or a Consonant
„ 4. „ us (uis) „ ft
„ 5. „ ei „ e
a. The stem of a noun may be found, if a consonant-stem, by
omitting the case-ending; if a vowel-stem, by substituting for
the case-ending the characteristic vowel.
NOTE. — For the division of vowel and consonant-stems in the
Third Declension, see § 11.
5. The Nominative of most masculine and feminine nouns
(except in the first declension) is formed from the Stem by adding s.
NOTE 1. — Many, however, end in o, or in the liquids 1, n, r, —
the original s (sometimes with the final letter also) having been lost
through phonetic decay. In some (as in films) the stem-vowel is
modified before the final s ; and in some, as in ayer, a vowel is
inserted in the stem.
8: 2,3.]
DECLENSION.
13
NOTE 2. — The s of the nominative is the remnant of an old
demonstrative sa, which is found (with modifications) in the Sanskrit
personal pronoun, in the Greek article, and in the English she.
2. The following are general Rules of Declension : —
a. The Vocative is always the same with the Nominative, ex-
cept in the singular of nouns in us of tftJB second declension.
NOTE. — In the first and second declensions the vocative ends in
the (modified) stem-vowel. Most of the words likely to be used in
address are of this form ; and, in practice, few other words have a
vocative.
b. In Neuters, the nominative and accusative are always alike,
and in the plural end in a.
c. Except in some neuters, the accusative singular always ends
in in, and the accusative plural in s.
d. In the last three declensions (and in a few cases in the
others) the dative singular ends in i.
^ e. The dative and ablative plural are always alike.
/. The genitive plural always ends in um.
3. Case-Endings. The original terminations of the
Cases, in Latin, were probably the following: —
Sing. M., F. N. Plur. M., F. N.
Norn, s (or lost) m, - es a
Gen. os (is) um, rum(sum)
Dat. i ibus
Ace. m, em m, - es a
Abl. eA . ibus
NOTE. — These became so worn by use, and so united with the
stem, that they are distinguishable only in consonant-stems. In some
instances, one case was substituted for another, or two were merged
in one. The combinations are given below as case-endings. The name
" stem " is sometimes, conveniently though incorrectly, given to that
part of the word — as serv. in servus — which precedes the case-ending.
DECL. i.
ii.
III.
IV.
v.
Sing.
N. a £, as, es
G. 8B(ai)es
us, um os, on eus
i (ius) o, u ei
s - (See p. 23.)
Is yos, Ss
tis,u
us (uis)
es
ei(e)
D. 8B(ai)
6(i)
ei, eo
I
ui(u)
ei(e)
A. am an. en
um on
ea
em(im) in, yn &
um, u
em
v. & e
eV a
eu
(as nom.) *, y
iis, u
es
A. a g
6
eo
e(i), i
u
e
Plur.
N. V. SB
i a
es, a, ia £s
us, ua
es
G. arum (um)
drum (um,
om) on
um, ium
uum
erum
D. A. Is (abus)
is (dbus)
ibus
ibus(iibus)
ebus
A. as
OS
es (Is), a, ia as
us, ua
es
N.B. Rare forms in parenthesis; Greek forms in italics.
14 NOUNS. — FIRST DECLENSION. [9: 1,2,3.
NOUNS.
9, FIRST DECLENSION.
The Stem of nouns of the First Declension ends
in a. Latin nouns have the Nominative like the stem.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
Nom. Stella, a star. stellae, stars.
Gen. stellae, of a star. stellarum, of stars.
Dat. stellae, to a star. stellis, to stars.
Ace. stellam, a star. Stellas, stars.
Yoc. stella, thou star ! stellae, ye stars !
Abl. stella with a star. stellis, with stars.
1. Gender. Most nouns of the first declension are Feminine.
Nearly all the exceptions are such as are masculine from their sig-
nification : as, nauta, sailor. Also, Hadria, the Adriatic.
2. Case Forms. — a. The genitive singular anciently ended
in ai, which is occasionally found in a few authors : as, aulai. The
same ending occurs in the dative, but only as a diphthong.
b. There is also an old genitive in as, found in the word familias
used in certain combinations, as, pater (mater, filius, filia) famil-
ias, father of a family, §*c.
c. The Locative form for the singular ends in ae, and for the
plural in is : as, Romae, Athenis.
d. The genitive plural is sometimes found in um instead of
arum, especially in compounds with -c51a and -gena, signifying
dwelling and descent : as, caelicblum, of the heavenly ones.
e. The dative and ablative plural of dea, goddess, filia, daughter,
liberta, freed-woman, equa, mare, mula, she-mule, end in an older
form -abus. But, except when the two sexes (as in wills, &c.)
are mentioned together, the form in is is also used.
3. Greek Nouns. — Some Greek nouns (chiefly proper
names) end in as, es (M.), and e (F.) in the nominative, and an
or en in the accusative ; those in e have the genitive in es
(stem a or e) : as,
comet (XL.). laurel (F.).
N. cometes (a) daphne JEneas Anchises
G. cometas daphnes (SB) JEnese Anchlsae
D. cometaa daphne (ee) JEneaB Anchisse
Ac. cometen(am) daphnen JEnean (am) Anchisen
V. cometa daphne JEnea (a) Anchise (a)
Ab. cometa(e) daphne (a) .^Dnea Anchise (a)
10: i,2,3.]
SECOND DECLENSION.
15
NOTE. — This form is found only in the singular ; the plural is
regular : as, cometce, arum, &c. It includes (besides proper names)
about thirty -five words, several being names of plants ; among others
the following, those marked t having also regular forms in a: —
*bule, council^ geometres, geometer ; f gram matice, grammar; harpe,
sickle; magice, magic; fmusice, music; fode, ode; pandectes,
repertory; f patriarchies, patriarch; t prophetes, prophet ; sophistes,
sophist; ttetrarches, tetrarch ; thymele, leader' s-stand ; t tiaras, tiara.
10. SECOND DECLENSION.
The Stem of nouns of the Second Declension ends
in o (as of vir, viro-, and of servus, servo-).
NOTE. — This form is an original a-stem, to which the a-stem of
the first declension is the corresponding feminine.
1. The Nominative is formed from the Stem by adding s
(in neuters m), the characteristic 6 being weakened to u.
2. In most nouns whose stem ends in ro-, the S is not
added, but the 0 is lost, e being inserted before r.
Thus ager, field (stem agro-), is the same as the Greek <rypos.
The exceptions are, hesperus, humerus, juniperus, morus, numerus, uterus.
SINGULAR.
Boy.
Book.
Slave.
Gift.
Nom.
puer
liber
serviis (5s)
domim
Gen.
pueri
libri
servi
doni
Dat.
puero
libro
servo
dono
Ace.
puerum
librum
servum (om)
donum
Voc.
puer
. liber
serve
donum
Abl.
puero
libro
ser\5
dono
PLURAL.
Norn.
pueri
libri
servi
dona
Gen.
puerorum
librorum
servorum
donorum
Dat.
pueris
libris
servis
donis
Ace.
pueros
libros
servos
dona
Voc.
pueri
libri
servi
dona
Abl.
pueris
libris
servis
donis
NOTE. — The old
form os, om (for
us, um), is sometimes used
after u
or v : as, servos, servom (§ 1. 2.
6.).
3. Gender. — Nouns ending in us (os), er, ir, are Mascu-
line (exc. on p. 16) ; those ending in um (on) are Neuter. (But
which stems are M. or N. can only be learned from the Dictionary.)
16 SECOND DECLENSION. [10: 4, 5, 6.
a. But names of towns in us (os) are Feminine : as, Corin-
thus. Also, arctus (os), the Polar Bear; alvus, belly ; carba-
sus, linen (plural carbasa, sails, N.); c61asr distaff; hiimus,
ground ; vaiinus, winnow ing-shovel ; with many names of Plants
and Gems.
b. The following are Neuter : pelagus, sea ; virus, poison ;
vulgus (rarely M.), the crowd. Their accusative, as of all neuters,
is the same as the nominative.
4. Case Forms, a. The Locative form for the singular of
this declension ends in i: as, humi, on the ground; Corinthi, at
Corinth. For the plural, is: as, Philippis, at Philippi.
b. The genitive of nouns in ius or ium is correctly written
with a single i: as, fill, of a son; inge'ni, of genius.
The same contraction occurs with the gen. sing, and the dat.
and abl. plur. of nouns in aius and eius : as, Grais, Pompei.
c. Proper names in ius lose e in the vocative : as, Vergi'li ;
also, filius, son, genius, divine guardian ; and the possessive meus,
•my: as, audi, mi fili, hear, my son.
d. Greek names in ius have the vocative le; and adjectives
derived from proper names — as Lacedaemouius — also form
the vocative in ie.
e. In the genitive plural, um (or, after v, om) is often found
for orum, especially in poets.
/. Deus, god, has vocative deus ; plural, nominative and voc-
ative dei or di (dii) ; dative and ablative deis or dis (diis).
For the genitive plural deorum, divum or divom (from
divus) is often used.
^ 5« The following stems in Sro, in which e belongs to the stem,
retain e throughout: puer, boy ; gener, son-in-law; socer, father-
in-law ; vesper, evening ; with compounds in -fer and -ger : as,
lucifer, -fe"rif light-bringer ; armiger, -geri, armor^bearer.
a. Vir, man, has the genitive viri ; the adjective satur, sated,
has saturi ; vesper has abl. vespere (loc. vesperi).
b. Liber, a name of Bacchus, also has Liberi ; so, too, the
pi ir. liberi, children.
>^ 6. The following, which insert e, are declined like liber:
ager, field; aper, boar; arbiter, judge; auster, south-wind;
caper, goat; coluber, snake; conger, sea-eel; culter, knife;
faber, smith; fiber, beaver; geometer, geometer ; magister, mas-
ter ; minister, servant ; oleaster, wild-olive ; onager (grus), wild-
ass; scomber (brus), mackerel.
11, I.] THIRD DECLENSION. 17
7. Greek Nouns, a. Many Greek names in eus, as Or-
pheus (being of the third declension in Greek), have gen. ei
or eos, dat. ei; ace. ea; voc. eu; abl. eo.
b. Many in es, belonging to the third declension, have also a
gen. in i: as, Thucydidi
c. Some Greek names in er have a form in us : as, Teucer,
Teucrus.
d. About twenty words have the Greek ending 6s (M. or r.)
or 6n (N.): as, lotos, water-lily; parelion, mock-sun. Among
these are the following : —
Barbitos (on), lyre; miltos, cinnabar; mythos, fable ; nomos,
district; rhythmos, rhythm; scopes, aim; spodos (F.), dross.
11. THIRD DECLENSION.
Nouns of the Third Declension are most conveni-
ently classed according to their Stems, whether ending
in a vowel, a liquid, or a mute.
I. VOWEL-STEMS.
1. Vowel-stems of this declension end in i. Thus that of
turris is turri- ; and that of mare, mari-.
a. Nouns of this class are parisyllabic ; that is, the oblique
cases of the singular have no more syllables than the nominative.
(For exceptions in al, ar, see 2, c.)
b. A few stems ending in u-, as of grus, sus, were treated as
consonant-stems. (See HI. 4, a.)
2. The Nominative, except in neuters, is formed from the
stem by adding S.
a. About thirty nouns (as nubes) change i to e in the nom-
inative (Compare Note, p. 22).
These are acindces, alces, ccedes, cautes, clades, compdges, contages,
crates, fames, feles,Jides, labes, meles, moles, nubes, proles, propdges, sedes,
sepes, sordes, strayes, suboles, sudes, tabes, torques, tudes, vates, vehes, vetres.
b. The nominative of a few stems in ri- does not add s, but loses
i, inserting e before r. These are imber, linter, uter, venter.
c. The nominative of neuters is the same as the stem, with the
change of i to e. But, when i is preceded by al or ar, the e is
lost (except in collar e, mare, navale, tibiale).
NOTE. — This latter class were originally neuters of adjectives in
alls, aris ; and, when used as adjectives, retain the e. They are the
following : animal, cervical, cubital, puteal, toral, tribunal ; calcar, cochlear,
exemplary lacunart laquear, lumlnar, palear, pulvlnar, torcular, vectlgal.
18
THIRD DECLENSION.
[11, I.
s/
SINGULAR.
Tower (F.).
Cloud (F.).
Sea ( N.).
Nom.
turris
nubes
mare
Gen.
turris
nubis
maris
Dat.
turri
nubi
mari
Ace.
turrim (em)
nubem
marS
Voc.
turris
nubes
mare
Abl.
turri (e)
nube
mari
Spur (N.).
calcar
calcaris
calcari
calcar
calcar
calcari
PLURAL.
Nom.
turres
nubes
Gen.
turrium
nubium
Dat.
turribus
nubibus
Ace.
turris (es)
nubes
Voe.
turres
nubes
Abl.
turribus
nubibus
maria
marium
maribus
maria
maria
maribus
calcaria
calcarium
calcaribus
calcaria
calcaria
calcaribus
3. Case Forms, a. The regular form of the accusative
singular, M. and F., is im (as am, um, em of the other vowel-
declensions). But, in most nouns, this was supplanted by the con-
sonant-form em ; and it is only retained in the following : —
1. Exclusively (1) in Greek nouns and names of rivers; (2) in
burls, cucumis, ravis, sitis, tussis, vis ; (3) in adverbs in tim (being ace.
of nouns in tis), with partim and amussim ;
2. Along with em infebris,restis, turris, securis, sementis, and (in
one or two passages) in many other words.
&. The regular form of the ablative singular is i (as in the
other declensions a, 6, u, e, with loss of the original d). This
was also supplanted by e, and retained only —
1. Exclusively (1) in those above having accusative in im; also
securis, and the following adjectives used as nouns : cequalis, annalis,
aqualis, consular is, gentilis, molaris, primipilaris, tribulis ; (2) in neuters
(as above), except baccar, jubar, and sometimes (in verse) mare, rete;
2. Along with e in avis, clavis, febris, finis, ignis (always aqua et
igni interdict), imber, navis, ovis, pelvis, puppis, sementis, strigilis, turris;
and the following adjectives used as nouns : affinis, bipennis, canalis,
familiaris, natalis, rivalis, sapiens, triremis, vocalis.
3. The ablative of fames, hunger, is always of the Fifth declen-
sion. The defective mane, morning, has sometimes abl. mani.
4. Most names of towns in e — as Prceneste, Ccere — and the
mountain Soracte, have the ablative in e.
11, H.] THIRD DECLENSION. — LIQUID STEMS. 19
c. The regular nominative plural would be is, but this is
rarely found. The regular accusative is is common, but not
exclusively used in any word.
d. The regular genitive plural ium is retained by all except
the following: —
(1) ambages and volucris (always um) ; (2) vates (commonly urn) ;
(3) apis, ccedes, clades, suboles (rarely um) ; (4) cams, juvenis, mensis, had
not originally vowel-stems, and retain um ; but mensis has both.
4. Greek Nouns. — A few Greek nouns in is have the ace.
im or in, voc. i, abl. i.
Many in es have forms of the First or Second Declension : as,
Achilles, gen. ei or i, dat. i, ace. en, ea, voc. e, abl. i.
NOTE. — Nouns such as urbs, pars, having the genitive plural ium
and the accusative (occasionally) is, were originally vowel-stems.
II. LIQUID STEMS.
In nouns whose stem ends in a liquid (1, n, r), the nom-
inative has no termination, but is the same as the stem, except
when modified as follows : —
a. Final n of the stem is dropped in masculines and feminines,
except some Greek nouns : as, leon-is, leo ; legion-is, legio.
b. Stems ending in din-, gin- (mostly feminine) retain in the
nominative an original o : as, virgo. Tfyose in in- preceded by
any other consonant retain an original e : as, carmen, inis, N. ;
cornicen, mis, M. (Exceptions iv. 2, 6.)
c. Nouns whose stem ends in tr retain in the nominative an
original e: as, pater (compare i. 2, b.).
d. In neuters whose stem ends in er, Sr, fir, the r was originally
s, which is retained in the nominative, 6 of the stem being weak-
ened into ii: as, opus, eris: corpus, oris. A few masc. and
fern, stems also retain s. (Exceptions iv. 2, 6.)
e. Stems in 11, rr, lose one of these liquids in the nominative.
/. The following have gen. plur. ium: glis, mas, ren, mus.
SING. Consul. PLUR. j SING. -Name. PLUR.
Nom. consul consules nSmen nomina
Gen. consulis consulum nomfnis nominum
Dat. consuli consulibus nomini nominibus
Ace. consulem consules nomen nomina
Voc. consul consules nomen nomina
Abl. consule consulibus nomine nominibus
20 THIRD DECLENSION. - MUTE STEMS. [11,111.
Honor, M. . Lion, M. Father, M. Tree, F. Maiden, F. Work, N.
Sing.
N. V. h5n6r leo pater arbor virgo opus
G. honoris leonjs patris arbdris virgmis operis
D. honor! leoni patri arbor! virgin! operi
A. honorem leonem patrem arb5rem virginem opus
A. honore leone patre arb6re virgme opere
Plur.
N. A. V. honores leones patres arbSres virgines opera
G. honorum leonum patrum arbSrum virginum operum
D. Ab. honoribus leonibus patribus arboribus virginibus operibus
III. MUTE STEMS.
Masculine or feminine nouns whose stem ends in a Mute
form the nominative by adding s. Neuters have for nomina-
tive the simple stem.
NOTE. — If the stem ends in two consonants, the genitive plural
generally has ium (n. 8, N.). Some of these, originally i-stems,
have also an old nominative in is : as, trabis, urbis.
1. Labial. If the mute is a labial (b, p), s is simply
added to the stem.
a. Stems in ip- retain in the nominative an original e, the
vowel having been weakened in the other cases : as, princeps, ipis.
&. Most stems in cip- (M.) are compounds of the root cap (in
capio) take: as, auceps (avi-ceps), bird-catcher.
In these the stem sometimes has the form cup-, as aucupis.
c. The only noun whose stem ends in in is hiemps, winter.
(For the insertion of p, see note, foot of p. 3.)
SING. City, F. PLUR. SING. Chief. PLUR.
Norn, urbs urbes princeps principes
Gen. urbis urbium principis princlpum
Dat. urbi urbibus principi principibus
Ace. urbem urbes principem principes
Voc. urbs urbes princeps principes
Abl. urbe urbibus principe principibus
2. Lingual. If the mute is a lingual (d, t), it is sup-
pressed before s.
a. Stems in it- (M. or F.) retain in the nominative an original
e : as, hospgs, itis. (In a few, as comes, the e is not original.)
NOTE. — The only nominative in't is caput, ttis.
b. Neuter stems ending in two consonants, and those ending
in at- (Greek nouns), drop the final lingual in the nominative : as,
cor, cordis; poema, atis.
11,111.] THIRD DECENSION. MUTE STEMS. 21
SING. Guard. PLUR. SING. Companion. PLUR.
Nom.
custos custodes
comes comltes
Gen.
custodis custodum
comitis comftum
Dat.
custodi custodibus
comiti cormtibus
Ace.
custodem custodes
comitem comites
Voc.
custos custodes
comes comftes
Abl.
custode custodibus
comite comitibus
Sing.
N. V.
Age, F. Heart, M. Stone, M.
eetas cor lapis
Family, F. Head, N. Poem, N.
gens caput poema
G.
SBtatis cordis lapidis
gentis capitis poematis
D.
setati cordi lapidi
genti capiti poemati
A.
setatem cor lapidem
gent em caput poema
A.
setate(i) corde lapide
gente capite poemate
Plur.
N. A. V.
eetates corda lapides
gentes capita poemata
G.
D. Ab.
setatum (ium) lapidum
setatibus cordibus lapidibus
gentium capitum poematum
gentibus capitibus poematis
(or ibus)
c. Case-forms. Some nouns of lingual stems have forms
of the vowel-declension.
1. Participles used as nouns, and a few others originally i-stems,
occasionally have the ablative in i : as, continenti, cetati, parti, sorti.
2. Stems in tat- (originally i-stems), nt- (participles used as nouns),
d or t preceded by a consonant, — also dis, lis, and pons, — regularly
have the genitive plural ium.
3. Names denoting birth or abode, with stems in at-, it- (originally
adjectives), with penates, optimates, regularly have the gen. plur. ium.
d. Greek neuters (as poema), with nom. sing, in a, frequently
end the dat. and abl. plur. in is, and rarely the gen. in orum.
3. Palatal. If the mute is a palatal (c, g), it unites
with s in the nominative, forming x.
a. Stems in ic- (short i) have nom. in ex, and are chiefly mas-
culine ; those in ic- (long i) retain i, and are feminine.
&. In nix, nivis, snow, the nom. retains a palatal lost in the
other cases (original stem snig-, compare ningit) ; supellex
(-ectilis) is partly a lingual, partly an i-stem.
SING. Peak, M. PLUR. SING. Raven, F. PLUR.
Nom. apex apfces cornix cornices
Gen. apicis aplcum cormcis cornlcum
Dat. apici apicibus cornlci cornlcibus
Ace. apicem apices cornlcem cornices
Voc. apex apices cornix cornices
Abl. apice aptcibus cornice cornlcibus
22
THIRD DECLENSION: MUTE STEMS. [11: in.
Sing.
Peace, p.
"•King, M.
Light, P.
Fruit, p.
Citadel, P.
Throat.
N.
pax
rex
lux
[frux]
arx
G.
pacis
regis
lucis
frugis
arcis
D.
paci
regi
luci
frugi
arci
Ac.
pacem
regem
lucem
frugem
arcem
Ab.
pace
rege
luce
fruge
arce
fauce
Plur.
N. A. V.
paces
reges
luces
fruges
arces
fauces
G.
regum
frugum
arcium
faucium
D. Ab.
pacibus
regibus
lucibus
frugibus
arcibus
faucibus
c. Case-forms. A few monosyllables, as faux (def.), arx,
have gen. plur. ium ; in lux, an abl. luci occurs rarely.
4. Peculiar Forms. In many nouns the stem is vari-
ously modified in the nominative.
a. The vowel-stems gru-, su-, simply add s, retaining the
original u ; grus 'has also a nom. griiis ; sus has in pi. subus.
b. In bov- (bou-), the diphthong ou becomes 6 (bos, bbvis) ;
in nav- (nau-) an i is added (navis, is) ; in J6v-(=Zei;f) the diph-
thong becomes u in Ju-piter (pater), gen. Jbvis, &c.
c. In iter, itineris (N.), jecur, jecinoris (N.), the nom. has
been formed from a shorter stem ; so that these words show a
combination of two distinct forms.
d. Of the many original s-stems, only vas, vasis (pi. vasa,
orum) retains its proper declension.
NOTE. — Of apparent s-stems, as (assis) is an i-stem ; of os, ossis,
the original stem is osti- (cf. OO-TCOV and Sanskrit asthi} ; while the
others have either (1) passed into r-stems (changed from s) in most of
the cases, as honor, oris, corpus, oris (see liquid stems] ; or (2) have
broken down into i-stems, as moles (cf. molestus), nubes (Sanskrit
nabhas), sedes (cf. <-8os), vis (vires), &c.
Sing.
Ox, c.
Snow, P.
Old Man,
M. Flesh, p.
N.
bos
nix
senex
caro
G.
b6vis
nivis
senis
carnis
D.
bdvi
nivi
seni
carni
A.
bCvem
nivem
senem
carne
A.
bQve
nivS
sSnS
came
Plur.
N. A.
V. bQves
nives
sSnes
carnes
G.
b6um
senum
D. A.
bobus
nivlbus
senlbus
carnibu
(bubus)
Bone, N.
6s
ossis
ossi
6s
osse
Force. P.
VIS
vis
vim
vi
ossa vires
ossium virium
ossibus viribus
5. The Locative form for nouns of the Third declension emls,
like the dative, in I; sometimes, like the ablative, in e: as, ruri,
I/I the country ; Karthagini, at Carthage ; Tibiire (Hor.), at
Tibur ; — plural in ibus: as, Trallibus, at Tralles.
6. Greek Nouns. Many nouns, originally Greek, - —
mostly proper names, — retain Greek forms of inflection.
a. Stems in in- (i long) add s in the nominative, omitting n :
as, delphis (but also delphin), Salamis. So Phorcys.
11: IIL, iv.] THIRD DECLENSION: RULES OF GENDER. 23
b. Most stems in id- (nom. is) often have also the forms of
i-stems : as, tigris, idis (idos) or is; ace. idem (Ida) or im; abl.
ide or i. But many, including most feminine proper names, have
ace. idem (ida), abl. ide, — not im and i. These follow the
forms in Greek, which depend on the place of the accent.
c. Stems in 6n- sometimes retain n: as, Agamemnon (or
Agamemno), onis, ace. ona.
d. Stems in ont- form the nom. in on: as, horizon, Xeiio-
phon ; but a few are occasionally latinized into on- (nom. o) : as,
Draco, onis.
e. Stems in ant-, ent-, have nom. in as, is : as, adamas,
antis ; Simois, entis. So a few in unt- (contr. from cent-) have
us : as, Trapezus, untis. Occasionally the Latin form of nom-
inative is also found : as, Atlans, elephans.
/. Case- Forms. — Many Greek nouns (especially in the
poets) have gen. 6s, ace. a; plur. nom. es, aec. as: as, aer,
aether, crater, hero (ois), lampas (adis or ados), lynx (cis
or c6s), nais (idos), Orpheus (eos).
g. A few in ys have ace. yn, voc. y ; abl. ye : as, chelys,
yn, y ; Capys, yos, yn, y, ye.
h. Several feminine names in 6 have gen. sing, us, all the
other cases ending in o ; they may also have regular forms : as,
Dido; gen. Didonis or Did us; dat. Didoni or Dido, &c.
IV. RULES OF GENDER.
1. The following are general Rules of Gender of nouns
of the third declension, classed according to the termination
of the nominative.
NOTE. — Rules of gender are mostly only rules of memory, as
there is no necessary connection between the form and gender. In
fact, most nouns could originally be inflected in all genders.
^ a. Masculine endings are o, or, os, er, es (idis, itis).
b. Feminine endings are as (atis), es (is), is, ys, x, s (follow-
ing a consonant) ; also, do, go, io (abstract and collective) , and
us (udis, utis).
1 c. Neuter endings are a, e, i, y ; c, 1, t ; men (minis) ; ar,
ur, us (eris, 6ris). .
2. The following are general Rules of Gender of nouns
of the third declension, classed according to their stems.
NOTE. — See the Note above. But the preference of masc. and
fern, (especially fern.) for long vowels cannot be accidental (compare
long a of 1st declension). Some affixes also prefer one or another
gender: as, tor (originally tar), masculine ; ti, feminine ; men (origi-
nally man), neuter.
24 THIRD DECLENSION: RULES OF GENDER. [11: iv
a. Vowel Stems. Stems in i, having a in the nominative
are feminine, except those mentioned below (3, a). Those havinj
nominative in S, or which drop the e, are neuter.
&. Liquid Stems. Stems in 1 are masculine, except si]
fel, mel, and sometimes sal (N ). Those in mln are neuter, ex
cept homo, nemo, flamen (M.). Others in in are masculine
except pollen^ unguen (N.). Those in en are masculine. Tho,*
in din, gin, ion (abstract and collective) are feminine. Other
in on, with cardo, margo, ordo, unio, senio, quaternio, an
masculine. Those in r preceded by a short vowel are neufer
except nearly 30 given below. Those in r preceded by a lon<
vowel are masculine, except soror, uxor, glos, tellus, F. ; crus
jus, pus, rus, tus (in which the long vowel is due to contraction), N
c. Labial Sterns (no neuters). Stems in b and m ar<
feminine, except chalybs. Those in p are chiefly masculim
(exceptions below).
d. Lingual Stems. Stems in ad, ed, id, nd, ud, aud, ar<
feminine, except dromas, pes, quadrupes, obses, praeses
lapis (M.). Those in at, ut, are feminine, except patrials (a;
Arpinas), with penates and optimates. Those in ed, et, arc
masculine, except merces and quies with its compounds. Those
in et, it, are m,asculine, except abies, merges, seges, teges (F.)
and those which are common from signification. Those in at arc
neuter ; those in nt various (see List) ; those in It, rt, feminine
(For a few isolated forms, see List.)
e. Palatal Stems. Stems in c preceded by a consonant
or long vowel are feminine, except calx (stone or heel), decunx
phoenix, storax, vervex, M. Those in c preceded by a shorl
vowel are chiefly masculine (for exceptions, see List) ; those in g,
masculine, except frux, lex, phalanx, syrinx (also nix, nivis),
3. The following are the Forms of Inflection of nouns of
the Third Declension, classed according to their Stems.
a. Vowel-Stems.
es, is: — about 35 nouns (original s-stems, list p. 17), feminine,
except tudes, hammer ; vates, prophet ; verres, pig (M.).
Is, is: — about 100 nouns, chiefly feminine.
11: iv., 3-] THIRD DECLENSION: FORMS OP INFLECTION. 25
e, is : — upwards of 20 nouns, all neuter.
al, alls; ar, arts: — 16, neuter (see list, page 17; and for those
in ar, aris, see Liquid Stems),
er, ris : — imber, shower ; linter, boat ; uter, bag ; venter, stom-
ach^ — all M. except linter, which is commonly F.
PECULIAR: — grus, gruis, crane, F. ; rhus, rhois (ace. rhum),
sumach, M. ; sus, suis, hog, c. ; heros, herois, hero, M. ; misy,
yos, truffle, F. ; oxys, yos, sorrel, F. ; cinnibari, vermilion ;
gummi, gum; sinapi, mustard (indecl.), N.
b. Liquid Stems.
1, lis : — 9 nouns, masculine, except sil, ochre, and (sometimes)
sal, salt, N.
en, enis: — hymen, marriage; ren, kidney ; splen (enis), spleen, M.
en, mis: — 10 nouns, M. except pollen, Jlour ; unguen, oint-
ment, N.
men, minis (verbal): — about 30 nouns, neuter; but flamen,
priest, M.
on, onis (Greek) : — canon, rule ; daemon, divinity ; gnomon,
index, M. ; — aedon, nightingale; alcyon, kingfisher; ancon,
corner; sindon, fine linen, F.
o, onis : — nearly 60 nouns, all masculine.
io, ionis (material objects, &c.) : — about 30 nouns, masculine.
io, ionis (abstract and collective) : — upwards of 50, feminine.
o, inis: — homo, man ; turbo, whirlwind, M. ; nemo, no one, c.
do, dmis : — nearly 50 nouns, feminine excepting cardo, hinge;
ordo, rank, M.
go, ginis : — about 30 nouns, feminine.
ar, aris : — baccar, valerian ; jubar, sunbeam ; nectar, nectar, N. ;
lar, household god ; salar, trout, M.
gr, ris: — accipiter, hawk ; frater, brother; pater, father, M. ;
mater, mother.
er, eris (Greek) : — crater, cup ; halter, dumb-bell ; prester, water-
spout, M.
er, eris : — acipenser, hawk ; aer, air ; aether, ether ; anser, goose ;
asser, stake ; aster, star ; cancer, crab ; career, dungeon ;
later, brick ; passer, sparrow, M. ; — mulier, woman, F. ; —
acer, maple ; cadaver, corpse ; cicer, vetch ; papaver, poppy ;
piper, pepper ; tuber, hump ; uber, udder ; verber, lash, N.
is, eris: — cinis, ashes; cucumis, cucumber; pulvis, dust; vomis,
ploughshare, M.
5r (os), oris : — nearly 70 nouns (besides many denoting the agent,
formed upon verb-stems), all masculine, except soror, sister ;
uxor, wife.
26 THIRD DECLENSION: FORMS OF INFLECTION. [11: iv., 3.
or, 8ris: — castor, beaver ; rhetor, rhetorician, M. ; — arbor, tree,
F. ; — ador, fine-wheat ; aequor, level; marmor, marble, N.
6s, oris: — flos, flower ; mos, custom ; ros, dew, M. ; — glos, sister-
in-law, F. ; — os, mouth, N.
ur, 6ris: — ebur, ivory; femur, thigh; jecur, liver; robur (or),
strength, N.
iir, uris: — 9 masculine; with fulgur, thunderbolt; murmur, mur-
mur ; sulphur, brimstone, N.
us, eris: — 13 neuter; also, Venus, F.
us, oris : — 14 nouns, neuter, except lepus, hare, M.
us, uris: — mus, mouse, M. ; — tellus, earth, F. ; — crus, leg ; jus,
right ; pus, fester ; rus, country ; tus, incense, N.
PECULIAR: — delphin, mis, dolphin; sanguis (en) mis, blood;
senex, senis, old man, N. ; caro, carnis, flesh, F, ; aes, aeris, cop-
per; far, farris, corn ; fel, fellis, gall; mel, mellis, honey; iter,
itineris, journey; jecur, jecinoris (jecoris), liver, N. ; glis,-iris,
dormouse, M.
c. Labial.
bs, bis : — chalybs, steel, M. ; — plebs, people ; scrobs, ditch ;
trabs, beam ; urbs, city, F. (original i-stems).
ms, mis: — hiemps, winter, F.
ps, pis : — 15 nouns, masculine, except forceps, pincers ; merops,
bee-eater ; ops, help ; stips, gift; stirps, stock, F.
d. Lingual.
as, adis (Greek) : — 14 nouns, feminine, except dromas, drome-
dary ; vas, surety, M.
es, edis : — cupes, epicure ; heres, heir ; praes, surety, M. ; —
merces, pay, F.
es, edis; — pes, foot; quadrupes, quadruped, M. ; — compes,
fetter, F.
is, idis: — obses, hostage; praeses, chief, c.
is, idis : — nearly 40 nouns, mostly Greek, feminine, except lapis,
stone, M.
os, odis : — custos, guardian, M.
6s, otis : — nepos, grandson, M. ; cos, whetstone ; dos, dowry, F.
us, udis: — incus, anvil; palus, marsh; subscus, dovetail; with
fraus, fraud ; laus, praise ; pecus, udis, sheep, F.
a, atis (Greek) : — nearly 20 nouns, neuter.
as, atis: — about 20 nouns (besides derivatives), feminine; also,
anas, atis, duck.
es, etis: — celes, race-horse; lebes, kettle; magnes, magnet, M. ;
— quies, requies, rest ; inquies, unrest, F.
11: iv., 3-] THIRD DECLENSION: FORMS OF INFLECTION. 27
es, etis: — aries, ram; interpres, interpreter; paries, house-wall,
M. ; — abies,^r; seges, crop ; teges, mat, F.
es, itis : — about 20 nouns, masculine (or common from significa-
tion) .
us, utis: — juventus, youth; senectus, old age; servitus, slavery;
virtus, virtue, F.
ns, ndis: — frons, leaf; glans, acorn; juglans, walnut, F.
ns, ntis : — nearly 20 (besides many participial nouns) , common,
except dens, tooth; fons, fountain; mons, mountain; pons,
bridge, M. ; — frons, brow; gens, nation; lens, lentile; mens,
mind, F.
rs, rtis (originally i-steins) : — ars, art; cohors, cohort; fors,
chance ; mors, death ; sors, lot, F.
ys, ydis : — chelys, tortoise ; chlamys, cloak, F.
PECULIAR: — as, assis, penny, M.; — lis, litis, lawsuit; nox,
noctis, night; puls, pultis, pottage, F. ; — caput, itis, head ; cor,
cordis, heart; hepar, ads, liver; os, ossis, bone; vas, vasis, ves-
sel, N. ; also, compounds of -pus, -pSdis (M.), Gr. for pes,foot.
e. Palatal.
ax, acis : — anthrax, coal ; corax, raven ; frax (pl.)» dregs ; pan-
ax, panacea ; scolopax, woodcock, M. ; — fax, torch ; styrax,
a gum, F.
ax, acis: — cnodax, pivot; cordax, a dance ; thorax, breastplate,
M. ; — pax, peace, F.
ex, icis : — upwards of 40 nouns, masculine, except carex,
sedge ; forfex, shears ; ilex, holm ; imbrex, tile ; nex (necis),
violent death ; pellex, concubine, F.
ix, icis: — about 30 nouns (also, larix, icis, larch), feminine ;
besides many in trix, regular feminines of nouns in tpr.
ox, ocis : — celox, cutter, F.
ux, ucis : — dux, leader, c. ; — crux, cross; nux, nut, F.
ux, ucis : — balux, gold-dust ; lux, light, F.
x, cis : — arx, tower ; calx, lime ; falx, pruning-knife ; lynx, lynx ;
merx (def.), ivare, F. ; — calyx, cup; calx, heel, M.
x, gis: — conjux (nx), spouse; grex, herd; remex, rower; rex,
king, M. or c. ; — frux (def.), fruit ; lex, law; phalanx, pha-
lanx, F., with a few rare names of animals.
Other nouns in x are nix, nivis, mow; nox, noctis, night; su-
pellex, ectilis, F. ; — onyx, ychis, onyx, M.
*" of "^ \
i v IMP VI f^ ?* T 171 W 1
28 FOURTH DECLENSION. [12: I, 2, 3.
12. FOURTH DECLENSION.
The Stem of nouns of the Fourth Declension ends
in u. (Usually this is weakened to i before -bus).
1. Masculine and feminine nouns form the nominative by
adding s ; neuters have for nominative the simple stem, but
with u (long).
NOTE. — The u in neuters is lengthened, probably on account of
the loss of m.
SING. Car(M.) PLUR. SING. Knee (N.) PLUR.
Nom. currus currus genu genua
Gen. currus (uis) curruum genu (us) genuum
Dat. currui (u) curribus genu genibus
Ace. currum currus genu genua
Voc. currus currus genu genua
Abl. curru curribus ' gen^ ' genibus
NOTE. — The Genitive singular is contracted from the old form in
uis. It is sometimes written with a circumflex : as, currus.
2. Gender* — a. Most nouns in us are masculine. The
following are feminine : — acus, needle ; anus, old woman ; colus,
distaff; dSmus, house; idus (pi.), the Ides; manus, hand;
nurus, daughter-in-law ; , porticus, gallery ; quinquatrus, feast
of Minerva ; socrus, mother-in-law ; tribus, tribe ; with a few
names of plants and trees. Also, rarely, arcus, penus, specus.
b. The only neuters are cornu, horn ; genu, knee ; pecu (def.),
cattle ; veru, spit. (Some others are mentioned by grammarians,
and the form ossua, as from ossu, occurs in inscriptions.)
3. Case-Forms. — a. An original genitive in os is some-
times found : as, senatuos ; and an old (but not original) geni-
in i is used by some writers.
&. The nominative plural has rarely the form uus.
C. The genitive plural is sometimes contracted into urn.
d. The following retain the regular dative and ablative plural
in iibus : artus, partus, portus, tribus, veru ; with dissyllables
in -cus, as lacus.
e. D5mus, house, has also the following forms of the second
declension : domi (locative; less frequently domui), at home ;
dative (rarely) domo ; ablative domo (rarely domu) ; plural gen.
domorum (rarely domuum) ; accusative domes (or domus).
13: I, 2.] FIFTH DECLENSION. 29
/. Most names of plants, with colus, distaff, have also forms
of the second declension.
4. Most nouns of the fourth declension are formed from verb-
stems, with the suffix -tus : as, cantus, song, from cano.
a. The Supines of verbs are the accusative and ablative (or
dative, perhaps both) of these nouns.
#. Many have only the genitive, or the genitive and ablative :
as, jussu (meo), by my command ; so injussu (populi), without
the people's order. Some only the dative, memoratui, divisui.
C. The remaining nouns of this declension are the following : —
sestus, heat; arcus, bow; artus, joint; coetus, meeting ; fetus, pro-
duce; ftcus,Jig ; gradus, step; incestus, incest; lacus, lake; laurus,
laurel; myrtus, myrtle; penus (def.), provision; pinus, pine; portus,
port; rictus, gape; senatus, senate; sinus, fold, bay; situs, dust;
specus, den; tonitrus, thunder; tumultus, tumult.
NOTE. — Several of these are formed upon verb-stqms not in use,
or obsolete. ' *
13. FIFTH DECLENSION.
The Stem of nouns of the Fifth Declension ends
in e, which appears in all the cases.
1. The nominative is formed from the stem by adding s.
SING. 77um7(F.)pLUR. SING. Z%(M.) PLUR. Faith (F.)
Nom. res res dies dies fides
Gen. rei rerum diei (die) dierum fidei
Dat. rei rebus diei (die) diebus fidei
Ace. rem res diem dies fidem
Voc. res res dies dies fides
Abl. re rebus die diebus fide
NOTE. — The e is shortened in the genitive and dative singular,
when not preceded by i ; viz., in fides, plebes, spes, res.
2. Gender, All nouns of this declension are feminine,
except dies and meridies, M.
NOTE. — Dies is sometimes feminine in the singular, especially in
phrases indicating a fixed time, or time in general : as, longa dies,
a long time ; constituta die, on the set day ; also in the poets : pulcra
dies, a fair day.
30 IRREGULAR NOUNS. [13, 14: I.
3. Case-Forms. The genitive singular anciently ended in
es (cf. as of first declension) ; and ei was sometimes contracted
into i or e, as in the phrase plebi-scitum, peoples decree (Fr.
plebiscite). An old dative in i or e also occurs.
4. Several nouns of the fifth declension have also forms of the
first, of which this is only a variety : as, niateria, -ies, timber ;
saevitia, -ies, cruelty.
NOTE. — Nouns in ies (except dies) are original a-stems. The
others are probably (excepting res) corrupted s-stems, like moles,
moles-tus ; dies, diurnus ; spes, spero. Requies (etis) has also forms of
this declension ; with others, as saties (for satietas), &c.
5. The Locative form of this declension is represented by -e,
as in hodie, to-day ; perendie, day-after-to-morrow ; die quarti,
the fourth day.
6. Of about forty nouns of this declension, the only ones com-
plete in all their parts are dies and res. Most want the plural,
which is, however, found in the nominative, accusative, and voca-
tive, in the following: acies, effigies, eluvies, facies, glacies,
progenies, series, species, spes.
14, IRREGULAR NOUNS.
1. Defective. Many nouns are defective in their forms
of declension, either from signification or by accident of use.
a. Some are found only in the singular (singularia tantum),
chiefly abstract nouns: as, pietas, piety; names of materials and
things weighed or measured (not counted) : as, aes, copper, far,
coin ; and proper names, as Cicero.
Abstract nouns in the plural may denote repetitions or instances,
as paces: — names of things measured, &c., kinds or samples, as
vina, wines, aera, brazen utensils ; proper names, two or more of
the same, as Scipiones. So Galliae, the two Gauls, CastSres,
Castor and Pollux, nives, snowflakes, soles, days, Joves, images
of Jupiter, palatia, the buildings on the hill.
b. Some are found only in the Plural (pluralia tantum) : these
include (1) many proper names, including those of Festivals and
Games ; (2) names of classes : as, majores, ancestors ; liberi,
children ; penates, household gods ; (3) the following from sig-
nification : arma, weapons ; artus, joints ; divitiae, riches ; excu-
biae, night-guard ; insidiae, ambush ; manes, departed spirits ;
minae, threats ; moenia, fortifications, and a few others, which
are very rare.
14: I, 2.] IRREGULAR NOUNS. 31
€. The following are defective in Case : —
ambage, § F. ; astus («. and p.), astu, M. ; cassem, e, § M. ; dapis, i, em,e, §
F. ; dicam, as, F. ; dicionis, i, em, e, § F. ; fauce, § F. ; foras, is (pi.), F. ;
fors, forte, F. ; frugis, i, em, e, § F. ; glos, F. ; gratia, as, is, F. ; impetus,
urn, u, M. ; injittas, F. ; jut/era, urn, ibus, N. ; lues, em, e, F. ; mane (nom.,
ace , and abl. ), N. ; nattci, N. ; obice, § c. ; opis, em, e, § p. , pondo (abl. or
milec.), N. ; precem, e, § F. ; sentis, em, es, ibus, M. ; sordem, e, § p. ; spontis,
e, p. ; suppetias, F. ; venui, urn, M. (o, N.) ; vicis, em, e, es, ibus, F. The
gen. plur. is also wanting in cor, cos,fax,fcex, lux, nex, os (on's),pax, pr&s,
ros, sal, sol, tus, vas, ver ; jura, rura, have only nom. and ace. plur.
§ Plural complete.
Many nouns of the fourth declension occur only in the dative, or
in the ace. and abl. (supines).
The following neuters are indeclinable : fas, nefas, instar, necesse,
nikil, opus, secus.
Nouns found only in one case are called monoptotes; in two cases,
diptotes ; in three cases, triptotes.
2. Variable. Many nouns vary in their form of declen-
sion, their gender, or their signification under different forms.
a. Some have two or more forms of Declension, and are called
heterodites : as,
Balnea or ce ; carbasus (F.), pi., a (N.) ; colus (1st and 4th), F.; femur,
dris or mis; jugerum, i, or abl. e, pi. a, urn, N. ; margarlta, CB (p.), or
um, i (N.) ; Muiciber, bri or beris : munus, en's, pi. munia (maenia), orum;
pubes, ens ; em, e ; penus, i, or oris ; scevitia, ce ; -ies, iei ; -ittido, inis, F. ;
sequester, tri, or tris ; with many found in the 1st and 5th declensions,
and n few other rare forms.
b. Some nouns vary in Gender (heterogeneous) : as,
caelum (x.), pi. caeli (M.), sky; clipeus (M.), or clipeum (N.),
shield; frenum (jn.), pi. freni (M.), rein.
c. Many nouns vary in meaning as they are found in the
singular or plural : as,
aedes, is (F.), temple; sedes, ium, house.
auxilium (N.), help ; auxilia, auxiliaries.
career (M.), dungeon; carceres, barriers (of a race-course).
castrum (M.),fort ; castra, camp.
copia (F.), plenty; cop ise, troops.
finis (M.), end ; fines, bounds, territories.
forum, market-place; fori, gang-ways.
gratia (F.), favor ; gratia?, thanks.
impedimentum (N.), hinderance ; impedimenta, baggage.
littera (F.), letter (of alphabet) ; Htterae, epistle.
locus (M.), place [pi. loca (N.)] ; loci, passages in books. (In early
writers this is the regular plural.)
ludus, sport ; ludi, public games.
opera, task; operae, day-laborers ("hands").
32 PROPER NAMES. [14, 15.
opis (F. gen.), help; opes, resources, wealth.
plaga (F.), region [plaga, blow] ; plagge, snares.
rostrum, beak of a ship ; rostra, speaker's platform.
sal (M. or N.), salt ; sales, witticisms.
tabella, tablet; tabellse, documents.
sestertius (M.) means the sum of 2£ asses, = about 4 cents.
sestertium (N.) means the sum of 1000 sestertii, = about $40.
decies sestertium means the sum of 1000 sestertia, = $40,000.
d. Sometimes a noun in combination with an adjective takes a
special signification, both parts being regularly inflected : as, jus-
jurandum, juris jurandi, oath; respublica, reipublicae, com-
monwealth.
15. PROPER NAMES.
1. A Roman had regularly three names. Thus, in the
name Marcus Tullius Cicero, we have —
Marcus, the prcenomen, or personal name ;
Tullius, the nmnen; i.e., name of the Gens, or house, whose
original head was Tullus ; this name is properly an adjective ;
Cicero, the cognomen, or family name, often in its origin
a nickname, — in this case from cicer, a vetch, or small pea.
2. A fourth or fifth name, called the agnomen, was
sometimes given.
Thus the complete name of Scipio the Younger was Publius
Cornelius Scipio Africanus jEmilianus ; Africanus from his ex-
ploits in Africa; JEmilianus as adopted from the ^Emilian gens.
3. Women had no personal names, but were known only
by that of their gens.
Thus the wife of Cicero was Terentia, and his daughter Tullia.
A younger sister would have been called Tullia secunda or minor,
and so on.
4. The commonest praenomens are thus abbreviated : —
A. Aulus. L. Lucius. Q. Quintus.
C. (G.) Gaius (Caius). M. Marcus. Ser. Servius.
Cn. (Gn.) Gnaeus (Cneius). M\ Manius. Sex. Sextus.
D. Decimus. Mam. Mamercus. Sp. Spurius.
K. KJBSO. N. Numerius. T. Titus.
.App. Appius. P. Publius. Ti. Tiberius.
16: i.] ADJECTIVES: INFLECTION. 33
ADJECTIVES.
16. INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES.
ADJECTIVES and Participles are in general formed
and declined like Nouns, differing from nouns only in
their use. In accordance with their use, they distin-
guish gender by different forms in the same word.
They are (1) of the first and second declensions, or
(2) of the third declension.
NOTE. — Latin adjectives and participles are either o-stems with
the corresponding feminine a-stems (originally a and a), or i-stems.
Many, however, were originally stems in u or a consonant, which
passed over, in all or most of their cases, into the i-declension, for
which Latin had a special fondness. (Compare the endings es and
Is of the Third declension with Greek €s and as; navis (nom.) with
the Greek vavs ; animus with exanimis ; cornu with bicornis ; lingua
with bilingms ; cor, corde, corda, with discors, -di, -dia, -dium ; suavis
with fjSiis; ferens, -entia, with <f>€pa>v, -ovra.) A few, which in other
languages are nouns, retain the consonant-form : as, veins = £ros,
uber = ov0ap. Comparatives also retain the consonant form in most
of their cases.
1. Stems in 0 have the feminine a (originally a). They
are declined
like servus (M.), stella (F.), donum (N.): as,
M.
F.
N.
SING.
Nom.
cariis
cara
carum, Dear.
Gen.
cari
carae
cari
Dat.
car5
carae
caro
Ace.
carum
caram
carum
Voc.
care
cara
carum
Abl.
caro
cara
car5
PLUR.
Nom.
cari
carae
cara
Gen.
carorum
cararum
carorum
Dat.
caris
caris
caris
Ace.
caros
caras
cara
Voc.
cari
carae
cara
Abl.
caris
caris
caris
— The masc. gen. of adjectives in ius ends in ii, and the
vocative in ie ; not in i as in nouns.
2*
ADJECTIVES I INFLECTION.
[16: I.
a. In adjectives of stems ending in ro- preceded by S or a
consonant (also satur), the masculine nominative is formed like
puer or liber (§ 10; : as,
Sing.
N. miser
G. miseri
D. misero
Ac. miserum
V. miser
Ab misero
Plur.
N. miseri miserae misera
G. miserorum miserarum miserprum
D miseris miseris miseris
Ac. miserps miseras misera
V. miseri miseree misera
Ab. miseris miseris miseris
ser, wretched.
Ater, black.
mis6ra
miserum
ater
atra
atrum
miserse
miseri
atri
atrse
atri
miserse
misero
atro
atrse
atro
mis e ram
miserum
atrum
atram
atrum
misera
miseruin
ater
atra
atrum
misera
misero
atro
atra
atro
atri atrse atra
atrprum atrarum atrorum
atris atris atris
atrps atras atra
atri atrse atra
atris atris atris
Stems in ero, with morigerus, properus, posterus, have the
regular nominative in us.
Like miser are declined — asper, rough; gibber, hunched ; lacer,
torn; liber, free; prosper (erus) , favoring ; satur (ura, urum), sated;
tener, tender ; with compounds of -fer and -ger ; also, usually, dexter,
right. In these the e belongs to the stem ; but in dexter it is often
syncopated.
Like ater are declined — seger, sick ; creber, dose; faber, skilled;
glaber, sleek; integer, whole; ludicer, sportive; macer, lean ; niger,
dark; noster, our; piger, sluggish; ruber, red ; sacer, sacred; sinis-
ter, left; teter,foul; vafer, shrewd; vester, your.
The following feminines lack a masculine singular nominative : —
cetera, infera, postern, supera. They are rarely found in the singular
except in certain phrases : as, postero die. A feminine ablative in o
is found in a few Greek adjectives, as lectlcd octophoro ( Verr. v. 11.).
b. The following (o-stems) with their compounds have the
genitive singular in lus and the dative in I in all the genders : —
alms (N. aliud), other, rmllus, none, ullus, any( with negatives).
alter, other (of two). solus, alone, unus, one.
neuter, -trius, neither, totus, whole, uter, -trius, which (of two).
I NOTE. — The suffix ter, in alter, uter, neuter, is the same as the
Greek comparative suffix -T€po(s). The stem of aliud appears in early
Latin and in derivatives as all-, in the forms alls, olid (for aliud),
aliter, &c.
Of these the singular is thus declined : —
M.
F.
. N.
N.
solus
sola
solum
G.
solms
solms
solius
D.
soli
soli
soli
A.
solum
sol am
solum
A.
solo
sola
solo
N.
alius
alia
aliud
G.
alius
alius
alius
D.
alii
alii
alii
A.
alium
aliam
aliud
A.
alio
alia
alio
M.
p.
N.
uter
utra
utrum
utrms
u trius
utrius
utri
utri
utri
utrum
utram
utrum
utro
utra
utro
alter
altgra
alterum
alterius
alterius
alterius
alteri
alteri
alteri
alterum
alteram
alterum
altero
altera
altero
16:2.] ADJECTIVES: INFLECTION. 35
NOTE. — These words, in Greek and Sanskrit, are treated as pro-
nouns ; which accords with the pronominal forms of the genitive in
ius, the dative in i, and the neuter d in aliud. The i in the geni-
tive -ius, though long, may be made short in verse ; and alterius is
generally accented on the antepenult. Instead of allus (gen.), alte-
rius is more commonly used. In compounds — as alteruter — some-
times both parts are declined, sometimes only the latter.
2. Stems in i — distinguished by being parisyttabic —
have properly no form for the feminine, and hence are called
adjectives of two terminations. In the neuter, i is changed
to e. They are declined like turris (ace. em) and mare.
Sing. M., Y. Light. N. M. Keen. F. N.
N.V. levis leve acer acris acre
G. levis levis acris acris acris
D. levi levi acri acri acri
Ac. levem leve acrem acrem acre
Ab. levi levi acri acri acri
Plur.
N.V. leves levia acres acres acria
G. levium levium acrium acrium acrium
D. levibus levibus acribus acribus acribus
Ac. leves (is) levia acres (is) acres (is) acria
Ab. levibus levibus acribus acribus acribus
a. Several stems in ri- form the masc. nom. in er (as acer,
compare § 11, i. 2, 6.) . These are the following : —
acer, keen. pedester, on foot.
alacer, eager. puter, rotten.
campester, of the plain. saluber, wholesome.
celeber, famous. Silvester, wooded.
equester, of horsemen. terrester, of the land.
paluster, marshy. volucer, winged.
Also celer, celeris, celere, swift; and, in certain phrases, the
names of months in -ber.
NOTE. — This formation is not original ; and hence, in the poets,
and in early Latin, either the masculine or feminine form of these
adjectives was used for both genders. In others, as illustris, lugiibris,
medidcris, muliebris, there is no separate masculine form.
b. Case-Forms. These adjectives, as true i-stems, retain
i in the abl. singular, the neut. plural ia, the gen. plur. ium, and
often in the ace. plur. is, but never im in the ace. sing. For metri-
cal reasons, an abl. in e sometimes occurs in poetry. When celer
is used as an adjective, it has the regular gen. plur. in ium ; as a
noun, denoting a military rank, it is celerum ; as a proper name,
it has the abl. in e.
36
ADJECTIVES : INFLECTION.
[16: 3.
3. The remaining adjectives of the third declension have
the form of i-stems in the ablative singular I, the plural
neuter ia, and genitive ium. In other cases they follow
the rule of consonant-stems.
a. In adjectives of consonant-stems (except comparatives) the
nominative singular is alike for all genders : hence they are called
adjectives of one termination. Except of stems in 1 and r, it is
formed from the stem by adding s : as,
Siny.
M. F. Happy. N.
M. F. Calling. N.
N.V.
felix
felix
vocans
vocans
Gen.
felicis
felicis
vocantis
vocantis
Dat.
felici
felici
vocanti
vocanti
Ace.
felicem
felix
vocantem
vocans
Abl.
felice or
felici
vocante or
vocanti
Plur.
N.V.
felices
fellcia
vocantes
vocantia
Gen.
fellcium
felicium
vocantium
vocantium
Dat.
felicibus
felicibus
vocantibus
vocantibus
Ace.
Abl.
fellces (is)
felicibus
fellcia
felicibus
vocantes (is)
vocantibus
vocantia
vocantibus
Other examples are the following : —
preeceps, headlong
preecipitis
praecipiti
prs3cipitem prseceps
praecipite
prsBCipites prsecipitia
prsecipitium
prsBcipitibus
M. F. N.
vetus, old
vetSris
veteri
veterem vetus
vetere (i)
vetSres vetSra
veterum
veteribus
NOTE. — The regular feminine of these adjectives, by analogy of
cognate languages, would end in ia : this form is found in the abstracts
amentia, desidia, socordia, frc., and in proper names, as Florentia
(cf. Greek <j>€pov<ra). The neuter would regularly have the simple
stem (as caput, cor, allec, Greek cj>€pov) ; but in all except liquid
stems, the masc. form in s has forced itself not only upon the neuter
nominative, but upon the accusative also, where it is wholly abnormal.
Sing.
M. F. N.
M. F. N.
N.V.
iens, going
par, equal
Gen.
euntis
paris
Dat.
eunti
pari
Ace.
euntem iens
parem par
Abl.
eunte (i)
pari
Plur.
N.A.V.
euntes euntia
pares paria
Gen.
euntium
par ium
D. Ab.
euntibus
paribus
Sing.
M. F. N.
M. F. N.
N.V.
dives, rick
uber, fertile
Gen.
divitis
ubSris
Dat.
diviti
uberi
Ace.
divitem dives
uberem uber
Abl!
divite (i)
ubere (i)
Plur.
N.A.V.
divites (ditia)
uberes ubera
Gen
divitum
ubSrum
D Ab.
divitibus
uberibus
16: 3-] ADJECTIVES: INFLECTION. 37
A few of these forms, used as nouns, have a feminine in a : as,
clienta, hospita, inhospita, with the appellation Juno Sospita.
b. The stem of Comparatives properly ended in 8s, which
became or in all cases except the neuter singular (N. A. v.), where
s is retained, and 8 is changed to ii (compare honor, oris ; cor-
pus, oris). Thus they appear to have two terminations.
Sing. M. F. Dearer. F. M. F. More. N.
N.V. carior carius <*" plus
Gen. carioris carioris ^0**" pluris
Dat. cariSri cariori ^.. pluri
Ace. cariorem carius plus
Abl. cariore or cariori plure
Plur.
N.V. cariores cariora phlres plura(ia)
Gen. cariorum cariorum plurium plurium
Dat. carioribus carioribus pluribus pluribus
Ace. cariores cariora plures plura
Abl. carioribus carioribus pluribus pluribus
NOTE. — The neuter sing, plus is used only as a noun. Its deriva-
tive complures, several, has sometimes neut. plur. compluria. All
other comparatives are declined like carior.
c. Case Forms. 1. The ablative singular of these adjec-
tives commonly ends in i ; but, when used as nouns, — as super-
stes, survivor, — they have e. Participles in ns used as such, —
especially in the Ablative Absolute, — or as nouns, regularly have
e ; but as adjectives, regularly i. (So adjectives in ns as in the
phrase, me imprudente.)
In the following, e is the regular form : — codes, compos, deses, dives,
hospes, pauper, particeps, prceceps, princeps, superstes, supplex ; also in
patrials (see § 44), with stems in at-, it-, nt-, rt-, when used as
nouns, and sometimes as adjectives.
2. The genitive plural ends commonly in ium, and the accusa-
tive often in is, even in comparatives, which are less inclined to
the i-declension.
In the following, the gen. plur. ends in um: — always in dives,
compos, inops, prcepes, supplex, and compounds of pes ; — sometimes, in
poetry, participles in ns. In vetus (ens), pubes (em), uber (em), which
did not become i-stems, the forms e, a, um, are regular ; but uber and
vetus rarely have the abl. in i.
3. Several are declined in more than one form : as, gracilis (us),
hilaris (us), inermis (us). A few are indecl. or defective : as,
damnas (esto, sunto), frugi (dat. of advantage), exspes (only nom.),exlex-
(nom. and ace.), mactus (nom. and voc.), nequam (indecl.), pernox (per-,
nocta], potis, pote (indecl. or M. F. potis, N. pote), primoris, semineci, &c.
38 ADJECTIVES: COMPARISON. [17: i.
d. Many adjectives, from their signification, are used only in
the masculine or feminine, and may be called adjectives of common
gender. Such are adolescens, youthful; deses, idis, slothful;
inops, opis, poor ; sospes, itis, safe. So senex and juvenis
may be called masculine adjectives.
e. Many nouns may be also used as adjectives (compare § 47,
3) : as, pedes, a footman or on foot ; especially nouns in tor (M.)
and trix (F.), denoting the agent: as, victor exercitus, the con-
quering army ; victrix causa, the winning cause.
f. Certain cases of adjectives are regularly used as Adverbs.
These are, the ace. and abl. of the neuter singular : as, multum,
multo, much ; — the neuter of comparatives (regularly) : as,
carius, more dearly ; levins, more lightly ; — together with those
ending in e for o-stems, and ter for i-stems : as, care, dearly ;
leviter, lightly ; acerrime, most eagerly.
17. COMPARISON.
%
1. ^Regular Comparison. The Comparative is formed
by adding, for the nominative, ior (old stem ios), neuter ius,
and the Superlative by adding issimus, a, um (old iss-
umus), to the stem of the Positive, which loses its final
vowel : as,
carus, dear ; carior, dearer ; carissimus, dearest.
levis, light ; levior, lighter ; levissimus, lightest.
felix, happy ; felicior, happier ; felicissimus, happiest.
hebes, dull ; hebetior, duller ; hebetissimus, dullest.
NOTE. — The comparative suffix is the same as the Greek uov, or
the Sanskrit iyans. That of the superlative (issimus) is a double
form, but what is the combination is not certain; perhaps it stands for
ios-timus. (comp. and sup.), or possibly for ist-timus (two superla-
tives). Strictly, new stems are thus formed.
a. Adjectives in er form the superlative by adding -rimus to
the nominative (comparative regular) : as,
miser, miserior, miserrimus ; acer, acrior, acerrimus.
So vetus, veterrimus (for comparative, vetustior) from the old
form veter ; and, rarely, maturrimus (for maturissimus).
&. The following in lis add -limus to the stem clipped of its
vowel : facilis, easy ; difficilis, hard ; similis, like ; dissimilis,
unlike ; gracilis, slender ; humilis, love.
NOTE. — The endings -limus and -rimus, the regular superlatives,
are formed by assimilation from -timus and -simus.
17: i, 2.] ADJECTIVES: COMPARISON. 39
C» Compounds in -dicus (saying), -ficus (doing), -volus
(willing), take the forms of corresponding participles in ns,
which were anciently used as adjectives : as,
maledicus, slanderous, maledicentior, maledicentissimus.
malevolus, spiteful, malevolentior, malevolentissimus.
d. Adjectives in us preceded by a vowel (except u) rarely
have forms of comparison, but are compared by the adverbs
magis, more; maxime, most : as,
idoneus, fit ; magis idoneus, maxime idoneus.
Most derivatives in -icus, -idus, -alls, -aris, -ills, -iilus, -undus,
-timus, -mus, -ivus, -orus, with compounds, as degeiier, inops,
are also thus compared.
e. Participles when used as adjectives are regularly compared :
as, patientior, patientissimus ; apertior, apertissimus.
NOTE. — Many adjectives — as aureus, golden — are from their
meaning incapable of comparison ; but each language has its own
usage in this respect. Thus niger, black, and candid us, white, are
compared ; but not ater or aibus, meaning absolute black or white.
2. Irregular Comparison. Several adjectives are
com pared "from different stems, or contain irregular forms : as,
bonus, melior, optimus, good, better, best.
malus, pejor, pessimus, bad, worse, worst.
magnus, major, maximus, great, greater, greatest.
parvus, minor, minimus, small, less, least.
multum, plus (N.), plurimum, much, more, most.
multi, plures, plurimi, many, more, most.-
nequam (indecl.), nequior, nequissimus, worthless,
frugi (indecl.), frugalior, frugalissimus, useful, worthy.
dexter, dexterior, dextimus, on the right, handy.
3. Defective Comparison. The following are formed
from roots or stems not used as adjectives : —
"cis, citra] citerior, citimus, hither, hithermost.
in, intra] interior, intimus, inner, inmost.
"prae, pro] prior, primus, former, first.
jprope] propior, proximus, nearer, next.
ultra] ulterior, ulttmus, farther, farthest.
a. Of the following the positive forms (originally comparative)
are rare, except when used as nouns, generally in the plural : —
[exterus] exterior, extremus (extimus), outer, outmost.
[inferus] inferior, infimus (Tmus), lower, lowest.
[posterus] posterior, postremus, latter, last.
[superus] superior, supremus or summus, higher, highest.
The plurals, exteri, foreigners ; poster!, posterity ; superi, the
heavenly gods ; inferi, those below, are common.
40 ADJECTIVES: COMPARISON. [17:4,5.
6. From juvenis, youth, senex, old man, are formed the com-
paratives junior, younger, senior, older. Instead of the superla-
tive, the phrase minimus or maximus natu is used (natu
being often understood) : as,
maximus fratrum, the eldest of the brothers ; but,
senior fratrum, the elder of the [two] brothers.
ۥ In the following, one of the forms of comparison is want-
ing:—
1. The Positive is wanting in deterior, deterrimus, worse,
ivorst; ocior, ocissimus, swifter, swiftest; potior, potissimus,
more and most preferable [from potis, able'].
2. The Comparative is wanting in bellus, pretty ; caesius, gray ;
falsus, false ; inclutus (or inclitus), famous ; invictus, unsur-
passed ; invitus, reluctant ; novus, new (novissimum agmen, rear
guard); pius, pious ; sacer, sacred; vetus, old; and most deriva-
tives in His and bilis.
3. The Superlative is not found in actu5sus, energetic; alacer,
eager ; arcanus, secret ; diuturnus, long-continued ; exilis, slender ;
ingens, huge ; jejunus, sterile ; longinquus, distant ; opimus,
rich ; proclivis, inclined ; satur, sated ; segnis, sluggish ; serus,
late; supinus, supine; taciturnus, silent; tempest! vus, season-
able; viclnus, neighboring.
4. Adverbs. Adverbs formed from adjectives are com-
pared in like manner : as,
carus, dear; care, carius, carissime.
miser, wretched ; misere (iter), miserius, miserrime.
levis, light ; leviter, levius, levissime.
audax, bold; audacter, audacius, audacissime.
bonus, good; bene, melius, optime.
rn^alus, bad; male, pejus, pessime.
Also, cjiu, long (in time), diutius diutissime ; — potius, rather,
potissimum, first-of-all ; — saepe, often, saepius ; — satis, enough,
satins, preferable; — secus, othenvise, secius, worse; — multum
(multo), m&gis, maxime, much, more, most.
5. Signification. Besides their regular signification, the
forms of comparison are used as follows : —
<i. The Comparative denotes a considerable or excessive degree
of a quality : as, brevior, rather short; audacior, too bold. It
is used instead of the superlative where only two are spoken of:
as, melior imperatorum, the best^ of the (two) commanders.
b. The Superlative (of eminence) denotes a very high degree of
a quality : as, maximus numerus, a very great number. With
quam, it indicates the highest degree : as, quam plurimi, as
many as possible; quam maxime potest (quam potest), as
much as can be.
17: 5- 18.] NUMERALS. 41
c. With quisque, the superlative has a peculiar signification :
thus the phrase ditissimus quisque means, all the richest;
primus quisque, all the first (each in his order).
d. A high degree of a quality is denoted by such adverbs as
admodum, valde, very; or by per or prae in composition: as,
permagnus, very great ; praealtus, very high (or deep).
e. A low degree is indicated by sub in composition : as, sub-
rusticus, rather countrified; or by minus, not very; minime,
not at all; parum, not enough ; non satis, not much.
18. NUMERALS.
1. Cardinal and Ordinal. Cardinal Numbers answer
to the interrogative quot, how many ; Ordinal Numbers to
quotus, which in order, or one of how many.
CARDINAL. ORDINAL. ROMAN NUMERALS.
1. unus, una, unum, one. primus, a, um, first. i.
2. duo, duae, duo, two. secundus (alter), second. n.
3. tres, tria, three, &>c. tertius, third, &>c. in.
4. quattuor quartus iv.
5. quinque quintus v.
6. sex sextus vi.
7. septem septimus vu.
8. octo octavus vm.
9. novem nonus ix.
10. decem declmus x.
11. undecim undecimus xi.
12. duodecim duodecimus xn.
13. tredecim tertius decimus xin.
14. quattuordecim quartus decimus xiv.
15. quindecim quintus decimus xv.
1 6. sedecim sextus decimus xvi.
17. septendecim septimus decimus xvii.
1 8. duodeviginti(octodecim) duodevicesimus xvm.
19. undeviginti (novendecim) undevicesimus xix.
20. viginti vicesTmus (vigesimus) xx.
21. viginti unus or unus et viginti vicesimus primus, &c. xxi.
30. triginta tricesimus xxx.
40. quadraginta quadragesimus XL.
50. quinquaginta quinquagesimus x. or L.
60. sexaginta sexagesimus LX.
70. septuaginta septuagesimus LXX.
80. octoginta octogesimus LXXX.
90. nonaginta nonagesimus xc.
100. centum centesimus c.
42
NUMERALS.
[18: I.
ORDINAL.
ducentesimus
trecentesimus
quadringentesimus
quingentesimus
sexcentesimus
septi ngentesimus
octingentesimus
nongentesimus
millesimus
quinquies millesimus
decies millesimus
centies millesimus
ROMAN NUMERALS.
CC.
ccc.
cccc.
13, or D.
DC.
DCC.
DCCC.
DCCCC.
CI3, or M.
133.
CC133.
CARDINAL.
200. ducenti, ae, a
300. trecenti
400. quadringenti
500. quingenti
600. sexcenti
700. septingenti
800. octingenti
900. nongenti
1000. mille
5000. quinque millia (milia)
10,000. decem millia (milia)
100,000. centum millia (milia)
NOTE. — The Ordinals (except secundus, tcrtius, octavus) are formed
by means of the same suffixes as superlatives. Thus decimus (com-
pare the form infimus) may be regarded as the last of a series of ten ;
primus is a superlative of pro; the forms in -tiis (quartus, quintus, sex-
tus) may be compared with the corresponding Greek forms in -TOS
and irpwTos, superlative of irpd ; nonus is contracted from novimus;
while the others have the regular superlative ending simus. Of the
exceptions, secundus is a participle of sequor ; and alter is a comparative
form (compare -rcpos in Greek).
a. Unus, una, unum, one, is declined like solus (§ 16, i.),
gen. unms and dat. uni in all genders. It often has the mean-
ing of same, or only. It is used in the plural in this sense, as also
to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning : as, una castra,
one camp. So uni et alteri, one party and the other.
b. Duo, two (also ambo, both) , is thus declined : —
duo
duorum
duobus
duo
duobus
NOTE. — This form in -o is a remnant of the dual number, which
was lost in Latin, but is found in cognate languages.
c. Tres, tria, three, is an i-stem, and is regularly declined like
the plural of le*vis. The other cardinal numbers, up to centum
(100), are indeclinable. The multiples of ten are compounds of
the multiple, with a fragment of decem : as, viginti = dui-ginta.
NOTE. — The forms octodecim (18), novendecim (19), are rare, unde-
viyinti, duodeviginti, &c., being commonly employed.
d. The hundreds, up to 1000, and all the ordinals, are o-stems,
and are regularly declined like adjectives of the first and second
declension.
Norn.
duo
duae
Gen.
duorum
duarum
Dat.
duobus
duabus
Ace.
Abl.
duos (duo)
duobus
duas
duabus
20: 1,2.]
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
45
/. To the personal (and sometimes to/'the adjective) pronouns
enclitics are joined for emphasis : — meu to all the pronouns ; -te
to tu; -pte to the abl. sing, of the adjectives, and in early Latin
to the others : as, vosmetipsos proditis/ you betray your own
very selves ; suopte pondere, by its own weight.
20. DEMONSTRATIVE.
1. The Demonstrative Pronouns are hie, this; is, ille,
iste, that ; with the Intensive ipse, self, and idem, same.
NOTE. — These are combinations of o and i-stems, which are not
clearly distinguishable. Hie is a compound of the stem ho- with
the demonstrative -ce, which appears in full in early Latin (hice),
and when followed by the enclitic -ne (hicine). In most of the cases
it is shortened to c, and in many lost; but it is appended for empha-
sis to those that do not regularly retain it (hujusce). In early Latin
c alone is retained in some of these (horunc). Ille and iste are
sometimes found with the same enclitic (illic, istuc).
a. Ille is a later form of ollus (olle), which is sometimes used
by the poets ; a gen. sing, in i, ae, i, occurs in ille and iste.
6. Iste is sometimes found in early writers in the form ste, &c.,
with the entire loss of the first syllable ; and the i of ipse and
ille is very often found shortened.
c. Ipse is compounded of is and -pse (for pte, from the same
root as potis), meaning self. The first part was originally de-
clined, as in reapse (for re eapse), in fact. An old form ipsus
occurs. Idem is the demonstrative is with the affix -dem.
2. These demonstratives are used either with nouns as
Adjectives, or alone as Pronouns ; and, from their significa-
tion, cannot (except ipse) have a vocative.
This. That.
Sing. M. F. N. M. F. N.
Nom. hie haec hoc
Gen. hujus hujus hujus
Dat. huic huic huic
Ace. hunc hanc hoc
Abl. hoc hac hoc
Plur. These.
Nom. hi hae haec •
Gen. horum haruin horum
Dat. his his his
Ace. hos has haec
Abl. his his his
is ea id
ejus ejus ejus
ei ei ei
eum earn id
eo ea eo
Those.
ii (ei) eae ea
eorum earum eorum
eis or iis
eos eas ea
eis or iis
46
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
[20: 2.
SING. M.
N. me
G. illms
D. illi
A. ilium
V.
A. illo
That.
P.
ilia
illius
illi
illam
mi
Those.
N.
mud
illius
illi
illud
illo
PLUR.
N. illi illse ilia
G illprum illarum illprum
I), illis illis illis
A. illos iUas iUa
A! illis
illis
iUis
M.
ipse
ipsius
ipsi
ipsum
ipse
ipso
ipsi
ipsorum
ipsis
ipsos
ipsi
ipsis
Self.
F.
ipsa
ipsius
ipsi
ipsam
ipsa
ipso
Selves.
ipsse
ipsarum
ipsis
ipsas
ipsse
ipsis
N.
ipsum
ipsius
ipsi
ipsum
ipsum
ipso
ipsa
ipsorum
ipsis
ipsa
ipsa
ipsis
The Same.
SIXG.
N. idem eadem Idem
G. ejusdem ejusdem ejusdem
D. eidem eidem eidem
A. eundem eandem idem
A. eodem eadem eodem
PLUR.
iidem eaedem eadem
eorundem earundem eorundem
eisdem or iisdem
eosdem easdem eadem
eisdem or iisdem
a. Hie is used of what is near the speaker (in time, place,
thought, or on the written page) ; hence called the demonstrative
of the first person. It is sometimes used of the speaker himself;
sometimes for " the latter" of two things mentioned.
b. Ille is used of what is remote (in time, &c.) ; hence called
the demonstrative of the third person. It is sometimes used to
mean "the former"; also (usually following its' noun) of what is
famous or well-known ; often /(especially the neuter illud) to mean
" the following.11 \?
c. Iste is used of what is between the two others in remoteness ;
often of the person addressed, — hence called the demonstrative of
the second person ; especially of one^ opponent, frequently imply-
ing contempt.
<?• Is is a weaker demonstrative than the others, not denoting
any special object, but referring to one just mentioned, or to be
explained by a relative. It is used oftener than the others as a
personal pronoun ; and is often merely a correlative to the relative
qui: as, eum quern, one whom; eum consulem qui non du-
bitet (Cic.), a consul who will not hesitate.
e. Ipse, may be used with a personal pronoun, as nos ipsi
(nosmetipsi) , we ourselves: or independently (the verb contain-
ing the pronoun), as, ipsi adestis, you are yourselves present ; or
with a noun, as ipsi fontes (Virg.), the very fountains.
NOTE. — In English, the pronouns himself, &c., are used both inten-
sively (as, he will come himself), or reflexively (as, he will kill "himself) :
in Latin the former would be translated ipse ; the latter se, or sese.
21: I, 2.] RELATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND INDEFINITE. 47
21. EELATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND INDEFIN-ITE.
1. The Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite pronouns
are the same ; viz., qui, quis (who, who ? «rcy), with their
compounds and derivatives.
NOTE. — The stem has two forms, quo- and qui-. From the latter
are formed quis, quid, quern, quibus, qul (abl.), while qui, qu<e, are prob-
ably lengthened forms of quo, qua, made by the addition of the
demonstrative particle i.
Sing.
M. F.
N.
Nom.
qui, quis quae
qu6d, quid
Gen.
cujus cujus
cujus
Dat.
cui (quoi) cui
cui
Ace.
quern quani
quod
Abl.
quo (qui) qua
quo
Plur.
Nom.
qui quae
quae (qua)
Gen.
quorum quarum
quorum
Dat.
quibus or quis
(queis)
Ace.
quos quas
quae (qua)
Abl.
quibus or quis
(queis)
Case Forms, a. The Relative has always qui and quod
in the nom. sing. The Interrogative and Indefinite have quis,
quid substantive, and qui, quod adjective. But quis and qui are
sometimes used for each other.
b. Old forms for the gen. and dat. are quoius, quoi. A loca-
tive cui occurs only in the form cuicuimodi, of whatever sort.
c. The form qui is used for the ablative of both numbers and all
genders ; but especially as an adverb (hoio, by which way, in any
way)^ and in the combination quicum, as interrogative or in-
definite relative.
cf. A nom. plur. ques (stem qui-) is found in early Latin.
The dat. and abl. quis (stem quo-) is old, but not infrequent.
e. The preposition cum is joined enclitically to all forms of the
ablative, as with the personal pronouns.
2. The stems quo and qui are variously compounded.
a. The suffix -cunque (-cumque) added to the relative makes
an Indefinite-relative, which is declined as the simple word : as,
quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whoever, whatever.
NOTE. — This suffix, with the same meaning, may be used with
any relative: as, qualiscunque, of whatever sort; quandocuiique
(quandoque), whenever; ubicuiique, wherever.
48 RELATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND INDEFINITE. [21: 2.
b. The interrogative form doubled also makes an indefinite-
relative : as, quisquis, whoever (so utut, however, ubiubi, wher-
ever). Of quisquis both parts are declined, but the feminine is
wanting : as,
Nom. quisquis (quiqui) quidquid (quicquid)
Gen. cujuscujus
Dat. cuicui
Ace. quemquem quidquid (quicquid)
Abl. quoquo
PLUR. !N"om. quiqui Dat., Abl. quibusquibus
This compound is rare, except in the forms quisquis, quicquid,
and quoquo. The case-form quamquam is used as a conjunc-
tion, although (lit. however). Quiqui is an early form.
c« Indefinite Compounds are the following : quispiam, any ;
quisquam, any-at-all ; quivis, quilibet, any-you-please ; quidam,
a, a certain. Of these the first part is inflected like quis, qui,
with quid or quod in the neuter.
NOTE. — The form -quam is from the stem quo-, perhaps -piam
also ; but if so it must be dialectic (compare Oscan pam for quam).
In quivis, quilibet, the second part is a verb (vis, you wish ; libet,
it pleases). They have the accusative case-forms quam vis, quamli-
bet (however, although), used as adverbs or conjunctions.
d. In aliquis, any, siquis, if any, nequis, lest any, ecquis,
numquis, whether any, the second part is declined like quis, but
having qua for quae, except in the nom. plur. feminine. Si quis,
ne quis, mini quis, are better written separately. The simple
form quis is rare except in these combinations ; and the com-
pounds quispiam, aliquis (si quis, if any one ; si aliquis, if
some one), are often used in these, being rather more emphatic.
NOTE. — Aliquis is compounded with ali-, old stem of alius, but
with weakened meaning. Ecquis is compounded with en.
e. The enclitic -que added to the indefinite gives a Universal :
as, quisque, every one ; ubique, everywhere (so uterque, either of
two, or both). Of quisque the first part is declined. In the
compound unusquisque, both parts are declined, and sometimes
separated by other words.
/. The relative and interrogative have a possessive adjective
cujus (stem cujo-), whose; and a patrial cujas (stem cujat-),
of what country.
g. Quantus, how great, qualis, of what sort, are derivative
adjectives from the same stem, and are used as interrogative
or relative, corresponding to the demonstratives tantus, talis.
Quam, how, is an accusative of the same stem, corresponding to
the case-form tarn, so.
h. Quisquam, with ullus, any, unquam, ever, usquam, any-
where, are chiefly used in negative, interrogative, or conditional
sentences, or after quam, than; sine, without ; vix, scarcely.
22.]
CORRELATIVES.
22. CORRELATIVES.
Many adjectives, pronouns, and adverbs are found in several
corresponding forms, as, demonstrative, relative, interrogative,
and indefinite. These are called CORRELATIVES. Their
forms are seen in the following Table: —
DEMONSTR.
RELAX.
INTERROG.
INDEF. REL.
INDEF.
is, that
qui
quis ?
quisquis
aliquis
tantus, so great
quantus
quantus ?
*
ali quantus
tails, such
qualis
qualis ?
*
ibi, there
ubi
ubi?
ubiubi
alicubi
eo, thither
quo
quo ?
quoquo
aliquo
ea, that way
qua
qua?
quaqua
aliqua
inde, thence
unde
unde ?
' *
alicunde
turn, then
quum, cum
quando ?
*
aliquando
tot, so many
quot
quot ?
quotquot
aliquot
toties, so often
quoties
quoties ?
*
aliquoties
* Compounds with -cumque.
a. The forms tot, quot, aliquot, totidem (originally toti),
are indeclinable, and may take any gender, number, or case : as,
per tot annos, tot proeliis, tot imperatores (Cic.), so many
commanders, for so many years, in so many battles.
b. The correlative of the second member is often to be ren-
dered simply as : thus,
taiittim argenti quantum aeris, as much silver as copper.
C. A frequent form of correlative is found in the ablatives quo
or quanto, by how much ; eo or tanto, by so much, used with
comparatives (rendered in English the . . the) : as,
quo magis conatur, eo minus discit, the more he tries the less
he learns.
d. Certain adverbs and conjunctions are often used correla-
tively: as,
et . . . et, both . . . and.
ut . . . ita (sic) , as (while) . . . so (yet).
aut (vel) . . . aut (vel), either ... or.
sive (seu) . . . sive, whether ... or.
tarn . . . quam, so (as) . . . as.
cum (turn) . . . turn, both . . . and; not only . . . but also.
idem . . . qui, the same . . . as.
NOTE. — For the reciprocal use of alius and alter, see Syntax
(§ 47, 9).
50 VERBS : STRUCTURE. [23 : I, 2, 3.
VERBS.
23. STRUCTURE.
1. The forms of a Latin verb are the following : —
a. VOICES : Active and Passive.
b* MOODS : Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, Infinitive.
c* PARTICIPLES : Active, Present and Future.
Passive, Perfect and Gerundive.
d. VERBAL NOUNS : Gerund and Supine.
e* TENSES : Present, Imperfect, Future ; Perfect, Pluperfect,
Future-Perfect.
/. There are also separate terminations of inflection for each
of the three Persons, Singular and Plural (§ 28).
NOTE. — The Infinitives, Participles, Gerund, and Supine are not
strictly parts of the verb, as having no personal terminations, but
having the form and (in general) the construction of nouns. They
were, however, regarded and used as verbal forms by the Komans.
2. Special forms for the following tenses are wanting in
certain parts of the verb : —
€l» In the Subjunctive mood, the future and future-perfect.
NOTE. — These are wanting, because the original meaning and
most of the uses of this mood are future. In some cases, the future
participle with the corresponding tense of esse is used.
b. In the Passive voice, the perfect, pluperfect, and future-per-
fect, which are supplied by corresponding tenses of esse, to be,
with the Perfect Participle.
c. In the Imperative mood only two tenses are found, —present
and future. In the Infinitive only the present, perfect, and future.
3. The Active and Passive voices are equivalent to the
corresponding English forms, except that the tenses of the
passive are used with more exactness. Thus vocatur means,
he is [being] called, i.e., some one is now calling him ; voea-
tns est, he is called, i.e., the action is now over.
NOTE. — The passive voice often has a reflexive meaning, as, indiii-
tur vestem, he puts on his clothes; and many verbs -are active in mean-
ing though passive in form. (See § 35, " Deponents.")
24, 25.] MOODS — PARTICIPLES. 51
24, MOODS.
1. The Indicative is used for direct assertion or interroga-
tion.
2. The Subjunctive is used chiefly in commands, condi-
tions, and dependent clauses.
NOTE. — The Latin Subjunctive is usually translated, in grammars,
by the English potential forms, may, might, could, ivould, &c., to distin-
guish it from the Indicative, because the English has no subjunctive
in general use. But the subjunctive is used in many cases where we
use the indicative ; and we use the potential in many cases where the
Latin employs a separate verb. Thus 1 may write (except when it
follows ut, in order that] is not scribam (subj.), but licet mihi scri-
bere ; / can write is possum scribere ; / would write is scribam,
scriberem, or scribere velim (vellem) ; I should write, if, frc., scri-
berem si ... or (implying duty) oportet me scribere. A few ex-
amples of the use of the subjunctive maybe seen in the following : —
eamus, let us go. ne cunctemur, let us not linger.
quid marer, why should I delay ?
si tardior sim iratus sit, if 1 should be too late he would be angry.
adsum ut videam, I am here to see [that I may see].
imperat ut scribam, he orders me to write.
nescio quid scribam, 1 know not what to write.
licet eas, you may go; cave cadas, don't fall.
vereor ne eat, Ifear he will go (vereor ut, 1 fear he will not).
sunt qui putent, there are some who think.
si ita esset non manerem, if it were so 1 would not stay.
quge cum dixisset abiit, when he had said this he went away.
3. The Imperative is used for exhortation or command ;
but its place is often supplied by the Subjunctive.
4. The Infinitive is used as an indeclinable noun, as the
subject or object of another verb ; but often takes the place
of one of the other moods.
NOTE. — For the Syntax of the Moods, see § 57.
25, PARTICIPLES.
1. The Present participle has the same meaning as the
English participle in -ing: as, vocans, calling; regentes,
those ruling. (For its inflection, see § 16, 2.)
2. The Future participle is rarely used, except with tenses
of esse, to be (see § 40), or to express purpose : as, urbs
est casura, the city is about to fall; venit auditurus, he came
to hear.
52 GERUND AND SUPINE - TENSES. [26, 27.
3. The Perfect participle is used to form certain tenses
of the passive, and often has simply an adjective meaning :
as, vocatus est, he was (has been) called; tectus, sheltered ;
acceptus, acceptable.
NOTE. — There is no perfect active or present passive participle in
Latin. The perfect participle of deponents, however, is generally
used in an active sense, as secutus, having followed. In other cases
some different construction is used : as, cum venisset, having come
(when he had come) ; equitatu praemisso, having sent forward the cav-
alry (the cavalry having been sent forward) ; duiii verberatur, while
being struck (= TUTTTOJI.SVOS).
For the Syntax of these participles, see § 72.
4. The Gerundive (sometimes called the future passive
participle) has, with tenses of esse, the meaning ought or
must (see § 40) : as, audiendus est, he must be heard. But,
in the oblique cases, it is oftener to be translated as if it were
an active participle, and governed the word it agrees with : as,
ad petendam pacem, to seek peace (§ 73).
26. GERUND AND SUPINE.
1. The Gerund is the neuter singular of the Gerundive.
It is a verbal noun, corresponding to the English participial
noun in -ing: as, loquendi causa, for the sake of speaking.
2. The Supines are the accusative and ablative (or dative)
of a verbal noun of the fourth declension (§ 12, 4, a). They
are generally translated by the English Infinitive of purpose :
as, venit spectatum, he came to see ; mirabile dictu, wonder-
ful to tell.
NOT*:. — The Supine in turn is the regular Infinitive in Sanskrit.
27. TENSES.
1. The tenses of a Latin verb are of two classes : (1)
those denoting incomplete action, the Present, Imperfect, and
Future ; (2) those denoting completed action, the Perfect,
Pluperfect, and Future-Perfect.
Those of the former class, together with the Perfect, are
also used to denote indefinite action.
27: 2, 3, 4? 5-] TENSES. 53
2. The Present, Future, Pluperfect, and Future-Perfect
have the same meaning as the corresponding tenses in Eng-
lish, but are distinguished more accurately in their use : as,
diu aegroto, / have long been [and still am] sick.
cum venero scribam, when I come [shall have come] I will write.
3. The Perfect and Imperfect are both used to denote
past time, the former usually to tell a simple fact ; the latter,
a continued action, or a condition of things. The Imperfect
is variously rendered in English : as,
dicebat, he said, he was saying, or he used to say ; saepe dicebat,
he would often say ; dictitabat, he kept saying.
The Perfect has two separate uses, distinguished as definite and
historical, corresponding to the English perfect (compound)
and preterite (imperfect) : as,
vocavit, he has called (definite) , or he called (historical) .
NOTE. — In Latin, and in the languages derived from Latin (as
Italian and French), there are two past tenses, — the Perfect or Pret-
erite (aorist), which merely states that the fact took place ; and the Im-
perfect, which is used for description, or to indicate that the action was
in progress. In the Northern languages ( Germanic or Gothic, includ-
ing English), the same tense serves for both : as,
longius prosequi vetuit, quod loci naturam ignorabat, he forbade
to follow farther, because he was ignorant of the nature of the ground
(B. G. v. 9.).
4. The tenses of completed action are supplied in the Pas-
sive voice by adding the corresponding tenses of incomplete
action of esse to the Perfect Participle : as, occisus est, he
was slain, or, he has been slain.
5. The tenses of a Latin verb are formed upon three dif-
ferent stems, called the present, the perfect, and the supine
stems.
a. The tenses of incomplete action, both active and passive, are
formed upon the Present stem.
b. The tenses of completed, action in the active voice are formed
upon the Perfect stem.
c. The perfect participle, which is used in the tenses of
completed action in the passive voice, is formed upon the Supine
stem.
54 VERB FORMS. [28 : I, 2.
28. VERB FORMS.
1. Personal endings. Verbs have terminations for
each of the three persons, both singular and plural, active and
passive. These terminations are fragments of old pronouns,
whose signification is thus added to that of the verb-stem.
ACTIVE. PASSIVE.
SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL.
^f 1. m mus r mur
2. s tis ris mini
3. t nt tur ntur
a. The present and perfect indicative have lost the m, and end
in the modified stem-vowels o and i. Except sum, / am, and
inquam, I say.
&. The second person of the perfect indicative has for the sin-
gular sti, and for the plural stis. The third person plural has an
ending of verbal origin, erunt.
C. The Imperative has special terminations :
ACTIVE. PASSIVE.
Sing. 2. [lost] Plur. 2. te, tote Sing. 2. re PLur. 2. mini
3. to 3. nto 3. tor 3. ntor
NOTE. — The Passive is a peculiar Latin middle (or reflexive)
form, made by adding se to the forms of the active voice, with some
abrasion of their endings (the original form of se, SVA, was not
limited to the third person). Thus amor — amo-se, amaris = amasise,
amatur = amatise. The above view seems the most probable, in spite
of some objections. The ending mini in the second person plural
of the passive is a remnant of the participial form found in the Greek
All Latin words ending in t, except a few in ot, ut, with et, at,
sat, are third persons of verbs ; all in nt are third persons plural.
In dumtaxat, however, licet, although, and the indefinite pronouns in
-libet, the meanings of the verbs are disguised.
2. Changes of Stem. These terminations appear in all
the tenses of the verb ; but the Stem in many parts is variously
modified to receive them, sometimes by changes in its form,
and sometimes by additions at the end.
a. The Present indicative and subjunctive, the Imperative,
and sometimes the Future, add the personal endings directly to
the present stem, with or without change of vowel : as, do, das,
dat (stem da-) ; vocem (stem voca-) .
28: 2, 3-] VERB-FORMS. 55
&, The Perfect indicative also sometimes adds them directly ;
but to another form of the root called the perfect stem : as, dedi,
dedisti, dedit
NOTE. — The i of the Perfect, which in early Latin is always long
(ei, i, e) except before mus, is of doubtful origin. It is treated for
convenience as part of the stem, as it is in dedi, steti, where it takes
the place of the vowel a. In the suffixes vi (= fui) and si (= Skr.
dsa), and in the perfects of consonant-roots, it seems to be, but prob-
ably is not, a mere connecting vowel. The s before ti and tis is
also anomalous. Most scholars regard it as a remnant of es ; but it
may be, like the others, of pronominal origin.
c. All other true verbal forms are compounded with a suffix —
originally a verb — which contains the personal endings: as,
vocav-eram, vocav-ero, voca-bo. The first person of the
Perfect,_thus compounded, produces another form of perfect stem:
as, voca-vi
d. The Present Infinitive Active, Present Participle, and
Gerundive, add nominal (noun or adjective) suffixes to the present
stem: as, vocare, vocans (antis), vocandus.
e. The Perfect infinitive adds an infinitive (esse) already
formed to the perfect stem : as, vocavisse (= vocavi-esse).
/. The Perfect and Future Participles and the Supine are
formed upon what is called a supine stem, which adds t- either to
the Present stem or to the Root: as, vocat-, tect- (root teg-).
NOTE. — Strictly, these have no common stem, but are formed
with special suffixes (to-, turo-, tu-). As, however, the form to
which they are added is the same for each, and as the suffixes all
begin with t, it is convenient to give the name supine stem to the form
in t. . The participle in to- corresponds to the Greek verbal -TOS ; that
in turo- is a development of the noun of agency ending in -tor (as
victor, victurus) ; that in tu- is an abstract noun of the fourth
declension (§ 12, 4, a).
g. The Present Infinitive Passive is an anomalous form, made
by adding -ri or i to the present stem: as, voco, vocari; tego,
tegi. (When i is added, the final vowel of the stem disappears.)
It was anciently followed by -er.
h. The Future Infinitive Passive is supplied by the supine in
turn with the infinitive passive of eo, to go, used impersonally : as,
vocatum iri, to be about to be called.
NOTE. — The construction of this infinitive is different from the
others, the form in turn being invariable, and the apparent subject
accusative being really the object of the supine taken actively. Few
verbs in fact have this form, for which fore ut with the subjunctive
is often found.
3. Verb-Endings. The scheme of Verb-Endings, as
they are formed by suffixes or personal endings, is as fol-
lows : —
56
VERB-FORMS.
[28:
a. Verbal Forms.
ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE.
PRESENT.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. INDICATIVE.
[o] m (vowel-change) [or]
s s ris or re
t t tur
HTUS nrus niur
tis tis mini
nt nt ntur
SUBJUNCTIVE.
r (vowel-change)
ris or re
tur
mur
mini
ntur
IMPERFECT.
bam rem bar rer
bas res baris(re) reris(re)
bat ret batur retur
bamus remns bamur remur
batis retis bamini remini
bant rent bantur rentur
FUTURE.
bo, or am (vowel-change) bor, or or (vowel-change)
bis es beris(re) eris(re)
bit et bitur etur
bimus emus bimtir emur
bitis etis bimini <?mini
bunt ent buntur cntur
PERFECT.
i
erim
rsum
sim
isti
^ . tus (ta
eris
-)es
sis
it
erit
(est
sit
imus
istis
erunt
or ere
erimus
erltis bfae'
Srint ta)
PLUPERFECT.
c sumus
<estis
(sunt
simus
sitis
sint
.r Sram
issem
reram
essem
eras
isses
-<eras
esses
6rat
isset
(erat
esset
eramus
issemus
f eramus
essemus
eratis
erant
issetis ^6'
issent ta>
•< eratis
(erant
essetis
essent
29:
ESSE AND ITS COMPOUNDS.
FUT. PERFECT.
57
Sro
eris
erit
erimus
eritis
erint
tum>
erit
ta) (
IMPERATIVE.
to
te, tote
nto
< erunt
re
tor
mini
ntor
b* Nominal Forms.
INFINITIVE.
PRESENT. re (Pres. stem) ri or i (old rier, ier)
PERFECT. sse (Perf. stem) tus (a, um) esse
FUTURE. turus (a, um) esse turn irL
PARTICIPLE.
PRESENT. ns, ntis
PERFECT.
FUTURE. turus, a, um
SUPINE. turn, tu
tus, a, um
GERUNDIVE, ndus, a, um
NOTE. — The origin and meaning of some of the above verb-end-
ings may be given as follows. The suffix bam is an imperfect of
BHU, which appears in fui, futurus, fio, the Greek <|>va>, and English
be; — rem (for sem) is an optative or subjunctive imperfect of ES,
which appears in sum, cl|it, am, &c. ; — bo is a future, and vi a
perfect, of BHU; — si is a perfect of ES, and is kindred with the
aorist-ending <ra, though not of the same formation; — erim is an
optative form of ES corresponding to sim ; — ero is the future of es
(for es-io).
29. Esse AND ITS COMPOUNDS.
The verb esse, to be, is both irregular and defective, having
no gerund or supine, and no participle but the future.
NOTE. — The present participle, which should be sens (compare
Sanskrit sant), appears in that form in ab-sens, prse-sens ; and as
ens (compare wv) in pot-ens. The simple form ens is sometimes
found in late or philosophical Latin as a participle or abstract noun,
in the forms ens, Being ; entia, things which are.
3*
58
ESSE AND ITS COMPOUNDS.
[29: I.
PRINCIPAL PARTS : Present, sum, 1 am.
Infinitive, esse, to be.
Perfect, fui, / was or have been.
Future Participle, futurus, about to be.
PRESENT.
INDICATIVE.
SING. 1. sum, Jam.
2. es, thou art.
3. est, Tie (she, it) is.
PLUR. 1. sumus, we are.
2. estis, you are.
3. sunt, they are.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
sim, / am, may be, &c. (see
sis [examples on p. 51).
sit
simus
sitis
sint
SING. 1. eram, I was.
2. eras, thou wast.
3. erat, he was.
PLUR. 1. eramus, we were.
2. eratis, you were.
3. erant, they were.
IMPERFECT.
essem, was (would or fSrem
esses, might be, fyc.). fores
esset k foret
essemus
essetis
esseut
f5rent
FUTURE.
SING. 1. ero, I shall be.
2. eris, thou wilt be.
3. erit, he will be.
PLUR. 1. erimus, we shall be.
2. eritis, you will be.
3. erunt, they will be.
PERFECT.
SING. 1. fui, I was (have been). fu6rim, was (have been, may
fueris [have been) .
fuerit
2. fuisti, thou ivast.
3. fuit, he was.
PLUR. 1. fulmus, we were. fuerimus
2. fuistis, you were. fueritis
3. fuerunt, they were. fuerint
or fuere.
29: I.] ES8E AND ITS COMPOUNDS. 59
PLUPERFECT.
SING. 1. fueram, / "had been. fuissem, had been (might or
2. fueras, thou hadst been, fuisses [would have been) .
3. fuerat, he had been. fuisset
PLUR. 1. fueramus, we had been, fuissemus
2. fueratis, you had been, fuissetis
3. fuerant, they had been, fuissent
FUTURE PERFECT.
SING. 1. fuero, I shall have been.
2. fueris, thou wilt have been.
3. fuerit, he will have been.
PLUR. 1. fuerimus, we shall have been.
2. fueritis, you will have been.
3. fuerint, they will have been.
IMPERATIVE.
PRESENT, gs, be thou. este, be ye.
FUTURE, esto, thou shall be. estote, ye shall be.
esto, he shall be. sunto, they shall be.
INFINITIVE.
PEESENT. esse, to be.
PERFECT, fuisse, to have been.
FUTURE, fbre or futurus esse, to be about to be.
FUTURE PARTICIPLE, futurus, a, um, about to be.
RARE FORMS. Fut. Indie, escit, escunt (strictly inchoative pres.,
§ 39). Pres. Subj. siem, fuam.
NOTE. — The root of the verb esse is .es-, which in the imperfect
is changed to er- (§1, 3, e), and in many cases is shortened to s-.
Some of its modifications, as found in several languages more or less
distantly related to Latin, may be seen in the following Table ; — the
" Indo-European " being the primitive or theoretic form, and the form
sydm corresponding to the Latin siem, sim : —
Ind.-Eur.
as-mi
as-si
as-ti
as-masi
as-tasi
as-auti
The Perfect and Supine stems, fui, futu-, are kindred with the Greek
v, was), and with the English be.
Sanskrit.
Greek.
Slavonic.
Lithuanian.
as-mi
sydm (opt.)
?|JL|ltt
yes-mi
es-mi
as-i
syds
&r<Kt
yes-si
es-i
as-ti
sydt
4<rr£
yes-ti
es-ti
s-mas
sydma
€OPU.€V
yes-mu
es-me
s-tha
sydta
€<TT€'
yes-te
es-te
s-anti
syus
€VTlt
s-unti
es-ti
t Old Form.
60
CONJUGATION.
[29, 30.
a. The verb esse is compounded, without any change of its
inflection, with many prepositions. In the compound prodesse,
to profit, pro retains its original d where followed by e: as,
prosum, prodes, prodest, prosumus, prodestis, prosunt.
b. Esse is also compounded with the adjective potis or pote,
able, in the verb posse. Its inflection, with that of prodesse, is
given in the following : -j—
PRESENT.
INDIC. SUBJ. INDIC. SUBJ.
possum, / can. possim prosum prosim
potes, thou canst, possis prodes prosis
potest, he can. possit prodest prosit
possumus, we can. possimus prosumus prosimus
potestis, you can. possitis prodestis prositis
possunt, they can. possint prosunt prosint
IMPERFECT.
poteram possem proderam prodessem
FUTURE.
potero prodero
PERFECT.
potui potuerim profui profuerim
PLUPERFECT.
potueram potuissem profueram profuissem
FUTURE PERFECT.
potuero profuero
IMPERATIVE.
prodes, prodesto, &c.
INFINITIVE.
PR. posse PERF. potuisse PR. prodesse PERF. profuisse
PARTICIPLES.
[potens, powerful.'] profuturus, about to help.
30. CONJUGATION.
There are in Latin four principal forms of Present
Stems, ending respectively in a, e, e, I. With this dif-
ference of stem most of the other differences of conju-
gation coincide.
Yerbs are accordingly classed in four regular
conjugations, distinguished by the vowel before re in
the Present Infinitive Active, which is the same in
each case as those given above.
30: I, 2.] CONJUGATION. 61
NOTE. — This mode of classification was invented by the Roman
grammarians, and has been generally adopted by the moderns. In
fact, however, the vowels a, e, i (long), found in the First, Second,
and Fourth Conjugations, are different corruptions of the form AYA,
which in the original language was added to roots in one form of
present stems. All other forms of present stems, except a few
unmodified, had originally, or received in Latin, a suffix ending
in (or consisting of) a short, which was corrupted to e or i short.
These are collected in the Third Conjugation. A few roots ending
in a vowel were drawn — perhaps by vowel-increase — into the analogy
of the other conjugations; and a lew of the fourth conjugation had
IYA instead of AYA.
1. First Conjugation* Most verbs of the first conju-
gation retain the stem- vowel (a) throughout, except in the
present indicative, which loses it before 0, and the present sub-
junctive, where it is changed to e.
NOTE. — Dare, to give — stem originally da — retains a short, ex-
cept in da and das. The Subjunctive with changed vowel (e) corre-
sponds to the Greek and Sanskrit Optative, and is formed by the
addition of a tense of i, to go, a-f-i becoming e.
a. In the Future, the ending -bo, &c., is added to the present
stem : as, vocabo.
b. The Perfect stem adds vi to that of the present: as,
vocavi. But
1. A few verbs, either always or occasionally, add vi not to the
present stem, but to the root, v becoming u: as, sono, sonui
(see. p. 67).
2. Two verbs, do, sto, form their perfect stem by reduplication :
dedi, steti.
c. The Supine stem adds t to the present stem ; but verbs that
add vi to the root add t in like manner, sometimes with a connect-
ing vowel: as, seco, sectus; domo, domitus.
2. Second Conjugation. Only a few verbs of the sec-
ond conjugation retain e throughout.
a. The Present Indicative has e before o in the first person ;
in the Present Subjunctive a (originally a) is inserted after e : as,
deleo, deleam.
NOTE. — The a in the present subjunctive is borrowed from the
third conjugation. (See next head, 3, e, N.)
b. The Future (as in the first conjugation) adds -bo, &c., to
the present stem : as, delebo.
c. In a few verbs, the Perfect stem adds vi to the present, as
deleo, delevi; but in most this termination is added to the
root, as moneo, moiiui (see p. 69).
62 CONJUGATION. [30: 3.
d. In a few, the root is reduplicated, and in several -si is
added to the root, or its vowel is strengthened: as, tondeo,
totondi ; maneo, mansi ; lugeo, luxi ; caveo, cavi.
e. For the Supine stem, those which add -vi to the stem add t
also to the stem ; those which add vi to the root add t to the root,
with the connecting-vowel i ; those which form the perfect other-
wise add t (or its weakened form s) to the root: as, deletus,
niomtus, toiisus, mansus, cautus.
3. Third Conjugation. To the third conjugation be-
long those verbs which form the present stem in any other
way than by adding a long vowel to the root.
a. The Present Stem is formed in eight different ways, in all
of which e (original a), or else a suffix containing it, is added to
the Root. Besides this addition, —
1. The vowel of the root is- lengthened (vowel-increase) : as in
duco, fido, nubo (compare ducis, perfidus, proniiba ; also Gr.
root Anr-).
2. The root is reduplicated: as in sisto, bibo, gigno, from the
root sta- (in status) , pa- (in pbtus) , gen- (in genus ; compare
yiyvofiaLj root ytv-}.
3. The root is strengthened by the insertion of n (m) before its
final consonant : as in findo, frango, cunibo (compare think,
thought; fiavdavcj, root fiad-).
4. Final 1 or r of the root is doubled by assimilation of an
added consonant : as in fello, pello (compare ffreAAw, root cre/l-),
verro.
5. The consonant n is added to the root : as in cerno, lino,
temiio (compare T£//VO>, root rep).
6. The root adds sc or isc (originally and often still incep-
tive) : as in disco (= dicsco, root die), nascor (root gna) ,
nanciscor (root nac, compare ^aa/cu, evpianu).
7. The root adds t: as in pecto, plecto, mitto (compare
KOTTTCJ).
8. The root adds i (originally y) in the following: capio,
cupio, -cutio, facio, f6dio, fugio, jacio, -licio, pario, quatio
(-ciitio), rapio, sapio, -spicio.
NOTE. — Verbal stems in u add merely the vowel e, and are of
the third conjugation. The u may be radical, as in suo, pluo, fluo ;
or developed from a palatal, as in loquor, stinguo (cf. CTI&) ; or
may belong to the noun in denominatives, as statuo (statu-s), acuo
(acu-s). Stems in o are lost, as po- (cf. potum) ; or have become
of the first conjugation, as boo, boare.
30: 3-] CONJUGATION. 63
6. The stem-vowel e is weakened to i in several forms of the
Present indicative and imperative ; is lengthened to e in the Imper-
fect ; and undergoes other changes exhibited in the paradigm.
c. The Future is formed (without the suffix bo) by vowel-
changes to a and e before the personal endings.
NOTE. — The a (properly long) of the future is borrowed from
the present subjunctive ; the forms in e have the same origin as the
present subjunctive of the first conjugation, and are properly optative.
d. The Perfect stem is formed in five different ways : —
1. The root is reduplicated : as in cado, cecidi ; curro,
ciicurri; disco, didici.
2. The root-vowel is increased, a becoming e, and i, o, u being
simply lengthened : as in capio, cepi ; fodio, fodi ; fiigio, fugi.
3. The same form appears in the perfect as in the present stem :
this is regular with verbs of this conjugation in uo (vo) : as, acuo,
acui ; solvo, solvi.
NOTE. — It is probable that in the last two cases the root was
originally reduplicated ; but that the reduplication was retained only
where vowel-increase did not take place.
4. The suffix si ' is added to the root : as in carpo, carpsi ;
gero, gessi; sumo, sumpsi; dlco, dixi; tego, texi.
5. The suffix ui (vi) is added to the root : as in colo, colui ;
fremo, fremui ; gigno, genui ; rapio, rapui. Before this suffix
a long vowel of various origin is often found : as in cupio, cupi-
vi ; peto, petivi ; sperno," sprevi.
NOTE. — Both suffixes are combined in the following: necto,
nexui ; plecto, plexui. A few verbs vary : as, pango, panxi (pegi
Or pepigi) ; vello, velli or vulsi.
e. The Present Subjunctive changes e to a: as, vehere, vehas.
NOTE. — Thisjform with a corresponds to the Greek and Sanskrit
subjunctive withy Ipng vowel, and proceeds from the addition of
another a (short) : Compare t\r\s, vahasi.
f. The Supine stem is formed by adding to the root t-, which
in many cases takes eup^ionically the form s- (§ 1, 3, f. 4).
NOTE. — A few roots take a connecting vowel before this affix,
and some have both forms. When this is the case, the future parti-
ciple and derivative verb take the longer form : as, ortus, 01 Hums ;
actus (ago), agito.
gr. Some verbs of the third conjugation form the other parts
upon the (modified) present stem as a root : as, fingo, finxi, fict-
(fig) ; jungo, junxi, junct- (jiig).
h. In verbs which add i to the root in the present stem, this
vowel is lost where it would be followed by e or i (except in the
future third person singular) : as in capit, caperet, capiet.
64 CONJUGATION. [30: 4, 5.
4. Fourth Conjugation. Verbs of the fourth conju-
gation retain I throughout, except before another vowel.
a» Several forms of the present stem have in addition the final
vowels of the third conjugation. In the Imperfect the regular
form (retained in ibani, from eo) is often found in early Latin.
• 6. The Future does not take bo, but has ia and ie (from the
third conjugation) before the personal endings. In early Latin the
form in bo (retained in ibo) sometimes occurs.
ۥ The Perfect stem adds vi to the present stem : as, finio,
finivi. A few verbs add it to the root, as aperio, aperui;
several add si, as sentio, sensi ; and in a few the perfect is the
same as the present stem, with or without vowel-increase : as,
reperio, reperi; venio, veni.
d* The Supine stem adds t- to the present : as, finio, finitus.
A few add it to the root : as, salio, saltus ; sepelio, sepultus.
5. Principal farts. The principal parts of a verb,
which determine its conjugation throughout, are the follow-
ing : 1. Present Indicative (showing the present stem) ; 2.
Present Infinitive (the conjugation) ; 3. Perfect (the perfect
stem) ; 4. Supine (the supine stem).
a* The regular forms of conjugation are seen in the follow-
ing:—
1. voco, vocare, vocavi, vocatum, call.
2. deleo, delere, delevi, deletum, destroy.
3. carpo, carpere, carpsi, carptum, gather.
4. audio, audire, audivi, auditum, hear.
In the second conjugation, however, the characteristic e rarely
appears in the perfect and supine : thus the type of this conjuga-
tion is —
moneo, monere, monui, momtum, warn.
6. What is called the Synopsis of a verb consists of the first
person singular of each tense, with infinitive and participles, given
in regular order: as, of amo, I love —
INDIC. amo, amabam, amabo, amavi, amaveram, amavero.
SUBJ. amem, aniarem, amaverim, amavissem.
IMP. ama, amato.
INF. amare, amavisse.
PART, amans, amaturus, amatus, amandus.
Notice that in all verbs the Imperf. and Pluperfect Subjunctive
may be formed by adding the personal-endings to it-he present and
perfect infinitive; and the Imperative Passive (second person) is
the same in form with the present infinitive active.
30 : 6, 7-] CONJUGATION. 65
v
ۥ In many verbs the principal parts take the form of two or
more different conjugations : as,
1, 2. domo, domare, domui, domitum, subdue.
2, 3. augeo, augere, auxi, auctum, increase.
3, 4. peto, petere, petlvi, petitum, seek.
4, 3, vincio, vincire, vinxi, vinctum, bind.
In these the conjugation is said to be denoted by the first or
present stem.
a* The compounds of many verbs vary from the forms of the
primitive. This variation is seen especially (1) in the change of
the vowel of the root, a in open syllables becoming i and in close
syllables e, while e becomes i: as, capio, captum, concipio,
conceptum ; teneo, contineo ; (2) in the loss of the reduplica-
tion : as, concido, concidi. (This is, however, retained in com-
pounds of disco, do, posco, sto, and in some of those of curro).
6. Special Forms. The following special forms are
found in the conjugation of many verbs : —
a» In tenses formed upon the Perfect stem, v between two
vowels is often suppressed, and the second vowel merged in the first
(unless a or e follows i or u) : as, amasse = amavisse ; flestis =
flevistis ; audieram = audiveram ; uosse = novisse ; noram =
noveram. This is especially frequent in verbs of the fourth conju-
gation, and is regular in the compounds of eo : as, abiit for abivit.
6. In many forms s with its vowel is suppressed in like manner
when it would be repeated : as, dixti for dixisti.
c* Four verbs — dico, duco, facio, fero — with several of their
compounds, drop the vowel-termination of the Imperative, making
die, due, fac, fer (but effice, confice). The forms dice, duce,
face (never fere) occur in early Latin.
d» For the imperative of scio, the future form scito is always
used in the singular, and scitote usually in the plural.
e* The following are ancient forms, rarely found except in
poetry : —
1. In the fourth conjugation -ibam, -ibo for -iebam, -iam (fut.) ;
2. In the present subjunctive -im: as in duim, perduim (re-
tained also in religious formulas) ;
3. In the perf. subj. and fut. perf. -so, -sim: as, faxo, faxim;
4. In the passive infinitive -ier: as, vocarier for vocari.
"7. Parallel Forms. Many verbs have more than one
set of forms, of which only one is generally found in classic
use : as,
lavo, lavare or lavere, to wasli.
scateo, scatere or scatere, to gush.
ludifico, are or ludificor, ari, to mock.
66
FIRST CONJUGATION.
31. FIRST
ACTIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present, / love or am loving.
amo, / love. amem
amas, thou lovest. ames
am at, he loves. amet
amamus, we love, amemus
amatis, you love, ametis
amant, they love.
CONJUGATION.
PASSIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
I am beloved.
[31.
amor
amaris (re)
amatur
amamur
amammi
amantur
ament
Imperfect, / loved (used to love).
amabam, / loved, amarem amabar
amabas amares
amabat amaret
amabamus amaremus
amabatis amaretis
amabant amarent
Future, / shall love.
amabo, / shall love.
amabis
amabit
amabimus
amabitis
amabunt
Perfect, / loved (have loved).
amavi, I loved, amaverim
amaveris
amaverit
amaverimus
amaveritis
amer
ameris (re)
ametur
amemur
amemini
amentur
I was loved.
amarer
amareris (re)
amaretur
amabaris (re)
amabatur
amabamur amaremur
amabamini amaremini
amabantur amarentur
/ shall be loved.
amabor
amaberis (re)
amabitur
amabimur
amabimmi
amabuntur
/ was (have been ) loved.
amatus sum
amatus es
amatus est
amati sumus
amati estis
amati sunt
amatus sim
amatus sis
amatus sit
amati simus
amati sitis
amati sint
7 had been loved.
amatus eram amatus essem
amatus eras
amatus erat
amavisti
amavit
amavimus
amavistis
amaverunt (ere) amaverint
Pluperfect, / had loved.
amaveram, / had amavissem
amaveras [loved, amavisses
amaverat amavisset
amaveramus amavissemus amati eramus
amaveratis amavissetis amati eratis
amaverant amavissent amati erant
Future Perfect, / shall have loved. I shall have been loved.
amavero, / shall have loved. amatus ero ^
amaveris
amaverit
amaverimus
amaveritis
amaverint
amatus esses
amatus esset
amati essemus
amati essetis
amati essent
amatus eris
amatus erit
amati erimus
amati eritis
amati erunt
31: I, 2.] FIRST CONJUGATION. 67
ACTIVE. IMPERATIVE. PASSIVE.
PR. ama, love. thou( amare, be thou loved.
amate, love ye. amamini, be ye loved.
FUT. amato, Tie shall love. amator, he shall be loved.
amatote, ye shall love.
amanto, they shall love. amantor, they shall be loved.
Noun and Adjective Forms.
INFINITIVE.
PRES. amare/. to love. amari, tobe loved.
PERP. amavisse, to have loved. amatus^sse, to have been loved.
FUT. amaturus esse, to be amatum iri, amatus fore.
about to love.
PARTICIPLES.
PRES. amans, loving.
pERF. amatus, beloved.
FUT. amaturus, about to love.
GERUNDIVE, amandus, a, um, to be loved-^lovely).
GERUND. amandum, -di, -do, loving.
SUPINES. amatum, amatu, to love.
1. There are about 360 simple verbs of this conjugation,
most of them formed directly upon a noun or adjective-stem,
to which they generally give the force and meaning of an
active verb: as, armo, to arm (anna) ; caeco, to blind
(caecus) ; exsulo, to be in exile (exsul). Their conjugation is
usually regular, like amo ; though of many only a few parts
are found in use.
2. Those which form their Perfect and Supine stems
differently are the following, — those marked f having also
regular forms ; and those preceded by a hyphen being found
only in compounds : —
crepo, crepui, crepit-, resound, plico, plicui, -p\\c\t-,fold.
cubo, cubui, cubit::, lie down. poto, potavi, fpot-, drink.
do, dare, de.di, daf^, give. seco, secui, sect-, cut.
domo, domui, domit-, subdue, sono, sonui, sonit-, sound.
frico, fricui, f frict-, rub. sto, steti, stat-, stand.
juyo, juvi, jut-, kelp. tono, tonui, tonit-, thunder.
mico, micui, glitter. veto, vetui, vztit-, forbid.
neco, f necui, f nect-, kill. t
SECOND CONJUGATION.
[32.
32. SECOND CONJUGATION.
ACTIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present, I warn.
moneo, / warn, moneam
mones, you warn, moneas
monet, he warns, moneat
monemus moneamus
monetis moneatis
monent moneant
PASSIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
/ am warned.
moneor monear
moneris (re) monearis (re)
monetur moneatur
monemur
monemmi
monentur
moneamur
moneammi
moneantur
Imperfect, / warned (was warning). I was warned.
monebam monerem monebar monerer
monebas
monebat
monebamus
monebatis
monebant
Future, / shall warn.
monebo
monebis
monebit
monebimus
moneres
moneret
moneremus
moneretis
monerent
monebaris (re) monereris (re)
monebatur moneretur
monebamur moneremur
monebamini moneremini
monebaiitur monerentur
/ shall be warned.
monebor
moneberis (re)
monebitur
monebimur
monebitis monebimmi
monebunt monebuntur
Perfect, / warned (have warned). I was (have
monui monuerim
monuisti monueris
monuit monuerit
monuimus monuerimus
monuistis monueritis
monuerunt (re) monuerint
Pluperfect, / had warned.
monuissem
nionuisses
monuisset
T earned.
^unitus sim
monitus sis
monitus sit
moniti simus
moniti sitis
moniti sint
monitus eras
monitus erat
monuissemus moniti eramus
monuissetis moniti eratis
monuissent moniti erant
monih1-' am
mcv es '
monitus est
moniti sumus
moniti estis
moniti sunt
I had been warned.
monitus eram monitus essem
monitus esses
monitus esset
moniti essemus
moniti essetis
monue'ram
monueras
monuerat
monueramus
" lueratis
, ^ ;ant monuissent moniti erant moniti esseiit
Fut. i^erfect, / shall have warned. I shall have been warned.
monuero monitus ero
monueris monitus eris
monuerit monitus erit
monuerimus moniti erimus
monueritis moniti eritis
monuerint moniti erunt
32: 1,2.] SECOND CONJUGATION. 69
ACTIVE. IMPERATIVE. PASSIVE.
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
PR. mone, warn, monete monere monemini
F. moneto monetote
mone to monento monetor monentor
INFINITIVE.
PR. monere PF. monuisse PR. moneri PF. monitus esse
F. mqniturus esse F. monitum iri (monitus fore)
PARTICIPLES.
monens moniturus monitus monendus
GER. monendum, di, &c. SUP. monitum monitu
%
1. There are nearly 120 simple verbs of this conjugation,
most of them denominative verbs of condition, having a cor-
responding noun and adjective from the same root, and an
inceptive form in -sco : as, caleo, calor, calldus, calesco ;
timeo, timor, timldus.
2. Most verbs of the second conjugation form their per-
fect and supine like IfcOneo, The following have evi and
etum : deleo, destroy ;' fleo, weep ; neo, spin ; and com-
pounds of -"nleo, Jill. The renuy- .er are —
•
algeo, alsi. * ^>d moveo, movi, mot-, move.
ardeo, arsi, ar's-, burn. mulcto, imilsi, muls-. soothe.
audeo, ausus sum, dart. . ''•' mulgeo, si (xi), muls- (mulct-),
o, auxi, auct-, increase. milk.
. cavi, caut-, care. niveo, nivi (nixi), iviuk.
•'. c*ens-, value^ paveo, pavi. fear.
cico, civi, cit-, excite. pendeo, pependi, hang.
doceo, docui, doct-, teach. . prandeo, prandi, prans-, dine.
o, favi, faut-, favor. rideo, risi, ris-, laugh.
ferveo, fervi (ferbui), glow. sedeo, sedi, sess-, sit.
foveo, fovi, fot-, cherish. soleo, solitus sum, be tvont.
frigeo, frixi, be cold. sorbeo, sorbui (sorpsi), suck.
fulgeo, fulsi, shine. spondeo, spopondi, spons-, to
gaudeo, gavisus sum, rejoice. strideo, stridi, w/iiz. [flledp*.
hsereo, haesi, haes-, cling. suadeo, suasi, suas-, urge.
indulgeo, indulsi, indult-, /;/- teneo, tenui, tent-, hold
jubeo,jussi,jus£-, order, \dulge. tergeo, tersi, ters-, ivi^ .
langueo, langui. be faint. tondeo, totondi, tons-, shear.
liqueo, liqui ^licui), melt. torqueo, torsi, tort-, twist.
luceo, luxi, ihine. torreo, torrui, tost-, roast.
lugeo, luxi, luct-, mourn. turgeo, tursi, swell.
maneo, mar/ si, mans-, wait- urgeo, ursi, urge.
misceo, cui. mixt- (mist-), mix. video, vidi, vis-, see.
mordeo, mt-mordi, mors-, bite, voveo, vovi, vot-, vow.
70
THIRD CONJUGATION.
[33.
33. T^HIRD CONJUGATION.
ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present, I rule.
rego, I rule. regam
regis, thou rulest. regas
regit, he rules. regat
regimus, we rule, regamus
regitis, you rule, regatis
regunt, they rule, regant
Imperfect, I ruled (was ruling).
regebam, / ruled, regerem
regebas regeres
regebat regeret
regebamus ^|g|Sj^nus
regebatis ^jdpS^eretis
regebant regerent,
Future, / shall rule.
regarii, / shall rule.
regei
reget
regemus
regetis
regent
Perfect, 'I ruled (have ruled).
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
I am ruled.
regar
regaris (re)
regatur
regamur
regammi
regantur
regor
regeris (re)
regltur
regimur
regimini
reguntur
I was ruled.
regebar regerer
regebaris (re) regereris (re)
regebatur
regebamur
regebamini
regebantur
/ shall be ruled.
regeretur
regeremur ~
regeremini
reerentur
regeris (re)
regetur
regemur
regemini
regentur
I was (have been) ruled.
rexi, I ruled.
rexe'rim
rectus sum
rectus sim
r existi
rexeris
rectus es
rectus sis
rexit
rexerit
rectus est
rectus sit
r^;Lims
rexerimus
recti sumus
recti simus
rexistis
rexeritis
recti estis
recti sitis
rexerunt (re)
rexerint
recti sunt
recti sint
Pluperfect, / had ruled.
rexeram, / had rexissem
rexeras [ruled, rexisses
rexerat rexisset
rexeramus
rexeratis
rexeraiit
rexissemus
rexissetis
rexissent
/ had been ruled.
rectus eram rectus essem
rectus esses
rectus esset
recti essemus
recti essetis
recti essent
Fut. Perfect, 1 shall have ruled.
rexero, / shall have ruled.
rexeris
rexerit
rexerimus
rexeritis
rexerint
rectus eras
rectus erat
recti eramus
recti eratis
recti erant
I shall havt^een ruled.
rectus ero
rectus eris
rectus erit
recti erimus
recti eritis
recti erunt
33.]
THIRD CONJUGATION.
71
Sing,
ACTIVE.
IMPERATIVE.
Plur. Sing.
PR. 2. rege, rule, reglte regere
PASSIVE.
Plur.
regimini
F. 2. regito
3. regito
regitote
regunto regitor
INFINITIVE.
PF. rexisse PR. regi
reguntor
PR. regere PF. rexisse PR. regi PF. rectus esse
F. recturus esse
PARTICIPLES.
regens recturus rectus
GER. regendum, di, &c. SUP. rectum, rectu
F. rectum iri (rectus fore)
l*egendus
Verbs in io (present stem) are inflected as follows : —
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present, 1 take.
capio, / take. capiam
capis, thou takest. capias
capit, he takes. capiat
capimus, we take, capiamus
capitis, you take, capiatis
capiunt, they take, capiant
Imperfect, I took (was taking).
capiebam, / took, caperem
capiebas caperes
capiebat caperet
capiebamus caperemus
capiebatis caperetis
capiebant » caperent
Future, 1 shall take.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
/ am taken.
capior
caperis (re)
capitur
capimur
capimmi
capiuntur
capiar
capiaris (re)
capiatur
capiamur
capiamini
capiantur
capiebar
capiebaris (re)
capiebatur
capiebamur
capiebarnini
capiebantur
was taken.
caperer
capereris (re)
caperetur
caperemur
caperemmi
caperentur
/ shall be taken.
capiam capiemus
capiar capiemur
capies capietis
capieris (re) capiemini
capiet capient
capietur capientur
PERF. cepi ceperim
captus sum captus sim
PLUP. ceperam cepissem
captus sim captus essem
F. P. cepero
captus ero
^ IMPERATIVE,
capite capere capimmi
4 :o capitote
capito capiuiito
capitor capiuntor
INFIN. capere cepisse
capi captus esse
PAUT. capiens capturus
captus capiendus
72 THIRD CONJUGATION. [33 : I, 2, 3,
1. The following simple verbs of this conjugation form
the perfect and supine stems like rego, by adding s and t
to the root. Those marked } take s in the supine: —
ango, choke ; carpo, pluck ; cingo, lind ; J claudo, shut ;
clepo, steal; coino, comb: c6quo, cook; demo, take away;
dico, say : duco, guide ; J figo, fix ; J flecto, bend ; frigo, fry ;
J laedo, hurt ; lingo, lick ; { ludo, play ; nubo, marry ; J pecto,
comb; fplaudo, applaud; plecto, twine; promo, bring out;
{rado, scrape; rSgo, rule; repo, creep; Jrodo, gnaw; sarpo,
prune; scalpo, scrape; scribo, write; serpo, crawl; sumo, take;
tego, shelter ; tingo, stain ; traho, drag ; { trudo, thrust ; J vado,
go; veho, draw; vivo, live.
NOTE. — In these verbs, h and v are treated as palatals, becom-
ing x and ct ; p takes the place of b, and is inserted euphonically
after m, before s and t; while d and t are omitted: as in scrips!,
sumpsi, flexi, plausi; demo, promo, sumo, are old compounds.
2. Verbs in io of the third conjugation are conjugated as
follows : —
capio, cepi, capt-, take. -licio, -lexi, -lect-, entice.
cupio, cupivi, cuplt-, desire. pario, peperi, part- (pariturus),
-cutio, -cussi, -cuss-, shake. bring forth.
facio, feci, fact-, make. quatio, — , quass-, shake.
fodio, fodi, foss-, dig. rapio, rapui, rapt-, seize.
fugio, fugi, fugit-,_/fe0. sapio, sapivi, or sapui, be wise.
jacio, jeci, jact-, throw. -spicio, -spexi, -spect-. view.
3. Those otherwise conjugated are the following (see
§ 30, 3, a, b).
ago, egi, act-, drive. cudo, -cudi, -cus-, forge, [down.
alo, alui, alt- (alit-), nourish. -cumbo [CUB], cubui, cubit-, lie
arcesso, ivi, arcesslt-, summon, curro, cucurri, curs-, run.
bibo, bibi, bibit-, drink. depso, depsui, depst-, knead.
cado, cecidi, cas-,y/7//. disco [DIG], didici(discit-),/e#r#.
caedo, cecidi, caes-, cut. divido, divisi, divis-, divide.
cano, cecini, cant-, sing". -do, -didi, -dit- (as in abdo, &c.,
capesso, capessivi, undertake. with credo, vendo), put [DHA]
cedo, cessi, cess-, yield. edo, edi, esum, eat (§ 37, 5).
-cello, -cellui(-culi), -eels-, push, emo, emi, empt-, buy.
-cendo, -.cendi, -cens-, kindle. facesso, facessi,facessit-,£A*?c#/£.
cerno, -crevi, -cret-, decree. fallo, fefelli, fals-, deceive.
colo, colui, cult-, dwell, till. -fendo, -fendi, -fens-, ward off.
compesco, compescui, restrain, fero, ferre, tuli, lat-, bear (§ 37,
consulo, lui, consult-, consult. findo [FID], fidi, fiss-, split. [4).
cresco, crevi, cret-, increase. fido, fisus sum, trust..
33, 3-] THIRD CONJUGATION. 73
fingo [FIG], finxi, fact- >f ask ion. premo, pressi, press-, press.
fluo, fluxi, flux-,^/fozt>. {break, pungo [PUG], pupugi, punct-,
frango [FRAG], fregi, fract-, to prick.
fremo, fremui, fremit-, roar. qusero, qusesivi, quseslt-, seek.
frendo, -fresi, fress-, gnash. quiesco, quievi, quiet-, rest.
fundo [FUD], fudi, fus-,/0#r. rudo, rudivi, rudlt-, bray.
furo, furui, rage. rumpo [RUP], rupi, rupt-, burst.
gemo, gemui, gemit-, groan. ruo, rui, rut- (ruit-),/«//.
gero, gessi, gest-, carry. scabo, scabi, scratch.
gignoJGEN],genui,genit-, &?£•£/. scando, scansi, scans-, climb.
ico, ici, ict-, hit. scindo [SCID], scidi, sciss-, tear.
incesso, incessivi, attack, {voke. scisco, scivi, scit-, decree.
lacesso, lacessivi, lacessit-, pro- sero, sevi, sat-, sow.
lambo, Iambi, lambit-, lap. sero, serui, sert-, entwine.
lavo, lavi, lot- (laut-), wash sido, sidi (sedi), sess-, settle.
(reg. of ist conj.). sino, sivi, sit-, permit.
lego, legi(intellexi),lect-,^w/^£/'. sisto [STA], stiti, stat-, stop.
lino [LI], levi (livi), lit-, smear, solvo, solvi, solut-,^«y, loose.
linquo [LIC], -liqui, -lict-, leave, spargo, sparsi, sparr,-, scatter.
luo, lui, luit-, wash. sperno, sprevi, spret-, scorn.
mando, mansi, mans-, chew. sterno, stravi, strat-, strew.
mergo, mersi, mers-, plunge. sterto, stertui, snore.
meto, messui, mess-, reap. strepo, strepui, strepit-, sound.
mitto, misi, miss-, send. -stinguo,-stinxi,-stinct-,^«£;/c^.
molo, molui, molit-, grind. stringo, strinxi, strict-, bind.
necto [NEC], nexi (nexui), nex-, struo, struxi, struct-, build.
weave. suesco, suevi, suet-, be wont.
nosco[GNo], novi,not-(cognit-), surgo, surrexi, surrect-, rise.
nuo, nui, nuit-, nod. [know, tango [TAG], tetigi, tact-, touch.
occulo, occului, occult-, hide. tendo, tetendi (-tendi), tens-
pando, pandi, pans- (pass-), (tent-), stretch.
open. • tergo, tersi, ters-, wipe.
pango [PAG], tpegi (pepigi),tero, trivi, trlt-, rub.
f pact-, fasten. texo, texui, text-, weave.
parco, peperci, parcit-, spare. tollo [TOL] (sustuli, sublat-),
pasco, pavi, past-,/e<?oT. tremo, tremui, tremble, [raise.
pello, pepuli, puls-, drive. tundo [TUD], tutudi, tuns-, beat.
pendo, pependi, pens-, weigh, uro, ussi, ust-, burn.
pergo, perrexi, perrect-, go on. vello, velli (vulsi), vuls-, pluck.
peto, petivi, petit-, seek. verro, verri, vers-, sweep.
pingo [PIG], pinxi, pict-, paint, verto, verti, vers-, turn.
pinso, pinsi, pins-(pinst-, pist-), vinco [vie], vici, vict-, conquer.
bruise. viso [VID], visi, vis-, visit.
pono [POS], posui, posit-, put. vivo, vixi, vict-, live.
posco, poposci (posciturus,) de- volvo, volvi, volut-, turn.
mand. vomo, vomui, vomit-, vomit.
prehendo, di, prehens-, seize.
Those reduplicated in the perfect wz — cado, ccedo, curro,
disco, fallo, pango, parco, pello, pendo, posco, pungo, tendo,
tundo.
tundo.
74
FOURTH CONJUGATION.
[34.
audior
audiar
audiris (re)
audiaris (re)
audltur
audiatur
audlmur ,
audiamur
audimini
audiamini
audiuntur
audiantur
34. FOURTH CONJUGATION.
ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present, I hear. I am heard.
audio, I hear. audiam
audis, thouhearest.audias
audit, he hears, audiat
audimus, we hear, audiamus
auditis, you hear, audiatis
audiunt, they hear, audiant
Imperfect, / heard (was hearing). I was heard.
audiebam audirem audiebar audirer
audiebas
audiebat
audiebamus
audiebatis
audiebant
Future, / shall hear.
audiam, / shall hear.
audies
audiet t
audiemus
audietis
audient
Perfect, / hei
audivi, / heard.
audivisti
audivit
audivimus
audivistis
audiveruut (re)
Pluperfect, I had heard.
aucliveram, 1 had audivissem
audiveras [heard, audivisses
audiverat . audivisset
audiveramus
audiveratis
audires
audiret
audiebaris (re)
audiebatur
audireris (re)
audiretur
audiremus
audiretis
audirent
audiebamur
audiebamini
audiebaiitur
audiremur
audiremini
audirentur
hear. 1 shall be heard.
ear.
audiar
audieris (re)
audietur
audiemur
audiemmi
audientur
d (have heard).
audiverim
audiveris
audiverit
I was (have been) heard.
auditus sum aiiditus sim
auditus es auditus sis
auditus est auditus sit
audiverimus
audiveritis
audiverint
auditi sumus
auditi estis
auditi sunt
auditi simus
auditi sitis
auditi sint
/ had been heard.
auditus eram auditus essem
auditus eras
auditus erat
audivissemus auditi eramus
audivissetis auditi eratis
auditus esses
auditus esset
auditi essemus
auditi essetis
auditi essent
audiverant audivissent auditi erant
Fut. Perfect, / shall have heard. I shall have been heard.
audivero, / shall have heard. auditus ero
audiveris
audiverit
audiverimus
audiveritis
audiverint
auditus eris
auditus erit
auditi erimus
auditi eritis
auditi erunt
34: I,2J 35.] FOURTH CONJUGATION. 75
ACTIVE. IMPERATIVE. PASSIVE.
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
PR. 2. audi, hear, audite audire audimini
F. 2. audito auditote -
3. audito audiunto - auditor audiuntor
INFINITIVE.
PR. audire PF. audivisse PR. audiri PF. auditus esse
F. auditurus esse F. auditum iri (auditus fore)
PARTICIPLES.
audiens auditurus auditus audiendus
GER. audiendum, di, &c. SUP. auditum, auditu
1 . There are — besides a few deponents and regular
derivatives in -urio — about 60 verbs of this conjugation, a
large proportion of them being descriptive verbs : viz.,
barrio, roar (as an elephant) ; crocio, croak ; cue urio, crow ;
dentio, teethe; ebullio, bubble; effutio, drivel; frigutio, stutter;
fritinnio, twitter; gannio, yelp; glutio, gulp; gruimio, grunt;
hinnio, neigh ; hirrio, snarl ; ligurio, lick ; lipio, scream (as a
hawk); lippio, blink; mugio, bellow; muttio, mutter; pavio,
trample ; scalpturio, scratch ; scaturio, gush ; singultio, hiccup ;
tinnio, tinkle; tussio, cough; vagio, cry.
2. Those not conjugated regularly, like audio, are the
followin :. —
amicio, amixi (amicui), amict-, reperio, reperi,
clothe. salio, salui, salt-, leap.
aperio, aperui, apert-, open. . sancio, sanxi, sanct-, sanction.
comperio, peri, compert-, find, sarcio, sarsi, sart-,^V?/c>£.
farcio,farsi (farct-) (-tum),s//£^ sehtio, sensi, sens-, feel.
fulcio, fulsi, fult-, prop. sepelio, sepelivi, sepult-, bury.
haurio, hausi, haust-, drain. sepio, sepsi, sept-, hedge in.
operio, operui, opert-, cover. venio, veni, vent-, come.
raucio, rausi, raus-, be hoarse, vincio, vinxi, vinct-, bind.
35. DEPONENT VERBS.
1. Deponent Verbs have the form of the Passive voice,
with an active or reflexive signification : as,
1. miror, mirari, miratus, admire.
2. vereor, vereri, veritus, fear.
£. sequor, sequi, secutus, follow.
4. p6tior, potiri, potitus, possess.
76
DEPONENT VERBS.
[35: i.
The synopsis of these verbs is given as follows: —
potior
potiebar 1
potiar
potitus sum
„ eram
INDICATIVE.
PRES. miror vereor sequor
IMP. mirabar verebar sequebar
FUT. mirabor verebor sequar
PERF. miratus sum veritus sum secutus sum
PLUP. „ eram „ eram „ eram
FUT. P. „ ero „ ero „ ero
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRES. mirer verear sequar potiar
IMP. mirarer vererer sequerer potirer
PERP. miratus sim veritus sim secutus sim potitus sim
PLUP. „ essem „ essem „ essem ,, 6ssem
IMPERAT. mirare, ator verere, etor sequgre, itor potire, itor
INPIN. mirari vereri sequi potiri
PART. PR. mirans verens sequens potiens
FUT. miraturus veriturus secuturus potiturus
PERF. miratus veritus secutus potitus
GER. mirandus verendus sequendus potiendus
a. These verbs have the participles of both voices : as, mirans,
admiring ; miraturus, about to admire ; miratus, having ad-
mired; mirandus, to-be-admired (admirable).
b. The participle in dus (gerundive) has necessarily a passive
meaning, and hence is found only in transitive verbs, or of neuter
verbs used impersonally (§ 39, c) : as, potienda est tellus, the
land must be won ; pugnandum est nobis, we must fight.
c. Most deponents are neuter or reflexive in their meaning,
corresponding to what in Greek is called the middle voice.
d>* More than half of all deponents are\.of the first conjuga-
tion, and all of these are regular.
e. About twenty verbs of active signification are found in both
active and passive forms : as, mereo or mereor, deserve.
f. Sgme deponents are occasionally used in a passive significa-
tion : as, criminor, / accuse or / am accused.
g. The perfect participle of verbs otherwise deponent is often
passive : as, mercatus, bought ; adeptus, obtained.
h. The following list contains all the irregular deponents : —
adipiscor, i, adeptus, obtain. -miniscor, i, -mentus, think.
metior, iri, mensus, measure.
morior, i (iri), mortuus (rnori-
turus, moribundus), die.
nanciscor, i, nactus (nanctus),
find.
nascor, i, natus, be born-
nitor, i, nisus (nixus), strive.
obliviscor, i, obll tus, jfo/^/.
opperior, iri, oppertus, await.
expergiscor, i, -perrectus, rouse.
experior, iri, expertus, try.
fateor, eri, fassus, confess.
fruor, i, fructus, enjoy.
fungor, i, functus, fulfil.
gradior, i, gressus, step.
irascor, i, iratus, be angry.
labor, i, lapsus, fall.
loquor, i, locutus, speak.
35: 2; 36.] DERIVATIVE VERBS. 77
ordior, iri, orsus, begin, [rise, queror, i, questus, complain.
orior, i (iri), ortus (oriturus), reor, reri, ratus, think.
paciscor, i, pactus, bargain. sequor, i, secutus,y<?//0w.
patior, i, passus, suffer. tueor, eri, tuitus (tutus), defend.
-plector, i, -plexus, clasp. ulciscor, i, ultus, avenge.
proficiscor, i, profectus, set-out, utor, i, usus, use, employ.
2. Semi-Deponents. A few verbs, having no perfect
stem, form the tenses of completed action like the passive :
these are called semi-deponents or neuter passives. They are
the following : —
audeo, audere, ausus, dare.
fido, fidere, fisus, trust.
gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus, rejoice.
soleo, solere, solitus, be wont.
a* From audeo there is an old subjunctive ausim. The
form sodes (for si audes), an thou wilt, is frequent in the
dramatists.
b. The active forms vapulare, to be flogged, and venire, to
be sold (venum ire, go to sale), having a passive meaning, are
sometimes called neutral passives. To these may be added fieri
(fio), to be made, and exsulare, to be banished (live in exile).
36, DERIVATIVE VERBS.
Several classes of verbs have derivative meanings corre-
sponding to their form. (For their formation, see § 44.)
a. INCEPTIVES or INCHOATIVES end in -sco, and denote the
beginning of an action: as, calesco, / grow warm (caleo) ;
vesperascit, it is getting late (vesper). They are of the third
conjugation, and have only the Present stem, though often com-
pleted by forms of simple verbs.
&. INTENSIVES or ITERATIVES end in -to or -ito, and denote
& forcible or repeated action : as, jactat, he hurls (jacio) ; dic-
titabat, he kept saying (dico). They are of the first conjugation.
NOTE. — Iteratives (or Frequentatives), though distinct in meaning
from Intensives, are not always distinguished from them in form.
c. Another form of Intensives (sometimes called MEDITA-
TIVES, or verbs of practice) ends in -sso, denoting a certain
energy or eagerness of action : as, facessit, he makes haste to
do. They are of the third conjugation, with perfect and supine of
the fourth : as, lacesso, lacessivi, lacessitum, to provoke.
d. DIMINUTIVES end in -illo, and denote a feeble or petty
action: as, cantillare, to chirp or warble (cano, sing).
78
IRREGULAR VERBS.
[37: i.
6. DESIDERATIVES end in urio, expressing longing or wish,
and are of the fourth conjugation. Only these three are in com-
mon use, emptiirio (emo, buy), esurio (edo, eat), parturio
(pario, bring forth). Others occur for comic effect in the
dramatists.
37. IRREGULAR VERBS.
[For esse and its compounds, see § 29.]
Several verbs retain older forms in the tenses of the
present stem, or combine two roots in their inflection.
These are called Irregular Verbs.
The most common verbs of this class are — \
1. V51o, velle, volui, to wish (the supine stem appears in
vultus, countenance).
2. Nolo (non volo), nolle, nolui, to be unwilling.
3. Malo (mage-volo), malle, malui, to prefer.
[For the inflection of volo, nolo, malo, see opposite page.]
4. Fero, ferre, tuii, latum, to bear.
NOTE. — The perfect tuli is for tetuli (which sometimes occurs),
from TUL in tollo ; the Supine latum for tlatum (cf. rTirjro^).
ACTIVE.
PRES.
IMP.
FUT.
PERF.
PLUP.
INDIG.
fero
fers
fert
ferimus
fertis
ferunt
ferebam
feram
tuli
tuleram
F. PERF. tulero
Sing.
PRES. fer
FUT. ferto
ferto
PEES.
ferre
PRES.
ferens
E- PASSIVE.
SUBJ.
feram
feras
ferat
feramus
feratis
ferant
INDIC.
feror
ferris
fertur ,
ferimur
ferimiiii
feruntur
SUBJ.
ferar
feraris (re)
feratur
feramur
feramini
ferantur
ferrem
ferebar
ferrer
ferar
tulerim
latus sum
latus sim
tulissem
latus eram
latus essem
latus ero
IMPERATIVE.
Plur. Sing.
ferte ferre
Plur.
ferimini
fertote
ferunto
fertor
feruntor
INFINITIVE.
PERF. PRES.
tulisse ferri
PERF.
latus esse
PARTICIPLES.
FUT. PKRF.
laturus latus
OER.
ferendus
37.]
VOLO, NOLO, MALO.
79
INFLECTION OP volo AND ITS COMPOUNDS.
VOLO, wW.
NOLO, will not.
MAIiO, prefer.
INDIC. SUBJ.
INDIC. SUBJ.
INDIC. SUBJ.
PRESENT.
volo velim
nolo nolim
malo malim
vis veils
nonvis nolis
mavis malis
vult velit
nonvult nolit
mavult maiit
vorumus veli'mus
norumus noli'mus
marumus mali'mus
vultis velitis
nonvultis nolitis
mavultis malifcis
volunt velint
nolunt nolint
malunt malint
IMPERFECT.
volebam vellem
nolebam nollem
malebam mallem
volebas velles
nolebas nolles
malebas malles
volebat vellet
nolebat nollet
malebat mallet
volebamus vellemus
nolebamus nollemus
malebamus mallemus
volebatis velletis
nolebatis nolletis
malebatis malle.tis
volebant vellent
nolebant nollent
malebant mallent
FUTURE.
volam
nolam t
malamf
voles
noles
males
volet
nolet
malet
volemus
nolemus
malemus
voletis
noletis
maletis
volent
nolent
malent
PERFECT. »
volui -erim
nolui -erim
malui -erim
voluisti -eris
noluisti -eris
maluisti -eris
voluit -erit
noluit -erit
maluit -erit
voluimus -erimus
ndluimiis -erimus
maluimus -erimus
voluistis -eritis
noluistis -eritis
maluistis -eritis
voluerunt -erint
noluerunt -erint
maluerunt -erint
PLUPERFECT.
volueram -issem
nolueram -issem
malueram -issem
volueras -isses
nolueras -isses
malueras -isses
voluerat -isset
noluerat -isset
maiuerat -isset
volueramus -issemus
nolueramus -issemus
malueramus -issemus
volueratis -issetis
nolueratis -issetis
malueratis -issetis
voluerant -issent
noluerant -issent
maluerant -issent
FUTURE PERFECT.
voluero
noluero
maluero
volueris
nolueris
malueris
voluerit
noluerit
maluerit
voluerimus
noluerimus
maluerimus
volu eritis
nolueritis
malaeritis
voluerint
noluerint
maluerint
IMPERATIVE.
PR.
noli, noli'te, do not.
EUT.
noli'to, nolito'te, thou
s/talt not, i/e shall not.
noli'to^ nolunto, he sliall not^ tliey shall not.
INFINITIVE.
PRES. velle
nolle
malle
PERF. voluisse
noluisse
maluisso
PARTICIPLE.
PRESENT, volens, willing. nolens, unwilling.
GERUND, volendi, volendo nolendi
fRare.
80 IRREGULAR VERBS. [37: 5, 6, 7.
5. Edo, to eat (regular of third conjugation), has also some
forms directly from the root without a characteristic vowel : viz. ,
IND. PRES. es, est, estis ; SUBJ. Pres. edim, Imperf. essem ;
IMPERAT. es, esto, este ; INFIN. esse ; PASSIVE, estur, essetur ;
and, in compounds, comes, comest, comestum, comesum;
exest, exesset, exesse.
6. Eo, ire, ivi, itum, to go (root i, cf. elfii ; the e stands for ei
produced by vowel-increase from i). The forms of eo are found
in veneo, to be sold (venum eo, go to sale).
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRES. S. eo, is, it earn, eas, eat
P. imus, itis, emit eamus, eatis, eant
IMP. ibam, ibas, ibat irem, ires, iret
ibamus, ibatis, ibaiit iremus, iretis, irent
FUT. ibo, ibis, ibit
ibimus, ibitis, ibunt
PERF. ivi (ii) iverim (ierim)
PLUP. iveram (ieram) ivissem (issem)
FUT. P. ivero
IMPERAT. i, ite ; itote, eunto
INFIN. PR. ire PER. ivisse (isse)
PART. P. iens, euntis F. iturus
7. Facio, facere, feci, factum, to make, — regular, with the
peculiar forms fut. perf. faxo, perf. subj. faxim, imperat. fac. It
has for its passive
fio, fieri, factus sum, to fyjmade, or become,
of which the tenses of the first stem are regular of the fourth con-
jugation, but with subj. imperf. fierem.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
PRES. S. fio, fis, fit fiam, fias, fiat/
P. fimus, fitis, fiunt fiamus, fiatis, fiant
IMP. fiebam fierem
FUT. fiam, fies, &c.
PERF. factus sum factus sim
PLUP. factus eram factus essem
FUT. P. factus ero
IMPERAT. fi, fite ; fito, fitote, fiunto
INFIN. PRES. fieri P. factus esse
PART. PERF. factus faciendus
38: I, 2.] DEFECTIVE VERBS. 81
Most compounds of facio with prepositions change a to i or e,
and form the passive and imperative regularly : as,
conficio, conficere, confeci, confectum, to finish.
Other compounds retain a, and have -fio in the passive : as,
bene-facio (-fa'cis), -feci, -factum; pass, benefio, to benefit.
A few isolated forms of -fio occur with prepositions (see § 38, h).
38, DEFECTIVE VERBS.
1. Some verbs have lost their Present stem, and use only
tenses of the Perfect (sometimes with the meaning of the
present), in which they are inflected regularly.
a* Coepi (root CO-AP as in apiscor), I began. Infin. coep-
isse; Fut. Part, coepturus. A passive participle coeptus is
used with the passive infinitive. For the Present, incipio is used.
&. Odi, / hate (root 6d- in odium) ; with the participles osus,
hating or hated (perosus, utterly hateful), osurus, likely to hate.
ۥ Memiiii, / remember (root MEN, as in mens, reminiscor),
with the imperative memento and mementote.
NOTE. — Odi and memiui, having a Perfect form with a present
meaning, are called preteritive verbs.
2. Many verbs have only the Present stem, and in many
the simple verb is incomplete, but the parts appear in the
compounds. Some occur very commonly, but only in a few
forms : as,
a. Aio (root AGH found in adagium and in nego, which has
passed into the first conjugation) :
IND. PRES. Sing, aio, I say. Plur.
ais
ait aiuiit
IMPERF. aiebam (aibam), aiebas, &c.
SUBJ. PRES. aias, aiat, aiant.
IMPERAT. ai. — PART, aiens.
6. Inquam, say (used only in quotations, as the English quoth,
which is from the same root) :
IND. PRES. Sing, inquam Plur. inqu&nus
inquis inquitis
inquit inqueunt
IMPERF. inquibat. — FUT. inquiet. — PERF. inquisti.
JMPERAT. inque, inquito.
4*
82 IMPERSONAL VERBS. [38: 2; 39.
ۥ Fari, to speak, forms the periphrastic tenses regularly : as,
fatus sum, eram, &c. It has also
IND. PRES. fatur, faiitur. — FUT. fabor, fabitur.
LMPERAT. fare. — INFLN. fari. — PART, fanti (with the com-
pound infans, as noun).
GERUND, fandus, to be spoken of (with the compounds infan-
dus, nefandus, abominable). — SUPINE, fatu.
The compounds affamur, affabimur, praefamiiii, &c., occur.
d* Quaeso, / ask, beg (an original form of quaero), has
quaeso, quaesumus, quaesere, quaesens.
ۥ Ovare, to triumph, has the following :
ovat, ovet, ovaret; ovans, ovandi, ovatus, ovaturus.
jf. A few are found chiefly in the Imperative : as,
salve, salvete, hail! also salvere (from salvus).
ave (or have), avete, aveto, hail, or farewell.
cedo, cedite (cette), give, tell.
apage! begone! (properly a Greek word).
gr« Queo, / can, nequeo, / cannot, are conjugated like eo.
They are rarely used except in the Present.
IND. PRES. queo, quis, quit, quimus, quitis, queunt.
IMP. quibam, quibat, quibant. — FUT. quibo, quibunt.
PERF. quivi, quivit, quiverunt.
SUBJ. PRES. queam, &c. — IMP. quirem, quire t, quirent.
PERF. quiverit. — PLUP. quissent.
INFIN. quire, quivisse (quisse). — PART, quiens, queuntis.
IND. PRES. nequeo (often non queo), nonquis, nequit, ne-
quimus, nequitis, nequeunt.
IMP. nequibam, -ibat, -ibant. — FUT. nequibunt.
PERF. nequivi, nequivisti, nequivit, nequiverunt.
SUBJ. PRES. nequeam, &c. — IMP. nequirem.
PERF. nequiverim. — PLUP. nequisset.
INFIN. nequire, nequivisse. — PART, nequiens.
h* The following compounds of fio have only the forms confit,
it comes to pass ; defit, it lacks; infit, he begins (to speak).
39. IMPERSONAL VERBS.
Many verbs, from their meaning, appear only in the
third person singular, with the infinitive and gerund.
These are called Impersonal Verbs.
NOTE. — With impersonal verbs the word IT is used in English,
having usually no representative in Latin, though id, hoc, illud, are
often used nearly in the same way.
39, 40.] PERIPHRASTIC FORMS. 83
Impersonal Verbs may be classified as follows : —
a* Verbs expressing the operations of nature : as," pluit, it
rains ; ningit, it snows ; grandmat, it hails ; fulgurat, it lightens.
In these, no subject is distinctly thought of; though sometimes
the name of a deity is expressed ; and, in poetic use, of other
agents also : as, fundae saxa pluunt, the slings rain stones.
b» Verbs of feeling, where the person who is the proper subject
becomes the object, as if himself affected by the feeling expressed
in the verb. Such are, miseret, it grieves ; poenitet, it repents ;
piget, it disgusts; pudet, it shames; taedet, it wearies: as,
miseret me, / pity (it distresses me) .
Such verbs often have also a passive form : as, misereor.
/ pity (am mooed by pity) ; and occasionally other parts : as,
libens, licens, poeniturus, poenitendus, pudendus.
c. By a similar construction, the passive of intransitive verbs
is very often used impersonally: as, pugnatur, there is fighting;
\ dicitur, it is said ; parcitur mihi, / am spared.
NOTE. — This use of the passive proceeds from its original reflexive
meaning, the action being regarded as accomplishing itself ( compare the
French cela sefait).
d* Verbs which have a phrase or clause as their subject : as,
libet, it pleases ; licet, it is permitted ; certum est, it is resolved ;
constat, it is clear : placet, videtur, it seems good ; decet, it is
becoming; delectat, juvat, it delights; oportet, necesse est,
it is needful ; praestat, it is better ; interest, refert, it concerns ;
vacat, there is leisure; with verbs of happening and the. like.
Many of these are also used personally.
40. PERIPHRASTIC FORMS.
When the tenses of esse are used with a Participle, this
use is called periphrastic conjugation. It is most frequent —
a* With the participle in urus, to express intention, or simple
futurity ; this is sometimes necessary in the subjunctive: as, cum
venturus sit, since he is about to come. This form is sometimes
called thsjirst periphrastic conjugation; and, when used with sim,
the future subjunctive. *"^>
6. With the gerundive to denote duty or propriety : as, vera
dicenda sunt, the truth must be told. This form is sometimes
called the second periphrastic conjugation.
C* With the perfect participle, in the regular inflection of the
tenses of completed action in passives and deponents.
NOTE. — The participle in tus frequently, and that in ns regularly,
is used with esse simply as an adjective : as, sapiens est, he is wise;
acceptus est, he is welcome.
84 PARTICLES. [41: I.
PARTICLES.
41. ADVERBS.
What are called PARTICLES — that is, all Adverbs,
Prepositions, and Conjunctions — are real or extinct i
case-forms, or else compounds and phrases.
In classification Particles cannot always be distinguished ; many
prepositions and conjunctions being also reckoned among adverbs.
1. Derivation. The regular adverbs of manner are
formed from Adjectives.
[For the comparison of these adverbs, see § 17, 4.]
a* Adjectives of the first and second declensions change the
characteristic vowel of the stem into e (originally an ablative in
d) : as, from carus, dear, care, dearly.
So abunde, saope, prope, from adjectives not in use; as also
prod (pro), re- (red-), se-, (sed-).
b. Adjectives of the third declension add -ter to the stem (most
being treated as i-stems) : as, fortiter, bravely; vigilanter,
watchfully.
NOTE. — This suffix is of uncertain origin, probably the same as
in the Greek -repos, and in alter, uter / and, if so, these are neuter
accusatives.
c. Some adverbs of the former class have both forms : as,
dure, duriter; misere, miseriter. (So allter from alius —
old stem all-.)
d. The neuter accusative of adjectives and pronouns is often
used as an adverb (strictly a cognate accusative, see § 52, i, d) :
as, multum, muck; actutum, at once; facile, easily; non (— ne
unum), not ; iterum (comparative of is), again.
e. The ablative neuter or (less commonly) feminine is used
adverbially: as, false, falsely; cite, quickly; recta (via),
straight (straightway) ; contra, on the other hand; qua (parte),
where; qui, how; alioqui, otherwise.
41: 1,2.] PARTICLES. 85
/. A few adverbs are datives of adjectives and pronouns : as,
quo, whither; adeo, so; ultra, beyond; citro, this side; retro,
lack (compar. of uls, cis, re) ; illoc (illo-ce, weakened to illuc),
thither.
ff» Some locative forms are used as adverbs: as, ibi, there;
ubi, where, &c. ; peregre, abroad ; hie, here ; interim, mean-
while; deinde, then; tamen, yet; and the compounds extrin-
secus, outside ; perendie, day after to-morrow.
h. Several feminine accusatives are used as adverbs : as,
statim, on the spot; saltim, with a leap (generally in the form
saltern, at least) ; palam, openly ; perperam, wholly otherwise
(i.e., changed for the worse); tarn, quam, iiam (which maybe
neuters) .
i. Several plural accusatives, neuter and feminine, are used
adverbially, as frustra, vainly; alias, otherwise; foras, out of
doors.
/£. Some adverbs are of uncertain formation : (1) those in -tus
(usually preceded by i) : as, penitus, funditus, from the bottom
(utterly) ; divinitus, providentially, — which are ablative in mean-
ing ; (2) those in -dem, -dam, -do (in quan-do, when ; do-nec,
until), dum, perhaps jam (from the same root with dies,
diu, &c.).
1. Many phrases or clauses have grown into adverbs : as,
antea, before; postmodo, a little after; denuo (de n6vo),
again ; prorsus, utterly ; quotannis, every year ; quamobrem,
wherefore; obviam, in the way ; pridem, before the day (i.e., be-
fore this time) ; forsan, a chance whether ; forsitan (fors sit an) ,
perhaps ; scilicet (scire licet), to be sure.
(For Numeral Adverbs, see § 18, 3.)
2. Classification. Adverbs, other than those directly
formed from adjectives, are classified as follows : —
a. Adverbs of Flace.
ubi, where, quo, -whither, unde,
whence. qua, by what way.
hie, here. hue, hither.
hinc,
hence. hac, by this way.
ibi, there. eo, thither.
inde,
thence. ea, by the way.
istic ,, istuc ,,
istinc
„ ista ,,
illic ,, illuc ,,
illinc
ilia (iliac) „
alicubi, somewhere ;
aliquo
alicunde aliqua.
ibidem, in the same place ;
eodem
indidem eadem.
alibi, elsewhere;
alio
aliunde alia.
ubiubi, wherever ;
quoquo
undecunque quaqua.
ubivis, anywhere ;
quovis
undique quavis.
sicubi, if anywhere ;
siquo
sicunile siqua.
necubi, lest anywhere ;
nequo
necunde nequa.
86 ADVERBS. [41: 2.
nusquam, nowhere ; ultro, beyond (or freely) ; citro, to this side;
intro, inwardly; porro, further on.
quorsum (quo versum), to -what end? horsum, this 'way ; pror-
sum, forward (prorsus, utterly) ; introrsum, inwardly ;
retrorsum, backward ; sursum, upward; deorsum, down-
ward ; seorsum, apart; aliorsum, another way.
b. Adverbs of Time.
quando? when? cum (quom, quum), when (relat).
nunc, now ; tune (turn), then; mox, presently.
primum (primo),}&?/; deinde (postea), next after; postremum,
(postremo),j6W//y.
umquam (unquam), ever ; numquam, never ; semper, always.
aliquando, some time, at length ; quandoque (quandocumque),
whenever-
quotiens (quoties), how often; totiens, aliquotiens.
quotidie, every day ; in dies, from day to day.
nondum, not yet; necdum, nor yet ; vixdum, scarce yet ; quam
primum, as soon as possible.
c. Adverbs of Degree or Cause.
quam, how, as ; tarn, so ; quam vis, however much.
cur, quare, why ; quod, quia, because ; eo, therefore.
ita, sic, so ; ut (uti), as, how; utut, utcumque, "however.
quamquam (quanquam), although; etiam, quoque, even, also.
d. Interrogative Particles.
an, -ne, anne, utrum, num, whether.
nonne, whether not; numquid, ecquid, whether at all ; (ecquid
intellegis ? have you any idea /*)
utrum (num), -ne, whether ; ... an (annon, necne), or.
„ an, -ne ,,
NOTE. — The word whether is not now used in English, except in
Indirect Questions (See § 71).
e. Negative Particles.
lion, not in simple denial; haud (hau, haut), or minime, not
in contradiction; ne, not in prohibition.
ne, lest ; neque, nee, nor ; ne . . . quidem, not even.
non modo . . . verum (sed) etiam, not only . . . but also.
non modo . . . sed ne . . . quidem, not only NOT . . . but not
even.
si minus, if 'not ; quo minus, so as not.
quin (relat.), but that; (interrog.) ivhy not? who (what) not?
ne (in compos.), not: as, nescio, / know not; nego (ne-aio),
/ say no (aio, / say yes)] nemo (ne homo), no one; ne
quis, lest any one.
41: 2, 3-] ADVERBS. 87
REMARK. — Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative: as,
nemo non audiet, even/ one will hear.
This is especially frequent with compounds of non : as, nonnul-
lus (=aliquis), some; nonnihil (=aliquid), something; nonnemo
(= aliquot), sundry persons ; nonnumquam (= aliquotiens), some-
times; necnon, also.
On the other hand, nemo non, nulli non, every one; nihil non,
every thing ; numquam lion, always, &c.
3. Signification. The following adverbs require special
explanation : —
a. Etiam, also, is stronger than quoque, and usually pre-
cedes the emphatic word, while quoque follows it : as,
terret etiam nos, ac minatur (Rose. Am. 40), us also he terrifies
and threatens.
hoc quoque maleficium (id.), this crime too.
b. Nunc, now, means definitely the present time; jam, already,
— or, with the future, presently ; with negatives, no longer, — has
reference to the past. Tune, then, is a strengthened form of turn,
which is correlative with cum, when: as,
mine jam confiteris, noiv at length you confess.
non est jam lenitati locus, there is no longer room for mercy.
quod jam erat institutum, 'which had come to be a practice.
nunc quidem deleta est, tune florebat (Lael. 4), notv (Y/s true)
she [Greece] is ruined, then she was in her glory.
turn cum regnabat, at the time he reigned.
c. Certo means certainly ; certe (usually), at any rate : as,
certo scio, I know for a certainty.
aut jam urgentis aut certe adventantis senectutis (C. M. i.), of
old age, -which is already pressing or at least approaching.
d. Primum, first (first in order, or for the first time], is
usually followed by delude, turn, . . . denique ; primo, at first,
by postea (post) or mox, afterwards. (The adjective form is pre-
ferred in such phrases as nos primi, we first, &c.) Thus,
primum de genere belli, deinde de magnitudine, turn de impera-
tore deligendo (Manil. 2), first of the kind of ivar, next
of its greatness, then of the choice of commander.
c. Quidem, indeed,, is emphatic, and often has a concessive
meaning, especially when followed by sed, autem, &c. (see above
nunc quidem, &c.). With ne . . . quidem, not even or not
either, the emphatic word must stand between : as,
senex ne quod speret quidem habet (C. M. 19), an old man has
NOT EVEN any thing to hope for.
nejugurtha quidem quietus erat (Jug. 51), NOR was Jugurtha
quiet EITHER.
88 PREPOSITIONS. * [42: I, 2.
42. PREPOSITIONS.
1. Prepositions are not originally distinguished from
adverbs in form or meaning. They are, however, distin-
guished in their use, requiring to be followed by some
special case of a noun or pronoun.
a. The following Prepositions require the accusative: —
ad, to. erga, towards. post, after.
adversus, or extra, outside. praeter, beyond.
adversum, towards, infra, below. prope, near.
ante, before. inter, among. propter, on account of.
apud, atj near. intra, inside. secundum, next to.
circa, or juxta, near. supra, above.
circum, around. 6b, on account of. trans, across.
circiter, about. penes, in the power, ultra, on the further
cis, citra, this side, per, through. side.
contra, against. pone, behind. versus, towards.
&• The following require the ablative : —
a, ab, abs, from, by. e, ex, out of.
absque, but for, without. prae, in comparison with.
coram, in presence of. pro, in front of, for.
cum, with. sine, without.
de, from. tenus, up to, or as far as.
c» The following may take either case, but usually with a dif-
ference in meaning : —
in, into, in; sub, under; subter, beneath; super, above.
In and sub, when followed by the Accusative, signify motion to,
when by the Ablative, rest in, a place.
(For the Syntax of Prepositions, see § 56.)
2. The meaning and use of these prepositions may be
seen in the following examples, which include many adverbial
phrases : —
A, ab, aivay from (opposite of ad) : ab eo loco, from that
place ; a nobis, from our house ; prope ab urbe, near (not far
from) the city ; secundus a rege, next the king; liberare ab, to
set free from ; occisus ab hoste (periit ab hoste), slam by an
enemy ; a fronte, in front ; ab hac parte, on this side ; a primo,
at first; ab re, afterivards ; dolet ab animo, he grieves at heart ;
ab initio ordiri, to begin at the beginning ; stat ab amicis, he
stands by his friends ; ab hac contione, after this speech ; ab re
42: 2.] PREPOSITIONS. 89
ejus, to his advantage ; servus a manu, an amanuensis', a pedi-
bus, a footman.
NOTE. — ab signifies direction from the object, but towards the
speaker; compare de and ex.
Absque, -without: — absque argumento, without argument;
absque paucis, except a few ; absque me, but for me.
Ad, to, towards, at (place or time) :-^eo ad patrem, I go to
my father ; ad pedes ejus, at his feet ; ad flumen, near the river ;
ad ripas, on the banks; ad meridiem, towards the south; ad
vesperum, near evening ; ad tempus, at the (fit) time; adiit ad
rempublicam, he went into public life'; ad manus, to blows; ad
petendam pacem, to seek peace ; ad communem salutem,jfo;' the
common safety ; nihil ad Csesarem, nothing in comparison with
Ccesar ; ad hunc modum, in this way ; quem ad modum, how, as ;
ad nuptias,ybr the wedding; ad auxilium, ybr aid; ad hos ca-
sus, for these emergencies ; ad centum, near a hundred ; ad pri-
mum nuntium, at the first message ; ad hoc, besides ; ad speciem,
in respect to form ; ad praesens, for the moment ; ad verbum,
word for ^vord; ad summum, in short, at most; ad ultimum,
wholly, finally ; ad unum, to a man.
Adversus (-sum), opposite, towards, against: — adversus mon-
tem, over against the mountain; te adversum, to your face ; ad-
veYsus eum, in comparison with him ; adversus ea, in reply to
this; adversus deos, towards the gods.
Ante, in front, before (place or time): — ante oculos, before
his eyes; ante urbem captam, before the city was taken ; ante
diem quintum (A.D.V.). Kal , the fifth day before the Calends (third
day before the end of the month) ; ante quadriennium, fo#r years
before or ago ; ante alios carissimus, dearest of all ; ante tem-
pus, too soon; ante omnia, first of all ; ante Ciceronem, before
Cicero's time.
A pud, at or by (rarely of places) : — apud forum, in the forum;
apud populum, before the people ; apud exercitum, with the
army; apud aliquem, at one's house; apud se, at home, or in
his senses; apud Ciceronem, in Cicero (in his works); apud
antiques, among the ancients.
Circum (ace.), circa (abl.)> circiter (stem as in circus, circle),
about, around: — circum axem vertitur, it turns about the
axle; circum haec loca, hereabout; circa se habent, they have
with them; (of time or number, circa or circiter, not cir-
cum) : — circa eandem horam, about the same hour ; circiter pas-
sus mille, about a mile ; circa bonas artes (late), in reference to
good arts ; loca haec circiter, hereabout.
Cis, citra (abl. of comparative, compare Greek -T€pos), this
side of (both motion towards and rest in ; opposite to ultra) : —
cis Padum, this side the Po ; citra flumen, this side the river ;
citra rustici operam, within the labor of a farmer ; citra usum,
without regard to use; citra satietatem, not to fulness ; paucos
cis dies, within a few days.
90 PREPOSITIONS. [42: 2.
Contra (abl. comp of cum), opposite, against: — contra Itali-
am, over against Italy ; contra hostem, against the enemy, contra
munera, as a set-off to the gifts ; haec contra, this in reply-,
contra autem, but on the other hand, adv. ; quod contra, whereas
on the other hand, adv. ; non pro me sed contra me, not for but
against me ; contra fas, contrary to right.
Coram, in presence of (only of persons) : — coram judicious,
before the judges ; Germanico coram (Tac.), usually an adverb.
Cum, with (together in place or time) : — cum fratre, with his
brother ; abi cum donis, away with your gifts ; cum malo suo,
to his own hurt ; cum labore, with toil ; cum dis volentibus, with
favor of the gods ; cum decimo, tenfold ; confligere cum hoste,
to fight with the enemy ; cum armis, in arms-, cum imperio, in
power; cum pallio, in a cloak ; esse cum telo, to go armed', cum
silentio, in silence.
De, from, away, down from : — de domo, out of the house ; de
sella, down from his seat ; unus de plebe, one of the people (the
whole, from which a part is taken) ; emi domum de Crasso, /
bought a house of Crassus (also ab) ; de tuo (de te), out of your
property ; qua de re, 'concerning which thing; qua de causa, for
which reason; de summo genere, of high birth ; de improviso,
of a sudden ; de industria, on purpose ; de integro, anew; de
nocte, at night ; de tertia vigilia, just at midnight (starting at
the third watch) ; de mense Dec. navigare, Y0 sail in December ;
de amicorum sententia, in accordance with the views of friends ;
triumphare de, to triumph over ; de schola, of that sect.
Erga, towards (usually of persons) : — erga aedes, opposite
the house ; benevolentia erga nos, kindness towards us; malus
erga me, spiteful towards me (but more generally used of a favor-
able inclination).
Ex, e, from (the midst, opposed to in), out of: — ex urbe,
from the city ; ex hoc die, from this day forth ; statua ex acre,
a statue of brass ; ex fuga, during flight ; ex consulatu. right
after his consulship ; ex acre aiieno, by reason of debt ; ex
ejus sententia, after his opinion; ex aequo, justly; ex impro-
viso, unexpectedly; ex tua re, to your advantage ; ex voluntate
ejus, by his good will; magna ex parte, in a great degree; ex
pede Herculem, to know one by a slight token ; felix ex misero,
bettering one's condition ; ex Metello consule, beginning with
Metellus's consulship ; ex pedibus laborare, to be lame in the feet ;
ex equo pugnare, to fight on horseback.
Extra, outside of (opposed to intra) : — extra provinciam,
beyond the province y extra causam, beside the case; extra te
unum, except you alone (not used of time).
In, into (ace. opp. to ex), in (abl. of time or place): — in
urbem ire, to go to town ; in mentem venit, it comes to mind ; amor
in (erga or adversus) patrem, love for. his father* ; in aram con-
fugit, he Jled to the altar (on the steps or merely to}', in diem,
to the set day ; in dies, from day to day ; vi. pedes in longitudi-
nem, six feet long; in vi. partes fractus, broken in six parts;
42: 2.] PREPOSITIONS. 91
in haec verba jurare, to swear to these words ; in alicujus verba
jurare, to take an oath of allegiance to one ; in silvarn deponere,
to (carry and) place in the wood ; hunc in modum, in this way ;
oratio in Catilinam, a speech against Catiline-, in universum
(in planum), on the whole ; in totum, wholly; in reliquum,_/br
the rest ; in perpetuum,for ever ; in majus, too much ; in pejus,
for the worse; in quantum, so far as; in magnam partem, in
great part ; in utramque partem, on either side-, nos in diem
vivimus (Tusc. v. n), we live from hand to mouth ; — in urbe esse,
to be in the city ; in tempore, in season ; in scribendo, while -writ-
ing; est mihi in animo, I have it in mind; in collo, on the neck ;
inarborGiUptketree; in ancoris (Cses.), at anchor; in altera
parte, on the other side ; in sapientibus, among the wise ; in hoc
homine, in the case of this man; in bonis artibus (Sail.)? in good
behavior.
Infra, below : — infra caelum, under the sky ; infra nos, beneath
tts ; infra Homerum, later than Homer ; infra iii. pedes, less than
three feet.
Inter, between (of two limits): — inter flumen et montem,
between the river and hill (so of time) ; inter noctem, in the
course of the night; inter bibendum, while drinking; interest
inter, there is a difference between; inter se amant, they love each
other ; inter se loquuntur, they talk together ; inter nos, between
ourselves ; inter ceteram planitiem, in a district elsewhere level.
Intra, within (surrounded on all sides) : — intra parietes, in-
side the house; (of time), intra v. dies, within jive days ; intra
legem, inside the law.
Juxta, hard by (superl. from jungo) : — juxta murum, close
to the wall ; juxta se, alike with himself; juxta deos, next the
gods; juxta vicinitatem (Liv.), by reason of nearness; juxta
quam, nearly as ; juxta ac si, about as if.
Ob, towards (in place) : — ob Romam (early), towards Rome;
ob oculos, before the eyes; ob earn causam,/0r that reason ; ob
rem, to the purpose ; ob hoc, therefore ; quam ob rem, wherefore.
Penes, with, in possession of (same root as penitus) : — est
penes me, he is with me (at my house) ; non est penes me, it is
not in my power.
Per, through (in any direction) : — per urbem ire, to go through
the city ; licet per me, you may for all me ; juro per leges, I swear
by the laws ; per literas, by letter; perjocum, in jest; per Ion-
gum tempus.ybr a long time ; per sotnnum, during sleep.
Pone, behind (only in space) : — pone tergum, behind the back.
Post, after (space or time) : — post iii. dies, after three days ;
post tergum, behind the back ; post me, after me (in time).
Prae, in front: — prae se ferre, to carry before him (exhibit or
make known}': prae gaudio conticuit, he was silent for joy (used
only of an objection or hindrance) ; prae fratre egens est, he is
or compared to his brother.
ir
92 PREPOSITIONS. [42: 2.
Praeter, by* on the outside: — praeter spem, beyond hope;
praeter hoc, besides this; praeter oculos, before the eyes ; nil prae-
ter saxa, nothing but stones.
Pro, in front (facing the same way) : — pro populo, in pres-
ence of the people ; pro lege, in defence of the law; argentum
pro vino, money for TV ine ; pro hac vice, for this once; pro con-
sule, in place of consul ; pro viribus, considering his strength.
Prope, near: — prope (propius, proxime) urbem, or ab urbe,
near the city ; prope lucein, towards daybreak.
Propter, near: — propter te sedet, he sits next you ; propter
quos vivit (Mil. 22), through whose means he lives ; propter me-
tum, through fear ; propter frigora (Caes.), by reason of cold.
Secundum, just behind, following along (part, of sequor) : —
ite secundum me (Plaut.), go behind me; secundum litus, near
the shore; secundum flumen, along the stream; secundum ludos,
after the games ; secundum naturam, according to nature ; secun-
dum causam nostram, to the advantage of our cause.
Sine, apart from : — urbs sine regibus, a city without kings ;
non sine lacrimis, with tears ; sine sanguine, bloodless.
Sub, under : — sub jugum mittere, to send under the yoke ; sub
montem succedere, to come close to the hill ; sub noetem, towards
night ; sub lucem, near daylight ; sub haec dicta, at these words;
— sub terra, underground ; sub Jove, in the open air ; sub monte,
at the foot of a hill; sub castris, near the camp ; sub terra exi-
mere (Plaut.), to take from under ground ; subprofectione (Caes.),
during the. march; sub eodem tempore, about that time; sub
oculis domini, under the master's eye; sub regno, under royal
power ; sub lege, liable to the law.
Subter (rarely with abl.), beneath : — subter fastigia tecti, under
the house- roof ; subter prsecordia, close to the heart; subter mu-
rum, beneath the wall ; subter se, below itself; subter testudine,
under the shed (of shields).
Super, above, over: — super tumulum, on the hillock; super
ipsum, above him (at table) ; super In dos, beyond the Hindoos ;
super cenam loqui, to talk during supper ; super morbum fames
etiam, besides sickness famine also; super omnes, above all;
— super cervice (Hor.), over his h-ead ; super arbore sidunt, they
perch on a tree; nocte super media (Vir.), about midnight; super
tali re, about such an affair ; satis superque, more than enough.
Supra, on the top: — supra terrain, above ground; supra
caput (Sail.), imminent; supra Alexandriam, beyond Alexan-
dria; supra hanc memoriam, before our remembrance; supra
mille, above a thousand; supra morem, more than usual ; supra
quod, besides.
Tenus, as far as: — capulo tenus, up to the hilt ; verbo (nom-
ine) tenus, in name, nominally ; aurium tenus, as far as the ears
(only); labrorum tenus, along the lips. -.Jlj'J
Trans, beyond : — trans mare, over sea ; trans flumen, beyond
the river (rest or motion).
42: 3- 43: I, 2.] CONJUNCTIONS. 93
Ultra, on the further side : — ultra eum, beyond him ; portas
ultra, beyond the gates; ultra pueritiam, later than childhood-,
ultra eum numerum, more than that number ; ultra fidem, incred-
ible ; ultra mod urn, immoderate.
Versus, turned to (Eng. -ward}: — Italiam versus, towards
Italy (usually with another prep.) ; modo ad urbem modo in
Galliam versus (Sail.), now towards the city, now towards
Gaul.
3. Prepositions are frequently compounded with verbs,
retaining their original meaning as Adverbs : as,
a, ab, away (aufero, bear off) ; ad, towards (affero, bring] ;
ante, before; circum, around (urbem circumire = ire circum
urbem); con (cum), together; de, down; di or dis (insep.),
apart; ex, out, completely ; in, ///, on, against ; inter, between,
into, to pieces ; ob, towards, in the way of; per, through, thor-
oughly ; re, red (insep.), back, again ; se, sed (insep.), apart;
sub, under, near ; super, over, in place of. (For the assimila-
tion of the final consonant, see page 4.)
43. CONJUNCTIONS.
1. Classification. Conjunctions are more numerous,
and their use is much more accurately distinguished, in Latin
than in English. They are divided into two classes, viz. : —
a. Co-ordinate: — these include Copulative (AND), Disjunc-
tive (OK), Adversative (BUT), Causal (FOR), Illative (THERE-
FORE) .
b. Subordinate : — these are Conditional (IF) , — including
Comparative (AS IF), Concessive (THOUGH, EVEN IF), — Tem-
poral (WHEN), Causal (BECAUSE, SINCE), Consecutive (so
THAT), Final (IN ORDER THAT).
2. The following list includes most of the conjunctions
and conjunctive phrases in common use.
NOTE. — Some of these have been included in the classification of
Adverbs, and a list of Interjections has been added. See also list
of Correlatives, page 49.
a. Copulative and Disjunctive.
et, -que, atque (ac), and.
etiam, quoque, neque non (necnon), quinetiam, itidem (item),
also.
cum . . . turn ; turn . . . turn, both . . . and; not only . . . but also.
qua . . . qua, on one hand, on the other hand.
modo . . . modo, now . . . now.
aut . . . aut; vel . . . vel (-ve), either . . . or.
sivc (seu) . . sive, whether . . . or.
94 CONJUNCTIONS.
et . . . et; et . . . -que (atque) ; -que . . . et; -que que (poet.),
both . . . and.
nee (neque) . . . nee (neque) ; neque . . . nee; nee.. . neque (rare),
neither . . . nor.
et . . . neque, both . . . and not.
nee (neque) . . . -que, neither . . . and.
b. Adversative.
sed, autem, verum, vero, at, atqui, but.
tamen, attamen, sed tamen, verumtamen, but yet-, nevertheless.
nihilominus, none the less.
at vero, enimvero, but (for) in truth.
ceterum, on the other hand, but.
c. Causal.
nam, namque, enim, etenim, for.
quia, quod, because.
quoniam, quippe, cum (quom), quando, quandoquidem, siquidem,
utpote, since, inasmuch as.
d. Illative.
ergo, igitur, itaque, ideo, idcirco, proinde, therefore.
propterea (. . . quod), for this reason (. . . that}.
quapropter, quare, quamobrem, quocirca, unde, wherefore,
whence.
e. Comparative.
ut, uti, sicut, velut, prout, praeut, ceu, as, like as.
tamquam (tanquam), quasi, utsi, acsi, as if.
quam, atque (ac), as, than.
f. Conditional.
si, if; sin, but if; nisi (ni), unless, if not ; quod si, but if.
modo, dum, dummodo, si modo, if only, provided.
dummodo ne (dum ne, modo ne), provided only not.
g. Concessive.
etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, tamenetsi, quamquam, although.
quamvis, quantumvis, quamlibet, however much.
licet, ut, cum (quom), though.
NOTE. — A concessive is often followed by an adversative : as, tamen-
etsi . . . tamen nihilominus, though . . . yet none the less.
h. Temporal.
cum (quom), cum primum, ubi, ut, ut primum, postquam, when.
prius . . . quam, ante . . . quam, before (non ante . . . quam, not
. . . until).
quando, simulatque (simul ac), simul, as soon as.
dum, usque dum, donee, quoad, until.
i. Final.
ut (uti), quo, in order that.
ne, ut ne, lest (in order that not) ; neve (neu), nor.
quin (after negatives), quominus, but that (so as to prevent).
43: 2, 3-] CONJUNCTIONS. 95
k. Interjections.
O, en, ecce, ehem, papae, vah (of astonishment).
io, evae, evoe (of joy).
heu, eheu, vae, alas ! (of sorrow).
heus, eho, ehodum, ho ! (of calling).
eia, euge (of praise).
proh (of attestation) : as, proh pudor, shame !
3. Special Meaning. The following list includes most
of the conjunctions whose meaning 6r use requires special
notice : —
a. Et, and, connects independent words or clauses; -que
(enclitic) combines closely into one connected whole ; atque
(sometimes ac before consonants) adds with emphasis. In the
second member, and not is expressed by neque or nee.
Atque (ac), as, is also used after words of comparison and
likeness, as idem, the same, simul, as soon, aliter, otherwise.
b. Sed and verum or vero (more forcible) , but, are used to
contradict what precedes, — always after negatives ; at, yet, intro-
troduces with emphasis a new point, especially in argument (at
enim almost always) alluding to a supposed statement on the
other side ; autem is used in the same way, especially in tran-
sitions, but with less force.
c. Ant, 07% excludes the alternative ; vel (-ve) gives a choice ;
sive (seu) is properly used in disjunctive conditions, but is also
used with single words, — especially two names for the same thing.
(But of aut and vel the use is not always clearly distinguished.)
d. Nam (namque), for, introduces a sufficient reason ; enim,
an explanatory circumstance ; etenim (for, you see ; for, you
know), something self-evident, or needing no proof.
e* Ergo, therefore, is used of things proved logically ; itaque,
in proofs from the nature of things ; igitur, then (a weak ergo),
in passing from one stage of the argument to another, often merely
to resume ; idcirco, for this reason, to call attention to a special
point.
/• Quia, because, regularly introduces a fact ; quod, either a
fact or a statement or allegation ; quoniam, since, has reference
to motives.
</• Quom (cum), when, is always a relative conjunction, often
a correlative with turn ; quando is also used as interrogative or
indefinite (quando? when? si quando, if ever).
h> Et . . . et, means simply both . . . and ; cum (less fre-
quently turn) . . . turn has also the meaning not only . . . but also,
emphasizing the second member.
96 DERIVATION OF WORDS. [43: 3. 44: I.
t. Autem, enim, vero, always follow one or two words in
their clause ; the same is generally true of igitur, and often of
tamen.
&• Conjunctions are often doubled, for the sake of emphasis, or
to bind a sentence more closely to the preceding : as, at vero,
itaque ergo (namque, etenim). The same is true of Relatives,
which are equivalent to a conjunction and demonstrative combined :
as, qui ubi sit nescio, for where he is I know not.
44. DERIVATION OF WORDS.
The ROOT is a primitive element of speech. All
roots are monosyllabic, and have a short vowel.
STEMS are formed from roots, and are divided into
two main groups ; viz., noun-stems (including adjec-
tives) and verb-stems. '
1. Noun Forms* Derivative Nominal forms include
(1) nouns of agency, (2) names of actions, (3) active and
passive adjectives.
NOTE. — Examples of roots are ES, be; i,go; STA, stand; CAY, take;
DUC, lead; FAC, make; FER, bear; RAP, seize; SED, sit; TEN, stretch
(see also pp. 72,73).
a. Roots and Steins. Roots may be used as stems (1) without
change, as in due-is, nec-is ; (2) with vowel-increase, as in luc-is,
pac-is; (3) with reduplication, as in furfur, marmor; (4) com-
pounded, as in judic-is (jus, dico), con jug-is (con-jugo). But
Stems are more commonly formed by means of suffixes added to
the root (primary), or to a stem (secondary), either with or without
the above changes.
&. Primary Suffixes. The simplest suffixes are the vowels a
(in Latin o, a) , i, u. Other primary suffixes are ta, ti, tu ; na, ni,
nu; va, ra, ya, ka, an.
NOTE. — The vowel-suffixes a, i, u, are sometimes regarded as if
merely added to the root to fit it for inflection ; but they are, in fact,
true pronominal roots, and must be regarded as formative suffixes.
The first is found in nouns and adjectives of a- and o-stems, as
Indus, vagus, scriba, toga (root TEG) ; — i is less common, and in Latin
has frequently disappeared, especially in the nominative, as in scobs
(scobis, root SCAB) ; — u is disguised in most adjectives by an addi-
tional i, as in suavls (for suadvis, cf. r/dvc), tennis (root TEN in tendo],
and remains alone only in nouns of the fourth declension, as acns
(root AK, sharp, in acer, acies, UKVC), pecu (root PAK, bind, in paciscor).
44: I.] DERIVATION OF WORDS. 97
The signification of the other primary suffixes is as follows : — ta
(in the form to-) makes the regular perfect participle, as tectus, tectum;
sometimes active, as in potus, pransus; and is found in a few not recog-
nized as participles, as putus, altus (alo) ; — ti forms abstracts, rarely
nouns of agency, as messis, vestis, pars, mens ; — tu forms abstracts (in-
cluding supines), sometimes becoming concretes, as actns, luctus; —
iia, forming perfect participles in other languages, in Latin makes
adjectives of like meaning, which often become nouns, as magnus
(=mactus, root MAG), plenus, regnum ; — ni, nouns of agency and adjec-
tives, as ignis, segnis ; — nu, rare, as in mamis, sinus ; — ma, various, as
in animus, almus, finnus, forma ; — va (commonly uo), of active or
passive meaning, as iltea/uu*, arvum, conspicuus, exiguus, vacivos (vacuus) ;
— ra (or la, a passive participle termination in other languages),
usually passive, as in ager, integer, pleri-qne ( = plenus = -pletus), sella
(for sed-la, cf. edpa) ; — ya (gerundives in other languages), adjectives
and abstracts, including many of the first and fifth declensions, as
eximius, audacia, Florentia, pernicies ; — ka, sometimes primary, as in
pauci (cf. travpoc; ), locus (for stlocus, cf. Sk. sthara, sthala, Ger. Stelle,
Eng. stall) ; — an (in, on), in nouns of agency and abstracts : as aspergo,
compago (tnis), gero (onis).
The above, with some compound suffixes given below, belong to the
original language, and most of them were not felt as living formations
in the literary period. But developed forms of these, with a few other
primary suffixes, were used consciously, — generally as secondary
suffixes. The old primary suffixes thus used are (along witli ta and
tu, given above) man, ant, vant, tar, tro, as. (Observe that it is
the stem, not the nominative, that is formed by the suffix, although the
nominative is given for convenience of reference.)
c. Significant Endings. The principal classes of regular
derivate nouns and adjectives, as indicated by their nominative-
ending, are the following: —
1. Nouns of Agency (active adjectives or appellatives), end-
ing in —
tor (lengthened from tar, M.), trix (trie- = tar -|- ic, F.), added
V to the same form of stem that precedes t of the supine (which
for convenience maybe called the supine-base), or to noun-
stems by analogy : as ductor, victrix, viator. Earlier forma-
tions with tar are pater, mater.
es (-itis), descriptive nouns, as miles, comes. t''
2. Names of Actions (passing into abstracts, instruments,
results) : —
or (M.), es (-is, F. — all from as) : as timor, sedes, decus.
io (added to pres. stem), tio, tura, tus (to supine base), verbal
abstracts : as legio, actio\ pictura, cultus (those in tus more
concrete). *#tfh S~f
ium (ya) from neuter abstracts (with verb-stems), as gaudium;
I or from nouns meaning offices or groups: as hospitium,
servitium, collegium.
6
98 DERIVATION OP WORDS. [44: I.
men (man), mentum (man + ta), monia, monium (man -(-
ya), denoting act, means, or result: asflumen, carmen, orna-
mentum, querimonia, matrimonium.
ia, tia, tas, tus, tudo, do, go, feminine abstracts, often passing
into concretes : as audacia, militia, duritia (ies), bonitas,
semitus, altitudo, dulcedo, lanugo.
brum, cruinf mim, bulum, ciilum, nouns of means, usually from
verb-stems : as claustrum, lavacrum, vehiculum, turibulum.
3. Adjective forms, passing frequently into names of per-
sons or things : —
ulus (following a vowel, 81us ; following s or r, culus), ellus,
illus, DIMINUTIVES (with endings for gender), forming nouns
or adjectives, meaning little or tender: as puerculus, puella
(puerula), puellula, asellus (asinulus), misellus (miserulus).
Rare diminutive forms are eculeus, homuncio.
ades (F. as), ides, ides (F. is, eis), PATRONYMICS, denoting
parentage, &c., as ^Eneades, Priamides, Priameis.
anus, enus, inus ; as (-atis), ensis ; ius, iacus, acius, GENTILE
names,, denoting country — with other rare forms — several
being derived from the same word : as Ores, Creticus, Cretceus,
Cressus, Cretensis.
ax, ulus (rare), vus (uus, ivus), denote tendency or inclination,
* those in ax being often faulty or aggressive, those in Ivus
^^rather passive : as pugnax, bibulus, protervus, nocuus, captivus.
aris, aliSjlilisTllis, ulis (all from ra), with inus, orius, and several
of the above gentile forms, denote various ideas of relation or
possession. Several neuters of derivatives in ills signify
place, as ovile; and many of those in alls, aris (usually
with loss of e), also become nouns (regular i-stems); those
in inus, from names of animals, are often used of flesh.
eus, inus, aceus, icius, denote material, &c. : as fraxineus.
osus (old onsus, vant), olens, olentus (root 61 in adolesco),
denote full of, or inclined to, as fluctuosus, bellicosus ; so
idus (generally verbal) with similar meaning: as cupidus,
gelidus ; bundus, cundus, participial, but denoting persist-
ence of quality : as ir a cundus.
a tus, itus, utus (from imaginary verb-stems), denote provided
with : as galeatus, aurltus, cornutus.
ter (-tris), timus (a superl. form) from noun-stems : as campester,
maritimus ; ternus, from adverbs of time : as sempiternus,
hesternus (from heri, old hesi, cf. yesterday).
minus, mnus, mna (Gr. -fievog), participles, but no longer sig-
nificant as such: as terminus, alumnus, autumnus, lamina,
cerumna, femina.
ndus, the gerund-ending, forms a few words of active meaning, as
secundus, rotundus (cf. volvendis annis).
44: 2.] DERIVATION OF WORDS. 99
2. Derivation of Verbs. Verbs of the third conju-
gation, with irregular verbs and vowel-stems da, sta, are
primitive. All others are either causative or denominative
(formed from nouns).
NOTE. — The consciousness of roots was lost in Latin, so that in
forming the parts of verbs only stems are dealt with. Thus moneo,
monui (not menui), from root men, as in mens; ccedo, cecldi (not cecldi),
from root (cad, as in cddo). For modifications of the root in verb-stems,
see §§ 28, 30. The derivative suffix in the regular conjugations is
original ya added either to the root, the present stem in a, or the
noun-stem.
a. The following are the regular conjtigational forms : —
1. Verbs of the first conjugation (generally active) may be
formed from almost any noun or adjective of the first or second
declension, by changing the stem-vowel into the characteristic a.
A few add this vowel to the stem, as vigilare, exsulare.
2. A few verbs of the second conjugation are formed in like
manner from noun-stems ; but most add the characteristic e to the
root, and are intransitive or neuter in their meaning.
3. A few u-stems simply add the characteristic of the third
conjugation, becoming either active or intransitive, as acuo, fluo.
4. Most verbs of the fourth conjugation add the characteristic i
to the root, as scio, salio; many are formed from i- stems, as
sitio, finio, polio (see § 34).
&. The following are regular derivative suffixes : —
sco or isco (§ 36, i) inchoative, denoting the "beginning of an
action ; they imply a primitive verb-stem, which is sometimes
found only in the perfect and supine stems.
asso, esso, denote attempt to do a thing ; they are of the third
conjugation in the present stem, and of the fourth in the per-
fect and supine.
NOTE. — These are probably denominative, from nouns originally in
as (Latin es or us), but seem as if formed upon verb-roots.
to, ito (first conjugation) denote frequent action, being added to
the actual supine, or to another form of it, with a connecting
vowel i, changing u to the characteristic a of the first con-
jugation.
illo (first conjugation) denotes feeble or trifling action like that of
some simpler verb, but is formed from some real or supposed
diminutive noun.
urio (fourth conjugation), added to the supine-base, denotes desire
to do the act expressed by some simple verb ; but is formed
from some noun of agency in tor (sor). Viso is a regular
inherited desiderative of an earlier formation.
100 DERIVATION OF WORDS. [44: 3-
3. Compound Words. In compound words, either
(1) the second part is merely added to the first ; (2) the first
part modifies the second as an adjective ; (3) the first part is
governed by the second as a verb ; or (4) a verb is modified
by a preposition or adverb prefixed. In all, only the second
part receives inflection.
NOTE. — The Indo-European family had great power of forming
compounds with mere stems. This power the Latin for the most part
lost, as has English compared with German. Many compounds
attempted by poets failed to become established in the language ; but
there remain many traces of the old usage.
The most usual compounds may be classed as follows : —
a. Meanings added : as suovetaurilia, undecim.
b. Noun with modifying adjective : as latifundium, pceninsula,
tergeminus.
c. Noun and Verb, as armiger, cornicen, manifestus, carnufex,
mantele.
d. Compound adjectives, in which the last word is a noun, the .
compound acquiring the meaning of possessed of the property de
noted, as alipe*, magnanimus, concors, anceps (having a head
both ends), obvius, multiformis, multiplex.
e. Compounds of facio, with an actual or formerly existing
verbal stem in e. These are causative in force, as consuefacio,
calefacto.
/. Adverbs (of manner) and Verb, which have grown together :
as benedico, satayo.
fj. Verbs with Prepositions, usually having their original ad
verbial sense: as, ab, away] ex, out. In those with circmr
praeter, trans, and sometimes ad and per, the compound retain
the force of the preposition.
h. Verbs with the following inseparable Particles, which no
longer appear as prepositions in Latin : amb (am, an), around ;
dis, di, asunder (in two) ; por, forward ; red, re, back ; sed, se
apart.
PART SECOND.
USE OF WORDS (SYNTAX).
45. DEFINITIONS.
1. Sentence* A SENTENCE is a form of words which
contains either a Statement, a Question, an Exclamation,
or a Command.
a. A sentence in the form of a Statement is called a DECLAR-
ATORY SENTENCE : as, puer venit, the boy came.
&, A sentence in the form of a Question is called an INTER-
ROGATIVE SENTENCE : as, venitne puer, did the boy come ?
c. A sentence in the form of an Exclamation is called an
EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE: as, quam celeriter venit! how fast
he came!
d. A sentence in the form of a Command is called an IMPERA-
TIVE SENTENCE : as, veni, puer, ad me, come to me, boy.
2. Subject and Predicate. The Subject of a sentence
is the person or thing spoken of; the Predicate is that which
is stated of the Subject.
a. The Predicate may be either a neuter verb, a noun or
adjective with the Copula (esse, fieri, &c.), or a Transitive verb
with its Object.
b. The verb esse, to be, when it connects an attribute with
its subject, is called the Copula ; otherwise, it is cajled the Sub-
stantive Verb.
Thus in the sentence sunt viri fortes, there are brave men,
sunt is a substantive verb; in viri sunt fortes, the men are
brave, it is a copula.
c. The Object of a verb is that on which its action is exerted :
thus in the sentence pater vocat filium, the father calls his son,
pater is subject, and filium object, of vocat.
d. One or more words, essential to the grammatical complete-
ness of a sentence, may be unexpressed : this is called ELLIPSIS,
and the sentence is called an elliptical sentence.
102 DEFINITIONS. [45:3,4,5.
3. Modification. The Subject or Predicate of a sentence
may be modified by single words, or by a phrase or clause.
The modifying word may itself be modified in the same way.
a, A single modifying word is generally either an Adjective,
an Adverb, an Appositive (§ 46), or the oblique case of a Noun.
Thus in the sentence puer formosus venit, a handsome boy
came, the adjective formosus modifies the subject puer ; in the
sentence celeriter venit, he came quickly, the adverb celeriter
modifies the predicate venit.
&. The modifying word is in some cases said to limit the word
to which it belongs : thus in the sentence video pueri patrem,
I see the boy's father, the genitive pueri limits patrem.
4. Phrase. A Phrase is a group of words, without sub-
ject or predicate of its own, which may be used as an
Adjective or Adverb.
Thus in the sentence puer erat eximiae formae, he was a
boy of remarkable beauty, the words eximiae formae are used
for the adjective formosus (or formosissimus), and are called
an ADJECTIVE PHRASE ; in the sentence magna celeritate
venit, he came with great speed, the words magna celeritate are
used for the adverb celeriter (or celerrime) , and are called an
ADVERBIAL PHRASE.
5. Clause. A Clause is a group of words forming part
of a sentence, and having a subject and predicate of its own.
Thus in the sentence puer qui heri venit formosus erat,
the boy who came yesterday was handsome, the words qui heri
venit are a RELATIVE CLAUSE; in the sentence puer si eras
veniat acceptus sit, if the boy should come to-morrow he would
be welcome, the words si eras veniat, are a CONDITIONAL
CLAUSE.
a. When a Clause is used as the Subject or Object of a verb,
it is called a Substantive Clause (see § 70).
b. When a clause is used to modify the subject or predicate of
a sentence, it is called a Subordinate Clause. Subordinate
Clauses are Conditional, Temporal, Causal, Consecutive, and
Final, like the conjunctions which introduce them (§ 43, I, b).
c. When two or more clauses in the same sentence are inde-
pendent of one another, they are said to be Coordinate.
d. Any clause introduced by a Relative is called a Relative
Clause ; when used simply by way of explanation, and not other-
wise connected with the form of the sentence, it is called an
Intermediate Clause (§ 66).
45; 46.] SUBJECT AND PREDICATE: NOUNS. 103
e. A clause expressing the purpose of an action is called a
Final Clause: one expressing its result is called a Consecutive
Clause (see §§' 64, 65).
NOTE. — In English, a Consecutive clause is introduced by the
phrase so that ; a Final clause by the phrase in order that.
f. A clause containing a condition, introduced by IF or some
equivalent (§ 59), is called a Conditional Clause. A sentence
modified by a conditional clause is called a Conditional Sentence.
NOTE, -s- Observe that these classes are not exclusive, but that a
single clause may belong to several of them at once. Thus a relative
clause may be subordinate, conditional, or intermediate ; and two
subordinate clauses may be coordinate with each other.
6. Connectives. Sentences or coordinate clauses are
regularly connected by means of Conjunctions; but fre-
quently in Latin — very rarely in English — sentences are
connected by Relatives.
In this case, the relative is often best translated in English by
a conjunction with a demonstrative : as, quo cum venisset, and
when he had come there; quae cum ita siut, but since these
things are so (§ 43, 3, k).
.
7. Agreement. A word is said to AGREE with another
when it is required to be in the same gender, number, case, or
person.
When a word takes the gender or number of some other word
implied in that with which it should agree, this use is called
SYNESIS, or constructio ad sensum.
§. Government. A word is said to GOVERN another,
when it requires the latter to be in a particular case.
I. Subject and Predicate.
46. OP NOUNS.
A noun used to describe another, and meaning the
same thing, agrees with it in Case : as,
Servius rex, Servius the king.
ad urbem Solos, to the city Soli.
spes nostra Cicero, Cicero our hope.
homo nata fuerat, she had been born human*
104 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. [46: I, 2.
1. When the noun thus used is in the same part of the
sentence (subject or predicate) it is called an appositive, and
the use is called apposition.
2. When the noun is used to form a predicate with esse
or a verb of similar meaning, it is called a predicate-nom-
inative (or accusative as the case may be).
externus timer, maximum concordise vinculum, jungebat ani-
mos (Liv. ii. 39), fear of the foreigner, the chief bond of har-
mony, united hearts. [Here both nouns belong to the subject]
quattuor hie, primum omen, equos vidi (^En. iii. 537), I saw
here four horses, the first omen. [Here both nouns are in the
predicate]
Ancum Marcium regem populus creavit (Liv. i. 32), the people
made Ancus Marcius king. [Here regem is called the comple-
mentary accusative.]
consules creantur Caesar et Servilius (B. C. iii. i), Ccesar and
Servilius are made consuls. [Here consules is predicate-nomi-
native after creantur.]
litteras Grsecas senex didici (Cat. M. 8), I learned Greek when
an old man. [Here senex is in apposition with the subject of
didici, expressing the time, condition, &c., of the act.]
Gnseus et Publius Scipiones, the Scipios, Cneius and Publius*
[Here the appositive is plural, as referring to more than one
subject.]
gloria virtutem tanquam umbra sequitur (Tusc. i. 45). [Here
the appositive is introduced by way of comparison]
a. The appositive will agree in gender when it can ; sometimes
also in number: as,
Aristseus, olivae inventor (N. D. iii. 18), Aristceus, discoverer of
the olive.
olese Minerva inventrix (G. i. 18), Minerva, inventress of the
olive. ^
quia sequuntur naturam, optimam ducem (Lsel. 19), because
they follow nature, the best guide.
omnium doctrinarum inventrices Athenas (De Or. i. 4),
Athens, discoverer of all learning.
b. A common noun in apposition with a locative is put in the
Ablative, with or without the preposition in : as,
Antiochise, celebri quondam urbe (Arch. 3), at A ntioch, once
a famous city.
Albie constiterunt in urbe munita (Phil. iv. 2), they halted at
Alba, a fortified town.
47: I, 2.] ADJECTIVES. 105
c. The genitive is used in apposition with possessives, taking
the gender and number of the implied subject : as,
in nostro omnium fletu (Mil. 34), amid the tears of us all.
ex Anniana Milonis domo (Att. iv. 3), out of Annius Mile's
house.
NOTE. — The proper appositive is sometimes put in the Genitive.
See § 50, i, /.
47. OF ADJECTIVES.
Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and
case. This rule applies also to adjective pronouns and
participles.
vir fortis, a brave man.
cum ducentis militibus, with 200 men.
consularia munera, the duties of consul.
hac lege, by this law.
uno interfecto, one being slain.
REMARK. — The adjective may be either attributive or predi-
cate. An attributive adjective simply qualifies the noun without
the intervention of a verb ; a predicate adjective is connected
with its noun by esse, or a verb of similar meaning, expressed or
implied.
An adjective may also be used in apposition like a noun : as,
Hortensium vivum amavi (Off. iii. 18), T loved Hortensius
'when living.
1. With two or more nouns the adjective is plural (also,
rarely, when they are connected with cum) : as,
Nisus et Euryalus primi (^En. v. 394), Nisus and Euryalus first.
Juba cum Labieno capti (B. Afr. 52), Juba a?id Labienus 'were
taken.
2. When nouns are of different genders, an attributive
adjective agrees with the nearest : as,
multae opera? ac laboris, of imich trouble and toil.
vita moresque mei, my life and character.
si res, si vir, si tempus ullum dignum fuit (Mil. 7), if any
thing, if any man, if any time, -was Jit.
a* A predicate adjective may follow the same rule if the sub-
* jects form one connected idea : as,
factus est strepitus et admurmuratio (Verr. i. 15), a noise of
assent 'was made.
106 SUBJECT, AND PREDICATE. [47: 2, 3.
6. Generally, a predicate adjective will be masculine, if nouns
of different genders mean living beings ; neuter, if things without
life: as,
uxor deinde ac liberi amplexi (Liv. ii. 40), then his 'wife and
children embraced him.
labor (M.) voluptasque (F.) societate quadam inter se naturali
sunt juncta (N.) (id. v. 4), labor and delight are bound
together by a certain natural alliance.
ۥ Abstract nouns of the same gender may have a neuter adjec-
tive : as,
stultitia et temeritas et injustitia . . . sunt fugienda (Fin. iii. n),
folly, rashness, and injustice must be shunned.
pax et concordia jactata sunt (Tac. Hist. ii. 20), peace and
harmony -were talked of.
d. A masculine or femine adjective may belong (by Synesis) to
a noun of different gender or number, when the existence of per-
sons is implied : as,
duo milia relicti (Liv. xxxvii. 39), two thousand were left.
pars certare parati (^En. v. 108), a part ready to contend.
magna pars raptae (Liv. i. 9), a large part [of the women]
were seized.
colonise aliquot deductse, Prisci Latini appellati (id. i. 3), sev-
eral colonies -were led out [of men] called Old Latins.
e. An adjective pronoun agrees in gender with a word in ap-
position rather than with its antecedent : as, /, / /^. rf /
>oW 9£4lJ, fat ta&0*
rerum caput hoc erat, hie fons (Hor. Ep. i. 17), this was the
head of things, this the source.
earn sapientiam interpretantur quam adhuc mortalis nemo est
consecutus [for id ... quod] (Lael. 5), they explain that
[thing] to be wisdom which no man ever yet attained.
f. Occasionally, an adjective takes the gender of a partitive
genitive : as,
velocissimum animalium delphinus est (Plin.), the dolphin is
the swiftest of creatures.
3. Adjectives are often used as nouns, the masculine to
denote men, and the feminine women : as,
omnes, all men, or everybody ; majores, ancestors; veteres, the
ancients ; barbari, barbarians ; amicus, a friend.
instinctu purpuratorum (Curt. iii. 9), at the instigation of the
courtiers [those clad in purple],
iniquus noster (Plane. 2.), our foe.
didicit jam dives avarus laudare disertos (Juv. vii. 30), the rich
miser has now learned to flatter the eloquent.
47:3,4-] ADJECTIVES. 107
NOTE. — The singular of adjectives in this use is more rare; the
plural is very frequent, and may be used of any adjective or participle,
to denote those in general described by it.
d. This is especially frequent with possessives : as,
nostri, our countrymen, or men of our party.
Sullani, the veterans of Sulla's army.
suos continebat (B. C. i. 15), he held his men in check.
&• The demonstratives is, ille, &c., used in this way, have
nearly the force of personal pronouns. They are often thus used
in apposition with a noun, or a clause : as,
vincula, eaque sempiterna (Cat. iv. 4), chains, and that for
ever.
exspectabam tuas litteras, idque cum multis (Fam. x. 14), /,
with many others, am expecting your letter.
c* On the other hand, a noun is sometimes used as an adjective,
and may be qualified by an adverb (compare § 16, 3, e) : as,
victor exercitus, the victorious army.
servum pecus, a servile troop.
admodum puer, quite a boy.
magis vir, more of a man.
fautor inepte (Hor.), a stupid admirer.
4. A neuter adjective may be used as a noun —
a. In the singular, to denote either a single object or an
abstract quality : as,
rapto vivere, to live by plunder.
in arido, on dry ground.
honestum, an honorable act, or honor (as a quality).
&. In the plural, to signify objects in general having the quality
denoted, and hence the abstract idea : as,
honesta, honorable deeds (in general), or honor (in the ab-
stract).
omnium ignarus, ignorant of all.
justis solutis, the due rites being paid.
ۥ In apposition, or as predicate, to a noun of different gen-
der: as,
turpitudo pejus est quam dolor (Tusc. ii. 13), disgrace is worse
than pain.
labor bonum non est (Sen. Ep. 31), toil is no good thing.
d. In agreement with an infinitive or a substantive clause : as,
aliud est errare Caesarem nolle, aliud nolle misereri (Lig. 5),
it is one tiring to be unwilling that Ccesar should err, another
to be unwilling that he should pity.
108 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. [47: 5, 6, 7.
REMARK. — The neuter of an adjective is ordinarily used as a
noun only in the nominative and accusative : as,
omnia, all things (everything} ; but, omnium rerum, of all
things (omnium is usually of all persons} ; — loquitur de
omnibus rebus, he talks about everything (de omnibus,
about everybody}.
5. Adjectives denoting source or possession may be used
for the genitive : as,
Pompeiana acies, Pompey's line.
video herilem filium (Ter.), 1 spy master's son.
ses alienum, another's money, i.e. DEBT.
a. Possessives are thus regularly used for the genitive of the
personal pronouns : as,
domus mea, my house ; nostra patria, our country.
b. A possessive in any case may have a genitive in apposition
(§ 46, c) : as,
mea solius causa, for my sake.
nostra omnium patria, the country of us all.
ۥ An adjective is occasionally thus used for the objective geni-
tive (§ 50, 3, b) : as,
metus hostilis (Jug. 41), fear of the enemy.
feminea in pcena (Virg.), in punishing a -woman.
periculo invidise meae (Cat. ii. 2), at the risk of odium against
me.
studiosus csedis ferinse (Ov. M. vii. 675), eager to slaughter
game.
6. An adjective, with the subject or object, is often used
to qualify the act, having the force of an adverb : as,
primus venit, he came first (-was the first to come}.
nullus dubito, I no way doubt.
Iseti audi£re, they -were glad to hear.
patre invito discessit, he departed against his father's 'wishes.
erat Romse frequens (Rose. Am. 6), he was often at .Rome.
serus in coelum redeas (Hor. Od. i. 2), mafst thou return late
to heaven.
7. When two qualities of an object are compared, both
adjectives (or adverbs) are in the comparative : as,
longior quam latior acies erat (Liv. xxvii. 48), the line was longer
than it was broad (or, rather long than broad).
47; 48.] ADJECTIVES: RELATIVES. 109
a. But not where magis is used : as,
clari magis quam honesti (Jug. 8), more renowned than honor-
able.
6. A comparative with a positive, or even two positives, may
be thus connected by quam (a rare and less elegant use) : as,
vehementius quam caute (Agric. 4), with more fury than good
heed.
claris majoribus quam vetustis (Ann. iv. 61), of a family more
famous than old.
8. Superlatives denoting order and succession often desig-
nate not what object , but what part of it, is meant : as,
summus mons, the top of the hill.
in ultima plataea, at the end of the avenue. So,
prior actio, the earlier part of an action.
Also, medius, midst; ceterus, other; reliquus, remaining: as,
reliqui captivi, the rest of the prisoners.
in colle medio (B. G. i. 24), on the middle of the hill.
inter ceteram planitiem (Jug. 92), in a region elsewhere level.
Similarly, sera uocte, late at night; nos omnes, all of us
(§ 50, 2).
9. The expressions alter . . . alter, alius . . . alms (as
also the adverbs . derived from them), may be used recipro-
cally; or may imply a change of predicate as well as of
subject: as,
hi fratres alter alterum amant, these brothers love each other.
alius aliud petit, one man seeks one thing, one another.
alius alia ex navi, out of different ships.
alius alia vi£ civitatem auxerunt (Liv. i. 21), they enlarged the
State each in his own way.
For the use of Adjectives as Adverbs, see § 16, 3, f.
For the ablative used adverbially with Comparatives, see
§ 54, 6, e.
48. OF RELATIVES.
A Relative agrees with its Antecedent in gender and
number ; but its case depends on the construction of
the clause in which it stands : as,
puer qui venit, the boy who came ; liber quern legis, the book
you are reading ; via qua ambulat, the way he walks in.
110 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. [48: I, 2, 3.
NOTE. — A Relative is properly an adjective pronoun, of which the
proper noun (the Antecedent) is usually omitted. The full construc-
tion would require a corresponding demonstrative, to which the relative
refers. Hence, relatives serve two uses : — 1. As Nouns in their own
clause ; 2. As Connectives, and are thus often equivalent to a demon-
strative and conjunction combined (see § 69). The connective force is
not original, but is developed from a demonstrative or indefinite
meaning; the relative and the antecedent clause being originally
co-ordinate.
1 . A Verb having a relative as its subject takes the person
of the expressed or implied antecedent : as,
adsum qui feci (^En. ix. 427), here am I -who did it.
&. A relative generally agrees in gender with a noun
(appositive) in its own clause, rather than with an antecedent
of different gender : as,
mare etiam quern Neptunum esse dicebas (N. D. iii. 20), the
sea, toO) which y-ou said was
a. A relative may (rarely) by Attraction agree with its ante-
cedent in case: as,
si aliquid agas eorum quorum consu£sti (Fam. v. 14), if you do
something of what you are used to.
&• A relative may agree in gender and number with an implied
antecedent: as,
quartum genus ... qui premuntur (Cat. ii. 10), a fourth class,
that are sinking.
unus ex eo numero qui parati erant (Jug. 35), one of the number
[of those] who were ready.
conjurav£re pauci. . . de qua [conjuratione] dicam (Sail. C. 18),
a few have conspired . . .of which [conspiracy] I will speak.
3. The antecedent noun sometimes appears in both clauses ;
usually only in the one that precedes ; sometimes it is wholly
omitted : thus —
a. The noun may be repeated in the relative clause : as,
loci natura erat haec quern locum nostri delegerant (B. G. ii. 18),
the nature of the ground which our men had chosen was this.
b. The noun may appear only in the relative clause : as,
quas res in consulatu nostro gessimus attigit hie versibus
(Arch, n), he has touched in verse the things which we did
in our consulship.
urbem quam statuo vestra est (^En. i. 573), yours is the city
which I found.
48: 3, 4> 5-J RELATIVES. Ill
In such cases the demonstrative is or hie usually stands in the
antecedent clause : as,
quae pars civitatis calamitatem populo Romano intulerat, ea
princeps poenas persolvit (B. G. i. 12), that part of the State
which had brought disaster on the Roman people was the first
to pay the penalty.
REMARK. — In a sentence of this class, the relative clause in
Latin usually stands first ; but, in translating, the noun should be
transferred, in its proper case, to the antecedent clause, as in the
example just quoted.
c. The antecedent noun may be omitted : as,
qui decimae legionis aquilam ferebat (B. G. iv. 25), [the man]
who bore the eagle of the tenth legion.
qui cognoscerent rnisit (id. i. 21), he sent men to reconnoitre.
d* A predicate adjective (especially a superlative) agreeing
with the antecedent may stand in the relative clause : as,
vasa ea quse pulcherrima apud eum viderat (Verr. iv. 27), those
most beautiful vessels which he had seen at his house.
e. The phrase id quod or quae res is used (instead of quod
alone) : to relate to an idea or group of words before expressed as,
[obtrectatum est] Gabinio dicam anne Pompeio? an utrique —
id quod est verius? (Manil. 19), an affront is offered shall I
say to Gabinius or Pompey f or — which is truer — to both ?
4. A relative often stands at the beginning of a clause or
sentence, where in English a demonstrative must be used : as,
quae cum ita sint, since these things are so.
quorum quod simile factum? (Cat. iv. 8), what ever happened
like this?
qui illius in te amor fuit (Fam. iv. 5), such was his love for you.
5. A Relative Adverb is often equivalent to the relative
pronoun with a preposition : as,
quo (= ad quern), to whom ; unde (= a quo), from whom, &c. : as,
apud eos quo se contulit (Verr. iv. 18), among those to whom he
resorted.
qui eum necasset unde ipse natus esset (Rose. Am. 26), one
who should have slain his own father.
A similar use is found with the demonstratives eo, inde, &c : as,
eo imponit vasa (Jug. 75), upon them [the beasts] he puts the
baggage. &X'
112 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. [49: I.
49, VERBS.
A Verb agrees with its subject-nominative in num-
ber and person : as,
ego statuo, I resolve ; oratio est habita, the plea was spoken.
REMARK. — The verb in the periphrastic forms sometimes agrees
in gender and number with the predicate, or with a noun in
apposition: as,
non omnis error stultitia est dicenda (Parad. vi. 3), not every
error should be called folly.
Corinthus lumen Graecise exstinctum est, Corinth the light of
Greece is put out.
deliciae mese Dicearchus disseruit (Tusc. i. 31), my pet Dicear-
chus discoursed.
1. Two or more singular subjects take a verb in the
plural ; also, rarely, when one is in the ablative with cum :
as,
pater et avus mortui sunt, his father and grandfather are
dead.
dux cum aliquot principibus capiuntur (Liv. xxi. 60), the gen-
eral and several chiefs are taken.
a. When the subjects are of different persons, the verb will be
in the first and the second rather than the third : as,
si tu et Tullia valetis ego et Cicero valemus (Fam. xiv. 5), if
you and Tullia are ivell, Cicero and I are 'well.
b* If the subjects are joined by disjunctives, or if they are con-
sidered as a single whole, the verb is singular : as,
neque fides neque jusjurandum neque ilium misericordiarepres-
sit (Ter. Ad.), not faith nor oath, nay, nor mercy, checked
him.
Senatus populusque Romanus intellegit (Fam. v.S), the Roman
Senate and people understand.
c. A collective noun — also such distributives as quisque,
every ; uterque, each — may take a plural verb : as,
pars prsedas agebant (Jug. 32), a part brought in booty.
suum quisque habeant quod suum est (Plaut Cure.), let every
one keep his own.
This is most common in poetry.
49: 1,2. 50.] CONSTRUCTION OP CASES. 113
<?. When the action of the verb belongs to the subjects separ-
ately, it may agree with one and be understood with the others : as,
intercedit M. Antonius et Cassius tribuni plebis (B. C. i. 2),
Antony and Casstus, tribunes of the people, interpose.
&. The Subject of a finite verb is in the nominative.
DEFIN. — A Finite Verb is a verb in any mood except the In-
finitive.
a. The personal pronoun, as subject, is usually omitted unless
emphatic : thus,
loquor, I speak; ego loquor, it is I that speak.
6. An indefinite subject is often omitted : as,
dicunt (ferunt, perhibent), they say.
ۥ The verb is sometimes omitted in certain phrases : as,
quorsum hsec [spectant] ? -what does this aim at ?
ex ungue leonem [cognosces], you ivtll know a lion by his claw.
The indicative and infinitive of esse are most frequently omitted.
(For the HISTORICAL INFINITIVE, see § 57, 8, h.)
II. Construction of Cases.
NOTE. — The Oblique Cases of nouns express their relations to other
words in the sentence. Originally, the family of languages to which
Latin belongs had at least seven cases, besides the vocative, all ex-
pressing different relations. Of these the Locative and Instrumental
cases were lost, and their functions divided among the others.
The names of the cases, except the Ablative, are of Greejt origin.
The name genitive — Gr. -ycviK^, from -ycvos — refers, originally, to the
class to which anything belongs. The dative — SOTIKTJ — is the case
of giving. The name accusative is a mistranslation of alriaTticVj, signi-
fying that which is effected or caused (alrta).
50. GENITIVE.
A noun used to limit or define another, and not
meaning the same thing, is put in the genitive.
NOTE. — This relation is most frequently expressed in English by
the preposition OF. The genitive seems originally to have meant
that from which something springs; hence, that to which it belongs. From
this signification most of its others may be deduced.
114 CONSTRUCTION OP CASES. [50: I.
1. Subjective Genitive. The Genitive is used to' denote
the Author, Owner, Source, and (with an adjective) Measure
or Quality: as,
libri Ciceronis, the books of Cicero.
Caesaris horti, Ccesar's gardens.
culmen tecti, the roof of the hozese.
«• For the genitive of possession a possessive adjective is often
used, — regularly for that of the personal pronouns : as,
. liber meus, my book.
aliena pericula, other men's dangers.
Sullana tempora, the times of Sulla.
&• The noun limited is understood in a few expressions : as,
Castoris [aedes], the [temple] of Castor.
Hectoris Andromache, Hector's [wife] Andromache.
c» The genitive is often in the predicate, connected with its
noun by a verb, like a predicate appositive : as,
hsec domus est patris mei, this house is my father's.
tutelae nostrae [eos] duximus (Liv.), we held them to be in our
protection.
Thrasybuli facta lucri fecit (Nep. viii. i), he made profit of the
deeds of Thrasybulus.
Tyros mare dicionis suae fecit (Curt. iv. 4), Tyre brought the
sea under her sway.
hominum non causarum toti erant (Liv. iii. 36), they belonged
wholly to the men, not to the cause.
d* A phrase or clause often stands for the limited noun ; this is
most frequent with the genitive of adjectives or abstract nouns : as,
neque sui judici [erat] decernere (B. C. i. 35), ft was not for
his judgment to decide.
timidi est optare necem (Ov. M. iv. 15), // is for the coward to
wish for death.
REMARK. — The genitive of an adjective (especially of the third
declension) is thus used instead of the neuter nominative : as,
sapientis [not sapiens] est pauca loqui, ft is wise [the part of a
wise man] to say little.
The neuter of possessives is used in the same way : as,
mentiri non est meum, */ is not for me to lie.
humanum \_for hominis] est errare, // is man's to err.
e» A genitive may denote the substance of which a thing con-
sists (a modified form of the idea of source) : as,
talentum auri, a talent of gold.
flumina lactis, rivers of milk.
navis auri (compare Part. Gen.), a shipload of gold.
50: I, 2.] GENITIVE. 115
/• A limiting genitive is sometimes used instead of a noun in
apposition: as,
nomen insanige, the word madness.
oppidum Antiochise, the city of Antioch.
g* The genitive is used to denote quality, but only when the
quality is modified by an adjective (usually an indefinite one) : as,
vir summse virtutis, a man of the highest courage.
magnse est deliberations, it is an affair of great deliberation.
magni formica laboris,-/£0 ant, [a creature] of great toil.
So ejus modi, of that sort.
(Compare the Ablative of Quality, § 54, 7.)
h* The genitive (of quality), with numerals, is used to define
measures of length, depth, &c. : as,
fossa trium pedum, a trench of three feet [depth],
murus sedecim pedum, a iv all sixteen feet [high],
minor nulla eratduum milium amphorum (Fam. xii. i$),none
held less than 2000 jars.
i» Certain adjectives of Quantity — as magni, pluris, and the
like — are used in the genitive to express indefinite value. (Also
the nouns nihili, flocci, nauci, pili, pensi, terunci, assis, see
Ablative of Price, § 54, 8.)
REMARK. — The genitive is often followed by the ablatives
causa, gratia, for the sake of; ergo, because of; and the inde-
clinable instar, like. .
2. Partitive Genitive* Words denoting a part are fol-
lowed by the genitive of the whole to which the part belongs.
Partitive words are the following : —
a* Nouns or Pronouns : as,
pars militum, part of the soldiers.
quis nostrum, 'which of us? (but nos omnes, all of us).
nihil erat reliqui, there was nothing left.
vastatur agri [id] quod . . . (Liv. i. 14), so much of the land is
'wasted as, &c.
b* Numerals, Comparatives, and Superlatives : as,
alter consulum, one of the [two] consuls.
unus tribunorum, one of the tribunes.
plurimum totius Galliae equitatu valet (B. G. v. 3), is strongest
in cavalry of all Gaul.
ۥ Neuter adjectives and pronouns used as nouns : as,
tantum spati, so much space.
aliquid nummorum, a few pence.
id loci (or locorum), that spot of ground.
116 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [50: 2.
id temporis, at that time.
plana urbis, the level parts of the town.
quid novi, 'what news f
REMARK. — Of adjectives of the third declension the genitive
is only rarely used in this way : thus,
nihil novi (gen.), nothing new ; but
nihil memorabile (nom.), nothing worth mention.
d* Adverbs, especially of Quantity and Place : as,
satis pecunise, money enough.
parum oti, not much ease.
ubinam gentium sumus, where in the world are we ?
inde loci, next in order.
istuc aequi bonique, to that degree of equity and goodness.
turn temporis, at that point of time.
eo miseriarum (Sail.)? to that pitch of misery.
e. The poets and later writers often use the partitive genitive
after adjectives, instead of a noun in its proper case : as,
sequimur te sancte deorum (/En. iv. 576), we follow thee, O
holy deity.
nigrse lanarum (Plin. H. N. viii. 48), black wools.
electi juvenum (Liv. xxx. 9), the choice of the young men.
REMARK. — !• Cardinal numbers, with quidam, a certain one,
more commonly, other words rarely, take the ablative with e (ex)
or de, instead of the genitive : as,
unus ex tribunis, one of the tribunes.
minumus ex illis (Jug. n), the youngest of them.
medius ex tribus (ib.), the midst of the three.
2. With nouns uterque generally agrees as an adjective ; but
with pronouns it always takes a genitive : as,
uterque consul, both the consuls.
uterque nostrum, both of us.
3. Numbers and words of quantity including the wliole of any-
thing— as omnes, all; quot, how many — take a case in agree-
ment, and not the partitive genitive : as,
nos omnes, all of us.
qui omnes, all of whom.
quot sunt hostes, how many of the enemy are there f
cave inimicos qui multi sunt, beware of your enemies, of whom
you have many.
So when no others are thought of, although such exist : as,
multi milites, many of the soldiers.
nemo Romanus, not one Roman.
50: 3-] GENITIVE. 117
4. Rarely two genitives are used with one noun : as,
animi multarum rerum percursio (Tusc. iv. 13), the mind's
traversing of many things.
3. Objective Genitive. With many nouns and adjec-
tives implying action, the genitive is used to denote the object.
NOTE. — This is an extension of the idea of belonging to; as in the
phrase odium Caesaris, hate of Ccesar, the hate in a passive sense
belongs to Caesar, though in its active sense he is the object of it.
a. Nouns of action, agency, and feeling govern the genitive
of the object : as,
desiderium oti, longing for rest.
vacatio militiae, a respite of military service.
gratia benefici, gratitude for a kindness.
fug a malorum, refuge from disaster.
laudator temporis acti, a praiser of the past.
injuria mulierum Sabinarum (Liv.), the wrong done to the
Sabine 'women.
memoria nostri tua (Fam. xiii. 17), your memory of us.
consensio divinarum humanarumque rerum (Lael. 6), the har-
mony of divine and human things.
vim suorum pro suo periculo defendebant (B.C. iii. no), they
parried the attack on their comrades as if it 'were their own
peril.
Occasionally possessive adjectives are used in the same way (see
§ 47, 5, c).
6. Adjectives requiring an object of reference (relative adjec-
tives) govern the genitive.
These are — 1. Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory,
fulness •, power, sharing, guilt, and their opposites ; 2. Verbals in
ax; 3. Participles in ns when used to denote a disposition and
not a particular act, so that they become adjectives : as,
avidus laudis, greedy of praise.
fastidiosus literarum, disdaining letters.
juris peritus, skilled in law.
habetis ducem memorem vesfri oblitiim sui (Cat. iv. cj), you
have a leader who thinks of you and forgets himself.
plena consiliorum inania verborum (De Or. i. ()}, full of wis-
dom, void of words.
rationis et orationis expertes (Off. i. 16), devoid of reason and
speech.
virtutis compos (id.), possessed of virtue.
paternorum bonorum exheres (De Or. i. 38), ousted from his
father's estate.
rei capitalis affinis (2 Verr. ii. 43), accessory to a capital crime.
justum ac tenacem propositi virum (Hor. Od. iii. 3), a man just
and steadfast to his purpose.
118 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [50: 3.
si quern tui amantiorem cognovisti (G^. Fr. ix. i), if you have
known any more fond of you.
multitude insolens belli (B. C. ii. 36), a crowd unused to -war.
sitiens sanguinis, thirsting for blood. But,
Tiberius sitiens sanguinem (Tac.), Tiberius [then] thirsting
for blood.
ۥ Some other adjectives of similar meaning occasionally take
the genitive ; and the poets and late writers use almost any adjec-
tive with a genitive of specification : as,
callidus rei militaris (Tac. H. ii. 31), skilled in soldiership.
pecuniae liberates (Sail. C~7), lavish of money.
virtutum sterile seculum (id. i. 3), a century barren in virtue.
pauper aquarum (Hor.), scant of water.
prodigus aeris (id.), a spendthrift of wealth.
notus animi, of known bravery.
fessi rerum (Virg.), weary of toil.
laeta laborum (id.), glad of work.
modicus voluptatis, moderate in pleasure*
integer vitae scelerisque purus (Hor.), upright in life, and
clear of guilt.
docilis modorum (id.), teachable in measures.
REMARK. — Animi (strictly a locative, plural animis), is added
to adjectives of feeling : as,
seger animi, sick at heart.
confusus animi, disturbed in spirit.
d» A few adjectives of likeness, nearness, belonging — requir-
ing the dative as such — take the possessive genitive : these are,
aequalis, affinis, communis, finitimus, par, propiiiqims, pro-
prius (regularly), similis, viciiius.
REMARK. — One noun limiting another is regularly used in the
genitive, and not with a preposition, — prepositions being origi-
nally adverbs, and requiring a verb. Sometimes, however, one
noun has another connected with it by a preposition. This hap-
pens with nouns of action, feeling, and motion ; some relations of
place to or in which or from which (including origin) \ accompani-
ment, &c. : as, -
odium in Caesarem (or odium Caesaris), hate of Ccesar.
merita erga me (Cic.), services to me.
auxilium adversus inimicos (id.), help against enemies.
reditus in caelum (id.), return to heaven.
impetus in me (id.), attack on me.
excessus e vita (id.), departure from life.
e prcelio nuntius, a messenger from the battle.
castra ad Bagradam (Caes.), camp near the Bagrada.
invidia ob scelera (Sail.), odium for his crimes. So,
domum reditionis spes (id.), the hope of returning home.
50:4-] GENITIVE. 119
4. Genitive after Verbs. The genitive is used as the
object of several classes of Verbs.
a. Verbs of Remembering, Forgetting, and Reminding, take
the genitive of the object when they are used of a continued state
of mind, but the accusative when used of a single act: as,
pueritiae memoriam recordari (Arch.i.), to recall the memory
of childhood.
animus meminit praeteritorum (Div. i. 30), the soul remembers
the past.
venit mihi in mentem illius diei, I bethought me of that day.
obliviscere caedis atque incendiorum (Cat.), turn your mind
from slaughter and conjlagrations.
bona praeterita non meminerunt (Fin. ii. 20), they do not re-
member past blessings.
memineram Paullum (Cat. M. 2), I remembered Paulus.
memini etiam quae nolo (Fin. ii. 33), I remember even 'what I
would not.
totam causam oblitus est (Brut. 60), be forgot the 'whole case.
REMARK. — The above distinction is unimportant as to verbs of
reminding, which take the genitive except of neuter pronouns : as,
hoc te admoneo, / warn you of this. The accusative is always
used of a person or thing remembered by an eye-witness. Recorder
is almost always construed with an accusative, or with a phrase or
clause.
&• Verbs of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquitting, take the
genitive of the charge or penalty : as,
arguit me furti, he accuses me of theft.
peculates damnatus (pecuniae publicse damnatus) (Flac. 18),
condemned for embezzlement.
capitis damnatus, condemned to death.
Peculiar genitives, under this construction, are —
capitis (damnare capitis, to sentence to deatli) ;
majestatis, treason (crime against the dignity of the State);
repetundarum, extortion (lit. of an action for claiming back
money wrongfully taken) ;
voti (damnatus or reus voti, bound to the payment of one's
vow, i.e. successful in one^s effort-).
REMARK. — The crime may be expressed by the ablative with
de; the punishment by the ablative alone : as, /^ -2-93 (*-)
de vi et majestatis damnati (Phil, i.), condemned of assault and
treason.
vitia autem hominum atque fraudes damnis, ignominiis, vin-
culis, verberibus, exiliis, morte damnantur (De Or. i 43),
but the vices and crimes of men are punished ivith fines, dism
honor, chains, scourging, exile, death.
Bi^t, inter sicarios accusare (defeiidere;, to accuse of murder.
120 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [50: 4.
c. Many verbs of Emotion take the genitive of the object which
excites the feeling (Gen. of source). These are —
1. Verbs of pity, as misereor and miseresco: as,
miserescite regis (/En., viii. 573), pity the king.
miserere animi non digna ferentis (id. ii. 144), pity a soul that
endures unworthy things.
But miser or, commiseror, bewail, take the accusative.
2. The impersonals miseret, piget, poenitet, pudet, taedet
(or pertaesum est), which take also the accusative of the person
affected (§ 39, 2) : as,
hos homines infamise suze neque pudet neque tsedet (Verr. i.
12), these men are neither ashamed nor weary of their dis-
honor.
REMARK. — An infinitive or clause may be used with these verbs
instead of the genitive of a noun : as,
me poenitet hsec fecisse, I repent of having done this.
Sometimes they are used personally : as,
nonne te hsec* pudent (Ter. Ad.), do not these things shame
you ?
d* The impersonals interest and refert, it concerns, takes the
genitive of the person affected, — the subject of the verb being a
neuter pronoun or a substantive clause : as,
Clodi intererat Milonem perire (Mil. 21), it ivas the interest of
Clodius that Milo should die.
But instead of the genitive of a personal pronoun the possessive is
used in the ablative singular feminine : as,
quid tua id refert? — magni (Ter. Ph.), how does that concern
you f much.
refert is seldom used in any other way ; but it takes, rarely, the
dativus commodi (Hor. Sat. i. i, 49). The object of interest is
sometimes in the accusative with ad: as,
magni ad honorem nostrum interest (Fam. xvi. i), it is of
consequence to our honor.
NOTE. — The word interest maybe used (1) impersonally with the
genitive, as above ; (2) personally with the dative : as, interest exer-
citui, he is present with the army; (3) with the accusative and pre-
positions : as, interest inter exercitum et castra, he is between — or,
there is a difference between — the army and camp.
ۥ Some verbs of plenty and want govern the genitive (rarely,
except egeo and indigeo, need) : as,
quid est quod defensionis indigeat? (Rose. Am. 12), what is
there that needs defence f
satagit rerum suarum, he has his hands full with his own affairs.
51: I.] DATIVE. 121
Also, sometimes, potior, get possession of; as always in the phrase
potiri rerum, to be master of affairs. But these verbs more
commonly take the ablative.
REMARK. — The genitive is also used after the adverbs pridie,
the day before; postridie, the day after ; tenus, as far as: as,
postridie ejus diei (B. G. v. 10), the next day.
51. DATIVE.
The Dative is used of the object indirectly affected
by the action, which is usually denoted in English by
TO or FOR (Indirect Object).
NOTE. — The dative seems to have the primary meaning of towards,
and to be closely akin to the Locative. But this meaning is lost in
Latin, except in some adverbial forms (eo, illo, &c.) and in the poets.
In most of its derived meanings, it denotes an object not merely (like
the Accusative) as passively affected by the action, or caused by it ; but
as reciprocally sharing in the action, or receiving it actively. Thus, in
dedit mihi librum, he gave me a book, or fecit mihi iujuriam, he did
me an injury ; it is I that receive the book or feel the wrong. Hence
persons, or objects personified, are most likely to be in the dative.
So in the Spanish, the dative is used whenever a Person is the object
of an action : as, yo veo al hombre, / see the man.
As this difference between the accusative and dative (direct and
indirect object) depends on the view taken by the writer, verbs of
similar meaning in different languages, or even in the same, differ, in
the case of the object. In English, especially, owing to the loss of its
cases, many verbs are construed as transitive, which in Latin require
the dative. Thus believe, which in English originally governed the
genitive, has become transitive ; while the corresponding verb in
Latin, credo (a compound of cred and do (DHA), to place confidence in)
takes the dative.
1. Dative with Transitives. Transitive verbs, whose
meaning permits it, take the dative of the indirect object, with
the accusative of the direct.
These are, especially, verbs of Giving, Telling, Sending, and
the like : as,
do tibi librum, I give you a book.
valetudini tribuamus aliquid (Tusc. i. 118), let us allow some-
thing to health.
illud tibi affirmo (Fam. i. 7), this I assure you.
Pompeio plurimum debebam (id. i. 9), lotvedmuch to Pompey.
id omne tibi polliceor ac defero (Man. 24), all this I promise
you and bestow. Q
122 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [51: I, 2.
commendo tibi ejus omnia negotia (Fam. i. i), I put all his
affairs in your hands.
amico munusculum mittere 'id. ix. 12), to send a slight tribute
to a friend.
illi inimico servum rem* ^Deiot. ii.), to him, his enemy, he
returned a slave.
dabis profecto misericordiae quod iracundiae negavisti (id. 14),
you witt surely grant to mercy 'what you refused to wrath.
Karthagini bellum denuntio (Cat. M. 6), / announce war to
Carthage.
curls gaudia misces (Catull. — only poet.) , thou minglest joy
•with care.
a. In the passive, such verbs retain the dative of the indirect
object: as,
hsec nobis nuntiantur, these things are told us.
b. When the idea of motion is distinctly conveyed, a preposi-
tion is used (except by poetic use) : as,
has litteras ad te mitto, I send you this letter.
c. A few verbs of this class — under a different view of the
action — may take the accusative of a person, with an ablative of
means.
Such verbs are dono, impertio, induo, exuo, adspergo,
inspergo, circumdo, circumfundo, prohibeo, intercludo.
Thus —
donat coronas suis, he presents wreaths to fits men ; or,
donat suos coronis, he presents his men with wreaths.
pomis se induit arbos (G. iv. 143), the tree decks itself with
fruits.
copiis (dat.) armis exutis (B. G. iii.6), the forces being stripped
of arms.
aram sanguine adspergere (N. D. iii. 36), to sprinkle the altar
with blood.
2. Dative after Intransitives, Intransitive verbs take
the dative of the indirect object only : as,
cedant arma togae (Phil. i. 8), let arms give way to the gown.
quid homini potest turpius usuvenire (Quinct. 15), what
more shameful can befall a man f
respondi maximis criminibus (Phil. i. 14), I have answered the
heaviest charges.
ut ita cuique eveniat (id. 46), that it may so turn out to each.
manent ingenia senibus (Cat. M. 7), old men keep their pozvers
of mind.
vento et fluctibus loqui (Lucr. iv. 491), to talk to wind and
wave.
51: 2.] DATIVE. 123
nec quereris patri (Juv. 11. 131}, you complain not to a father.
non cuivis homini contingit adire Corinthum (Hor. Ep. i. 17),
it is not every mans luck to p* ' '*> Corinth.
a. Most verbs signifying to favor, help, please, serve, trust,
and their contraries, — also, to believe, persuade, command, obey,
engy, threaten, pwrdon, and spare, — take the Dative in Latin,
though transitive in English.
These include, among others, the following : adversor, credo,
faveo, fido, ignosco, impero, invldeo, irascor, noceo, parco,
pareo, placeo, servio, studeo, suadeo (persuadeo) : as,
cur mihi invides, why do you envy me?
civitati serviebat, he served the state.
tibi favemus, we favor you.
mihi parcit atque ignoscit, he spares and pardons me.
sontibus opitulari poteram (Fam. iv. 13), / was able to help the
guilty.
bonis invident (Sail.), they envy the good.
Catoni resistimus (Fam. i. i), ive withstand Cato.
non omnjbus servio (id. xvi. 13), / am not a servant to every
man.
cum ceteris turn mihi ipsi displiceo (id. iv. 13), / dissatisfy
other people and myself too.
non parcam operse (id. xvi. 13), I will spare no pains.
sic mihi persuasi (Cat. M. 21), so I have persuaded myself.
huic legioni Csesar confidebat maxime (B. G. i. 40), in this
legion CcBsar had special confidence.
ex quo efficitur hominem naturae obedientem homini nocere
non posse (Off. iii. 5), whence it appears that a man while
obeying Nature cannot harm a fellow -man.
REMARK. — !• Some verbs of the same meanings take the ac-
cusative : as, juvo, adjuvo, help; laedo, injure; jubeo, order;
deficio, fail.
2. Some take the dative or accusative indifferently : as, adulor,
flatter; aemulor, rival; comitor, attend; despero, despair;
praestolor, await; medeor, medicor, heal.
3. Some take the dative or accusative according to their mean-
ing: as,
parti civium consulunt (Off. i. 25), they consult for a party
of the citizens.
cum te consuluissem (Fam. xi. 29), when I had consulted you.
metuens pueris (Plant. Am. v. i), anxious for the boys.
nec metutint deos (Ter. Hec. v. 2), they fear not even the gods
(so also timeo.}
ei caverc volo (Fam. iii. i), I will have a care for him.
caveto omnia (id. xi. 21), beware of everything.
124 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [51: 2.
prospicite patrise (Cat. iv. 2), have regard for the state.
prospicere sedem senectuti (Liv. iv. 49), to provide a habita-
tion/or old age [so also providere^.
nequeo mihi temperare (Plin. xviii. 6), I cannot control myself.
rempublicam temperare (Tusc. i. i), to govern the state [so
also moderor\.
See Lexicon, under convenio, cupio, fido (abl.), insisto,
maneo, praesto, praeverto, recipio, renuntio, solvo, succedo.
b. The dative is used after the Impersonals libet, licet ; after
verbs compounded with satis, bene, and male; together with
the following: — gratificor, gratulor, haereo (rarely), jungo,
medeor, medicor, misceo (poetic), nubo, permitto, plaudo,
probo, studeo, supplico ; and the phrases auctor esse, gratias
agere (habere),- morem gerere (morigeror), supplex (dicto
audiens) esse: as,
quod mihi maxime lubet (Fam. i. 18), what most pleases me.
Di isti Segulio male faciant (id. xi. 21), may the gods send evil
upon that Segulius.
mihi ipsi nunquam satisfacio (id. 17), I never satisfy myself.
virgo nupsit ei (Div. i. 46), a maiden married him.
Pompeio se gratulari putent (id. i. i), they suppose they are
doing Pompey a service.
sed tibi morem gessi (id. ii. 18), but I have deferred to you.
tibi permitto respondere (N. D. iii. i), I give you leave to
ansiver.
armatus adversario maledixi (Fam. vi. 7), in arms I cursed the
foe.
voluptati aurium morigerari (Or. 48), to humor the lust of the
ears.
habeo senectuti maximam gratiam (Cat. M. 14), I owe old age
much thanks.
maximas tibi gratias ago, I return you the -warmest thanks.
c. Many verbs of the above classes take an accusative of the
thing, with a dative of the person : as,
cui cum rex crucem minitaretur (Tusc. i. 43), when the king
threatened him with the cross.
invident nobis optimam magistram (id. iii. 2), they grudge us
our best of teachers [Nature].
frumento exercitui proviso (B. G. v. 44), when the army was
supplied with corn.
puerum [vocare] cui cenam imperaret (Ros. Am. 21), to call a
boy and order supper of him.
imperat oppidanis decem talenta, he exacts ten talents of the
townspeople.
omnia sibi ignoscere (Veil. ii. 30), to pardon one's self every-
51: 2.] DATIVE. 125
d. Most verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob,
post, prae, pro, sub, super — and some with circum — take the
dative of the object on account of their acquired meaning (many
take also the accusative, being originally transitive) : as,
neque enim assentior iis (Lsel. 3), for I do not agree -with them.
tempestati obsequi artis est (Fam. i. 9), it is a point of skill to
yield to the -weather.
omnibus negotiis non interfuit solum sed prsefuit (id. i. 6), he
not only had a hand in all matters, but took the lead in them.
pueritiae adulescentia obrepit (Cat. M.), youth steals upon
childhood.
[Archise] antecellere omnibus contigit (Arch. 3), it was his
good fortune to outvie all.
quantum natura hominis pecudibus antecedit (Off. i. 30), so
far as man's nature is superior to brutes.
nos ei succedimus (Fam. vii. 31), we succeed him.
criminibus illis pro rege se supponit reum (Deiot. 15), he takes
those charges upon himself in the king s behalf.
nee unquam succumbet inimicis (id. 13), he 'will never bend
before his foes.
illis libellis nomen suum inscribunt (Arch. 13), they put their
own name to those papers.
tibi obtempera (F. ii. 7), restrain yourself .
hibernis Labienum prseposuit (Cses.), he set Labienus over
the -winter-quarters.
cur mihi te offers, ac meis commodis officis et obstas (Ros.
Am. 38), why do you put yourself in my way, to hinder and
withstand my advantage ?
So excello: as,
tu longe aliis excellis (De Or. ii. ^, you far excel others.
REMARK. — 1. Some of the above compounds acquire a transi-
tive meaning, and take the accusative : as, aggredior, approach ;
adire, go to ; antecedo, anteeo, antegradior, precede (both cases) ;
convenio, meet; iiieo, enter; obeo, encounter; offendo, hit;
oppugno, oppose ; subeo, go under (take up) : as,
nos oppugnat (Fam. i. i), he opposes us.
quis audeat bene comitatum aggredi, who would dare encounter
a man -well- attended ?
munus obire (Lael. 2), to attend to a duty.
2. The adjective obvius — also the adverb obviam — with a
verb takes the dative : as,
si ille obvius ei futurus non erat (Mil. 18), if he was not intend-
ing to get in his way.
m'hi obviam venisti (Fam. ii. 16), you came to meet me.
126 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [51: 2,3.
e. Many compounds of ab, de, ex, with adimo, take the dative
(especially of persons) instead of the ablative of separation, —
the action being more vividly represented as done to the object
affected by it : as,
vitam adulescentibus vis aufert (C. M. 19), force deprives young
men of life.
nihil enim tibi detraxit senectus (id. i),for age has robbed you
1 of nothing.
nee mihi hunc errorem extorqueri volo (id. 23), nor do / -wish
this error wrested from me.
cum extorta mihi veritas esset (Or. 48), 'when the truth had
• been forced from me.
REMARK. — The distinct idea of place, — and, in general, names
of things, — require the ablative with a preposition ; or both con-
structions may be used together : as,
ilium ex periculo eripuit (B. G. iv. 12), he dragged him out of
danger.
victoriam eripi sibi e manibus, that victory should be wrested
from his hands.
f. Intransitive verbs governing the dative can be used in the
Passive only impersonally: as,
cui parci potuit (Liv. xxi. 12), who could be spared?
non modo non invidetur illi setati verum etiam favetur (Off. ii.
13), that age [youth] is not only not envied, but is even favored.
mihi quidem persuader! nunquam potuit (C. M. 22), I for my
part could never be persuaded.
resistendum senectuti est (id. n), -we must resist old age.
plaudi tibi non solere (Deiot. 12), that you are not ^vont to be
applauded.
tempori serviendum est (Fam. ix. 7), we must serve the time.
g. The dative is often used by the poets in constructions which
would strictly require another case with a preposition : as,
differt sermoni (Hor.), differs from prose [a sermone].
tibi certet (Virg.). may vie with you [tecum].
lateri abdidit ensem (id.), buried the sword in his side [in lateral,
solstitium pecori defendite (Eel. vii. 47), keep the noontide from
the flock [a pecore].
Here the poets regard the acting as done to the thing affected, for
greater vividness of expression.
3. Dative of Possession. The dative is used after esse
and similar words to denote the Owner : as,
est mihi liber, / have a book.
51: 3, 4-] DATIVE. 127
REMARK. — The Genitive or a possessive with esse emphasizes
the possessor; the Dative the fact of possession: as, liber est
meus, the book is mine (and no one's else) ; est mihi liber, / have
a book (among other things) . This is the usual form to denote
simple possession ; habeo, / have, generally signifying hold, often
with some secondary meaning : as,
legionem quam secum habebat (B. G. i. 8), the legion 'which
he had 'with him.
domitas habere libidines (De Or.), to keep the passions under.
a. Compounds of esse take the dative (excepting abesse and
posse ; for other compounds, see above, 2, d) .
b. After nomen est, and similar expressions, the name is usu-
ally put in the dative by a kind of apposition with the person : as,
puero ab inopia Egerio inditum nomen (Liv. i. 34), the boy
*w as called Rgerius from his poverty.
cui Africano fuit cognomen (Liv. xxv. 2), whose surname 'was
Africanus.
But the name may be in apposition with nomen; or in the genitive
(§ 50, i,/) : as,
cui nomen Arethusa (Verr. iv. 52), [a fount] called Arethusa.
nomen Mercuri est mihi (Plaut. Am.), my name is Mercury.
4. Dative of Agency. The dative is used, after some
passive forms, to denote the agent: viz.
a. Regularly with the Gerund or Gerundive, to denote the
person on whom the necessity rests : as,
haec vobis provincia est defendenda (Man. 6), this province is
for you to defend [to be defended by you],
mihi est pugnandum, I have to fight [i.e., the need of fighting
is mine; compare mihi est liber].
b. The dative is often used after perfect participles, especially
when used in an adjective sense, — rarely after other parts of the
verb: as,
mihi deliberatum et constitutum est (Rull. i. 8), I have deliber-
ated and resolved.
oratori omnia quaesita esse debent (De Or. iii. 14), an orator
should search everything.
acceptus mihi, acceptable to me.
c. By the poets and later writers it is used in this way after
almost any passive verb : as,
neque cernitur ulli (^En. i. 440), nor is seen by any.
felix est dicta sorori (Fast, iii.), she 'was called happy by her
sister.
128 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [51:4,5,6.
REMARK. — The dative is regularly used after the passive of
video (usually to be rendered seem) : as,
videtur mihi, it seems (or seems good) to me.
5. Dative of Service. The dative is used to denote
the purpose or end ; often with another dative of the person
or thing affected : as,
reipublicae cladi sunt (Jug. 85), they are ruin to the State.
rati sese dis immortalibus curse esse (id. 75), thinking them-
selves to be the special care of the gods.
magno usui nostris fuit (B. G. iv- 25), // was of great service
to our men.
tertiam aciem nostris subsidio misit (id.), he sent the third line
as a relief to our men.
omnia deerant quae ad reficiendas naves erant usui (id. 29), all
things -were wanting -which -were of use for repairing the ships.
REMARK. — In this use the dative is nearly equivalent to a noun
in apposition with the subject or object of the verb. It is common
with the words cordi, a delight (lit. to the heart) ; dono, a gift ;
emolumeiito, a gain ; usui, an advantage ; vitio, a fault. The
indeclinable adjective frugi is properly a dative of service.
6. Dative of Nearness, &c. The dative is used after
Adjectives and Adverbs, to denote that to which the given
quality is directed, or for which it exists.
Such are especially words of fitness, nearness, likeness, service,
inclination, and their opposites : as,
nihil est tarn naturae aptum (Lsel. 5), nothing is so ftted to
nature.
carus omnibus exspectatusque venies (F. xvi. 7), you iv ill come
loved and longed for by all.
locum divinae naturae aeternitatique contrarium (Cat. M. 21),
a point opposed to the divine nature and eternity.
nihil difficile amanti puto (Or. 10), I think nothing hard to a
lover.
pompse quam pugnae aptius (id. 1$)*, fitter for a procession than
a battle.
consentanetim tempori et personae (id. 22), adapted to the time
and the party.
rebus ipsis par et aequalis oratio (id. 36), a speech equal and
level 'with the subject.
Also, in poetic and colloquial use, idem, the same: as,
in eadem arm a nobis (Cic.), to the same arms ivit/i us.
a» Adjectives of Usefulness or Fitness take oftener the accusa-
tive with ad, but sometimes the dative : as,
51: 6, 7-] DATIVE. 129
aptus ad rem militarem, jit for a soldier's duty.
locus ad insidias aptior (Mil. 20), a place fitter for lying-in^
ad amicitiam idoneus (Lael. 17), apt to friendship. {wait.
castris idoneum iocum deligit (B. G. vi. 10), he selects a suit-
able camping-ground.
&• Adjectives and nouns of inclination may take the accusative
with in or erga: as,
comis in uxorem (Hor. Ep. ii. 2), kind to his wife.
divina bonitas erga homines (N. D. ii. 23), the divine goodness
to^vards men.
€• The following may take also the possessive genitive : —
aequalis, affinis, amicus, cognatus, communis, consanguin-
eus, dispar, familiaris, inimicus, necessarius, par, peculiaris,
proprius, superstes.
REMARK. — After similis, like, with early writers, the genitive
is more usual ; Cicero uses the genitive of persons, and the genitive
or dative of things.
d* The following take the accusative: — propior, proximus
(sometimes), propius, proximo (more commonly) — as if preposi-
tions, like prope.
e* Verbal nouns take (rarely) the dative, like the verbs from
which they are derived : as,
invidia consuli (Sail.), ill-will against the consul.
ministri sceleribus (Tac.), servants of crime.
obtemperatio legibus (Leg. i. 15), obedience to the laws.
sibi ipsi responsio (De Or. iii. 54), an answer to himself.
7. Dative of Advantage* The dative is often required
not by any particular word, but by the general meaning of the
sentence (dativus commodi et incommodi).
NOTE. — In these cases there may be only one word in the sen-
tence ; but they are distinguished by the fact that the meaning of the
verb is complete without the dative, while in the preceding cases it is
required to complete the sense of some particular word.
ttibi aras (PI. Merc. i. i), you plough for yourself .
non solum nobis divites esse volumus sed liberis (Off. iii. 15),
it is not for ourselves alone but for our children that we
would be rich.
res tuas tibi babe (formula of divorce), keep your goods.
laudavit mihi fratrem, he praised my brother [out of regard for
me; laudavit fratrem meum would imply no such motive].
6*
130 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [51: 7.
a. The dative of advantage is often used instead of the posses-
sive genitive : as,
iter Poenis vel corporibus suis obstruere (Cat. M. 20), to block
the march of the Carthaginians even -with their bodies.
se in conspectum nautis dedit (Verr. vi. 33), he put himself in
sight of the sailors.
versatur mini ante oculos (id. 47), it comes before my eyes.
fe. The dative of advantage is used in relations of direction,
answering to the English as you go in (on the right, in the front,
&c.) : as,
oppidum primum Thessalise venientibus ab Epiro (B. C. iii.
80), the [first toivn of Thessaly as you come from Epirus.
laeva parte sinum intrantibus (Liv. xxxvi. 26), on the left as
you sail up the gulf.
ۥ The dative of advantage is used, rarely (by a Greek idiom),
with the participle of volo or nolo, and similar words : as,
g ut quibusque bellum invitis aut volentibus erat (Tac. Ann. i. 59),
as they might receive the 'war reluctantly or gladly.
ut militibus labos volentibus esset (Jug. 100), that the soldiers
might assttme the task willingly.
d. Ethical Dative. The dative of the personal pronouns is
used to show a certain interest felt by the person referred to
(dativus etliicus : compare * ' I'll rhyme you so eight years to-
gether.1"— As you Like it.) : as,
quid mihi Celsus agit (Hor.), pray -what is Celsus doing?
at tibi repente ve'nit mihi Cominius (F. ix. 2), but, look yoti,
of a sudden comes to me Cominius.
hem tibi talentum argenti (PI. Trin. v. i), hark ye, a talent
of silver.
quid tibi vis? 'what 'would you have ?
avaritia senilis quid sibi velit non intelligo (Cat. M. 18), I do
not understand 'what an old man's avarice means.
REMARK. — To express FOR — meaning instead of, in defence
of, in behalf of — the ablative with pro must be used, not the
dative : as,
pro patria mori (Hor. Od. iii. 2), to die for one's country.
pro rege, lege, grege (prov.), for king, la-w, people.
ego ibo pro te (PI. Most.), I 'will go instead of you.
non pro me sed contra me (De Or. iii. 20), not for me but
against me.
52: I.] ACCUSATIVE. 131
52. ACCUSATIVE.
The Accusative denotes that which is immediately
affected by the action of a verb (Direct Object).
1. General Use. The Accusative is the case of the
direct object of a transitive verb : as,
legationem suscepit, he undertook the embassy.
Caesar vicit Fompeium, Ccesar conquered Pompey.
REMARK. — The Object of a transitive verb in the active voice
becomes its Subject in the Passive, and is put in the nomi-
native : as,
legatio suscipitur, the embassy is undertaken.
Pompeius a Caesare victus est, Pompey was overcome by Ccesar.
a. Many verbs which express Feeling, apparently intransitive,
may take an accusative in Latin : as,
fidem supplicis erubuit (Virg.), he respected [blushed at] the
faith of a suppliant.
flebat mortuos vivosque, he -wept the dead and living.
meum casum luctumque doluerunt (Sest.69), they grieved [at]
my calamity and sorrow.
horreo conscientiam (Fin. i. 16), I shudder at conscience.
Such verbs may accordingly be used in the passive : as,
ridetur ab omni conventu (Hor.), he is laughed [at] by the
whole assembly.
b. Cognate Accusative. A neuter verb often takes an ac-
cusative of kindred meaning (almost always modified by an adjec-
tive, or in some other manner) : as,
vivere earn vitam (Cic.), to live that kind of life.
setatem tertiam vivebat, he -was living his third age.
Similarly, in such phrases as vincere judicium, to gain one's
case at court, and in poetic use : as,
saltare Cyclopa (Hor. Sat. v. i), to dance the Cyclops.
Bacchanalia vivere (Juv. ii. 2), to live in revels.
c* Verbs of taste, smell, &c., take an accusative of the qual-
ity: as,
vinum redolens (Cic.), smelling of wine.
herbam mella sapiunt (Plin.), the honey tastes of grass.
132 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [52: I, 2.
d. Verbs of motion, and a few others, compounded with prep-
ositions, especially compounds of circum and trans, frequently
become transitive, and take the accusative : as,
mortem obire, to die.
consulatum ineunt (Livy iii. 6), they assume the consulship.
neminem conveni (Fam. ix. 14), I met no one.
tectum subire, to enter [go under] a place of shelter.
colloquium baud abnuit (Livy xxx. 29), he did not refuse the
interview.
si insulam adisset (B. G. iv. 20), if he should go to the island.
cives qui circumstant senatum (Cat. i. 8), the citizens ivho
throng about the senate.
e* Construct!© Praegnans. The accusative is used in certain
phrases constructively, the real object of the verb being something
understood: as,
coire societatem, to [go J together and] form an alliance.
ferire foedus, to strike a treaty [i.e. to sanction by striking
down the victim].
mare navigare, to sail the sea [i.e. to sail a ship upon the sea].
/. The accusative is used after the Impersonals decet, it be-
comes ; delectat, juvat, it delights ; oportet, it behooves ; fallit,
it deceives ; fugit, praeterit, it escapes: as,
te non praeteriit (Fam. i. 8), it has not escaped your notice.
(For Accusative and Genitive after Impersonals, see § 50, 4, c.)
2. Two Accusatives. Several classes of verbs, besides
the direct object, take another accusative, either in apposition
or as a secondary object.
a. The accusative is used in apposition after verbs of naming,
choosing, &c. (See § 46.)
6. A second accusative is sometimes used after transitive verbs
compounded with prepositions : as,
Hiberum copias trajecit (Liv. xxi. 23), he threw his forces
across the Ebro.
But with these verbs the preposition is oftener repeated.
c* Verbs of asking and teaching govern two accusatives, either
of which may be regarded as the direct object of the action : as,
hoc vos doceo (Cic.), I teach you this.
hoc te vehementer rogo (id.), this I urgently beg of you.
REMARK. — The accusative of the thing may remain, in this
construction, after a passive : as, rogatus sententiam ; while the
person will be, after verbs of asking, in the ablative with the prep-
osition ab or ex: as, hoc a te rogatur. The preposition is
52:3,4-] ACCUSATIVE. 133
always used, to denote the person after peto, postulo (ab),
quaero (ex or de) : as,
pacem ab Romanis petere (Caes.), to beg peace of the Romans.
d. The transitive celo, conceal, and the usually neuter lateo,
lie hid, take the accusative of the person : as,
hoc me celavit, he hid this from me. f '' «• &*'A* ^"~ ^
latet plerosque (Plin.), it ts hid from most.
3. Adverbial Accusative. The accusative is used ad-
verbially, or for specification. This is found —
a. With many verbs usually intransitive, which take a neuter
pronoun or adjective in the accusative: as,
quid moror, 'why do I delay f
pauca milites hortatus (Sail.), having briefly exhorted the men.
dulce loquentem (Hor. Od. i. 22), sweetly speaking.
acerba tuens (yEn. ix. 793), looking cruelly.
torvum clamat (id. vii. 599), he cries harshly.
idem gloriari, to boast the same thing.
NOTE. — Many of. these are cognate accusative.
b* In a few adverbial phrases, such as id temporis, at that
time ; meam vicem, on my part ; quod si, but (as to which) if.
c* In the so-called synecdochical or Greek accusative, used by
the poets to denote the part affected : as,
caput nectentur (Virg.), their head shall be bound [they shall
be bound about the head].
The part is strictly in apposition with the whole, and remains (as
above) after the passive.
REMARK. — The accusative after passive verbs used reflexively
is sometimes wrongly referred to this construction : as,
inutile ferrum cingitur (Virg.), he girds on the useless steel.
4. Special Uses. Peculiar uses are the following : —
«• The accusative is used in Exclamations : as,
O fortunatam rempublicam (Cic.)j O fortunate republic I
O me mi serum ! Ah -wretched me !
5. The subject of the Infinitive Mood is in the accusative.
This is especially frequent after verbs of knowing, thinking, and
telling (verba sentiendi et declarandi, § 67, i). In all cases,
the accusative is strictly the Object of the leading verb.
c* Time how long, and Distance how far, are in the accusative.
(See § 55.)
For the Accusative with Prepositions, see § 56.
134 CONSTRUCTION OP CASES. [53; 54.
53. VOCATIVE.
The Vocative is the form of direct Address : as,
Tiberine pater, te sancte precor (Liv. ii. 103) , 0 father Tiber !
thee, holy one, I pray.
NOTE. — The Vocative can hardly be called a case, as it properly
has no case termination, and forms no part of the sentence.
a* Sometimes the nominative of a noun is used instead of the
vocative, in apposition with the subject of the Imperative : as,
audi tu, populus Albanus (id. i'. 24), hear, thou people of Alba.
&. Sometimes the vocative of an adjective is used instead of the
nominative, where the verb is of the second person : as,
censorem trabeate salutas (Pers.)', robed you salute the censor.
So in the phrase,
macte [= magne, root MAG»] virtute esto (Hor.), be enlarged
in manliness [bravo, well done].
54. ABLATIVE.
The Ablative is used to denote the relations ex-
pressed in English by the prepositions from, in,
at, with, by.
NOTE. — The Ablative form contains three distinct cases, — the
ablative proper, expressing the relation FROM ; the locative, IN ; and
the instrumental, WITH or BY. This confusion has arisen partly
from phonetic decay, by which the cases have become identical in
form, and partly from the development by which they have ap-
proached one another in meaning. Compare, for the first, the like
forms of the dative and ablative plural, the old dative in e of the fifth
declension, and the loss of the original d in the ablative ; and, for the
second, the phrases a parte dextra, ON the right. ; quam ob causam,
FROM which cause; ad famam, AT (in consequence of) the report.
The relative of FROM includes separation, source, cause, agent, and
comparison ; that of IN or AT, place, time, circumstance ; that of WITH or
BY, accompaniment, instrunient, means, manner, quality, and price. It is
probable that, originally, the idea of accompaniment had a separate case,
which became confounded with the instrumental before the Latin was
separated from the kindred tongues.
54: I.] ABLATIVE. 135
1. Ablative of Separation* Verbs meaning to remove,
set free, be absent) deprive, and want, are followed by the
ablative : as,
levamur superstitione, liberamur mortis metu (Fin. i. 19), ive
are relieved from superstition^ freed from fear of death.
oculis se privavit (id. v. 29), he deprived himself of eyes.
consilio et auctoritate orbari (Cat. M. 6), to be bereft of counsel
and authority.
legibus solutus, relieved from the obligation oflarvs.
ea philosophia quse spoliat nos judicio, privat approbatione,
omnibus orbat sensibus (Acad. ii. 19), that philosophy 'which
despoils us of judgment ', deprives of approval, bereaves of
every sense.
omni Gallia interdicit Romanos (B. G. i. 46), he [Ariovistus]
bars the Romans from the 'whole of Gaul.
ei aqua et igni interdicitur (Vail. Pat. ii. 45), he is debarred
the use oj fire and 'water.
[cives] calamitate prohibere (Manil. 7), to keep the citizens
from ruin.
carere febri (Fam. xvi. 16), to be free from fever.
voluptatibus carere (Cat. M. 3), to lack enjoyments.
non egeo medicina (Lsel. 3), I want no physic.
magno me metu liberabis (Cat. i. 5), you will relieve me of
great fear.
Ephorus calcaribus eget (Quint.), Ephorus needs the spur.
a. Compounds of a, ab, de, ex, take the ablative when used
figuratively ; but in their literal meaning, implying motion, they
usually follow the rules of place from which (see § 55, 3) : as,
conatu desistere (B. G. i. 8), to desist from the attempt.
exsolvere se occupationibus (Fam. vii. i), to get clear of occu-
pation.
prius quam ea cura decederet patribus (Liv. ix. 29), before that
anxiety left the fathers.
desine communibus locis (Ac. ii. 25), quit commonplaces.
abire magistratu, to leave the office.
abscedere incepto, to relinquish the undertaking.
abstinere injuria, to refrain from 'wrong:
exire aere alieno, to get out of debt.
b. More rarely, the ablative is used after verbs without a prep-
osition to denote the place from which : as,
cessisset patria (Mil. 25), he -would have left his country.
loco movere (Liv. i. 35), to move from its place.
patria pellere, to drive out of the country.
Gallia arcere (Phil. v. 13), to keep out of Gaul.
manu mittere, to emancipate [let go from the hand].
136 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [54: I, 2.
c. Adjectives denoting freedom and want are followed by the
ablative : as,
liber cura et angore (Fin. i. 15), free from care and anguish.
vacuos curis (ib. ii. 14), void of care.
urbs nuda prsesidio (Att. vii. 13), the city naked of defence.
immunis militia (Liv. i. 43), free of military service.
plebs orba tribunis (Leg. iii. 3), the people deprived of tribunes.
d. Opus and usus signifying need (with esse) are followed
by the ablative (often by the ablative of the perfect participle, with
or without a noun) : as,
magistratibus opus est (Leg. iii. 2), there is need of magistrates.
curatore usus est (id. 4, — chiefly ante-classical), there is need
of a manager.
properato opus esset (Mil. 19), there were need of haste.
ut opu'st facto (Ter. Heaut.), as there is need to do.
REMARK. — The nominative is often used with opus in the
predicate : as,
multi opus sunt boves (Varro R. R. i. 18), there is need of many
cattle.
dux nobis et auctor opus est (Fam. ii. 6), we need a chief and
adviser.
e. Egeo and indigeo are often followed by the genitive : as,
ne quis auxili egeat (B. G. vi. n), lest any require aid.
qua? ad consolandum majoris ingeni et ad ferendum singularis
virtutis indigent (Fam. vi. 4), [sorrows] which for comfort
need more ability, and for endurance unusual courage.
REMARK. — With all words of separation and want, the poets
frequently, by a Greek idiom, use the genitive (see § 50, 3, c) : as,
desine mollium tandem querelarum (Hor. Od. ii. 9), cease at
length from weak complaints.
abstineto irarum (id. iii. 27), abstain from wrath.
operum solutis (id. 17), free from toils.
2. Ablative of Source* The ablative is used to denote
the source from which anything is derived, or the material
of which it consists.
a. Participles denoting birth or origin are followed by the >
ablative. Such participles are natus, satus, editus, genitusf
ortus : as,
Jove natus et Maia (N. D. iii. 22), son of Jupiter and Maia.
ortus equestri loco (Leg. Agr. i. 9), born of equestrian rank.
edite regibus (Hor. Od. i. i), descendant of kings.
quo sanguine cretus (^En. ii. 74), born of what blood.
54: 2, 3-] ABLATIVE. 137
REMARK. — A preposition (ab, de, ex) is usually expressed
with the name of the mother, and with that of distant ancestors.
b. Rarely, the place of birth is expressed by the ablative : as,
desideravit C. Felginatem Placentia, A. Granium Puteolis
(B. C. iii. 71), he lost C. F. of Placentia, A. G. of Puteoli.
C. The ablative is used with constare and similar verbs, to
denote material (but with other verbs a preposition is generally
used, except by the poets) : as,
animo constamus et corpore (Fin. iv. 8), ive consist of soul and
body.
NOTE. — The ablative with consistere and contineri is locative
(see below, 10).
d. The ablative of material is used with facere, fieri, and
similar words: as,
quid hoc homine facias (Verr. ii. 16), What are you going to
do tvitk this man ?
quid Tulliola mea fiet (Fam. xiv. 4), ivhat -will become of my
dear Tullia ?
quid te futurum est (Verr. ii. 64), what -will happen to you ?
3. Ablative of Cause. The ablative (with or without a
preposition) is used to express the cause.
NOTE. — The cause, in the Ablative, is considered as source , as is
shown by the use of ab, de, ex ; while with ad, ob, the idea of cause
arises from nearness. But occasionally it is difficult to distinguish be-
tween cause and means (which is instrumental) or circumstance (either
locative or instrumental).
nimio gaudio paene desipiebam (Fam. i. 13), I -was almost a
fool -with excess of joy.
negligentia plectimur (Lsel. 22), -we are chastised for negligence.
csecus avaritia (Liv. v. 51), blind -with avarice.
gubernatoris ars utilitate non arte laudatur (Fam. i. 13), tlie
pilofs skill is praised as service not as skill.
a. The ablative is used with the adjectives dignus, indignus,
and with the verbs dignor, laboro (also with ex), exsilio,
exsulto, triumpho, lacrimo, ardeo.
vir patre, avo, majoribus suis dignissimus (Phil. iii. 10), a man
most /worthy of his father, grandfather, and ancestors.
doleo te aliis malis laborare (Fam. iv. 3), I am sorry that you
suffer with other ills.
ex aere alieno laborare (B. C. iii. 22), to labor under debt.
exsultare lEetiti& ac triumphare gaudio coepit (Clu. 5), she
began to exult in gladness, and triumph in joy.
138 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [54: 3, 4> 5-
&• The motive which influences the mind of the person acting
is expressed by the ablative alone ; the object exciting the emotion
often by ob or propter with the accusative : as,
non ob praedam aut spoliandi cupidine (Tac. H. i. 63), not for
booty or through lust of plunder.
c. The ablatives causa and gratia, for the sake of, are used
with a genitive preceding, or with a possessive in agreement : as,
ea causa, on account of this] me& causa, for my sake.
et ipsorum et reipublicae causa (Manil. 2), for their own sake
and the republic's.
sui purgandi gratia, for the sake of clearing themselves.
With possessives the use of gratia in this sense is rare.
.4. Ablative of Agent* The voluntary agent after a pas-
sive verb is put in the ablative with ab (see § 56, 4) : as,
laudatur ab his, culpatur ab illis (Hor. Sat. i. 2), he is praised
by these, blamed by those.
ab animo tuo quidquid agitur id agitur a te (Tusc.i. 22), what-
ever is done by your soul is done by yourself.
a. This construction is sometimes used after neuter verbs hav-
ing a passive sense : as,
perire ab hoste, to be slain by an enemy.
6. The agent, considered as instrument or means, is expressed
by per with the accusative, or by opera with a genitive or posses-
sive : as,
per Antiochum (Liv.), by means of Antiochus.
mea opera (Cic.), by my means.
So per vim, as well as vi (B. G. i. 14), by force.
5. Ablative of Comparison. The Comparative degree
is followed by the ablative (signifying THAN) : as,
quis me beatior (Tusc. i. 4), 'who more blest than If
quid nobis duobus laboriosius est (Mil. 2), -what more burdened
than uue two f
NOTE. — Here the object of comparison is the starting-point from
which we reckon, as itself possessing the quality in some degree. That
this is the true explanation is shown by the ablative in Sanskrit, and
the genitive in Greek.
a. Quam with the same case as the adjective may also be used,
and must regularly be used when the adjective is not either nomi-
native or accusative. But the poets sometimes use the ablative
even then : as,
54: 5, 6.] ABLATIVE. 139
pane egeo jam mellitis potiore placentis (Hor. Ep. i. 10), I -want
bread better than honey-cakes.
REMARK. — Quam is never used in this construction with rela-
tive pronouns having a definite antecedent.
&• Particularly the idiomatic ablatives opinione, spe, solito,
dicto, aequo, credibili, and justo, are used instead of a clause : as,
celerius opinione (Fam. iv. 23), faster than one would think.
amnis solito citatior (Liv. xxii. 19), a stream swifter than its
wont.
ۥ Plus, minus, amplius, longius, are often used with words
of measure or numbe'r without affecting their case (being in a kind
of apposition) : as, * *"'« '^— ^^U^
plus septingenti capti (Liv. xli. 12), more than 700 were taken.
plus tertia parte interfecta (Cses.), more than a third part being
slain.
spatium non amplius sexcentorum pedum (id.), a space of not
more than 600 feet.
NOTE. — Alius is used by the poets with the ablative, perhaps in
imitation of the Greek ; but the construction is found also in Sanskrit,
and is probably original : as, alium sapienti bonoque (Hor. Ep. i. 16).
Under comparatives belong the adverbs antea, antidea, postilla,
postea, praeterea, earlier than this, &c. (see § 56, 3).
[For Ablative of Difference, see below, 6, e.~\
6. Ablative of Means. The ablative is used to denote
accompaniment, means, or instrument : as,
vultu Milonis perterritus (Mil. 15), scared by the face of Milo.
animum appellat novo nomine (Tusc. i. 10), he calls the mind
by a new name.
probabilia conjectura sequens (id. 9), following- probabilities
by conjecture.
excultus doctrina (id. 2), thoroughly trained in learning.
fidibus canere (id.), to sing to the lyre.
Fauno immolare agn& (Hor. Od. i. 4), to sacrifice to Faunus
with a ewe-lamb.
pol pudere quam pigere przestat totidem literis (Plant. Trin.
345), by Pollux better shame than blame, although the letters
count the same [lit. with as many letters].
a. The ablative of accompaniment regularly takes cum (except
sometimes in military phrases, and a few isolated expressions,
especially in the early writers) : as,
cum funditoribus sagittariisque flumen transgressi (B. G. ii.
19), having crossed the river with the slingers and archers.
subsequebatur omnibus copiis (ib.), ne followed close with all
his forces. [out.
\ hoc prsesidio profectus est (Verr. ii. 34), with this convoy he set
140 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [54: 6.
REMARK. — Misceo and jungo, with their compounds, may
take the ablative of accompaniment, without cum, or sometimes
the dative.
&. Words of contention, require cum (but often take the dative
in poetry) : as,
armis cum hoste certare (Cic.), to fight -with the enemy in arms.
est rnihi tecum certamen (id.), I have a controversy with you.
solus tibicertat Amyntas (Eel. v.§},Amyntas alone vies with you.
c. The ablative of means is used with words of filling, abound-
ing, and the like : as,
Deus bonis omnibus explevit mundum (Univ. 3), God has filled
the world ^vith all good things.
dialecticis imbutus (Tusc. i. 7), tinctured with logic.
circumfusi caligine (id. 19), overspread with darkness.
opimus prseda (Verr. i. 50), rich with spoil.
vita plena et conferta voluptatibus (Sext. 10), a life full and
crowded with delights.
Forum Appi differtum nautis (Hor. Sat. i. 5), Fortim Appii
crammed with bargemen.
REMARK. — These verbs and adjectives take the genitive in the
poets by a Greek idiom : as,
terra scatet ferarum (Lucr. v. 41), the land abounds in wild
creatures.
explere ultricis flammse (^En. ii. 586), fill with avenging flame.
Compleo, impleo, and plenus, often take the genitive in prose.
d* The deponents utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, with
several of their compounds, govern the ablative : as,
utar vestra benignitate (Cic.), / will avail myself of your
kindness.
Numidae plerumque lacte et ferin&carne vescebantur (Jug. 88),
the Numidiansfed mostly on milk and game.
Potior also takes the genitive, as always in the phrase potiri
rerum, to get the power. In early Latin, the accusative is
sometimes found with these verbs.
e. The ablative is used with comparatives and words implying
comparison, to denote the degree of difference : as,
duobus milibus plures, more numerous by 2000.
quinque milibus passuum distat (Liv.), it is five miles distant.
REMARKS. — This use is especially frequent with the ablatives
eo . . . quo ; quanto . . . tanto (see § 22, c) : as,
quo minus cupiditatis eo plus auctoritatis (Liv. xxiv. 28), the
less greed the more weight.
54: 7, 8.] ABLATIVE. 141
*7. Ablative of Quality. The ablative is used, with an
adjective or limiting genitive, to denote manner and quality: as,
animo meliore, of better mind.
more hominum, after the manner of men.
non quaere quanta memoria fuisse dicatur (Tusc. i. 24), I do
not ask how great a memory he is said to have had.
O» The ablative of description (with adjectives) is always used
to denote physical characteristics (other qualities may be in the
genitive) : as,
vultu sereno, of calm face.
capillo sunt promisso (B. G. v. 14), they have long hanging locks.
b* The ablative of manner more commonly takes cum, unless it
has a modifying adjective : as,
minus cum cura (Plaut.), less carefully.
hoc onus feram studio et industria (Rose. Am. 4), I 'will bear
this burden with pains and diligence.
But words of manner, modo, ratione, via, &c. — with such ex-
pressions as silentio, in silence, injuria, wrongfully — hardly ever
have cum.
8. Ablative of Price. The price of a thing (or that
which is given in exchange) is put in the ablative : as,
agrum vendidit sestertium sex milibus, he sold the field for
6000 sesterces.
exsilium patria sede mutavit (Q^C. iii. 8), he exchanged his
native land for exile.
a* Certain genitives of Quantity are used to denote indefinite
value. Such genitives are magiii, parvi, tanti, quanti, pluris,
minoris: as,
est mihi tanti (Cat. ii- 7), // is worth my -while.
mea magni interest, it is of great consequence to me.
REMARK. — With verbs of buying and selling, the ablative of
price (magno, &c.) must be used, except the following genitives :
tanti, quanti, pluris, minoris.
&• The genitive of certain nouns is used in the same way : as,
non flocci faciunt (PI. Trin.), they care not a straw.
The genitives so used are nihili, nothing ; assis, a farthing ;
flocci, a lock of wool, and a few others (see § 50, i, i).
[For the Ablative of Penalty, see § 50, 4, b, Rem.]
142 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [54: 9, Ip.
9. Ablative of Specification. The ablative denotes
that in respect to which anything is said to be or be done, or
in accordance with which anything happens : as,
virtute praecedunt (B. G. i. i), they excel in courage.
incluta bello mcenia (^En. ii. 24), ^v alls famous in -war.
claudus altero pede (Nep. Ages.), lame of one foot.
lingua hsesitantes, voce absoni (DeOr. i.), hesitating in speech,
harsh in voice.
tanta caritas patriae est, ut earn non sensu nostro sed salute
ipsius metiamur (Tusc. i. 37), such is our love of country, that
•we measure it not by our own feeling^ but by her oivn welfare.
10. Locative Ablative. The ablative of the- place
where is retained in many figurative expressions : as,
jure peritus, skilled in law [compare Sanskrit usages].
pendemus animis (Tusc. i. 40), we are in suspense of mind.
socius periculis vobiscum adero (Jug. 85), I -will be present
with you a companion in dangers.
premit alto corde dolorem (JEn. i. 209), he keeps down the
pain deep in his heart.
conferta. legione (B. G. iv. 33), as they were in close order.
pedibus prceliantur (id. 34), they jight on foot.
quibus rebus (id. 35), under these circumstances.
d* The verbs acquiesce, delector, laetor, gaudeo, glorior,
nitor, sto, maneo, fido (confido), consisto, contiiieor, — with
the verbals fretus, contentus, laetus, — are followed by the
ablative : as,
spe niti (Att. iii. 9), to rely on hope.
prudentia fidens (Off. i. 33), trusting in prudence.
Isetari bonis rebus (Lsel. 13), to rejoice in good things.
REMARK. — The above verbs also take the preposition in.
&. Ablative Absolute. A noun or pronoun, with a parti-
ciple, is put in the ablative, to define the time or circumstances of
an action (compare § 72). An adjective, or another noun, may
take the place of the participle.
vocatis ad se undique mercatoribus (B. G. iv. 20), having called
to him the traders from all quarters.
exigud parte aestatis reliqua (id.), when but a small part of the
summer was left.
M. Messal& et M. Pisone consulibus (id. i. 2), in the consulship
of Messala and Piso.
NOTE. — In this use the noun is equivalent to the Subject, and the
participle to the Predicate, of a subordinate clause ; and so they should
54: 10 ; 55.] TIME AND PLACE. 143
generally be translated. But, as the copula esse has no participle in
Latin, a noun or adjective is often found alone as predicate, while the
participle is found, in this construction, in Sanskrit and Greek. The
noun originally denotes circumstance, considered as place or time (loca-
tive) ; then, being modified by a participle, it becomes fused with it
into a single idea, equivalent to that contained in a subordinate clause
(compare ab urbe coiidita, lit, from the city built).
ۥ Sometimes a participle or adjective (under the construction
of the ablative absolute) is put in agreement with a phrase or
clause, or is used adverbially : as,
incerto quid peterent, since it was uncertain what they sought.
auspicate (Tac. H. i. 84), after taking the auspices [the auspices
having been taken],
consulto et cogitato (Off i. 8), on purpose and with reflection
[the matter having been deliberated and thought on],
sereno (Liv. xxxi. 12), under a clear sky.
d* The ablative is often used to denote the place where, of*the
time when (see § 55, i ; 3,./).
[For the government of the Ablative by Prepositions, see § 56.]
55. TIME AND PLACE.
1. Time. Time when (or within which) is put in the
Ablative ; time how long the Accusative : as,
constituta die, on the set day.
quota bora ? at -what o'clock ?
tribus proxumis annis (Jug. n), within the last three years.
dies continues triginta, for a month together.
paucis post diebus (or paucos post dies), after a few days.
[Here diebus is the ablative of difference (§ 54, 6, e), and
post an adverb (§ 56, 2, d}.~\
NOTE. — The ablative of time is locative ; the accusative is the same
as that of extent of space (see below), heri vespari).
(t» The use of a preposition gives greater precision and clear-
ness : as,
in diebus proximis decem (Sail.), ^vithin the next ten days.
' ludi per decem dies (Cat. iii. 8), games lasting ten days.
b. The ablative is rarely used to express duration of time : as,
milites quinque horis proelium sustinuerant (B. C. i. 47), the
men had sustained the fight five hours. [This use is locative.]
144 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [55: 2, 3.
2. Space. Extent of space is put in the Accusative : as,
fossas quindecim pedes latas (B. G. vii. 72), trenches 13 feet
broad.
NOTE. — This accusative is the object through or over which the
action takes place, and is kindred with the accusative of the end of
motion .
a. Measure is often expressed as a quality by the Genitive
(§ 50, i, h) : as,
vallo peduni duodecim (B. G. ii. 30), in a rampart of 12 feet
[in height].
b. Distance is put in the Accusative (as extent of space), or
Ablative (as degree of difference) : as,
quinque dierum iter abest (Liv. xxx. 29), it is distant Jive days'
march.
triginta milibus passuum infra eum locum (B. G.vi-35), thirty
miles below that place-
tanto spatio secuti (B. G. iv. 35), having followed over so much
ground.
3. Place. To express relations of Place, prepositions
are necessary, except with the names of Towns and small
Islands ; except also with domus, rus, and a tew other words
in special relations.
NOTE. — Originally these relations were expressed with all words
by the cases alone, — the Accusative denoting the end of motion as in
a certain sense the object of the action ; and the Ablative (in its proper
meaning of separation) denoting the place from which. For the place
where there was a special case, the Locative, the form of which was
partially retained and partially merged in the Ablative (see Note,
p. 134). The Prepositions (originally Adverbs) were added to define
more exactly the direction of the motion, and by long usage at length
became necessary, except in the cases given above.
ct* The name of the place from which is in the Ablative : as,
Rom£ profectus, having set out from Rome.
rure re versus, having returned from the country.
b. The name of the place to which is in the Accusative : as,
Rom am red i it, he returned to Rome.
rus ibo, I shall go into the country.
REMARK. — The old construction is retained in the phrases
exsequias ire, to attend a funeral:! infitias ire, to make denial;
pessum ire, to go to ruin ; pessum dare, to undo ; venum dare
(vendere), to set to sale ; venum ire, to be set to sale; foras, out
of doors ; and the Supine in urn (see § 74, i).
55 : 3, 4-] TIME AND PLACE. 145
c. The name of the place where takes the Locative form, which
in the first and second declensions singular is the same as the
genitive ; in the plural, and in the third declension, the same as the
dative: as,
Romae, at Rome; Corinthi, at Corinth ; Lanuvi, at Lanuvium ;
Karthagini, at Carthage; Athenis, at Athens; Curibus,
at Cures.
REMARK. — In names of the third declension the ablative is
often found, especially where the metre requires it in poetry : as,
Tibure vel Gabiis (Hor. Ep. ii. 2), at Tibur or Galii.
d. The words domi (rarely domui) , at home ; belli, militiae
(in contrast to domi) , abroad in military service ; humi, on the
ground; ruri, in the country ; foris, out-of-doors; terra marique,
by land and sea, are used like names of towns, without a prep-
osition; alsoheri, vesperi, infelici arbori (Liv.).
e. A possessive, or alienus, may be used with domus in this
construction ; but when it is modified in any other way, a preposi-
tion is generally used : as,
domi suse (Mil. 7), at his own house.
in M. Laecae domum (Cat. i. 4), to Lcecd's house.
f. The ablative is used without a preposition to denote the
place where, in many general words — as loco, parte — regu-
larly; frequently with nouns when qualified by adjectives (reg-
ularly where totus is used) ; and in poetry in any case: as,
quibus loco positis (De Or. iii. 38), when these aye put in their
places.
qua parte victi erant (Att. ix. n), on the side where they were
beaten.
se oppido tenet (id.), keeps himself within the town.
media urbe (Liv. i. 33), in the midst of the city.
tota Sicilia (Verr. iv. 23), throughout Sicily.
litore curvo (^En. iii. 16), on the bending shore.
REMARK. — To denote the neighborhood of a place (to, from,
in the neighborhood), prepositions must be used.
4. The way by which is put in the Ablative (of instru-
ment) : as,
via breviore equites praemisi (Fam. x. 9), / sent forward f he
cavalry by a shorter road.
mari trajecit (Liv. xxxvii. 14), he crossed by way of the
146 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [56: I.
56. USB OP PREPOSITIONS.
1. Prepositions govern either the Accusative or Ablative.
a. The following govern the Accusative : — ad, adversus, ad-
versum, ante, apud, circa, or circum, circiter, cis, citra, con-
tra, erga, extra, infra, inter, iiitra, juxta, ob, penes, per,
pone, post, praeter, prope, propter, secundum, supra,
trans, ultra, versus.
b. The following govern the Ablative : — a, ab, abs, absque,
coram, cum, de, e, ex, prae, pro, sine, tenus.
c» In and sub take the Accusative when they denote motion ;
when rest, the Ablative : as;
in contionem venit (Off. iii. n), he came into the meeting.
dixit in contione (ib.), he said in the meeting.
sub jugum mittere (Cses.), to send under the yoke.
sub mbnte consedit (id.), he halted below the hill.
REMARK. — The verbs of placing, — such as pono and its com-
pounds (except impono), loco, statuo, &c., — though implying
motion, take in Latin the construction of the place in which : as,
qui in sede ac domo collocavit (Parad. iii. 2), who put one
into his place and home.
d. When it means concerning, super takes the Ablative ; other-
wise the Accusative (unless in poetry) : as,
hac super re (Cic.), concerning this thing.
super culmina tecti (Virg.), above the house-top.
e. After subter, the Accusative is used, except sometimes in
poetry : as,
subter togam (Liv.), under his mantle.
subter litore (Catull.), below the shore,
f. In Dates, the phrase ante diem (a. d.) with an ordinal,
or the ordinal alone, is followed by an accusative, like a preposi-
tion ; and the phrase itself may be governed by a preposition : as,
is dies erat a.d. quintum kalendas AprilTs (B. G. i. 6), that day
-was the $th before the calends of April [March 28].
in a.d. v. kal. Nov. (Cat. i. 3), to the $th day before the calends
of November [Oct. 28].
xv. kal. SextilTs, the i$th day before the calends of August
(July 18). [Full form, quinto die ante.'}
g. Tenus (which follows its noun) regularly takes the Abla-
tive : as,
Tauro tenus (Mil. 13), as far as Taurus.
capulo tenus (JEn. v. 55), up to the hilt.
56: I, 2, 3, 4.] PREPOSITIONS. 147
REMARK. — Terms is found especially with the feminine of the
adjective pronouns, in an adverbial sense : as,
hactenus, hitherto ; quatenus, so far as, &c.
Sometimes it takes the Genitive : as,
Corcyrse tenus (Liv. xxv. 24), as far as Corcyra.
2. Many words may be construed either as Prepositions
or as Adverbs : thus —
a. The adverbs pridie, postridie, propius, proxime, usque
— also (less frequently) the adjectives propior aod proximus —
may be followed by the Accusative : as,
pridie Nonas Junias (Cic.), the day before the Nones of June
(June 4).
postridie ludos (id.), the day after the games.
b. The adverbs palam, procul, simul, may take the Abla-
tive : as,
palam populo (Liv.), in the presence of the people.
C. The adverb clam may take either case (very rare) : as,
clam matrem' suam (Plaut), unbeknown to the mother.
clam mini (id.),1 in secret from me.
clam vobis (Caes.), without your knowledge.
d. Prepositions often retain their original meaning as Adverbs.
This is especially the case with ante and post, in relations of
time ; adversus, contra (on the other hand) , circiter, prope, and,
in general, those ending in a. Clam and versus are often ex-
cluded from the list of Prepositions.
[For the use of prepositions in Composition, see § 42, 3.]
3. Some prepositions or adverbs which imply comparison
are followed, like comparatives, by quam, — several words,
or even clauses, sometimes coming between : as,
neque ante dimisit eum quam fidem dedit (Liv. xxxix. 10),
nor did he let him go until he gave a pledge.
Such words are ante, prius, post, pridie, postridie.
4. The ablative, with a or ab, is regularly used after pas-
sive verbs to denote the Agent, if a person, or if spoken of as
a person (§ 54, 4) : as,
jussus a patre, bidden by his father.
148 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [57: I, 2.
REMARK. — The ablative of the agent (which requires the prep-
osition) must be carefully distinguished from the ablative of
instrument, which stands by itself: as,
occisus gladio, slain by a sword ; but,
occisus ab hoste, slain by an enemy.
5. The following prepositions sometimes follow their noun : —
ad, citra, circa, contra, inter, penes, propter, ultra, tenus ;
e, de, juxta.
[For the so-called Dative of the Agent, with the Gerundive, see
§§ 51, 4, «.] .
III. Syntax of the Verb.
57. USE OF MOODS.
(See § 24.)
The MOODS of a Latin Verb are the Indicative,
Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive.
NOTE. — The Infinitive is not strictly a mood, being only the
oblique case of a noun ; but it is most conveniently treated along with
the moods.
1. Indicative. The Indicative is the mood of direct
assertions or questions ; and is used when no special construc-
tion requires one of the others.
2, Subjunctive. The Subjunctive is used in special con-
structions, both in dependent and independent clauses, viz.: —
a. Independent Clauses. !• In independent clauses, the
subjunctive is used to denote an Exhortation or Command (Jior-
tatory subjunctive) ; a Wish (optative subjunctive) ; a Concession
(concessive subjunctive) ; or a Doubtful Q.uestion (dubitative
subjunctive).
« 2. It is also used to denote the conclusion of a Conditional
sentence (apodosis), which is, grammatically, an independent
clause, though logically depending on a condition expressed or
implied (see §§ 59, 60).
6. Dependent Clauses. In dependent clauses, the subjunc-
tive is used to denote a Purpose (§ 64), or a Result (§ 65). It
x
57:2,3-] USE OF MOODS: SUBJUNCTIVE. 149
is used, idiomatically, in Temporal Clauses (§ 62), in Indirect
Discourse (§ 67), in Indirect Questions (id.), and in Intermediate
Clauses (§ 66).
[For Subjunctive after Particles of Comparison, see § 61.]
[For the so-called Subjunctive of Cause, see § 63.]
NOTE. — The Present Subjunctive contains two distinct forms, —
the Subjunctive and Optative of the " Indo-European" tongue. Both
these forms had originally a future meaning ; and from these future
meanings all the uses of this mood in Latin are developed. The
subjunctive proper was originally a Present, denoting continued action,
which became Future in sense (compare conative present and present
for future, § 58, 2, b) ; and afterwards, in many uses, Imperative (com-
pare future for imperative). The optative contains, in composition, a
past tense of the root i (whence eo, elui, go) ; so that it had Sifuturum
in prceterito meaning, which developed into a conditional future, and into
an expressive of wish and command', and, in Latin, lost its connection
with past time.
The other tenses of the Subjunctive are compounds formed (in
Latin alone) to remedy the confusion of optative and subjunctive.
Tiie Subjunctive has, therefore, the uses of both the optative and
subjunctive of the cognate languages.
3. Hortatory Subjunctive. The subjunctive is used
in the Present — less commonly in the Perfect — to express
a command or exhortation : as,
hos latrones intern* ciamus (B. G. vii. 38), let us kill these
robbers.
aut bibat aut abeat (Tusc. v. 41), let him quaff or quit.
caveant intemperantiam, meminerint verecundiae (Off. i. 34),
let them shun excess and cherish modesty.
Epicurus hoc viderit (Acad. ii. 7), let Epicurus look to this.
his quoque de rebus pauca dican'tur (Off. i. 35), of this, too, let
a few words be said.
NOTE. — The Perfect represents an action as complete in the future;
but in most cases it can hardly be distinguished from the Present.
ct. The Second Person is used only of an indefinite subject,
except in prohibition, in early Latin, and in poetry : as,
injurias fortunse, quas ferre nequeas, defugiendo relinquas
(Tusc. v. 41), the -wrongs of fortune, wJiich you cannot bear,
you will leave behind by flight.
nihil ignoveris (Mur. 31), pardon nothing.
amicus populo Romano sis (Liv. xxvi. 50), be a friend to the
Roman people.
150 ' SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [57: 3,4.
b. In prohibitions , the Perfect is more common than the Pres-
ent: as,
hoc facito : hoc ne feceris (Div. ii. 61), thou shall do this : thou
shalt not do that.
nee mihi illud dixeris (Fin. i. 7), do not say that to me.
ne territus fueris (Tac. H. i. 16), be not terrified.
c. The hortatory subjunctive is used — sometimes with modo,
modo ne, tantum, tantum ne, or ne alone — to denote 'a pro-
viso : as,
valetudo modo bona sit (Brut. 16), if only the health be good.
aliam condicionem tantummodo sequam (Jug. 79), another
condition, provided it 'were just.
modo ne sit ex pecudum genere (Off. i. 30), provided only he
be not of brutish stock.
tantummodo Gnaeus noster ne Italian! relinquat (Qj.F. iii. 9),
if only Pompey 'will not forsake Italy.
manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria
(Cat. M. 7), old men retain their mind if they only retain their
zeal and diligence.
d. The Imperfect and Pluperfect of the hortatory subjunc-
tive denote an obligation in past time, — the latter more clearly
representing the time for the action as past : as,
moreretur, inquies (Rab. Post.), he should have died you 'will
say.
ne poposcisses (Att. ii. i), you should not have asked.
potius diceret (Off. iii. 22), he should rather have said.
saltern aliquid de pondere detraxisset (Fin. iv. 20), at least he
should have taken something from the 'weight.
4. Optative Subjunctive. The subjunctive is used to
denote a Wish, — the Present, a wish conceived as possible ;
the Imperfect, an unaccomplished one in the present; the
Pluperfect, one unaccomplished in the past : as,
ita vivam (Att. v. 15), so may I live [as true as I live].
ne vivam si scio (id. iv. 16), I 'wish I may not live if I know.
di te perduint (Deiot.), the gods confound thee !
valeant, valeant, cives mei ; valeant, sint incolumes (Mil. 34),
farewell [he says], my fellow-citizens ; may they be secure
from harm.
a. The Perfect in this use is antiquated : as,
male di tibi faxint (Plaut. Cure. 131), may the gods do thee a
mischief.
57 : 4> 5-] USE OP MOODS: SUBJUNCTIVE. 151
b. The particles uti (ut), utinam, O si, often precede the
Subjunctive of wish : as,
falsus utinam vates sim (Liv. xxi.), I wish I may be a false
prophet.
ut pereat positum rubigine telum (Hor. Sat. ii. i), may the un-
used 'weapon perish 'with rust.
utinam me mortuum vidisses (Q^Fr. i. 3), would you had seen
me dead.
NOTE. — In this use, the particle has no effect on the grammatical
construction, except that O si is probably a Protasis.
c. Velim with the present subjunctive, and vellem with the
imperfect or pluperfect — with their compounds — (strictly, con-
ditional sentences with the wish in a dependent clause) are often
used instead of a proper optative subjunctive : as,
de Menedemo vellem verum fuisset, de regina velim verum sit
(Att. iv. 16), about Mendemus I wish it had been truej about
the queen I hope it may be.
nollem accidisset tempus (Fam. iii. 10), I wish the time never
had come.
5. Concessive Subjunctive. The subjunctive is used
to express a concession, either with or without ut, guamvis,
quamlibet, and similar words.
REMARK. — In this use, the Present refers to future or indefinite
time ; the Imperfect to present or past time, — the concession being
impliedly untrue ; the Perfect to past time or completed future
time ; the Pluperfect to completed action in past time (usually
untrue) : as,
nemo is unquam fuit : ne fuerit (Or. 29), there never was such
a one you 'will say : granted.
quamvis comis in amicitiis tuendis fuerit (Fin. ii. 25), amiable
as he may have been in keeping his friendships.
sit Scipio clarus, ornetur African us, erit profecto aliquid loci
nostrae (Cat. iv. 10), let Scipio be glorious, and Africanus
honored, yet surely there 'will be some room for our fame.
dixerit hoc idem Epicurus . . . non pugnem cum nomine (Fin.
v. 27), though Epicurus may have said the same, I would not
contend %vith the man.
ne sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est (Tusc. ii. 5),
granted that pain is not the greatest evil, at least it is
an evil.
fuerit aliis : tibi quando esse coepit (Verr. i. 4r), suppose he was
[so] to others, when did he begin to be to you ?
152 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [57: 6, J.
6. The Present, and rarely the Perfect Subjunctive, are
used in questions implying doubt, indignation, or an impossi-
bility of the thing being done (dubitative subjunctive) : as,
sed quid faciamus (Att. viii. 23), but what can we do ?
quid loquar plura (Pis. 32), -why should I say more f
quid hoc homine faciatis (Verr. ii. 16), what are you to do with
this fellow f
cui ego exspectem dum tabellae diribeantur (Pis. 40), what,
shall I wait till the ballots are counted f
quis enim celaverit ignem (Ov. Her. xv. 7), who could conceal
the flame ?
The Imperfect denotes the same idea in past time : as,
an ego non venirem (Phil. ii. 2), what, should I not have come ?
quid dicerem (Att. vi. 3), what was I to say?
7. Imperative. The Imperative is used in Commands ;
also, by early writers and poets, in Prohibitions : as,
consulite vobis, prospicite patrise, conservate vos (Cat. iv. 2),
have care for yourselves, guard the country, preserve your-
selves, [much.
nimiurn ne crede colori (Eel. ii. 17), trust not complexion over-
ad me fac venias (Fam. xiv. 4), do come to me.
d. Prohibitions are regularly (in classical Latin) expressed by
ne with the second person singular of the Perfect Subjunctive ; by
noli with the Infinitive ; or by cave (colloquially fac ne) with the
Present or Perfect Subjunctive : as,
ne territus fueris (Tac. H. i. 16), be not frightened.
noli putare (Brut. 33), do not suppose.
cave faxis (Ter. Heaut. 187), do not do it.
fac ne quid aliud cures (Fam. xvi. n), pray attend to nothing
else.
b. In early Latin, in poetry, and in general prohibitions, the
Present Subjunctive is also used : as,
Albi ne doleas (Hor. Od. i. 33), grieve not, Albius.
denique isto bono utare dum adsit : cum absit ne requiras (Cat.
M 10), in short, use this good while present ; when wanting,
do not regret it.
REMARK. — The third person of the Imperative is antiquated
or poetic.
ollis salus populi suprema lex esto (id.), the safety of the people
shall be their first law-
justa imperia sunto, iisque cives modeste parento (Leg. iii. 3),
let the commands be just, and let the citizens strictly obey them.
57: 7? 8.] USE OF MOODS: INFINITIVE. 153
ۥ The Future Imperative is used where there is a distinct
reference to the future time : viz.
1. In connection with a, future or future-perfect ;
2. With adverbs or other expressions of time ;
3. In general directions, as Precepts, Statutes, Edicts, and
Wills: as,
cum valetudini consulueris, turn consulito navigation! (Fam.
xvi. 4), iv hen you have attended to your health, then look to
your sailing.
rei suse ergo ne quis legatusesto (Leg.), no one shall be ambas-
sador in his own affair.
REMARK. — The future form of the imperative is regularly used
of scio, memini, and habeo (in the sense of consider) : as,
filiolo me auctum scito (Att. i. 2), learn that I am blessed with
a little boy.
sic habeto, mi Tiro (Fam. xvi. 4), so understand it, my good
Tiro.
de palla memento, amabo (PI. Asin.), pray, dear, remember
the gown.
d. The Future is sometimes used for the imperative ; and quin
(why not ?) with the present indicative may have the force of an
imperative : as,
si quid accident novi, facies ut sciam (Fam. xiv. %), you -will let
me know if anything new happens.
quin accipis? (Ter. Heaut. iv. 7), here, take it.
8. Infinitive* The Infinitive denotes the action of the
verb as an abstract noun, differing, however, from other
abstract nouns in the following points: — (1) It admits, in
many cases, of the distinction of tense ; (2) It is modified by
adverbs and not by adjectives ; (3) It governs the case of its
verb ; (4) It is only used in special constructions.
NOTE. — The Infinitive is properly the Dative case of an abstract
noun, denoting Purpose, which has developed in Latin, in many cases,
into a substitute for a finite verb. Hence the variety of its use. Its
Subject is, strictly, the Object of some other verb, which has become
attached to it: as, jubeo te valere, lit., 1 command you for being well
(i.e. that you may be well) ; just as, in Purpose-clauses, the purpose
becomes the object of command (compare Purpose Clauses, § 64).
a. Infinitive as Subject. The infinitive, with or without a
subject accusative, may be used as the Subject of a verb (or in
predicate apposition), and, rarely, as the Object : as,
7*
154 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [57: 8.
nihil est aliud [hominem] bene et beate vivere. nisi honeste
et recte vivere (Parad. i. 6), to live well and happily, is noth-
ing else than to live honorably and rightly.
invidere non cadit in sapientem (Tusc. iii. 10), envy does not
belong to a wise man.
est humanitatis vestrae . . . prohibere (Man. 7), it is for your
humanity to hold safe, &c.
nam istuc ipsum non esse cum fueris miserrirnum puto (Tusc.
i. 6), for I think this very thing most wretched, not to be when
one has been.
In this use, the infinitive is found chiefly with esse and impersonal
verbs, — rarely with others.
b. The infinitive is used with many Impersonal verbs and ex-
pressions, partly as subject and partly as complement (see Note
below) : as,
te abundare oportet praeceptis (Off. i. i), you must abound in
maxims.
id primum in poetis cerni licet (De Or. iii. 7), this may be seen
first in poets.
reperiebat quid dici opus esset (Brut. 59), he found what needed
to be said.
haec praescripta servantem licet magnifice vivere (Off. i. 26),
one who observes these precepts may live nobly.
proponis quam sit turpe me adesse (Att. ix. 2), you make it
clear how base it is for me to be present.
c. Complementary Infinitive. The infinitive, without a
subject, is used with verbs which require another action of the
same subject to complete their meaning. Such are verbs denoting
to be able, dare, undertake, remember, forget, be accustomed, begin,
continue, cease, hesitate, learn, know how, fear, and the like : as,
hoc queo dicere (Cat. M. 10), this I can say.
mitto quaerere (Rose. Am ), I omit to ask. [own presence.
vereor laudare prsesentem (N. D. i. 21), I fear to praise in ones
oro ut matures venire (Att. iv. i), pray make haste to come.
NOTE. — The mark of this construction is that no Subject of these
infinitives is admissible or conceivable ; though the same verbs, in
other senses, may take an infinitive with a subject.
d. The infinitive is used optionally with many verbs which also
take a subjunctive clause (§ 70) : such are those signifying willing-
ness, necessity, propriety, resolve, command, prohibition, effort, and
the like. The subject is usually, though not always, omitted, when
it is the same as that of the principal verb : as,
quos tueri debent deserunt (Off. i. 9), they forsake those whom
they should protect.
^^Atticos volo imitari (Brut. 82), I wish to imitate the Attics.
57: 8.] USE OF MOODS: INFINITIVE. 155
student excellere (Off. i. 32), they aim to excel.
istum exheredare in animo habebat (Rose. Am. 18), he had it
in mind to deprive him of the inheritance.
cupio me esse clementem [= cupio esse clemens] (Cat. i. 2),
/ desire to be merciful.
Some of these verbs — jubeo and veto regularly — may take the
infinitive with another subject : as,
signa inferri jubet (Liv. xlii. 59), he orders the standards to
be borne forward.
NOTE. — This construction, though in many cases different from
the two preceding, shades off imperceptibly into them. In none of
the uses is the infinitive strictly Subject or Object ; but its meaning
is developed from the original one of purpose. Hence the distinction
between the uses is not always clearly marked.
e. With Subject Accusative. The infinitive, with subject
accusative, is regularly used after verbs of knowing, thinking,
telling, and the like (verba sentiendi et declarandi, § 67, i) :
as,
dicit montem ab hostibus teneri (B. G. i. 22), he says that the
hill is held by the enemy.
NOTE. — The Infinitive may thus represent, in indirect discourse, a
finite verb in direct discourse, admitting all the variations of the verb
except number and person (see § 67).
REMARK. — 1. With verbs which govern the dative, the subject
of the action may be in the dative. With licet regularly, and with
others rarely, the predicate may also be in the dative : as,
nemini certare cum eo necesse fuit (Liv. xxi. n), there was
need for none to strive with him.
non libet mi hi deplorare vitam (Cat. M. 23), I have no desire
to bewail life. [gent.
mihi negligent! esse non licet (Att. i. 17), I must not be negli-
non est stantibus omnibus necesse dicere (Marc, n), // is not
necessary for all to speak standing.
expedit bonas esse vobis (Ter. Heaut. ii. 4), it is for your
interest to be good.
So with the dativus commodi : as,
quid est tarn secundum naturam quam senibus emori (Cat. M.
19), what is so according to nature as for old men to die f
2. When the subject of the infinitive is not expressed, a predi-
cate (except after impersonals) takes the case of the subject : as,
si esset in iis fides in quibus summa esse debebat (Fam. i. i),
if there were faith in those in whom it ought to be greatest.
So, by a Greek idiom, even in Indirect Discourse : as,
vir bonus et sapiens ait esse paratus (Hor. Ep. i. 7), a good and
wise man says he is prepared^ &c.
156 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [57: 8.
sensit mecjios delapsus in hostes (^Sn. ii. 377), he found himself
fallen amongst the foe.
f. In a few cases, the infinitive retains its original meaning of
* purpose: viz.
1. With habeo, do, ministro, in isolated passages : as,
tantum habeo polliceri (Fam. i. 5), so muck I have to promise.
2. After the adjectives paratus, suetus, and their compounds,
id quod parati sunt face re (Quin. 2), which they are ready to do.
3. In poetry and later writers with any verb or adjective : as,
durus componere versus (Hor. Sat. i. 4), harsh in composing
furit te reperire (Hor. Od. i. 15), he rages to find thee. [verse.
cantari dignus (Eel. v. 54), worthy to be sunr.
REMARK. — Rarely, in poetry, the infinitive is used to denote
result.
g. The infinitive, with subject-accusative, may be used in Ex-
clamations (compare § 52, 4) : as,
mene incepto desistere victam (^n. i. 37), what ! I desist beaten
from my purpose?
te in tantas aerumnas propter me incidisse (Fam. xiv. i), alas!
* lhat you should fall into such grief for me.
NOTE. — This construction is elliptical : that is, the thought is
quoted in Indirect Discourse, though no verb of Saying, &c., appears,
or perhaps is thought of (compare the French dire que).
h* Historical Infinitive. The Infinitive is often used for the
tenses of the Indicative in narration, and takes a subject in the
nominative : as,
turn Catilina polliceri novas tabulas (Sail. Cat. 21), then Cati-
line promised abolition of debts [clean ledgers].
ego instare ut mihi responderet (Verr. ii. 77), I pressed him to
answer.
This usage is most frequent where many verbs are crowded
together in rapid narrative : as,
pars cedere, alii insequi ; neque signa neque ordines servare;
ubi quemque periculum ceperat, ibi resistere ac propulsare;
arma, tela, equi, viri, hostes atque cives permixti; nihil
consilio neque imperio agi ; fors omnia regere (Jug. 51),
a part give way, others press on ; they hold neither to stan-
dards nor ranks ; where danger overtook, there each would
stand and fight ; weapons, missiles, horses, men, foe and friend^
were mixed; nothing went by counsel or command ; chance
. ruled all.
58: i,2.] USE OF TENSES: INDICATIVE. 157
58. USE OF TENSES.
The TENSES are the Present, Imperfect, Future
(of incomplete action), and the Perfect, Pluperfect,
Future Perfect (of completed action).
1. Tenses of the Indicative. The tenses of the In-
dicative denote absolute time ; that is, present, past, or future,
in reference to the Speaker.
2. Present. The Present denotes an action or state, as
now existing, as incomplete, or as indefinite witnout reference
to time : as,
agitur salus sociorum (Manil. 2), the safety of our allies is
at stake.
Senatus haec intellegit, consul videt, hie tamen vivit (Cat. i. i),
the Senate knows this, the consul sees, yet this man lives.
nihil est victoria dulcius (Verr. vi. 26), nothing is sweeter than
victory.
tu actionem instituis, ille aciem instruit (Mur. 9), you arrange
a case, he arrays an army.
CL. The present, with expressions of duration of time, denotes
an action begun in the past but continuing in the present : as,
patimur jam multos annos (Verr. vi. 48), we suffer now these
. many years.
anni sunt octo cum ista causa versatur (Clu. 30), it is now eight
years that this case has been in hand.
&« Conative Present. The present sometimes denotes an
action not completed at all, but only attempted : as,
Quintus frater Tusculanum venditat (Att. i. 14), my brother
Quintus is trying to sell the place at Tusculum.
(So the present Infinitive and Participle.)
ۥ The present, especially in colloquial language, is sometimes
used for the future: as,
imusne sessum (De Or. iii. 5), shall we take a seat?
ecquid me adjuvas? (Clu. 26), won't you give me a little help?
in jus voco te. non eo. non is? (PI. As. 480), I summon you
to the court. I won't go. You won't ?
si reus condemnatur, desinent homines dicere his judiciis pecu-
niam plurimum posse (Verr. i. 2), if the prisoner is convicted,
men will no longer say that money is the chief power in the
courts.
(See also under cum, antequam, dum § 62.)
158 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [58 I 2, 3.
d* Historical Present. The present in lively narrative is
often used for the historical perfect : as,
affertur nuntius Syracusas ; curritur ad prsetorium ; Cleomenes,
quamquam nox erat, tamen in publico esse non audet;
includit se domi (Verr. vi. 35), the news is brought to Syra-
cuse; they run to head-quarters; Cleomenes, though it was
night, does not venture to be abroad ; he shuts himself up at
home.
ۥ The present is regularly used with dum, while, though re-
ferring to past time : as,
hsec dum aguntur, interea Cleomenes jam ad Elori litus per-
venerat (id«)> while this is going on, Cleomenes meanwhile
had come down to the coast at Riorum.
But when the time referred to is contrasted with some other, the
past, tenses must be used : as,
nee enim dum eram vobiscum animum meum videbatis (Cat.
M. 22), for even when I was with you, you did not see my soul.
f. The present is regularly used of writers whose works are
extant: as,
Epicurus vero ea dicit (Tusc. ii. 7), but Epicurus says such
things.
apud ilium Ulysses lamentatur in vulnere (id. 21), in him
[Sophocles] Ulysses bewails over his wotind.
3. Imperfect. The Imperfect denotes an action or con-
dition continued or repeated in past time : as,
hunc audiebant antea (Man. 5), they used to hear him before.
Socrates ita censebat itaque disseruit (Tusc. i. 30), Socrates
thought so [habitually] and so he spoke [then].
C. Duiliurn redeuntem a cen& senem saepe videbam (C.M. 13),
I would often see Duilius, then old, coming home from dinner.
a. Hence the imperfect is used in descriptions : as,
erant omnino itinera duo . . . mons altissimus impendebat
(B. G. 16), there were in all two ways . . . a very high moun-
tain overhung.
&• The imperfect is sometimes used in the sense of a pluperfect
and imperfect combined (see above, 2, a) : as,
copias quas diu comparabant (Fam. i. 13), the forces which
they had long been getting ready.
c» The imperfect sometimes denotes an action merely attempted,
^Jbut never accomplished (compare conative present, 2, 6) : as,
58: 3? 4,5-] USE OF TENSES. 159
in exsilium eiciebam quern jam ingressum esse in bellum vide-
bam (Cat. ii. 6), •was I sending into exile one who I saw had
already gone into war ?
consules sedabant tumultus (Liv. iii. 15), the consuls busied
themselves to calm the tumult.
si licitum esset veniebant (Verr. vi. 49), they were coming if it
had been allowed.
d. The imperfect is sometimes used to express a certain sur-
prise at the present discovery of a fact already existing : as,
O tu quoque hie aderas, Phormio (Ter. Ph. v. 6), O, you are
here too, Phormio.
ehem pater mi, tu hie eras? (PI. id. v. 7), what, you here,
father ?
ah miser! quanta laborabas Charybdi (Hor. Od. i. 27), unhappy
boy, what a whirlpool you are struggling in [and I never
knew it].
e. The imperfect is often used in narration by the comic poets,
where later writers would employ the perfect: as,
ad amicum Calliclem quoi rem aibat mandasse hie suam (Trin.
956), to his friend Callicles, to whom, he said, he had intrusted
his property.
praesagibat animus frustra me ire quom exibam domo (Aul.
222), my mind mistrusted when I went from home that I went
in vain.
The Imperfect Indicative in Apodosis, contrary to fact, regularly
refers to present time (see § 59, 3, d).
4. Future. The Future denotes an action or condition
bat will occur hereafter.
[For Future instead of the Imperative, see § 57, 7, d.~\
5. Perfect. The Perfect definite denotes an action as
now completed ; the Perfect historical, as having taken place
indefinitely, in past time : as,
? ut ego feci, qui Grsecas litteras senex didici (C. M. 8), as I have
done, who have learned Greek in my old age.
, tantum bellum extrema hieme apparavit, infeunte vere suscepit,
media aestate confecit (Man. 12), so great a war he made
ready for at the end of winter, undertook in early spring, and
finished by midsummer.
»' [For the difference between the Perfect and Imperfect in nor-
Ration, see Note, page 53.]
-
160 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [58: 5,6.
a. The perfect is sometimes used emphatically to denote that
something no longer exists : as,
fuit ista quondam in hac re publica virtus (Cat. i. i), there -was
once such virtue in this commonwealth.
fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium (yEn. ii. 325), we were Trojans, Ilium
did exist.
habuit, non habet (Tusc. i. 36), he had, he has no longer.
b. The perfect is sometimes used of indefinite time in connec-
tion with a general present : as,
qui in compedibus corporis semper fuerunt, etiam cum soluti
sunt tardius ingrediuntur (Tusc. i. 31), they -who have always
been in fetters of the body, even when released move more
slowly.
c* The perfect is sometimes used of a general truth, especially
with negations : as,
qui studet contingere metam multa tulit fecitque (Hor. A. P.
412), he who aims to reach the goal, first bears and does many
thing's.
non seris acervus et auri deduxit corpore febres (id. Ep. i. 2),
the pile of brass and gold removes not the fever from the
frame.
d* The perfect is often used in expressions containing or im-
plying a negation, where in affirmation the imperfect would be pre-
ferred: as,
dicebat melius quam scripsit Hortensius (Or. 38), Hortensius
t spoke better than he wrote. [Here the negative is implied in
the comparison : compare the use of quisquam, ullus. &c.
(foot of p. 48), and the French ne after comparatives and
superlatives.]
[For Perfect in apodosis of future conditions, see § 59, 4, e ;
for Perfect after ubi, &c., § 62, 2, a.]
REMARK. — The Perfect and Pluperfect of a few verbs are
equivalent to the Present and Imperfect of kindred verbs (novi,
/ know; coepi, / begin; memini, / remember; cognoveram,
I knew ; venerat (= aderat), he was at hand (see § 36, i) : as,
qui dies sestus maximos efficere consuevit (B. G. iv. 29), which
day generally makes the highest tides.
cujus splendor obsolevit (Quinc. v. 18), whose splendor is now
out of date.
6. Pluperfect. The Pluperfect is used to denote an
action completed in time past ; sometimes, also, repeated in
indefinite time : as,
58: 7-I00 USE OF TENSES. 161
neque vero cum aliquid mandaverat confectum putabat (Cat.
iii. 7), for iv hen he had given a thing in charge he did not
look on it as already done.
quse si quando adepta est id quod ei fuerat concupitum, turn
fert alacritatem (Tusc. iv. 15), if it [desire] ever has gained
'what it had desired, then it produces joy.
?. Future Perfect. The Future Perfect denotes an
action as completed in the future : as,
ut sementem feceris ita metes (Or. ii. 65), as you sotv, so shall
you reap.
REMARK. — The Future Perfect is used (as above) with much
greater exactness in Latin than in English, and may even be used
instead of the Future, from the fondness of the Latins for repre-
senting an action as completed : as,
quid inventum sit paulo post videro (Acad. ii. 24), 'what has
been found out I will see presently.
ego certe meum officium pnestitero (B. G. iv. 25), / at least
shall have done my duty.
§. Epistolary Tenses. In Letters, the perfect (his-
torical) or imperfect may be used for the present, and the plu-
perfect for past tenses, as if the letter were dated at the time
it is supposed to be received: as,
neque tamen, cum hsec scribebam, eram nescius quantis oneri-
bus premerere (Fam. v. 12), nor -while I -write this am I
ignorant under what burdens you are -weighed.
ad tuas omnes [epistulas] rescripseram pridie (Att. ix. 10), /
[have] answered all your letters yesterday.
9. Tenses of the Subjunctive. The tenses of the Sub-
junctive denote Absolute time only in independent clauses.
In these the Present always refers to future time ; the Imper-
fect to either past or present ; the Perfect to either future or
past ; the Pluperfect always to past.
In dependent clauses, the tenses of the Subjunctive denote
Relative time, not with reference to the speaker, but to the
action of some other verb.
10. Sequence of Tenses. The forms which denote
absolute time may be used in any connection. But those
denoting relative time follow special rules for the Sequence
of Tenses. For this purpose, tenses are divided into two
classes: viz.,
1G2 SYNTAX OP THE VERB. [58: IO.
1. Primary, including the Present, both Futures, and Perfect
(definite) ;
2. Secondary, including the Imperfect, Perfect (historical),
and Pluperfect^
RUL E. — In compound sentences, a Primary tense in the
leading clause is followed by a Primary tense in the dependent
clause ; and a Secondary tense is followed by a Secondary : as,
scribit lit nos moneat, he writes to warn us.
scribet ut nos moneat, he will write tg warn us.
scripsit ut nos moneat, he has written to warn us.
scribe (scribito) ut nos moneas, write that you may warn us.
scripsit ut nos moneret, he wrote to warn us.
scribit quasi oblitus sit, he writes as if he had forgotten.
scripsit quasi oblitus esset, he wrote as if he had forgotten.
REMARK. — The Rule appears in the following Diagram : —
TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE.
Primary.
1. Action not complete (time rela- > PRESENT
tively present or future).
Secondary.
IMPERFECT.
2. Action complete (time relatively > PERFECT. PLUPERFECT.
past). I
In applying the rule for the Sequence of Tenses, consider (1)
whether the leading verb is primary or secondary ; (2) whether the
dependent verb is required to denote complete action (i.e. rela-
tively past), or incomplete (relatively present or future)". By tak-
ing the corresponding tense, as given above, the correct usage
will generally be found.
Notice that the FUTURE PERFECT denotes relatively completed
action, and hence is represented in the Subjunctive by the PER-
FECT or PLUPERFECT.
a. The perfect definite is properly a primary tense ; but as its
action is (at least) commenced in past time, it is more commonly
followed by secondary tenses : as,
ut satis esset praesidi provisum est (Cat. ii. 12), provision has
been made that there should be ample guard.
adduxi hominem in quo satisfacere exteris nationibus possetis
(Verr. i. i), / have brought a man in ivhose person you can
make satisfaction to foreign nations.
b. The perfect subjunctive is regularly used to denote any past
action (either as Perfect definite or historical) depending on a verb
in a primary tense : as,
58: 10.] USE OF TENSES. 163
ex epistulis intellegi licet quam frequens fuerit Platonis auditor
(Or. 4), it may be understood from his letters how constant a
hearer he -was of Plato.
c. In clauses of Result, the perfect subjunctive is very often
(the present rarely) used after secondary tenses : as,
Hortensius ardebat dicendi cupiditate sic ut in nullo unquam
flagrantius studium viderim (Brut. 88), Hortensius was so hot
'with desire of speaking" that I never saw a more burning
ardor in any man.
Siciliam Verres per triennium ita vexavit ac perdidit, ut ea
restitui in antiquum statum nullo modo possit (Verr. i. 4),
for three years [Verres] so racked and ruined Sicily, that she
can in no way be restored to her former state*
REMARK. — This construction gives more emphasis to the fact
stated as a result ; while the regular one gives more prominence
to the main clause. The perfect, thus used, can stand only for a
perfect indicative, not an imperfect ; and, in general, the perfect is
often represented by the perfect subjunctive, contrary to the
general rule : as,
Thorius erat ita non superstitiosus ut ilia plurima in sua pa-
tria et sacrifieta et fana contemneret; ita non timidus a'd
mortem ut in acie sit ob rem publicam interfectus (Fin. ii.
20), Thorius ivas so little superstitious that he despised [con-
tern nebat] the many sacrifices and shrines in his country, so
little timorous about death that he ivas killed [interfectus est]
in battle, in defence of the state.
Zeno nullo modo is erat qui nervos virtutis incident [compare
5, d~] ; sed contra qui omnia in una virtute poneret (Acad. i.
10), Zeno was noway one to cut the sinews of virtue ; but one,
on the contrary, who made everything depend on virtue alone.
d. A general truth after a past tense follows the connection
of tenses in Latin (though not usually in English) : as,
ex his quae tribuisset sibi quam mutabilis esset reputabat (Q^C.
iii. 9), from what she [Fortune] had bestowed on him, he re-
flected how inconstant she is.
ibi quantam vim ad stimulandos animos ira haberet, apparuit
(Liv. xxxiii. 37), here it appeared what power anger has to
goad the mind.
e. The historical present, or the present with dum, may be
followed by either primary or secondary tenses, but more com-
monly by secondary : as,
rogat ut curet quod dixisset (Qj-rinct- 5), he asks him to attend to
the thing he had spoken of.
castella communit quo facilius prohiberi possent (B. G. i. 8),
he strengthens the forts that they might be more easily kept
off.
164 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [58: IO, II.
/. When the secondary tenses of the subjunctive are used in
protasis and apodosis, they may stand after any tense : as,
quia tale sit, ut vel si ignorarent id homines, &c. (Fin. ii. 15),
because it is such that even if men -were ignorant.
{/• The imperfect subjunctive, in protasis or apodosis, even
when it refers to present time, is regularly followed by secondary
tenses : as,
si solos eos diceres miseros quibus moriendum esset, neminem
exciperes (Tusc. i. 5), if you called only those 'wretched who
must die, you 'would except no one.
h* After the present, when a past tense appears to be in the
writers thought, secondary tenses sometimes follow by a kind of
Synesis: as,
sed tamen ut scires haec tibi scribo (Fam. xiii. 47), but yet that
you may know, 1 'write thus [as if Epistolary Imperfect],
cujus przecepti tanta vis est ut ea non homini cuipiam sed
Delphico deo tribueretur (Leg. i. 22), such is the force of this
precept, that it -was ascribed not to any man, but to the Del-
phic god [the precept was an old one].
11. Infinitive. The tenses of the Infinitive are present,
past, or future, relatively to the time of the verb on which
they depend : as,
nostros non esse inferiores intellexit (B. G. ii. 8), he ascertained
that our men ivere not inferior.
quam Juno fertur terris magis omnibus coluisse (^En. i. 15),
which Jtmb, 'tis said, cherished above all lands.
sperant se maximum fructum esse captures (Lael. 21), they hope
they shall receive the greatest advantage.
a. The present infinitive, after a verb in the past, must often
be rendered by the perfect infinitive in English : as,
scire potuit (Milo, 17), he might have known.
qui videbatur omnino mori non debuisse (Arch. 8), who seemed
[one that] ought not to have died at all.
REMARK. — This is most frequent with verbs of necessity, pro-
priety, and possibility (potui, debui, oportuit) ; and occurs
because the tenses of the corresponding verbs in English have lost
their original past signification (compare " one whom he ought
[owed] a grudge unto," A.D. 1597).
6. Memini and a few other verbs, stating what the speaker
has personally witnessed, fake the present infinitive : as,
memini Catonem mecum disserere (Lael. 3), I remember Cato's
discoursing with me (So dicere aiebat, De Or. ii. 3.)
Compare Greek present infinitive for imperfect (G. 203, N. i).
REMARK. — The infinitive posse is used also in the sense of a
future.
58: II.] USE OF TENSES. 165
c. Except in Indirect Discourse the present infinitive only is
generally used, with no distinct reference to time : as,
est adulescentis majores natu vereri (Off. i. 34), it is the duty
of the young to reverence their elders.
de quibus dicere aggrediar (Off. ii. i), of which I -will under-
take to speak.
d. After verbs of wishing, necessity, and the like, the perfect
passive infinitive is often used instead of the present : as,
domestica cura te levatum [esse] volo (Q^.F. iii. 9), 1 wish you
relieved of household care.
liberis consultum volumus propter ipsos (Fin. iii. 17), we wish
regard paid to children on their own account.
quod jampridem factum esse oportuit (Cat. i. 2), which ought
to have been done long ago.
REMARK. — In early Latin, and in poetry, the perfect active is
also used, and even after other verbs than those of wishing : as,
commisisse cavet (Hor. A. P. 168), he is cautious of doing.
edixerunt ne quis quid fugse caus& vendidisse neve emisse
vellet (Liv. xxxix. 17), they [the old laws] declared that none
should sell or buy to escape obligation.
baud equidem premendo alium me extulisse velim (id. xxii. 59),
/ would not by crushing another exalt myself.
sunt qui nolint tetigisse (Hor. Sat. i. 2), there are those who
would not touch.
nollem dixisse (Verr. v. 20), I would not say.
e. The perfect infinitive is used, especially by poets, to denote
a completed action after verbs of feeling ; also with satis est
(habeo), melius est, contentus sum, and in a few other cases
where this distinction is important : as,
qui£sse erit melius (Liv. iii. 48), it will be better to have kept
quiet.
non poenitebat intercapedinem scribendi fecisse (Fain. xvi. 21),
I was not sorry to have made a respite of writing.
pudet me . . . non praestitisse (id. xiv. 3), I am ashamed not to
have shown.
surit quoscurriculo pulverem Olympicum collegisse juvat (Hor.
Od. i. i), there are those who delight, &c.
majus dedecus est parta amittere quam omnino non paravisse
(Jug. 31), it is more discredit to have lost one's gains than
never to have gained at all.
nil ego si peccem possum nescisse (Ov. Her. xvii. 47), if I go
wrong, I cannot have done it in ignorance.
f. Thp future infinitive is often expressed by fore or futu-
rum esse ut (§ 70, 4) : as,
spero fore ut contingat id nobis (Tusc. i.), I hope that will be
our happy lot.
166 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [59: I.
59. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
A Conditional Sentence (or Clause) is one beginning
with IF, or some equivalent.
1. Protasis and Apodosis. In a conditional sentence,
the clause containing the condition is called the Protasis ; and
that containing the conclusion is called the Apodosis : as,
si qui exire volunt [PROTASIS], conivere possum [APODOSIS]
(Cat. i-i. 12), if any -wish to depart, I can keep my eyes shut.
a. The Protasis is regularly introduced by the conditional
particles si, if; sin, but if; nisi (ni), unless. But a clause in-
troduced by an Indefinite Relative (as quisquis, whoever}, a
Relative or Concessive Conjunction (cum, since, quamvis, al-
though), a Participle, or an Imperative, is treated as a conditional
clause : as,
qusecunque causa vos hue attulisset, laetarer (De Or. ii. 4),
/ should be glad, 'whatever cause had brought you here [i.e. if
any other, as well as the one which did].
philosophia, cui qui pareat, omne tempus aetatis sine molestia
possit degere (Cat. M. i), philosophy, -which IF any one obeys,
he -will be able to spend his ivhole life 'without vexation.
virtutem qui adeptus erit ubicunque erit gentium a nobis dili-
getur (N. D. i. 44), if any one shall have attained virtue, &c.
[For Implied Conditions, see § 60.]
NOTE. — The Indefinite Relative, whoever, whatever, whenever, may be
regarded as a conditional expression, equivalent to if any one, if at ant/
time, &c., as is seen in the analogy of the Greek 6f av, OTO.V, and in the
structure of relative as compared with conditional clauses. In the
Statutes of Massachusetts, for instance, the phrase "Whoever shall"
has been substituted for the old form " IF any person shall," &c.
b» The Apodosis, being the main clause, depends in form on
the grammatical structure of the sentence, which may require a
Participle, Infinitive, or Phrase : as,
quod si prseterea nemo sequatur, tamen se cum sol& decima
legione iturum (B. G. i. 40), but if no one else -would follow,
he 'would go ivith the tenth legion alone.
si quos adversum prcelium commoveret, hos reperire posse (id.),
if the loss of a battle alarmed any, they might find.
sepultura quoque prohibituri, ni rex humari jussisset (Q^ C.
viii. 2), intending also to deprive him of burial, unless the
king had ordered him to be interred.
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 167
2. Particular and General Conditions. The sup-
position contained in a Protasis may be either particular or
general.
a. A Particular supposition refers to a definite act (or a definite
series of acts) occurring at some definite time : as,
si hsec condicio consulates data est . . . feram libenter (Cat.
iv. i), if this condition has been imposed on the consulship,
I iv ill bear it willingly.
b. A General supposition refers to any one of a class of acts,
which may occur (or may have occurred) at any time : as,
si vero habet aliquod tamquam pabulum studi atque doctrinse,
nihil est otiosa senectute jucundius (Cat. M. 14), indeed, if
it have some sustenance (as it were) of study and learning,
nothing is more cheerful than an old age of leisure.
NOTE. — These two classes of conditions are distinguished logically ;
and in most languages are also distinguished grammatically, — but only
as to Present and Past Conditions. In Latin, in particular conditions,
present or past tenses of the Indicative are regularly used in Prota-
sis, where no opinion is intimated of its truth or falsity ; and the
Apodosis may take any form of the verb which can be used in an in-
dependent sentence. In general conditions, also, referring to Present or
Past time, the Indicative is for the most part used both in Protasis
and Apodosis. (Compare Goodwin's Greek Grammar, § 220.)
c. Classification. The principal forms of Conditional Sen-
tences may be exhibited as follows : —
1. PRESENT OR PAST CONDITIONS.
(a) Simple statement ( si .f d*st bene est, if he is [now] hare,
(nothing implied { . «* " S?V
as to fulfilment): / S1 aderrat (ffmt) bene erat, ,/ he
\ was [then] here, it was well.
(6) Supposition con- ( si ,aaew!ft bene esset, if lie were [now]
trarvtofactfcondi < here, it would be well.
tioii not fulfilled): ) « adfuisset bene fuisset, if he had
\ [then] been here , it would have been well.
2. FUTURE CONDITIONS.
(a) More vivid (prob- f si aderit bene erit, if lie is [shall be]
able): \ here, it will be welL
(b) Less vivid (improb- ( si adsit bene sit, if he should [hereafter]
able) : ( be here, it would be well.
3. GENERAL SUPPOSITIONS.
(a) Indefinite subject: j si 1>OC d'°as bene est- V ' one saVs this<
( it is well.
i Repeated Action : jsi h°c *iceret bene , erat (rare) */
( [whenever] tie said this, it was well.
168 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [59: 3.
3. Present and Past Conditions. A present or past
condition may be simply stated, implying nothing as to its
fulfilment ; or it may be stated so as to imply 'that it is not or
was not fulfilled.
a. In the statement of a condition whose falsity is NOT implied,
the present and past tenses of the Indicative are used in Protasis ;
the apodosis expressing simply what is, was, or will be, the result
of the fulfilment (G. 221) : as,
si tu exercitusque valetis, bene est (Fam. v. 2), if you and the
army are well, it is 'well.
si justitia vacat, in vitio est (Off. i. 19), if justice be wanting,
it [bravery] 'is in fault.
si placet . . . videamus (Cat. M. 5), if you please, let us see.
fuerit hoc censoris, si judicabat (Div. i. 16), grant that it was
the censor's duty if he judged, &c.
quicquid jurarunt ventus et unda rapit (Prop. ii. 28), whatever
they have sworn [i.e. if they have sworn anything], the winds
and waves sweep away.
b. In the statement of a supposition known to be false, the Im-
perfect and Pluperfect subjunctive are used. — the imperfect
referring to present time, the pluperfect to past (G. 222) : as,
quse si exsequi nequirem, tamen me lectulus oblectaret meus
(Cat. M. n), if I could not [now] follow this [an active life],
yet my couch would afford me pleasure.
nisi tu amisisses, nunquam recepissem (id. 4), unless you had
lost it, I should not have recovered it.
si me urn consilium auctoritasque valuisset, tu hodie egeres,
nos liberi essemus, respublica non tot duces et exercitus
amisisset (Phil. ii. 15), if my judgment and authority had
prevailed [as they did not], you would this day be a beggar,
we should be free, and the republic would not hfive lost so
many leaders and armies. !
NOTE. — The implication of falsity, in this construction, is not in-
herent in the Subjunctive; but comes from the transfer of a future \
condition to past time. Thus the time for the happening of the condi-i
tion has, at the time of writing, already passed ; so that, if the con-
dition remains a condition, it must be contrary to fact. So forms
implying a future frequently take the place of the subjunctive in
apodoeis in this construction (see c, below).
c. In many cases the imperfect refers to past time, both in pro-
tasis and apodosis, especially when a repeated or continued action
is denoted, or when the condition if true would still exist : as,
hie si mentis esset suae, ausus esset educere exercitum (Pis. 21).
if he were of sane mind would he have dared to lead out tht
army ?
59: 3-] CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 169
non concidissent, nisi illud receptaculum classibus nostris
pateret (Verr. ii. i), [the power of Carthage] -would not
have fallen, unless that station had been open to our fleets.
d. The past tenses of the indicative in Apodosis (after a sub-
junctive in Protasis) may be used to express what ought to have
been done, or is intended, or is already begun : as,
si Romae privatus esset hoc tempore, tamen is erat deligendus
(Manil. 17), if ke [Pompey]w£re at this time a private citizen
in Rome, yet he ought to be appointed.
quod esse caput debebat, si probari posset (Fin. iv. 9), -what
ought to be the main point if it could be proved.
si licitum esset matres veniebant (Verr. vi. 49), the mothers
iv ere coming if it had been allowed.
in amplexus filias ruebat, nisi lictores obstitissent (Ann. xvi.
32), he -was about rushing into his daughter's arms, unless the
lictors had opposed.
REMARK. — In this use, the imperfect indicative corresponds in
time to the imperfect subjunctive, and the perfect or pluperfect
indicative to the pluperfect subjunctive (the tenses of the subjunc-
tive may, however, be used as well ; see Note, above) : as,
satius erat (esset), it were better.
e. This use is regular with all verbs and expressions denoting
. the necessity ', propriety ', desirableness, duty, possibility, of an action
' — including the two periphrastic conjugations (see page 83) —
where it is implied that what was necessary, &c., has not been done.
It is sometimes carried still further in poetry : as, -
nam nos decebat lugere (Tusc. i. 47), it -would befit us to mourn.
si non alium jactaret odorem, laurus erat (Georg. ii. 133), *"/
-were a laurel, but for giving out a different odor.
NOTE. — Observe that all these expressions contain the idea of
Futurity. Compare note under 6.
e* So the participle in urus with fui is equivalent to a. plu-
perfect subjunctive. Hence, when the Apodosis is itself a dependent
clause, requiring the subjunctive, a pluperfect subjunctive may be
[; represented by the Future Participle with the subjunctive of esse
I (compare apodosis in Indirect Discourse, § 67, I, c) : as,
quid enim futurum fuit [= fuisset], si ... (Liv. ii. i), what
would have happened, if, &c.
neque ambigitur quin ... id facturus fuerit, si ... (ib.), and
no doubt he would have done it, if, &c.
. ex quo intellegi potest quam acuti natura sint, qui ha?c
sine doctrina credituri fuerint (Tusc. i. 21), hence it may be
understood how keen they are by nature, who, without instruc-
tion, would have believed this. [Here the condition is con-
tained in the words sine doc.tr -ind.~\
8
170 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [59: 4.
adeo parata seditio fuit, ut Othonem raptnri fueriiit, ni incerta
noctis timuissent (Tac. H. i. 26), so far advanced was the
conspiracy, that they would have seized upon Otho, had they
not feared the hazards of the night [in the direct discourse,
rapuissent ni timuissent \.
4. Future Conditions* A Future condition may either
make a distinct supposition of a future case, the apodosis
expressing what will be the result ; or the supposition may be
less distinct and vivid, the apodosis expressing what would be
the result in the case supposed.
a. If the condition is stated vividly, so as to he conceived as
actually about to take place, the Future Indicative is used in both
protasis and apodosis (G. 223) : as,
sanabimur si volemus (Tusc. iii. 6), ive shall be healed if ive
-wish.
quod si legere aut audire voletis . . . reperietis (Cat. M. 6),
if you 'will read or hear, you .'will find.
b» The Present -subjunctive expresses a future condition less
vividly, or as less probable, than when the future indicative is
used (G. 224) : as,
hsec si tecum patria loquatur, nonne impetrare debeat (Cat.
i. 8), if thy country should thus speak with thee, ought she not
to prevail f
quod si quis deus mini largiatur . . . valde recusem (Cat. M.23),
but if some god -were to grant me this, I should earnestly
refuse.
REMARK. — The present subjunctive sometimes stands in prota-
sis with the future in apodosis.
ۥ If the conditional act is regarded as completed before that
of the apodosis begins, the future perfect is substituted for the
future, and the perfect subjunctive for the present : as,
sin, cum potuero, non venero, turn erit inimicus (Att. ix. 2),
but if I do not come ivhen I can, he ivill be unfriendly.
si non feceris, ignoscam (Fam. v. 19), if you do not do it, I ivill
excuse you.
REMARK. — This is a very common construction in Latin, owing
to the tendency of the language to represent an action as com-
pleted, rather than as in progress.
d. Any form denoting future time may stand in the apodosis
of a future condition (so the participles in dus and rus, and verbs
of necessity, possibility, and the like) : as,
non possum istum accusare si cupiam (Verr. v. 41), I cannot
accuse him if I should desire.
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. % 171
alius finis constituendus est si prius quid maxime reprehendere
Scipio solitus sit dixero (Lael. i6J, another limit must be set if
I shall first state what Scipio was most wont to blame.
ۥ Rarely the perfect is used (rhetorically) in apodosis with a
present or even future in protasis, representing the conclusion as
already accomplished : as,
si hoc bene fixum in. animo est, vicistis (Liv. xxi. 44), if this
is -well fixed in your minds, you have conquered.
si eundem [animum] habueritis, vicimus (id. 43), if you shall
have kept the same spirit, we have conquered.
f. Frequently the present subjunctive of a future condition
becomes imperfect by the sequence of tenses or some other cause
(retaining the same force relatively to past time) : as,
non poterat nisi vellet (B. C. iii. 44), -was not able unless he
wished. *
Caesar si pet^rs^. . . non quicquam proficeret (Hor. Sat. i. 2),
if even Ccesar W^r^ to ask he would gain nothing. [Here
the construction is not contrary to fact, but is simply si"
petat non proficiat, thrown into past time.]
tumulus apparuit ... si luce palam iretur hostis prseventurus
erat (Liv. xxii. 24), a hill appeared . . . if they should go
openly by light the enemy would preVwit. [Independent of
apparuit, this would be, si eatur, prahjenturus est, for prce-
veniat.] « V
5. General Conditions* General conditions are distin-
guished in Latin in only two cases : viz,,
a. Indefinite Subject. The subjunctive is used in the second
person singular, to denote the act of an indefinite subject (you =
any one) . Here the present Indicative of a general truth may
stand in the apodosis (G. 225) : as,
mens prope uti ferrum est: si exerceas conteritur; nisi exer-
ceas, rubiginem contrahit (Cato de Mor.), the mind is very
like iron : if you use it, it wears away j if you don't use it, it
gathers rust.
virtutem necessario gloria, etianisi tu id non agas, consequitur
(Tusc. i. 38), glory necessarily follows virtue, even if that is
not one's aim.
si prohibita impune transcenderis, neque metus ultra neque
pudor est (Ann. iii. 54), if you once overstep the bounds •with
impunity, there is no fear nor shame any more.
si cederes placabilis (Tac. Ann.), \Jie was~\ easily appeased if
one yielded.
b. Repeated Action. In later writers (not in Cicero), the
Imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive are used in protasis, with the
172 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [60: I.
imperfect indicative in apodosis, to state a repeated or customary
action: as,
accusatores, si facultas incideret, pcenis adficiebantur (Ann.
vi. 30), the accusers, whenever opportunity offered, were
visited -with punishment.
quemcunque lictor prehendisset, tribunus mitti jubebat (Liv.
. iii. n), whomever the lictor had seized, the tribune ordered
to be let go.
c* In all other cases, General Suppositions — including those
introduced by Indefinite Relatives — take the indicative.
60. IMPLIED CONDITIONS.
In many sentences properly conditional, the sub-
ordinate member is not expressed as a conditional
clause ; but is stated in some other form of words, or
is implied in the nature of the thought.
1. Condition Disguised. The condition is often con-
tained in some other form of words than a regular Protasis,
in the same clause or sentence.
a. The condition may be contained in a relative, participial, or
other qualifying clause : as,
facile me paterer — vel ipso quaerente, vel apud Cassianos judices
— pro Sex. Roscio dicere (Rose. Am. 30), / -would readily
allow myself to speak for Roscius, IF he, &c.
non mihi, nisi admonito, venisset in mentem (De Or. ii. 42),
it would not have come into my mind, unless [I had been]
admonished [= nisi admonitus essem].
. nulla alia gens tanta mole cladis non obruta esset (Liv. xxii.
54), there is no other people that would not have been crushed
by such a 'weight of disaster [i.e. IF it had been any other
people],
nemo unquam, sine magna spe immortalitatis, se pro patri&
offerret ad mortem (Tusc. i. 15), no one, -without great hope
of immortality, would ever expose himself to death for his
country.
quid hunc paucorum annorum accessio juvare potuisset (Lael.
3), what good could the addition of a few years have done
him ? [if he had had them.]
&• The condition may be contained in a wish, or expressed as
a command, by the imperative or hortatory subjunctive : as,
utinam quidem fuissem! molestus nobis non esset (Fam. xii.
3), I wish I had been [chief] : he would not now be troubling
us [i.e. if I had been].
60: 1,2.] IMPLIED CONDITIONS. 173
roges enim Aristonem, neget (Fin. iv. 25), for ask Aristo^ and
he -would deny.
tolle hanc opinionem, luctum sustuleris (Tusc. i. 13), remove
this notion, and you will have done a-way grief.
naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret (Hor. Ep. i. 10),
drive out nature -with a pitchfork, still she 'will ever return.
manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria
(Cat. M. 7), old men keep their mental powers* only let them
keep their zeal and diligence.
NOTE. — This usage is probably the origin of the use of the sub-
junctive in Protasis; the subjunctive being used first, as in § 57, 3,
while the conditional particle is a form of an indefinite pronoun.
c* Rarely, the condition is stated in an independent clause : as,
rides: majore cachinno concutitur (Juv. iii. 100), you laugh:
he shakes -with louder laughter.
de paupertate agitur : multi patientes pauperes commemor-
antur (Tusc. iii. 24), we speak of poverty : many patient poor
are mentioned.
2. Condition Omitted* The condition is often wholly
omitted, but may be inferred from the course of the argument.
REMAKK. — Under this head belong all the apparently inde-
pendent uses of the subjunctive not mentioned in § 57, 2. In this
use the perfect subjunctive is especially common, in the same sense
as the present, referring to the immediate future ; the imperfect to
past time (not to present, as in § 57, 3).
a. Potential Subjunctive. The present and perfect sub-
junctive (often with forsitan or the like) are used to denote an
action as possible; also, the second person singular of all the
tenses, denoting an indefinite subject : as,
hie quaerat quispiam (N. D. ii. 53), here some one may ask.
ut aliquis fortasse dixerit (Off. iii. 6), as one may perhaps say.
forsitan haec illi mirentur (Verr. v. 56), they may perchance
marvel at these things.
turn in lecto quoque videres susurros (Hor. Sat. ii. 8), then on
each couch you might see 'whisperings.
b» The subjunctive is used in cautious, modest, or hypothetical
statement (conjunctivus modestice) : as,
pace tua dixerim (Mil. 38), I -would say by your leave.
'. baud sciam an (De Or. i. 60), / should incline to think.
tu velim sic existimes (Fam. xii. 6), I would like you to think so.
vellem adesset M. Antonius (Phil. i. 7), I -wish Anthony -were
here [here vellem implies an impossible wish in present
time].
' haec erant fere quse tibi nota esse vellem (Fam. xii. 5), this is
about what I want you to know [here vellem is simply vclim
transferred to past time on account of erat, by connection
of tenses, and does not imply an impossible wish].
174 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [60:2. 61.
c. The Indicative of verbs signifying necessity, propriety, and
the like, may be used in the apodosis of implied conditions, either
future or contrary to fact : as,
longum est [sit] ea dicere, sed ... (in Pison. 10), it -would be
tedious to tell, &c.
illud erat aptius, aequum cuique concedere (Fin. iv. i), it 'would
be more fitting to yield each one his rights.
ipsum enim exspectare magnum fuit (Phil. ii. 40), 'would it
have been a great matter to 'wait for himself?
quanto melius fuerat (Off. iii. 25), how much better it would
have been.
quod contra decuit ab illo meum [corpus cremari] (Cat. M.),
whereas on the other hand mine ought to have been burnt by
him.
nam nos decebat domum lugere ubi esset aliquis in lucem editus
(Tusc. i. 48), for it were fitting to mourn the house where a
man has been born [but we do not],
nunc est bibendum . . . nunc Saliaribus ornare pulvinar deorum
tempus erat dapibus sodales (Hor. Od. i. 37), i.e. it would be
time [if it were for us to do it, but it is a public act].
REMARK. — Notice that, in this construction, the imperfect in-
dicative refers to present time ; the pluperfect to simply past time,
like the perfect. Thus oportebat means it ought to be [now] , but
is not ; oportuerat means it ought to have been, but was not.
d» The omission of the protasis often gives rise to mixed con-
structions : as,
peream male si non optimum erat (Hor. Cat. ii. i), may I
perish if it would not be better. [Here the protasis and
apodosis come under § 59, 3, d. Optimum erat is itself an
apodosis with the protasis omitted.]
quod si in hoc mundo fieri sine deo non potest, ne in sphaera
quidem eosdem motus Archimedes sine divino ingenio potu-
isset imitari (Tusc. i. 25). [Here the protasis of potuisset is
in sine divino ingenio .]
61. CONDITIONAL PARTICLES.
Certain Particles implying a Condition are fol-
lowed by the Subjunctive, but upon several different
principles.
1. Comparative ^Particles. The particles of compari-
son— tamquam, quasi, quam si, acsi, utsi, velutsi,
yeluti, and poetic ceu — introduce conditional clauses, of
,;,
: I, 2, 3.] CONDITIONAL PARTICLES. 175
which the conclusion is omitted or implied; and take the
subjunctive.
REMARK. — Contrary to the English idiom, the present and
perfect subjunctive are regularly used with these particles, except
where the connection of tenses requires secondary tenses : as,
tamquam clausa sit Asia (Fam. xii. 9), as if Asia -was closed.
tamquam si claudus sim (Plaut. Asin. 2), fust as if I were lame.
quasi vero non specie visa judicentur (Acad. ii. 18), as if for-
sooth visible things -were not judged by their appearance.
velut si coram adesset (B. G. i. 32), as if he were there present.
similiter facis ac si me roges (N. S. iii. 3), you do exactly as if
you asked me.
asque ac si mea negotia essent (Fam. xiii. 43), as much as if it
were my own business.
ceu cetera nusquam bella forent (^En. ii. 438), as if there were
no fighting elsewhere.
magis quam si domi esses (Att. vi. 4), more than if you were
at home.
ac si ampullam perdidisset (Fin. iv. 12), as if he had lost the
bottle.
Concessive Particles. The particles of concession
— although, granting that — sometimes take the subjunctive,
but under various constructions : viz.,
Quamvis and ut (except in later writers) take the hortatory
subjunctive (§ 57, 2) ; licet is a verb, and is followed by an
object-clause (§ 70, 3); etsi has the same constructions as si
(§ 59) ; cum has a special construction (§ 62, i) ; quanquam
takes the indicative (59, 3, a) : as,
quamvis ipsi infantes sint, tamen . . . (Or. 23), however incap-
able themselves of speaking, yet, &c.
ut neminem ali aliam rogasset (Mil. 17), even if I had asked
no other.
licet ornnes in me terrores periculaque impendeant (Rose. Am.
n), though all terrors and perils should menace me.
etsi abest maturitas (Fam. vi. 18), though ripeness of age is
wanting.
etsi nihil aliud abstulissetis (Sull. 32), even if you had taken
away nothing else.
3. A Proviso, introduced by mo do, dum, dummodo, re-
quires the Subjunctive: as,
valetudo modo bona sit (Brut. 16), provided the health is good.
modo ne sit ex pecudum genere (Off. i. 30), provided it [plea-
sure] be not after the manner of cattle.
176 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [61: 4. 62.
oderint dum metuant (Off. i. 28), let them hate, if only they fear.
dum de patris morte qustreretur (Rose. Am. 41), let the inquiry
only be of a father's death.
dummodo inter me atque te murus intersit (Cat. i. 5), provided
only the city wall is between us.
NOTE. — The Subjunctive with modo is a hortatory Subjunctive ;
with dum and dummodo, a development from the Subjunctive in
temporal clauses.
4. The use of some of the more common Conditional
Particles may be stated as follows: —
a. Si is used for affirmative, nisi and si non for negative con-
ditions. With nisi, the negative belongs rather to the Apodosis,
— i.e. the conclusion is true except in the case supposed ; with
si non, the Protasis is negative, — i.e. the conclusion is limited to
the case supposed. (The difference is often only one of emphasis.)
Nisi is never used if the clause has a concessive force. Ni is an
old form, reappearing in poets and later writers, and in a few con-
ventional phrases. Sometimes nisi si occurs.
6. Nisi vero and nisi forte — sometimes nisi alone — regu-
larly introduce an objection, or exception, ironically, and take the
Indicative.
c. Sive . . . sive (seu) introduce conditions in the form of an
alternative. They have no peculiar construction, but may be used
with any kind of condition, or with different kinds in the two
branches, often also without a verb.
cf. Of the concessive particles, the compounds of si are used
in all the forms of protasis ; quanquam regularly introduces only
conceded facts, and hence takes the Indicative ; quamvis, quan-
tum vis, quamlibet, ut, cum, and libet, take idiomatic construc-
tions corresponding to their original meaning. Later writers,
however, frequently use all these particles like the compounds of
si, connecting them with the Indicative or Subjunctive according
to the nature of the condition. Even Cicero occasionally uses
quanquam with the Subjunctive.
62. RELATIONS OP TIME.
Temporal clauses are introduced by particles which
are almost all of relative origin ; and are construed
like other relative clauses, except where they have
developed into special constructions.
62: I, 2.] RELATIONS OF TIME. 177
Temporal Particles are the following : — ubi, ut (ut primum,
ut semel), simul atque (sirnul ac or simul alone), cum
(quom), antequam, priusquam, postquam (posteaquam),
dum, donee, quoad, quamdiu, quando.
1. The particles ubi, ut, cum, quando, either alone
or compounded with -cunque, are used as indefinite rela-
tives, and have the constructions of Protasis (§ 59) : as,
cum rosam viderat, turn inciperc ver arbitrabatur (Verr. v. 10),
whenever he had seen a rose, he thought Spring was begun
[general condition].
cum id malum esse negas (Tusc. ii. 12), ivhen you [the indi-
vidual disputant] deny it to be an evil.
cum videas eos . . . dolore non frangi (id. 27), ivken you see
[indefinite subject] that those are not broken by pain, &c.
quod profecto cum me nulla vis cogeret, facere non auderem
(Phil. v. 18), -which I would surely not venture to do, as long
as no force compelled me [supposition contrary to fact].
id ubi dixisset, hastam in fines eorum emittebat (Liv. i. 32),
ivhen he had said this, he [used to\-cast the spear into their
territories [repeated action].
REMARK. — So est cum, fuit cum, &c., are used in general
expressions like est qui, sunt qui (§ 65).
2. Temporal clauses of absolute time take the Indicative ;
those of relative time, the Subjunctive.
(For the definition of absolute and relative time, see § 58, I, 9.)
NOTE. — This distinction is not made in other languages, but it
may be made clear in the two following expressions : 1. When was
the great fire in London ? Ans. When Charles II. was king (absolute
time). 2. When Charles II. was king (relative time), a great fire broke
out in London. In the first case the reign of Charles is referred Jo as
an absolute fixed date, known to the hearer; while in the second the
time is not so fixed, but is given as relative to the event narrated by the
main verb, which alone denotes absolute time. In this construction, the
Subjunctive describes the time by its characteristics (as in § 65, 2), and
thus is a branch of the Subjunctive of result. Hence this qualitative
character of the temporal clause often reappears and occasions the
Subjunctive, where the idea of relative time would not naturally be
expected : as, turn, cum HABERET hcec respublica Luscinos, &c. . . . et turn,
cum EH ANT G 'atones, &c. Here the former clause describes the char-
acter of the age by its men (at a time when there were such men) ; in
the latter, the individual men are present to the mind (at the time of
the Catos, &c.).
a. The particles postquam (posteaquam), ubi, ut (ut
primum, ut semel), simul atque (simul ac or simul alone),
introduce clauses of absolute time, and take the Indicative (usually
the narrative tenses, the perfect and the historical present) : as,
178 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [62: 2.
milites postquam victoriam adepti sunt, nihil reliqui victis
fec£re (Sail. Cat. n), when the armies had 'won the victory,
they left nothing to the vanquished.
Pompeius ut equitatum suum pulsum vidit, acie excess-it (B. C.
iii. 94), ^vhen Pompey sa^v his cavalry beaten, he left the army.
REMARK. — !• Those particles may also take the imperfect,
denoting a continued state of things, and the pluperfect, denoting
the result of an action completed, in the Indicative : as,
postquam instructi utrimque stabant, duces in medium pro-
cedunt (Liv. i. 23), ^vhen they stood in array on both sides,
the generals advance into the midst.
P. Africanus posteaquam bis consul et censor fuerat (Div. in
Csec. 21), -when Africanus had been [i.e. had the dignity of
having been] twice consul and cetisor.
postquam id difficilius visum est, neque facultas perficiendi
dabatur, ad Pompeium transierunt (B. C. iii. 60), w/ie?i this
seemed too hard, and no means of effecting it were given, they
passed over to Pompey.
post diem quintum quam barbari iterum male pugnaverant
(= victi sunt), legati a Boccho veniunt (Jug. no), the Jifth
day after the barbarians 'were beaten the second time, envoys
came from Bocchus.
2. Rarely these particles denote relative time, and take the
Subjunctive : as,
posteaquam maximas aedificasset ornassetque classes (Manil.
4), having built and equipped mighty fleets.
b. Cum (quom), TEMPORAL, meaning when, introduces both
absolute and relative time, and takes either mood, — the Indica-
tive of the present and perfect, the Subjunctive of the imperfect
and pluperfect: as,
cum occiditur Sex. Roscius, ibidem fuerunt servi (Rose. Am.
61), when Roscius was slain, the slaves were on the spot.
nempe eo [lituo] regiones direxit turn cum urbem condidit
(Div. i. 17), he traced with it the quarters [of the sky] at the
time he founded the city.
cum servili bello premeretur (Manil. n), -when she [Italy] was
under the load of the Servile war.
inde cum se in Italiam recepisset (id. 12), when he had returned
thence to Italy.
cum incendisses cupiditatem meam . . . turn discedis a nobis
(Fam. xv. 21), while you had inflamed my eager ?iess, yet you
withdrew from us.
NOTE. — The Present takes the Indicative because present time is
generally, from its very nature, defined in the mind ; and it is only
when the circumstances are described as causal or adversative (see
below, § 65, 2, e) that the Subjunctive is used. The Perfect takes
the Indicative as the tense of narrative, as with postquam, &c. The
Imperfect and Pluperfect are, from their nature, fitter to denote rela-
tive time.
62: 2.] RELATIONS OP TIME. 179
REMARK. — !• But the imperfect and pluperfect may denote
absolute time, and then are in the Indicative : as,
res cum haec scribebam erat in extremum adducta discrimen
(Fam. xii. 6), at the time I write [epistolary] the affair -was
brought into great hazard.
quern quidem cum ex urbe pellebam, hoc providebam animo
(Cat. iii. 7), when £ -was about forcing him [conative im-
perfect] from the city, I looked forward to this.
fulgentes gladios hostium videbant Decii cum in aciem eorum
irruebant (Tusc. ii. 24), the Decii saw the flashing swords of
the enemy when they rushed upon their line.
turn cum in Asia res magnas permulti amiserant (Manil. 7),
at that time, when many had lost great fortunes in Asia.
2. When the clauses are inverted, so that the real temporal
clause becomes the main clause, and vice versa, the Indicative
must be used : as,
dies nondum decem intercesserant, cum ille alter filius infans
necatur (Clu. 9), ten days had not yet passed, when the other
infant son was killed.
hoc facere noctu apparabant, cum matres familiae repente in
publicum procurrerunt (B. G. vii. 26), they were preparing
to do this by night, when the women suddenly ran out into the
streets.
3. With Future tenses, there is no distinction of absolute or
relative time ; and hence the Indicative is used : as,
non dubitabo dare operam ut te videam, cum id satis commode
facere potero (Fam. xiii. i), I shall not hesitate to take pains
to see you, when I can do it conveniently.
longum illud tempus cum non ero (Att. xii. 18), that long time
when I shall be no more.
In the other tenses, the distinction is of late origin : hence in
Plautus quom always takes the Indicative except where the Sub-
junctive is used for other reasons.
c. In narration aiitequam and priusquam — also, in late writ-
ers, dum and donee — have the same construction as cum: as,
antequam tuas legi litteras (Att. ii. 7), before I read your letter.
nee ante finis fuit quam concessere (Liv. viii. 13), there was no
end until they yielded [regular with non ante quam, &c.].
antequam homines nefarii de meo adventu audire potuissent,
in Macedonian! perrexi (Plane. 41), before those evil men
could learn of my coming, I arrived in Macedonia.
nee obstitit falsis donee tempore ac spatio vanescerent (Tac.
Ann ii. 82), nor did he contradict the falsehoods till they died
out through lapse of time.
REMARK. — In reference to future time, these particles take tfye
present and future perfect indicative ; rarely the future indica-
tive and present subjunctive : as,
180 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [62: 2.
prius quam de ceteris rebus respondeo, de amicitia pauca
dicam (Phil. ii. i), before I reply to the rest, I -will say a
little of friendship.
non defatigabor ante quam illorum ancipites vias percepero
(De Or. iii. 36), I shall not iveary till I have traced out their
doubtful -ways.
In a few cases the subjunctive of protasis seems to be used : as,
priusquam incipias consulto et ubi consulueris mature facto
opus est (Sail. Cat. i), before beginning you need reflection,
and after reflecting, prompt action.
tempestas minatur antequam surgat (Sen. Ep. 103), the storm
threatens before it rises. [Compare § 59, 5, a.~]
d» Dum, donee, and quoad, implying purpose, take the sub-
junctive (§ 64) ; otherwise, except in later writers, the indica-
tive. Dum and dummodo, provided, take the subjunctive : as,
dum hsec geruntur (B. G. i. 46), while this was going on.
donee rediit silentium fuit (Liv. xxiii. 31), there was silence
until he returned.
dum res maneant, verba fingant (Fin. v. 29), so long as the facts
remain, let them fashion words.
hoc feci dum licuit, intermisi quoad non licuit (Phil. iii. 13),
/ did this so long as it was allowed, I discontinued so long as
it was not.
dummodo sit polita, dum urbana, dum elegans (Brut. 82), pro-
vided it be polished, rejined, elegant.
REMARK. — With all temporal particles, the Subjunctive is often
found, depending on other principles of construction.
e* Cum — CAUSAL, meaning since, while, or although — takes
the subjunctive (often emphasized by ut, utpote, quippe, prae-
sertim): as,
cum solitude . . . insidiarum et metus plena sit (Fin. i. 20),
since solitude is full of treachery and fear.
cum primi ordines .'. . concidissent, tamen acerrime reliqui
resistebant (B. G. vii. 62), though the jirst ranks had fallen,
still the others resisted vigorously-
nee reprehendo : quippe cum ipse istam reprehensionem non
fugerim (Att. x. 3), I do not blame it: since I myself did not
escape that blame.
But frequently in the sense of quod, on the ground that, it takes
the Indicative : as,
gratulor tibi cum tantum vales apud Dolabellam (Fam. xi 14),
I congratulate you that you are so strong with Dolabella.
NOTE. — This causal relation is merely a variation of the idea of
time, where the attendant circumstances are regarded as the cause.
63: I, 2.] CAUSE OR REASON. 181
/. Cum . . . turn, signifying both . . . and, usually take the
Indicative ; but when cum approaches the sense of while or though,
it may have the Subjunctive : as,
cum multa non probo, turn illud in primis (Fin. i. 6), -while
there are many things I do not approve, there is this in chief.
cum res tota ficta sit pueriliter, turn ne efficit quidem quod vult
(ib.), while the whole thing is childishly got up, he does not
even make his point.
63. CAUSE OR REASON.
Causal clauses may take the Indicative or Subjunc-
tive according to their construction ; the idea of Cause
being contained not in the mood itself, but in the form
of the argument, or the connecting particles.
1. The Causal Particles quod, quia, quoniam, quando
— and in early Latin cum (causal) — take the Indicative: as,
quia postrema sedificata est (Verr. iv. 53), because it was built
last.
utinam ilium diem videam, cum tibi agam gratias quod me
vivere coegisti (Att. iii. 3), O that I may see the day when I
may thank you that you have forced me to live.
quoniam de utilitate jam diximus, de efficiendi ratione dicamus
(Or. Part. 26), since we have now spoken of [its] advantage,
let us speak of the method of effecting it.
quando ita vis di bene vortant (Trin. 573), since you so wish,
may the gods bless the undertaking.
quom tua res distrahitur utinam te redisse salvam videam
(id. 617), since your1 property is torn in pieces, oh, that I
may see you returned safely !
2. Clauses introduced by these particles, like any other
dependent clause, take the Subjunctive of Indirect Discourse
(see § 67, i).
a. A relative clause of characteristic, with its verb, in the sub-
junctive, may have the force of a causal sentence (see § 65, 2).
&• The particle cum, when used in a causal sense, idiomatically
takes the Subjunctive (§ 62, 2, e).
182 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [64: I.
64. PURPOSE.
*
1. FINAL CLAUSES, or those expressing purpose, take the
Subjunctive after relatives (qui = ut is), or the conjunction
Ut (uti), in order that (negatively lit lie or ne, lest) : as,
ab aratro abduxerunt Cincinnatum, ut dictator esset (Fin. ii.
4), they brought Cincinnatus from the plotigh, that he might
be dictator.
scribebat orationes quas alii dicerent (Brut. 56), he 'wrote
speeches for other men to deliver.
huic ne ubi consisteret quidem contra te locum reliquisti
(Quinct. 22), you have left him no ground even to make a
stand against you.
nihil habeo quod scribam, I have nothing to 'write.
habebam quo confugerem (Fam. iv. 6), •/ had [a retreat]
'whither I might Jlee.
ut ne sit impune (Mil. 12), that it be not 'with impunity.
ne qua ejus adventus procul significatio fiat (B. G. vi. 29), that
no sign of his arrival may be made at a distance.
REMARK. — Sometimes the relative or conjunction has a correl-
ative in the main clause : as,
legum idcirco omnes servi sumus, ut liberi esse possimus
(Clu. 53), for this reason ive are subject to the laws, that ive
may be free.
ea causa . . . ne, for this reason, lest, &c.
NOTE. — As ut (uti) is of relative origin, the construction with ut
is the same as that of relatives. That with ne is perhaps, in origin,
a hortatory subjunctive.
a* The ablative quo (= ut eo) is used as a conjunction in final
clauses, especially with comparatives : as,
libertate usus est, quo impunius dicax esset (Quinct. 3), he
availed himself of liberty, that he* might bluster 'with more
impunity.
Compare quominus (— ut eo minus), after verbs of hinder-
ing (§ 65, i, a).
&• The Principal clause, upon which a final clause depends, is
often to be supplied from the context : as,
ac ne longum sit ... jussimus (Cat. iii. 5), and, not to be
tedious, we ordered, &c. [strictly, " not to be tedious, I say."]
sed ut ad Dionysium redeamus, . . . (Tusc. v.22), but to return
to Dionysius, &c.
satis inconsiderati fuit, ne dicam audacis (Phil. xiii. 5), it 'was
the act of one rash enough, not to say daring.
64: 2. 65.] CONSEQUENCE OR RESULT. 183
REMARK. — To this principle belongs nedum, still less, not to
mention that, with which the verb itself is often omitted : as,
nedum . . . salvi esse possimus (Clu. 35), much less could -we
be safe.
nedum isti . . . non statim conquisituri sint aliquid sceleris et
flagitii (Leg. Ag. ii. 35), far more will they hunt up at once
some sort of crime and scandal.
nedum in mari et via sit facile (Fam. xvi. 8), still less is it easy
at sea, and on a journey.
ۥ Final clauses easily become the object of verbs of wishing,
commanding, &c. (see § 68).
2. The Purpose of an action is expressed in Latin in
various ways ; but never (except rarely in poetry) by the
simple Infinitive, as in English. The sentence, they came to
seek peace, may be rendered —
(1) venerunt ut pacem peterent . . . [final clause with ut] ;
(2) qui pacem peterent [final clause with Relative] ;
(3) ad petendum pacem (rare) [gerund with ad];
(4) ad petendam pacem [gerundive with ad] ;
1 (5) pacem petendi causa* [gerund with causa];
(6) pacis petendae causa [gerundive with causa] ;
(7) pacem petituri [future participle (not in Cicero)] ;
(8) pacem petitum [former supine].
* Or gratia.
65o CONSEQUENCE OR RESULT.
1. CONSECUTIVE CLAUSES, or those expressing result,
take the Subjunctive after relatives or the conjunction ut, so
that (negatively, ut non) : as,
nemo est tarn senex, qui se annum non putet posse vivere (Cat.
M. 7)5 no one is so old as not to think he can live a year.
nam est innocentia affectio talis animi, quae noceat nemini
(Tusc. iii. 8), for innocence is such a quality of mind as to do
harm to no one.
sunt alise causae quae plane emciant (Top. 15), there are other
causes, such as to bring to pass.
REMARK. — A negative result is expressed by ut non. Some-
times, when the result is regarded as intended (though not a pur-
pose), ut ne or ne is used : as,
[librum] ita corrigas ne mihi noceat (Fam. vi. 7), correct the
book so that it may not hurt me.
184 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [65: 1,2.
hoc est ita utile ut ne plane illudamur ab accusatoribus (Rose.
Am. 20), this is so useful, that tve are not utterly mocked by
the accusers {i.e., only on this condition].
«• The subjunctive with quominus (= ut eo minus) may be
used, to express a result, after verbs of hindering : as,
nee aetas impedit quominus agri colendi studia teneamus (Cat.
M. 17), nor does age prevent us from retaining an interest in
tilling the ground.
&• A clause of result is introduced by quin after general
negatives, where quin is equivalent to qui (quae, quod) non;
also after clauses denoting hindrance, resistance, doubt, and sus-
pension of effort (when these clauses are also negative) : as,
non dubitoquin, I do not doubt that [dubito an, 7 'doubt -whether]*
aegre (vix) abstinui quin, I hardly refrained from, &c.
nihil impedit quin . . ., there is nothing to prevent, &c.
abesse non potest quin (Or. 70), /'/ cannot be but that.
nihil est illorum quin [=quod non] ego illi dixerim (Plaut.
Bac. iii. 9), there is nothing of this that I have not told him.
REMARK. — The above clauses of result easily pass into Substan-
tive Clauses, for which see § 70.
2. A relative clause of Result is often used to indicate a
characteristic of the antecedent, even where the idea of result
can be no longer perceived. This is especially common
where the antecedent is otherwise undefined : as,
neque enim tu is es, qui qui sis nescias (Fam. v. 12), for you
are not such a one, as not to know ivho you are.
multa dicunt quae vix intelligant (Fin. iv. i), they say many
things such as they hardly understand.
paci quse nihil habitura sit insidiarum semper est consulen-
dum (Off. i. n), we must always aim at a peace which shall
have no plots.
unde agger comportari posset, nihil erat reliquum (B. C. ii.
15), there was nothing left, from which an embankment could
be put together.
NOTE. — These cases of result are to be distinguished from the In-
definite Relative in protasis (§ 59, i).
Such relative clauses of characteristic are used in several
idiomatic constructions : viz., —
«• After general expressions of existence and non-existence,
including questions implying a negative : as,
erant qui Helvidium miserarentur (Ann. xvi. 29), there were
some who pitied Helvidius.
65: 2. 66.] INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES. 185
quis est qui id non maximis e'fferat laudibus (LseU 7), who is
there that does not extol it with the highest praises f
sunt alia? causae quae plane efficiant (Top. 15), there are other
• causes which clearly effect, &c.
b* After unus and solus : as,
nil admirari prope res est una solaque qua? possit facere et
servare beatum (Hor. Ep. i.t>), to 'wonder at nothing is almost
the sole and only thing that can make and keep one happy.
c. After comparatives followed by quam : as,
majores arbores csedebant quam quas ferre miles posset (Liv.
xxviii. 5), they cut larger trees than -what a soldier could
carry.
Canachi signa rigidiora sunt quam ut imitentur veritatem
(Brut. 18), the statues of Canachus are too stiff to represent
nature.
d. In expressions of restriction or proviso, introduced by
Relatives : as,
quod sciam, so far as I know.
Catonis orationes, quas quidem invenerim (Brut. 17), the
speeches of Cato^ at least such as I have discovered.
servus est nemo, qui modo tolerabili condicione sit servitutis
(Cat. iv. 8), there is not a slave, at least in any tolerable con-
dition of slavery.
e. When the quality indicated is connected with the action of
the main clause, either as Cause on account of which (since) , or as
Hindrance in spite of which (although): as,
O virum simplicem qui nos nihil celet (Or. 69), oh, guileless
man, who hides nothing from us !
egomet qui sero Grsecas litteras attigissem tamen compjures
Athenis dies sum commoratus (De Or. 18), I myself , though
I began Greek literature late, yet, dec. [lit., a man who~].
/. Dignus, indignus, aptus, idoneus, take a clause of result
with a relative (rarely with ut) ; in the poets the Infinitive : as,
idoneus qui impetret (Manil. \Q>), fit to obtain.
dignum notari (Hor. Sat. i. 3), worthy to be stigmatized.
66. INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES.
A Relative or other subordinate clause takes the
Subjunctive, when it expresses the thought of some
other person than the speaker or writer, or when it is
an integral part of a Subjunctive clause or equivalent
Infinitive.
186 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [66: I, 2.
1. The Subjunctive is used in intermediate clauses to
express the thought of some other person —
tt. In subordinate clauses in Indirect Discourse (see § 67) .
&• When the clause depends upon another containing a wish,
a command, or a question expressed indirectly, though not indirect
discourse proper : as,
animal sentit quid sit quod deceat (Off. i. 6), an animal feels
'what it is that is fit.
hunc sibi ex animo scrupulum, qui se dies noctesque stimulet
ac pungat, ut evellatis postulat (Rose. Am. 2), he begs you to
pluck from his heart this doubt that goads and stings him day
and night. [Here the relative clause is not a part of the
Purpose expressed in evellatis^ but is an assertion made by
the subject of postulat.'}
ۥ When the main clause of a quotation is merged in the verb
of saying, or some modifier of it : as,
nisi restituissent statuas, vehementer iis minatur (Verr. iii.67),
he threatens them violently unless they should restore the statues.
[Here the main clause, "that he will inflict punishment," is
contained in minatur.~\
prohibitio tollendi, nisi pactus esset, vim adhibebat pactioni
(id. iv. 14), the forbidding to take away unless he came to
terms gave force to the bargain.
d. With a reason or an explanatory fact introduced by a rela-
tive or by quod (rarely quia) :*as,
Favonius mihi quod defendissem leviter succensuit (Att. iii. i),
Favonius gently chided me for my defence.
Psetus omnes libros quos pater suus reliquisset mihi donavit
(id.), Pcetus presented me all the books his father had left.
REMARK.. — Under this head, even what the speaker himself
thought under other circumstances may have the subjunctive. So
also with quod, even the verb of saying may take the subjunctive.
To this use also belong non quia, non quod, introducing a reason
expressly to deny it. Non quo, non quin, introduce a result clause,
but with nearly the same meaning as non quod : as,
pugiles ingemiscunt, non quod doleant, sed quia . . . (Tusc. ii.
23), boxers groan not -with pain, but, &c.
non quia philosophia , . . percipi non posset (id. i. i), not that
philosophy cannot be found, &c.
non quoniam hoc sit necesse (Verr. ii. 9), not that this is
necessary.
NOTE. — This usage probably originates in apodosis, the condition
being the supposed truth of the speaker, the main subject.
2. A clause depending upon another subjunctive clause
(or equivalent Infinitive) will also take the subjunctive if it
is regarded as an integral part of that clause : as,
66: 2. 67.] INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 187
non ptignabo quominus utrum velis eligas (Div. C. 18), I 'will
not oppose your taking 'which you will.
imperat, dum.res adjudicetur, hominem ut asservent : cum
judicatum sit, ad se adducant (Verr. iv. 22), he orders them
'while the affair is under judgment '; to keep the man ; 'when he
is judged-, to bring him to him.
etenim quis tarn dissolute animo est, qui haec cum videat,
tacere ac neglegere possit (Rose. Am. n) , for -who is so reck-
less of spirit, that when he sees these things, he can keep silent
and pass them by ?
si tibi hoc Siculi dicerent, nonne id dicerent quod cuivis pro-
bare deberent (Div. C. 6), if the Sicilians said this to
you, -would they not say a thing -which they must prove to
everybody ?
mos est Athenis laudari in contione eos qui sint in prceliis
interfecti (Or. 44), *'/ is the custom at Athens for those to be
publicly eulogized -who have been slain in battle.
NOTE. — The subjunctive in this use is either a Protasis or Apodosis,
and partakes of the nature of the clause on which it depends, — or
at least of its original nature. In all cases except purpose and result,
this is clearly seen. In these, the case is undoubtedly the same ; as
the Purpose has, of course, a future sense, and the Result is a branch
of apodosis. (See "Essay on the Latin Subjunctive/' page 27.)
It is often difficult to distinguish between this construction and the
preceding. Tims, in imperat ut ea fiant quce opus essent, essent may
stand for sunt, and then will be Indirect Discourse (under i, 6) ; or
it may stand for erunt, and will then be Protasis (under 2).
•
67. INDIRECT DISCOURSE.
A Direct Quotation is one which gives the exact
words of the original speaker or writer. An Indirect
Quotation is one which adapts the original words to
the construction of the sentence in which they are
quoted.
REMARK. — The term INDIRECT DISCOURSE (oratio obliqua)
is used to designate all clauses — even single clauses in a sentence
of different construction — which indirectly express the word or
thought of any person other than the speaker or writer, or even
his own under other circumstances. But it is more strictly used
to include those cases only in which the form of Indirect Quotation
is given to some complete proposition or citation, which may be
extended to a narrative or address of any length, — as found in the
Speeches of Caesar and Livy, — the form being dependent on some
word of saying, &c., with which it is introduced.
The term DIRECT DISCOURSE (oratio recta) includes all other,
forms of expression, whether narration, question, excla,
command.
188 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [67: I.
1. Indirect Narrative. In a Declaratory Sentence in-
indirect discourse, the principal verb is in the Infinitive, and
its subject in the Accusative. All subordinate clauses take
the Subjunctive : as,
esse nonnullos quorum auctoritas plurimum valeat (B. G. i. 17),
there are some, whose influence most prevails. [In direct dis-
course, sunt nonnulli . . . valet.~\
nisi jurasset, scetus se facturum [esse] arbitrabatur (Verr. i.
47), he thought he should incur guilt, unless he should take
the oath [direct, nisijuravero,faciam\.
Stoici negant quidquam esse bonum, nisi quod honestum sit
(Fin. ii. 21), the Stoics assert that nothing is good but what
is right. [The verb nego is used in preference to dice with
a negative.]
a. Subject- Accusative. The subject of the infinitive in
Indirect Discourse must regularly be expressed, even though it is
wanting in the Direct : as,
orator sum, I am an orator ; [dicit] se esse oratorem, [he says]
he is an orator.
But rarely, it is omitted, when it would be easily understood : as,
ignoscere imprudentia dixit (B. G. iv. 27), he said he pardoned
their rashness.
rogavi pervenissentne Agrigentum : dixit pervenisse (Verr. iv.
12), / asked -whether they [the curtains] had come to Agri-
gentum : he answered that they had.
REMARK. — After a relative, or quani (than), where the verb
would be the same as that of the main clause, it is usually omitted,
and its subject is attracted into the accusative : as,
te suspicor eisdem rebus quibus meipsum commoveri (Cat.
M. i), I suspect that you are disturbed by the same things as /.
fr. Relative Clauses. A subordinate clause merely explana-
tory, and containing statements which are regarded as true inde-
pendently of the quotation, takes the Indicative. It often depends
merely upon the feeling of the writer whether he will use the in-
dicative or subjunctive : as,
quis neget hsec omnia quae videmus deorum potestate admm-
istrari (Cat. iii. 9), who can deny that all these things we see
are ruled by the power of the gods ?
cujus ingenio putabat ea quae gesserat posse celebrari (Arch. 9),
by whose genius he thought that those deeds which he had done
could be celebrated. [Here the fact expressed by quce gesserat,
though not explanatory, is felt to be true without regard to
the quotation : qua gessisset would mean, what Marius
thought he had done.]
67: I.} INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 189
REMARK. — Some clauses introduced by relatives are really
independent, and take the accusative and infinitive. Rarely, also,
subordinate clauses take this construction. The infinitive con-
struction is regularly continued after a comparative with quam : as,
Marcellus requisivisse dicitur Archimedem ilium, quern cum
audisset interfectum permoleste tulisse (Verr. iv. 58), Mar-
cellus is said to have sought for Archimedes, and when he
heard that he was slain, to have been greatly distressed.
unumquemque nostrum censent philosophi mundi esse par-
tem, ex quo [= et ex eo] illud natura consequi (Fin. iii. 19),
the philosophers say that each one of us is a part of the uni-
verse, from which this naturally follows.
quemadmodum si non dedatur obses pro rupto se foedus habi-
turum, sic deditam inviolatam ad suos remissurum (Liv. ii.
J3)» [be says] as in case the hostage is not given up he will
consider the treaty as broken, so if given up he will return
her unharmed to her friends.
addit se priiis occisum iri ab eo quam me violatum iri (Att. ii.
20), he adds that he himself will be killed by him, before 1
shall be injured.
The subjunctive with or without ut also occurs with quam.
(see § 70). WT^^-
ۥ Conditional Sentences. In a conditional se^mce, the
Indicative in APODOSIS is in any case representejl^By the \
spending tense of the Infinitiye. The Subjunctive is represen
by the Future Participle with fuisse for the pluperfect, and the
Future Infinitive for the other tenses (compare the use of the par-
ticiple in urus with fui for the pluperfect subjunctive). The
PROTASIS, as a dependent clause, is in all cases Subjunctive : as,
se non defuturum [esse] pollicetur, si audacter dicere velint
(B. C. i. i), he promises not to fail, if they iv ill speak their
minds boldly [non dee'ro si voletis].
NOTE. — The future infinitive, representing the imperfect subjunc-
tive in Protasis, is for some reason very rare, and only four or five
examples occur in classic authors. On the contrary, the form with
fuisse is quite common.
d , Questions. A Question coming immediately after a verb
of asking or the like is treated as an Indirect Question (see
below, 2) ; but questions — generally rhetorical — coming in
course of a long indirect discourse are treated like Declaratory
Sentences : as,
num etiam recentium injuriarum memoriam fse] deponere
posse (B. G. i. 14], could he lay aside the memory of recent
wrongs? [num possum?]
quern signum daturum fugientibus? quern ausurum Alexandro
succedere (Q^C. iii. 5), who will give the signal on the re-
treat ? who will dare to succeed Alexander ?
190 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [67: 2.
REMARK. —Generally real questions, expecting an answer
(chiefly in the second person), take the subjunctive. Questions
asked by the dubitative subjunctive must retain the subjunctive
(see 2, b) : as,
quid sibi vellent (B. G. i. 44), 'what did they -want? [quid
vultis?]
2. Indirect Questions. An Indirect Question takes its
verb in the Subjunctive: as,
quid ipse sentiam exponam (Div. i. 6), / will explain '-what I
think [direct, quid sentio~\.
id possetne fieri consuluit (id. 7), he consulted -whether it could
be done [direct, potestne~\.
quarn sis audax omnes intellegere potuerunt (Rose. Am. 31),
all could understand how bold you are.
doleam necne doleam nihil interest (Tusc. ii. 12), it is of no
account 'whether I suffer or not.
incerti quidnam esset (Jug. 49), uncertain what it 'was.
REMARK. — An Indirect Question is any sentence or clause,
introduced by an interrogative word (pronoun, adverb, or particle),
depending immediately on a verb, or on any expression implying
uncertainty or doubt.
In grammatical form, exclamatory sentences are not distin-
guished from interrogative, as in the third example given above.
«• The Future Indicative is represented in indirect questions
by the participle in urus with the subjunctive of esse, — rarely by
the simple subjunctive : as,
prospicio qui cdncursus futuri sint (Div. in CZEC.), I foresee
'what throngs there will be [erunt].
quid sit futurum eras, fuge quserere (Hor. Od. i. 9), forbear to
ask what will be on the morrow [erit, or futurum est].
&• The Dubitative Subjunctive referring to future time remains
unchanged except in tense : as,
[quaeritur] utrum Carthago diruatur, an Carthaginiensibus
reddatur (De Inv. i. 12), [the question is] shall Carthage be
destroy ed* or restored to the Carthaginians.
nee quisquam satis certum habet, quid aut speret aut timeat
(Liv. xxii. 7), nor is any one assured what he shall hope or
fear. [Here the participle with sit could not be used.]
incerto quid peterent aut vitarent (Liv. xxviii. 36), since it was
doubtful [abl. abs ] what they should seek or shun.
c. The Subject of an indirect question is often, in colloquial
usage and in poetry, attracted into the main clause as Object
(accusative of anticipation) : as,
n6sti Marcellum quam tardus sit (Fam. viii. 10), you know
how slow Marcellus is. — In like manner,
67: 2, 3-] INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 191
potestne igitur earum rerum quare futurae sint ulla esse prse-
sensio (Div. ii. 5), can there be, then, any foreknowledge as
to those things, -why they will occur ?
REMARK. — In some cases the Object becomes Subject by a
change of voice, and an apparent mixture of relative and inter-
rogative construction is the result : as,
quidam saspe in parva pecunia perspiciuntur quam sint leves
(Lael. 17), it is often seen, in a trifling matter of money, how
unprincipled some people are.
quemadmodum Pompeium oppugnarent a me indicati sunt
(Leg. Ag. i. 2), it has been shown by me in what way they
attacked Pompey.
d. In early Latin and poetry, questions which elsewhere would
have the Subjunctive as indirect often have the Indicative : as,
non reputat quid laboris est (Amph. 172), he does not consider
what a task it is.
vineam quo in agro conseri oportet sic observato (Cato R.R 6),
in what soil a vineyard should be set you must observe thus.
NOTE. — These cases are usually considered Direct questions ; but
they occur (as above) where the question cannot be translated as
direct without distortion of the meaning.
ۥ A few expressions properly interrogative are used idiomati-
cally as indefinites, and do not take a subjunctive : such are nescio
quis, &c., mirum (or nimirum) quam or quantum, immane
quantum, &c. : as,
qui istam nescio quam indolentiam magnopere laudant (Tusc.
iii. 6), who greatly extol that painlessness (whatever it is).
mirum quantum profuit (Liv. ii. i), it helped marvellously.
/« Occasionally, a virtual indirect question is introduced by si
in the sense of whether (like ifm English) : as,
circumfunduntur hostes, si quern aditum reperire possent
(B. G. vi. 37), the enemy pour round [to see] if they can find
entrance
visam si domi est (Heaut. 118), I will go see if he is at home.
3. Indirect Commands. All Imperative forms of speech
I take the Subjunctive in indirect discourse : as,
i reminisceretur veteris incommodi populi Romani (B. G. 13),
remember [said he] the ancient disaster, &c. [reminiscere].
I ne committeret ut (ib.), do not [said he] bring it about [ne
commiseris].
\ finem orandi faciat (id. 20), let him make an end of entreaty
[fac].
192
SYNTAX OF THE VERB.
[68.
The following example may serve to illustrate some of the fore-
going principles in a connected address : —
Indirect Discourse. Direct Discourse.
Si pacem populus Ronianus
cum Helvetiis faceret, in earn
partem ituros atque~ ibi futuros
Helvetiosf\\\A eos Caesar con-
stituisset atque esse voluisset :
sin bello persequi perseveraret,
reminisceretur et veteris incom-
modi populi Romani, et pris-
tinae virtutis Helvetiorum. Quod
improviso unum pagum ador-
tus esset, cum ii qui flumen
transissent suis auxilium ferre
non possent) ne ob earn rem aut
suce magno opere virtuti tribue-
ret, aut ipsos dcspiceret : se ita
a patribus majoribusque suis
didicisse* ut magis virtute quam
dolo contenderent, aut insidiis
niterentur. Quare ne commit-
teret, ut is locus ubi constitissent
ex calamitate populi Romani et
internecione exercitus nomen
caperet, aut memoriam pro-
deret. — B. G.4. 13.
Si pacem populus Romanus
cum Helvetiis faciet, in earn
partem ibunt atquesyibi erunt,
Helvetii, ubi eos Caesar constit-
eritfSitque esse voluerit: sin
bello persequi perseverabit,
reminiscere [inquit] et veteris
incommodi populi Romani, et
pristinae virtutis Helvetiorum.
Quod improviso unum pagum
adortus es, cum ii qui flumen
transierant suis auxilium ferre
non possent, ne ob earn rem
aut tuae magno opere virtuti
tribueris, aut nos despexeris :
nos ita a patribus majoribusque
nostris didicimus, ut magis vir-
tute quam dolo contendamus,
aut insidiis nitamur. Quare,
ne commiseris, ut hie locus ubi
constitimus ex calamitate populi
Romani et internecione exerci-
tus nomen capiat, aut memo-
riam prodat.
68. WISHES AND COMMANDS.
1. WISHES are expressed by the Subjunctive, often
strengthened by the particles ut, utinam, 0 si (early Latin),
qui ; the primary tenses being used in reference to future
time, the secondary to express a hopeless wish, — the imper-
fect in present time, the pluperfect in past (see § 57, 4).
REMARK. — A periphrasis with velim, vellem, &c., is some-
times used (57, 4, c).
2. COMMANDS are expressed by the Imperative or Sub-
junctive (§ 57, 3, 7) ; PROHIBITIONS by the Subjunctive, or
by a periphrasis with noli or cave (§ 57, 7, a). The object
of the command is given in a purpose-clause (§ 70, 3) with
ut or ne, except after jubeo and veto (§ 70, 2).
3. Indirectly quoted, all these forms of speech take the
Subjunctive (see § 67, 3).
69. 70.] CLAUSES.
9. RELATIVE CLAUSES.
Wb
1. A simple relative, merely introducing a descriptive fact,
takes the Indicative.
2. The Subjunctive appears more or less frequently in
many relative clauses (which have been already treated).
These relatives always either — (1) are general relatives of
Protasis ; or (2) express some logical connection between the
relative and antecedent, or (3) have no effect at all upon the
construction* These constructions are —
!• General or Future Conditions in Protasis (§§ 59, 60, 61).
2. a. Final Clauses (§ 64).
&. Consecutive Clauses (§ 65).
c* Relatives of Characteristic (§ 65, 2).
d* Relatives implying Cause or Hindrance (§ 65, 2, e).
ۥ Temporal Clauses of relative time (62, 2).
3. a. Intermediate Clauses (§ 66).
&. Clauses in Indirect Discourse (§ 67) .
70. SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES.
A Substantive Clause is one which, like a noun,
is the subject or object of a verb, or in apposition
with a subject or object.
REMARK. — The Infinitive with the Accusative, though not
strictly a Clause, is equivalent to one, and may be treated as
such.
When a substantive clause is used as Subject, the verb to which
it is subject is called Impersonal (§ 39), and its sign, in English,
is IT ; when it is used as Object, it generally follows some verb
of knowing, fyc. (§ 67, i) or of wishing or effecting, and its sign,
in English, is THAT, or TO (Infinitive).
1. Classification. Substantive Clauses are of four
kinds: — 1. The Accusative with the Infinitive, denoting an
idea as thought, or spoken (§ 67, i) ; 2. Indirect Questions
(67, 2) ; 3. The Subjunctive with ut, ne, quo, quin, or
9
194 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [70: 1,2.
quominus, denoting purpose or result; 4. The Indicative
with quod, denoting a fact. But the Infinitive alone may
take the place of either 1 or 3.
2. Accusative and Infinitive. The Accusative with
the Infinitive is used as the Object — 1. Of all verbs and
expressions of knowing, thinking, and telling (Indirect Dis-
course, § 67, i) ; 2. Of jubeo and veto, and rarely of other
verbs of commanding, requesting, admonishing, and the like ;
3. Sometimes of verbs of wishing: as,
dicit montem ab hostibus teneri (B. G. I. 22), he says that the
height is held by the enemy.
negat ullos patere portus (Liv. xxviii. 43), he says that no ports
are open.
Labienum jugum mentis adscendere jubet (id. 21), he orders
Labiemis to ascend the ridge of the hill.
judicem esse me non doctorem volo (Ov. 33), I -wish to be a
judge, not a teacher.
a* ' After Passives. If the main verb is changed to the pas-
sive, either (1) the Subject of the infinitive (like other objects of
active verbs) becomes nominative, and the infinitive is retained ; or
(2) the passive is used impersonally, and the clause retained
as its Object. With verbs of saying, &c,, the former construction
is more common, especially in the tenses of incomplete action ;
with jubeo and veto it is always used : as,
primi traduntur arte quadam verba vinxisse (Or. 13), they first
are related to have joined words 'with a certain skill.
jussus es renuntiari consul (Phil. ii. 32), you -were under orders
to be declared consul.
in lautumias Syracusanas deduci imperantur (Verr. v. 27),
they are ordered to be taken to the stone-pits of Syracuse.
hie accusare non est situs (Sest. 44), he -was not allowed to
accuse.
praedicari de se ac nominari volunt (Arch. 10), they -wish to be
talked of and known by name. [Here the passive is used
impersonally.]
voluntaria morte interisse creditus est (Tac. H. iv. 67), he was
thought to have perished by voluntary death.
nuntiatur piratarum naves esse in portu (Verr. v. 24), it is
told that the ships of the pirates are in port.
&• The poets extend the use of the passive to verbs which are
not properly verba sentiendi: as,
colligor dominse placuisse (Ov. Am. ii. 6, 61), it is gathered
[from this memorial] that I pleased my mistress.
70: 2, 3-] SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 195
c. Such indirect discourse may depend on any word implying
speech or thought, though not strictly a verb of saying, &c. : as,
eos redire jubet: se in tempore adfuturum esse (Liv. xxiv. 13),
he orders them to return [promising] that he will be at hand
in season.
orantes ut urbibus saltern — jam enim agros deploratos esse —
opem senatus ferret (id. xvi. 6), praying- that the senate
'would bring aid to the cities — for the fields [they said] were
already given up as lost.
d. Verbs of promising, expecting, threatening, swearing, and
the like, regularly take the construction of Indirect Discourse,
contrary to the English idiom (§ 67, I, a) ; but sometimes a simple
complementary infinitive : as,
me spero liberatum [esse] metu (Tusc. ii. 27), / trust I have
been freed from fear.
minatur sese abire (Asin. iii. 3), he threatens to go away.
[Direct, abeo, I am going away, ,]
ex quibus sperant se maximum fructum esse captures (Lsel. 21),
from which they hope to gain the utmost advantage.
quern inimicissimum futurum esse promitto ac spondeo (Mur.
41), who I promise and warrant will be the bitterest of
enemies.
dolor fortitudinem se debilitaturum minatur (Tusc. v. 27), pain
threatens to wear down fortitude.
pollicentur obsides dare (B. G. iv. 21), they promise to give hos-
tages [compare Greek aorist infinitive after similar verbs.]
3. Clauses of Purpose. The clause with ut (nega-
tive lie), developed from PURPOSE, is used as the Object of
all verbs denoting an action directed towards the future.
Such are —
a. Verbs of commanding, asking, admonishing, urging, and
in general those denoting an influence upon some one (§ 64).
These verbs rarely take the Infinitive (except jubeo and veto,
which take it regularly) : as,
his uti conquirerent imperavit (B. G. i. 2), he ordered them to
search.
monent ut omnes suspiciones vitet (id. 20), he warns him to
avoid all suspicion.
b. Verbs of wishing and the like. These take also the simple
Infinitive ; more commonly when the subject remains the same, less
-commonly when it is different (see 2, above) : as,
cupio ut impetret (Capt. i. 2), I wish he may get it.
cum nostri perspici cuperent (B. G. iii. 21), when our men
wished it to be seen.
196 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [70: 3.
mallem Cerberum metueres (Tusc. i. 6), I would rather you
feared Cerberus.
quos non tarn ulcisci studeo quam sanare (Cat. ii. 8), whom I
do not care so much to punish as to cure.
c. Verbs of permission, concession, and necessity. These take
also the Infinitive : as,
permisit ut partes faceret (De Or. ii. 90), permitted him to
make divisions.
vinum importari non sinunt (B. G. iv. 2), they do not allow
wine to be imported.
nullo se implicari negotio passus est (Lig. 3), he suffered him-
self to be tangled in no business.
sint enim oportet si miseri sunt (Tusc. i 6), they must exist, if
they are wretched.
REMARK. — The clause with licet (usually without ut) is
regularly used to express a concession in the sense of although.
d. Verbs of determining, resolving, bargaining, which also
take the Infinitive. Those of decreeing often take the participle
in dus, on the principle of indirect discourse : as,
edicto ne quis injussu pugnaret (Liv. v. 19), having commanded
that none should fight without orders.
pacto ut victorem res sequeretur (id. xxviii. 21), having bar-
gained that the property should belong to the victor.
Regulus captivos reddendos non censuit (Off. i. 13), Regulus
voted that the captives should be returned. [He said, in giv-
ing his opinion, captivi non reddendi sunt.~\
e. Verbs of caution and effort. Those denoting an effort to
hinder may also take quominus or ne : as,
cura et provide ut nequid ei desit (Att. ii. 3), take care and see
that he lacks nothing.
non deterret sapientem mors quominus . . . (Tusc. i. 38), death
does not deter the wise man from, &c.
ne facerem impedivit (Fat. i. i}, prevented me from doing.
/. Verbs of fearing take the Subjunctive, with ne affirmative
and ne non or ut negative : as,
ne animum offenderet verebatur (B. G. i. 19), he feared he
should offend the mind, &c.
vereor ut tibi possim concedere (De Or. i. 9), I fear I cannot
grant you.
baud sane periculum est ne non mortem optandam putet
(Tusc. v. 40), there is no danger of his not thinking death
desirable.
REMARK. — The particle ut or ne is often omitted, — generally
after verbs of wishing, necessity, permission ; with cave, die, fac ;
and in indirect discourse, frequently after verbs of commanding
and the like.
70: 4-] SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 197
gr. With any verbs of the above classes, the poets may use the
Infinitive : as,
hortamur fari (&n. ii. 74), we exhort [him] to speak.
4. Clauses of Result. The clause with lit (negative
ut non, &c.), developed from RESULT, is used as the Object
of verbs denoting the accomplishment of an effort : as,
commeatus ut portari possent efficiebat (B. G. ii. 5), he made
it possible that supplies could be bought. [Lit., he effected
that, &c.]
a. The substantive clause becomes the Subject of such verbs
in the passive ; and hence is further used as the subject of verbs
denoting it happens, it remains, it follows, and the like ; and even
of the simple esse in the same sense, and other phrases : as,
sequitur ut doceam (N. D. ii. 32), the next thing is to show, &c.
accidit ut esset plena luna (B. G. iv. 29), it chanced to be full
moon.
accedit ut conturber (Deiot. i), besides this I am troubled.
reliquum est quarta virtus ut sit ipsa frugalitas (id.), it remains
that the fourth virtue is thrift.
quando fuit ut quod licet non liceret (Gael. 20), 'when was it
that 'what is now allowed was not allowed ?
b. A result clause, with or without ut, frequently follows
quam, after a comparative : as,
perpessus est omnia potius quam indicaret (Tusc. i. 22), he
endured all, rather than betray, &c.
c. A result clause with ut is often used elliptically, in ex-
clamations, with or without -ne (compare § 57, 8, g) : as,
quanquam quid loquor? te ut ulla res frangat (Cat. i. <£)-,yet
why do I ask i that anything should bend you !
egone ut te interpellem (Tusc. ii. 18), what, I interrupt you f '
REMARK. — The infinitive, in exclamations, usually refers to
something actually occurring ; the subjunctive to something con-
templated.
d. The phrase tantum abest, it is so far [from being the
case], besides a subject-clause (substantive) with ut, regularly
takes another ut-clause (of result) depending on tantum : as,
tantum abest ut nostra miremur, ut usque eo difficiles ac mor-
osi simus, ut nobis non satisfaciat ipse Demosthenes (Or.
29), so far from admiring our o^vn matters, we are difficult
and captious to that degree, that not Demosthenes himself
satisfies us. [Here the first ut-clause depends directly on
abest j the second on tantum ; and the third on usque eo.~\
198 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [70: 4.
e. The expressions facere ut, committere ut, often form a
periphrasis for the simple verb (compare fore ut for the future
infinitive) : as,
invitus feci ut Flamininum e senatu eicerem (Cat. M. 12), it
was -with reluctance that I expelled, &c.
/, Rargly, a thought or idea is considered as a result, and
takes the subjunctive with ut instead of the accusative and infini-
tive (in this case a demonstrative usually precedes) : as,
altera est res, ut . . . (Off. i. 20), the second point is that, &c.
praeclarum illud est, ut eos . . . amemus (Tusc. iii. 29), this is
a noble thing, that we should love, &c.
quae est igitur amentia, ut . . . -what folly is there then in de-
manding, &c.
(/, Verbs and other expressions which imply hindering and the
like, may take quin when the main verb is negative, formally or
virtually: as,
facere non possum quin . . . (Att. xii. 27), I cannot avoid, &c.
nihil praetermisi quin scribam . . . (Q^ F. iii. 3), / have left
nothing undone to write.
ut nulla re impedirer quin (Att. iv. 2), that I might be hin-
dered by nothing from, &c.
non humana ulla neque divina obstant quin (Sail. Ep. Mith.
17), no human or divine laws prevent, but that, &c.
REMARK. — This usage is found especially with the phrase non
dubito and similar expressions making a kind of indirect dis-
course : as,
non dubitabat quin ei crederemus (Att. vi. 2), he did not doubt
that we believed him.
illud cave dubites quin ego omnia faciam (Fam. v. 20), do not
doubt that I will do all.
quis ignorat quin (Flacc. 27), who is ignorant that, &c. ?
neque ambigitur quin Brutus pessimo publico id facturus fue-
rit si priorum regum alicui regnum extorsisset (Livy, ii. i),
nor is there any question that Brutus, if he had wrested the
kingdom from any one of the former kings, would have done it
with the worst results to the state [direct discourse, fecisset\.
h. Some verbs and expressions may be used either as verbs of
saying as well as of commanding or effecting and the like, and
may be construed accordingly : as,
sequitur illico esse causas immutabiles (Fat. 12), it follows
directly that there are unalterable causes. [The regular
construction with sequor used of a logical sequence.]
laudem sapientise statuo esse maximam (Div. v. 13), / hold
that the glory of wisdom is the greatest.
70: 5-] SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 199
statuunt ut decem milia hominum mittantur (B. G. xii. 21),
they resolve that 10,000 men shall be sent.
res ipsa monebat tempus esse (Att. x. 8), the thing itself -warned
that it was time [monere ut, -warn to do something}.
fac mihi esse persuasum (N. D. i. 27), suppose that I am per-
suaded of that [facere ut, accomplish thaf\.
hoc volunt persuadere non interire anitnos (B. G. vi. 13), they
-wish to convince that souls do not perish.
huic persuadet uti ad hostes transeat (B. G. iii. 18), persuades
him to pass over to the enemy.
NOTE. — The infinitive, with a subject, in this construction is in-
direct discourse, and is to be distinguished from the simple infinitive
sometimes found with these verbs.
5. Indicative with quod. The clause in the Indicative
with quod is used (more commonly as Subject) when the
statement is regarded as a fact : as,
alterum est vitium, quod quidam nimis magnum studium
conferunt (Off. i. j6), it is another fault, that some bestow too
much zeal-, &c. [Here ut with the subjunctive could be
used, meaning that they should, or the accusative and infin-
itive, meaning to more abstractly; quod makes it a fact that
men do, &c.]
inter inanimum et animal hoc maxime interest, quod animal
agit aliquid (Ac. ii. 12), there is this chief difference, &c.,
that an animal has an aim.
quod rediit nobis mirabiie videtur (Off. iii. 31), that he [Reg-
ulus] returned seems wonderful to us. [Redisse would mean
he should have returned.]
a. In colloquial language, the clause with quod appears as
an accusative of specification, corresponding to the English
WHEREAS : as,
quod de domo scribis (Fam. xiv. 2), as to what you write of
the house.
quod mihi de nostro statu gratularis, minime miramur te tuis
pra3claris operibus laetari (Att. i. 5), as to your congratulat-
ing me on our condition, no wonder you are pleased with your
pwn noble works.
b. Verbs of feeling and its expression take either quod (quia)
or the accusative and infinitive (Indirect Discourse) : as,
quod scribis .. .gaudeo(Q1F. iii. i). I am glad that you write.
quae perfecta esse vehementer laetor (Rose. Am. 47), I greatly
rejoice that this is finished.
facio libenter quod earn non possum praeterire (Leg. i. 24). /
am glad that I cannot pass it by.
RKMARK. — Rarely, an apparent substantive clause, with miror
and similar expressions, is introduced by si (really a Protasis) : as,
miror si quemquam amicum habere potuit (Lael. 15), I should
wonder if he could ever have a friend.
200 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [71 : I, 2.
71. QUESTIONS.
Questions are introduced by Interrogative Pronouns,
Adverbs, or Particles, and are not distinguished by
the order of words, as in English.
The Interrogative Particles are, an, utrum, num, and the
enclitic -ne (see page 86). For other interrogative words, see
list, page 49.
1. Interrogative f articles. The enclitic -ne is used
in questions asked for information merely ; nonne, when the
answer yes, and num when the answer no, is expected or im-
plied: as,
meministine me in senatu dicere (Cat. i. 3), do you remember
my saying in the senate f
nonne animadvertis quam multi salvi pervenerint (N. D. iii.
37), do you not observe how many have come through safe ?
num dubium est (Rose. Am. 37), there is no doubt, is there f
REMARK. — The interrogative particle is sometimes omitted:
as,
patere tua consilia non sentis (Cat. i. i), do you not see that
your plans are manifest ?
a. In Indirect Questions, num loses its peculiar force : as,
qusero num aliter evenirent (Fat. 3). / ask whether they
would turn out differently.
b. The form of Indirect questions is the same as that of Direct ;
the difference being only in the verb, which regularly takes the
subjunctive (§ 71, 2).
REMARK. — In English, indirect questions are introduced by
interrogatives, or by the particle whether.
c. The enclitic -ne is often added to interrogative words when
not required : as, utrumne, numne, anne.
d. The expressions nescio an, dubito an, and the like, incline
to the Affirmative, — / don't know but.
2. Double Questions. In Double or Alternative Ques-
tions, utrum or -ne, whether, stands in the first member ; an,
anne, or ; annon, necne, or not, in the second : as,
utrum nescis, an pro nihilo id putas (Fam. x. 26), don't you
know ? or do you think nothing of it ?
71:2,3-] QUESTIONS. 201
quaere servosne an liberos (Rose. Am. 27). / ask -whether
slaves or free. [Here servos aut liberos would mean, were
there any, either slaves or free.]
REMARK. — In direct questions, annon is more frequently
found in the alternative ; in indirect, necne.
a. The interrogative particle is often omitted in the first mem-
ber ; when -ne (anne, necne) may stand in the second : as,
Gabinio dicam anne Pompeio (Manil. 19), shall I say to Ga-
binius or to Pompey f
sunt haec tua verba necne (Tusc. iii. 18), are these your words
or not ?
b. Sometimes the first member is omitted or implied ; and an
(anne) alone asks a question — usually with indignation or sur-
prise : as,
an tu miseros putas illos (Tusc. i. 7), -what I do you think those
men wretched?
c* The second member may be omitted, when utrum asks a
question to which there is no alternative : as,
utrum in clarissimis est civibus is quem. . . . (Place. 19), is he
among the noblest citizens, whom, &c.
d. The following exhibits the various forms of alternative
questions : —
utrum ... an
... an (anne)
-ne ... an
3. Question and Answer. As there is no word in
Latin meaning simply yes or no, in answering a question the
verb is generally repeated : as,
valetne, is he well f valet, yes (he is well).
eratne tecum, was he with you ? non erat, no (he was not).
a. An intensive or negative particle is sometimes used in
answer to a direct question : thus immo (nay but) , vero (in
truth) , or etiani (even so) may have the meaning of yes ; and non
(not), or minime (least-of-all) , of no.
b. In the answer to an alternative question, one < member of
the alternative must be repeated : as,
tune an frater erat, was it you or your brother ?
ego [eram], it was I.
NOTE. — Tune aut pater would mean, was it either of you?
202 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [72: I.
72. PARTICIPLES.
The Participle expresses the action of the verb in
the form of an adjective ; but has a partial distinction
of tense, and generally governs the case of its verb.
1. Distinctions of Tense. The Present participle de-
notes the action as not completed; the Perfect as completed ;
the Future as still to take place.
a* Present. The Present participle has several of the irregu-
lar uses of the present indicative (compare § 58, 2) : as,
quaerenti mihi jamdiu certa res nulla veniebat in mentem
(Fam. iv. 13), though 1 had long soztght, no certain thing came
to my mind (cf. ib. a}.
C. Flaminio restitit agrum Picentem dividenti (Cat. M. 4), he
resisted Flaminius while attempting to divide, &c. (cf. £).
iens in Pompeianum bene mane hsec scripsi (Att. iv. 9), /
'write this when about going- to my place at Pompeii (cf. c).
Hence it is used in late writers to denote purpose.
b. Perfect. The Perfect participle of a few deponent verbs
is used nearly in the sense of a Present. Such are, regularly,
ratus, solitus, veritus; commonly, fisus, ausus, secutus, and
occasionally others, especially in later writers : as,
cohortatus milites docuit (B. C. iii. 80), encouraging the men,
he showed, &c.
iratus dixisti (Mur. Tp),you spoke in a passion.
oblitus auspicia (Phil. i. 13), forgetting the auspices.
insidias veritus (B. G. ii. n), fearing ambuscade.
imperio potitus (Liv. xxi. 2), holding the command.
ad pugnam congressi (id. iv. 10), meeting in fight.
rem incredibilem rati (Sail. C. 48), thinking it incredible.
c. The present participle, wanting in the Passive, is usually
supplied by a clause with dum or cum ; rarely by the participle
in dus: as,
Die, hospes, Spartse, nos te hie vidisse jacentes,
Dum sanctis patrise legibus obsequimur.
Tell it, stranger, at Sparta, that -we lie here obedient to our
country's sacred laws. [Here dum obsequimur is a transla-
tion of the Greek nettiontvoi.']
crucibus adfixi aut flammandi (Ann. xv. 44), crucified or set
on fire [compare note under § 73].
72 2, 3-] PARTICIPLES. 203
2. Adjective use. The present and perfect participles
are used sometimes as attributes, nearly like adjectives : as,
cum antiquissimam sententiam turn comprobatam (Div. i. 5),
a view at once most ancient and approved.
signa nunquam fere ementientia (id. 9), signs hardly ever
deceitful.
auspiciis utuntur coactis (id. 15), they use forced auspices.
a. Thus they are used, like adjectives, as nouns : as,
sibi indulgentes et corpori deservientes (Leg. i. 13), the self-
indulgent, and slaves to the body.
recte facta paria esse debent (Par. iii. i), right deeds ought to
be like in value.
male parta male dilabuntur (Phil. ii. 27), ill got, ill spent.
consuetude valentis (De Or. ii. 44), the habit of a man in health.
b. So, also, they are connected with nouns by esse and simi-
lar verbs : as,
videtis ut senectus sit operosa et semper agens aliquid et
moliens (Cat. M. 8), you see how busy old age is, always
aiming and trying at something.
Gallia est omnis divisa (B. G. i. i), all Gaul is divided.
locus qui nunc saeptus est (Liv. i. 8), the place which is now
enclosed.
c. From this adjective use arise the compound tenses of the
passive, — the participle of completed action with the incomplete
tenses of esse developing the idea of past time : as,
interfectus est, he was (or has been} billed, lit., he is having-
beeri- killed [i.e., already slain].
cL. In the best writers (as Cicero) this participle, when used
with the tenses of completed action, retains its proper force ; but
in later writers the two sets of tenses (as, amatus sum or fui)
are often used indiscriminately : as,
[leges] cum quce latse sunt turn vero quce promulgate fuerunt
(Sest. 25), the laws, both those which -were proposed, and
those which were published. [The proposal of the laws was
a single act: hence latce sunt is a pure perfect. The publish-
ing, or posting, was a continued state, which is indicated by
promulgates, and fuerunt is the pure perfect.] -
arma quse fixa in parietibus fuerant, humi inventa sunt (Div.
i. 34)5 the arms which had been fastened on the walls were
found upon the ground. [Compare occupati sunt et fuerunt
(Off. i. 17) : the difference between this and the preceding
is, that occupatus can be used only as an adjective.]
3. Predicate use. The Present and Perfect participles
are often used as a predicate, where in English a clause
204 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [72: 3.
would be used to express time, cause, occasion, condition,
concession, characteristic, manner, circumstance: as,
vereor ne turpe sit dicere incipientem (Mil. i), I fear it maybe
a dishonor [to me] 'when beginning to speak.
salutem insperantibus reddidisti (Marc. 7), you have restored
a safety -which we did not hope.
nemo ei neganti non credidisset (Mil. 19), no one -would have
disbelieved him 'when he denied.
REMARK. — This use is especially frequent in the Ablative Ab-
solute (see § 54, 10, 6 and Note). A co-ordinate clause is some-
times compressed into a perfect participle ; and a participle with
a negative expresses the same idea which in English is given by
without: as,
imprudentibus nostris (B. G. v. 15), while our men were not
looking.
miserum est nihil proficientem angi (N. D. iii. 5), it is -wretched
to vex one's self without effecting anything.
instructos ordines in locum aequuin deducit (Sail. C. 59), he
draws up the lines, and leads them to level ground.
ut hos transductos necaret (B. G. v. 5), that he might carry
them over and put them to death.
a. A noun and passive participle are often so united that the
participle and not the noun contains the main idea (compare the
participle in indirect discourse in Greek : G. 280) : as,
ante conditam condendamve urbem (Liv. Pref.), before the city
was built or building.
illi libertatem civium Romanorum imminutam non tulerunt;
vos vitam ereptam negligetis (Manil. 5), they did not endure
the infringement of the citizen^ liberty ; will you disregard
the destruction of their life ?
So with opus : as,
opus est viatico facto (Plaut. Trin.), there is need of laying in
provision.
maturato opus est (Livy viii. 13), there is no need of haste.
[Here there is no noun, as the verb is used impersonally.]
&. The perfect participle with habeo (rarely with other verbs)
is almost the same in meaning as a perfect active : as,
fidem quern habent spectatam jam et diu cognitam (Div. C. 4),
my fidelity, which they have proved and long known.
(Hence the perfect with have in modern languages.)
C. The perfect participle, with verbs of effecting, effort, or
the like (also with volo where esse may be understood, cf. § 70,
3, 6), expresses more forcibly the idea of the verb : as,
proefectos suos multi missos fecerunt (Verr. iv. 58), many dis-
charged their officers.
72: 4, S-] PARTICIPLES. 205
hie transactum reddet omne (Capt. 345), he -will get it all done.
me excusatum volo (Verr. i. 40), I 'wish to be excused.
d. The present participle is sometimes nearly equivalent to an
infinitive, but expresses the action more vividly (after facio, in-
duco, and the like, used of authors, and after verbs of sense) : as,
Xenophon facit Socratem disputantem (N. D. i. n), Xenophon
represents Socrates disputing.
4. Future Participle. The Future Participle (except
futurus and venturus) is rarely used in simple agreement
with a noun, except by later writers.
a. The future participle is chiefly used with esse in a peri-
phrastic conjugation (see § 40, a) : as,
morere, Diagora, non enim in caelum adscensurus es (Tusc. i.
46), die, for you are not likely to go to heaven.
conclave illud ubi erat mansurus si ... (Div. 1^15), that cham-
ber 'where he 'would have staid if, &c.
sperat adolescens diu se victurum (Cat. M. 19), the young man
hopes to live long (§ 67, i).
neque petiturus unquam consulatum videretur (Off. iii. 20),
and seemed unlikely ever to seek the consulship.
By later writers it is also used in simple agreement to express
likelihood or purpose, or even an apodosis : as,
cum leo regem invasurus incurreret (Q± C. viii. i), -when a
lion rushed on to attack the king.
rediit belli casum de integro tentaturus (Liv. xvii. 62), he re-
turned to try the chances of war anew.
ausus est rem plus famae habituram (Liv. ii. 10), he dared a
thing 'which 'would have more repute.
[See also examples in § 59, i, 5.]
6. With past tenses of esse, the future participle is often
equivalent to the pluperfect subjunctive (§ 59, 3, e).
5. Gerundive. The Gerundive, in its participial or ad-
jective use, denotes necessity or propriety.
a. The gerundive is sometimes used, like the present and per-
fect participles, in simple agreement with a noun : as,
fortem et conservandum virum (Mil. 38), a brave man, and
'worthy to be preserved.
&• The most frequent use of the gerundive is with esse in a
second periphrastic conjugation (§ 40, 6) : as,
non agitanda res erit (Verr. vi. 70), -will not the thing have to
be agitated?
206 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [73: I, 2i
REMARK. — The gerundive in this construction is passive in
meaning. But in early Latin, and occasionally elsewhere, it is
used impersonally, governing the accusative ; and it is regularly so
used with utor, fruor, &c., governing the ablative (sometimes
called the nominative of the gerund) : as,
via quam nobis ingrediendum sit (Cat. M. 2), the way we
have to enter.
agitandumst vigilias (Trin. 869), I have got to stand guard.
[Compare Greek verbal in -reog, G. 281.]
ۥ It is also used to denote purpose after verbs signifying to
give, deliver, agree for, have, receive, undertake, demand: as,
redemptor qui columnam illam conduxerat faciendam (Div. ii.
21), the contractor 'who had undertaken to make that column
[the regular construction with this class of verbs].
sedem Castoris habuit tuendam (Verr. ii. 50), he had the
temple of Castor to take care of.
naves atque onera diligenter adservanda curabat (id. vi. 56),
he took care that the ships and cargoes should be kept.
For the Gerundive after verbs of decreeing, see § 70, 3, d.
For the ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE, see § 54, 10, 6.
73. GERUND AND GERUNDIVE.
1. Gerund* The Gerund is a verbal noun, retaining the
government of the verb, and modified by adverbs, but in
grammatical construction following the same rules as nouns.
REMARK. — The use of the Gerund, in the oblique cases, cor-
responds to the use of the Infinitive as Subject (§ 57, 8, a) , its
nominative form being found only in the impersonal use of the
participle in dus: as,
ars bene disserendi et vera ae falsa dijudicandi (De Or. ii. 38),
the art of discoursing well, and distinguishing the true and
false. [Here the Verbal nouns discoursing and distinguish-
ing, if used in the nominative, would be expressed by the
infinitive disserere and dijtidicare.^\
juveni parandum. seni utendum est (Sen. Ep. 36), it is for the
young to get, for the old to enjoy (compare § 51, 3, 4).
2. Gerundive. When the gerund would have an object
in the accusative, the Gerundive is generally used instead,
agreeing with the noun, and in the case which the gerund
would have had : as,
paratiores ad omnia pericula subeunda (B. G. i. 5), readier to
undergo all dangers. [Here subeunda agrees with pericula,
which is itself governed by ad: the construction with the
gerund wouW be, ad subeundum, &c. ; ad governing the
gerund, and the gerund governing the accusative pericula.~\
73: 2, 3-] GERUND AND GERUNDIVE. 207
exercendae memorise gratia (Off. i. if), for the sake of training
the memory. [Here the gerund construction would be, exer-
cendi memoriam.~\
REMARK. — The verbs utor, fruor, &c. (§ 54, 6, d), are
treated like verbs governing the Accusative, as they do in early
Latin : as,
expetuntur divitiae ad perfruendas voluptates (Off. i. 8), riches
are sought for the enjoyment of pleasure.
NOTE. — The gerundive construction is probably the original one.
The Participle in dus seems to have had a present passive force as in
secundus (from sequor), rotundus, volvendis, annis (Virg.), flaminandi
(Tac.), from which the idea of necessity was developed through that
of futurity, as in the development of the subjunctive. Consilium urbis
delendaz would thus have meant a plan of a city being destroyed [in
process of destruction], then about to be destroyed, then to be de-
stroyed, then a plan of destroying the city, the two words becoming
fused together as in ab urbe conditd. The gerund is simply an imper-
sonal use of the participle, in its original present sense, retaining the
case of its verb, as in agitandum est vigilias ; quid opus est facto ?
3* Construction. The Gerund (if of transitive verbs,
with a noun in government) and the Gerundive (with a noun
in agreement) are used, in the oblique cases, in the construc-
tions of nouns, as follows : —
a. Genitive. The Genitive is used after nouns or adjectives
in the constructions of the objective genitive (§ 50, 3) ; more
rarely in the predicate after esse, or as a genitive of quality : as,
neque consilii habendi neque arma capiendi spatio dato (B. G.
iv. 14), time being given neither for forming plans nor for
taking arms [objective genitive after spatio~\.
ne conservandse quidam patrise causa (Off. i. 45), not even in
order to save the country.
vivendi finis est optimus (Cat. M. 20), it is the best end of life.
non tam commutandarum rerum quam evertendarum cupidos
(id. ii. i), desirous not so much of changing as of destroying
the state.
quae res evertendae reipublicas solent esse (Verr. iii. 53), which
things generally tend to the overthrow of the commonwealth.
cognoscendse antiquitatis (Ann. ii. 59), to study old times.
[Here gratia is, by a rare construction, omitted.]
The genitive of the Gerund is, in a few cases, used (like a noun)
with the genitive of an object agreeing neither in gender nor
number : as,
ejus videndi cupidus (Ter. Hec.), eager to see her. fC-Cof** £ f
reiciendi trium judicum potestas (Inv. ii. 2), the power of
challenging three jurors.
REMARK. — In the genitive, the construction of the gerund and
gerundive are about equally common.
208 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [73: 3.
b. Dative. The Dative is used after the adjectives (and
rarely nouns) which are followed by the dative of nouns (§ 51, 6) ;
also, in a few expressions after verbs : as,
prseesse agro colendo (Rose. Am. 18), to take charge of tillage.
esse solvendo, to be able to pay.
genus armorum aptum tegendis corporibus (Liv. xxxii. 10), a
sort of armor suited to the defence of the body.
reliqua tempora demetiendis fructibus et percipiendis accom-
modata sunt (Cat. M. 19), the other seasons are fitted to reap
and gather in the harvest.
diem prsestituit operi faciendo (Verr. ii. 56), he appointed a day
for doing the work.
It is also used in certain phrases belonging to the civil law, after
nouns meaning officers, offices, elections* &c. : as,
comitia consulibus rogandis (Div. i. 17), elections for nomin-
ating consuls.
triumvirum coloniis deducundis (Jug. 42), a triumvir for
leading out colonies.
ۥ Accusative. The Accusative is used after the prepositions
ad, inter, circa, ob (rarely in and ante) ; most frequently after
ad, denoting purpose (compare § 72, 4) : as,
vivis non ad deponendam sed ad confirmandam audaciam
(Cat. i. 2), you live, not to put off, btit to confirm your daring.
inter agendum (Eel. ix. 24), iv/iile driving.
me vocas ad scribendum (Or. 10), you call me to ivrite.
d* Ablative. The Ablative is used to express means or in-
strument ; also manner (often by later writers, in a sense equiv-
alent to the present participle) ; after comparatives ; and after the
prepositions ab, de, ex, in, and (rarely) pro and cum: as,
multa pollicendo persuadet (Jug. 46), he persuades by large
promises.
his ipsis legendis (Cat. M. 7), by reading these very things.
nullum officium referenda gratia magis necessarium est (Off.
i. 15), no duty is more important than gratitude.
in re gerenda versari (Cat. M. 6), to be employed in affairs.
Latine loquendo cuivis par (Brut. 34), equal to any man in
speaking Latin.
nullis virtutis praeceptis tradendis (Off. i. 2), 'without giving
any precepts of virtue.
obscuram atque humilem conciendo ad se multitudinem (Liv.
i. 8), calling to them a mean and obscure multitude.
REMARK. — The gerund is occasionally found in apposition with
a noun : as,
ad res diversissimas, parendum atque imperandum (Livy, xxi.
3), for the most ividely different things obeying and com-
manding.
NOTE. — From the ablative of manner comes the Italian and Spanish
form of the participle, the true participle form becoming an adjective.
74 : i, 2.] SUPINE. 209
74, SUPINE.
The Supine is a verbal noun, having no distinction
of tense or person, and is limited to two uses.
NOTE. — The Supine is a verbal abstract of the fourth declension.
The form in um is the accusative of the end of motion. The form
in u is probably dative of purpose, though possibly ablative.
1. Former Supine. The Supine in um is used after
verbs of motion to express the purpose of the motion; it
governs the case of its verb, and is modified by adverbs : as,
quid est, imusne sessum? etsi admonitum venimus te, non
flagitatum (De Or. lii. 5), how now, shall we be seated?
though we have come to remind not to entreat you.
nuptum collocasse (B. G. i. 18), to establish in marriage.
venerunt questum injurias (Liv. iii. 25), they came to complain
of wrongs.
REMARK. — The supine in um is used especially after eo; and
with the passive infinitive iri forms the future infinitive passive
(see § 55, 3, 6, Rem.) : as,
fu£re cives qui rempublicam perditum irent (Sail. C. 36), there
were citizens who went about to ruin the republic.
non Graiis servitum matribus ibo (^En. ii. 786), I shall not go
in slavery to the Grecian dames.
si scisset se trucidatum iri (Div. ii. 9), if he [Pompey] had
known that he was going to be murdered.
2. Latter Supine. The Supine in u is used only after
a few adjectives, and the nouns fas, nefas, and opus, to de-
note that in respect to which the quality is asserted : as,
O rem non modo visu fcedam, sed etiam auditu (Phil. ii. 25),
a thing not only shocking to see, but even to hear of!
quserunt quid optimum factu sit (Verr. ii. 27), they ask what is
best to do.
humanum factu aut inceptu (Andr. 236), a human thing to do
or undertake.
si hoc fas est dictu (Tusc. v. 13), if this is lawful to say.
So rarely with verbs : as,
pudet dictu (Agric. 32), it is shame to tell.
REMARK.-— The supine in u is found especially with such
adjectives as indicate an effect on the senses or the feelings, and
those which denote ease, difficulty, and the like. But with facilis,
difficilis, jucundus, the construction of ad with the gerund is
more common. The Infinitive is often used in the same significa-
tion, by the poets, with all these adjectives.
•
210 GENERAL RULES OP SYNTAX. [75.
75. GENERAL RULES OF SYNTAX.
1. Nouns meaning the same thing agree in case (§ 46) .
2. Adjectives agree with Nouns in gender, number, and case (47).
3. Possessive Adjectives are used for the genitive, and in any
case may have a genitive in agreement (47, 5).
4. Relatives agree with their antecedents in gender and number ;
their case depending on the construction of their clause (48).
5. A Verb agrees with its Subject in number and person (49).
6. Two or more singular subjects — also collective nouns, with
quisque and uterque — may take a plural verb (49, i).
7. The Subject of a finite verb is in the NOMINATIVE (49, 2).
8. A Noun used to limit or define another is in the GENITIVE (50).
9. The Genitive is used to denote the author, owner, source, and
(with adjectives) measure or quality (50, i).
10. Words denoting a part are followed by the genitive of the
whole to which the part belongs (50, 2).
11. Certain adjectives of Quantity are used in the genitive to
express indefinite Value (50, i, i). _
12. Many words of memory and feeling, knowledge or ignorance,
fulness and want, — also verbals and participles used as ad-
jectives, — govern the genitive (50, 3).
13. Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting take the gen-
itive of the charge or penalty (50, 4, b).
14. The DATIVE is the case of the Indirect Object (51).
15. Words of likeness, fitness, nearness, service, or help are fol-
lowed by the dative (51, 5, 6).
16. Verbs meaning to favor, help, please, serve, trust, and their
contraries, — also to believe, persuade, command, obey, envy,
threaten, pardon, and spare, — govern the dative (51, 2, a}.
17. The Dative is used after esse, to be, to denote the Owner (51, 3).
18. Most verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob,
post, pise, pro, sub, super, govern the Dative (51, 2, d).
19. Verbs of giving, telling, sending, and the like — and some-
times of comparing and taking away — govern the accu-
sative and dative (51, i).
20. The dative is used to denote the purpose or end ; often with
another dative of the person or thing affected (51, 5).
21. The ACCUSATIVE is the case of the Direct Object (52).
22. The subject of the Infinitive mood is in the accusative (52, 4, b).
23. Time how long and Distance how far are in the accusative.
24. The accusative is used adverbially, or for specification (52, 3).
25. Verbs of naming, choosing, asking, and teaching govern two
accusatives (52, 2).
75.] GENERAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 211
26. The ABLATIVE is used of cause, manner, means, instrument,
quality, specification, and price (54).
27. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is in the ablative
with ab (54, 4).
28. Words denoting separation and plenty or want — also opus
and usus signifying need — govern the ablative (54, i).
29. Participles denoting birth or origin govern the ablative (54, 2, a).
30. The adjectives dignus, indignus, — with many verbals, as
contentus, fretus, laetus, praeditus, — govern the abla-
tive (54, 3, a; 10, a).
31. The deponents utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, and
their compounds, govern the ablative (54, 6, d).
32. Comparatives may tg,ke the ablative instead of quam, than.
33. Degree of Difference is put in the ablative (54, 6, e).
34. Time at or within which is put in the ablative (55, i).
35. Ablative Absolute. A Subject and Predicate in the ablative
are used to define the time or circumstances of an action.
36. The name of the Town where is in form like the Genitive of
singular names in us, a, um, otherwise Dative or Ablative ;
that tvhither in the Accusative, and whence in the Ablative.
So of domus, rus (also humi, belli, militia}, and many names of Islands.
37. With other words (including names of Countries) Prepositions
are used to denote where, whither, or whence.
38. The Infinitive is used like a neuter noun, as the Subject or
Object, or to complete the action of a verb (57, 8, a).
39. The Infinitive, with subject-accusative, is regularly used after
verbs of knowing, thinking, telling, and the like (57, 8, e).
40. Historical Infinitive. The Infinitive is often used for
tenses of the indicative in narration (57, 8, h).
41. The Gerund, governing the case of its verb, or the Gerundive in
agreement with a noun, has the construction of a verbal noun.
42. The Supine in um is used after verbs of motion ; the Supine
in u after adjectives.
43. The Subjunctive is used independently to denote a wish, com-
mand, or concession (57, 2).
44. Relatives or Conjunctions implying purpose or result, — also
relative clauses of characteristic, — require the Subjunctive.
45. Indirect Questions take a verb in the subjunctive (67, 2).
46. The Subjunctive present and perfect are used in future condi-
tions ; the imperfect and pluperfect in those contrary to fact.
47. Dependent clauses in Indirect Discourse, or in a subjunctive
construction, take the subjunctive.
48. In the sequence of Tenses, primary tenses are followed by
primary, and secondary by secondary (58, 10).
212 ARRANGEMENT. [76:1,2.
76. ARRANGEMENT.
In Latin the words do not follow the order of con-
struction, yet they have a regular arrangement. This,
however, is constantly modified for emphasis, harmony,
and clearness.
1. Normal Order. Regularly the subject stands first,
followed by its modifiers ; the verb last, preceded by the words
which depend upon it : as,
civis Romanus sum (not sum civis Romanus).
voluptates blandissimae dominae majores partes animi a vir-
tute detorquent (Off. ii. 10).
a* A predicate nominative, as the most important part of the
predicate, is often placed after the copula : as,
qui Athenis est mortuus (id. 24).
hsec ad judicandum sunt facillima (id. iii. 6).
&. The forms of esse meaning there is, &c.9 often come first
in the sentence : as,
sunt qusedam officia quae aliis magis quam aliis debeantur
(Off. i. 18).
c. A numeral adjective, or one essential to the meaning of the
phrase, goes before its noun; one simply descriptive commonly
follows : as,
omnes homines decet.
est viri magni rebus agitatis punire sontes (Off. i. 24).
omnis actio vacare debet temeritate et neglegentia (id. 29).
cum aliqua perturbatione (id. i. 38).
Lselius et sapiens et amicitiae gloria excellens (Lael. i).
d* A Demonstrative pronoun precedes the noun, Relatives stand
first in their sentence or clause, Adverbs stand directly before the
word they qualify.
2. Emphasis. Inversion of the above order gives em-
phasis.
a. Particularly the verb comes first and the subject last. This
makes either or both emphatic : as,
dicebat idem C. Curio (Off. ii. 17).
&• Any word closely connected with the preceding sentence
comes first, and with the following last : as,
ac duabus iis personis quas supra dixi tertia adjungitur (Off.
i. 32).
76:2,3-] ARRANGEMENT. 213
objecit [Cato] ut probrum M. Nobiliori quod is in provinciam
poetas duxisset; duxerat autem consul ille in JEtoliam ut
scimus Ennium (Tusc. i. 2).
maxime perturbantur officia in amicitiis ; quibus et non tri-
buere quod recte possis, et tribuere quod non sit aequum,
contra officium est (Off. iii. 10).
ۥ A word or phrase inserted between the parts of compound
tenses becomes emphatic : as,
ille reprehensus a multis est (N. D. ii. 38).
d. A modifier of a noun and adjective or participle is often
placed between them. So in the gerundive construction : as,
de communi hominum memoria (Tusc. i. 24).
de uno imperatore contra praedones constituendo (Manil. 17).
e. Sometimes a noun and its attribute are separated as far as
possible, so as to include less important words : as,
objurgationes etiam nonnunquam incidunt necessariae (Off.
i. 38).
/. One pair of ideas is set off against another, either in the
same order or in exactly the opposite order. The latter, which
is very common, is called chiasmus from the Greek X on account
of the cross arrangement. Thus,
, rerum copia verborum copiam gignit (De Or. iii. 3, 31).
pro vita hominis nisi hominis vita reddatur (B. G. vi. 16).
leges supplicio improbos afficiunt, defendunt ac tuentur bonos
(Fin. iii. 3).
non igitur utilitatem amicitia, sed utilitas amicitiam consecuta
est (Lael. 14). [Here the arrangement of cases only is
chiastic, that of ideas is regular.]
g. Different forms of the same word are often placed together,
also words from the same root.
h* A favorite order with the poets is the interlocked, by
which the attribute of one pair comes between the parts of the
other. This is often joined with chiasmus : as,
et superjecto pavidse natarunt aequore damae (H. Od. i. 2, n).
arma nondum expiatis uncta cruoribus (id. ii. i, 5).
3. Special Rules.
a. Prepositions regularly precede their nouns (except terms
and versus), but they are often placed between a noun and ad-
jective : as,
quern ad modum ; quam ob rem ; magno cum metu ; omnibus
cum copiis; nulla in re.
214 ARRANGEMENT. [76 : 3, 4.
b. Itaque regularly comes first in its sentence, or clause;
eiiim, autem, vero, quoque, never first, but usually second,
sometimes third if the second word is emphatic ; quidem never
first, but after the emphatic word : ne . . . quidem include the
emphatic word or words.
c. Inquam, inquit, &c., credo, opinor, quaeso, used par-
enthetically, always follow one or more words*
d. The negative precedes the word it especially affects ; but if
it belongs to no one word, it begins the sentence.
4. Structure. Latin expresses the relation of words to
each other by inflection, rather than by position, like modern
languages. Hence its structure not only admits of great
variety in the arrangement of words, but is especially favor-
able to that form of sentence which is called a Period. In a
period, the sense is expressed by the sentence as a whole, and
is held in suspense till the delivery of the last word, which
usually expresses the main action or motive.
An English sentence does not often admit this form of
structure. It was imitated, sometimes with great skill and
beauty, by many of the early writers of English prose ; but
its effect is better seen in poetry, in such a passage as the
following : —
" High on a throne of royal state, which far
Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind,
Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand
Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold,
Satan exalted sat."
Paradise Lost, Book II. 1-5.
PAET THIRD.
RULES OF VERSE (PROSODY).
77. RHYTHM.
1. The Poetry of the ancients was not composed, like
modern poetry, according to accent and rhyme; but was
measured, like music, by the length of the syllables, or vowel
sounds. The measured flow of verse is called Rhythm.
2. Each syllable is considered as either long or short, —
In Quantity or length (not in Quality or sound, as we speak
of the long or short vowel-sounds in English) ; a long syllable
JDeing reckoned in length equal to two short ones (see p. 3).
REMARK. — The quantity of radical or stem-syllables — as of
hort a in pater or of long a in mater — can be learned only
>y observation or practice, unless determined by the general rules
if Quantity. Most of the rules of Prosody are only arbitrary
ules for the purposes of memory ; the syllables being long or
hort because the ancients pronounced them so. In those cases
yhich cannot be conveniently grouped, the quantity is shown by
he actual practice of the ancients, and is said to be determined by
he authority of the Poets, — the principal means we have of learn-
ig it. In some inscriptions, however, the long vowels are distin-
uished in various ways by marks over the letters, or by doubling.
Owing to the practice of Roman poets of borrowing very
irgely from the poetry and mythology of the Greeks, numerous
{reek words, especially proper names, make an important part
f Latin poetry. These words are generally employed in accord-
,nce with the Greek and not the Latin laws of quantity. Where
liese vary in any important point, they will be noticed in the rules
iven below.
78. RULES OF QUANTITY.
1. General Rules.
a* A vowel before another vowel is short : as, via, traho.
REMARK. — The aspirate h, as in the example above, is not
eckoned as a Consonant in the rules of prosody (See § 1, I, Note).
216 PROSODY. [78: I, 2.
EXCEPTIONS. — 1. In the genitive form ius (§ 16, I, 6), i is
long. It is, however, sometimes made short in verse.
2. In the fifth declension (genitive and dative singular), e is
long between two vowels : as, diei; but is short after a consonant,
as in fidei.
3. In fio (§ 37, 4), i is long except when followed by er: as,
flo, fiebam, fiam, fieri, fierem.
4. In the terminations aius and eius, a and e are long : as in
Caius, Pompeius ; also in the verb aio, and genitives in ai.
5. In many Greek proper names, the vowel in Latin represents
a long vowel or diphthong, and is consequently long : as, Troes,
Thalia, heroas. But many Greek words are more or less Latin-
ized in this respect as Academia, chorea.
6. A Diphthong is long : as, foedus, cui, caelum, delude.
EXCEPTION. — The preposition prae in compounds is generally
short before a vowel (as in praeustis, ^En. vii. 524) .
c. A vowel formed by contraction (cram) is long : as i in nil
(for niMl) ; currus (genitive for curruis). But not where the
vowels are united by synceresis, as in parietibus (par-yetibus) .
d . A syllable in which a short vowel comes before two con-
sonants or a double consonant — also before the letter j — is long:
as, magnus, rex, pejor, it ventis ocior, (but adhuc). But
if the two consonants are a mute followed by 1 or r, the syllable
is common, — that is, it may be either long or short in verse : as,
allcris, pltribus, refluo.
REMARK. — Sometimes the y or v resulting from synaeresis
has the effect of a consonant : as, fluviorum rex (G. i. 482).
e. In early Latin s at the end of words was not sounded, and
hence does not make position with another consonant. In many
other cases in the comic poets two consonants do not make posi-
tion, especially in pronouns and particles : as, ille, iste, nempe.
REMARK. — A short syllable, made long under this rule, is said
to be long by Position: as, in docetne. In docesne, the same
syllable is long by the general rule (2, h, below). The rules of
Position do not, in general, apply to final vowels.
%. Final Syllables.
a. Words of one syllable ending in a vowel are long : as, me,
tu, hi, ne.
The attached particles -ne', -que, -ve, -eg, ptS, and re- (rgd-)
are short ; se- is long : as, secedit, exercitumque reducit.
78: 2.] RULES OF QUANTITY. 217
b. Nouns of one syllable are long : as, sol, os (oris), bos, vis.
EXCEPTIONS. — c6r, fel, mel, 5s (ossis), vir.
c. Final a in words declined by cases is short, except in the
ablative singular of the first declension ; in all other words it is
long: as, ea Stella (nominative), cum ea Stella; frustra,
voca (imperative), postea, triginta; also, qua (plural).
EXCEPTIONS. — eia, ita, quia, puta (suppose); and, in late
use, triginta, &c.
d. Final e is short, except (1) in nouns of the fifth declen-
sion; (2) in adverbs formed from adjectives of the first and
second declension, with others of like form ; (3) in the impera-
tive singular of the second conjugation : as. nubS, ducite, fide,
fame (§ 11, 6, 3), quare (qua re), hodie (hoc die), mone,
monete, saepe, saepissime.
EXCEPTIONS. — bene, male; fere, ferme; also (rarely), cave,
habe, tace, vale, vide; inferng, superne.
e. Final i is long : as in turri, fill, audi. But it is common in
mini, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubij and short in nisi, quasi, ciii (when
making two syllables), and in Greek vocatives, as Alexi
/"• Final o is common; but long in datives and ablatives; also,
usually, in verbs.
EXCEPTIONS. — citS, mod6, ilic6, profecto, dummodo,
immo, eg6, du6, oct6.
g* Final u is long ; final y is short .
h* Final as, es, os, are long; final is, us, ys are short: as,
nefas, rupes, servos, honos; hostis, amicus, Tethys.
EXCEPTIONS. — as is short in Greek plural accusatives, as
lampadas ; and in anas.
es is short in nouns of the third declension (lingual) increasing
short: as miles (itis), obses (idis), — except abies, aries,
paries, pes ; in the present of esse (es, ades) ; in the preposition
penes ; and in the plural of Greek nouns.
os is short in compos, impos ; in some Greek endings, as
barbit8s ; also o for later u in the second declension, as servos
(nominative) .
is in plural cases is long, as in bonis, omnis (accusative
plural) ; in sis, vis, velis, mails, nolis ; in gratis, foris (prop-
erly plurals) ; in the second person singular of the fourth conjuga-
tion, as audis (where it is the stem-vowel) ; and sometimes in
the forms in -eris (perfect subjunctive), where it was originally
long. 10
218 PROSODY. [78 : 2, 3.
us is long in the genitive singular and nominative and accusa-
tive plural of the fourth declension ; and in nouns of the third
declension having u long in the stem: as virtus (utis), incus
(udis).
i. Of other final syllables, those ending in a consonant, except
c, are short : as, ad, ac, istuc, am at, amatur.
EXCEPTIONS. — donee, fac, nee, sometimes hie ; en, non,
quln, sin; eras, plus; cur, par.
3. Penultimate Syllables.
a. Increment* A Noun is said to increase, when in
any case it has more syllables than in the nominative
singular.
Thus Stella is said to increase long in stellarum ; and corpus
to increase short in corporis.
NOTE. — The rules of increment are purely arbitrary, as the
syllables are long or short according to the proper quantity of the
stem or the formative terminations. The quantity of noun stems
appears in the schedule of the third declension (§ 11, iv. 3), and that
of terminations, under the various inflections where it is better to learn
them.
A Verb is said to increase, when in any part it has more
syllables than in the stem (inclusive of the final vowel).
Thus amo is said to increase long in amatis; and rego to
increase short in regitis.
The final syllable of an inflected word is called the termi-
nation ; that immediately preceding is called the increment.
Thus, in the examples given above, the penultimate syllable is
called the increment. In itmeribus, amaveritis, the syllables
marked are called the first, second, and third increments of the
noun or verb.
b. Nouns. In the increment of Nouns and Adjectives, a
and o are generally long; e, i, u, y, generally short (see list,
pp. 25-27) : as, aetatis, honoris, servorum ; operis, carmmis,
murmuris, pecudis, chlamydis. Exceptions are : —
a: — baccar (aris), hepar (atis), jubar (aris), lar (laris), mas
(maris), nectar (aris), par (paris), sal (salis), vas (vadis), daps
(dapis), fax, anthrax (acis).
6 : — neuters of third declension (except 6s, oris) ; arbor (oris),
scrobs (scrobis), ops (opis).
78: 3-] RULES OF QUANTITY. 219
e: — increments of fifth declension; heres (edis), lex (legis),
locuples (etis), merces (edis), plebs (plebis), quies (etis), rex
(regis), ver (veris).
i: — most nouns and adjectives in ix: as, felicis, radicis (except
filix, nix, strix); dis (ditis), glis (gllris), lis (litis), vis (vires),
Quirites, Sammtes.
u: — forms from nouns in us: as, paludis, telluris, virtutis ;
also lux (lucis), frux (frugis).
c. Verbs. In the increment of Verbs (see Tables of Inflec-
tion, pp. 66-74), the characteristic vowels are as follows : —
Of the first conjugation a : as, amare, amatur.
Of the second conjugation e : as, monere, monetur.
Of the third conjugation e, i: as, regere, regitur.
Of the fourth conjugation i: as, audire, auditor.
Exc. — do and its compounds have a: as, dare, circumdabat.
In other increments —
a is always long : as, monearis, regamus.
e is long in tense-endings : as, regebam, audiebar. But it is
short before ram, rim, ro ; in the future personal endings -beris,
bere; and sometimes in the perfect -erunt (as steteruntque
comae, ^En. ii. 774).
i is long in forms after the analogy of the fourth conjugation :
as, petlvi, lacessitus (in others short : as, monitus) ; also in
the subjunctive present of esse and velle, and (rarely) in the
endings -rimus, -ritis ; but short in the future forms amabitis, &c.
o is found only in imperatives, and is always long.
u is short in sumus, volumus, quaesiimus; in the supine
and its derivatives it is long : as, soluturus.
d. Perfects and supines of two syllables lengthen the stem-
syllable : as, jiivo, juvi, jutum; video, vidi, visum; fiigio,
EXCEPTIONS. -r- bibi, dedi (do), fidi (findo), scidi (scindo),
steti (sto), stiti (sisto), tiili (fero); — citum (cieo), datum (do),
itum (eo), litum (lino), quitum (queo), ratum (reor),
riitum (ruo), satum (sero), situm (sino), statum (sto or
sisto). In some compounds of sto, statum is found long, as
prostatum.
e. Reduplicated perfects shorten both syllables : as, cecidi
(cado) , didici (disco) , cecini (cano) ; but cecidi from
caedo, pepedi from pedo.
220 PROSODY. [78. 79.
/. Forms from the same STEM retain the original quantity : as,
amo, amavisti, genus, generis.
EXCEPTIONS. — 1. bos, lar, mas, par, pes, sal, vas — also
arbos (not arbbr) — have a long vowel in the nominative from
short stems.
2. Nouns in or, genitive oris, have the vowel shortened before
the final r : as, hon6r. (But this shortening is comparatively late,
so that in Plautus and some inscriptions these nominatives are
often found long.)
3. Many verb-fbrms with original long vowel shorten it before
final t: as, am^t, diceret (compare amemus), audit, fit. (The
final syllable in t of the perfect seems to have, been originally
long, but to have been shortened under this rule.)
g. Forms from the same ROOT often vary in quantity from
vowel-increase (see §§ 1, 3, a; 5, 2 ; 44, i, a) ; as, dico (cf. mal-
edicus) , duco (duels) , fldo (perfidus) , vocis (v6co) , legio
(lego).
/*. COMPOUNDS retain the quantity of the words which com-
pose them: as, occido (calo), occido (caedo), iniquus
(aequus) . Greek words compounded with irpo have o short, as
prbpheta, prologus. Some Latin compounds of pro have o
short, as prbficiscor, prdfiteor. Compounds with ne vary : as,
nefas, iiego, nequeo, iiequis, nequam. So dejero and pejero
from juro.
[For the quantity of Penultimate Syllables in regular Deriva-
tives, see § 44, pages 97-99.]
79. FEET.
1. The most natural division of musical time is into inter-
vals, consisting of either two or three equal parts, making
what is called double or triple time ; but the ancients also
distinguished five equal parts. These intervals are in music
called Measures ; in prosody, they are called Feet.
2. The feet most frequently employed in Latin verse con
sist either of two or three syllables ; and may be represented
by musical notation, as follows : —
79.] FEET. 221
a. OF Two SYLLABLES.
L I- I C 5 I ^rto C ~) : as» bonus.
o ' r w \
2. -i I |* J | Trochee or Choree (" w) : as, cariis.
3- -§• I C P I Iam^us C ~) : as» bbnos.
Q I Ir I I
4. J- | Spondee (" ~) : as, caros.
5. OF THREE SYLLABLES.
L T i r * 5 1 Dactyi (" ~ ^: as> d5taut
2. 4- I * J * | Anapcest f w ") : as, dfcmmos.
J |* * | Amphibrach ( ) : as, amiciis.
4- •§- I C C C I Tribrach (" w w) : as, h6minfe.
o ' ^ ^ ^ '
5. -4- f r I Molossus (" " ") : as, fugerunt (rare).
Of three syllables, but more than three units of time.
6. I Amphimacer or Cretic ("""): as, eggrant.
7. | p f f | Bwchius ( --- ) : as, regebant.
ۥ OF FOUR SYLLABLES.
1. Choriambus (trochee, iambus) : as, detulerant.
2. Greater Ionic (spondee, pyrrhic) : as, dejecerat.
3. Lesser Ionic (pyrrhic, spondee) : as, rStulissent.
4. The first, second, third, or fourth Epitritus has a short
syllable in the first, second, third, or fourth place with three long
syllables.
5. The first, second, third, or fourth Pceon has a long syllable
in the first, second, third, or fourth place with three short syllables.
6. The Proceleusmatic consists of four short syllables, as 6per-
ibiis.
NOTE. — Narrative poetry was written for rhythmical recitation,
or chant ; and Lyrical poetry for rhythmical melody, or music, often
to be accompanied by measured movements or dance. But in read-
ing, it is not usual, though it is better, to keep the sj«k;t measure of
time; and often accent is substituted for rhythm, as ^(Pnglish poetry.
222 PROSODY. [79: 2-5. 80: i.
d. In general, feet of the same time can be substituted for
each other, and two short syllables may stand for a long one. In
the latter case, the long syllable is said to be resolved.
Thus the Spondee may take the place of the dactyl or anapaest,
the Tribrach of the trochee or iambus ; the Proceleusmatic, or a
Dactyl standing for an anapaest, is the resolution of a spondee.
When a long syllable having the ictus is resolved, the ictus
properly belongs to both the short syllables ; but the accent to
indicate it is placed on the first : as,
Nunc experiar | sitite aceto | tibi cor acn? in | pdctore.
BACCH. 405.
3. Arsis and TJiesis. The accented syllable of each
foot is called the Arsis ; and the unaccented part the Thesis.
NOTE. — The name Arsis meant originally the raising of the foot
in beating time (" upward beat"), and Thesis the putting down
("downward beat"); but these terms came, in later use, to signify
respectively the raising and depression of the voice. ( See Mar. Viet.
Chap, ix.)
4. Ictus. Accent, in prosody, is called Ictus, — that is,
the beat of the foot, as in a dance or march.
5. Ccesura. The end of a word interrupting a foot is
called Caesura; and when this coincides with a rhetorical
break in the sense, it is called the Cassura of the verse.
NOTE. —•'The position of the principal Caesura is important, as
affecting the melody or rhythm. See description of verses below.
80. SCANNING.
1. Verse. A single line in poetry, or a series of feet set
in metrical order, is called a Verse (i.e. a turning back).
To divide the verse, in reading, into its appropriate feet,
according to the rules of quantity and versification, is called
Scanning or Scansion (i.e. climbing, or advance by steps).
A verse lacking a syllable at the beginning is called Acephalous
(headless) ; lacking a syllable at the end, it is called Catalectic
(stopped) ; complete, Acatalectic. Sometimes a verse appears to
have a superfluous syllable, and is then called Hypercatalectic.
The word Verse (versus, a turning) is opposed to Prose (pror-
sus or pro-^^us, straight ahead).
80: 2-5. 81.] SCANNING: METRE. 223
2. Elision. In scanning, a vowel or diphthong at the end
of a word (unless an interjection) — sometimes even at the
end of a verse — is dropped, when the next word begins with
a vowel or with h. This is called Synalocpha (smearing), or
Elision (bruising) ; or, at the end of a verse, Synapheia
(binding).
A final m, with the preceding vowel, is dropped in like manner :
this is called Ecthlipsis. (Hence a final syllable in m is said to
have no quantity of its own ; its vowel, in any case, being either
elided, or else made long by position.) Thus in the verse : —
Monstrum horrendum informs ingens cui lumen ademptum.
. iii. 658.
NOTE. — The practice of Elision is followed in Italian and French
poetry, and is sometimes adopted in English, particularly in the older
poets : as,
T* inveigle and invite th' unwary sense. — Comus, 538.
In early Latin poetry, a syllable ending in s was often elided, even
before a consonant : as,
Senio confectu' quiescit. — Ennius (quoted in Cat. M. 5).
3. Hiatus. Elision is sometimes omitted when a word
ending in a vowel has a special emphasis, or is succeeded by
a pause. This is called Hiatus (gaping). ££&-&£. 6
4. A final syllable, regularly short, is sometimes length-
ened before a pause : it is then said to be long by Caesura.
(This usage is comparatively rare, most cases where it appears
being caused by the retention of an original long quantity.)
Nostrorum obruimur, oriturque miserrima caedes. — ^En. ii. 411.
5. The last syllable of any verse may be indifferently long
or short (except in some forms of Anapaestic and Ionic verse).
81. METRE.
1. Metre is the regular combination of feet in verse, and
is named from its most frequent and ruling foot : as, Dactylic,
Iambic, Trochaic, Anapaestic, Choriambic. ^
224 PROSODY. [81. 82: i.
NOTE. — The ruling foot, so called, always consists of a combina-
tion of long and short syllables, and is therefore never a pyrrhic or
spondee.
The shorter feet (Iambus, Trochee) are counted not by single feet,
but by pairs (dipodies), so that six Iambi make a trimeter, &c.
2. A Verse consists of a given number of feet arranged
metrically. It is named from the number of feet (or pairs)
it contains, as Hexameter, Trimeter.
3. A Stanza, or Strophe, consists of a definite number of
verses ranged in a fixed order. It is often called from the
name of some poet, as Sapphic, Alcaic, Horatian.
82. FORMS OP VERSE.
1. Dactylic. The most common forms of dactylic verse
are the Hexameter and Pentameter.
a. Hexameter. The Hexameter, called also Heroic verse, is
used in narrative and pastoral poetry. It consists of six feet, of
which the last is always incomplete (a trochee or spondee), the
fifth generally a dactyle, and the rest indifferently dactyles or
spondees. The fifth foot is rarely a spondee, in which case the
verse is called spondaic. The principal Caesura falls after the
arsis (sometimes in the thesis) of the third foot or after the arsis
of the fourth. In the last case there should be another in the third.
The introductory verses of the .ZEneid, divided according to
the foregoing rules, will be as follows, the principal Caesura in
each verse being marked by double lines : —
arma vi|rumqu£'ca|n6 || Tro|jae qui | primus ab | oris
I tali jam fa|to profu|gus || La|vmzaque | venft
Htora, | multe ilk | et terjris || jac|tatus et j alto
vi supe|rum saejvae || mem6|rem Ju|noms 6b | Tram ;
multa quo|qu£ et beljlo pasjsus || dum | conderet | urbem,
mfer|retque de|6s Lati|o, || genus | unde La|tmum,
Alba|nlque pa|tres, || at|qu^ altae | mcenifa | Romae.
Another form of caesura is seen in the following : —
Hoc facJ|ens vi|vam meli|us || sic | dulcts a|micis.
HOK. SAT. I. 4, 135.
82: I ? 2.] FORMS OF VERSE. 225
The Hexameter verse has been illustrated in English thus : —
" Strongly it | bears us a (long, || in | swelling and | limitless | billows,
Nothing be | fore and | nothing be | hind, || but the | sky and the | ocean."
&. Pentameter. The Pentameter consists of five feet, and is
used alternately with the hexameter to form the Elegiac stanza.
It must be scanned as two half- verses, of which the latter always
has two dactyls, and each ends in a long syllable or half-foot.
There is no caesura ; but the first half-verse must always end with
a word : as,
cum subit | IllT|us tris|tissrnia | noctis i|mago
qua mini | supre|mum || tempus tn | urbe fu|ft,
cum repe|to nocjtem qua | tot mflrf | cara re|liqui,
labitur | ex 6cu|lls || nunc quoque | gutta me|is.
jam prope | lux ade|rat, qua | me dls|cedere | Caesar
f mibus | extre|mae || jusserat | AusonT|ae.
Ov. TKIST. I. EL. 3, 1-6.
The Elegiac Stanza has been illustrated thus : —
"In the hex|ameter | rises the | fountain's | silvery | column,
In the pent|ameter | still || falling in | melody | back."
c. Rarely, other dactylic verses, or half- verses, combined with
trochees or iambs, are used by the lyric poets : viz., —
Dactylic pentameter :
arbon|busque co|mae. — HOB. OD. IV. 7.
Dactylic tetrameter :
eras In | gens ite|rabfmus | aequor. — OD. I. 7.
Archilochian heptameter :
solvitur | acris hi|emps, gra|ta vfce | veris | et Fa|voni.
OD. I. 4.
%. Iambic. The most common forms of Iambic verse
are the Trimeter (Senarius), and Tetrameter (Septenarius or
Octonarius).
a. Trimeter. The Iambic Trimeter is the ordinary verse of
dramatic dialogue. . It consists of three measures, each containing
a double iambus. In the first half-measure (odd places), the
Spondee or its equivalents (anapaest or dactyl) may be regularly
10*
226 PROSODY. [82: 2.
substituted. In the comic poets, these substitutions may be made
in any foot except the last : as,
O lucis al|me rector || et | caeli decus !
qui alterna cur|ru spatfa || flam|mifero ambiens,
illustre lae|tis || exseris | terns caput.
HERC. FUR. 592-94.
homo sum: huma|m || nihil a m^ ali|enum puto.
vel me mone|r^ hoc || vel perc6n|tari puta.
HEAUT. 77, 78.
REMARK. — The choliambic (lame Iambic) substitutes a trochee
for the last Iambus : as,
sed non vlde|mus manticae | quod in tergo est.
CATULL. XXII. 21.
b. Tetrameter. The Iambic Tetrameter catalectic (Septen-
arius) consists of seven iambic feet, with the same substitutions
as the above. It is used in more lively dialogue : as,
nam Idclro? arces|sor, nuptias | quod m/ adpara|rT senstt.
quibus quidem quam facile potuerat | quiesci si hie | quiesset !
ANDRIA, 690-91.
The iambic tetrameter acatalectic (Octonarius) consists of eight
full iambic feet with the same substitutions. It is also used in
lively dialogue : as,
hocinesthuma|num facto aut | In'cepta? hocTnest6f|fMumpaMs ?
quid illud est ? pro | deum f Idem, | quid est, si hoc non con -
tumeliast ? ANDRIA, 236-7.
c» Dimeter. The Iambic Dimeter consists of either four
(acatalectic) or three and a half (catalectic) iambic feet. The
former is used in combination with a longer verse, and the latter
only in choruses : as,
beatus il|le qui procul | negotfls,
ut prisca gens | mortallum,
paterna ru|ra bubus ex|ercet suls,
solutus 6m|m fenore ;
nequ^ excita|tur classico | miles truci,
neque horret i|ratum mare ;
forumque vi|tat, et super ba civium
potenti6|rum limina.
HOR. EPOD. II. 1-8.
82: 3> 4, 5-] FORMS OF VERSE. 227
quonam cruenlta Maenas,
praeceps am5|re saevo,
rapftur quod Im|potenti
facmus parat | furore ?
MEDEA, 850-53.
3. Trochaic. The most common form of Trochaic verse
is the Tetrameter catalectic (Septenarius), consisting of seven
complete feet with an additional syllable. Strictly, the spon-
dee and its resolutions can be substituted only in the even
places ; but the comic poets allow the substitution in every
foot but the last : as,
ftid^ habetpeta|s^wacvestitum: | tarn consimillst | atqu^ego.
sura, pes, sta|tura, tonsus, | ocull, nasum, | vel labra,
malae, mentum, |. barba, collus : | totus ! quid ver|bis opust ?
si tergum cllcatricosum, | n/hil hoc similist | similifus.
AMPHITR. 443-46.
4. Anapcestic. Anapaestic verses of various lengths are
found in dramatic poetry. The spondee, dactyl, or proceleus-
matic may be substituted for the anapaest : as,
hfc homost | omnium homl|num prae|dfpu6s
voluptajtibus gau|d/Tsqu^ an|tepotens.
Ita c6m|moda quae | cupt<? e|venlunt,
quod ago | subit, ad secue | sequitur :
ita gau|d/is gau|dulm sup|peditat.
TRIN. 1115-19.
Some other forms of trochaic verse are found in the lyric
poets, in combination with other feet, either as whole lines or
parts of lines : as,
non ebur ne|qu* aureum [dimeter]
mea rem|det in domo | lacunar.
HOR. OD. II. 18.
5. Bacchic. The Bacchius occurs in dramatic poets
either in verses of two feet (Dimeter) or of four (Tetram-
eter). The long syllables may be resolved into short ones,
and the molossus substituted : as,
multas res | sfrmta In | meo cor de vorso,
multum In co|glftand6 | dolors Injdiplscor,
228 PROSODY. [82:6,7,
egomet me | coqu0 et ma|cer0 et de|fetigo :
magister | mihi exer|cltor ani|nius nunc est.
TKIN. 223-26.
6. Cretic. Cretic feet (Amphimacer) occur in the same
manner as the Bacchius, with the same substitutions. The
last foot is usually incomplete : as,
amor aml|cus mihi | ne fuas | unquam.
his ego | de artibus | gratfam | facio.
nil eg<? Is|tos moror | faeceos | mores.
TRIN. 267, 293, 297.
V. Choriambic. Choriambic feet are regularly preceded
by a spondee or trochee, called a basis, and are followed by a
close, consisting of one or more syllables (see below).
a. The First or Lesser Asclepiadic verse consists of two
choriambs preceded by a trochee (in Horace a spondee) , and fol-
lowed by an iambus (8, d).
b. The Second or Greater Asclepiadic has three choriambs
with the same basis and close (8, 7i) : as,
nee fac|ta impia fal|lacum hommum | caelicolis | placent.
CATULL. XXX. 4.
C. The Glyconic consists of one choriambus, with the same
basis and close (8, e).
d* The Pherecratic consists of one choriambus, with the same
basis, and one long syllable for close (8, g) .
e. The Greater Sapphic consists of two choriambs, preceded
by a trochaic dipody (epitritus secundus), and followed by a
bacchius (8, c) : as,
Saepe trans fi|nem jaculo | nobilis ex pedlto.
HOR. OD. I. 8.
/. The Lesser Sapphic consists of one choriambus, with the
same basis and close (8, b) : as,
inter auda|ces lupus er|rat agnos.
HOR. OD. III. 18, 13.
g. The Adonic consists of one choriambus, followed by a long
syllable (8, b).
82: 8.] FORMS OF VERSE. 229
h. The Phalaecian consists of a basis, a choriambus, an
iambus, and bacchius: as,
diser|tiss]fme R6|muli | nepotum
quot sunt | quotque fue|re Mar|ce Tulli.
CATUL. XLIX. 1, 2.
!• The lesser Ionic verse consists of pairs of the foot of the
same name.
Je. Rarely other forms of choriambic verse occur: as, for
example —
Aristophanic :
temperat o|ra frems.
HOR. OD. I. 8, 7.
Tetrameter :
obstipuit; | pectore nil | sistere con|sni quit.
ADELPHI, 613.
8. Stanzas. The principal forms of lyric stanza, or
strophe, are the following: —
a* ALCAIC STROPHE, consisting of four verses : the first two
(greater Alcaic) having each a spondee (or trochee), bacchius
and two dactyls ; the third a spondee, bacchius, and two trochees,
and the fourth into two dactyls and two trochees : as,
justutn ac | tenacem | prop6si|ti vfrum
non cl\v\um ardor | prava julbentfum,
non vuljtus mstan|tis ty|ranm,
mente quajtit solijda nejqu^ auster.
HOK. OD. III. 3.
b. LESSER SAPPHIC, consisting of three Lesser Sapphic verses,
and one Adonic (see above, 7,/, g) : as,
jam satis ter|ris nMs at|que dlrae
grandMs mi | sit pater et | rubente
dextera sa|cras jacula|tus arces
terruit ur|bem.
Id. OD. I. 2, 1-4.
c. GREATER SAPPHIC, consisting of a choriambic dimeter
(7, ft), and a greater Sapphic (7, e) : as,
Lydifa die | per omnes
te deos 6|ro Sybariri | cur properas | amando.
HOB. OD. I. 8.
230 PROSODY. [82: 8.
d. LESSER ASCLEPIADEAN, consisting of single lines (mono-
strophon), of lesser asclepiadics (7, a) : as,
Maecejnas jitavis | edite re|gibiis
O et | prcesidi##z et | dulce decus | meum.
Id. 1. 1.
e. SECOND ASCLEPIADEAN, consisting of one Glyconic (7, e),
and one lesser Asclepiadic : as.
Romae | prlncipis ur|bmm
digna|tur suboles | Inter ama| biles
vatum | ponere me | chores ;
et jam | dente minus | mordeor in vido.
Id. OD. IV. 3, 13-16.
/• THIRD ASCLEPIADEAN, consisting of three lesser Asclepia-
dics and one Glyconic : as,
audls | quo strepitu | janua quo | nemus
inter | pulchra satum | tecta remu |giat
ventis | et positas | ut glaciet | nives
puro | numine Ju|piter.
Id. OD. III. 10, 5-8.
g* FOURTH ASCLEPIADEAN, consisting of two lesser Asclepia-
dics, one Pherecratic (7, d), and one Glyconic: as,
hie bel|lum lacrim6|s&*/2 hie miseram | famem
pestem|qu£ a popub et | prlncipe Cae|sar^ in
Persas | atque Britan|nos
vestra | motus aget | prece.
Id. OD. III. 21, 13-16.
h. GREATER ASCLEPIADEAN, consisting of single- lines of
greater asclepiadics : as,
tu ne | quaesiens | sclre nefas | quern mihi quern | tibif.
OD. I. 11,18; IV. 10.
i. The above forms include upwards of a hundred of the Odes
of Horace. In the eighteen not included, he employs twelve
different kinds of stanzas, most of which are combinations of the
verses already given. They may be briefly indicated as fol-
lows : —
1. Hexameter, followed by the last four feet of an hexame-
ter. — OD. I. 7, 28; EPOD. 12.
82: 8.] FORMS OF VERSE. 231
2. Hexameter, followed by Iambic Dimeter. — EPOD. 14, 15.
3. Iambic Trimeter alone. — EPOD. 17.
4. Hexameter, followed by Iambic Trimeter. — EPOD. 16.
5. Verse of four Lesser Ionics. — OD. III. 12.
6. Hexameter with Dactylic Penthemim (five half-feet) :
diffu|gere nf|ves rede | unt jam | gramina | campis
arbori|busque co|mae. — OD. IV. 7.
7. Iambic Trimeter ; Dactylic Penthemim ; Iambic Dimeter. — '
EPOD. 11.
8. Hexameter ; Iambic Dimeter ; Dactylic Penthemim. — ED. 13.
9. Archilochian Heptameter ; Iambic Trimeter catalectic : as,
solvftur | acris hi | ems gra|ta vice | veris | et Fa|v6ni
trahunt|que sic|cas ma chinas | cari|nas. — OD. I. 4.
10. Trochaic Dimeter and Iambic Trimeter, each imperfect : as,
non | ebur | nequ^ aulreum
mea | remldet in | domo | lacu|nar. — OD. II. 18.
Jc. Other lyric poets use other combinations of the above-
mentioned verses.
1. Four Glyconics with one Pherecratic: as,
Dia|nae sumus in | fide
puelll^ et pueri m|tegn :
Diainam, puen m|tegri
puel|laeque cana|mus. — CATULL. 34.
2. Sapphics, in series of single lines, closing with an
Adonic : as,
An magis diri tremuere Manes
Herculem ? et visum canis inferorum
fugit abruptis trepidus catenis ?
fallimur : laete venit, ecce, vultu,
quern tulit Posas ; humerisque tela
gestat, et notas populis pharetras
Herculis heres.
HERC. (ET. 1600-6.
3. Sapphics followed by Glyconics, of indefinite number
(HERC. FUR. 830-874, 875-894).
232 PROSODY. [83.
83. EARLY PROSODY.
The prosody of the earlier Latin poets differs in several
respects from that of the later.
NOTE. — Before the language was used in literature, it had become
very much changed by the loss of final consonants and shortening of
final syllables under the influence of accent, which was originally
free in its position, but in Latin became limited to the penult and
ante-penult. This tendency was arrested by the study of grammar
and by literature, but shows itself again in the Romance languages.
In many cases this change was still in progress in the time of the
early poets.
a. At the end of words s was only feebly sounded, so that it
does not make position with a following consonant, and is some-
times cut off before a vowel. (This usage continues in all poets
till Cicero's time : see §§ 1, 2, 6 ; 80, 2, note.
&• The last syllable of any word of two syllables may be made
short if the first is short. (This effect remained in a few words
like puta, cave, vale, vide.) Thus : —
abest (Cist. ii. 1, 12) ; apud test (Trin. 196); soror dictast(Enn.
157) ; bonas (Stich. 99) ; domi deaeque (Pseud. 37) ; domif (Mil. 194).
c. The same effect is produced when a short monosyllable pre-
cedes a long syllable : as,
id est profecto (Merc. 372), erit et tfb/ exoptatum (Mil. 1011),
si qmdem hercle (Asin. 414), quid est sz hoc (Andria, 237).
d» In a few isolated words position is often disregarded. Such
are, flle, iste, inde, unde, nempe, esse (?). (Scholars are not
yet agreed upon the principle in this irregularity, or its extent.)
Thus : —
ecquis his in aedibust (Bacch. 581).
ۥ In some cases the accent seems to shorten a syllable preced-
ing it in a word of more than three syllables : as in senectuti,
Syracusae.
/. At the beginning of a verse, many syllables long by position
stand for short ones : as,
Idne tu (Pseud. 442) ; estne consimilis (Epid. v. I. 1 8).
g. The original long quantity of many final syllables is re-
tained. Thus : —
83. 84.] FORMS OF VERSE. 233
1. Final a of the first declension is often long : as,
ne epistula quidem ulla sit in aedibus (Asin. 762).
Pol hodi*? altera jam bis detonsa certost.
2. Final a of the neuter plural is sometimes long (though there
seems no. etymological reason for it): as,
Nunc et amico prosperab<? et genio meo multa bona faciam
(Pers. 263).
3. So also nouns in -or with long stem, either with original r
or original s : as,
m6do quom dicte in me mgerebas ddium non uxor eram
(Asin. 927).
ita m/ in pecton? dtque corde facit amor ince'ndium (Merc. 590).
atque quanto nox fuisti longior hoc prdxuma (Amph. 548).
4. So in nouns with vowel lengthened originally by loss of a
consonant: as, miles, superstates.
5.' So all verb-endings in r and t, where the vowel is elsewhere
long in inflection : as,
rdgredior audisse me (Capt. 1023) ; Atque ut qui fueris et qui
nunc (Capt. 248) ; me nominat haec (Epid. iv. i, 8) ; faciat ut sem-
per (Pcen. ii. 42) ; mfuscabat, amabo (Cretics, Cist. i. i, 21) ; qui
amet (Merc. 1021) ; ut fit in bello capitur alter filius (Capt. 25) ;
tibi sit ad me revisas (True. ii. 4, 79).
/t. The hiatus is allowed very freely, especially at a pause in the
sense, or when there is a change of the speaker. (The extent of
this license is still a question among scholars, but in the present
state of texts it must sometimes be allowed.)
84. RECKONING OF TIME.
1. Date of Year. . The year was dated, in earlier times,
by the names of the Consuls ; but was afterwards reckoned
from the building of the City (ab urbe condita, or anno urbis
condita), the date of which was assigned by Varro to a period
corresponding with B.C. 753. In order, therefore, to reduce
Roman dates to those of the Christian era, the year of the
city is to be subtracted from 754: e.g. A.u.c. 691 (the year
of Cicero's consulship) = B.C. 63.
234 RECKONING OF TIME. [84.
2. The Roman Year. Before Caesar's reform of the
Calendar (B.C. 46), the Roman year consisted of 355 days:
March, May, Quintilis (July), and October having each 31
days, February having 28, and each of the remainder 29 ;
with an Intercalary month, on alternate years, inserted after
February 23, at the discretion of the Pontifices. The "Ju-
lian year," by the reformed calendar, had 365 days, divided
as at present- Every fourth year the 24th of February (vi.
kal. Mart.) was counted twice, giving 29 days to that month :
hence the year was called Bissextilis. The* month Quintilis
received the name Julius (July), in honor of Julius Csesar ;
and Sextilis of Augustus (August), in honor of his successor.
The Julian year (see below) remained unchanged till the adop-
tion of the Gregorian Calendar (A.D. 1582), which omits leap-year
once in every century.
3. The Month. Dates, according to the Roman Calen-
dar, are reckoned as follows : —
a. The first day of the month was called Kalendae (Calends),
from calare, to call, — that being the day on which the pontiffs
publicly announced the New Moon in the Comitia Calata, which
they did, originally, from actual observation.
&, Sixteen days before the Calends, — that is, on the fifteenth
day of March, May, July, and October, but the thirteenth of the
other months, — were the Idus (Ides), the day of Full Moon.
c. Eight days (the ninth by the Roman reckoning) before the
Ides, — that is, on the seventh day of March, May, July, and Octo-
ber, but the fifth of the other months, — were the Nonae (JVones,
or ninths) .
d. From the three points thus determined the days of the
month were reckoned backwards (the point of departure being,
by Roman custom, counted in the reckoning), giving the following
rule for determining the date : —
If the given date be Calends, add two to the number of days
in the month preceding, — if Nones or Ides, add one to that of
the day on which they fall, — and from the number thus ascer-
tained subtract the given date: — thus, viii. Kal. Feb. (33 — 8) =
Jan. 25; — iv. Non. Mar. (8 — 4)— Mar. 4;— iv. Id. Sept.
(14— 4)— Sept. 10.
84. 85.]
MEASURES OF VALUE.
235
e* The days
of the Roman month by the Julian Calendar, as
thus ascertained, are given in the following Table : —
January.
February.
March.
April.
i. KAL. JAN.
KAL. FEB.
KAL. MARTIJE
KAL. APRILES
2. iv. Non. Jan.
iv. Non. Feb.
vi. Non. Mart.
iv. Non. Apr.
_ in.
in- » »
v. „ ,,
HI. „ „
4- prid. „
5. NON. JAN.
prid. ,, „
NON. FEB.
IV- „ „
in. „ „
prid ,, „
NON. APRILES.
6- vni. Id. Jan.
7- VII. „ ,
vin. Id. Feb.
VII. „ „
prid. ,, ,,
NON. MARTI^E
viii. Id. Apr.
VII.
/ » '
viii. Id. Mart.
VI.
Q. V. , ,
v. ,, ,,
VII. „
v.
10. IV. „
iv. „ „
VI. „
IV.
II. III. „
III- i, 11
v. „
III.
12. prid „
13. IDUS JAN
Frid. ,, ,,
DUS FEB.
IV. „
in. „
IDUS APRILES.
14. xix. Kal. Feb.
xvi. Kal. Martias
prid. „
xvin. Kal. Maias
15. xvin. , „
XV. „ ,,
IDUS MARTIJE.
XVII. „ „
16. xvii. , ,,
XIV. „ „
xvn. Kal. Aprilis
XVI. „ „
17. xv<. „
XIII. „ „
XVI „ „
XV. „ „
18. xv. „
TO. XIV. ,,
XII. „ „
XI. ,, ,.
xv. „ „
XIV. „ „
20. XIII. „
X. „ ,
XIII. „ ,
XII ,, „
XI.
22 XI. „
VIII. „ ,
XI. „ ,
x. ,, ,
x. „ „
IX. „ „
25. viii. ,, „
27. vi. „ „
"I- M »»
vi. „ „
28. v. „ „
29. iv. ,, „
[prid. Kal. Mart.
iv. „ „
"I. »> »>
30. HI. „ „
in leap-year, the
III. J» »
prid. ,. „
31. prid. „ „
(So Aug., Dec.)
vi. Kal. (2^th) being
counted twice.]
prid. „ ,, So June, Sept., Nov.
(So May, July, Oct.)
NOTE. — Observe that a date before the Julian Eeform (B.C. 46)
is to be found not by the above, but by taking the earlier reckoning
of the number of days in the month.
85. MEASURES OF VALUE.
1. The Money of the Romans was in early times wholly of
copper, the unit being the As. This was nominally a pound, but
actually somewhat less, in weight, and was divided into twelve
unciae. In the third century B.C. the As was reduced by degrees
to one-twelfth of its original value. At the same time silver coins
w^re introduced ; the Denarius = 10 Asses, and the Sestertius or
sesterce (semis-tertius, or half-third, represented by IIS or IIS =
duo et semis) = 2^ Asses.
2. The Sestertius, being probably introduced at a time when it
was equal in value to the original AS, came to be used as the unit
of value : hence nummus, coin, was used as equivalent to Sester-
tius. Afterwards, by the reductions in the standard, four asses
became equal to a sesterce. Gold was introduced later, the
aureus being equal to 100 sesterces.
236 MEASURES OF VALUE. [85.
The value of these coins is seen in the following Table : —
2<| asses = i sestertius or nummus (HS), value about 4 cents.
10 asses or 4 sestertii = i denarius ... „ ,, 16 ,,
looo sestertii = i sestertium ,, ,, $40.00.
3. The Sestertium (probably the genitive plural of sestertius)
was a sum of money, not a coin ; the word is inflected regularly
as a neuter noun: thus, tria sestertia = $l20.00. When com-
bined with a numeral adverb, hundreds of thousands (centena
milia) are to be understood : thus decies sestertium (decies HS) =
$40,000. In the statement of large sums the noun is often
omitted: thus sexagies (Rose. Am. 11) signifies, sexagies [centena
milia] sestertium (6,000,000 sesterces) = $240,000.
4. In the statement of sums of money in cipher, a line above
the number indicates thousands ; lines at the sides also, hundred-
thousands. Thus HS. DC. = 600 sestertii ; — HS. DC. = 600,000 ses-
tertii, or 600 sestertia; — HS. [DC] = 60,000,000 sestertii.
5. MEASURES OF LENGTH.
12 uncise {inches) = i Roman Foot (pes, 11.65 English inches).
i£ Feet= i Cubit. — 2^ Feet= i Degree or Step (gradus).
5 Feet = i Pace (fassus). — 1000 Paces (mille passuum) = i Mile.
The Roman mile was equal to 4850 English feet. The Ju-
gerum, or unit, of measure of land, was an area of 240 (Roman)
feet long and 120 broad ; a little less than f of an English acre.
6. MEASURES OF WEIGHT.
12 uncise (ounces') = one pound (libra, about! Ib. avoirdupois).
For fractional parts of the pound, see Lexicon, art. as. The
Talent was a Greek weight = 60 librae.
7. MEASURES OF CAPACITY.
12 cyathi = i sextarius (nearly a pint).
16 sextarii = i modius (peck).
6 sextarii = i congius (3 quarts, liquid measure).
8 congii = i amphora (6 gallons).
APPENDIX.
LATIN was originally the language of the plain of Latium, lying
south of the Tiber, the first territory occupied and governed by the
Romans. This language, together with the Greek, Sanskrit, Zend
(old Persian), the Sclavonic and Teutonic families, and the Celtic,
are shown by comparative philology to be offshoots of a common
stock, a language once spoken by a people somewhere in the in-
terior of Asia, whence the different branches, by successive migra-
tions, peopled Europe and Southern Asia.
The name Indo-European (or Aryan) is given to the whole
group of languages, as well as to the original language from which
the branches sprang. By an extended comparison of the cor-
responding roots, stems, and forms, as they appear in the different
branches, the original ("Indo-European") root, stem, or form can
in very many cases be determined; and this is used as a model,
or type, to which the variations may be referred. A few of these
forms are given in the grammar for comparison (see, especially,
p. 59). A few are here added for further illustration :
1. Case Forms (Stem VAK, voice).
Indo-Eur.
Sanskr.
Greek.
Latin.
SING. Norn.
vaks
vaks
ty
vox
Gen.
vakas
vachas
6ir6s
vocis
Dat.
vakai
vache
6irl
voci
Ace.
Vakam
vacham
6ira
vocem
Abl.
Loc.
vakat
vaki
vachas
vachi
(gen. or dat.)
(dat.)
voce(d)
(dat.)
Instr.
vaka
vacha
(dat.)
(abl.)
PLUR. Nom.
vakas
vachas
fores
voces
Gen.
vakam
vacham
dw&v
ocum
Dat.
vakbhyams
vagbhyas
6\//l
vocibus
Ace.
vakams
vachas
forces
voces
Abl.
vakbhyams
(as dat.)
(gen. or dat.)
vocibus
Loc.
vaksvas
vaksu
(dat.)
Instr.
vakbhis
vagbhis
(dat.)
(abl.)
(For Verb-Forms, see p. 59.)
238
APPENDIX.
2. Cardinal Numbers.
Indo-Eur.
Sanskr.
Greek.
1
2
dva
[eka]
dva
[*]
dto
3
tri
tri
r/oets
4
kvatvar
chatur
(Y^crcrc
5
kvankva
panchan
•jrtvre
6
ksvaks
shash
%£
7
saptam
saptan
€7TT&
8
aktam
ashtun
OKT&
9
navam
navan
tvvta
10
dakam
dasan
dtKCL
12
dvadakam
dva-dasan
dddcicc
13
tridakam
trayo-dasan
TplffKCL
20
dvidakanta
vinsati
elVoo-t
30
tridakanta
trinsati
TpldKO
100
kantam
satam
€Kar6i>
Latin.
[unus]
duo
tres
quattuor
quinque
sex
septem
octo
novem
decem
duodecim
tredecim
viginti
triginta
centum
Latin.
pater
iriater
socer
imrus
frater
soror
potis
domus
sedes
vetus (old)
ager
bos
ovis
sus
jugum
rota (wheel)
medius
suavis
The immigrants who peopled the Italian peninsula also divided
into several branches, and the language of each branch had its own
development, until they were finally crowded out by the dominant
Latin. Fragments of some of these dialects have- been preserved,
in monumental remains, or as cited by Roman antiquarians, though
no literature now exists in them ; and other fragments were prob-
ably incorporated in that popular or rustic dialect which formed
the basis of the modern Italian. The most important of these
ancient languages of Italy — not including Etruscan, which was
* Clansman.
3.
Familiar and Household Words.
Indo-Eur.
Sanskr.
Greek.
Father.
patar-
pitri-
TTCLTrjp
Mother.
matar-
matri-
V'Tfr'np
Father-in-law.
evakura-
cva£iira-
CKVpOS
Daughter-in-law.
snusha-
snusha-
VVOS
Brother.
bhratar-
bhratri-
fppdTTJp
Sister.
svasar- (?)
svasar-
[dde\(prj
Master.
pati-
pati-
TTOffLS
House.
dama-
dama-
do/uios
Seat.
sadas-
sadas-
Zdos
Year.
vatas-
vatsa-
ZTOS
Field.
agra-
ajra-
dypds
Ox, Cow.
gau-
go-
(3ovs
Sheep (Ewe).
avi-
avi-
&LS
Swine (Sow).
su-
su-
6s, o-tfs
Yoke.
yuga-
yuga-
£wybv
Wagon.
rata-
rata-
[ctyaa^a]
Middle.
madhya-
madhya-
/JL^ffOS
Sweet.
svadu-
svadu-
7)5lJS
APPENDIX.
239
of uncertain origin — were the Oscan of Campania, and the Um-
brian of the northern districts. Some of their forms as compared
with the Latin may be seen in the following :
aragetud
censtur
censazet
contrud, N.
Latin. Oscan.
accinere
alteri(loc.) alttrei
argento
avibus
censor
censebit
contra, F.
cornlcem
dextra
dicere
dixerit
•iuodecim
extra
facito
fecerit
iertote
fratribus
ibi
mperator
nter
iceto
magistro
medius
mugiatur
multare
Umbrian.
arkane
deicum
dicust
ehtrad
factud
fefacust
curnaco
destrn
(cf. venum-do)
desenduf
fertuta
fratrus
embratur
anter
licitud
anter
moltaum
mestra
mefa
mugatu
Latin,
neque
per
portet
quadrupedibus
Oscan.
nep
perum
quatuor
quinque
qui, quis
quid
quod
cui
quom
rectori
siquis
stet
subvoco
sum
est
sit
fuerit
fuerunt
fuat
tertium
ubi
uterque
utrique
petora
pomtis
pis
pid
pod
piei
regaturei
staiet(staieet)
sum
iest
set
fust
fufans
fuid
Umbrian.
portaia
peturpursus
petur
pis
pod
pone, pune
svepis
subocau
fust
fuia
tertim
puturus pid
putrespe
puf
puterei®
Fragments of early Latin are preserved in inscriptions dating
back to the third century before the Christian era ; and some Laws
ure attributed to a much earlier date, — to Romulus (B. c. 750) and
!Numa (B. c. 700) ; and especially to the Decemvirs (Twelve Tables,
5. c. 450) ; but in their present form no authentic dates can be as-
signed to them. Some of these are usually given in a supplement
to the Lexicon. (See also Cic. de Legibus, especially ii. 8, iii. 3, 4.)
Latin did not exist as a literary language, in any compositions
known to us, until about B. c. 200. At that time it was already
strongly influenced by the writings of the Greeks, which were the
:-hief objects of literary study and admiration. The most popular
[lays, those of Plautus and Terence, were simply translations from
(freek, introducing freely, however, the popular dialect and the
slang of the Roman streets. As illustrations of life and manners
t'aey belong as much to Athens as to Rome. And the natural
growth of a genuine Roman literature seems to have been thus
240 APPENDIX.
very considerably checked or suppressed. Orations, rhetorical
works, letters, and histories, — dealing with the practical affairs
and passions of politics, — seem to be nearly all that sprang direct
from the native soil. The Latin poets of the Empire were mostly
court-poets, writing for a cultivated and luxurious class ; satires and
epistles alone keep the flavor of Roman manners, and exhibit the
familiar features of Italian life.
In its use since the classic period, Latin is known chiefly as
the language of the Civil Code, which gave the law to a large part
of Europe ; as the language of historians, diplomatists, and philos-
ophers during the Middle Age, and in some countries to a much
later period ; as the official language of the Church and Court of
Rome, down to the present day ; as, until recently, the common
language of scholars, so as still to be the ordinary channel of com-
munication among many learned classes and societies ; and as the
universal language of Science, especially of the descriptive sciences,
so that many hundreds of Latin terms, or derivative forms, must be
known familiarly to any one who would have a clear knowledge of
the facts of the natural world, or be able to recount them intelli-
gibly to men of science. In some of these uses it may still be
regarded as a living language ; while, conventionally, it retains its
place as the foundation of a liberal education.
During the classical period of the language, Latin existed not
only in its literary or urban form, but in several local dialects,
known by the collective name of lingua rustica, far simpler in the
forms of inflection than the classic Latin. This, it is probable, was
the basis of modern Italian, which has preserved many of the
ancient words without aspirate or case-inflection, as orto (Tiortus),
genie (gens). In the colonies longest occupied by the Romans,
Latin — often in its ruder and more popular form — grew into the
language of the common people. Hence the modern languages
called "Romance" or "Romanic"; viz., Italian, Spanish, Portu-
guese, and French, together with the Catalan of Northeastern
Spain, the Provencal or Troubadour language of the South of
France, the " Rouman " or Walachian of the lower Danube (Rou-
mania), and the " Roumansch " of some districts of Switzerland.
A comparison of words in several of these tongues with Latin
will serve to illustrate that process of phonetic decay to which
reference has been made in the body of this Grammar, as well as
APPENDIX.
241
the degree in which the substance of the language has remained
unchanged. Thus, in the verb to be the general tense-system has
been preserved from the Latin in all these languages, together
with both of the stems on which it is built, and the personal
endings, somewhat abraded, which can be traced throughout. The
following exhibit the verb-forms with considerably less alteration
than is found in the other Romanic tongues : —
Latin.
Italian.
Spanish.
Portuguese.
French.
Provencal.
sum
sono
soy
s6u
suis
son (sui)
es
sei
eres
es
es
ses (est)
est
e
es
he
est
es (ez)
sumus
siamo
somos
s6mos
sommes
sem (em)
estis
siete
sois
sois
etes
etz (es)
sunt
sono
son
sao
sont
sont (son)
eram
era
era
era
etais
era
eras
eri
eras
eras
etais
eras
erat
era
era
era
etait
era
eramus
eravamo
eramos
eramos
etions
eram
eratis
eravate
erais
fcreis
etiez
eratz
erant
erano
eran
erao
etaient
eran
fui
foi
fui
fui
fus
fui
fuisti
fosti
fuiste
foste
fus
fust
fuit
fu
fue
f6i
fut
fo (fon)
fuimus
fummo
fuimos
fomos
fumes
fom
fuistis
foste
fuisteis
fostos
fates
fotz
fuerunt
fiirono
fueron
forao
furent
foren
sim
sia
sea
seja
sois
sia
sis
sii
seas
sejas
sois
sias
sit
sia
sea
seja
soit
sia
simus
siamo
seamos
sejamos
soyons
siam
sitis
siate
seais
sejais
soyez
siatz
sint
siano
sean
sejao
soient
sian
fuissem
fossi
fuese
fdsse
fusse
fos
fuisses
fossi
fueses
fosses
fusses
fosses
fuisset
fosse
fuese
fosse
fut ^
fossa (fos)
fuissemus
fossimo
fuesemos
fOssemos
fussions
fossem
fuissetis
foste
fueseis
fdsseis
fussiez
fossetz
fuissent
fossene
fuesen
fOssem
fussent
fossen
es
sii
se
se
sois
sias
esto
sia
sea
seja
soit
sia
este
siate
sed
sede
soyez
siatz
sunto
siano
sean
sejao
soient
sian
esse
essere
ser
ser
etre
esser
[sens]
essendo
siendo
sendo
etant
essent
PRINCIPAL ROMAN WRITERS.
B.C.
T. Maccius Plautus, Comedies 254-184
Q.. Ennius, Annals, Satires, &c. (Fragments) . . . 239-169
M. Porcius Cato, Husbandry, Antiquities, &c. . . . 234-149
M. Pacuvius, Tragedies (Fragments) 220-130
P. Terentius Afer (Terence), Comedies 195-159
L. Attius, Tragedies (Fragments) 170-75
C. Lucilius, Satires (Fragments) 148-103
M. Terentius Varro, Husbandry, Antiquities, &c. . . 116-28
M. Tullius Cicero, Orations, Letters, Dialogues . . 106-43
C. Julius Caesar, Commentaries . 100-44
T. Lucretius Carus, Poem "De Rerum Natura " . . 95-52
C. Valerius Catullus, Miscellaneous Poems .... 87-47
C. Sallustius Crispus (Sallust), Histories .... 86-34
Cornelius Nepos, Lives of Famous Commanders . . <?. /<^0- £
P. Vergilius Maro, Eclogues, Georgics, sEneid . . -70-19
Q^ Horatius Flaccus, Satires, Odes, Epistles . . . 65-8
Albius Tibullus, Elegies 54-J3
Sex. Aurelius Propertius, Elegies 5I-I5
T. Livius Patavinus (Livy), Roman History 59-A. D. 17
P. Ovidius Naso (Ovid), Metamorphoses, Fasti, &c. . . . 43- A. D. 18
Phaedrus, Fables - ^ I
Valerius Maximus, Anecdotes, &c -31
C. Velleius Paterculus, Roman History I9~3I
Pomponius Mela, Husbandry & Geography .... -co
A. Persius Flaccus, Satires A.D. 34-62
L. Annseus Seneca, Philos. Letters, &c. ; Tragedies ./?. <?. 3 Q)-6$ — .
M. Annaaus Lucanus, Historical Poem " Pharsalia" .
Q^ Curtius Rufus, History of Alexander
C. Plinius Secundus (J^linj), Nat. Hist., &c. . . .
C. Valerius Flaccus, HelPv ic Poem, " Argonautica" . -88
P. Papinius Statius, Heroic Poems, " Thebais,"&c. . 61-96
C. Silius Italicus, Heroic Poem, " Punica" .... 25-100
D. Junius Juvenalis (Juvenal), Satires 40-120
L. Annaeus Florus, Hist. Abridgment -120
M. Valerius Martialis (Martial), Epigrams .... 43-104
M. Fabius Quintilianus, Rhetoric 40-118
C. Cornelius Tacitus, Annals, History, &c 60-118
C. Plinius Caecilius Secundus (Pliny Junior) Letters 61-115
C. Suetonius Tranquillus, Biographies 70-
Apuleius, Philos. Writings, " Metamorphoses " &c. . no-
A. Gellius, Miscellanies, " Noctes Atticae " . . . . about -i 80
f Q^ Septimius Florens Tertullianus, Apologist . . 160-240
fM. Minucius Felix, Apol. Dialogue about -250
fFirmianus Lactantius, Theology 250-325
fD. Magnus Ausonius, Miscellaneous Poems . . •
Ammianus Marcellinus, Roman History
Claudius Claudianus, Poems, Panegyrics, &c. . . .
f Aurelius Prudentius Clemens, Christian Poems . . 348~410
t Aurelius Augustinus, Confessions, Discourses, &c. . 354-430
Anicius Manlius Boethius, Philos. Dialogues . . . 47°~52JZC'~
t Christian writers.
C.
INDEX.
NOTE. — The Figures refer to pages; the Letters to the upper, middle, or
lower part of the page.
AB, preposition 88 c, with agent, after
passives 138 b.
Abbreviations of prsenomens 32.
Ablative 12 a, ending 13 b, in -ABUS
14 c, in I 18 b, 35 c, 37 c, in is (3d
decl. ) 21 b, in -UBUS 28 c, neuter used
adverbially 84 c, EO and QUO 49 c,
after prepositions 88, with AB or DE
for partitive gen. 116 b, of crime or
punishment 119 c;^with dat. after
verbs 122 b, with PRO ipr defence &c.
130 c, syntax of 134-143, of separa-
tion 135 a, of place from which 135 c,
of source 136 c, of material 137 b,
of cause 137 b, with adjectives &c.
137 c, of agent 138 b, after compara-
tives 138 c, after PLUS &c. 139 a, of
means 139 b, of accompaniment 139
c, after UTOR &c. 140 b, of degree of
difference 140 c, of quality 141 a, of
a, of time 143 b, time how-long 143 c,
of distance 144 a, place from which
144 c, for locative 145 a, place where
145^;, way by u^/ich 145 c, w,ith prep-
ositions 145 a, with AB for agent 147
c, distinguished from abl. of instru-
ment 148 a.
ABSCJUE 89 a.
Abstract nouns in pltir. 30 c, with
neut. adj. 106 a. expressed by neut.
adj. 107 c.
AC see ATQUE; AC si with subj. 174 c.
Accent 7 c.
Accompaniment abl. of 139 c.
Accusative 11 c, endings 13 a, in IM
18 b, 35 c, in is 19 a, 37 c, neut. used
as adv. 83 c (gen. 85 a), after prep.
88, 145 a, with verbs of remembering
&c. 119 a, with impers. 120, 132 b,
with dat. 123 c, 124 c, after com-
pounds of preps. 125 c, after AD for
dat. 128 c, after adj. 129 c, construc-
tion of 131, as div. obj. 131 a, with
verbs of feeling 131 b, cognate 131 c,
verbs of taste &c. 131 c, after com-
pounds 132 a, constructive 132 a,
two ace. 132 b, adverbial 133 a, syn-
ecdochical 133 b, in exclamations
133 c, as subj. of infin. 133 c, of dura-
tion 133 c, 143 c, of space 133 c, 144 a,
of distance 133 c, 144 a, place whither
144 c, in ind. disc. 188 a, of anticipa-
tion 190 c, in subst. clauses 194 a,
after passives 194 b, after verbs 01
promising &c. 195 a.
Action, nouns of 96 b, 97 c, governing
genitive 117 a.
AD 88 b, following noun 148 a.
Adjectives 33, of two termin. 35 a, of
one termin. 36 a, of common gender
38 a, used as adv. 38 a, deriv. of 96
b, 98 a, compound 100 b, modifying
102 a, adj. phrase 102 b, agreement
of 105, in appos. 105 b, in agr. with
appos. 106 b, with part. 106 c, used
as nouns 106 c, neuter 107 b, used
for gen. 108 a, 114 a, qualifying act
108 c, for obj. gen. 108 b, in rel.
clause 111 b, neut. used partitively
115 c, relat. gov. gen. 117 c, of feel-
ing with ANIMI 118 b, gov. gen. and
dat. 118 c, 129 a, followed by dat. or
ace. with AD 128 c, dat. or ace. 129 b,
of want with abl. 136 a, DIGNUS &c.
with abl. 137 c.
ADMODUM 41 a.
Adverbs 9 c,-84, compar. of 40 b, com-
* pound 100 c, numeral 43 c, correl.
49 c, classif. of 85, 86, modifying 102
a, phrase 102 b, qualifying noun
107. b, rel; or dem. equiv. to pron.
Ill c, partitive use 116 a, formed
with TENUS 147 a, used as prepos.
147 b, followed by QUAM 147 c.
Adverbial phrase 102 b, accus. 133 b,
in abl. absolute 143 a.
Adversative conjunctions 94 a.
ADVERSUS 89 b, as adverb 147 b.
Affix, close and open 96.
Agency, nouns of 96 b, 97 c, govern-
ing gen. 117 a.
Agent 138 b, abl. with AB 147 c.
Agnomen 32 b.
Agreement 103 b, nouns in for part,
gen. 116 c.
Aio 81 c.
Alcaic strophe,
ALIENUS W^th DOMUS 145 b.
ALi- (stem of ALIUS) 48 b.
ALIUS infl. of 34 c, with abl. 139 b.
Alphabet, classitication of 1 b.
AM BO, infl. 42 b.
AMPLIUS, constr. of 139 a.
246
INDEX.
AN, ANNE, ANNON, interrog. parti-
cles 200 c.
ANTE 89 b, om. in dates 146 c, as adv.
147 b, followed by QUAM 147 c, AN-
TE DIEM 146 c.
Antecedent of relative 110 a, implied
110 b, in both clauses 110 c, omitted
111 a.
Antepenult 7 c.
ANTEQUAM with relat. clauses 179 c.
Aorist 53 b.
APAGE 82 b.
Apodosis 166 a, c.
Appositive 102 a, 104 a, adjectives
105 b, neut. adj. 107 c, in periphr.
form 112 a, expr. by gen. 115 a, with
NOMEN EST, 127 a, after verbs of
naming 132 c.
APUD 89 c.
APT us followed byrel. andsubj. 185 c.
Arsis and Thesis 222 b.
AS, the unit of value 235 c.
Asclepiadic verse 230.
Asking, verbs of, with two ace. 132 c.
Aspirate 1 c, 115 c.
Assimilation of consonants 36, in
prepos. 4 a.
AT 95 b, AT VERO 96 a.
ATQUE 95 a.
Attraction of Relative 110.
Attributive adj. 105 b.
AUDEO 77 a.
AUSIM 77 b.
AUT 95 b, in questions 201 c.
AUTEM 95 b, position, 96 a.
AVE 82 b.
BELLI (locative) 145 a.
Birth, place of in abl. 137 a.
BOS, decl. of 22 b, c.
C and G 2 a, for QIT 2 b, interchanged
with T 4 b, pronunciation of 6 a.
Caesura 222 b.
Calendar, Roman 235 a.
Cardinal numbers 41 b, declined 42 b.
CARO, decl. 25 c.
Cases 11 b, endings 13 b, forms (see
declensions) construction of 113 b.
Catalectic verse. /
CAUSA with gen. 115 b, 138 a. '
Causal conjunctions 94 b, clauses 102 c,
with subjunct. 181 b.
Causative verbs 99 a.
Cause, with subjunctive 185 b.
CAVE in prohibitions 192 c.
-CE enclitic 45 b.
CELO with two accusatives 133 a.
CEDO (defective) 82 b.
CERTE and CERTO 87 b.
CEU with subjunct. 174 c.
Choliambic verse 226 b.
Choi-iambic verse 228 b.
CIRCA, CIRCITER, CTRCUM, CIS 89 C.
ciRCiTER as adv. 147 b.
Cities, gender of 10 c.
CITRA 89 c, following noun 148 a.
CLAM as prepos. 147 b.
Clauses 102 b, adv. use 84 b, with
neut. in appos. 107 c, limited by
gen. 114 b, with impersonals 120 a,
dependent, in seq. of tenses 162 a.
Close syllables 5 c, affixes 9 b, in. com-
pounds 65 a.
Commands in subjunct. 149 c, impera-
tive 51 b, 152 b.
CCEPI 81 b.
Cognomen 32 b.
Collective nouns with plur. verbs 112 c.
Combinations of consonants 5 a, 192 c.
Commands, indirect 191 c.
Common gender 11 a, of adj. 38 a.
Comparative conjunctions 94 b.
Comparatives, declensions 37 a, use
40 c, partitive 115 c.
Comparison, forms of 38 b, irregular
39 b, defective 39 c, of adverbs 40 b,
in appos. 104 b, of qualities, 108 c.
Complementary ace. 104 b, intin. 154 b.
Complete action, tenses of 53 c, 159 c,
favorite use 170 c.
Compounds of verbs 65 .a, of FACIO
80 a, of FIO 81 c, of NON 86 a, stems
96 b, words 100 a, of preps, govern-
ing ace. 132 a, with two ace. 132 c,
with abl. 135 b, quantity of 220 b.
Conditional conjunctions 94b, clauses
W2. b, 103 a, 166, classified 167 c.
C6nTiitions, partic. and gen. 167, pres-
ent and past 168, future 170 a, gen-
eral 171 c, implied 172 b, omitted
17.3 b, in indirect <lis<*7Tursc/89b.
Conjugation 9b, 60, the four regular
66-75. "
Conjunctions 92, correlative 49 c, class-
es of 93.
Connectives 103 b.
Consecutive clauses 102 c, 103 a, sub-
junctive 183 c.
Consonants 1 b, stems 12 c, 36 a.
Constructio prcegnans 132 a.
CONTRA 90 a, as adv. 147 b, following
noun 148 a.
Contraction 3 a, shown by circumflex,
7 a.
Co-ordinate clause 102 c.
Correlatives 49.
Countries, gender of 10 c.
Crime, expressed by ablative 119 c.
CUM (prep.) 90 a, as enclitic 44 c, 47 c.
CUM (conj.) 95 c, with subjunct. 176 c,
178 c, as indef. relat. 177 a, causal
w. subj, 180 c, 181 c, like QUOD with
indie. 180 c, CUM TUM with indie.
181 a, causal with indicative 181, for
pres. pass. part. 202 c.
Dactylic Verse 224 b.
Dative 11 c, ending 13 b, in -ABUS 14 c,
in is (3d deck) 21 b, -UBUS 28 c, in I
34 b, construction 121, with trans-
itives 121 c, after verbs of motion
(poet.) 122 b, with abl. id., after in-
trans. 122 c, 123, with ace. 123 c, 124 c,
after impersonals 124 b, after com-
INDEX.
247
pounds 125, 126, in poetry 126 c, of
possession id., after comp. of ESSE
127 a, with NOMEN EST id., of
agency 127 b, after participles and
passives id., of service 128 a, of
nearness 128 b, after nouns 129 b, of
advantage 129 c, used for gen. 130 a,
for direction id., of volens &c. 130 b,
ethical id., with infinitive of verbs
governing dative 155 b.
Declaratory sentence 101.
Declension 12 c, general rules 13 a.
Defective nouns, 29, 30, adj. 37, tenses
50 b, verbs 81. '
-DEM, enclitic 45 b.
Denominative verbs 99 a, c.
Deponents 75 c, semi-deponents 77 a.
Derivation 96-100.
Derivative verbs 77 b, 99.
DiGxys with abl. 137 c, with QUI and
siibj.'185c.
Diphthongs 1 b, 6 a, long 7 a.
Diptotes 31 a.
Distance (ace. ) 133 c (ace. or abl. ) 144 a.
Distributives 43 b.
DO MI (loc.) 145 a.
DONEC with subjunctive 180 b.
Doubtful gender 11 a.
Dual 42 b.
DUBITO 184 b, 198 b, 200 c.
BUM with pres. 158 a, id. followed by
secondary ten8es*"163 c, (provided)
with subj. 175 c, 180 b, (until) with
subj. 180 b, for pass. part. 202 c.
DUMMODO with subj. 175 c, 180 b.
Early forms, alphabet 2, prosody.
EDO 80 a.
EGEO with gen. 120 c, 136 b.
Ellipsis 101 c.
Emphasis as dependent on arrange-
ment 212 c.
Enclitics, intensive 45 a, CUM 44 c.
ENIM 95 b, 96 a. x
Epicene nouns 11 a.
Epistolary tenses 161 b.
ESCIT, 59 c.
ESSE 57 c, comparative forms 59 c,
compounds 60, omitted 113 b, com-
pounds with dative 127 a.
ET . . . ET 95 c.
ETIAM 87 a, in answers 201 c.
E-fsi 175 b, — -*- > .
Etymology 1-100. Vi
Euphonic changes 2 c, 3b.
EX 90 c, following noun 148 a, com-
pounds of, with dative 126 a.
Exclamations (accus.) 133 c.
Exclamatory sentences 101 b, accus-
ative with infinitive 156 b.
FA cio 80 c, compounds 100 c, facio ut
in periphr. 198 a.
FAIU 82 a.
Feeling, nouns of, with genitive 117 a,
verbs of, with ace. 131 b.
(
Feminine forms lacking masc. 34 b,
abl. in o 34b,_m -A of adj. of 3d
decl. 37 a, abl. afcl^. 85 a.
Festivals, names oft-plural 30 c.
FERO 78 b.
Fillitt|^/verbs of, with abl. or genitive
Final clauses 102 c, 103 a, 182, 195.
Finite verb 113 a.
FIO 80 c, defective comp. 82 c.
Foot (in prosody) 220 e, classif. 221.
FORE UT for fut. inf. pass. 55 c, 165 c.
FORIS (loc. form) 145 a.
Frequentative verbs 77 c, 99 c.
FRUOR and FUNGOR with abl. 140 b.
Future tense 53 a, endings 54 c, 61 b, c,
of subj. 83 c, for imperative 153 b,
syntax 159 b, has no relative time
179 b, infin. expr. by FORE UT 165 c,
participle 202 a.
Future Perfect 53 a, syntax 161 a,
used for future id., how repr. in
subjunctive 162 b, in protasis 170 c.
Future infin. pass. (sup. with IRI) 55 c.
Games, names of, plural 30 c.
GAUDEO 77 a.
Gender 9c, grammatical 10 a, of ap-
position 104 c, of adjective 105 c.
General truth in seq. of tenses, 163 c.
Genitive 11 c, plural ending 13 b, in
AI and AS 14 b, in IUM 19 a, c, in
lus 34 b, in appos. with possessive
105 a, 108 b, construction 113 c, sub-
jective 114 a, in pred. b, with phrase
id., of adj. for neuter noun 114 c, of
substance id., for noun in apposition
115 a, of quality and measure id.,
of value id. b, partitive id., after adj.
for noun 116 b, two gen. with one
noun 117 a, objective 117 a, of speci-
fication 118 a, after verbs 119 a, (of
remembering &c. 119 a, of accus-
ing &c. b, of emotion 120 a, imper-
sonals 120, of plenty and want 120 c,
136 b, 140 b, with POTIOR 121 a, 127 a,
of price 141 c.
Gentiles, names of, 8 b.
Gerund 50 a, 52 b, syntax 206 c.
Gerundive 52 a, ending 55 b, periphr.
forhi 83 c, with dative of agent 127 c,
syntax 205 c, 206, origin 207 a.
Glyconic verse 228 b.
Government 103 c.
GRATIA with gen. 11 5 b, 138 a.
Greek accus. (synecd.) 133 b.
H (aspirate) 1 c, used with c 4 c,
omitted 4 c, not reckoned in posi-
tion, 215 c.
HABEO, imperative 153 b, with perf.
part. 204 c.
Heteroclites 31 b.
Heterogeneous nouns 31 c.
248
INDEX.
Hexameter verse.
HIC 45, 46.
Hindrance, subject of 185 b.
HUMI (loc.) 145 c.
I in perf. 55 a, added to root 62 c, lost
in 3d conj. 63 c, suffix 96 c.
Iambic verse.
ID QUOD, lllb.
IDCIRCO 95 C.
IDEM 46, deriv. 45 b.
IDONEUS with QUI and subj. 185 c.
-IER in intin. pass. 65 c.
IGITUR 95 c, position 96 a.
ILLE 45, 46.
-JM in present subjunctive 65 c.
IMMO 201 c.
Imperative 51 b, termin. 54 b, a weak-
ened 63 a, drops termin. 65 a, sen-
tence 101 a, in commands 152 b, 3d
person antiq. 152 c, future 153 a,
equiv. to condition 172 c.
Imperfect 53 a, lengthens vowel 63 a,
of subj. 64 c, of hortat. subj. 150 b,
optat. subj. 150 c, concess. subj. 151 c,
syntax 158 b, in descriptions 158 c,
for pi up. id., of surprise 159 a, for
perf. 159 b, in epist. style 161 b, subj.
in unfulfilled cond. 168 b, in temp,
clauses 178 a, 179 a, subjunctive re-
ferring to present time 164 a.
Impersonal verbs 82, with gen. 120 a,
used personally 120 b, with dative
124 b, passive of verbs governing
dative 126 b, with ace. 132 b, with
inlin. 154 b, with subst. clause 193 c.
Impure syllable 5c.
IN 90 c, construction of 87 b, 146 a.
Inceptive forms 62 c, verbs (inchoa-
tive) 77 b, 99 c.
Incomplete tenses 53 c.
Increment 218.
Indeclinable nouns 31 a, gender 10 c,
adjective 37 c, 49 c.
Indefinite subj. omitted 113 a, rela-
tive, equiv. to condition 166 c.
Indicative 51 a, 61, 63, syntax 148 b,
tenses of 157, in cond. clauses 167 b,
168 a, in apod, of unfulf. cond. 169 a,
in fut. cond. 170 a, in apod, of im-
plied condition 174 a, absolute time
177 b, in inverted clauses 179 a, with
CUM 180 c, in causal clauses 181 b,
with QUOD in subst. clauses 199 b.
INDIGEO with genitive 120 c, 136 b.
INDIGNUS, with relative and subjunc.
185 c, with ablative 137 c.
Indirect discourse 187 c, subj. of infin.
om. 155 c, subjunct. in subord. clause
1K() a, example 192.
Infinitive 51 b, endings 55 b, c, pass, in
-IER 65 c, syntax 153 c, as subj. id.,
with impers. 154 b, complementary
154 b, for subst. clause 154 c, with
subj. ace. 155b, of purpose and re-
sult 156 a, in exclam. 156 b, 197 c,
historical 156 c, tenses 161 b, only
used in present 165 a, with ace. in
subst. clauses 194 a, with ace. after
passives 194 b, after verbs of wish-
ing 195 c, verbs of permission 196 a,
of determining 196 b, used by poets
197 a.
Inflection 8 a.
INQUAM 81 c.
INSTAR with gen. 115b.
Intensive verbs 77 c, 99 c.
INTEREST 120 b.
Interjections 9 c, 95 a.
Intermediate clauses 102 c, with sub-
junctive 185c.
Interrogative particles 9c, 86 b, 200 a,
omitted 200 b, 201 a, sentences 101 b.
IPSE (IPSUS) 45, 46c.
Irregular nouns 30 b, verbs 78.
is 45, 46 c.
Islands, gender of, 10 c.
ISTE 45, 46.
ITAQUE 95, accent 7 c (ergo, 96 a).
ITER, declined 22 b.
JAM 87 b.
JECUR, decl. 22 b.
JUBEO, constr. 155 a, 194 a.
JUCUNDUS, constr. of 209 c.
JUNGO with abl. 140 a.
j UPPITER, decl. 22 b.
JUXTA 91 b, following noun 148 a.
L doubled (3d conj.) 62 b.
Labial stems 20 b, gender of 24 b, 26 b.
LATEO with acc. 133 a.
-LIBET 48 a.
LICET with dat. of pred. 1§&J», with
subj. 175 b, 176 c, 190 a.
Lingual stems 20 c, gender 24 b, 26 b.
Liquid stems 19 b, gender 24 a, 25.
Locative case 12 b, as adverb 85 a, in
appos. 104 c, for place 145 a.
LOCO without prep. 145 c.
LONGIUS, constr. of, 139 a.
MAGIS in compar. 39 a, 109 a.
MALO 79 b.
Masculine adj. 38 a.
Material, gen. of, 114 c, abl. 137 b.
MAXIME, in comp. 39 a.
Means, abl. of, 139 b.
Measure, gen. of, 115 a, 144 a.
Meditative verbs 78 c, 99 c.
MEMINI 81 b, imperative form, 153 b.
-MET, enclitic, 45 a.
Metre 223 c.
MILITIvE (lOC.) 145 a.
MILLE, decl. and constr. 43 a.
MINIME 41 a, in answers 201 c.
MINORIS (of value) 141 c.
MINUS 41 a, constr. of 139 a.
MIRUM QUAM 191 b.
MISCEO with abl. 140 a. 'XJ. * I 2* H
MISERET 83 a, 120 a.
Modification of subj. or pred. 102 a. ,
MODO with hort. subj. 150 a, 175c.
Monoptotes 31 a. ^
INDEX.
249
Months, gender of 10 c, in -BER 35 c,
construction 146 c, division 234 b.
Moods 50 a, 51, syntax of. 148 b.
JN'otion, preps, with ace. 122 b, verbs
fCf (comp.) with ace. 132 a.
Motive with OB or PROPTER 138 a.
Mountains, gender of, 10 c.
Multiplication 43 b.
Multiplicatives 43 c.
Mute stems 20 a.
N of stem lost 19 b, inserted in 3d
conj. 62 b.
NAM, NAMQUE 35 b, 96 a.
Names of men and women 32.
NE with hort. subj. 150 a, in final
clauses 182 a, in consec. 183 c, with
verbs of caution 196 b, of fearing
196 c, omitted id.
-NE (enclitic) 200 a, with me 45 b,
added to interrog. words 200 c, in
double questions id. _/
NECNE 200 c.
NEDUM 183 a.
Negative particles 9 c, 86 c, two equal
to affirmative 87 a.
NEGO for DICO NON 188 a.
NEQUEO 82 b.
NE . . . QUIDEM 87 C, 214 a.
NESCIO AN 200 C, NESCIO QUIS 191 b.
Neuter passives 77 a.
Neuters, like cases 13 a, in AL and AR
17 c, of adj. in s 36 e, ace. as adv.
84 c, of adj. with abstr. nouns 106 a,
as noun 107 b, partitive use 115 c.
Neuter verbs, with agent 138 b.
Neutral passives 77 b.
NI, NISI 176 b, 166 b.
NIX, decl. 22 c.
NOLO 79 b, NOLI 192 c.
NOMEN 32 b, with dative 127 a.
Nominative lib, formed from stems
12 c, in adj. 36 a, as subj. of verb
113 a, used for voc. 134 a, with opus
136 b.
NONNE 200 a.
Nouns 14-32, used as adj. 38 a, 107 b,
verbal 50 a, irreg. 30 b, derived 96 a,
compound 100 b, agreement of 103 c,
in relative clause llOc, understood
with gen. 114 a, governing dat. 129 c.
NUM 200 a.
Number of appositive 104 c, of adj.
105 b, of verb 112 b.
Numerals 41 b, partitive use 115 c.
N umeral adverbs 43 c.
NUNC 86 b.
O si with subjunct. of wish 151 a.
o for u after u 2b, in verb-stems 62 c.
Object 101 c, indir. 121 b, direct 131 a.
Oblique cases 12 a.
oi$vii:,s with dative 125 c.
ODI 81 b.
Open syllables 5 c, pron. 6 a, affix 9 b,
in compounds 65 a.
OPERA with gen. 138 b.
OPUS with abl. 136 a, with perf. part.
204 c.
Oratio O6/igita,see Indirect Discourse,
^rder of words 212.
Ordinal numbers 41 b, how formed,
42 b, declined 42 c.
OS for us 15 c.
os, ossis, decl. 22 c.
P inserted before M 3c, 20 b, 72 b.
PALAM 147 b. <i
Palatal 1 b, stems 21 c, gender 2415^"
27 b, verbs 62 c.
Parisyllabic nouns 17 b, adj. 35 a.
PARTE, without prepos. 145 c.
Participial clause, equiv. to condition
172 b.
Participles 50 a, 51 c, abl. in i 20 b;
37 b, compared 39 a, future of pur-
pose 51 c, 205 b, "perfect as adj. 25 a,
82 c, with habeo 204 c, active 52 a,
periphr. use 53 c, 83 b, ending 55 b,
pres. of ESSE 57 c, of deponents 76 b,
51 a, present as adj. 83 c, in NS with
^gen. 17 c, with dative of agent 127 c,
of source with abl. 136 c, in URUS
with FUI plup. subj. 169 c, in RUS
or BUS in future apod. 170 c, syntax
202, adj. and pred. 203.
Particles 9 c, 84-96, in compounds
100 c, conditional, with subj. 174 c,
interrogative 200 a.
Partitive genitive 115 b.
PARUM 41 a.
Passive voice 50 c, reflex, use id. 83 b,
with ace. 133 b, tennin. 54 b, intin.
in IER 65 c, participles of deponents
76 c, of impersonate 83 b, followed
by dative 122 a, of agent 127 c, sub-
ject 131 a, of verbs of feeling 131 b,
of asking, &c., with ace. 132 c, of
saying, &c., with accusative and
infinitive 194 b.
Patronymics 98 b.
Peculiar forms, 3d decl. 22 a, genders
25 a, 26 a, 27 b.
PENES 91 c, following noun 148 a.
Penult 7 c, quantity of 218-220.
PER 91 c, in compos. 41 a, for agent
138 b.
Perfect tense, meaning, 53 b, endings
54 b, 55 a, syncop. 65 b, subjunct. in
prohib. 150 a, 152 b, of sub. anti-
quated 150 c, concess. subj. 151 c, in
quest. 152 a, syntax 159 c, implies
discontin. 160 a, in negatives 160 b,
for pres. in epist. style 161 b, fol-
lowed by imp. subj. 162 c, subj. for
past act. after primary tenses 162 c,
used for sec. tenses in result 163 a,
with fut. prot. 117 a, infin. for pres.
165 a, after verbs of feeling 165 c,
participle in pass, tenses 52 a, of
depon. id. syntax 202 b.
Period 214 b.
Personal endings 54 a.
Persons of verbs 54 a, 112 b, with relat.
110 a, 2d in subjunct. 149 c, 171 c, 3d
of imperative antiquated 152 c.
250
INDEX.
PERTJESUM EST 120 a.
FKTO with prepos. 133 a.
Pherecratic verse 228 c.
Phonetic decay 2c, 3 a.
Phrases, gender 10 c,as adv. 85 b, modi-
fying 102 b, limited by gen. 114 b. .
PIGET 120 a.
Place, relations of 144 b, abl. of 142 b,
143 b, whence 144 c, whither id.,
where 145, verbs of, constr. 146 b.
Plants, gender of, 10 c, 2d and 4th
decl. 29 a.
Plautus, use of QUAL with indie.
179 b, prosodial forms 23 b.
Pluperfect 53 a, of subjunctive, how
formed 64 c, use 150 b, opt. subj . 150 c,
cone. subj. 151 c, syntax 160; for
imp. in epist. style 161 b, of subj. in
false cond. 168 b, in. temp, clauses
178 a, 179 a.
Plural ace. used as adv. 85 b.
Pluralia tantum 30 c, with distrib. 43 b.
PLURIS, gen. of value 141 c.
PLUS, decl. of 37 b, constr. 139 a.
PCEXITET 120 a.
POXE 91 C.
Position in prosody 216 c.
Possessives in appos. with gen. 105 a,
108 a, as nouns 107 a, for gen. 108 b,
114 a, neuter 114 c, abl. with REFERT
&c. 138 a, with DOMI 145 b.
POSSUM 60 b, infin. as future 164c.
POST 91 c, with QUAM 147 c.
POSTQUAM with temp, clauses 177,c*
POSTULO with prep. 133 a.
POSTIMDIE with gen. 121 a, with ace.
147 b, with QUAM 147 c.
Potential mood 51.a.
POTJOR with gen. 121 a, with abl. 140 b.
PiwK 91 c, in comp. 41 a.
Prtt'iiomen 32 b.
PR.T SERTIM, strengthening CUM
180 c.
PRyETER 92 a.
Predicate 101 c, nom. 104 a, adj. 105 b,
gender 106 a, after inftn. 155 c. *
Prepositions, assimil. 4 a, cla^sif. and
meaning 88-93, in comp. 93 a, 100 c,
comp. with dative 125, 126, with ace.
125 c, 132 a, c, with verbs of asking
132 c, after words of origin 137 a, of
time 143 c, of place 142 c, 144 b, for
neighborhood 145 c, constr. 146, as
adv. 147 b, followed by QUAM 147 c,
following noun 148 a.
Present stem 53 c.
Present tense 53 a, endings 54 c, vowel
61, 62 b, of subjunct. 150-152, syntax
157 b, curative 157 c, for future id.,
historical 158 a, with BUM 158 a,
hist, followed by sec. tenses 163 c,
inh'n. after past verb 164 b, of mem-
ory 164 c, participle 202 a, supplied
in passive 52 a, 202 c.
Preteritive verbs 81 b, 160 c.
Price, abl. or gen. 141 c.
PKIIHK with genitive 121 a, with ace.
1471), with QUAM 147 c.
PRIMO and PRIMUM 87 c.
Principal parts of verbs 64 b, com-
bined 65 a.
PRIUS with QUAM 147 c.
PRIUSQUAM in relative clause
PRO 92 a, for 130 c.
PROCUL, with abl. 147 b.
Prohibitions, subj. with NE 149
ular constr. 152 b.
Pronouns 44, old forms 44 b, gen, in i
44 c, omitted 113a, reflexive 44 b, 4<ii;,
possessive 44 b, 47 b, 105 c,
48 c, reciprocal 44 c, 109 c, der,
45 a, as nouns 107 a, as anti
111 a, intensive 46 c, relative 47,
109 c, agreement 110, as connective
111 c, interrog. and indef. 47.
Pronunciation, 5, 6.
PROPE 92 a, with ace. 147 b, as adv. id.
Proper names 32 b, in plural 30 c.
PROPTER 92 a, follow ing noun 148 a.
PROSUM 60 a.
Protasis 166 a (see Condition).
-PTE (-pse), encl. 45 a.
PUDET 120 a.
Punishment, abl. of, 119 c.
Pure syllable 5c.
Purpose, iritinitive of, 156 a, UT 182 a,
ways of expressing 183 b.
QUJE RES lllb.
QUyEso 82 a.
Quality, genitive of, 115 a.
-QUAM (-pan) 48 a.
QUAM with superl. 40 c, etym. 48 c,
in comparisons 109 a, 138 c, after
prep. 147 c, followed by subj. 185 a,
by infinitive 188 b, by result clause
197 b.
QUAM si with subj. 174 c.
QUAMLIBET, QUANQUAM, QUAMVIS,
48 a, 151 b, 174 b, 176 c.
QUANDO 95 c, as indef. rel. 177 a, with
ind. 181 b.
QUANTI, gen. of value 141 c.
Quantity 6c, notes of 215-220.
QUANTUM vis with subj. 176 c.
QUASI with subj. 174 c.
-QUE (end.), forming universals 48 c.
QUEO 82 b.
Questions 200, indirect 190 a, 200 b, in
ind. disc. 189 c, indie, in 191 b.
QUI adverbial 47 b.
QUIA 95 c, with ind. 181 b, with subj.
186 b.
QUIDEM 87 c, 214 a.
QUIN with subj. 104 a, NON QUIN 186 a,
in subst. clause 198 b.
QUIPPE with CUM 180 c.
QUISQUAM with neg. 48 c.
QUISQUE with superl. 4ta, with plur.
verb 112 c. <*,
QUO in final clauses 182*, NON QUO
186 c.
QUOAD, until, with subj. 180 b.
QUOD 95 c, with ind. 181 b, with subj.
186 b, in subst'. clause 199 b, as ace.
of specif. 199 b, with verbs of feel-
ing 199 c.
INDEX.
251
QUOM 95 C.
Q i < ) M i N us with subjunc. 184 a, after
verbs of caution, &c. 196 b.
QUONIAM 95 c, with indie. 181 b.
QUOQUE 87 a.
R doubled in third conjugation 62 b.
HE APSE 45.
Reduplication 61 b, 62 a, b, 63 b, lost
in compounds 65 a, 96 b, quantity
219 c.
REFERT 120b.
Reflexive pronouns 44 b, verbs 76 b, •
50 c, with ace. 133J>^
Relative pronourrrff, clauses 102 b,
classif. of 193, equiv. to condition
1124^, 166 c, of purpose 182 a, 195, of
result 183 c, 197, of characteristic
184 b.
Result, infin. of, 156 a, perf. subj. 163 a,
subjunctive 183 c, 197 a, elliptical
197 b.
Rhythm 215,
Rivers, gender 10 c.
Root 8 c, 96, of ESSE 59 c, of third con-
jugation 62 b.
RURI, RURE, 145 a.
RUS, constr. of 144 b.
S elided 2 b, 232 a, becomes R 3 a, 19 b,
termin. of nom. 12 c, 13a, in perf.
stem 62 a, 63 b, 64 b, syncop. 65 b.
SE added 62 c.
SALVE S2b.
SATIS, KON SATIS 41 a.
SCIN' 5b.
scio, imperative forjafes c, 153 b.
SECUNDUM 92 b. /^
SED 951).
SEMI-DEPONENTS 77 a.
SEMI-VOWELS Ic, i and u 2 a.
SEXEX, «lecl. 22 c.
Separation, with dat. 126 a, abl. 134 a.
Sequence of tenses 161 c.
Sesterces 101 b.
Sestertius 32 a, 236.
SELT (see SIVE).
si 166 b, whether 191 c, SI NON 176 b,
MIROR si 199 c.
SI KM 59 C. '
Signs of quantity 76, of accent 8 a.
-SIM in perf. subj. 65 c.
SIMUL with abl. 147 b.
SIMUL ATQUE 177 C.
SIX 16(1 b.
SI\E 92 b.
Sin gutctrid fantum 30 c.
sis '(si vis) 5b.
six K '.r> i». J76b.
-so in future perfect 65 c.
,soi>i:s (si AIDES) 56, 77b.
SOLKO 77 a.
Son s with sul»j. 185 a.
Sp'i<-p. acc. <>f. !•;:;<•, 144.1.
Ipecification, acc. of, i:t:)a, abl. 142 a.
Spoiling, various, 4 c.
Stem s<;, %, of nouns 12 c, 96 b. incor-
rect use 13 c, of adj. 33 b, of verbs
53 c, 60 c, changes 54 c, vowel 61,
present 64 b, third conj. 62 b, in u
62 c, perf. 64 b, third conj. 63 b, su-
pine 64 b, quantity of 220 a.
SUB in compos. 41 a, constr. 87 b, 146 a.
Subject 101 c, of verb 113 a, of passive
ma, of intin. 133 c.
Subjunctive 51 a, present (vowel-
change) 61 a, 63 c, inserts E 61 c,
syntax 148 c, hortat. 149 b, as con-
dition 172 c, optat. 150 c, concess.
151 b, 175 b, dubit. 152 a, in proliib.
152 b, tenses 161 c, in false condition
164 a, 168 b, in fut. coiid. 170 b, pres.
becomes iinperf. 171 b, third person
for indef. subjunc. 171 c, repeated
action id., potential 173 b, cautious
173 c, with comi .""and coinpar. par-
ticles 174 c, relative time 177 b, after
CUM 178 c, of protasis after ANTE-
QUAM &c. 180 a, after BUM, b, of
cause 181 b, 185 c, in hid. disc. 181 c,
186 a, in final clauses 182 a, after
NEDUM 183 a, of result 183 c, after
QUIX and QUOMINUS 184 a, of char-
acteristic 184 b, after_ uxus and
SOLUS 185 a, after QUAM id., of re-
striction 185 b, after DIGNUS &c.
185 c, in intermed, clauses id., after
UT in subb^, clauses 195 c, 197 a,
after verbs of commanding 195 c,
of happening 197 ?,, after QUAM
197 b, in exclamation?. 197 c, in in-
direct questions 190, 200 '>.
Subordinate clauses 102 c.
Substantive clauses 102 c, syntax 193.
SUPER, SUPRA 92 c.
SUBTER 92 b, constr. 87 b, 146 b.
Superlative of eminence 40 c, of parti-
ciple 109 b, used partitively 115 c.
Supine 29 a, 50 a, 52 b, stem 53 c, 55 b,
acc. of place whither 144 c, syntax
209.
Syllables, division of 5 b, pure, open
&c. 5c.
Synesis 103 b, of adj. 106 b, verbs 112 c,
of secondary tenses 166 a.
Synopsis 64 c.
Syntax 101-214, general rules 210, 211.
T for D 2b, intercl. with c 4b, end-
ing 54 c, 61 b, 62 a, c.
T^DET 120 a.
TAMEN, position 96 a.
TAMQUAM with subj. 174 c.
TANTI, gen. of value 141 c.
TANTUM as correl. 49 b, with hort.
subj. 150 a.
TA'XTUM A BEST UT 197 C.
TK, end i tic 45 c.
Teaching, verbs of 2, acc. 133 c.
Temporal conjunctions 94 c, clauses
102 c, 176c.
-TKR, sutiix 34 c.
Tenses 50 a, 52 c, syntax 157, sequence
151 c.
TENUS 92 c, construction 146 c, follow-
ing noun 148 a.
252
INDEX-
T-5RRA MARIQUE 145 a.
Time, absolute and relative, 157 a,
161 c, how long (ace.) 133 c, 143 b,
when (abl.) 143 b.
Towns, gender 10 c, in us, fern. 16 a,
in E 18 c, names of, constr. 144 b..
TRANS 92 c.
Trees, gender 10 c.
TRES 42 C.
Triptotes 31 a.
Trochaic verse 227 a.
TUM, TUNC, 87 b, with CUM 95 c, 181 a.
U stems (verbs) 62 c, 64 a, 96 c.
UBI as indef. rel. 177 a, c.
ULLUS with neg. 48 $.
ULTRA 93 a, following noun 148 a.
UNQUAM with neg. 48 c.
UNUS 42 b, with rel. and subj. 185 a.
USQUAM with neg. 48 c.
USQUE with ace. 147 b.
us us with abl. 136 a.
UT with concess. subj. 151 b, 175 b,
176 c, as indef. rel. 177 a, UT CUM
180 c, in final clauses 182 a, consec.
do. 183 c, subst. do. 195 b, 197 a. with
verbs of fearing 196 c, oinitti"li<i.
UTERQUE with plur. veri> 11;; c, with
nouns and pronouns 116 c.
UTI, rTJL\AM. with subj. of wish 151a,
. f 0 c.
•.ii.j. 174 c.
. used alone 201 b.
=.;a, syncop. 65 b.
\ ..UK 41 a.
Value, genitive of 115 b.
VAPULO 77 b.
Variable nouns 31 b, adj. 37 c.
-VE, VEL, 95 b.
VELIM, VELLEM, with subj. 151 a.
VELUTl, VELUTSI 174 C.
VENEO 77 b, 80 a.
Verbs 50-83, forms 54, 56, endings 55 c,
special forms and parallel 65 b, de-
ponent 75 c, irreg. 78, defect. 81,
impers. 82, deriv. of 99, compound
100 b, syntax 112, 113, 148-209,
omitted 113 b, of remembering &c.
119 a, of accusing &c. 119 b, of
emotion with gen. 120 a, of plenty,
. &c. 120 c.
Verbals in AX 98 b, with gen. 117 c.
VERO 96 a, in answers 201 c.
Verse 222 c, forms of 224-231.
VERSUS 93 a, as adv. 147 b.
VERUM 95 b.
VESCOR with abl. 140 b.
VETO, constr. of 155 a, 194 a.
VIM 5b, vis 48 a.
Vocative 12 a, 13 a, of nouns in lus
16 b, construction 134, of adj. for
nom. 134Jb.
Voices 50 a.
VOLO 79.
Vowels 1 b, strengthened 62 a, weak-
Vowel change in verbs 56, in future
63 a, subj. 53 c, in compounds 65 a.
Vowel increase 2 c, 61 a, 62 b, 63 b, 96 b.
Vowel scale 2 c.
Vowel stems 12 c, 17 b, 19 a, 20 a, gen-
der of 24.
Winds, gender 10 c.
Wishes and commands 192.
Women, names of, 32 c.
Y in root of third conj. 62 c.
E ft R A T A.
Page 9, paragraph 3, omit the third line.
„ 143; Note, erase the last two words.
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