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REVISED EDITION

LESSONS

IN THE

it IJ I 1 Lit

FOR SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES

ALPHONSO WOOD, A.M., Pn.D

LATE PROF. OF BOTANY IN THE COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, NEW YORK ; AUTHOR OF THE

CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY, ETC

REVISED AND EDITED BY

OLIVER R. WILLIS, A.M., Pn.D

INSTRUCTOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE ALEXANDER INSTITUTE J AUTHOR OF PLANTS OF
NEW JERSEY AND FLORA OF WESTCHESTER CO., N. Y

W7BRSXTY

YORK •:• CINCINNATI -:. CHICAGO

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY

PROM THE PRESS OF

A. S. BARNES <& CO.

BIOLOGt
LIBRARY

WOOD'S BOTANIES.

OBJECT LESSONS IN BOTANY, pp. 340, 12mo. An introduction to the
Science, full of lively description and truthful illustrations ; with a limited Flora, but
a complete System of Analysis.

THE BOTANIST AND FLORIST, pp. 620, 12mo. A thorough text-book, com-
prehensive and practical ; with a Flora, and System of Analysis equally complete.
" I have been deeply impressed, almost astonished (writes Prof. A. Winchell, of
University of Michigan), at the evidence which this work bears of skillful and
experienced authorship— nice and constant adaptation to the wants and conveniences
of students in Botany," etc.

REVISED LESSONS IN THE LIFE AND GROWTH OF PLANTS.
These Lessons constitute the introductory part of the "Botanist and Florist." The
chapters on Structure and Morphology have been revised, and those on Histology and
Physiology rewritten. The Lessons will still be the introduction to the " Botanist
and Florist ; " they will also be published separately in a book of about 200 pp., and
present the subject to the student in a clear, concise manner. They will be a
suitable companion and introduction to any of the Manuals of the Floras of the
several parts of the country.

THE CLASS-BOOK OF BOTANY, pp. 850, 8vo. The principles of the Science
more fully announced and illustrated— the Flora and Analysis complete, with all our
plants portrayed in language both scientific and popular. " The whole science (writes
Prof. G. H. Perkins, of Vermont University), so far as it can be taught in a college
course, is well presented, and rendered unusually easy of comprehension. I regard
the work as most admirable."

THE PLANT RECORD— a beautiful book, for classes and amateurs, showing, in
a few pages, how to analyze a plant— any plant, and furnishing tablets for the sys-
tematic record of the analysis.

FLORA ATLANTICA, OP WOOD'S DESCRIPTIVE FLORA, pp. 448,
12mo. This work is equivalent to the Part IV of the Botanist and Florist, being a
succinct account of all the plants growing East of the Mississippi River, both native
and cultivated, with a system of analytical tables well-nigh perfect.

WOOD'S BOTANICAL APPARATUS— a complete outfit, for the field and the
herbarium. It consists of a portable trunk, a Wire Drying Press, a Knife-trowel, a
Microscope, and Forceps.

•'•FOURTEEN WEl£KS" IN EACH SCIENCE.

.*\ : • . • : *i"'T-' GORMAN STBFLE, PH.D., LL.D., F. G. S., Etc.

I • ;••",„*••

27bw Ready :

PHILOSOPHY.
CHEMISTRY.

PHYSIOLOGY.
GEOLOGY.

ZOOLOGY.
ASTRONOMY.

A KEY to Practical questions in Steeds Works.
Seven volumes : each, post-paid,

EDITOR'S PREFACE.

DR. WOOD'S "Lessons in the Structure and Growth of
Plants" was designed for an introduction to this delightful
department of Natural History, and to qualify the student in
Botany to make intelligent use of a Flora. The book is well
known to educators, and the instructors in our high-schools and
colleges have acknowledged its worth and conferred upon it the
highest degree of approval by using it as a text-book.

It was written more than twenty years ago ; since then im-
proved methods of examination, with the aid of new microscopical
appliances, have revealed much in all departments of biology, and
especially in the structure and formation of plant-tissues.

These discoveries have introduced in some parts new and in
others additional names.

To bring the work to the advanced state of the science, the
chapters on Organography have been revised, and the parts on
Histology and Physiology have been entirely rewritten and
newly illustrated, and the whole reset in fresh and modern type.

The third chapter of the Introduction has been recast, en-
larged, and newly illustrated.

In preparing the parts that are rewritten, the Editor has
aimed not to enlarge, but rather to be more concise than the
Author was upon the same subjects, believing that in a text-book
brief and clear statement is more acceptable to the teacher and
useful to the learner than lengthy discussion.

The chapters and sections on Structure, or Organography,
have been revised as to nomenclature ; but otherwise have not
been disturbed, and the sequence of subjects has been preserved.

The Index and Glossary have been altered and enlarged, to
suit the additional and revised matter; the words in the Glossary
have been divided and accented to correspond with the latest
authorities on Pronunciation.

iv EDITOR'S PREFACE.

It was the intention of the Author that this work should be a
text-book suited to the needs of students in our Academies,
High-schools, and Colleges, intending his " Object Lessons in
Botany" to meet the wants of younger pupils; hence, in the
changes that have been made this design has been kept in view.

The work now, with its revision, new matter, additional illus-
trations, and fresh type, is substantially a new book.

Its original character for educational purposes has been care-
fully preserved and in several features improved. It is in its new
form a suitable introduction and companion to any of the man-
uals of the Flora of North America.

It affords the Editor great pleasure to record the acknowledg-
ment of his obligations to his personal friends among the botanists
of New York and vicinity for their sympathy in the work.

He is especially indebted to Dr. Geo. Macloskie, Senior Pro-
fessor of Botany and Zoology in the John C. Green School of
Science, at the College of New Jersey, for efficient aid and judi-
cious criticism, upon the subjects of Histology and Physiology,
where the statements are based upon microscopic examination.

His gratitude is due to Dr. John S. Newberry, of Columbia
College, for his kind suggestions and encouragement.

Also to Hon. Judge A. Brown and to Mr. "W. H. Budkin, of
New York, for their kind and valuable advice.

O. R. WILLIS, EDITOR.
WHITE PLAINS, NEW YOBK,
March, 1889.

SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS.

AN enlightened instructor is disappointed, on opening a text-book, if lie
does not find some hint from the author as to the mode of using it.

Our best teachers of Botany differ as to what should be the subject first
presented to the pupil's notice.

One would commence with the SEED ; another, with the FLOWER ; a third,
with HISTOLOGY and PHYSIOLOGY.

These Lessons are so arranged that the learner may commence either
with the Flower, which would lead through Organography, or Structural
Botany, up to the Seed ; or, if the teacher prefer, he can have his class com-
mence with the Second part, which treats of the Cells and Vessels that build
up plants and trees.

In either case, we advise that the four chapters which make up the intro-
duction be carefully studied, by using them as reading and talking lessons,
With simple illustrations, until they are well understood.

TABLE OF CONTENTS:

TOGETHER WITH A SYLLABUS OF THE MORE PRACTICAL SUB-

JECTS, DESIGNED AS EXERCISES ON THE BLACKBOARD,

PRELIMINARY TO THE LESSONS.

N. B.— We give the Syllabus of but a few Chapters •, and of fewer entire^ in order that the
pupil maty exercise his own skill in supplying deficiencies. The teacher should require
this. The abbreviation (etc.) indicates a table unfinished.

INTRODUCTION Page 9

CHAPTER I. Aids to the Study of Botany 9

CHAPTER II. Departments of Science 11

* Existence, individually ; (§ 13.)

a As an inorganic mass, is A Mineral.

6 As an organic body,

—Endowed with life A Plant.

— Endowed with life and perception • An Animal.

* Existence, collectively, Nature. (§ 12), etc.

* Existence, objectively, Science. (§ 16-18), etc.

* Department of Botany. (§ 19-23), etc.

* Classification. (§ 27-30), etc.

* Nomenclature. (§ 25, 26.)

a Local appellatives in common use Trivial Names.

b Universal appellatives adopted in Science Latin Names.

—The name of the Genus Generic.

—The name of the Species Specific.

—The name of the Individual Proper.

CHAPTER HI. Stages of Plant Life 15

First Stage; asleep in the Seed Embryo.

Second Stage ; development.

—a Awakening and beginning to grow Germination.

— b Developing leaves and branches Vegetation.

CONTENTS.

v v • • " : * • ' -' * • i

Third Stage ; leaves transformed to flowers Flowering.

Fourth Stage; maturity.

—c Flowers maturing into fruit Fructification.

— d Fruit ripe and the plant exhausted. Hibernation Death.

CHAPTER TV. Term of Plant Life 20

§ Plant fruiting but once, and

—a Dying in its first year © Annual Herb.

— b Dying after its second year @ Biennial Herb.

— c Dying after many years Monocarpic.

§ Plant fruiting more than once (perennial),

a With annual stems, is a V Perennial Herb.

b With perennial stems becoming woody.

1, It lower than or equaling the human stature Undershrub.

2, If taller, 7 to 20 feet high Shrub.

3, If still taller, with a distinct trunk A Tree.

t Trees with annual foliage, shed in Autumn Deciduous.

t Trees with perennial foliage Fvergreen.

PART FIRST.— STRUCTURAL, BOTANY, OR ORGANOGRAPHY 23

CHAPTER I. The Flower. It may consist of 23

a The leafy Envelopes, or Perianth, in 2 whorls or sets.

1, The outer circle, of Sepals, usually green Calyx.

2, The inner circle, of Petals, usually colored Corolla.

6 The Essential Organs, also in 2 whorls or sets.

3, An outer set, of Stamens, within the corolla Androecium.

4, The inner and central set, of Pistils Grynoecium.

e The base, or platform on which these organs stand. Torus.

CHAPTER LI. Plan of the Flower.— The Typical Flower 25

1, Consisting of 4 whorled sets of organs, is Complete.

2, Each set having the same number of parts Symmetrical.

3, The parts composing each set uniform Regular.

4, All the parts separate and distinct from each other Free.

5, Parts of adjacent sets alternating in position Alternate.

CHAPTERS m. and IV. Anomalous Flowers. Deviations from the Type. 28

1, Variations in the Radical Number From ^ to ^

2, Deficiencies, rendering the flower

a Incomplete.

—Corolla wanting Apetalous.

— Corolla and calyx both wanting Naked.

6 Imperfect.

—The stamens wanting « Pistillate.

—The pistils wanting $ Staminate.

CONTENTS. 3

c Unsymmetrical, from the suppression of a part of some set.
d Organs opposite, from the suppression of some entire set.

3, Redundancies.

a Organs increased in number,

—By multiples Multiplication.

—By clusters Chorisis.

b Appendages.

—Horn-like nectaries projecting backward Spurs.

—Attached to the inside of the petals Scales.

-Enlarged scales , Crown.

—Glandular bodies Glands.

4, Union of Parts.

a By Cohesion.

—Petals united Gamopetalous, or Monopetalous.

—Stamens united Monadelphous.

—Pistils united Compound.

b By Adhesion.

—Parts blended with the Calyx Perigynous.

—Parts blended with the Ovary Epigynous.

5, Irregularities.— Torus lengthened, excavated, etc.

— Like organs, becoming unequal in size, etc.

CHAPTER V. Of the Moral Envelopes, or Perianth 36

CHAPTER VI. Forms of the Perianth 41

1, Dialypetalous, or Polypetalous.

* Regular.

—a Four long-clawed petals spreading at right-angles.. Cruciferous.

—b Five short-clawed spreading petals Rosaceous.

— cFive spreading petals on long erect claws... Caryophyllaceous.
— d A 6-leaved gradually spreading perianth Liliaceous.

* Irregular.

— e Five petals, 2 pairs and an odd one Papilionaceous.

—f Six petals, one of them lip-like Orchidaceous.

2, Gamopetalous, or Monopetalous. (§ 102.)

* Regular.

—a Tube very short, border flat, spreading Rotate.

—b Tube very short, border wide, concave, Cup-form, etc., etc.

* Irregular.

— c Cylindrical tube split down, etc. (§ 103.)
§ Transformations of the Perianth. (§ 104-108.)

1, In the Composite. A circle of dry scales or bristles Pappus.

2, In the Bog-Rushes. A circle of 6 (more or less) bristles Setse.

3, In the Sedges (Carices). A bottle-shaped envelope Perigynium.

4, In the Grasses. Chaff -like coverings Glunus, and Pales.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VH. Attributes of the Essential Organs.— Parts 46

1, In respect to Number.— a etc. (§ 118, two conditions.)

2, In position.

—a On the torus, free from all other organs Hypogynous.

—6 Adherent to the calyx, etc. (§ 119, four other conditions.)

3, In cohesions.

—a United into one set, etc. (§ 120, five modes.)

CHAPTER VUL The Pistils.-Its Parts (§ 125) 52

1, The simple ovary.

—a Encloses a single cavity Its Cell.

— * Produces little buds becoming seeds Ovules.

— c And two fleshy ridges bearing the ovules Placentae.

2, The compound ovary.

—a May contain as many cells as carpels.

— b Must have 2 (or a double) placentae in each cell.

— c And an equal number of ovules in each cell.

3, The number of carpels in a compound ovary is known—

1, By the number of distinct styles, if any.

2, By the number of distinct stigmas.

3, By the number of the cells ; or, if there be but one,

4, By the number of external lobes, angles, or sutures.

CHAPTER IX. The Ovules 58

CHAPTER X. The Fruit.— Pericarp.— Dehiscence 60

CHAPTER XI. Forms of the Pericarp. (See Syllabus, § 150) 64

CHAPTER XH. The Seed 69

CHAPTER XTTT. Germination 74

CHAPTER XIV. The Boot, or Descending Axis.— Forms 78

* Axial Boots, or Tap-Boots, having the main axis developed.

1, The woody tap-root of most trees, branching Bamous.

2, Tuberous tap-roots.

—a Shaped like a spindle (Beet) Fusiform.

— J Shaped like a cone (Carrot) Conical

— c Shape rounded or depressed (Turnip) Napiform.

* Inaxial Boots, having only the branches developed.

3, Boot consisting of numerous thread-like divisions Fibrous.

4, Boot nbro-tuberous.

—a Some of the fibers thickened Fasciculate.

— * Fibers abruptly knotted Nodulous.

— c The knots at regular intervals Monilif orm .

—d Fibers bearing little tubers Tubercular.

CONTENTS. 5

CHAPTER XV. Of the Stem, or Ascending Axis 84

CHAPTER XVI. Forms of the Leaf -Stems, aerial, caulescent 88

1, Jointed, or hollow stems of Grasses, Sedges, Canes Culm.

2, The stout woody stem of Trees, covered with bark Trunk.

3, The woody, simple columns of Palms, etc., without bark Caudex.

4, Weak, slender stems, climbing or trailing Vine.

CHAPTER XVII. Forms of Scale-Stems, acaulescent 92

1, Slender, prostrate, rooting, on or in the ground Creeper.

2, Fleshy, thick, rooting, mostly under ground — A . . .( Rhizome.

3, Swollen with starch, under ground, with buds (eyes) Tuber.

4, Bulbous, solid, with thin scales, under ground Corm.

5, Bulbous, consisting mostly of thick scales Bulb.

CHAPTER XVIII. The Leaf -Bud. Vernation (and Estivation, Chap. XXTV) 97

* Separate ; regarding a single leaf (petal or sepal) in bud.

1, Leaf flat, neither folded nor rolled in the bud Open.

2, Bent forward, apex toward the base Reclined.

3, Folded on the axis Conduplicate.

4, Folded in plaits like a fan Plicate.

5, Boiled on its axis downward Circinate.

6, Rolled with its axis.

—a From one edge into a scroll Convolute.

— b From both edges inward Involute.

— c From both edges backward Revolute.

* General ; — regarding the whole bud.

1, Edges meeting, Valvate.

— With the margins straight Valvate.

—With the margins involute Induplicate.

— With the margins revolute Reduplicate.

2, One edge overlapping, each leaf oblique — Twisted or Contorted.

3, Both edges overlapping, Imbricate.

a Conduplicate leaves, alternately.

— Embracing Equitant.

—Half embracing Obvolute.

6 Leaves in threes, one of them exterior Triauetrous.

c Leaves in fives, two of them exterior Quincuncial.

d Each leaf or petal embracing all those within Convolute.

e Exterior petal largest (Sweet Pea) Vexillary.

4, Gamopetalous corolla folded in plaits.

—Plaits straight Plicate.

—Plaits oblique Supervolute.

CHAPTER XIX. Of the Leaf .— Phyllotaxy 102

6 CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XX. Morphology of the Leaf .— § Venation 106

1, Veins simple and parallel, as in the Endogens Parallel- veined.

2, Veins dividing without uniting again, as in Ferns Fork- veined.

3, Veins netted, as in the Exogens, viz. :

a Larger veins arranged as in a feather Pinni- veined.

6 Larger veins 5 to 9, arranged as the fingers Pahni- veined.

c Larger veins only 3, arranged as the fingers Triple-veined.

§ Special Veins.

1, In feather-veined leaves.

—The chief vein forming the axis Mid-vein.

—Lateral branches of the mid-vein Veinlets.

— The branches of the veinlets ^ Veinulets.

2, In palmi-veined leaves, or triple-veined.

a The coequal veins running through the blade, are Veins

b The branches of the veins, are (as in feather- veined) Veinlets,

CHAPTER XXT. Forms of Leaves. (Morphology, continued) 112

* Pinni-veined Leaves.

a Lower veinlets longer than the upper.

1, Outline of an egg Ovate.

2, Outline of a lance, or narrow-ovate Lanceolate.

3, Form of the Greek letter A Deltoid.

ft The middle veinlets longest, lower and upper equal.

4, Circular, or nearly so Orbicular.

5, Outline of an elliptic spring Elliptical.

6, Egg-shaped, with equal rounded ends Oval.

7, Narrowly oval, with obtuse ends Oblong.

The upper veinlets longest.

8, Inversely ovate, narrower at the base Obovate.

9, Inversely lanceolate, narrower at the base Oblanceolate.

10, Obtuse at apex, narrowed to the base Spatulate.

11, Shaped like a wedge, the point at base Cuneate.

d Lowest veinlets longest and recurved.

12, A re-entering angle, or sinus, at base. Heart-shaped. .Cordate.

13, Base-lobes ear-shaped Auriculate.

14, Base-lobes arrow-shaped Sagittate.

15, Base-lobes turned outward Hastate.

* Dissected Forms.

a Pinnately cut or divided.

1, With regular lateral segments Pinnatifid.

2, With segments recurved or hooked Buncinate.

3, Terminal segment enlarged ' Lyrate.

4, Segments many and narrow Pinnatisect.

5, Segments and sinuses rounded Sinuate.

& Palmately cut or lobed.

CONTENTS. 7

6, Lobes only 3 Trilobate.

7, Lobes 5 or more Palmately-lobed.

8, Lobes deeply divided .Palmately-parted.

9, Side-lobes again 2-lobed Pedate.

CHAPTER XXII. Forms of Compound Leaves 118

* Pinnately compound.

a Once compounded, consisting of—

1, Two leaflets opposite and equal Binate.

2, Three leaflets, the odd one petiolulate Pinnately-trifoliate.

3, Four or more equal leaflets, all in pairs Equally pinnate.

4, Five or more equal leaflets, all but one in pairs.. Odd-pinnate.

5, Alternate leaflets smaller — Interruptedly pinnate.

b Twice compounded, consisting of—

6, Nine leaflets (or 3 trifoliate leaves) Biternate.

7, Fifteen or more leaflets (3 pinnate leaves) Bipinnate.

c Thrice compounded, having 27 leaflets Triternate, etc.

d Irregularly much compounded Decompound.

* Palmately compounded, consisting of —

10, Three equal leaflets all alike sessile (Clover)... Palmi-trifoliate.

11, Five or 7 leaflets, all equally sessile Digitate

CHAPTER XXIH. Transformations of the Leaf 124

CHAPTER XXIV. Metamorphosis of the Flower. (See Chap. XVHI)... 129

CHAPTER XXV and XXVI. Inflorescence.— Special Forms 134

§ Evolution.

—a One flower only from a bud Solitary.

—b From axillary buds, the lowest first opening Centripetal.

— c From terminal buds, the central first Centrifugal.

§ Special Forms of Inflorescence.
* Centripetal, or Indefinite.
a Flowers sessile.

—1, Along a slender rachis Spike

—2, Along a thick fleshy rachis Spadix.

— 3, On an extremely short rachis Head

— 4, Spike of imperfect fls. caducous together Ament.

b Flowers borne on pedicels.

6, Along the sides of a lengthened rachis Kaceme.

6, Along a short rachis, the lower pedicels lengthened. Corymb.

7, Clustered on an extremely short rachis Umbel.

c The pedicels themselves branched.

—8, Loosely Panicle.

—9, Compactly Thyrse.

8 CONTENTS.

* Centrifugal, or Definite.

1, Clusters open, loose, of various forms Cyme.

2, Clusters compact, terminal Fascicle.

3, Clusters compact, axillary and opposite Verticils.

4, Cyme unilateral, unrolling as it develops — Scorpoid Raceme.

PART SECOND.-PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY 143

CHAPTER I. Of the Vegetable Cell 143

CHAPTER H. Of the Vegetable Tissues 156

CHAPTER m. Tissues and Plant Growth and Dicotyledonous Structure. 161

CHAPTER IV. Monocotyledonous Structure 168

CHAPTER V. Leaf Structure, Circulation and Movements of Fluids .... 171
CHAPTER VT. Fertilization ; Polination ; Cross-fertilization 176

. *»

PART THIRD.— SYSTEMATIC BOTANY 183

CHAPTER I. General Principles of Classification 183

CHAPTER II. The Natural System 186

CHAPTER m. Rules for Nomenclature 193

CHAPTER IV. Botanical Analysis 195

INDEX AND GLOSSARY... .. 199

1TIVBBSIT7]

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER I.

AIDS TO THE STUDY OF BOTANY.

1. The proper season for the commencement of
the study of Botany in schools is late in winter, at
the opening of the first Session after New- Year's. The
class will thus be prepared beforehand, by a degree of
acquaintance with first principles, for the analysis of
the earliest Spring-flowers — the Blood-root, Liverwort,
Spring-beauty, Sweet Mayflower, and the Violets. We
have arranged the topics of the present treatise with
a special view to the convenience of the learner in
this respect, beginning with that which is the first
requisite in analysis — the Flower.

2. Specimens of leaves, stems, roots, fruit, flowers, etc., in unlimited sup-
ply are requisite during the whole course. In the absence of the living, let
the dried specimens of the herbarium be consulted. Crayon sketches upon
the blackboard, if truthful, are always good for displaying minute or obscure
forms. In the city, classes in Botany may employ, at small expense, a col-
lector to supply them daily with fresh specimens from the country. More-
over, the gardens and conservatories will furnish to such an abundant supply
of cultivated species for study and analysis, with almost equal advantage,—
since the present work embraces, together with the native flora, all exotics.

3. An Herbarium (Latin, hortus siccus, or h. s.) is a
collection of botanic specimens, artificially dried, pro-
tected in papers, and systematically arranged, Eerbor

10 INTRODUCTION. C9, 10.

ria are useful in many ways : — (a) for the preservation
of specimens of rare, inaccessible, or lost species ;
(6) for exchanges, enabling one to possess the flora of
other countries ; (c) for refreshing one's memory of
early scenes and studies ; (d) for aiding in more exact
researches at leisure ; (e) for the comparison of species
with species, genus with genus, etc.

4. Apparatus. — For collecting botanic specimens, a
strong knife for digging and cutting is needed, and a
close tin box, fifteen inches in length, of a portable
form. Inclosed in such a box, with a little moisture,
specimens will remain fresh a week.

5. Specimens for the herbarium should represent
the leaves, flowers, and fruit — and, if herbaceous, the
root also. Much care is requisite in so drying ..them
as to preserve the natural appearance, form, and color.
The secret of this art consists in extracting the moist>-
lire from them before decomposition can take place.

6. The drying-press, to be most efficient and con-
venient, should consist of a dozen quires of unsized
paper, at least 11x16 inches folio ; two sheets of
wire-gauze (same size) as covers, stiffened by folded
edges; and three or four leather straps a yard in
length, with buckles. When in use, suspend this press
in the wind and sunshine ; or, in rainy weather, by
the fire. In such circumstances, specimens dry well
without once changing. But if boards be used instead
of wire-gauze, the papers must be changed and dried
daily. Succulent plants may be immersed in boiling
water before pressing, to hasten their desiccation.

7. The lens, either single, double, or triple, is very
serviceable in analysis. In viewing minute flowers,
or parts of flowers, its use is indispensable. Together

10, 11.] DEPARTMENTS OF SCIENCE. 1 1

with the lens, a needle in a handle, a penknife, and
tweezers are required for dissection.

8. The compound microscope is undoubtedly a
higher aid in scientific investigation than any other
instrument of human invention. It is like the bestow-
ment of a new sense, or the opening of a new world.
Through this, almost solely, all our knowledge of the
cells, the tissues, growth, fertilization, etc., is derived.
The skillful use of this noble instrument is itself an
art, which it is no part of our plan to explain.

9. On the preparation of botanical subjects for examination we remark :
the field of view is small, and only minute portions of objects can be seen at
once ; the parts must be brought under inspection successively.

10. The tissues of leaves, etc., are best seen by transmitted light. They
are to be divided by the razor or scalpel into extremely thin parings or cut-
tings. Such cuttings may be made by holding the leaf between the two
halves of a split cork. They are then made wet and viewed upon glass. The
stomata are best seen in the epidermis stripped off ; but in the Sorrel-leaf
(Oxalis violacea) they appear beautifully distinct upon the entire leaf.

11. Woody tissues, etc., may be viewed either as opaque or transparent.
Sections and cuttings should be made in all directions, and attached to the
glass by water, white of egg, or Canada balsam. To obtain the elementary
cells separately for inspection, the fragment of wood may be macerated in a
few drops of nitric acid added to a grain of chlorate of potassa. Softer
structures may be macerated simply in boiling water.

CHAPTER II.

DEPARTMENTS OF SCIENCE.

12. Three great departments in nature are univer-
sally recognized: the mineral, vegetable, and animal
kingdoms. The first constitutes the Inorganic; the
other two, the Organic World.

13. A mineral is an inorganic mass of matter —
that is, without distinction of parts or organs. A

1 2 INTRODUCTION. [11, 12.

stone, for example, may be broken into any number
of fragments, each of which will retain all the essen-
tial characteristics of the original body, so that each
fragment will still be a stone.

14. A plant is an organized body, endowed with
vitality but not with sensation, composed of distinct
parts, each of which is essential to the completeness
of its being. A Tulip is composed of organs which
may be separated and subdivided indefinitely, but no
one of the fragments alone will be a complete plant.

15. Animals, like plants, are organized bodies en-
dowed with vitality, and composed of distinct parts,
no one of which is complete in itself ; but they are
elevated above either plants or minerals by their
power of perception.

16. Physics is the general name of the science
which treats of the mineral or inorganic world.

17. Zoology relates to the animal kingdom.

18. Botany is the science of the vegetable king-
dom. It includes the knowledge of the forms, organs,
structure, growth, and uses of plants, together with
their history and classification. Its several depart-
ments correspond to the various subjects to which
they relate. Thus,

19. Morphology treats of the special organs of plants
as compared with each other ; it especially relates to
the mutual or typical transformations which the
organs undergo in the course of development.

20. Vegetable Histology treats of the elementary
tissues — the organic units or cells out of which the
vegetable fabric is constructed.

21. Physiological Botany is that department which
relates to the vital action of the several organs and

12, 13.] DEPARTMENTS OF SCIENCE. 1 3

tissues, including both the vital and chemical phe-
nomena in the germination, growth, and reproduction
of plants. It has, therefore, a practical bearing upon
the labors of husbandry in the propagation and cult-
ure of plants, both in the garden and in the field.

22. Systematic Botany arises from the consideration
of plants in relation to each other. It aims to arrange
and classify plants into groups and families, according
to their mutual affinities, so as to constitute of them
all one unbroken series or system.

23. Descriptive Botany, or Phytology, is the art of
expressing the distinctive characters of species and
groups of plants with accuracy and precision, in order
to their complete recognition. A Flora is a descrip-
tive work of this kind, embracing the- plants of some
particular country or district.

24. Finally, in its extended sense, Botany comprehends also the knowledge
of the relations of plants to the other departments of nature — particularly to
mankind. The ultimate aim of its researches is the development of the
boundless resources of the vegetable kingdom, for our sustenance and pro-
tection as well as education; for the healing of our diseases and the allevia-
tion of our wants and woes. This branch of botanical science is called
Applied Botany, including several departments — as Medical Botany, or Phar4
macy; Agricultural Botany, or Chemistry; Pomology, etc.

25. The name of a plant or other natural object
is twofold, — the trivial or popular name, by which it
is generally known in the country ; and the Latin
name, by which it is accurately designated in science
throughout the world. For example, Strawberry is
the popular name, and Fragaria vesca the Latin or
scientific name, of the same plant. In elementary
treatises, like the present, for the sake of being readily
understood, plants are usually called by their popular
names. Yet we earnestly recommend the learner to

1 4 INTRODUCTION. [13.

accustom himself early to the use of the more accu-
rate names employed in science.

26. The Latin name of a plant is always double —
generic and specific. Thus Fragaria is generic, or the
name of the genus of the plant — vesca is specific, or
the name of the species.

27. A Species embraces all such individuals as
may have originated from a common stock. Such
individuals bear an essential resemblance to each other
as well as to their common parent, in all their parts.
For example, the White Clover (Trifolium repens) is a
species embracing thousands of contemporary individ-
uals scattered over our hills and plains, all of common
descent, and producing other individuals of their own
kind from their seed.

28. To this law of resemblance in plants of one
common origin there are some apparent exceptions.
Individuals descended from the same parent often
bear flowers differing in color, or fruit differing in
flavor, or leaves differing in form, etc. Such plants
are called Varieties. They are rarely permanent, often
exhibiting a tendency to revert to their original type.
Varieties occur chiefly in species maintained by culti-
vation, as the Apple, Potato, Rose, Dahlia. They also
occur more or less in native plants (as Hepatica tri-
loba), often rendering the limits of the species ex-
tremely doubtful. They are due to the different cir-
cumstances of climate, soil, and culture to which they
are subjected, and continue distinct until left to mul-
tiply spontaneously from seed in their own proper soil,
or some other change of circumstances.

29. A Genus is an assemblage of species closely
related to one another in the structure of their flowers

13, 14.] THE STAGES OF PLANT LIFE. 15

and fruit, and having more points of resemblance than
of difference throughout. Thus, the genus Clover (Tri-
folium) includes many species, as the White Clover
(T. repens), the Red Clover (T. pratense), the Buffalo
Clover (T. reflexum), etc., agreeing in floral structure
and general aspect so obviously that the most hasty
observer would notice their relationship. So in the
genus Pinus, no one would hesitate to include the
Wl^ite Pine, the Pitch Pine, the Long-leafed Pine
(P. strobus, P. rigida, and P. palustris), any more than
we would fail to observe their differences.

30. Thus individuals are grouped into species, and
species are associated into genera. These groups con-
stitute the bases of all the systems of classification in
use, whether by artificial or natural methods.

CHAPTER III.

THE STAGES OF PLANT LIFE.

31. In its earliest stage of life, the plant is an
embryo sleeping in the seed. It then consists of two
parts, the radicle or rootlet, and the plumule. Both
may be seen in the Pea, Bean, or Acorn. Besides the
embryo, the seed contains also its food in some form,
provided for its first nourishment.

32. When placed just beneath the surface of the
soil, it absorbs moisture, which, with the genial warmth
of Spring, awakens the embryo, and it begins to feed
and grow. The radicle protrudes (Fig. 2, r), turns
downward, seeking the dark damp earth, avoiding the
air and light, and forms the root or descending axis.
The plumule, taking the opposite direction (Fig. 3, p),

INTEODUCTION.

[14.

ascends, seeking the air and light, and expanding
itself to their influence. This constitutes the
stem or ascending axis, bearing the leaves.
Thus the acorn germinates, and the Oak en-
ters upon the second stage of its existence.

33. At first the ascending axis is merely
a bud, that is, a growing point clothed with
and protected by little scales, the rudiments
of leaves. As the growing point
advances and its lower scales grad-
ually expand into leaves, new scales
successively appear above. Thus

the axis is always terminated by
bud.

34. The terminal bud ex-
pands into leaves, and the
ascending axis (Fig. 4, p)
creases in length and diam-
eter. Besides the terminal
bud, one is formed in the
axil of each leaf. If none

of the buds in the
axils of the leaves de-
velop, the plant at
the end of the grow-
ing season will pre-
sent a young oak, as
Fig. A, but if one should grow, the little tree would
appear as in Fig. B.

35. During successive periods of growth the lateral
buds develop, forming branches and branchlets, and
season after season the main axis lengthens and in-
creases in diameter, the branches multiply and enlarge,

Acorn (seed of Quercus) germinat-
ing ; 1, section showing the radicle (?)
which is to become the root, and the
two cotyledons (c) which are to nourish
it ; 2, the radicle r, descending ; 3 and 4, the radicle, r, de-
scending, and the plumule (p) ascending.

THE STAGES OF PLANT LIFE.

until the full-grown oak in all its beauty and majesty
stands before us (Fig. 0).

The student is struck with wonder and admiration
as he watches these stages of growth ; how is it, he
asks, that the tiny plant which was nestling in the
acorn has been changed into this gigantic oak ? When
he comes to study the cells and tissues of which this

4, A young oak at the end of the first season of growth, the markings on the stem, d, d, are the scars
]eft by the fallen leaves ; at each scar there is an undeveloped bud ; some of these may grow during the
next season, and develop into branches. B, A young oak at the end of the first season, one of the lateral
buds having grown and produced a branch.

great tree is made up, his amazement will increase as
he realizes the paucity of material and the magnitude
of the structure ; the insignificance of the beginning
and the grandeur of the end. "The economy of causes
and the prodigality of effects ; the simplicity of laws
and the complexity of results."

36. The tree is now complete, possessing the organs
necessary to discharge the functions of plant growth.
It has root, rootlets, stem, branches, branchlets, and

INTRODUCTION.

leaves. The root fastens it firmly in the ground ;
the rootlets take up liquids from the soil; the stem,
branches, and branchlets are furnished with vessels
and passages through which the fluids find their way
to the leaves, where, under the influence of air and

(7, Quercus alba.

sunlight, they are changed and fitted for plant
food.

37. The next stage in the plant's life is the produc-
tion of the flower. To accomplish this, a change takes
place in the mode of development. Some of the buds,
instead of extending the axes of the branchlets or
forming new branchlets, expand their scales, producing

THE STAGES OF PLANT LIFE.

crowded whorls, each succeeding whorl differing from
the last ; some of the parts possessing great delicacy

H, young branchlet of Q. alba, with aments, etc. D, a staminate ( $) flower ; E, the satnw, F, a
pistillate ( $ ) flower with five stigmas ; G, vertical section of the same ; J, branchlet with full-grown
leaves and mature fruit ; /, section of the acorn showing the two thick cotyledons and embryo at top.

of organization, and, frequently, marked beauty of
color. (See Figures D, E, F, G, H, 1, J.)

20 INTRODUCTION. [16.

38. The next stage is the production of fruit, in
which flowering is the first step ; the showy parts of
the flower soon wither and fall away ; the pistil, hav-
ing been fertilized, is left, and continues to grow and
finally matures into the ripe Fruit (Figs. /, J).

We found the plant slumbering in the Seed ; we
have followed and watched its behavior through all
the stages of its Life.

39. We have seen the seed placed in the damp
soil, where it absorbed moisture, enlarged, ruptured its
shell, sent forth a sprout, which began to increase in
two directions, one part enlarged downwards into the
earth and formed a root; the other part grew upwards
and became a stem. The stem clothed itself with
leaves, sent forth branches, and adorned itself with
flowers. These several achievements were succeeded
by the crowning act of vegetable life, the production of
mature seed in which a new Plant reposes, in embryo.

CHAPTER IV.

TERM OR PERIOD OF PLANT LIFE.

40. Flowering and fruit-bearing is an exhausting
process. If it occur within the first or second year of
the life of the plant, it generally proves fatal. In all
other cases, it is either immediately preceded or fol-
lowed by a state of repose. Now, if flowering be pre-
vented by nipping the buds, the tender annual may
become perennial, as in the florist's Tree-mignonette.
We distinguish plants, as to their term of life, into
the annual (CD), the biennial (®), and the perennial
( 2f ). An annual ( (D ) herb is a plant whose en-

16, 17.] TEEM OK PEKIOD OF PLANT LIFE. 2 1

tire life is limited to a single season. It germinates
from the seed in Spring, attains its growth, blossoms,
bears fruit, and dies in Autumn ; as the Flax, Corn,
Morning-glory.

41. A biennial herb (©) is a plant which germi-
nates and vegetates, bearing leaves only the first
season, blossoms, bears fruit, and dies the second ; as
the Beet and Turnip. Wheat, Rye, etc., are annual
plants ; but when sown in Autumn, the sudden frost
prevents flowering, and they become biennials.

42. Monocarpic herbs. — The Century-plant (Agave), the Talipot-palm, etc., are
so called. They vegetate, bearing leaves only, for many years, accumulating
materials and strength for one mighty effort in fructification, which being
accomplished, they die. In some species the term of life depends on climate
alone. The Castor-bean (Ridnus) is an annual herb in the Northern States,
a shrub in the Southern, and a tree of large size in its native India. So
Petunia, annual in our gardens, is perennial at home (in Brazil).

43. Perennial plants are such as have an indefinite
duration of life, usually of many years. They may be
either herbaceous or woody. Herbaceous perennials, or
perennial herbs (2£), are plants whose parts are annual
above ground and perennial below. In other words,
their roots or subterranean stems live from year to
year, sending up annually, in Spring, flowering shoots
which perish after they have ripened their fruit in
Autumn ; as the Lily, Dandelion, Hop.

44. Woody perennials usually vegetate several years,
and attain well-nigh their ordinary stature before flow-
ering ; thenceforward they fructify annually, resting or
sleeping in winter. They are known as trees (b),
shrubs (b), bushes, and undershrubs (b) — distinctions
founded on size alone.

45. A shrub (b), is a diminutive tree, limited to
eighteen or twenty feet in stature, and generally divid-

22 INTRODUCTION. [17, 18.

ing into branches at or near the surface of the ground
(Alder, Quince). If the woody plant be limited to a
still lower growth, say about the human stature, it is
called a bush (Snowball, Andromeda). If still smaller,
it is an undershrub (b) (Whortleberry).

46. A tree (5) is understood to attain to a height
many times greater than the human stature, with a
permanent woody stem, whose lower part, the trunk,
is unbranched.

47. As to age, some trees live only a few years, rapidly attaining their
growth and rapidly decaying, as the Peach ; others have a longevity exceed-
ing the age of man ; and some species outlive many generations. Age may be
estimated by the number of wood-circles or rings seen in a cross-section of the
trunk (§ 408), each ring being (very generally) an annual growth. Instances
of great longevity are on record. See Class Book of Botany, §§ 99, 100. The
monarch tree of the world is the Calif ornian Cedar — Sequoia gigant^a. One
which had fallen measured 26 feet in diameter, and 363 in length! The
wood-circles of this specimen are unusually thick, yet count up to 1,330.
Among those yet standing, are many of even greater dimensions, as beautiful
in form as they are sublime in height — the growth, probably, of more than
2,000 years. One of the Sequoias is estimated at 1,500 years ; another of
these monsters, felled in 1875, had 2,130 rings ; still another was estimated
by Dr. Gray to be 3,200 years old. One of these monster tree's has recently
been discovered, in Tulare County, California, by an engineer of the Comstock
mines, that measures more than 56 feet in diameter at a point seven feet
from the ground.

48. Trees are again distinguished as deciduous (b)
and evergreen (b) — the former losing their foliage in
Autumn, and remaining naked until the following
Spring; the latter retaining their leaves and verdure
throughout all seasons. The Fir tribe (Coniferse) in-
cludes nearly all the evergreens of the North ; those
of the South are far more numerous in kind — e. g.,
the Magnolias, the Live-oaks, Holly, Cherry, Palmetto,
etc.

PART FIRST.
STRUCTURAL BOTANY; OR, ORGANOGRAPHY.

CHAPTER I.

THE FLOWER.

49. The flower is the immediate agent in the pro-
duction of the seed with its embryo, and to this end
its whole structure is designed. Moreover, its superior
beauty attracts earliest attention, and an intimate
knowledge of its organs is the first requisite in analy-
sis and classification.

50. The flower may consist of the following mem-
bers— the floral envelopes and the essential floral or-
gans. The floral envelopes consist of one or more
circles or whorls of leaves surrounding the essential
organs. The outer of these whorls is called the calyx ;
and the other, if there be any, the corolla. The calyx
may, therefore, exist without the corolla ; but the
corolla can not exist without the calyx.

51. Calyx is a Greek word signifying a cup. It is
applied to the external envelope of the flower, consist-
ing of a whorl of leaves with their edges distinct or
united, usually green, but sometimes highly colored.
The leaves or pieces composing the calyx are called
sepals.

24 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [19, 20.

52. Corolla is a Latin word signifying a little
crown, applied to the interior envelope of the flower.
It consists of one or more circles of leaves, either dis-
tinct or united by their edges, usually of some other
color than green, and of a more delicate texture than
the calyx. Its leaves are called petals.

53. Perianth (nept, around, av6o^J flower) is a word
in common use to designate the floral envelopes as a
whole, without distinction of calyx and corolla. It is
used in description, especially when these two envel-
opes are so similar as not to be readily distinguished,
as in the Tulip, Lily, and the Endogens generally;
also where only one envelope exists, as in Phytolacca,
Elm, etc.

54. The essential floral organs stand within the cir-
cles of the perianth, and are so called because they
are the immediate instruments in perfecting the seed,
and thus accomplishing the final purposes of the
flower. These organs are of two kinds, perfectly dis-
tinct in position and office — viz., the stamens and the
pistils.

55. The stamens are those thread-like organs situ-
ated just within the perianth and around the pistils.
Their number varies from one to a hundred or more ;
but the most common number is five. Collectively
they are called the androeceum.

56. The pistils (called also carpels) occupy the
center of the flower at the absolute terminus of the
flowering axis. They are sometimes numerous, often
apparently but one, always destined to bear the seed.
Collectively they are called the gynceceum.

57. The torus or receptacle is the axis of the
flower, situated at the summit of the flower-stalk. It

20, 21.]

PLAN OF THE FLOWER.

commonly appears a flattened or somewhat convex
disk, whose center corresponds to the apex of the axis.
On this disk, as on a platform, stand the floral organs

5, Flower of the Strawberry. 6, Flower of the Pink. 7, Flower of the Lily (Lilium superbum). The
pupil will point out the parts.

above described, in four concentric circles. The gynae-
ceum (pistils) occupies the center ; the andrceceum
encircles it ; the corolla is next without ; and the
calyx embraces the whole.

CHAPTER II.

PLAN OF THE FLOWER.

58. vSuch, 'in general, is the organization of the
flower. It is simple enough in theory ; and in most
of the plants with which he meets, the student will
easily recognize these several organs by name. But,
in truth, flowers vary in form and fashion to a degree
almost infinite. Each organ is subject to transforma-
tions, disguises, and even to entire extinction ; so that
the real nature of the flower may become an intricate
and perplexing study.

2 6 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [21, 22.

59. As we shall soon see, in all these variations
there is method. They are never capricious or acci-
dental, however much they may appear so. Unity in
diversity is characteristic of Nature in all her depart-
ments, and eminently so in the flowers ; and the first
step in the successful study of them is to discover
that unity — that simple idea of the floral structure in
which all its diversities harmonize. Before flowers
were created, that idea or type was conceived; and to
possess it ourselves is a near approach to communion
with the Infinite Author of Nature.

60. The typical flower, one that exemplifies the
full idea of the floral structure, consists of four differ-
ent circles of organs, as before described, placed circle
within circle on the torus, and all having a common
center. Such a flower must possess these five attri-
butes— viz. : It must be

a, Complete ; having the four kinds or sets of
organs arranged in as many concentric circles. That
it is perfect, having both kinds of the essential organs,
is necessarily included under its completeness.

5, Regular ; having the organs of the same name
all similar and alike ; that is, all the petals of one
pattern, all the stamens alike in form, size, position,
etc.

c, Symmetrical ; having the same number of organs
in each set or circle.

d, Alternating in respect to the position of the
organs. This implies that the several organs of each
set stand not opposite to, but alternating with the
organs of the adjacent set; — the petals alternate with
the sepals and stamens ; the stamens alternate with
the petals and pistils.

22, 23.]

PLAN OF THE FLOWEK.

e, That the organs be distinct, all disconnected and
free from each other.

61. This is the TYPE. But it is seldom fully real-
ized in the flowers as they actually grow, although the
tendency toward it is universal. Deviations occur in
every imaginable mode and degree, causing that end-
less variety in the floral world which we never cease
to admire. For example, in our pattern flowers (5, 6,
7), the pistils seem too few in the Pink and Lily, and
the stamens too many in all of them.

62. The flower of the Max (10) combines very nearly all the conditions
above specified. It is complete, regular, symmetrical. Its organs are alter-
nate and all separate; and (disregarding the slight cohesion of the pistils at
their base) this flower well realizes our type. Admitting two whorls of
stamens instead of one, we have a good example of our type in Stone-crop
(Sedum ternatum), a little fleshy herb of our woods. Its flowers are both
4-parted and 5-parted in the same plant. See also the 12-parted flowers of
the common Houseleek.

8, Flower of Crassula lactea, regular, symmetrical, organs distinct. 9, Diagram showing its plan.
10, Flower of the Scarlet Flax. 11, Diagram of its plan.

63. The flowers of Crassula (8), an African genus
sometimes cultivated, afford unexceptionable examples,
the sepals, petals, stamens, and pistils each being five
in number, regularly alternating and perfectly separate.

28 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [23.

CHAPTER III.

STUDY OF ANOMALOUS FLOWERS.

64. The true method of studying the flower is

by comparing it with this type. So shall we be
able, and ever delighted, to learn the nature of each
organ in all its disguises of form, and to discern the
features of the general plan even under its widest
deviations. The more important of them are included
under the following heads, which will be considered in
order : 1 , Variations of the radical number of the
flower; 2, Deficiencies; 3, Redundancies; 4, Union of
parts ; 5, Irregularities of development.

65. The radical number of the flower is that which
enumerates the parts composing each whorl. Here
nature seems most inclined to the number five, as in
Grassula, Flax, Rose, and Strawberry. It varies, how-
ever, from one to twelve, and is expressed by word or
sign as follows*: di-merous, or 2 -parted (/y/), tri-merous

12, Flower of Hippuris, one-parted. 13, Flower of Circaea Lutetiana, fr 14, Flower of Xyris,

or 3-parted (^/), penta-merous or 5-parted (^/), etc.
The flowers of Hippuris (12) are 1-parted, having but
one stamen and one pistil. Those of Circaea (13) are
2 -parted, having 2 sepals, 2 petals, 2 stamens, etc.

23, 24.] STUDY OF ANOMALOUS FLOWEKS. 29

Those of Xyris (14) are ^/, having all the parts in 3s.
Xyris is one of the Endogens. Trimerous flowers are
characteristic of this great group of Plants, while pen-
tamerous flowers commonly distinguish the Exogens.

66. Deficiencies often occur, rendering the flower
incomplete. Such flowers lack some one or more en-
tire sets of organs. When only one of the floral
envelopes, the calyx, exists, the flower is said to be
apetalous or monochlamydeous (#Aa^c, a cloak), as in
Elm, Phytolacca. These terms are also loosely applied
to such plants as Rhubarb, Anemone, Liverwort, where
the pieces of the perianth are all similar, although in
two or three whorls. When the perianth is wholly
wanting, the flower is said to be achlamydeous, or
naked, as in Lizard-tail (15).

15, Flower of Saururus (Lizard-tail)— achlamydeous. 16, Flower of Fraxinus (Ash). 17, Flower
of Salix (Willow), staminate— 18, pistillate.

67. Imperfect flowers are also of frequent occur-
rence. They are deficient in respect to the essential
organs. A sterile or staminate flower (denoted thus $ )
has stamens withous pistils. A fertile or pistillate
flower ( ? ) has pistils without stamens. Such flowers
being counterparts of each other, and both necessary
to the perfection of the seed, mast exist either to-
gether upon the same plant or upon separate plants
of the same species. In the former case, the species

30 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [24, 25.

is monoecious ( 8 ), as in Oak ; in the latter case, dioe-
cious ($ ? ), as in Willow. The term diclinous, denot-

21 ^WL

^i\

19, Pistillate flower of Balm-of-Gilead. 20, Staminate. 21, Begonia— a, staminate ; b, pistillate.

ing either 8 or $ ? without distinction, is in common
use.

68. A neutral flower is a perianth or calyx only,
having neither stamens nor pistils. Such are the ray-
flowers of many of the Composite, and of the cymes
of Hydrangea, High-cranberry, etc., which in cultiva-
tion may all become neutral, as in the Snow-ball.

69. Unsymmetrical flowers. — The term symmetry,
as used in Botany, refers to number only. A flower
becomes unsymmetrical by the partial development of
any set or circle in respect to the number of its
organs. The Mustard family, called the Crucifers,
afford good examples.

70. The flowers of Mustard, Cress, etc., are understood to be 4-merous ( 0.
The sepals are four, petals four, but the stamens are six and the styles but
two. The stamens are arranged in two circles, having two of those in the
outer circle suppressed or reduced to mere glands. Two of the carpels are
also suppressed (429). In the Mint family and the Figworts one or three of
the stamens are generally abortive. Here, while the flowers are ^, the sta-
mens are four in some species and only two in others. The missing stamens,
however, often appear in the guise of slender processes — the rudiments of
stamens — proving in an interesting manner the natural tendency to sym-
metry.

71. In the ^flowers of Poppy, the sepals are but two; in fy Spring-beauty
they are but two; in both cases too few for symmetry. In Larkspur (26) the
^ flowers have but four petals ; and in Monk's-hood (29), also fa the petals

, 26.]

STUDY OF ANOMALOUS FLOWERS.

are apparently but two, strangely deformed bodies. A careful inspection,
however, generally reveals the other three, very minute, in their proper
places, as displayed in the cut.

72. "Organs opposite" is a condition much less fre-
quent than "organs alternate," but is highly interest-
ing, as being sometimes characteristic of whole fami-
lies. Thus in the Primrose, Thrift, and Buckthorn
families, the stamens always stand opposite, to the
petals !

73. How happens this? Among the Prim worts
this question is solved in the flowers of Lysimachia

I Diag ams.—22, Flower of Samolus, showing the rudimentary stamens alternating with the peifect.
23, Flower of a Labiate plant, showing the place of the deficient stamen. 24, Flower of Asarum— three
sepals, twelve stamens, etc. 25, Flower of Saxifrage — two pistils, ten stamens, etc.

and Samolus, where we find a circle of five teeth
(abortive filaments) between the petals and stamens,
alternating with both sets, thus restoring the lost sym-
metry. Hence we infer that in such cases generally
a circle of alternating organs has been either partially
or wholly suppressed. In the Buckthorn, however, a
different explanation has been given.

74. Redundancy. — The multiplication of organs is
exceedingly common, and usually according to a defi-
nite plan. The increase takes place, as a rule, by cir-
cles, and consequently by multiples. That is, e.g., the
stamens of a ty flower, if increased, will be so by 3s ;
of a fy flower by 5s, etc., — sometimes to the extent of
twenty such circles.

STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

[26, 27.

75. In the Crowfoot, Rose, and other families with numerous stamens, the
arrangement is in crowded spirals, like the phyllotaxis of the plants with the
internodes undeveloped. The carpels of the Crowfoot are also generally mul-
tiplied, yet often, on the contrary, diminished, as in the Paeony. In Rosacese,
also, the stamens are generally multiplied, while the carpels exist in all con-
ditions as to number. Thus in Strawberry they are multiplied, in the Apple
they are regularly five, in Agrimony reduced to two, and in the Cherry to
one. In Magnolia the ft flowers have three sepals in one circle, six or nine
petals in two or three circles, numerous stamens and carpels in many circles
of each. In the ty flowers or Blood-root there are two sepals, eight petals,
twenty-four stamens, and two carpels.

76. Chbrisis.—In. other cases, the organs seem to be increased in number
by clusters, rather than by circles, as when in the same circle several stamens
stand in the place of one — e.g., in Squirrel-corn, St. Johnswort, Linden. Such
cases afford wide scope for conjecture. Perhaps each cluster originates by
division, as the compound from the simple leaf ; or as a tuft of axillary leaves ;
or thirdly, by a partial union of organs.

CHAPTER IY.

ANOMALOUS FLOWERS — CONTINUED.

77. Appendicular organs consist of spurs, scales,
crown, glands, etc., and often afford excellent dis-
tinctive marks. The old term nectary was indiscrim-

26, Flower of Delphinium Consolida (common Larkspur), displaying K, s, ,«, s, s, the five sepals — a, (he
upper one spur; c, the corolla of four petals, here united into one and produce* into a spur. 27, Flower
of Impatiens fulva (Touch-me-not). 28, Displaying s, s, s, y, the four sepals, y being saccate and spurred ;
p, p, the two petals, both double, preserving the symmetry.

inately applied to all
them produced honey.

such organs, because some of

26-28.] STUDY OF ANOMALOUS FLOWERS. 33

78. Spurs are singular processes of the flower, tu-
bular and projecting from behind it. In Columbine
each petal is thus spurred ; — in Violet, one petal only ;
in Larkspur, two petals and a sepal, the spur of the
latter inclosing that of the former. The curved spur
of the Jewel-weed belongs to a sepal (27, 28).

79. Scales are attached to the inner side of the
corolla, usually upon the claw of the petals, as in
Buttercups, or within the throat of the corolla tube,
as in the Borrageworts. Similar appendages, when
enlarged and conspicuous, constitute a crown in
Catchfly, Corn-cockle, Narcissus. See also the stami-
nal crown of the Silk-grass (Asclepias).

80. Glandular bodies are often found upon the re-
ceptacle in the places of missing stamens or carpels,
or as abortive organs of some kind. Examples are
seen in the Crucifers and Grape. In Grass-Parnassus
they are stalked and resemble stamens.

81. The union of organs in some way occurs in
almost every flower ; and, more perhaps than any
other cause, tends to disguise its plan and origin.
The separate pieces which stood each as the repre-
sentative of a leaf, now, by a gradual fusion, lose
themselves in the common mass. Nevertheless, marks
of this process are always discernible, either in parts
yet remaining free, or in the seams where the edges
were conjoined. The floral organs may unite by cohe-
sion or adhesion.

82. Cohesion, when the parts of the same whorl are
joined together ; as the sepals of the Pink, the petals of
Morning-glory, the stamens of Mallows, the carpels of
Poppy. Adhesion, when the parts of different whorls
are conjoined ; as the stamens with the corolla in

STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

[27, 28.

Phlox, with the pistils in Milkweed, Lady's-slipper ;
or calyx with ovary, in Apple or Wintergreen (G-aul-
theria). The adjective free is used in a sense opposite
to adhesion, implying that the organ is inserted on (or
grows out of) the receptacle, and otherwise separated
from any other kind of organ. The adjective distinct
is opposed to cohesion, implying that like organs are
separate from each other. More of this in another
chapter.

29, Flower of Aconitum Napellus displayed; *, «, s, s, », the five sepals, the upper one hooded; p, p, p,
the five petals, of which the two upper are nectaries covered by the hood, and the three lower very minute.
30, Flower of Catalpa, 2-lipped, 5-lobed. 31, Corolla laid open, showing the two perfect stamens and the
three rudimentary.

83. Irregular development. — Our typical flower is
regular; and observation proves that all flowers are
actually alike regular in the early bud. Those in-
equalities or " one-sided " forms, therefore, which char-
acterize certain flowers, are occasioned by subsequent
irregular growth from a regular type. The irregu-
larity of flowers occurs in a thousand ways and
modes ; — in the unequal size of like organs ; in their
dissimilar forms and positions ; in their unequal cohe-
sions, and in their partial suppressions. So in the
Violet (50), Monk's-hood (29), Catalpa (30), the Labi-
ates (69), the Pea tribe (59), etc.

28, 29.$

STUDY OF ANOMALOUS FLOWERS.

84. The torus, or receptacle, is sometimes strangely
modified. In the little Myosurus (32), in some But-
tercups, and in the Tulip-tree we find a lengthened or
spindle-shaped torus — lengthened according to the

32, Flower (magnified) of Myosurus ; a vertical section showing its elongated torus, etc. 33, The
same, natural size. 34, Flower of Isopyrum bitevnatum ; vertical section, showing the convex or globular
torus, etc. 35, Flower of Rose, showing its excavated torus.

nature of a branch (§ 35), and all covered with the
multiplied pistils. On the contrary, we have in the
Rose (35) and Lady's-mantle (38), an excavated torus,
within which the carpels are held, while the other
organs are borne upon its elevated rim.

36, Paeonia Moutan, showing its very large disk (d) sheathing the ovaries (p). 37, Pistil of the Lemon,
with its base surrounded by the disk, d. S8, Section of flower of Alchemilla, showing its single simple
pistil, large disk, and excavated torus.

85. The disk is a portion of the receptacle raised
into a rim somewhere in the midst of the whorls. It
is found between the ovary and stamens in Paeony

S6 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [29-31.

and Buckthorn. It bears the stamens in Maple and
Mignonette, and crowns the ovary in the Umbelliferse.

86. Combined deviations are quite frequent, and sometimes obscure the
typical character of the flower to such a degree as to require close observa-
tion in tracing it out. The study of such cases is full of both amusement
and improvement. Eor example, the ty Poppy has suppression in the calyx,
multiplication in the stamens and carpels, and in the latter cohesion also.
The fy Sage has cohesion and irregularity in the calyx, every kind of irregu-
larity in the corolla, suppression and irregularity in the stamens, suppression
and cohesion in the pistils. The ty Cypripedium is perfectly symmetrical, yet
has irregular cohesion in the calyx, great inequality in the petals, cohesion,
adhesion, and metamorphosis in the stamens, and cohesion in the carpels.

(In this way let the pupil analyze the deviations in the flower of Q-era-
nium, Hollyhock, Moth-mullein, Larkspur, Sweetbrier, Touch-me-not, Petunia,
Snapdragon, Violet, Polygala, Squirrel-corn, Orchis, Henbit, Monk's-hood,
Calceolaria, etc.)

CHAPTER V.

XTHE FLORAL ENVELOPES, OR PERIANTH.
In our idea of the typical flower, the perianth
consists of two whorls of expanded floral leaves encir-
cling and protecting the more delicate essential organs
in their midst. As a rule, the outer circle, calyx, is
green and far less conspicuous than the inner circle
of highly colored leaves — the corolla. But there are
many exceptions to this rule. Strictly speaking, the
calyx and corolla are in no way distinguishable except
by position. The outer circle is the calyx, whatever
be its form or color ; and the inner, if there be more
than one, is the corolla.

88. Both blade and petiole are distinguishable in
the floral leaves, especially in the petals. The blade,
or expanded part, is here called limb, or lamina ; the
petiolar part, when narrowed into a stalk, is called the
claw. In form, or outline, there is a general resem-

30, 31.]

THE FLORAL ENVELOPES.

blance between the limb and the leaf. It is ovate,
oval, lanceolate, obcordate, orbicular, etc. In margin
it is generally entire. (See § 308.)

89. Some peculiar forms, however, should be noticed,
as the bilobate petal of the Chickweed (44), the pin-
natifid petal of Miterwort (43), the inflected petal of
the Umbelliferse (42), the fan-shaped petal of Pink, the
fringed (fimbriate) petal of Campion (Silene stellata)
(40), the hooded sepal of Napellus (29), the saccate

Forms of petals.— -39, Buttercup, showing the scale at base. 40, Mignonette, fringed at top. 41, Silene
stellata, fringed and unguiculate. 42, Flower of Osmorhiza longistylis, petals inflected. 43, Flower ot
Mitella diphylla, petals pectinate-pinnatifid. 44, Petal of Cerastium uutans, 2-cleft.

petal of Calceolaria, Cypripedium (71). The limb is,
moreover, often distorted into a true nectary, spurred
(see § 78), or otherwise deformed, as in Napellus,
Coptis, etc.

90. We have seen that the floral organs are often
in various ways united. A calyx with its sepals united
into a tube or cup was formerly said to be monosepal-
ous, and a similar corolla was called monopetalous ;
gamosepalous and gamopetalous are now substituted
for those words. Polysepalous - is applied to a calyx
with distinct sepals, a corolla with separate petals is
polypetalous.

Gamosepalous and gamopetalous have in Germany given place to the more
appropriate words synsepalous and sympetalous.

Polysepalous and polypetalous have also been superseded by the more accurate
terms aposepalous and apopetalous.

STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

[31, 32.

91. The gamosepalous calyx, or gamopetalous co-
rolla, although thus compounded of several pieces, is
usually described as a simple organ, wheel-shaped, cup-
shaped, tubular, according to .the degree of cohesion.
The lower part of it, formed by the united claws,
whether long or short, is the tube; the upper part,
composed of the confluent laminae, is the border, or
limb; the opening of the tube above is the throat.

92. The border is either lobed, toothed, crenate,
etc., by the distinct ends of the pieces composing it,
as in the calyx of Pink, the calyx and corolla of
Primula, Phlox, and Bellwort, or it may become, by a
complete lateral cohesion, entire, as in the Morning-
glory. Here the compound nature of the organ is
shown by the seams alone.

93. A terminal cohesion, where summit as well as
sides are joined, forming a cap rather than cup, rarely
occurs, as in the calyx of the garden Eschscholtzia and
the corolla of the Grape.

45, Flower of Saponaria (Bouncing Bet); petals and claws quite distinct. 46, Phlox; claws united,
with lamina distinct. 47, Spigelia (Pink -root;, petals still further united. 48, Quamoclit coccinea ; petals
united throughout.

94. The modes of adhesion are various and im-
portant, furnishing some of the most valuable dis-

32, 33.]

THE FLORAL ENVELOPES.

tinctive characters. An organ is said to be adherent
when it is conjoined with some dissimilar organ, as
stamen with pistil. All the organs of our typical
flower are described as free.

95. The term hypogynous (£TTG>, under, yw^ the
pistil) is an adjective in frequent use, denoting that

the organs are inserted into the torus under, or at the
base of the ovary or pistil. Organs so situated are, of
course, in the normal condition and free, there being
no adhesions. Observe and explain the sections of
Jeffersonia and Violet (49, 50).

96. Perigynous (Trep/, around) is a term applicable
to the stamens and pet-
als only, and implies that

they are (apparently) in-
serted on the calyx or
corolla around the free
ovary. In Phlox, the
stamens are perigynous
on the corolla-tube. In
Cherry and Plum, the
petals and stamens are perigynous on the calyx-tube.
(See 51.)

97. Epigynous (err/, upon) denotes that the organs

STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

[33, 34.

are inserted (apparently) upon the ovary, as appears
in Apple, Pear, Caraway, Sunflower. (See cuts 42,
51.) The common phrases "calyx superior," "ovary
inferior," have the same signification as "calyx epigy-
nous," all implying the apparent insertion of the
organs upon or above the ovary. In this condition

52, Ribes aureum and (54) Fuchsia gracilis ; ovary inferior or adherent, stamens and petals epigynous
(above the adherent ovary). 53, Saxifraga Virginiensis ; ovary half-superior.

all the organs, or at least the calyx, are blended with
the ovary to its top. Hence the phrases "ovary adher-
ent," or "calyx adherent," have also the same mean-
ing, and are preferable, because in accordance with the
fact. (Explain the sections of Golden Currant and
Ear-drop — 52, 54.)

98. Calyx inferior or free, ovary superior or free,
are all phrases of the same import as calyx hypogy-
nous. Between the two conditions, calyx superior and
calyx inferior, there are numerous gradations, of which
one only is defined, to wit, calyx half-superior, as ex-
emplified in the Mock-orange and Saxifrage (53).

34, 35.]

FOEMS OF THE PERIANTH.

CHAPTER VI.

FORMS OF THE PERIANTH.

99. The innumerable forms of the perianth, whether
calyx or corolla, or both, are first to be distinguished
as POLYPETALOUS or GAMOPETALOUS, and secondly, as
regular or irregular. The POLYPETALOUs-reg^Zar forms
are typified by the four figures below, and described
in the following paragraphs.

Forms of corollas.— '55, Cheiranlhus (Stock). 56, Silene regia (Scarlet Catchfly). 57, Pyrus coronaria.
58, Amaryllis (Atamasco Lily).

100. First, Cruciform (crucis, of a cross) or cross-
shaped corollas consist of four long-clawed petals,
placed at right angles to each other, as in Mustard,
Wall-flower (55). 2d, Caryophyllaceous or pink-like
corollas consist of five petals with long, erect claws,
and spreading laminae; as in the Pink (56). 3d,
Rosaceous or rose-like corollas are composed of five
short-clawed open petals; as in the Rose (Fig. 57).
4th, Liliaceous flowers, like the Lilies, consist of a.

STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

[35.

six-leaved perianth ; each leaf gradually spreading so
as to resemble, as a whole, the funnel-form (58).

101. Polypetalous-irregular forms (59, 71) may gen-
erally be referred to these two types — the papiliona-
ceous and the orchidaceous. The Papilionaceous (pa-
pilio, butterfly) corolla or flower may consist of five
dissimilar petals, designated thus : the upper, largest,
and exterior petal is the banner (vexillum) ; the two
lateral, half-exterior, are the wings (alee) ; the two
lower, interior petals, often united at their lower mar-
gin, are the keel (carina). The flowers of the Pea,

59, Papilionaceous flower of the Pea, 60, Displayed: v, the vexillum; a, a, the alae; c, c, the carina.
61, Section of flower of Dicentra Cucullaria.

Locust, Clover, and of the great family of the Legu-
minosse in general are examples. The Orchidaceous
is a form of the perianth peculiar to the Orchis, and
to that large and singular tribe in general. It is a
6 -parted double perianth, very irregular, characterized
chiefly by its lip, which is the upper petal (lower by
the twisting of the ovary) enlarged and variously
deformed.

102. Gamopetalous-regular perianths (62-67) may
include mainly the following forms, although some of
them may become irregular. First, Rotate, wheel-
shaped; or star-shaped, is a form with tube very short,

36, 36.]

FORMS OF THE PERIANTH.

if any, and a flat, spreading border ; as the calyx of
Chickweed, corolla of Trientalis, Elder. It is some-
times a little irregular, as in Mullein. 2d, Cup-shaped,
with pieces cohering into a concave border, as in the
calyx of Mallows, corolla of Kalmia, etc. 3d, Cam-
panulate, or bell-shaped ; when the tube widens ab-
ruptly at base and gradually in the border, as in

Forms of corollas.— -62, Campanula Americana; rotate. 63, Campanula divaricata. 64, Andromeda;
urceolate. 65, Convolvulus (Morning-glory). 66, Petunia. 67, Lonicera sempervirens (Honeysuckle).

68, Dandelion; ligulate corolla (c), 5-toothed; a, five anthers united into a tube around «, the style.

69, Synandra grandiflora, ringent, upper lip 2-lobed, lower 3-lobed. 70, Linaria (yellow Snapdragoi,), per-
sonate. 71, Cypripedium acaule, orchidaceous.

the Harebell, Canterbury-bell. 4th, Urceolate, urn-
shaped ; an oblong or globular corolla with a narrow
opening, as the Whortleberry, Heath. 5th, Funnel-
form (infundibuliform), narrow-tubular below, gradu-
ally enlarging to the border, as Morning-glory. 6th,
Salver-form (hypocrateriform), the tube ending ab-
ruptly, in a horizontal border, as in Phlox, Petunia,
both of which are slightly irregular. 7th, Tubular, a

44 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [36, 37.

cylindraceous form spreading little or none at the bor-
der ; as the calyx of the Pink, corolla of the Honey-
suckle. It is often a little curved. Tubular flowers
are common in the Compositae, as the Thistle, Sun-
flower, when they are often associated with the next
form, the ligulate.

103. Gamopetalous - irregular perianths may be
either ligulate or labiate. The ligulate corolla (ligula,
tongue) is formed as if by splitting a tubular corolla
on one side. The notches at the end plainly indicate
the number of united petals composing it, as also do
the parallel longitudinal seams. (See Figs. 68, 69.)
The labiate, bilabiate or lip-shaped, resembling the
mouth of some animal, is a very common form, result-
ing from the unequal union of the parts, accompanied
with other irregularities. In the labiate corolla three
petals unite more or less to form the lower lip, and
two to form the upper. In the calyx, when bilabiate,
this rule is reversed, according to the law of alterna-
tion of organs ; two sepals are united in the lower lip
and three in the upper, as seen in the Sage and the
Labiate Order generally. Labiate flowers are said to
be galeate or helmeted when the upper lip is concave,
as in Catmint ; ringent or gaping when the throat or
mouth is wide open (69); personate or masked when
the throat is closed as with a palate, like the Snap-
dragon (70).

104. Certain reduced forms of the perianth should
be noticed in this place. The Pappus (ndTnros, grand-
father, alluding to his gray hairs) is the hair-like calyx
of the florets of the Compositse, and other kindred
Orders. The florets of this Order are collected into
heads so compactly that the calyxes have not room

37, 38.]

FORMS OF THE PERIANTH.

for expansion in the ordinary way. The pappus is
commonly persistent, and often increases as the fruit
matures, forming a feathery sail to waft away the
seed through the air, as in the Dandelion and Thistle.
It varies greatly in form and size, as seen in the cuts ;
sometimes consisting of scales, sometimes of hairs,
again of feathers or bristles. Sometimes it is mounted
on a stipe, which is the beak of the fruit.

Cypsela (incorrectly called akenium) of the Composite, with various forms of pappus. 72, Ecripta
procumbens, no pappus. 73, Ambrosia trifida. 74, Helianthus grosse-serratus, pappus 2-awned. 75.
Ageratum conizoides, pappus of five scales. 76, Mulgedium, capillary pappus— cypsela slightly rostrate.
"7, Lactuca elongata, rostrate cypsela.

105. Again : the calyx, or the limb of the calyx, is
reduced to a mere rim, as seen in the Umbelliferse.
In the Amentaceous Orders, the whole perianth di-
minishes to a shallow cup, as in the Poplar and Wil-
low, or altogether disappears, as in the Birch, Ash,
and Lizard-tail (15, 16).

106. Setae, meaning bristles in general, is a term
specifically used to denote the reduced perianth of the
sedges. In the Bog-rush (Scirpus) there is, outside the
stamens, a circle of six setae, representing a 6 -leaved
perianth (78). In the Cotton-grass (Eriophorum) the
setae are multiplied and persistent on the fruit, becom-
ing long and cotton-like.

107. Perigynium is the name given to the urceo-
late perianth of Carex, investing the ovary, but allow-
ing the style to issue at its summit. It is composed

STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

[38, 39.

of two united sepals, as indicated by the two teeth at
the top (79).

108. Glumes and pales represent the floral en-
velopes, or rather the involucre

of the Grasses (436). Their al-
ternating arrangement clearly
distinguishes them from a peri-
anth.

109. The duration of the
calyx and corolla varies widely,
and is marked by certain gen-
eral terms. It is caducous
when it falls off immediatelv,

78, Flower of Scirpus lacustris, magni-
aS the CalyX Of Poppy, CO- fied? consisting of six seta?, three stamens,

rolla of Grape ; deciduous
when it falls with the stamens,
as in most plants; and per-
sistent, if it remain until the fruit ripens, as the calyx
of Apple. If it continue to grow after flowering, it is
accrescent; and if it wither without falling off, it is
marescent

three pistils united, except the stigmas.
79, Flower of Carex rivularis Q , with g,
its glume, p, its bottle-shaped perigynium,
2-toothed at top, enveloping the triple
ovary ; stigmas, three.

CHAPTER VII.

OF THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS. — THE STAMENS.

110. Within the safe enclosure of the floral envel-
opes stand the essential organs — the stamens and pis-
tils — clearly distinguishable from the perianth by their
more slight and delicate forms, and from each other by
various marks. In the complete flower the ANDRCECEUM
next succeeds the corolla in the order of position,
being the third set, counting from the calyx.

39, 40.]

THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS.

111. A. perfect stamen consists of two parts — the
filament, corresponding with the petiole of the typical
leaf ; and the anther, answering to the blade. Within
the cells of the anther the pollen is produced, a sub-
stance essential to the fertility of the flower. Hence
the anther alone is the essential part of the stamen.

80, Andrcecium and gyncecium of Frankenia (after Peyer). 81, Stamen (adnate) of Morning-glory.
82, Same enlarged, with pollen grains discharged ; /, filament ; a, a, anther, 2-lobed ; c, top of the con-
nectile. 83. Ranunculus. 84, Same, cut transversely. 85, Iris, cut transversely (extrorse). 86, Ama-
ryllis, versatile. 87, Larkspur, innate. 88, Same, cut.

112. The filament (filum, a thread) is the stalk sup-
porting the anther at or near its top. It is ordinarily
slender, yet sustaining itself with the anther in posi-
tion. Sometimes it is capillary, and pendulous with
its weight, as in the Grasses.

113. The anther is regularly an oblong body at the
summit of the filament, composed of two hollow par-
allel lobes joined to each other and to the filament by
the connectile. In front of the connectile, looking
toward the pistil, there is usually a furrow; on its
back a ridge, and on the face of each lobe a seam,
the usual place of dehiscence or opening, all running
parallel with the filament and connectile.

114. The stamen, as thus described, may be considered regular or typical
in form, and is well exemplified in that of the Buttercup (Fig. 83). But the
variations of structure are as remarkable here as in other organs, depending
on such circumstances as ; 1st, The attachment of filament to anther. This

STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

[40.

may occur in three ways. The anther is said to be innate when it stands cen-
trally erect on the top of the filament; adnate when it seems attached to one
side of the filament ; versatile when connected to the top of the filament by a
single point in the back. 2d, The modes of Dehiscence, or opening, are also
three — viz., valvular, where the seam opens vertically its whole length, which
is the usual way; porous, where the cells open by a chink or pore, usually at
the top, as in Rhododendron and Potato ; opercular, when by a lid opening up-
ward, as in Sassafras, Berberis (92). 3d, The facing of the anther is also an
important character. It is introrse when the lines of dehiscence look toward
the pistil, as in Violet ; extrorse when they look outward toward the corolla, as
in Iris. 4th, The connectUe is usually a mere prolongation of the filament, ter-
minating, not at the base, but at the top of the anther. If it fall short, the
anther will be emarginate. Sometimes it outruns the anther, and tips it with a
terminal appendage of some sort, as in Violet, Oleander, and Paris. Again,
its base may be dilated into spurs, as in two of the stamens of Violet. 5th, If
the connectile be laterally dilated, as we see gradually done in the various
species of the Labiate Order, the lobes of the anther will be separated, form-
ing two dimidiate (halved) anthers on one filament, as in Sage and Brunella.
Such are, of course, 1-celled (96).
P

9r>

Peculiar forma of stamens. — 89, Pyrola rotundifolia ; p, dehiscence by pores at top. 90, Vaccinium
uliginosum ; p, dehiscence. 91. Berberis aquifolium, anthers opening (92) by valves upward. 93, Anther
of Violet, introrse, with an appendage at top. 94, Oleander, sagittate, appendaged. 95, Catalpa, lobes of
anther separated. 93, Sage, lobes of anther widely separated, on stipes ; b, barren lobe without pollen.
97, Malva, anther 1-celled. 98, Ephedra (after Peyer), anther 4-celled.

115. The cells of the anthers are at first commonly
four, all parallel, becoming two only at maturity. In
some plants the four are retained, as in the anthers of
Ephedra (98). In others, as Mallows, all the cells
coalesce into one (97).

116. Appendages of many kinds distinguish the stamens of different spe-
cies. In the Ericaceae there are horns, spurs, tails, queues, etc. In Onions and
Garlic, the filament is 2 or 3 forked, bearing the anther on one of the tips.
Sometimes a pair of appendages appear at base, as if stipulate. It is often
conspicuously clothed with hairs, as in Tradescantia. (See 89-94.)

117. Staminodia, or sterile filaments with abortive anthers or none, occur
singly in many of the Figworts and Labiates, or in entire whorls next within
the petals, alternating with them, as in Loose-strife. The curious fringes of
the Passion-flower are regarded as composed of staminodia (112).

41.1

THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS.

118. The number of the stamens is said to be defi-
nite when not exceeding twenty, as is sometimes
definitely expressed by such terms as follow, com-
pounded of the Greek numerals — viz., monandrous,

101

Essential organs.— 99, Rhododendron, five stamens («), one pistil (p), oblique or slightly irregular. 100,
Flower of ^Esculus (Buckeye), regular, 5-toothed calyx (c), very irregular 4-petalled corolla, seven stamens
unequal, one style (s). 101, Flower of Hydrastis ; s, sepals deciduous.

having one stamen to each flower ; diandrous, with

two stamens; petandrous, with five stamens. If the

number exceeds twenty, it is said to be indefinite
(denoted thus, oo ) or polyandrous.

104

102. Stamens (diadelphous) of a Leguminous plant. 103, Stamens (syngenesious) of a Composite ; /,
filaments distinct ; a, anthers united ; s, stigmas revolute, etc. 104, Tetradynamous stamens of a Crucifer.

105, Gynandrous column of Cypripedium ; o, ovary ; r, torus ; », sterile stamen ; a, twopollinia ; c, stigma.

106, Didynamous stamens of Lophospermum.

119. The position or insertion of the stamens (§55)
may be more definitely stated here as hypogynous, on

50 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [41, 42.

the receptacle below the ovaries; perigynous, on the
calyx around the ovary ; epipetalous, on the corolla, as
in Phlox ; epigynous, on the ovary at its summit, and
gynandrous (y^, pistil, dv6pe$, stamens) on the pistil,
that is, when the stamens are adherent to the style,
as in Orchis. Inequality in length is definitely marked
in two cases, as tetradynamous (rerpa^ four, dvvaiiu;,
power) when the stamens are six, whereof four are
longer than the other two, as in all the Crucifers ;
didynamous, where the stamens are four, two of them
longer than the other two, as in all the Labiates (104,
106).

120. Cohesion is as frequent with stamens as with
petals. They are monadelphous (adeA06^ a brother)
when they are all united, as in Mallow, into one set
or brotherhood by the filaments ; diadelphous in two
sets, whether equal or unequal, as in Pea, Squirrel-
corn ; polyadelphous, many sets, as in St. Johnswort ;
and syngenesious, when they are united by their an-
thers, as in the Compositse. Finally, the absence of
the stamens altogether, whether by abortion, as in the

? flowers of Veratrum, or by suppression, as in Oak,
occurs in various modes, rendering the plant monoe-
cious (5), dioecious ($ $), or polygamous ($ $ ?), as
already explained (§ 67).

121. The pollen is in appearance a small, yellow
dust, contained in the cells of the anther. When
viewed with the microscope, it appears as grains of
various forms, usually spheroidal or oval, sometimes
triangular or polyhedral, but always of the same form
and appearance in the same species. Externally they
are curiously, and often elegantly figured with stripes,
bands, dots, checks, etc. Each grain of pollen is a

42, 43.]

THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS.

membranous cell or sac containing a fluid. Its coat is
double — the outer is more thick and firm, exhibiting

Patten grains.— Vfl, Pinus larico. 108, Basella rubra. 109, Ranunculus repens. 110, Scolymus grandi-
florus. Ill, Passiflora incarnata.

one or more breaks where the inner coat, which is
very thin and expansible, is uncovered. In the fluid
are suspended mol-
ecules of inconceiv-
a b 1 e minuteness,
said to possess a
tremulous motion.
When the mem-
brane is exposed to
moisture, it swells
and bursts, d i s-
charging its con-
tents.

1 Z L. in I 112^ gection of the Passion.flower (passiflora coerulea); 6, bracts

r»V»irlcj a-nrl QilV-wroorl of the involucre ; s, sepals ; p, petals ; a, a, staminodia or sterile

iiKweea filaments . c> stipe . 0> ovary . d Stamen8 . t> 8tigmas>
tribe, the pollen

grains do not separate as into a dust or powder, but
all cohere into masses called POLLINIA, accompanied by
a viscid fluid.

52 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [43, 44.

CHAPTER VIII.

OF THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS. — THE PISTILS.

123. The Gynaeceum occupies the center of the
flower, at the termination of the axis. It consists
regularly of a circle of distinct pistils (§ 60), sym-
metrical in number with the other circles. It is sub-
ject to great variation. The pistil may be distinct
and simple, as in Columbine, or coherent in various
degrees into a compound body, as in St. Johnswort.
Also instead of being free and superior, as it regularly
should be, it may adhere to the other circles, as
already explained (§ 97), and become inferior ; that
is, apparently placed below the flower, as in the Cur-
rant (52).

124. The number of the pistils is by no means
confined to the radical of the flower. They may be
increased by multiples, becoming a spiral on a length-
ened receptacle, as in Tulip-tree, or still remaining a
circle, as in Poppy. On the other hand, they may be
reduced in number often to one, as in Cherry and Pea.
Certain terms are employed to denote the number of
pistils in the flower, such as monogynous, with one
pistil ; trigynous, with three ; polygynous, with many,
etc.

125. The simple pistil may usually be known from
the compound, by its one-sided forms — having two
sides similar and two dissimilar. If the pistils appear
distinct, they are all simple, never being united into
more than one set, as the stamens often are. The

44, 45.]

THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS.

parts of a simple pistil are three — the ovary (o, 113)
at base, the stigma (s) at the summit, and the style
(sty) intervening. Like the filament, the style is not
essential ; and when it is wanting, the stigma
is sessile upon the ovary, as in Anemone (116).
In order to understand the relation of these
parts, we must needs first study —

126. The morphology of the pistil. —As

113

114

116

113, Pistil of Tobacco. 114, Pistil, stamens, and calyx of Azalea. 115, Trillium— stigmas (d) and anthers
(s) nearly sessile. 116, Pistils of Rue Anemone (A. thcUictroides)-^stigm&a sessile.

before stated, the pistil consists of a modified leaf
called a carpel (nap-nog, fruit), or carpellary leaf. This
leaf is folded together toward the axis, so that the
upper surface becomes the inner, while the lower be-
comes the outer surface of the ovary. By this arrange-
ment two sutures or seams will be formed — the dorsal,
at the back, by the midvein ; the ventral, in front, by
the joined margins of the leaf. This view of the
pistil is remarkably confirmed and illustrated by the
flowers of the Double Cherry (124, 125), where the
pistil may be seen in every degree of transition, re-
verting toward the form of a leaf. This carpellary
leaf stands in the place of the pistil, having the edges
infolded toward each other, the midvein prolonged and
dilated at the apex, as shown in 125.

STRUCTUEAL BOTANY.

[45, 46.

127. The placentae are usually prominent lines or
ridges extending along the ventral suture within the
cell of the ovary, and bearing the ovules. They are
developed at each of the two edges of the carpellary
leaf, and are consequently closely parallel when those
edges are united, forming one double placenta in the
cell of each ovary.

128. The simple carpel, with all its parts, is completely exemplified in the
Pea-pod. When this is laid open at the ventral suture, the leaf form becomes
manifest, with the peas (ovules) arranged in an alternate order along each
margin, so as to form but one row when the pod is closed. In the pod of
Columbine (127), the ovules form two distinct rows, in the simple Plum car-
pel, each margin bears a single ovule ; and in the one-ovuled Cherry, only one
of the margins is fruitful.

117, Simple pistil of Strawberry, the style lateral. 118, Simple pistil of Crowfoot, cut to show the
ovule. 119, Simple pistil of the Cherry. 120, Vertical section showing the ovule (o), style (s), stigma (a).
121, Cross-section of the same. 122, Compound pistil of Spring-beauty. 123, Cross-section of the same,
showing the three cells of the ovary. 124, Expanded carpellary leaf of the Double Cherry. 125, The same
partly folded, as if to form a pistil.

129. The stigma is the glandular orifice of the
ovary, communicating with it either directly or
through the tubiform style. It is usually globular
and terminal, often linear and lateral, but subject to
great variations in form. It is sometimes double or
halved, or 2-lobed, even when belonging to a single
carpel or to a simple style, as in Linden, where these
carpels are surmounted by three pairs of stigmas.

130. The compound pistil consists of the united
circle of pistils, just as the moruopetalous corolla con-

46.]

THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS.

sists of the united circle of petals. The union occurs
in every degree, commencing at the base of the ovary
and proceeding upward. Thus in Columbine, we see
the carpels (pistils) distinct ; in early Saxifrage, coher-
ing just at base ; in Pink, as far as the top of the
ovaries, with styles distinct ; in Spring-beauty, to the
top of the styles, with stigmas distinct ; and in Rho-
dodendron, the union is complete throughout.

132

126, Ovary (follicle) of Larkspur, composed of a single carpellary leaf. 127, Ovaries of the Columbine,
five, contiguous but Distinct. 128, Compound ovary of Hypericum, of carpels united below with distinct
styles. 129, Ovary of another Hypevicum of three carpels completely united. 130, Ovary of Flax; carpels
five, united below, distinct above. 131, Dianthus {Pink). 132, Saxifraga. *yl

131. To determine the number of carpels in a com-
pound ovary is an important and sometimes difficult
matter. It may be known : 1st, By the number of the
styles ; or, 2 d, By the number of the free stigmas (re-
membering that these organs are liable to be halved
— § 129) ; or, 3d, By the lobes, angles, or seams of the
ovary ; or, 4th, By the cells ; or, 5th, By the placentae.
But in Dodecatheon, etc., all these indications fail, so
perfect is the union, and we are left to decide from
analogy alone.

132. The student will notice two very diverse
modes of cohesion in the carpels of the compound
ovary. First and regularly, the carpels may each be
closed, as when simple, and joined by their sides and

STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

[46, 47.

fronts; as in St. Johnswort (129) and Lily (171). In
this case, he may prove the following propositions.
1st. The compound ovary will have as many cells as
carpels. 2d. The partitions between the cells will be
double, and alternate with the stigmas. 3d. A parti-
tion dividing the cell of a single carpel must be a
false one; as occurs in Flax (136). 4th. The PLA-
CENTA, as well as the ventral suture, will be axial.

133. Again: the carpels may each be opened and
conjoined by their edges, as are the petals of a gamo-
petalous corolla. So it is in the ovary of Violet (137)
and Rock-rose (139). In this case, 1st. There will be
no partition (unless a false one, as in the Crucifers),
and but one cell ; 2d. The Placentce will be parietal,
i. e., on the wall of the cell (paries, a wall).

140

135

133, Samolus Valernndi, section of flower showing the free axial placenta. 134, Ovary of Scrophula-
riaceae. 135, Ovary of Tulip. 136, Cross-section of ovary of Flax, 5-celled,' falsely 10-celled. 137, Ovary
of Violet, 1-celled. 138, Ovary of Fuchsia, 4-celled. 139, Ovary of Rock-rose, 1-celled, 5-carpelled.
140, Gentianaceae, 2-valved, 1-celled.

134. Between the two conditions of axial (or central) and parietal placenta,
we find all degrees of transition, as illustrated in the different species of St.
Johnswort and in Poppy, where the inflected margins of the carpels carry the
placentae inward, well-nigh to the axis. Moreover, the placentae are not al-
ways mere marginal lines, but often wide spaces covering large portions of
the walls of the cell, as in Poppy and Water-lily ; in other cases, as Datura
(168), they become large and fleshy, nearly filling the cell.

135. A free axial placenta, without partitions, occurs
in some compound one-celled ovaries, as in the Pink

47, 48.]

THE ESSENTIAL ORGANS.

and Primrose orders (133). This anomaly is explained
in two ways — first, by the obliteration of the early-
formed partitions, as is actually seen to occur in the
Pinks ; secondly, by supposing the placenta to be, at
least in some cases, an axial rather than a marginal
growth — that is, to grow from the point of the axis
rather than from the margin of the carpellary leaf, for
in Primrose no partitions ever appear.

136. A few peculiar forms of the style and stigma are worthy of note in
our narrow limits, as the lateral style of Strawberry; the basilar style of the
Labiatse and Borrageworts ; the branching style of Phyllanthus, one of the
Euphorbiacese ; also the globular stigma of Mirabilis; the linear stigma of
Mediola; the feathery stigma of Grasses; the filiform stigma of Indian corn;
the lateral stigma of Aster; the petaloid stigmas of Iris; the capitate and
perforated stigma of Violet (141-149).

Pistils.— 141, Symphytum, basilar style, ovary 4-parted. 142, 9 Flower of Phyllanthus (Euphorbiaceae),
branching styles. 143, Mirabilis Jalapa, globular stigma. 144, Flower of Luzula, stigmas linear. 145,
Feathery stigmas of a Grass. 146, Stigmas of Aster. 147, Rumex. 148, Poppy. 149, Filiform stigma of
Zea Mays (Corn).

137. In the Pine, Cedar, and the Coniferae generally,
both the style and stigma are wanting; and the ovary
is represented only by a flat, open, carpellary scale,
bearing the naked ovules at its base.

STKUCTUKAL BOTANY.

[48, 49.

CHAPTER IX.

THE OVULES.

138. The ovules are understood to be transformed
buds, destined to become seeds in the fruit. Their
development from the margins and inner surface of
the carpel favors this view ; for the ordinary leaves of
Bryophyllum and some other plants do habitually pro-
duce buds at their margin or on their upper surface ;
and in the Mignonette, ovules themselves have been
seen transformed into leaves.

139. The number of ovules in the ovary varies from
one to hundreds. Thus, in Buttercups, Compositse, and
Grasses, the ovule is solitary; in Umbelliferee it is also

159

158

150, Pistil of Celosia ; the pericarp detached, showing the young ovules. 151, Flower of Rhubarb,
pericarp removed, showing the young ovule. 152, A similar ovule (orthotropous) of Polygonum. 153, The
same, full grown ; foramen at top. 154, Section showing its two coats, nucleus, and sac. 155, An«tropons
ovule, as of Columbine ; a, foramen. 156, Section of same. 157, Campylotropous Ovule, as of Bean ;
a, foramen. 158, Section of a Cherry ; ovule anatropous, suspended. 159, Section of carpel of Ranuncu-
lus ; ovule ascending. 160, Senecio ; ovule erect. 161, Hippuris ; ovule pendulous.

solitary in each of the two carpels; in the Pea order
they are definite, being but few ; in Mullein and Poppy,
indefinite (oo), too many to be readily counted. As to

49, 50.] THE OVULES. 59

position, the ovule is erect when it grows upward
from the base of the cell, as in Compositse ; ascending,
when it turns upward from the side of the cell ; hori-
zontal, when neither turning upward nor downward;
pendulous, when turned downward ; and suspended,
when growing directly downward from the top of the
cell, as in Birch (158-161).

140. The ovule at the time of flowering is soft and
pulpy, consisting of a nucellus within two coats, sup-
ported on a stalk. The stalk is called funiculus ; the
point of its juncture with the base of the nucellus is
the chalaza. The nucellus was first formed ; then the
tegmen, or inner coat, grew up from the chalaza and
covered it; and lastly the outer coat, the testa, in-
vested the whole. Both coats remain open at the top
by a small orifice, the foramen.

141. In most cases the ovule, in the course of its
growth, changes position — curving over in various de-
grees upon its lengthening funiculus or upon itself.
When no such curvature exists, and it stands straight,
as in the Buckwheat order, it is orthdtropous. It is
anatropous when completely inverted. In this state a
portion of the funiculus adheres to the testa, forming
a ridge called raphe, reaching from the chalaza to the
hilum. It is campylotropous when curved upon itself.
In this state the foramen is brought near to the cha-
laza, and both are next the placenta, as in the Pinks
and Cruciferse ; and amphitropous when half inverted,
so that its axis becomes parallel with the placenta, as
in Mallow. Here the raphe exists, but is short. In
campylotropous ovules there is no raphe.

142. The ovule contains no young plant (embryo)
yet ; but a cavity, the embryo sac, is already provided

60 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [50, 51.

to receive it just within the upper end of the nu-
cellus.

The relations of the ovule to the pollen grain will be more suitably dis-
cussed hereafter under the head of fertilization. We "briefly remark here that
the immediate contact of the two is brought about, at the time of flowering,
by special arrangements ; and that, as the undoubted result of their combined
action, the embryo soon after originates in the embryo sac.

CHAPTER X.

THE FRUIT. — PERICARP.

143. After having received the pollen which the
anthers have discharged, the pistil or its ovary con-
tinues its growth and enlargement, and is finally ma-
tured in the form of the peculiar fruit of the plant.
The fruit is, therefore, the mature ovary.

144. As to the other organs of the flower, having accomplished their work
— the fertilization of the ovary— they soon wither and fall away. Some of
them, however, often persist, to protect or become blended with the ripening
fruit. Thus the tube of the superior calyx (§ 97) always blends with the ovary
in fruit; as in Currant, Cucumber, etc. In Composites, the persistent limb
enlarges into the pappus of the fruit. In Buttercups, the fruit is beaked with
the short, persistent style. In Clematis and Q-eum, it is caudate (tailed) with
the long, feathery style. In the Potato tribe, Labiatse, and many others, the
inferior calyx continues to vegetate like leaves until the fruit ripens. In some
cases the fruit, so called, consists of the receptacle and ovaries blended; as in
Apple and Strawberry. Again— in Mulberry, Pig, and Pineapple, the whole
inflorescence is consolidated into the matured fruit.

145. As a rule, the structure of the fruit agrees
essentially with that of the ovary. In many cases,
however, the fruit undergoes such changes in the
course of its growth from the ovary as to disguise its
real structure. An early examination, therefore, is
always more reliable in its results than a late one.
For example, the acorn is a fruit with but one cell

51.]

THE FKUIT.

and one seed, although its ovary had three cells and
six ovules ! This singular change is due to the non-
developmeiit of five of its ovules, while the sixtlf grew
the more rapidly, obliterated the partitions by press-
ing them to the wall, and filled the whole space it-
self. Similar changes characterize the Chestnut, Hazel-
nut, and that whole Order. The ovary of the Birch
is 2-celled, 2-ovuled; but by the sup-
pression of one cell with its ovule, the
fruit becomes 1 -celled and 1-seeded.

165

104

163

162, Section of the ovary of an acorn, 3-celled, 6-ovuled. 163, Section of ovary of Birch, 2-celled,
2-ovuled. 164, Vertical section of the same in fruit. 166, Pericarp of Mignonette open soon after flower-
ing. 166, Naked seed of Taxus Canadensis, surrounded, not covered, by the fleshy pericarp.

On the other hand, the cells are sometimes multiplied in the fruit by the
formation of false partitions. Thus the pod of Thornapple (Datura) becomes
4-celled from a 2-celled ovary ; and the longer pods of some Leguminous
plants have cross-partitions formed between the seeds, and the 5-celled ovary
of the Flax comes by false partitions to be 10-celled (Fig. 136).

146. The Pericarp. — The fruit consists of the peri-
carp and the seed. The pericarp (™pi, around) is the
envelope of the seeds, consisting of the carpels and
whatever other parts they may be combined with. It
varies greatly in texture and substance when mature,
being then either dry, as the Pea-pod, or succulent, as
the Currant. Dry pericarps are membranous, or coria-
ceous (leathery), or woody. Succulent pericarps may
be either wholly so, as the Grape, or partly so, as the
Peach and other stone fruits.

147. With very few exceptions the pericarp incloses

STKUCTURAL BOTANY.

[51, 52.

the seed while maturing. In Mignonette (165), how-
ever, it opens, exposing the seed, immediately after
flowering. The membranous pericarp of Cohosh (Cau-
lophyllum) falls away early, leaving the seed to ripen
naked. In Yew (Taxus) the seed is never inclosed
wholly by its fleshy pericarp ; but in most of the other
Coniferse, the close-pressed, carpellary scales cover the
seeds. One-seeded fruits, like those of Buttercups, etc.,
are liable to be mistaken for naked seeds.

172

Capsule, 167, of Scrophulavia, 2-celled; 168,. of Datura Stramonium; 169, of Iris; 170, showing its mode
of dehiscence (loculicidal). 171, of Colchicum, 3-celled. 172, Regma, ripe fruit of Geranium, the carpels
(cocci) separating from the axis and bending upward on the elastic styles.

148. Dehiscence. — The fleshy pericarp is always
indehiscent. Its seeds are liberated only by its decay,
or bursting in germination. So also in many cases
the dry pericarp, as the acorn. But more commonly
the dry fruit, when arrived at maturity, opens in some
way, discharging its seeds. Such fruits are dehiscent.
Dehiscence is either valvular, porous, or circumscissile ;
valvular, when the pericarp opens vertically along the
sutures, forming regular parts called valves. These
valves may separate quite to the base, or only at the
top, forming teeth, as in Chickweed. "We notice four
modes of valvular dehiscence, viz. :

52, 53.] THE FRUIT. 63

1. Sutural, when it takes place at the sutures of
any 1 -celled pericarp, as Columbine, Pea, Violet.

2. Septicidal (septum, partition, ccedo, toj?ut), when
it takes place through the dissepiments (which are
double, § 132). The carpels thus separated may open
severally by sutures (Mallows), or remain indehiscent,
as in Vervain.

3. Loculicidal (loculus, a cell, ccedo, to cut), when
each carpel opens at its dorsal suture directly into the
cell (Evening Primrose, Lily). Here the dissepiments
come away attached to the middle of the valves.

4. Septifragal (septum, and frango, to break), when
the valves separate from the dissepiments which re-
main still united in the axis (Convolvulus).

173 174

fi£ (•* >\

A „,> // 1 ~ \

Dehiscence: 173, septicidal; 174, loculicidal; 175, septifragal.

149. Porous dehiscence is exemplified in the Poppy,
where the seeds escape by orifices near the top of the
fruit. It is not common. Circumscissile (circum-
scindo, to cut around), when the top of the ovary
opens or falls off like a lid, as in Plantain. Some
fruits, as the Gerania and Umbelliferse, are furnished
with a carpophore, that is, a slender column from the
receptacle — a fusiform torus, prolonged through the
axis of the fruit, supporting the carpels.

64:

STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

[53, 54.

CHAPTER XI.

FORMS OF THE PERICARP.

150. The morphology of the pericarp is exceedingly diversified ; but it
Will suffice the learner at first to acquaint himself with the leading forms
only, such as are indicated in the following synopsis and more definitely
described afterward.

The following is a synopsis of the principal forms of Pericarps, for the

blackboard.

§ 1. Free Fruits (formed by a single Flower).

* Pericarps indehiscent.

t With usually but one seed, and
t Uniform, or 1-coated.

1. Separated from the seed.

2. Inflated, often breaking away.

3. Inseparable from the seed.

4. Invested with a cupule (involucre).

5. Having winged appendages.

t Double or triple-coated, fleshy or fibrous.

6. Three-coated. Stone cell entire.

7. Two-coated. Stone cell 2-parted.

8. Drupes aggregated.
t With two or more seeds,

t Tmrnp.rsp.fi in a fleshy or pulpy mass.

9. Kind membranous.

10. Rind leathery, separable.

11. Rind hard, crustaceous.

t 12. Inclosed in distinct cells.

Akene (Buttercups).
Utricle (Pigweed).
Caryopsis (Grasses).
Glans, Acorn (Oak).
Samara, Key (Ash).

Drupe (Cherry).
Tryma (Walnut).
Etaerio (Raspberry).

Berry (Gooseberry).
Hesperidium (Orange).
Pepo (Squash).
Pome (Apple).

* Pericarps dehiscent.

t 13. Dehiscence circumscissile, seeds oo.
t Dehiscence valvular or porous ;
$ Simple, or 1-carpelled,

14. Opening by the ventral suture.

15. Opening by both sutures.

16. Legume jointed.

J Compound pericarps ;

17. Placentae parietal with two cells.

Silique short.

18. Placentae parietal only when 1-celled.

19. Capsule with carpophore and elastic

styles.

Pyxis (Henbane).

Follicle (Columbine).
Legume (Pea).
Loment (Desmodium).

Silique (Mustard).

Silicle (Shepherd's Purse).

Capsule (Flax).

Regma (Geranium).

§ 2. Confluent Fruits (formed of an Inflorescence).

* 20. With open carpels aggregated into a cone. Strobile (Pine).

* 21. With closed carpels aggregated into a mass. Sorosis (Pineapple).

54, 55.]

FORMS OF THE PERICARP.

151. The akene is a small, dry, indehiscent peri-
carp, free from the one seed which it contains, and
tipped with the remains of the style (Buttercups,
Lithospermum).

The double akene of the Umbelliferee, supported on a carpophore, is called
cremocarp (177). The akenes of the Compositae, usually crowned with a pap-
pus, are called cypsda (178).

The akenes are often mistaken for seeds. In the Labiatae and Borrage-
worts they are associated in fours (141). In Greum, Anemone, etc., they are
collected in heads. The rich pulp of the Strawberry consists wholly of the
overgrown receptacle, which bears the dry akenes on its surface (184).

152. The utricle is a small, thin pericarp, fitting
loosely upon its one seed, and often opening trans-
versely to discharge it (Pigweed, Prince's Feather),

176

178

176, Akenes of Anemone thalidtroides. 177, Cremocarp of Archangelica officinalis, its halves (mono-
carps) separated and suspended on the carpophore. 178, Cypsela of Thistle with its plumous pappus.
1^9, Utricle of Chenopodium (Pigweed). 180, Caryopsis of Wheat. 181, Samara of Elm. 182, Glans of
Beech. 183, Drupe of Prunus. 184, Fruit of Fragaria Indica, a fleshy torus like the Strawberry.

153. Caryopsis, the grain or fruit of the Grasses, is
a thin, dry, 1 -seeded pericarp, inseparable from the
seed.

154. Samara; dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent, furnished
with a membranous wing or wings (Ash, Elm, Maple).

155. G-lans, or nut; hard, dry, indehiscent, com-
monly 1-seeded by suppression (§ 145), and invested

STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

[55, 56.

with a persistent involucre called a cupule, either soli-
tary (Acorn, Hazelnut) or several together (Chestnut).

156. Drupe, stone-fruit; a 3-coated, 1-celled, inde-
hiscent pericarp, as the Cherry and Peach. The outer
coat (epidermis) is called the epicarp ; the inner is the
nucellus or endocarp, hard and stony ; the intervening
pulp or fleshy coat is the sarcocarp (adp^ flesh). These
coats are not distinguishable in the ovary.

157. Tryma, a 2-coated drupe; the epicarp fibro-
fleshy (Butternut) or woody (Hickory) ; the nucellus
bony, with its cell often deeply 2 -parted (Cocoanut).

191

Fruits.— 186, Etaerio of Rubus strigosus (Blackberry). 186, Pepo ; section of Cucumber. 187, Berry
Grape. 188, Pome ; Cratsegus (Haw). 189, Pyxis* of Jeflersonia. 190, Legume of Pea. 191, Loment of
Tesmodium. 192, Silique of Mustard. 193, Silicic of Capsella.

158. Etcerio, an aggregate fruit consisting of numer-
ous little drupes united to each other (Raspberry) or to
the fleshy receptacle (Blackberry).

159. Berry, a succulent, thin-skinned pericarp, hold-
ing the seeds loosely imbedded in the pulp (Currant,
Grape).

55-67.] FOEMS OF THE PERICARP. 67

160. Hesperidium, a succulent, many-carpelled fruit;
the rind thick, leathery, separable from the pulpy mass
within (Orange, Lemon).

161. PepOj an indehiscent, compound, fleshy fruit,
with a hardened rind and parietal placentae (Melon).

162. The pome is an indehiscent pericarp, formed
of the permanent calyx and fleshy receptacle, con-
taining several cartilaginous (Apple) or bony (Haw)
cells.

163. The pyxis is a many-seeded, dry fruit, open-
ing like a lid by a circumscissile dehiscence (Plantain,
Henbane, Jeffersonia).

164. The follicle is a single carpel, 1-celled, many-
seeded, opening at the ventral suture (Columbine, Lark-
spur, Silk-grass).

*165. The legume, or pod, is a single carpel, 1-celled,
usually splitting into two valves, but bearing its 1 — oo
seeds along the ventral suture only, in one row, as in
the Bean and all the Leguminosse. It is sometimes
curved or coiled like a snail-shell (Medicago). The
loment is a jointed pod, separating across into 1-seeded
portions (Desmodium).

166. Silique. A pod, linear, 2-carpelled, 2-valved,
2 -celled by a false dissepiment extended between the
two parietal placentae. To this false dissepiment on
both sides of both edges the seeds are attached (Mus-
tard). The silicle is a short silique, nearly as wide as
long (Shepherd's Purse). The silique and silicle are
the peculiar fruit of all the Cruciferae.

167. Capsule (casket). This term includes all other
forms of dry, dehiscent fruits, compound, opening by
as many valves as there are carpels (Iris), or by twice
as many (Chickweed), or by pores (Poppy).

STKUCTUKAL BOTANY.

[57.

168. The Regma is a kind of capsule like that of
the Geranium, whose dehiscent carpels separate elastic-
ally, but still remain attached to the carpophore.

169. Strobile, or Cone; an aggregate fruit consist-
ing of a conical or oval mass of imbricated scales, each
an open carpel ( $ flower), bearing seeds on its inner
side at base, i. e., axillary seeds (Pine and the G-ymno-
sperms generally). The Cone (syncarpium, ovv, togeth-
er) of the Magnolia tribe is a mass of confluent, closed
pericarps on a lengthened torus (Cucumber Tree).

196

194, Strobile of Pinus. 19f , The Fig (syconus). 196, Sorosis of Mulberry. 197, Hip of Rosa, achenia
nearly inclosed in the leathery calyx tube.

170. The Fig (syconium) is an aggregate fruit, con-
sisting of numerous seed-like akenes inclosed within
a hollow, fleshy receptacle, where the flowers were
attached.

171. Other confluent fruits (Sorosis) consist of the
entire inflorescence developed into a mass of united
pericarps, as in the Mulberry, Osage-orange, Pineapple.

58.1

THE SEED.

198

CHAPTER XII.

THE SEED.

172. The seed is the perfected ovule, having an
embryo formed within, which is the rudiment of a new
plant, similar in all respects to the original. The seed
consists of a nucellus or kernel, invested with the
integuments or coverings. The outer covering is the
testa, the inner the tegmen, as

in the ovule. The latter is
thin and delicate, often indis-
tinguishable from the testa.

173. The testa is either
membranous (papery), coria-
ceous (leathery), crustaceous
(horny), bony, woody, or fleshy.
Its surface is generally smooth,
sometimes beautifully polished,
as in Columbine, Indian-shot
(Canna), and often highly col-
ored, as in the Bean ; or it
may be dull and rough. It is
sometimes winged, as in Ca-

talpa, and sometimes clothed with long hairs, as in
Silk-grass (Asclepias). Such a vesture is called the
Coma. Cotton is the coma of the Cotton-seed.

174. The coma must not be confounded with the pappus (§ 104), which is
a modification of the calyx, appended to the pericarp, and not to the seed, as
in the akenes of the Thistle, Dandelion, and other Composites. Its intention
in the economy of the plant can not be mistaken; serving like the pappus to
secure the dispersion of the seed, while incidentally, in the case of the Cotton-
seed, it furnishes clothing and employment to a large portion of the human
race.

198, Aril of Nutmeg (mace). 199, Seed of
Catalpa. 200, Seed of Willow. 201, Seed of
Cotton.

STKUCTURAL BOTANY.

[58, 69.

175. The aril is an occasional appendage, partially or wholly investing
the seed. It originates after fertilization, at or near the hilum, where the
seed is attached to its stalk (funiculus). Pine examples are seen in the gashed
covering of the Nutmeg, called mace, and in the scarlet coat of the seed of
Staff -tree. In the seed of Poly gala, etc., it is but a small scale, entire or
2-cleft, called caruncle.

176. The position of the seed in the pericarp is, like that of the ovule,
erect, ascending, pendulous, etc. (§ 149). Likewise, in respect to its inversions, it
is orthdtropous, andtropous, amphitropous, and campyldtrapom (§ 141), terms already
denned. The anatropous is by far the most common condition.

177. The hilum is the scar or mark left in the
testa of the seed, by its separation from the funiculus.
It is commonly called the eye, as in the Bean. In
orth6tropous and campy!6tropous seeds, the hilum cor-
responds with the chalaza (§ 140). In other conditions
it does not; and the raphe (§ 141) extends between
the two points, as in the ovules. The foramen of the
ovule is closed up in the seed, leaving a slight mark —

the micropyle.

212 213

208 210 ' 211

202, Seed of Water Lily (Nymphaea), enlarged section ; alb., albumen ; a, the embryo contained, in the
embryo-sac ; s, tegmen ; p, testa ; r, raphe ; a", aril ; m, orifice ; /, funiculus. 203, Seed of Bean. 204,
Same, one cotyledon with the leafy embryo. 205, Seed of Apple. 206, One cotyledon showing the raphe
and embryo. 207, Fruit of Mirabilis ; embryo coiled into a ring. 208, Onion ; embryo coiled. 209, Con-
volvulus ; leafy embryo folded. 210, Embryo of Cuscuta. 211, Typha. 212, Ranunculus. 2i3, Hop.

178. The seed-kernel may consist of two parts, the
embryo and albumen, or of the embryo only. In the
former case the seeds are albuminous; in the latter,
exalbuminous ; a distinction of great importance in
systematic botany.

59, 60.] THE SEED. 71

179. The albumen or endosperm is a starchy or
farinaceous substance accompanying the embryo and
serving as its first nourishment in germination. Its
qualities are wholesome and nutritious, even in poison-
ous plants. Its quantity, when compared with the
embryo, varies in every possible degree ; being ex-
cessive (Ranunculacese), or about equal (Violaceae), or
scanty (Convolvulaceae), or none at all (Leguminosae).
In texture it is mealy in Wheat, mucilaginous in
Mallows, oily in Ricinus, horny in Coffee, ruminated
in Nutmeg andv Papaw, ivory-like in the Ivory-palm,
fibrous in Cocoanut, where it is also hollow, inclosing
the milk.

180. The embryo is an organized body, the rudi-
ment of the future plant, consisting of root (radicle),
stem-bud (plumule), and leaves (cotyledons). But these
parts are sometimes quite indistinguishable until ger-
mination, as in the Orchis tribe. The Radicle is the
descending part of the embryo, always pointing toward
the micropyle, the true vertex of the seed. The Plu-
mule is the germ of the ascending axis, the terminal
bud, located between or at the base of the Cotyledons.
These are the seed-lobes, the bulky farinaceous part of
the embryo, destined to become the first or seminal
leaves of the young plant. The nutritive matter de-
posited in the seed for the early sustenance of the
germinating embryo, is found more abundant in the
cotyledons in proportion as there is less of it in the
albumen — often wholly in the albumen (Wheat), again
all absorbed in the bulky cotyledons (Squash).

181. The number of the cotyledons is variable;
and upon this circumstance is founded the most im-
portant subdivision of the Flowering Plants. THE

STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

[60, 61.

MONOCOTYLEDONS are plants bearing seeds with one
cotyledon ; or if two are present, one is minute or
abortive. Such plants are also called ENDOGENS, be-
cause their stems do not grow exogenously (§ 421).
Such are the Grasses, the Palms and Lilies, whose
leaves are mostly constructed with parallel veins.

216

217

214, Dicotyledonous (Bean). 215, Monocotyledonous (Wheat). 216, Polycotyledonous (Pine). 217,
Acotyledonous (zoospore of one of the Confervae). (r, r, r, radicle ; p, p, p, plumule ; c, c, c, cotyledon ;
a, albumen.)

182. THE DICOTYLEDONS are plants bearing seeds
with two cotyledons. These are also called EXOGENS,
because their stems grow by external accretions ; in-
cluding the Bean tribe, Melon tribe, all our forest
trees, etc. These are also distinguished at a glance
by the structure of their leaves, which are net-veined
(§ 280). More than two cotyledons are found in
the seeds of Pine and Fir ; while the Dodder is
almost the only known example of an embryo with no
cotyledon.

183. The position of the embryo, whether with or
without albumen, is singularly varied and interesting
to study. It may be straight, as in Cat-tail and Vio-
let, or curved in various degrees (Moonseed and Pink),
or coiled (Hop), or rolled (Spicebush), or ~bent angularly
(Buckwheat), or folded (Cruciferae). In the last case

61, 62.] THE SEED. 73

two modes are to be specially noticed. 1. Incumbent,
when the cotyledons fold over so as to bring the back
of one against the radicle (Shepherd's Purse) ; 2. Ac-
cumbent, when the edges touch the radicle (Arabis) .

184. A few plants, as the Onion, Orange, and Coniferse, occasionally have
two or even several embryos in a seed ; while all the Cryptogamia or flower-
less plants have no embryo at all, nor even seeds, but are reproduced from
spores — bodies analogous to the pollen-grains of flowering plants (217).

185. Vitality of the seed. — After the embryo has
reached its growth in the ripened seed, it becomes
suddenly inactive, yet still alive. In this condition it
is, in fact, a living plant, safely packed and sealed up
for transportation. This suspended vitality of the seed
may endure for years, or even, in some species, for
ages. The seeds of Maize and Rye have been known
to grow when 40 years old; Kidney-beans when 100;
the Raspberry after 1700 years (Lindley). Seeds of
Mountain Potentilla were known to us to germinate
after a slumber of 60 years. On the other hand, the
seeds of some species are short-lived, retaining vitality
hardly a year (Coffee, Magnolia).

186. The dispersion of seeds over wide, and often to distant regions, is
effected by special agencies, in which the highest Intelligence and Wisdom
are clearly seen. Some seeds made buoyant by means of the coma or pappus,
already mentioned, are wafted afar by the winds, beyond rivers, lakes, and
seas ; as the Thistle and Dandelion. Other seeds have wings for the same
purpose. Others are provided with hooks or barbs, by which they lay hold of
men and animals, and are thus, by unwilling agents, scattered far and wide
(Burr-seed, Tick-seed). Again : some seeds, destitute of aU such appendages,
are thrown to a distance by the sudden coiling of the elastic carpels (Touch-
me-not). The Squirting-cucumber becomes distended with water by absorp-
tion, and at length, when ripe, bursts an aperture at the base by separating
from the stem, and projects the mingled seeds and water with amazing force.

187. Rivers, streams, and ocean currents, are agents for transporting
seeds from country to country. Thus the Cocoa, and the Cashew-nut, and
the seeds of Mahogany, have been known to perform long voyages without
injury to their vitality. Squirrels laying up their winter stores in the earth ;
birds migrating from clime to clime and from island to island, in like manner
conspire to effect the same important end.

STKUCTUKAL BOTANY.

[62, 63.

CHAPTER XIII.

GEKMINATION.

188. The recommencement of growth in the seed
is called germination. It is the awakening of the
embryo from its torpor, and the beginning of develop-
ment in its parts already formed, so as to become a
plant like its parent.

218

Germination of the B-xschnut.—ZlS, Cross-section, showing the folded cotyledons. 219, The radicle
only. 220, The ascending axis, above c, appears, 221, The cotyledons expand into the primordial
leaves. 222, The first true leaves.

189. All the stages of this interesting process may be conveniently ob-
served, at any season, by an experiment. Let a few seeds, as of flax, cotton,
or wheat, be enveloped in a lock of cotton resting upon water in a bulb-
glass, and kept constantly at a proper temperature. Or, in Spring, the garden-
soil will give us examples of all kinds everywhere.

190. That the seed may begin to grow, or germi-
nate, it is first planted; or, at least, placed in contact
with warm, moist soil. Concerning the proper depth

63.]

GERMINATION.

of the planted seed, agriculturists are not agreed ; but

nature seems to indicate that no covering is needed

beyond what will secure the requisite moisture and

shade. Thus situated, the integuments gradually ab-

sorb water, soften, and expand. The insoluble, starchy

matter deposited in the cotyledons, or in the albumen,

or in both, undergoes a certain chemical change, be-

coming sweet and soluble, capa-

ble of affording nourishment to

the embryo now beginning to

dilate and develop its parts.

First (in the winged seed of the

Maple, scattered everywhere) the

radicle is seen protruding from

the micropyle, or the bursting

coverings. A section of this

seed would now show the folded

embryo, impatient of confine-

ment (225).

191. Soon after, the radicle
has extended ; and, pale in color,
has hidden itself in the dark,

damp earth. NOW the COtyledonS.

unfolding and gradually freed
from the seed-coats, display themselves at length as a
pair of green leaves. Lastly, the plumule appears in open
air, a green bud, already showing a lengthening base,
its first internode, and soon a pair of regular leaves,
lobed as all Maple-leaves. The embryo is now an em-
bryo no longer, but a growing plant, descending by its
lower axis, ascending and expanding by its upper.

192. With equal advantage we may watch the ger-
mination of the Beech, represented in the figures

Germination of Wheat. — o, the grain,
containing the cotyledon ; c, plumule ;
r, radicle ; «, rootlets (adventitious).

STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

[63, 64.

above; or of the Oak, as displayed in figures 1, 2, 3,
4 ; or the Pea, or Squash, and other Dicotyledons ; and
the chief difference observed among them will be in
the disposal of the cotyledons. In general, these arise
with the ascending axis, as in Maple and Bean, and
act as the first pair of leaves. But sometimes, when
they are very thick, as in Pea, Buckeye, and Oak, they
never escape the seed-coats, but remain and perish at
the collum (§ 199), neither ascending nor descending.

£35

Germination of the Maple.— "22,5, Samara ; section showing the folded cotyledons at c. 226-230, Pro-
gressive stages.

193. The germination of MONOCOTYLEDONS, as seen
in Indian Corn, Wheat, and Tulip, is in this wise. The
cotyledon is not disengaged from the seed, but remains
stationary with it. The radicle (r) protrudes slightly,
and one or more rootlets (s) break out from it and
descend. The plumule (c) shoots at first parallel with
the cotyledon along the face of the seed, but soon
ascends, pushing out leaf from within leaf.

194. The conditions requisite for germination are

64, 65.]

GERMINATION

moisture, air, and warmth. Moisture is necessary for
softening the integuments, dissolving the nutritive
matter, and facilitating its circulation. This is sup-
plied in the rain and dew. Air, or rather its oxygen,
is required for the con-
version of the starch into
sugar — a process always
depending upon oxidation.
The oxygen absorbed
unites with a portion of
the carbon of the starch,
producing heat, evolving
carbon dioxide, and thus
converting the remainder
into grape-sugar, soluble
and nutritive.

195. Warmth is a req-
uisite condition of all vital
action, as well in the
sprouting of a seed as in
the hatching of an egg.

The proper degree of temperature for our own climate
may be stated at 60° to 90°. Extremes of heat and
of cold are not, however, fatal to all germination. In
one of the Geysers of Iceland, which was hot enough
to boil an egg in four minutes, a species of Chara was
found in a growing and fruitful state. The hot springs
and pools of San Bernardino, California, at the con-
stant heat of 190°, have several species of plants grow-
ing within their waters. Many species also arise and
flower in the snows of Mt. Hood, along their lower
borders. Darkness is favorable to germination, as
proved by experiment, but not an indispensable condi-

231, 232, Germination of Indian Corn.

STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

[65, 66.

tion. Hence, while the seed should be covered, for the
sake of the moisture and shade, the covering should
be thin and light, for the sake of a free access to air.

196. The cause of the downward tendency of the root is a theme of much
discussion. Some have referred it to the principle of gravitation ; others to
its supposed aversion to light. But it is a simple and satisfactory explanation
that its growth or cell-development takes place most readily on the moist side
of its growing-point, and consequently in a downward direction, so long as the
soil in contact with its lower surface is more moist than that above. Hence,
also, the well-known tendency of roots toward springs and water-courses.

CHAPTER XIV.

THE ROOT, OR DESCENDING AXIS.

197. The Root is the basis of the plant, and the
principal organ of nutrition. It originates with the

£33

233, White Clover— an axial root (with minute tubers). 234, Buttercups— fibrous roots, inaxial. 235, Eri-

genia — root tuberous.

radicle of the seed, the tendency of its growth is down-
ward, and it is generally immersed in the soil. Its

66, 67.]

THE ROOT.

office is twofold ; viz., to support the plant in its posi-
tion, and to imbibe from the soil the food necessary to
the growth of the plant.

198. The leading propensity of the root is to divide
itself; and its only normal appendages are branches,
branchlets, fibers, and fibrillse, which are multiplied to
an indefinite extent, corresponding with the multipli-
cation of the leaves, twigs, etc.,

above. This at once insures a firm
hold upon the earth, and brings a
large absorbing surface in contact
with the moist soil.

199. The summit of the root,
or that place where the root meets
the stem, is called the collum ; the
remote, opposite extremities of the
fine rootlets, or fibers, are covered
by dry, protective cells, forming a
root-cap ; the sides of these fibers
are chiefly active in absorbing
liquid nourishment, and are mostly
covered by root-hairs, which in-
crease their absorbing surface. The hairs arise from
the tender epidermis or skin, and perish when that
thickens into bark. They are developed and perish
annually with the leaves, whose servants they are.
Few of them remain after the fall of the leaf. This
fact plainly indicates that the proper time for trans-
planting trees or shrubs is the late Autumn, Winter,
or early Spring, when there are but few tender fibrillae
to be injured.

200. Two modes of root-development are definitely
distinguished. First, the AXIAL MODE is that where

236, Extremity of a rootlet of Ma-
e, with its hairs and root -cap (a)

80 STEUCTUKAL BOTANY. [67, 68.

•the primary, simple radicle, in growing, extends itself
downward in a main body more or less branched,
continuous with the stem, and forms the permanent
root of the plant. Such is the case with the Maple,
Mustard, Beet, and most of the Dicotyledonous Plants
(§ 183).

201. Secondly, the DIFFUSE development is that
where the primary radicle proves abortive, never
developing into an axial root ; but, growing lat-
erally only, it sends out little shoots from its sides,
which grow into long, slender roots, nearly equal
in value, none of them continuous with the stem.
Of this nature are the roots of all the Grasses,
the Lilies, and the Monocotyledons generally, and of
the Cryptogamia. Plants raised from layers, cuttings,
tubers, and slips are necessarily destitute of the axial
root.

202. The various forms of the root are naturally
and conveniently referred to these two modes of devel-
opment. The principal axial forms are the ramous,
fusiform, napiform, and conical. To all these forms
the general name tap-root is applied. The ramous is
the woody tap-root of most trees and shrubs, where
the main root branches extensively, and is finally dis-
solved and lost in multiplied ramifications.

203. Tuberous tap-roots. — In herbaceous plants
the tap-root often becomes thick and fleshy, with com-
paratively few branches. This tendency is peculiarly
marked in biennials (§ 41), where the root serves as a
reservoir of the superabundant food which the plant
accumulates during its first year's growth, and keeps
in store against the exhausting process of fruit-bearing
in its second year. Such is the Fusiform (spindle-

68, 69.] THE EOOT. 81

shaped) root — thick, succulent, tapering downward,
and also for a short space upward. Beet, Radish, and
Ginseng are examples. The Conical root tapers all
the way from the collum downward (Carrot). The
Napiform (turnip-shaped) swells out in its upper part
so that its breadth equals or exceeds its length, as in
Erigenia (233) and Turnip (239).

237, Maple — an axial, ramous root. 238, Parsnip — a fusiform root. 239, Turnip — a napiform root. 240,
Corallorhiza— a coralline root.

204. The forms of diffuse roots are fibrous, fibro-
tuberous, tubercular, coralline, nodulous, and monili-
form. The fibrous root consists of numerous thread-
like divisions, sent off directly from the base of the
stem, with no main or tap-root. Such are the roots of
most Grasses, which multiply their fibers excessively
in light sandy soils. Fibro-tuberous roots (or fascicu-
late) are so called when some of the fibers are thick
and fleshy, as in the Asphodel, Crowfoot, Paeony,
Orchis, and Dahlia. When the fiber is enlarged in
certain parts only, it is nodulous; and when the en-
largements occur at regular intervals, it is moniliform

STRUCTUEAL BOTANY.

[69, 70.

and

(necklace-like). When it bears little tubers here
there, as in Squirrel-corn, it is tubercular.

205. Deposits of starch, or farinaceous matter, in
all these cases, constitute the thickening substance of
the root, stored up for the future use of the plant.

214

241, Paeony — fibro-tuberous roots. 242, Ginseng — fusiform root. 243, Pelargonium triste — moniliform
root. 244, Spirea filipendula— nodulous root. 245, A creeping stem, with adventitious roots.

206. Adventitious roots are such, as originate in some part of the
ascending axis — stem or branches— whether above or below the ground.
They are so called because their origin is indeterminate, both in place and
time. Several special forms should be noticed; as the cirrhous roots of certain
climbing vines (European Ivy, Poison Ivy, Trumpet-creeper) put forth in great
numbers from the stem, serving for its mechanical support and no other
known use. Again : the Fulcra of certain Monocotyledonous plants originate
high up the stem, and descending obliquely enter the ground. The Indian
Corn frequently puts forth such roots from its lower joints, and thereby be-
comes strongly braced. The Screw Pine (Pandanus) of the conservatories
puts forth fulcra often several feet in length.

207. The Banian Tree (Mcus Indicus) drops " adventitious " roots from
its extended branches, which, reaching and entering the ground, grow to sup-
porting cohimns, like secondary trunks. Thus a single tree becomes at length
a grove capable of sheltering an army.

208. Epiphytes (err/, upon, <t>vr6v, a plant), a class of
plants, called also air-plants, have roots which are
merely mechanical, serving to fix such plants firmly
upon other plants or trees, while they derive their

70.]

THE BOOT.

nourishment wholly from the air. The Long-moss
(Tillandsia) and Conopseum are examples.

247, Old Oak trunk with horizontal branch bearing epiphytes and para-
sites, a, A fern (Polypodium incanum). b, Epidendrum conopseum. oc,
Long-moss (Tillandsia). d, Mistletoe (Viscum). e, Lichen.

209. Parasites — Three classes. Very
different in nature are the roots of
those plants called parasites, which feed
upon the juices of other plants or trees.
Such roots penetrate the bark of the nurse-plant to
the cambium layer beneath, and appropriate the stolen
juices to their own growth ; as the Dodder and Mistle-
toe. Other parasites, although standing in the soil, are
fixed upon foreign roots, and thence derive either their
entire sustenance, as the Beech-drops and other leaf-
less, colorless plants, or a part of their sustenance, as
the Cow-wheat (Melampyrum) and Gerardia.

210. Subterranean stems. —As there are aerial roots, so there are sub-
terranean stems. These are frequently mistaken for roots, but may be known
by their habitually and regularly producing buds. Of this nature are the
tubers of the Irish Potato, the rootstock of the Sweet-flag, the bulb of the
Tulip. But even the true root may sometimes develop buds — accidentally as
it were — in consequence of some injury to the upper axis, or some other
unnatural condition.

STEUCTUBAL BOTANY.

[71.

CHAPTER XV.

THE STEM, OK ASCENDING AXIS.

211. The general idea of the Axis is this: the cen-
tral substantial portion of the plant, bearing the
appendages, viz., roots below, and the leaf-organs
above. The Ascending Axis is that which originates
with the plumule, tends upward in its growth, and
expands itself to the influence of the air and the light.

248, Procumbent stem— Chiogenes hispidula.

212. Although the first direction of the stem's
growth is vertical in all plants, there are many in
which this direction does not continue, but changes
into the oblique or horizontal, either just above the

249, Decumbent stem— Anagallis arvensis.

surface of the ground, or just beneath it. If the stem
continues to arise in the original direction, as it most
commonly does, it is said to be erect. If it grow
along the ground without rooting, it is said to be pro-

71, 72.] THE STEM. 85

cumbentj prostrate, trailing. If it recline upon the
ground after having at the base arisen somewhat
above it, it is decumbent. If it arise obliquely from a
prostrate base, it is said to be assurgent ; and if it
continue buried beneath the soil, it is subterranean.
Such stems, although buried like roots, may readily be
known by their buds, as already explained (§ 210).

213. Stems are either simple or branched. The
simple stem is produced by the unfolding of the pri-
mary bud (the plumule) in the direction of its point
alone. As this bud is developed below into the length-
ening stem, it is continually reproduced at its summit,
and so is always borne at the termination of the stem.
Hence the axis is always terminated by a bud.

214. -The Branching Stem, which is by far the most
common, is produced by the development of both ter-
minal and axillary buds. The axis produces a bud in
the axil of its every leaf ; that is, at a point just above
the origin of the leaf-stalk. These buds remain in-
active in the case of the simple stem, as the Mullein;
but jnore generally are developed into leafy subdivis-
ions of the axis, and the stem thus becomes branched.
A Branch is, therefore, a division of the axis produced
by the development of an axillary bud. It repeats the
internal structure of the stem, but is sometimes pe-
culiar in being bilaterally symmetrical or having its
upper and under surfaces unlike.

215. The Arrangement of the Branches upon the
stem, depends, therefore, upon the arrangement of the
leaves ; which will be more particularly noticed here-
after. This arrangement is beautifully regular, accord-
ing to established laws. In this place we briefly notice
three general modes. . The Alternate arrangement is

86 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [72,73.

where but one branch arises from each joint (node) on
different sides of the stem, as in the Elm. The Oppo-
site is where two branches stand on opposite sides of
the same node, as in Maple. The Verticillate is where
three or more branches, equidistant, encircle the stem
at each node, as in the Pine. Dichotomous branching
is where a main or secondary axis forks into two
equal divisions, as often occurs in Flowerless Plants.

216. Some plants produce adventitious roots which
may become independent. Nurserymen in this way
propagate scions, suckers, stolons, offsets, slips, layers,
cuttings, and runners. The Sucker is a branch issuing
from some underground portion of the plant, leaf-
bearing above and sending out roots from its own
base, becoming finally a separate, independent plant.
The Rose and Raspberry are thus multiplied.

250, a. Slip (Gooseberry) taking root. 6, Cutting (Grape) taking root, c, Stolons or layers artificially
arranged for propagation, d, A mode of dwarfing ; the vessel, », is filled with soil, e, Scions ; process of
grafting. /, A sucker.

217. The Stolon, or Layer, is a branch issuing from
some above-ground portion of the stem, and afterward
declining to the ground, taking root at or near its ex-
tremity, sending up new shoots, and becoming a new

•73, 74.]

THE STEM.

plant. The Hobble-bush and Black-raspberry do this
naturally, and gardeners imitate the process in many
plants.

218. The Scion is any healthy twig or branchlet
bearing one or more buds, used by the gardeners in
the common process of grafting. Slips and cuttings
are fragments of ordinary branches or stems, consist-
ing of young wood bearing one or more buds. These
strike root when planted in the ground. So the Grape-
vine and Hop. The Offset is merely a scion severed
from the parent and set in the ground to strike root.

219. The Runner is a prostrate, filiform branch,
issuing from certain short-stemmed herbs, extending
itself along the surface of the ground, striking root at
its end without being buried. Thence leaves arise, and
a new plant, which in turn sends out new runners, as
in the Strawberry.

251, A Strawberry plant (Fragarfe vesca) sending out a runner.

220. The Node, or joint of the stem, marks a defi-
nite point of a peculiar organization, where the leaf
with its axillary bud arises. The nodes occur at regu-
lar intervals, and the spaces between them are termed
INTERNODES. They provide for the symmetrical arrange-
ment of the leaves and branches of the stem. In the

88 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [73-75.

root no such provision is made, and the branches have
a less definite arrangement. Now the growth of the
stem consists in the development of the internodes.
In the bud, the nodes are closely crowded together,
with no perceptible internodes ; thus bringing the rudi-
mentary leaves in close contact with each other. But
in the stem, which is afterward evolved from that bud,
we see full-grown leaves separated by considerable
spaces. That is, while leaves are developed from the
rudiments, internodes are pushed out from the grow-
ing point.

221. There are, however, many species of plants,
especially of herbs, in which the axis of the primary
bud does not develop into internodes at all, or but par-
tially in various degrees. See the axis of Trillium,
Onion, and Bloodroot. Such stems seldom appear
above-ground. They are subterranean. This fact
makes a wide difference in the forms of stems, and nat-
urally separates them into two great divisions — viz.,
the Leaf-bearing Stems and the Scaled-bearing Stems.

CHAPTER XYI.

FORMS OF THE LEAF-BEARING STEMS.

222. The leaf-bearing stems are those forms which,
with internodes fully developed, rise into the air
crowned with leaves. The principal forms are the
caulis, culm, trunk, caudex, and vine. They are either
herbaceous or woody. Herbaceous stems bear fruit but
one season and then perish, at least down to the root,
scarcely becoming woody ; as seen in Mustard, Radish,

75, 76.] FORMS OF THE LEAF-BEARING STEMS. 89

and Grasses. But woody stems survive the Winter,

and often become firm and solid in substance in after
years ; as do all the forest trees.

254

252, Scale-stem (Dicentra cucullaria). 253, A flower of the same. 254, A flower of D. Canadensis.
255, Leaf-stem (Chimaphila maculata).

223. CAULIS is a term generally applied to the
annual leafy stems of herbaceous plants. "Haulm "is
a term used in England with the same signification.
Caulescent and acaulescent are convenient terms, the
former denoting the presence, and the latter the ab-
sence of the caulis or aerial stem.

224. THE CULM is the stem of the Grasses and the
Sedges, generally jointed, often hollow, rarely becom-
ing woody; as in Cane and Bamboo.

225. THE TRUNK is the name of the peculiar stems
of arborescent plants. It is the central column or axis

STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

[76, 77.

which supports their branching tops and withstands
the assaults of the wind by means of the great firm-
ness and strength of the woody or ligneous tissue with
which it abounds. The trunk is usually seen simple
and columnar below, for a certain space, then variously
dividing itself into branches. Here it is cylindrical,
straight, and erect, as in the Forest Pine ; prismatic
often, as in the Gum-tree ; gnarled and curved, as in
the Oak ; or inclined far over its base, as in the Syca-
more.

S B E

256, 5, Spruce. B, Beech. E, Elm ; to illustrate excurrent and deliquescent axis.

226. In dividing itself into branches, we observe
two general modes, with their numerous variations,
strikingly characterizing the tree forms. In the one,
named by Lindley the EXCURRENT, the trunk, from the
superior vigor of its terminal bud, takes precedence of

77.] FORMS OF THE LEAF-BEARING STEMS. 91

the branches, and runs through to the summit, as in
the Beech, Birch, Oak, and especially in the -Spruce —
trees with oval or pyramidal forms. But in the other,
the DELIQUESCENT AXIS, as seen in the Elm and Apple-
tree, the trunk suddenly divides into several subequal
branches, which thence depart with different degrees
of divergency, giving the urn form to the Elm, the
rounded form to the Apple-tree, the depressed form to
the Sloe-tree (Viburnum) and Dogwood.

227. CAUDEX is a term now applied to the peculiar trunk of the Palms
and Tree-ferns, simple, branchless columns, or rarely dividing in advanced
age. It is produced by the growth of the terminal bud alone, and its sides
are marked by the scars of the fallen leaf -stalks of former years, or are yet
covered by their persistent bases. Tln.^ stock or caudex of the cactus tribe is
extraordinary in form and substance. It is often jointed, prismatic, branched,
always greenish, fleshy, and full of a watery juice. Instead of leaves, its lat-
eral buds develop spines only, the stem itself performing the functions of
leaves. These plants abound in the warm regions of tropical America, and
afford a cooling acid beverage to the thirsty traveler when springs dry up
under the torrid sun.

228. THE VINE is either herbaceous or woody. It is
a stem too slender and weak to stand erect, but trails
along the ground, or any convenient support. Some-
times, by means of special organs for this purpose,
called tendrils, it ascends trees and other objects to a
great height ; as the Grape, Gourd, and other climb-
ing vines.

229. The twining vine having also a length greatly disproportioned to its
diameter, supports itself on other plants or objects by entwining itself around
them, being destitute of tendrils. Thus the Hop ascends into the air by for-
eign aid, and it is a curious fact that the direction of its winding is always
the same, viz., with the sun, from left to right; nor can any artificial training
induce it to reverse its course. This is a general law among twining stems.
Every individual plant of the same species revolves in the same direction,
although opposite directions may characterize different species. Thus the
Morning-Q-lory revolves always against the sun,

92 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [78.

CHAPTER XVII.

FORMS OF SCALE-BEARING STEMS.

230. The Scale-bearing stems are those forms
which, with internodes partially or not at all developed,
and generally clothed with scales for leaves, scarcely
emerge from the soil. They are the creeper and rhi-
zoma (developed), the crown, tuber, corm, and bulb
(undeveloped). Their forms are singular, often dis-
torted in consequence of their underground growth and
the unequal development of the internodes. They
commonly belong to perennial herbs, and the principal
forms are described as follows ; but intermediate con-
necting forms are very numerous, and often perplexing.

257, Creeper of " Nimble Will " or Witch-grass ; a, Bud ; bb, bases of culms.

231. THE CREEPER is either subaerial or subterra-
nean. In the former case, it is prostrate, running and
rooting at every joint, and hardly distinguishable other-
wise from leafy stems ; as the Twin-flower, the Par-
tridge-berry. In the latter case, it is more commonly
clothed with scales, often branching extensively, root-
ing at the nodes, exceedingly tenacious of life, extend-

78,79.] FORMS OF SCALE-BEARING STEMS. 93

ing horizontally in all directions beneath the soil,
annually sending up from its terminal buds erect stems
into the air. The Witch-grass is an example. Such
plants are a sore evil to the garden. They can have
no better cultivation than to be torn and cut to pieces
by the spade of the angry gardener, since they are
thus multiplied as many times as there are fragments.

232. Repent stems of this kind are not, however, without their use. They
frequently abound in loose, sandy soil, which they serve to bind and secure
against the inroads of the water and even the sea itself. Holland is said to
owe its very existence to the repent stems of such plants as the Mat-grass
(Arundo arenaria), Carex arenaria, and Elymus arenarius, which overrun the
artificial dykes upon its shores, and by their innumerable roots and creepers
apparently bind the loose sand into a firm barrier against the washing of the
waves. So the turf, chiefly composed of repent Grass-stems, forms the only
security of our own sandy or clayey hills against the washing rains.

258, Rhizoma of Solomon's Seal (Polygonatum multiflorum). a, Fragment of the first year's growth ;
b, the second year's growth ; c, growth of the third year ; d, growth of the present (fourth) year, bearing
the stem, which, on decaying, will leave a scar (seal) like the rest. 259, Premorse root of Trillium erectum.

233. THE RHIZOME, or ROOT-STOCK, differs from the
creeper only in being shorter and thicker, having its
internodes but partially developed. It is a prostrate,
fleshy, rooting stem, either wholly or partially subter-
ranean, often scaly with the bases of undeveloped
leaves, or marked with the scars of former leaves, and
yearly producing new shoots and roots. Such is the
fleshy, horizontal portion of the Blood-root, Sweet-flag,
Water-lily, and Bramble (the latter hardly different
from the creeper).

STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

[79, 80.

234. The growth of the rhizome is instructive, marking its peculiar character.
Each joint marks the growth of a year. In Spring, the terminal bud unfolds
into leaves and flowers, to perish in Autumn — a new bud to open the follow-
ing Spring, and a new internode, with its roots, to abide several years. The
number of joints indicates, not the age of the plant, but the destined age of
each internode. Thus if there are three joints, we infer that they are trien-
nial, perishing after the third season, while the plant still grows on.

235. THE PRJEMORSE ROOT, or ROOT-STOCK, is short,
erect, ending abruptly below, as if bitten square off
(praemorsus). This is mostly owing to the death of
the earlier and lower internodes in succession, as in
the horizontal rhizome. The root of Scabious and the
rhizomes of Viola pedata and Benjamin-root are ex-
amples.

Tubers as they grow.— 280, The common Potato (Solanum). 261, Artichoke (Helianthus). 262, Sweet

Potato (Convolvulus).

236. CROWN OF THE ROOT designates a short stem
with condensed internodes, remaining upon some per-
ennial roots, at or beneath the surface-soil, after the
leaves and annual stems have perished.

237. THE TUBER is an annual thickened portion of
a subterranean stem or branch, provided with latent

80, 81.]

FOKMS OF SCALE-BEAKING STEMS.

buds called eyes, from which new plants ensue the
succeeding year. It is the fact of its origin with the
ascending axis, and the production of buds, that places
the tuber among stems instead of roots. The Potato
and Artichoke are examples.

238. The stem of the Potato-plant sends out roots from its base, and
branches above, like other plants ; but we observe that its branches have two
distinct modes of development. Those branches which rise into the air,
whether issuing from the above-ground or the under-ground portion of the
stem, expand regularly into leaves, etc. ; while those lower branches which
continue to grope in the dark, damp ground, cease at length to elongate,
swell up at the ends into tubers with developed buds and abundance of nutri-
tious matter in reserve for renewed growth the following year.

265

£63

263, Conns of Putty-root (A plectrum) ; a, of last year — 6, of the present year. 264, Scale-bulb of White
Lily. 265, Scale-bulb of Oxalis violacea.

.239. THE COKM is an under-ground, solid, fleshy
stem, with condensed internodes, never extending, but
remaining of a rounded form covered with thin scales.
It is distinguished from roots by its leaf-bud, which is
either borne at the summit, as in the Crocus, or at the
side, as in the Colchicum and Putty-root (Aplectrum).
240. THE BULB partakes largely of the nature of
the bud. It consists of a short, dilated axis, bearing
an oval mass of thick, fleshy scales, closely packed

STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

[81, 82.

above, a circle of adventitious roots around its base,
and a flowering stem from the terminal or a lateral bud.

241. How multiplied. — Bulbs are renewed or multiplied annually at the
approach of Winter by the development of bulbs from the axils of the scales,
which increase at the expense of the

old, and ultimately become detached.
Bulbs which flower from the terminal
bud are necessarily either annual or bi-
ennial ; those flowering from an axillary '
bud may be perennial, as the terminal
bud may in this case continue to de-
velop new scales indefinitely.

242. Bulbs are said to be

tunicated when they consist 2C6,BuibofLiimm

* & rhizome ; a, full grown bulb sending up a ter-

of concentric layers, each en- ^talyfaerm C) and two offsets 66) for the bulbs of
tire and inclosing all within

it, as in the Onion. But the more common variety is
the scaly bulb — consisting of fleshy, concave scales,
arranged spirally upon the axis, as in the Lily

243. The tuber, corm, and bulb are analogous forms approaching by
degrees to the character of the bud, which consists of a little axis bearing a
covering of scales. In the tuber, the axis is excessively developed, while the
scales are reduced to mere linear points. In the corm the analogy is far more
evident, for the axis is less excessive and the scales more manifest; and
lastly, in the bulb the analogy is complete, or overdone, 'the scales often be-
coming excessive.

270

267, Corm of Crocus, with new ones forming above. 268, Vertical section of the same. 269, Section of
bulb of Hyacinth, with terminal scape and axillary bulblet. 270, Section of bulb of Oxalis violacea, with
axillary scapes.

82, 83.]

THE LEAF-BUD.

CHAPTER XVIII.

THE LEAF-BUD.

244. It is but a step from the study of the bulb to
that of the leaf-bud. Buds are of two kinds in respect
to their contents — the leaf-bud contain-
ing the rudiments of a leafy stem or

branch, the flower-bud containing the
same elements transformed into the
nascent organs of a flower for the
purpose of reproduction.

245. The leaf-bud consists of a
brief, cone-shaped axis with a tender
growing point, bearing a protecting
covering of imbricated scales and in-
cipient leaves.

246. The leafy nature of the scales
is evident from a careful inspection of
such buds as those of the Rose, Cur-
rant, Tulip-tree, when they are swollen
or bursting in Spring. The student
will notice a gradual change from the
outer scales to the evident leaves or
stipules within, as seen in Fig. 273. As
a further protection against frost and
rain, we find the scales sometimes

271

171, Branch of Pear-
tree. The terminal bud a,
having been destroyed, an
.,-!-,. , . axillary bud supplied its

clothed with hairs, sometimes var- Piace, and formed the *»«

• i -, .., . „,, . . -, , 6. c, Thickened branch

msned with resin. This is abundant with flower-buds;* branch

-, ... ., TT PIT with leaf -buds. 272, t, sec

and very aromatic in the buds of the tion of terminal bud ; ?, of
Balm-of-Gilead and other Poplars.

247. In regard to position, buds are either terminal
or axillary, a distinction already noticed. Axillary

98 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [83,84.

buds are especially noted as being either active or
latent. In the former case they are unfolded into
branches at once, or in the Spring following their
formation. But latent buds suspend their activities
from year to year, or perhaps are never quickened
into growth. Axillary buds become terminal so soon
as their development fairly commences ; therefore
each branch also has a terminal bud, and, like the

273, Bud of Currant unfolding, — the scales gradually becoming leases. 2"4, Bud of Tulip-tree,— the scales

unfolding into stipules.

main axis, is capable of extending its growth as long
as that bud remains unharmed. If it be destroyed by
violence or frost, or should it be transformed into a
flower-bud, the growth in that direction forever
ceases.

248. The suppression of axillary buds tends to
simplify the form of the plant. Their total suppres-
sion during the first year's growth of the terminal
bud is common, as in the annual stem of Mullein and
in most perennial stems. When axillary buds remain
permanently latent, and only the terminal bud unfolds
year after year, a simple, branchless trunk, crowned

83-85.]

THE LEAF-BUD.

with a solitary tuft of leaves, is the result, as in the
Palmetto of our southern borders.

249. A partial suppression of buds occurs in almost all species, and gen-
erally in some definite order. In plants with, opposite leaves, sometimes one
bud of the pair at each node is developed and the other is suppressed, as in
the Pink tribe. When both buds are developed, the branches, appearing in
pairs like arms, are said to be brachiate, as in the Labiates, In many trees
the terminal buds are arrested by inflo-
rescence each season, and the growth

is continued by axillary buds alone, as
in the Catalpa and Horse-chestnut.
In all trees, indeed, buds are sup-
pressed more or less, from various
causes, disguising at length, the in-
tended symmetry of the branches, to
the utter confusion of twigs and spray.

250. Accessory Ituds, one
or more, are sometimes
found just above the true
axillary bud, or clustered
with it, and only distin-
guished from it by their
smaller size ; as in the
Cherry and Honeysuckle.

251. Adventitious or ac-
cidental buds are such as
are neither terminal nor

275

276

275, Hypericnm Savothra, with brachiate
branches. 276, Pink (Dianthus)— axillary buds

axillary. They occasionally "

appear on any part of the plant in the internodes of
the stem or branches, on the root or even the leaves.
Such buds generally result from some abnormal con-
dition of the plant, from pruning or other destruction
of branches or stem above, while the roots remain in
full vigor ; thus destroying the equilibrium of vital
force between the upper and lower axis. The leaf of
the Walking-fern emits rootlets and buds at its apex ;
the leaf of Bryophyllum from its margin, each bud

100 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [85.

here also preceded by a rootlet. Some plants are thus
artificially propagated in conservatories from the influ-
ence of heat and moisture on a leaf or the fragment
of a leaf, as Begonia.

252. Vernation or praefoliation are terms denoting
the mode of arrangement and folding of the leaf
organs composing the bud. This arrangement is defi-
nitely varied in different orders of plants, furnishing
useful distinctions in systematic botany. It may be
studied to excellent advantage by making with a keen
instrument a cross-section of the bud in its swollen
state, just before expansion ; or it may be well ob-
served by removing one by one the scales. The Forms
of Vernation are entirely analogous to those of ^Esti-
vation, and denoted by similar terms.

253. Vernation is considered in two different as-
pects— first, the manner in which the leaf itself is
folded ; second, the arrangement of the leaves in re-
spect to each other. This depends much upon the
Phyllotaxy. (§ 261.)

288

Vernation, 277, of Oak leaf ; 278, of Liriodendron (Tulip-tree). 279, of Fern ; 280, of Carex ; 281, Sage ;

282, Iris.

254. Each leaf considered alone is either flat and
open, as in the Mistletoe, or it is folded or rolled, as
follows : viz., Reclined, when folded crosswise, with
apex bent over forward toward the base, as in the
Tulip-tree ; Conduplicate, when folded perpendicularly,

85, 86.]

THE LEAF-BUD.

with the lateral halves brought together face to face,
as in the Oak ; 'Plaited, or Plicate, each leaf folded
like a fan, as in Birch.

255. Circinate implies that each leaf is rolled or
coiled downward from the apex, as in Sundew and
the Ferns.

256. The Convolute leaf is wholly rolled up from
one of its sides, as in the Cherry ; while the Involute
has both its edges rolled inward, as in Apple, Violet ;
and the Revolute has both margins rolled outward and
backward, as in the

Dock, Willow, Rosemary.

Vernation, 283, of Birch leaf ; 284, of Lilac (imbricate) ; 285, Cheny leaves (convolute) ; 286, Dock bud
(revolute) ; 287, Balm of Gilead (involute).

257. The general vernation is loosely distinguished
in descriptive botany as valvate (edges meeting), and
imbricate (edges overlapping), terms to be noticed
hereafter. The valvate more often occurs in plants
with opposite leaves ; as in the St. John's-wort family,
Hypericum Sarothra (275).

258. Imbricate vernation is Equitant (riding astrad-
dle), when conduplicate leaves alternately embrace —
the outer one the next inner by its unfolded margins,
as in the Privet and Iris (282). It is Obvolute when
it is half-equitant ; that is, the outer leaf embraces
only one of the margins of the inner, as in the Sage
(281). Again, it is Triquetrous where the bud is tri-
angular in section and the leaves equitant at each
angle, as in the Sedges (280).

STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

[86, 87.

259. The principle of budding. — Each leaf-bud
may be regarded as a dis-
tinct individual, capable

of vegetating either in its
native position, or when
removed to another, as is
extensively practiced in
the important operation
of budding.

260. Bulblets. — In the Tiger-lily,
also in Cicuta bulbif era, and Aspidium
bulbiferum, the axillary buds sponta- m 290, showing the process

of "budding."'

neously detach themselves, fall to the

ground, and become new plants. These remarkable

little bodies are called bulblets.

CHAPTER XIX.

PHYLLOTAXY, OR LEAF-ARRANGEMENT.

261. As the position of the leaf upon the stem
marks the position of the axillary bud, it follows that
the order of the leaf-arrangement will be the order of
the branches also. Phyllotaxis, or leaf-arrangement
(from 0i5AAov, leaf, rdfa, order), depends chiefly on the
mode of origin of the leaves at the apex of growth,
and on the subsequent elongation and twisting of the
axis on which they grow.

262. In regard to position, leaves are radical when
they grow out of the stem at or beneath the surface
of the ground, so as to appear to grow from the roots ;
cauline, when they grow from the stem ; and ramal

87, 88.]

LEAF- ARRANGEMENT.

103

a branch), when from the branches. Their
arrangement on the axis is according to the following
general modes :

Alternate, one above another on opposite sides, as
in the Elm.

Scattered, irregularly spiral, as in the Potato vine.

Rosulate, clustered regularly, like the petals of a
Rose, as in the Plantain and Shepherd's-purse.

291, Lady's-slipper (leaves alternate); 292, Synandra grandiflora (leaves opposite) ; 294, Medeola Virginica
(leaves verticillate) ; 293, Larix Americana (leaves fasciculate).

Fasciculate, tufted, clustered many together in the
axil, as seen in the Pine, Larch, Berberry.

Opposite, two, against each other, at the same node.
Ex., Maple. When successive pairs of opposite leaves
cross each other at right angles, they are said to be
decussate.

Verticillate, or whorled, more than two in a circle
at each node, as in the Meadow-lily, Trumpet-weed.
We may reduce all these modes to TWO GENERAL TYPES,

104 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [88,89.

— the alternate, including all cases with one leaf at
each node ; the opposite, including cases with two or
more leaves at each node.

263. The character of the alternate type of leaf-
arrangement is sometimes represented by a spiral,
which was at one time supposed to be invariable.
This generating spiral, as it was called, is illustrated
by Figures 295-300. Take a straight leafy shoot or
stem of the Elm or Flax, or any other plant with seem-
ingly scattered leaves, and beginning with the lowest
leaf, pass a thread to the next above, thence to the
next in the same direction, and so on by all the
leaves to the top ; the thread will form a regular
spiral.

264. The Elm cycle. — In the strictly alternate
arrangement (Elm, Linden, Grasses) the spiral thread
makes one complete circuit and commences a new one
at the third leaf. The third leaf stands over the first,
the fourth over the second, and so on, forming two
vertical rows of leaves. Here (calling each complete
circuit a cycle) we observe, first, that this cycle is
composed of two leaves ; second, that the angular
distance between its leaves is ^ a circle (180°) ;
third, if we express this cycle mathematically by J,
the numerator (1) will denote the turns or revolu-
tions, the denominator (2) its leaves, and the frac-
tion itself the angular distance between the leaves
(i of 360°).

265. The Alder cycle. — In the Alder, Birch, Sedges,
etc., the cycle is not complete until the fourth leaf is
reached. The fourth leaf stands over the first, the
fifth over the second, etc., forming three vertical rows.
Here call the cycle % ; 1 denotes the turns, 3 the

LEAF-ARRANGEMENT.

105

leaves, and the fraction itself the angular distance
(i of 360°).

266. The Cherry cycle. — In the Cherry, Apple,
Peach, Oak, Willow, etc., neither the third nor the
fourth leaf, but the sixth, stands over the first; and
in order to reach it the thread makes two turns
around the stem. This arrangement is very frequent ;
but more or less disguised by the torsions which the
axis experiences in process of growth.

295

295, 296, 297, Showing the course of the spiral thread and the order of the leaf-succession in the axes of
Elm, Alder, and Cherry. 298, Axis of Osage-orange with a/section of the bark peeled, displaying the order
of the leaf-scars (cycle %).

rith a/s

267. In the Osage-orange, the Holly, and some
other plants, the attempt has been .made to find
spirals of a higher order.

268. In the leaves of House-leek and the cones of
Pine-trees the number of members is very large.

269. The common arrangement is represented by
a series of fractions, each fraction indicating the pro-
portion borne by the angular divergence to the entire
circumference. Thus |, for the Cherry, indicates that
the angular divergence between successive leaves i§

106

STKUCTUKAL BOTANY.

[90, 91.

two fifths of a circle, or 144°. It also shows that in
following the spiral from any particular leaf to one
directly above it, you must go round the stem twice
and pass to the fifth leaf above, and that there are
five orthostichies or vertical rows of leaves (Fig. 297).

299

299, Phyllotaxy of the cone (cycle 5\) of Finns serotina. The scales are numbered (1, 2, 3, etc.) in
order as they occur in the formative cycle. Between 1 and 22 are 8 turns and 21 scales, etc. 300,
Cherry cycle (|) as viewed from above, forming necessarily that kind of aestivation called quincuncial.

270. It is now known that the angle of divergence
varies in different regions of the same shoot ; and
that frequently a shoot beginning with a simple ar-
rangement, afterward passes on to a more compli-
cated pattern.

CHAPTER XX.

MORPHOLOGY OF THE LEAF.

271. The leaf constitutes the verdure of plants, and
is by far the most conspicuous and beautiful object in
the scenery of nature. It is also of the highest im-
portance in the vegetable economy, being the organ
of digestion and respiration. It is characterized by a

91,92.] MORPHOLOGY OF THE LEAF. 107

thin and expanded form, presenting the largest possible
surface to the action of the air and light, which agents
are indispensable to the life and increase of the plant.
The leaf may be regarded as an expansion of the
substance of the stem, extended into a broad thin
plate by means of a woody frame-work or skeleton,
connected with the inner part of the axis. The ex-
panded portion is called the lamina or blade of the
leaf, and it is either sessile, that is, attached to the
stem by its base, or it is petiolate, attached to the
stem by a footstalk called the petiole.

272. The regular petiole very often bears at its
base a pair of leaf-like appendages, more or less ap-
parent, called stipules. Leaves so appendaged are said
to be stipulate; otherwise they are exstipulate.

273. Therefore a complete leaf consists of three
distinct parts — the lamina or blade, the petiole, and
the stipules. These parts are subject to endless trans-
formations. Either of them may exist without the
others, or they may all be transformed into other
organs, as pitchers, spines, tendrils, and even into the
organs of the flower, as will hereafter appear.

274. The Petiole in form is rarely cylindrical, but
more generally flattened or channeled on the upper
side. When it is flattened in a vertical direction, it is
said to be compressed, as in the Aspen or Poplar. In
this case, the blade is very unstable, and agitated by
the least breath of wind. The winged petiole is flat-
tened or expanded into a margin, but laterally instead
of vertically, as in the Orange. Sometimes the margins
outrun the petioles, and extend down the stem, mak-
ing that winged, or alate, also. Such leaves are said
to be decurrent (decurro, run down). Ex., Mullein.

108 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [92.

275. The amplexicaul petiole is dilated at the base
into a margin which surrounds or clasps the stem, as
in the Umbellifers. Frequently we find the stem-
clasping margins largely developed, constituting a
sheath — with free edges in the Grasses, or closed into
a tube in the Sedges.

276. The petiole is simple in the simple leaf, but
compound or branched in the compound leaf, with as
many branches (petiolules) as there are divisions of
the lamina. A leaf is simple when its blade consists
of a single piece, however cut, cleft, or divided ; and
compound when it consists of several distinct blades,
supported by as many branches of a compound petiole.

301, Rose leaf, odd-pinnate, witb adnate stipules. 302, Violet (V. tricolor), with simple leaf (I), and free

compound stipules.

277. Stipules are certain leaf-like expansions, al-
ways in pairs, situated one on each side of the petiole
near the base. They do not occur in every plant, but
are pretty uniformly present in each species of the
same natural order. In substance and color they usu-
ally resemble the leaf ; sometimes they are colored like
the stem, often they are membranous and colorless.
In the Palmetto the leaf-base is a coarse net-work
resembling canvas.

278. Stipules are often adnate, or adherent to the
petiole, as in the Rose ; more generally they are free,

92, 93.]

MOKPHOLOGY OF THE LEAF.

109

as in the Pea and Pansy. In these cases and others
they act the part of leaves ; again they are often very
small and inconspicuous.

279. An Ochrea is a membranous sheath inclosing
the stem from the node upward, as in the Knot-grass
family (Polygonacese). It is formed of the two stipules

303, Leaf of Selinum, tripinnate, with sheathing petiole. 304, Leaf of Polygonum Pennsylvanicum,
with its ( o ) ochrea. 305, Culm of Grass, with joint ( j ), leaf ( I ), ligule ( « ). 306, Leaf of Pear-tree, with
slender stipules.

cohering by their two margins. In case the two stip-
ules cohere by their outer margin only, a double stip-
ule is formed opposite to the leaf, as in the Button-
wood. If they cohere by their inner margin, the
double stipule appears in the leaf axil, as in the Pond-
weed (Potamogeton). The Ligule of the Grasses is
generally regarded as a double axillary stipule. The
leaflets of compound leaves are sometimes furnished
with little stipules, called stipels.

280. Inter-petiolar stipules occur in a few opposite-
leaved tribes, as the Galium tribe. Here we find them
as mere bristles in Diodia, while in Galium they look
like the leaves, forming whorls. Such whorls, if. com-
plete, will be apparently 6 -leaved, consisting of two
true leaves and four stipules. But the adjacent
stipules are often united, and the whorl becomes
4-leaved, and in some the whorl is 8 -leaved.

110 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [93, 94.

281. Stipules are often fugacious, existing as scales
in the bud, and falling when the leaves expand, or
soon after, as in the Magnolia and Tulip-tree.

282. Nature of veins. — The blade of the leaf con-
sists of, (1) the frame-work, and (2) the tissue com-
monly called the parenchyma. The frame-work is
made up of the branching vessels of the footstalk,
which are woody tubes pervading the parenchyma, and
conveying nourishment to every part. Collectively,
these vessels are called veins, from the analogy of
their functions. VENATION is the division and distribu-
tion of the veins. The several organs of venation,
differing from each other only in size and position,
may be termed the midvein, veins, veinlets, and veinu-
lets. (The old terms, midrib and nerves, being ana-
tomically absurd, are here discarded.)

283. The Midvein is the principal axis of the vena-
tion, or prolongation of the petiole, running directly
through the lamina, from base to apex, as seen in the
leaf of the Oak or Birch. If there be several similar
divisions of the petiole, radiating from the base of the
leaf, they are appropriately termed Veins ; and the leaf
is said to be three-veined, five-veined, as in Maple.
The primary branches sent off from the midvein or
the veins we may term the Veinlets, and the second-
ary branches, or those sent off from the veinlets, are
the Veinulets. These also branch and subdivide until
they become too small to be seen.

284. Botanists distinguish three modes of venation,
which are in general characteristic of three Grand
Divisions of the Vegetable Kingdom — viz.:

Reticulate or Net-veined, as in the DICOTYLEDONS
(called also EXOGENS). This kind of venation is char-

94, 95.]

MORPHOLOGY OF THE LEAF.

Ill

acterized by the frequent reunion or inosculation of
its numerously branching veins, so as to form a kind
of irregular net-work.

310

Varieties of venation .— 307, Feather-veined,— leaf of Betula populifolia (White Birch), lying upon a leaf
of Plum-tree ; same venation with different outlines. 3 8, Palmate- veined, —leaf of White Maple, con-
trasted with leaf of Cercis Canadensis. 309, Parallel venation,— plant of "three-leaved Solomon's seal"
(Smilacina trifoliata). 310, Forked venation,— Climbing Fern (Lygodium).

Parallel-veined, as in the MONOCOTYLEDONS (called
also ENDOGENS). The veins, whether straight or curved,
ran parallel, or side by side, to the apex of the leaf or
to the margin, and are connected by simple transverse
veinlets hardly seen.

Fork-veined, as in the Ferns (and other CRYPTOGAMS
where veins are present at all). Here the veins divide
and subdivide in a forked manner, and do not reunite.

285. Of the Reticulate venation the student should
carefully note three leading forms : viz., The Feather-
veined (pinni-veined) leaf is that in which the venation
consists of a midvein giving off at intervals lateral
veinlets and branching veinulets, as in the leaf of

112 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [95, 96.

Beech, Chestnut. In the Radiate-veined (palmi-veined)
leaf, the venation consists of several veins of nearly
equal size radiating from the base toward the circum-
ference, each with its own system of veinlets. Ex.,
Maple, Crowfoot. Lastly, the Tripli-^veined seems to
be a form intermediate between the two former, where
the lowest pair of veinlets are conspicuously stronger
than the others, and extend with the midvein toward
the summit (see Fig. 319).

286. In parallel-veined venation the veins are either
straight, as in the linear leaf of the Grasses ; curved,
as in the oval leaf of the Orchis; or transverse, from
a rnidvein, as in the Canna, Calla, etc.

CHAPTER XXI.

MORPHOLOGY OF THE LEAF — CONTINUED.

287. That infinite variety of beautiful and graceful
forms for which the leaf is distinguished becomes
intelligible to the student only when viewed in con-
nection with its venation. Since it is through the
veins alone that nutriment is conveyed for the devel-
opment and extension of the parenchyma, it follows
that there will be the greatest extension of outline
where the veins are largest and most numerous. Con-
sequently the form of the leaf will depend upon the
direction of the veins and the vigor of their action in
developing the intervening tissue. In accordance with
this theory, leaf-forms will be classed in respect to
their venation. M

288. Feather-veined leaves. — Of these, the follow-
ing forms depend upon the length of the veinlets in

96, 97.]

MORPHOLOGY OF THE LEAF.

113

relation to each other and to the midvein. When the
lower veinlets are longer than the others, the form of
the blade will be (1) ovate, with the outline of an egg,
the broad end at the base ; (2) lanceolate, or lance-
shaped, narrower than ovate, tapering gradually up-
ward ; (3) deltoid, or triangular-shaped, like the Greek
letter A.

314

Forms of leaves.— 311, Rhododendron maximum. 312, Alnus glutinosa (cult). 313, Polygonum dum-
etorum. 314, Papaw. 315, Impatiens fulva. 316, Celtis Americana. 317, Circaea Lutetiana. 318, Cat-
mint. 319, Solidago Canadensis— a tripli-veined leaf.

289. If the middle veinlets exceed the others in
length, the leaf will be (4) orbicular, roundish, or quite
circular ; (5) elliptical, with the outline of an ellipse,
nearly twice longer than broad ; (6) oval, broadly
elliptical ; (7) oblong, narrowly elliptical.

290. When the veinlets are more largely developed
in the upper region of the leaf, its form becomes (8)
obovate, inversely ovate, the narrow end at base ; (9)
oblanceolate, that is, lanceolate with the narrow end at
base ; (10) spatulate, like a spatula, with a narrow base
and a broader, rounded apex; (11) cuneate or cunei-
form, shaped like a wedge with the point backward.

114

STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

t97, 98.

291. Again: if the lowest pair of veinlets are length-
ened and more or less recurved, the leaf will be vari-

4 6 5 7 11 10 9 8

320-330, Diagrams of pinnate-veined leaf-forms.

ously modified in respect to its base, becom-
ing (334) cordate, or heart-shaped, an ovate
outline with a sinus or re-entering angle at
base; (331) auriculate, with ear-shaped lobes
at base; (337) sagittate, arrow-shaped, with the lobes
pointed, and directed backward; (332) hastate, halbert-
shaped, the lobes directed outward.

336

Forms of leaves. — 330, Silene Virginica. 331, Magnolia Fraseri. 336, Arabis dentata. 337, Polygonum
sagittatum. 332, Hepatica acutiloba. 333, Asarum Virginicum. 334, Hydrocotyle Americana. 335, H.
umbellata.

292. Pinnatifid forms. — The following pinnate-
veined forms, approaching the compound leaf, depend
less upon the proportion of the veinlets than upon the

98.]

MORPHOLOGY OF THE LEAF.

115

relative development of the intervening tissue. The
prefix pinnate is obviously used in contrast with
palmate among palmate-veined forms.

293. Pinnatifid (pinna, feather, findo, to cleave),
feather-cleft, the tissue somewhat sharply cleft between
the veinlets about half-way to the midvein, forming
oblong segments. When the segments of a pinnatifid
leaf are pointed and curved backward, it becomes run-
cinate, i. e., re-uncinate (346). When the terminal seg-
ment of a pinnatifid leaf is orbicular in figure and
larger than any other, presenting the form of the
ancient lyre, the form is termed lyrate (340).

342 339 338 340

Feather -veined leaves, approaching the compound.— 338, Quercus imbricaria — undulate. 339, Q. alba
(White Oak')— lobate-sinuate. 340, Q. macrocarpa— lyrate. 341, Mulgedium (Milkweed). 342, Bipinnatifld
leaf of Ambrosia artemisifolia (Hogweed).

294. Pinnately parted implies that the incisions are
deeper than pinnatifid, nearly reaching the midvein.
In either case the leaf is said to be sinuate when the
incisions (sinuses) as well as the segments are rounded
and flowing in outline. Such segments are lobes, and
the leaves lobate or lobed, a very generic term.

295. Palmate forms. — The palmate venation pre-
sents us with a set of forms which are, in general,

116 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [98,99.

broader in proportion than the pinnate, having the
breadth about equal to the length. Such a leaf may
be rarely broadly ovate, or broadly cordate, terms which
require no further explanation. Or it may be Reni-
form, kidney-shaped, having a flowing outline broader
than long, concave at base ; or Peltate, shield-form, the
petiole not inserted at the margin, but in the midst

$46

Feather-veined leaves approaching the compound.-^, Nigella (pinnatisect). 344, Cheledonium majus.
345, Thistle (Cirsium lanceolatum). 346, Dandelion (runcinate-lyrate).

of the lower surface of the blade. This singular form
evidently results from the blending of the base lobes
of a deeply cordate leaf, as seen in Hydrocotyle. It
may be orbicular, oval, etc.

296. The following result from deficiency of tissue,
causing deep divisions between the veins. Leaves thus
dissected are said to be palmately-lobed when either
the segments or the sinuses are somewhat rounded and
continuous. The number of lobes is denoted by such
terms as Trilobate, trilobate, five-lobed, etc. Leaves are

99, 100.]

MORPHOLOGY OF THE LEAF.

117

Palmate-veined leaves.— 347, Menispermum Canadense. 348, Passiflora cerulea. 349, Broussonetia pa-
pyrifera. 350, Oak Geranium.

palmately cleft and palmately parted, according to the

depth of the incisions as above described. But the

most peculiar modification is the

Pedate, like a bird's .foot, having

the lowest pair of veins enlarged,

recurved, and bearing each several

of the segments (348).

297. The forms of the paral-
lel-veined leaves are remarkable
for their even, flowing outlines,
diversified solely by the direction
and curvature of the veins. When
the veins are straight, the most
common form is the Linear, long
and narrow, with parallel margins,
like the leaves of the Grasses — a
form which may also occur in the
pinnate-veined leaf, when the vein-
lets are all equally shortened. The
ensiform, or sword-shaped, is also
linear, but has its edges vertical,
that is, directed upward and down-

Asm ~r*r\

298. If the veins curve, we may have the lanceolate,

f Juniperus communis.

118 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [100,101.

elliptical, or even orbicular forms ; and if the lower
curve downward, the cordate, sagittate, etc. Palmate
forms there also are, splendidly developed in the Pal-
metto and other Palms, whose large leaves are appro-
priately called flabelliform (fan-shaped).

299. The leaves of the Pine and the Fir tribe (Coni-
ferse) generally are parallel-veined also, and remark-
able for their contracted forms, in which there is no
distinction of petiole or blade. Such are the Acerose
(needle-shaped) leaves of the Pine, the Subulate (awl-
shaped) and scale-form leaves of the Cedars, etc.

CHAPTER XXII.

THE COMPOUND LEAF, ETC.

300. If we conceive of a simple leaf becoming a
compound one, on the principle of " deficiency of tissue
between the veins," it will be evident that the same
forms of venation are represented by the branching
petioles of the latter as by the veins of the former.
The number and arrangement of the parts will there-
fore in like manner correspond with the mode of
venation.

301. The divisions of a compound leaf are called
leaflets ; and the same distinction of outline, margin,
etc., occur in them as in simple leaves. The petiolules
of the leaflets may or may not be articulated to the
main petiole, or rachis, as it is called.

302. Pinnately compound. — From the pinnate-veined
arrangement we may have the pinnate leaf, where the
petiole (midvein) bears a row of leaflets on each side,
either sessile or petiolulate, generally equal in number

101, 102.]

THE COMPOUND LEAF.

119

and opposite. It is unequally pinnate (357) when the
rachis bears an odd terminal leaflet, and equally pin-
nate (356) when there is no terminal leaflet, and inter-
ruptedly pinnate when the leaflets are alternately large
and small (358).

303. The number of leaflets in the pinnate leaf
varies from thirty pairs and upward (as in some Aca-
cias), down to three, when the leaf is said to be ter-
nate or trifoliate; or two, becoming ~binate ; or finally

Compound leaves — 354, Trifolium repens

355, Desmodium rotundifolium.
358, Agrimonia.

357, Cassia.

even to one leaflet in the Lemon. Such a leaf is theo-
retically compound, on account of the leaflet (blade)
being articulated to the petiole.

304. A Hpinnate leaf (twice pinnate) is formed
when the rachis bears pinnce or secondary pinnate
leaves, instead of leaflets (361), and tripinnate (thrice
pinnate) when pinnae take the places of the leaflets of
a bipinnate leaf (360). When the division is still more
complicated, the leaf is decompound. Different degrees
of division often exist in different parts of the same

120 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [102,103.

leaf, illustrating the gradual transition of leaves from,
simple to compound in all stages. The leaves of
the Honey-locust and Coffee-tree (Gymnocladus) often
afford curious and instructive examples (362).

305. A Hternate leaf is formed when the leaflets
of a ternate leaf give place themselves to ternate
leaves (359), and triternate when the leaflets of a
biternate leaf again give place to ternate leaves.

361
Compound leaves.— 359, Clematis. 360, Erigenia bulbosa. 361, Acacia. 362, Honey -locust.

306. Palmately compound. — The palmate venation
has also its peculiar forms of compound leaves, as ter-
nate, quinate, septenate, etc., according to the number
of leaflets which arise together from the summit of
the petiole. Ternate leaves of this venation are to be
carefully distinguished from those of the pinnate plan.
The palmately ternate leaf consists of three leaflets,
which are either all sessile or stalked alike ; the pin-
nately ternate has the terminal leaflet raised above the
other two on the prolonged rachis (354, 355).

307. Apex. — In regard to the termination of a leaf
or leaflet at its apex, it may be acuminate, ending

103, 104.]

THE COMPOUND LEAF.

121

with a long, tapering point ; cuspidate, abruptly con-
tracted to a sharp, slender point ; mucronate, tipped
with a spiny point ; acute, simply ending with an
angle ; obtuse, rounded at the point. Or the leaf may

365 (I ' ^363

363, Lemon. 364, Jeffersonia. 365, Potentilla anserina. 366, P. tridentata.

end without a point, being truncate, as if cut square
off ; retuse, with a rounded end slightly depressed
where the point should be ; emarginate, having a small
notch at the end ; obcordate, inversely heart-shaped,
having a deep indentation at the end.

367-375, Apex of leaves.— a, obcordate ; Z>, emarginate ; c, retuse ; d, trunct-te ; e, obtuse ; /, acute ; g,
mucronate ; A, cuspidate ; k, acuminate.

376-380, Bases of leaves. — J, hastate ; m, n, sagittate ; o, auriculate; p, cordate ; q, reniform.

308. Margin. — The following terms are used to
define the margin of the leaf or leaflet, with no refer-
ence to the general form. If the leaf be even-edged,
having the tissue completely filled out, the appropriate
term, is entire. Sometimes a vein runs along such a
margin as if a hem.

122

STKUCTURAL BOTANY.

[104.

309. But when the marginal tissue is deficient, the
leaf becomes dentate, having sharp teeth pointing out-
ward from the center ; serrate, with sharp teeth point-
ing forward, like the teeth of a saw ; crenate, with
rounded or blunt teeth. The terms denticulate, serru-
late, crenulate denote finer indentations of the several
kinds ; doubly dentate, etc., denote that the teeth are
themselves toothed.

387

38T)

1, Serrate leaf of Chestnut. 382, Doubly serrate leaf of Elm. 383, Dentate leaf of Arrow-wood. 384,
Crenate leaf of Catmint. 385, Eepand leaf of Circsea. 386, Undulate leaf of Shingle Oak. 387, Lobed
leaf of Chrysanthemum.

310. The undulate, or wavy edge, is somewhat dif-
ferent from the repand, which bends like the margin
of an umbrella. If the veins project, and are tipped
with spines, the leaf becomes spinous. Irregularly
divided margins are said to be erose or jagged, lacini-
ate or torn, incised or cut. Often, instead of a defi-
ciency, there is a superabundance of marginal tissue,
denoted by the term crispate or crisped.

311. Insertion. — Several important terms descrip-
tive of the various modes of leaf-insertion must here

104,105.] THE COMPOUND LEAF. 123

be noticed. A sessile leaf is said to be amplexicaul
when its base-lobes adhere to and clasp the stem.
Should these lobes extend quite around the stem and
on the other side become blended together, a perfoliale
leaf will be formed (per, through, folium, leaf), the
stem seeming to pass through the leaves. When the
bases of two opposite sessile leaves are so united as to
form one piece of the two, they are said to be connate.

Insertion of leaves. — 388, Aster laevis (amplexicaul). 389, Uvularia perfoliata. 390. Lonicera sempervirens

(connate).

312. Surface. — The following terms are applicable
to any other organs as well as leaves. In the quality
of surface the leaf may be glabrous (smooth), destitute
of all hairs, bristles, etc., or scabrous (rough), with
minute, hard points, hardly visible. A dense coat of
hairs will render the leaf pubescent when the hairs are
soft and short ; villous when they are rather long and
weak ; sericeous, or silky, when close and satin-like ;

124 STKUCTUKAL BOTANY. [105,106.

such a coat may also be lanuginose, woolly ; tomen-
tose, matted like felt ; or floccose, in soft, fleecy tufts.

313. Thinly scattered hairs render the surface hir-
sute when they are long ; pilose when short and soft ;
hispid when short and stiff. The surface will be setose
when beset with bristly hairs called setce ; and spinose
when beset with spines, as in the Thistle and Horse-
nettle. Leaves may also be armed with stinging hairs
which are sharp and tubular, containing a poisonous
fluid, as in Nettles and Jatropha stimulans (503).

314. A pruinose surface is covered with a bluish-
white waxy powder, called bloom, as in the Cabbage ;
and a punctate leaf is dotted with colored points or
pellucid glands.

315. In texture leaves may be membranous, or
coriaceous (leathery), or succulent (fleshy), or scarious
(dry), rugose (wrinkled), etc., which terms need only
to be mentioned.

316. Double terms. —The modifications of leaves are almost endless.
Many other terms are defined in the glossary, yet it will often be found neces-
sary in the exact description of a plant to combine two or more of the terms
defined in order to express some intermediate figure or quality ; thus ovate-
lanceolate, signifying a form between ovate and lanceolate, etc.

317. The Latin preposition sub (under) prefixed to a descriptive term
denotes the quality which the term expresses, in a lower degree, as subsessile,
nearly sessile, subserrate, somewhat serrate.

CHAPTER XXIII.

TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE LEAF.

318. Hitherto we have considered the leaf as foli-
age merely — constituted the fit organ of aeration by
its large expansion of surface. This is indeed the
chief, but not the only aspect in which it is to be
viewed- The leaf is a typical form ; that is, a type, or

106,107.] TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE LEAF. 125

an IDEA of the Divine Architect, whence is derived
the form of every other appendage of the plant. To
trace out this idea in all the disguises under which it
lurks, is one of the first aims of the botanist. Several
of these forms of disguise have already been noticed
— for example :

319. The scales which clothe the various forms of
scale-bearing stems are leaves, or more usually petioles,
reduced and distorted, perhaps by the straitened cir-
cumstances of their underground growth. The scales
of corms and rhizomes are mostly mere membranes,
while those of the bulb are fleshy, serving as deposi-
tories of food for the future use of the plant. That
these scales are leaves is evident — 1st, from their po-
sition at the nodes of the stem ; 2d, from their occa-
sional development into true leaves. Of the same
nature are the brown scales of Winter buds.

320. The cotyledons of seeds or seed-lobes are
readily recognized as leaves, especially when they arise
above-ground in germination, and form the first pair
upon the young plant ; as in the Beechnut and Squash
seed. Their deformity is due to the starchy deposits
with which they are crammed for the nourishment of
the embryo when germinating, and also to the way in
which they are packed in the seed.

321. Phyllodia are certain leaf-forms, consisting of
petioles excessively compressed, or expanded vertically
into margins, while the true lamina is partly or en-
tirely suppressed. Fine examples are seen in our
greenhouse Acacias from Australia. Their vertical
or edgewise position readily distinguishes them from
true leaves.

322. Ascidia, or pitchers, are surprising forms of

126 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [107,108.

leaves, expressly contrived, as if by art, for holding
water. The pitchers of Sarracenia, whose several spe-
cies are common in bogs North and South, are evi-
dently formed by the blending of the involute margins
of the broadly winged petioles, so as to form a com-
plete vase. The broad expansion which appears at the
top may be regarded as the lamina. These pitchers
contain water, in which insects are drowned, being

Ascidia.—391, Nepenthes. 392, Sarracenia psittacina. 393, S. purpurea. 394, S. Gronovii, /?. Drum-
mondil. 395, Acacia heterophylla— its phyllodia.

prevented from escaping by the deflexed hairs at the
mouth. Other pitcher-bearing plants are equally curi-
ous ; as Darlingtonia of California, Nepenthes and
Dischidia of the East Indies. In Dionsea of North
Carolina, the leaves are transformed to spiny, snapping
fly-traps !

323. Many weak-stemmed water-plants are fur-
nished with Air-bladders, or little sacks filled with air
to buoy them up near to the surface. Such are the
bladders of the common Bladderwort, formed from the
leaf-lobes. In the Horned-bladderwort, the floats are

108,109.] TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE LEAF. 127

made of the six upper inflated petioles lying upon
the surface of the water like a wheel-shaped raft
and sustaining the flower upon its own elevated
stalk.

324. The Tendril is a thread-like, coiling append-
age, furnished to certain weak-stemmed plants as their
means of support in place. Its first growth is straight,
and it remains so until it reaches some object, when
it immediately coils itself about it, and thus acquires a
firm though elastic hold. This beautiful appendage is
finely exemplified in the Cucurbitaceae and Grape,

396

if vuufa fr^^r^L&^^m //i ^

398

C96, Leaf of Greenbrier, with tendrils in place of stipules. 397, Leaf ot Everlasting Pea— tendrils at end
of rachis. 398, Leaf of Gloriosa— apex ends in a tendril. 399, Air-bladder of Horn Pondweed.

above cited ; also in many species of the Pea tribe
(Leguminosse), where it is appended to the leaves. It
is not a new organ, but some old one transformed and
adapted to a new purpose. In Gloriosa superba, the
midvein of the leaf is prolonged beyond the blade into
a coiling tendril. In the Pea, Vetch, etc., the tendrils
represent the attenuated leaf-blades themselves. Again,
the entire leaf sometimes becomes a tendril in Lathy-
rus, while the stipules act as leaves.

325. The petiole of the leaf of Clematis, otherwise
unchanged, coils like a tendril for the support of the
vine. In the Greenbrier, the stipules are changed to
tendrils, which thus arise in pairs from the base of
the petioles. So probably in the Gourd.

128 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [109,110.

326. But the tendrils of the Grape vine are of a different nature. From
their position opposite the leaves, and the tubercles occasionally seen upon
them, representing flower-buds, they are inferred to be abortive, or trans-
formed flower-stalks.

327. Many plants are armed, as if for self-defense
with hard, sharp-pointed, woody processes, called spines
or thorns. Those which are properly called spines
originate from leaves. In Berberis the spines are evi-
dently transformed leaves, as the same plant exhibits

402 403

Thorns— 400, Crataegus parvifolia (thorns axillary). 401, Honey -locust. 402, Common Locust. 403, Ber-
beris— a, a, its thorns.

leaves in every stage of the metamorphosis. In Goafs-
thorn (Astragalus tragacanthus) of S. Europe, the pet-
ioles change to spines after the leaflets fall off. In
the Locust (Robinia), there is a pair of spines at the
base of the petiole, in place of stipules.

328. Thorns originate from axillary buds, and are abortive branches. This
is evident from their position in the Hawthorn and Osage-orange. The Apple
and Pear tree in their wild state produce thorns, but by cultivation become
thornless ; that is, the axillary buds, through better tillage, develop branches
instead of thorns. The terrible branching thorns of the Honey-locust originate
just above the axil, from accessory buds. Prickles differ from either spines or
thorns, growing from the epidermis upon stems of leaves, at no determinate
point, and consisting of hardened cellular tissues, as in the Rose, Bramble.

110,111.] METAMORPHOSIS OF THE FLOWER. 129

329. By a more gentle transformation, leaves pass
into Bracts, which are those smaller, reduced leaf-
forms situated near and among the flowers. So grad-
ual is the transition from leaves to bracts — in the
Peony, e. g. — that no absolute limits can be assigned.
Equally gradual is the transition from bracts to sepals
of the flower — affording a beautiful illustration of the
doctrine of metamorphosis (§ 330, etc.). Bracts will
be further considered under the head of Inflorescence.

CHAPTER XXIV.

METAMORPHOSIS OF THE FLOWER.

330. It has already been announced (§ 37) that a
flower is a metamorphosed, that is, a transformed
branch. No new principle or element was devised to
meet this new necessity in the life of the plant, viz.,
the perpetuation of its kind ; but the leaf, that same
protean form which we have already detected in
shapes so numerous and diverse, THE LEAF, is yet once
more in nature's hand molded into a series of forms
of superior elegance, touched with colors more brilliant,
and adapted to a higher sphere as the organs of repro-
duction.

331. Proofs of this doctrine appear on every hand,
both in the natural and in the artificial development
of plants. We mention a few instances. The thought-
ful student will observe many more.

332. In most flowers, as in the Poppy, very little
evidence of the metamorphosis appears, simply because
it has been so complete. Its sepals, petals, stamens,
and pistils — how unlike I Can these be of one and the

130

STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

[111.

same element ? Look again. Here is a double flower,
a Poppy of the gardens, artificially developed ; its
slender white stamens have indeed expanded into
broad red petals !

333. The argument begins with the sepals. In the
Rose and Paeony, and in most flowers, the sepals have
all the characteristics of leaves — color, form, venation,
etc. The transition from leaves to bracts and from
bracts to sepals is so gradual as to place their identity

406

404

404, Papaver (poppy) — s, stamens; p, stigmas. 405, sepaL 406,'Petal — all very different. 407 to 414,
Petals of the Water-lily (Nymphaea) gradually passing into stamens.

beyond doubt. Again, in Calicanthus, the sepals pass
by insensible gradations into petals; and in the Lilies
these two organs are almost identical. Hence, if the
sepals are leaves, the petals are leaves also. In respect
to the nature of the stamens, the Water-lily is partic-
ularly instructive. Here we see a perfect gradation
of forms from stamens to petals, and thence to sepals,
where, half-way between the two former, we find a
narrow petal tipped with the semblance of an anther
(410). Finally, cases of close resemblance between
stamen and pistil, so unlike in the Poppy, are not
wanting. For example, the Tulip-tree.

334. Teratology. — Cases in ABTIFIOIAL DEVELOPMENT where organs of one
kind are converted into those of another kind by cultivation, afford undeni-
able evidence of the doctrine in question— the homology of all the floral organs
with each other and with the leaf. Such cases are frequent in the garden, and,

Ill, 112.]

METAMORPHOSIS OF THE FLOWER.

131

however much admired, they are monstrous, because unnatural. In all double
flowers, as Hose, Peeony, Camellia, the stamens have been reconverted into
petals, either wholly or partially, some yet remaining in every conceivable
stage of the transition. In the double Buttercup i'416) the pistils as well as
stamens revert to petals, and in the garden Cherry, Flowering Almond, a pair
of green leaves occupy the place of the pistils. By still further changes all
parts of the flower manifest their foliage affinities, and the entire flower-bud,
after having given clear indications of its floral character, is at last developed
into a leafy branch (417). Further evidence of this view will appear in the —

417

415, Ranunculus acris ; a single flower. 416, R. acris, (3. plena, a double flower. 417, Epacris impressa,
the flowers changing to leafy branches (Lindley).

335. ^Estivation of the flower-bud. — This term
(from cestivus, of summer) refers to the arrangement
of the floral envelopes while yet in the bud. It is an
important subject, since in general the same mode
of aestivation regularly characterizes whole tribes or
orders. It is to the flower-bud what vernation (vernus,
spring) is to the leaf-bud. The various modes of aesti-
vation are best observed in sections of the bud made
by cutting it through horizontally when just ready to
open. From such sections our diagrams are copied.

132

STRUCTUKAL BOTANY.

[112, 113.

336. Separately considered, we find each organ
here folded in ways similar to those of the leaf-bud ;
that is, the sepal or the petal may be convolute, invo-
lute, revolute, etc., terms already defined. Collectively
considered, the aestivation of the flower occurs in four
general modes with their variations — the valvate, the
contorted, imbricate, and plicate.

337. In valvate aestivation the pieces meet by their
margins without any overlapping; as in the sepals of
the Mallow, petals of Hydrangea, valves of a capsule.

418

^\/' 425 -^-^ 424

418-426, Modes of aestivation. 424, Petals of the Wall-flower.

The following varieties of the valvate .occur : Indupli-
cate, where each piece is involute — i.e., has its two
margins bent or rolled inward, as in Clematis ; or redu-
plicate, when each piece is revolute — having its mar-
gins bent or rolled outward, as in the sepals of Althea.

338. Contorted aestivation is where each piece over-
laps its neighbor, all in the same direction, appearing
as if twisted together, as in Phlox, Flax, Oleander (421).

339. Imbricated aestivation (imbrex, a tile) is a term
restricted to those modes in which one or more of the
petals or sepals is wholly outside, overlapping two
others by both its margins. This kind of aestivation

113, 114.]

METAMORPHOSIS OF THE FLOWER.

133

naturally results from the spiral arrangements so com-
mon in phyllotaxy, while the valvate and contorted
seem identified with the opposite or whorled arrange-
ment. The principal varieties are the following : The
Quincuncial, consisting of five leaves, two of which
are wholly without, two wholly within, and one partly
both, or one margin out, the other in, as in the Rose
family (422). This accompanies the two fifths cycle in
phyllotaxy, and corresponds precisely with it, each
quincunx being in fact a cycle with its internodes

427

426

Diagrams of flowers (as seen by cross-sections).— 426, Jeffersonia diphylla — o, ovary ; s, stamens ; d, inner
row of petals, aestivation triquetrous ; b, outer row of petals, aestivation contorted; c, sepals, aestivation
quincuncial. 427, Lily. 428, Strawberry. 429, Mustard. The pupil will designate modes of aestivation.

suppressed. (Fig. 300, § 266.) The Triquetrous, con-
sisting of three leaves in each set, one of which is out-
side, one inside, and the third partly both, as in Tulip,
Erythronium, agreeing with the two thirds, or Alder
Cycle (§ 265). The Convolute, when each leaf wholly
involves all that are within it, as do the petals of Mag-
nolia ; and lastly, the Vexillary, when one piece larger
than the rest is folded over them, as in Pea (425).

340. Plicate or folded aestivation occurs in tubular
or monopetalous flowers, and has many varieties, of
which the most remarkable is the supervolute, where
the projecting folds all turn obliquely in the same
direction, as in the Morning-glory, Thorn-apple.

Different modes of aestivation may occur in the
different whorls of the same flower.

134 STRUCTURAL BOTANY. [114,115.

CHAPTER XXV.

INFLORESCENCE.

341. Inflorescence is a term denoting the arrange-
ment of the flowers and their position upon the plant.

All the buds of a plant are supposed to be originally of one and the same
nature, looking to the production of vegetative organs only. But at a certain
period, a portion of the buds of the living plant, by an unerring instinct little
understood, are converted from their ordinary intention into flower-buds, as
stated and illustrated in the foregoing Chapter. The flower-bud is incapable
of extension. While the leaf -bud may unfold leaf after leaf, and node after
node, to an indefinite extent, the flower-bud blooms, dies, and arrests forever
the extension of the axis which bore it.

342. In position and arrangement, flower-buds can
not differ from leaf-buds, and both are settled by the
same unerring law which determines the arrangement
of the leaves. Accordingly, the flower-bud is always
found either terminal or axillary. In either case, a
single bud may develop either a compound inflores-
cence, consisting of several flowers with their stalks
and bracts, or a solitary inflorescence, consisting of a
single flower.

343. The Peduncle is the flower-stalk. It bears no
leaves, or at least only such as are reduced in size and
changed in form, called bracts. If the peduncle is
wanting, the flower is said to be sessile. The simple
peduncle bears a single flower ; but if the peduncle be
divided into branches, it bears several flowers, and the
final divisions, bearing each a single flower, are called
pedicels. The main stem or axis of a compound
peduncle is called the rachis.

344. The Scape is a flower-stalk which springs
from a subterranean stem, in such plants as are called

115, 116.] INFLORESCENCE. 135

stemless, or acaulescent ; as the Primrose, Tulip, Blood-
root. Like the peduncle, it is leafless or with bracts
only, and may be either simple or branched. The
flower-stalk, whether peduncle, scape, or pedicel, always
terminates in the torus (§ 57).

432

Bracts (b, 6, &).— 430, Cornus Canadensis, with an involucre of four colored bracts. 431, Hepatica triloba,
with an involucre of three green bracts. 432, Calla palustris, with a colored spathe of one bract.

345. Bracts. — The branches of the inflorescence
arise from the axils of reduced leaves, called bracts.
Those leaves, still smaller, growing upon the pedicels,
are called bractlets. Bracts are usually simple in out-
line and smaller than the leaf, often gradually dimin-
ishing to mere points, as in Aster, or even totally sup-
pressed, as in the Cruciferse. Often they are colored,
sometimes brilliantly, as in Painted-cup. Sometimes
they are scale-like, and again they are evanescent
membranes.

346. The Spathe is a large bract formed in some of
the Monocotyledons, enveloping the inflorescence, and
often colored, as in Arum, Calla ; or membranous, as
in Onion and Daffodil.

347. Bracts also constitute an Involucre when they
are collected into a whorl or spiral group. In the

136

STRUCTURAL BOTANT.

[116, 117.

Phlox, Dodecatheon, and generally, the involucre is
green, but sometimes colored and petaloid, as in Dog-
wood and Euphorbia. Situated at the base of a com-
pound umbel, it is called a general involucre ; at the
base of a partial umbel it is a partial involucre or
involucel, both of which are seen in the Umbelliferse.

433, Helianthus grosse-serratus — I, involucre ; r, rays, or ligulate flowers. 434, One of the disk-flowers
with its chaff-scale (bract). 435, Acorn of Moss-cup Oak (Q. macrophylla). 436, Poa pratensis— /, spikelet
entire ; g, glumes separated ; e, a flower separated, displaying the two pales, three stamens, and two styles.

348. In the Compositee, where the flowers are
crowded upon a common torus, forming what is called
a compound flower, an involucre composed of many
imbricated scales (bracts) surrounds them as a calyx
surrounds a simple flower. The chaff also upon the
torus are bracts to which each floret is axillary (434).

349. In the Grasses, the bracts subsist under the
general name of chaff. At the base of each spikelet
(436) of flowers we find two bracts — the Glumes. At
the base of each separate flower in the spikelet are
also two bractlets — the Pales — enveloping as a calyx
the three stamens and two styles (c).

350. The cup of the Acorn is another example of
involucre, composed of many scale-like bractlets. So,
also, perhaps the burr of the Chestnut, etc.

117, 118.] INFLORESCENCE. 137

351. The forms of inflorescence are exceedingly
various, but may all be referred to two classes, as
already indicated — the axillary, in which all the
flowers arise from axillary buds ; the terminal, in
which all the flower-buds are terminal.

352. Axillary inflorescence is called indefinite, be-
cause the axis, being terminated by a leaf-bud, con-
tinues to grow on indefinitely, developing bracts with
their axillary flowers as it grows. It is also called
centripetal, because in the order of time the blossom-
ing commences with the circumference (or base) of
the inflorescence, and proceeds toward the central or
terminal bud, as in Hawthorn or Mustard.

353. Terminal inflorescence is definite, implying
that the growth of the axis as well as of each branch
is definitely arrested by a flower. It is also centrifu-
gal, because the blossoming commences with the cen-
tral flower and proceeds in order to the circumference,
as in the Sweet- William, Elder, Hydrangea.

354. Both kinds of inflorescence are occasionally combined in the same
plant, where the general system may be -distinguished from the partial clusters
which compose it. Thus in the Compositae, while the florets of each head
open centripetally, the general inflorescence is centrifugal, that is, the termi-
nal head is developed before the lateral ones. But in the Labiatee the partial
clusters (verticillasters) open centrifugally, while the general inflorescence is
indefinite, proceeding from the base upward.

CHAPTER

SPECIAL FORMS OF INFLORESCENCE.

355. Of centripetal or axillary inflorescence the

principal varieties are : the spike, spadix, catkin, raceme,
corymb, umbel, panicle, thyrse, and head. The spike
is a long rachis with sessile flowers either scattered,

138

STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

[118.

clustered, or crowded upon it, as Plantain, Mullein,
Vervain. The so-called spikes of the Grasses are com*

435-a, Spiranthes cernua— flowers in a twisted spike. 436-a, Orontium aquatic um— flowers on a naked
spadix. 437, Betula lenta— flowers in aments.

pound spikes or spike-like panicles, bearing little spikes
or spikelets in place of single flowers (440).

442 440 439

438, Andromeda racemosa— flowers in a secund raceme. 439, Verbascum Blattaria— raceme. 440, Lo-
lium perenne— a compound spike or a spike of spikelets. 441, Dipsacus sylvestris— head with an involucre
of leaves. 442, Qsmorhiza longistylis— a compound umbel. 443, Its fruit.

119.]

SPECIAL FORMS OF INFLORESCENCE.

139

356. The spadix is a thick, fleshy rachis, with
flowers closely sessile or imbedded on it, and usually
with a spathe, as in Calla (432), or without it, as in
Golden-club (436).

357. The catkin or ament is a slender, pendent
spike with scaly bracts subtending the naked, sessile
flowers, all caducous (falling) together, as in Birch,
Beech, Oak, Willow.

358. The raceme is a rachis bearing its flowers on
distinct, simple pedicels. It may be erect, as in Hya-
cinth, Pyrola ; or pendulous, as in Currant, Black-
berry. The corymb differs from the raceme in having
the lower pedicels lengthened so as to elevate all the
flowers to about the same level. The corymb often
becomes compound by the branching of its lower
pedicels, as in Yarrow.

444 445

444. Staphylea trifolia — a pendulous, paniculate cyme. 445, Catalpa — a panicle.

359. An umbel consists of several pedicels of about
equal length radiating from the same point — the top
of the common peduncle, as Milk-weed, Onion. When

140

STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

[119, 120.

the pedicels of an umbel become themselves umbels,
as in Caraway and most of the Umbelliferae, a com-
pound umbel is produced. Such secondary umbels are
called umbelletSj and the primary pedicels, rays.

360. The panicle is a compound inflorescence
formed by the irregular branching of the pedicels of
the raceme, as in Oats, Spear-grass, Catalpa. A thyrse
is a sort of compact, oblong, or pyramidal panicle, as
in Lilac, Grape.

361. A head or capitulum is a sort of reduced
umbel, having the flowers

all sessile upon the top of
the peduncle, as in the
Button-bush, Clover. But
the more common exam-
ples of the capitulum are
seen in the Composites,
where the summit of the
peduncle, that is, the recep-
tacle, is dilated, bearing the
sessile flowers above, and
scale-like bracts around, as

-i
an inVOlUCre.

o n n. mi --L 7

362. The CapltUl

~ . , P,

the Compositse is often
called a compound flower from its resemblance, the in-
volucre answering to a calyx, the rays to the corolla.
The flowers are called florets — those of the outer cir-
cle, florets of the ray, generally differing in form from
those of the central portions, the florets of the disk.

363. Of terminal inflorescence the following varie-
ties are described : cyme, fascicle (verticillaster), and
glomerule.

446

446) Vernonia fasciculatar-flower8 in a discoid

head with an imbricated involucre. 447, A single
flower remaining on the receptacle. 448, A fruit
-C crowned with the pappus. 449, Mulgedium— a head.
OI 460, A single flower remaining on the receptacle.
> -A. fruit with pappus.

120, 121.]

SPECIAL FORMS OF INFLORESCENCE.

141

364. Cyme is a general term denoting any inflores-
cence with centrifugal evolutions, but is properly ap-
plied to that level-topped or fastigiate form which

454

Diagram (452) of cyme flowers numbered in the order of their development— 453, Cyme fastigiate. 454,
Cyme half developed — a scorpoid raceme.

resembles the corymb, as in the Elder. If it is loosely
spreading, not fastigiate, it is called a cymous panicle,
as in the Chickweed, Spergula, etc. If it be rounded,
as in the Snowball, it is a globose cyme.

455 456

455, Myosotis palustris— scorpioid racemes. 456, Stellaria media— a regular cyme.

365. A scorpioid cyme, as seen in the Sundew,
Sedum, and Borrage family, is a kind of coiled raceme,
unrolling as it blossoms. It is understood to be a half-
developed cyme, as illustrated in the cut (454). The
fascicle is a modification of the cyme, with crowded

142

STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

[121, 122.

and nearly sessile flowers, as in Sweet- William (Dian-
thus).

366. Glomerule, an axillary tufted cluster, with a
centrifugal evolution, frequent in the Labiatse, etc.
When such occur in the axils of opposite leaves and
meet around the stem, each pair constitutes a verticil-
laster or verticil, as in Catmint, Hoarhound.

457

367. The above diagrams show the mutual relations of the several forms
of centripetal inflorescence — how they are graduated from the spike (457) to
the head (464). Thus the spike (457) + the pedicels = raceme (458) ; the raceme
with the lower pedicels lengthened = corymb (459) ; the corymb — the rachis =
umbel (460) ; the umbel — pedicels = head (464), etc.

(For the phenomena of Mowering, Coloring, the Moral Calendar, the
Floral Clock, see the Class Book of Botany, pp. 75-77.)

PART SECOND.
PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.

CHAPTER I.

VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

368. The vegetable cell is the foundation of all
plant structure, and when complete is a sac or bag-like
body containing a semi-fluid substance
called Protoplasm. The cell -wall in-
creases by expansion. Spaces (vacuoles) a

appear among
the particles
of protoplasm,
which are occu-
pied by a watery
substance called „„„

-1-1 T c, c, protoplasm mass sep-

Ceil-Sap. In SOme arated from the cell-wall

*m part of the cell b<

a spot appears where the
granules of Protoplasm are
crowded together, forming a

465
465, Mature cell of

466, Section of pith-cell of Taxodium ; a, v.i-.plpi-.q TTUp ppll

nucleus ; &, nucleolus ; c, «, protoplasm sac Z >US<

contracted toward the wall, from which it has pOrnTVJpfp onrq fhyiq

been separated by reagents ; p, cell-sap In a C tG» ai]

XTS^tT^iSniSS:! i* ^ organism capable of ex-

ellularspace' ercising vital functions, and

possesses the ability to multiply itself or produce new

144

PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.

cells. In the early stages of the plant's life, the Proto-
plasm is a naked mass, but it very soon surrounds
itself with a wall, as in Figs. 465 A

and 466. Inside the cell-wall it
arranges itself into a great variety
of forms.

In Fig. 467, A shows new cells,
with the protoplasm evenly distrib-
uted, and nuclei forming, k. Fig.
467, B, great changes have taken
place, cell-sap has been introduced,
and the protoplasm is much vacuo-
lated, and appears either floating
freely in the cell-sap, spread along the
cell-wall, or otherwise aggregated.
In Fig. 468, A, the protoplasm seems
to be aggregating, and spots or vac-
uoles are appearing in its midst.
Fig. 468, B, the protoplasm is form-
ing in globular masses around por-
tions of sap. These little vesicles
are frequently furnished with the
green coloring matter of the plant.
Fig. 468, (7, highly magnified cell,
in^which the protoplasm has re-
treated from the cell-wall under

467

. £ .. ii« • j 4^7, -^' ^ery y°uns cells from

the aCtlOn OI Weak SUlphUriC add nearthetipoftherootofFritilla-

ria ; B, cells from a part a little

and iodine. higher up in the root; s, a, s, sap;

Jc, x, y, nuclei and nucleoli form-

369. Protoplasm is complex and mg; ?, protoplasm,
constantly changing in its constitution. It yields to
chemical analysis materials similar to egg albumen,
and is the living substance of the cell; its appearan<
under the microscope is shown in Figs. 465-468,

VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

145

The chemical substances that have been detected in Protoplasm are Oxygen,
Hydrogen, Carbon, Nitrogen, Sulphur, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, Iron, Phosphorus,
Chlorine, and frequently Silicon and Sodium.

The relative proportions of these substances differ in different orders, and
are not constant in the same plant.

370. The wall of the cell

(Fig. 466) is produced by
some action of the proto-
plasm. When first formed
it is very thin, soft, and uni-
form in thickness ; but as it
grows older, it is thickened
by additional coatings, or
strata, upon the inner sur-
face ; sometimes of uniform
thickness, but more fre-

quently in VeinS, ringS, SpOtS,

468, Forms of Protoplasm ; A and B, cells

_ . 1 _ from the stalk of Indian Corn : C, from a tuber

Or riQgeS, lOrming tile lOUn- of Jerusalem Artichoke after action of iodine and
. . sulphuric acid ; h, cell-wall ; k, nucleus ; b, nu-

dation for the tissues and cieoius; P, protoplasm.
vessels of plants hereafter to be considered.

371. Cellulose is the substance of which the cell-
wall is formed, It yields to the chemist the same ele-
ments that are found in starch, whose formula is
C6 H,0 O5 ; besides these, several other mineral sub-
stances are present in minute quantities.

372. Woody material, called lignin, is deposited or
formed upon the walls of some cells, by which they
are hardened and strengthened. The component parts
of this substance are not accurately known ; there is
reason to believe they vary in different plants, and
even in different parts of the same plant. Mineral
substances, principally silica and lime compounds, also
thicken the cell-walls and increase their induration
and strength.

146 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.

373. Chlorophyl. — In the living cells of those
parts of plants exposed to sunlight, granules appear,
resembling protoplasm grains in all respects except
color. These minute bodies are green, and furnish the
green color to leaves and all other green parts of
plants; the name applied to these granules is due to
their color, and as the leaf is the most conspicuous
green part of the plant, the term Chlorophyl (Leaf
Green) has been applied to this green color. Some
authors have called chlorophyl grains stained proto-
plasm, viewing chlorophyl as the stain, and the
chlorophyl granule as colored protoplasm (Figs. 466,
467).

374. Starch is a most important plant product,
and is formed by the action of protoplasm and chloro-
phyl under sunlight ; it is found sparingly in the
leaf, and when more than enough to supply the plant's
daily wants is produced, the surplus is stored up in
some other part of the plant, as the tuber of the
Potato, the grains of Wheat, and other cereals, in
which form it is utilized for animal food. Its com-
ponent parts are identical with those of cellulose.

Forms of starch-grains are shown in
Figs. 469-473. The form of starch-
grains is very various, differing in dif-
ferent plants, and
even in the same
parts of the same
plant. Fig. 473,

469, Cells of Potato containing starch-grains. 470, Starch grains A /y 7) ^ fr» /7 flrP
from the Potato. 471, from the E. Indian Arrowroot. 472, Starch -0-) "Tl Yf ;V* u^ J/J '
granules from W. Indian Arrowroot. Starch-grainS f rOm

a grain of Indian Corn. Fig. 473, B, shows starch-
grains from a grain of Wheat; these are more nearly

VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

147

uniform in shape and size
and somewhat lens-shaped.

375. Crystals of a great
variety of shape are found
in some of the cells of
most plants of the higher
orders ; the most simple of
these forms are cubical or
prismatic ; but they occur
in almost every variety of
polyhedral form. In some
orders they appear in slen-
der needle-shaped bodies
called Raphides. They usu-
ally occur, solitary or in
masses, in the cell cavity,
but are not unfrequently
found in the cell -wall
(Figs. 474, 475).

Plant

473, A, is a cell from the endosperm of a graia'of
Indian Corn, crowded with starch-grains ; the grains
i -i marked a, 6, c, etc., to g are also from the interior of

LiltJ a grain of corn. The grains marked B are from the

residua of the materials

used in the chemical combinations that have taken

place in the cell under the
action of sunlight, and are
usually composed of lime
carbonate or lime oxalate.
Other calcic combinations
are, however, frequently
present. The difficulties at-
tending the separating of
plant crystals from their
474, A, Beet ceiis with R surroundings have thus far

stellate masses of crystals ; B, R, inner cells, with -j -j «i • m<-i-IV»1 /-« •!-»-*

raphides escaping ; C, aleurone crystal. Tendered it impOSSlble 1H

148

PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.

some cases to determine with accuracy their chemical
constituents.

376. Cell-sap is the watery fluid in the cell which
suspends the food and working material taken into
the cell from the air and the

soil and the soluble substances
which the plant produces, and
is the medium by which food is
conveyed throughout the plant's
structure. All parts of the active
cell are filled with water ; it con-
stitutes a large part of the cellu-
lose, and forms the greater part
of the bulk of protoplasm. Sugar
is a prominent sub-
stance in the cell-
sap, both cane and
grape. Cane-sugar

flhnnnHcj in thp pplla 475, 4, cross-section of oak-gall ; d, sclerenchymatons cells ;

3 c, outside tissue, with oxalate crystals , e, inner tissue containing

of Sugar Cane, Sugar 8tarch and resin' * forms of calcium oxalate crystals'
Maple, Beet, Sorghum, Indian Corn, and most of the
higher plants ; while grape-sugar gives sweetness to
grapes, cherries, figs, and gooseberries. In the poma-
ceous and drupe fruits both kinds are present. For cell-
sap in both large and small vacuoles, see Fig. 466, p;
Fig. 467, B, 8, 8, s.

377. New cells, to which the enlargement or growth
of the plant is due, are formed in one of the three fol-
lowing typical modes :

378. 1, Rejuvenescence. — In this method of pro-
ducing new cells, the entire mass of the protoplasm is
expelled from the old cell, and, when set free, sur-
rounds itself with a wall, thus becoming a new cell.

VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 149

379. #, Conjugation. — New cells are also produced
by the union of the protoplasm of two or more cells;
the contents of which having commingled, the com-
bined mass incloses itself with a cellulose covering,
and becomes a new cell.

380. 3, Fission is the name applied to the mode of
cell production by which two or more new cells are
formed out of one. This is the usual mode, and may
be treated under three heads.

381. a. Fission Proper. — A young complete cell (Figs.
465, 466) possesses the power to multiply. The most
simple case of this process is the division of the cell
into two equal, or nearly equal, parts. The protoplasm
forms two nucleus-like spots ; a stricture then com-
mences in the wall between the spots, and the cell
seems to pinch itself into two. This process is shown
in the fission of Bacterium cells (Figs. 511, 512).

In most cases the process is accompanied by a
stricture more or less prominent ; at the same time
an equatorial septum appears between the nuclear
spots, and divides the old cell into two nearly equal
new cells (Fig. 476). In this case the stricture in the
cell-wall is barely visible. The new cells round up and
soon become sub-globular in form.

476, Phases of a cell undergoing the process of fission ; a, complete cell with drops of cell-sap among
the protoplasm, nucleus, and nucleolus ; 6, same, with nucleus and nucleolus divided ; c, with stricture
and wall forming across between the nuclei; <Z, same, with the septum completed, and the fission accom-
plished; two separate cells have been formed by dividing the old cell into two.

150

PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.

The process of cell division depends first upon the nucleus which forms a
spindle of radiating fibrils with an equatorial disk. A middle wall, or parti-
tion, is formed at the disk, whereby two distinct cells are produced (477). —
MadosUe's Elementary Botany.

477, No. 1, mature cell ; 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 show the changes through which No. 1 passes preparatory to
the final act of fission ; seen completed in No. 9.

382. 5, Budding is another form of plant multipli-
cation. In this mode the plant cell puts forth a pro-
trusion which enlarges until it is about

the size of the old cell, when a partition
wall is thrown across at the juncture,
making the new cell complete and inde-
pendent. In Fig. 478 the process of bud-
ding is shown in its several forms.

383. c. Intra-cell Formation. — Under undergoing the process

of budding.

this head are treated those cases in which
several aggregations appear within the cell and the
entire mass of protoplasm separates into two, three, or
more parts, each of which, either at the time the divi-,
sion is going on or soon after, becomes inclosed in a
cellulose envelope, and speedily assumes a globular
form, as an independent complete cell.

478

478, Yeast plant, Sac-
charomyces cerivesiae,

VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY AHD PHYSIOLOGY.

151

In the preparation for cell division nucleus-like formations usually appear
in the mother cell. The whole protoplasmic body breaks up into two, three,
four, or more parts, and each quickly takes on a spher-
ical form (Fig. 479). — Sacks'1 Text-book of Botany.

All these modes of cell multiplica-
tion and formation are subject to great
variation ; each has a tendency to run
into one of the others ; the last is espe-
cially liable to vary as to number of
daughter cells.

384. The form of cells varies to
suit the use for which they are in-
tended and the amount and direction

479

479, Showing cell forma-
tion in Achlya — mother cell,
showing a number of nuclei
in the mass of protoplasm
which is preparing to break
up into a number of inde-
pendent or daughter cells ;

of the pressure to which they are sub- a' a' a' etc" nu
jected* The normal shape is globular or spheroidal
when free from pressure (Fig. 480) ; when pressure

480, Form of cells in loose parenchyma. 481, Cross-section of parenchyma cells from stalk of Indian
Corn (X550), showing form under slight pressure; gw,gw, partition walls ; a, «, intercellular spaces.

from surrounding cells is exerted, they be-
come ellipsoidal, egg-shaped, prismatic, or
polyhedral (Figs. 481,482). In the trunks
and branches of trees and stems of herba-
ceous plants the cells become elongated
in the direction of growth (Fig. 467).
482, Form of ceiis 385. The size of the cells in the soft

under greater pressure

from aii directions. tissue varies ; the largest is about -gV of

152 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.

an inch in diameter. From this cells occur whose
diameters range all the way down to -^oW of an inch
in diameter. In the more solid tissues they range
from J to fa of an inch in length, and from T?V<7 to
-j-oVo in their cross-sections. Cells of the long staple
cotton wool are from one to two inches in length.

386. Spiral and annular cells are formed when
rings, bands, or hoop-like processes
appear on the inner surfaces of the
walls ; in the spiral cell an uninter-
rupted fibrous process extends the
whole length of the cell in a spiral
coil (Fig. 483). The annular cell heis #3, spiral ceii from or-

chid. 484, Annular cell from

bands or hoop-like markings as though Mistletoe-

the spiral fiber had been interrupted at several points

(Fig. 484).

387. Dotted or pitted cells are pro-
duced when the coatings on the inner sur-
face of the cell wall are not uniform in
thickness, leaving thin spots, or pits, which
485, Dotted or are more nearly transparent when viewed

pitted cells from

Eider pith. under the glass, than the more thickened

parts of the wall ; hence the name (Fig. 485).

388. Reticulated cells are produced by
coatings which are deposited or formed
upon the inner surface of the cell-wall,
where they at first appear in spots and
lines, of different sizes and lengths (Fig. 486,

cell from the Mis-

486). As the cell grows older, the markings tietoe.
increase in length, and touching each other, form an
irregular net-work.

389. Collenchyma cells are cubical, cylindrical, or
irregular in form, whose walls are much thickened

VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

153

at the angles, while they are of ordinary thickness in

other parts. These cells occur in

most plants of the higher orders

and in some ferns, and are found

in the tissues just beneath the

epidermis.

390. Sclerenchyma cells, some-
times called grit or stony cells,
have hardened walls produced
by deposition upon them of the
horny substance found in the
pits of the Cherry, Peach, and

487, Collenchyma cells from leaf stalk
Plum and ,the Shells Of nutS; of Begonia; «, epidermal cells; <*, collen-

chyma cells; chl, chlorophyll grains; v,
SOmetimeS fOUnd in the fleshy thickened angles where these cells meet;

p, part of parenchyma cell

parts of the Pear.

488, Sclerenchyma cells ; PP, canals connecting the cavity t with the outer surface or adjacent cells;
1, 2, 3, thickened layers; p, in B, cell walls.

391. Epidermal cells appear in plate-like expan-
sions forming the outer coverings of leaves and young
bark ; their edges are in contact ; their boundaries are
either straight or sinuous ; and they are elongated in
the direction of growth. The edges are so firmly knit
together that the entire covering of one side of a leaf
may be removed intact. The epidermis at first is usu-
ally formed of a single layer, but later it is sometimes
made up of two or more layers (Fig. 489).

154

PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.

392. Hairs are outgrowths of epidermal cells, and
are composed usually of greatly elongated single cells
(Figs. 490-497), which fre-
quently branch ; others are
made up of a number of cells.
Hairs take on a number of
forms by branching.

Scales are another form of
epidermal outgrowth, and ap-

- _ _ .. . 489, Is a vertical section of a leaf of Bank-

pear in the lOrm OI dlSKS. s\&\ a, a, show two layers of cells in the epi-

dermis; c, hairs found in little cavities on the

Bristles are hair-like proc- "under side of the leaf,
esses, the walls of whose cells are hardened.

Prickles are outgrowths of a still firmer character.

494

490, Rootlet of Madder, showing cells expanded into hair-like processes. 491, Section of a glandular
hair of Fraxinella. 492, Hair of Brionia, composed of several cells. 493, Hair surmounted by a gland, An-
tirrhinum majus. 494, Stinging hair of Urrica dioica. 495, Jointed hair from a stamen of Tradescandia.
496, Star-shaped hair from the petiole of Nuphar advena (X200). 497, Branched hair of Arabis.

393. Glands are processes consisting of a single
cell or an aggregation of cells, situated a little above,
at, or just beneath the surface, the function of which
is to secrete and discharge peculiar substances, as oils,
nectar, etc. Glands sometimes terminate in a hair-like
process (Fig. 493).

Stinging hairs are usually setaceous and sufficiently
rigid to perforate animal tissue ; having entered, the

VEGETABLE HISTOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

155

apex breaks off and the contained irritating liquid is
discharged into the wound, producing the sting.

394. Stoma-cells are epidermal. Stomata are
mouths or openings into the intercellular spaces of the
leaves and young bark, sometimes called breathing-
pores. They are guarded each by two half-moon-
shaped cells whose concave sides lie next each other ;
when filled with liquids, their concavity increases, leav-
ing an orifice between the guard cells. For the passage
of air and moisture when the atmosphere is dry and
the plant can not afford to part with its fluids, the
guard cells lose their concavity, the sides become
straight, the orifice closes, and evaporation is arrested.
The number of these openings is very great, many
thousands appearing in a square inch of surface (Figs.
498-500).

498, Cells of epidermis with a stoma from leaf of Helleborus fcetidus. 499, Vertical section of a stoma of
Narcissus ; a, cuticle. 500, Epidermis cells with stomata of Tradescantia Virginica— a, a, guard cells.

395. Cork cells are cubical or tabular, and fit closely
together ; in the outer layers they are dead and empty,
and constitute the outer bark layers of old trees, prom-
inent in the Quercus suber (Cork Oak).

156

PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.

CHAPTER II.

TISSUES.

396. Parenchyma is a tissue composed of short
cells, usually with intercellular spaces among them,
and is the foundation of vegetable structure. All cells
may be regarded as modifications of parenchyma ; the
various markings and forms being due to alterations
which go on by degrees to fit them for the functions
they are to exercise in the tissues of the plant.

397. In the lower plants the entire individual con-
sists of parenchyma, and it is found throughout the
structure of the higher

plants, mingled and in-
terlaced with other tis-
sue, especially in their
green parts. Fig. 501
is a microscopic view
of a thin slice of the
rhizome of Sanguina-
ria Canadensis, mag-
nified to 100 diame-
ters; the cells are un-

der pressure, and vary
*_ , . . ,

greatly in SIZe and.

shape, and have a bun-

dle of wood-cells imbedded among them. For forms

and size of cells see No. 385 ; also see Figs. 480-482.

398. Prosenchyma is the generic name of the
elongated, painted cells or fibers without intercellular
spaces that form plant tissues.

gection of the rhiZome.of Bloodroot ; a, a, a bundle of

TISSUES.

157

tion forming a flbro- vascular bundle.

399. Woody tissue is made up of slender, lengthened,
lignified cells, which taper at the

ends, and are found in woody
plants overlapping each other,
and packed in bundles (Figs.
502-504).

400. Bast tissue is composed
of elongated cells, with thickened
walls, not sufficiently lignified to
be hard ; they are flexible and
tough, and abound in the inner
bark of dicotyledonous trees and
shrubs.

401. Disk-bearing tissue is constituted of length-

ened cells, which have pits or
lens-shaped markings, found in
the Pine and other gymnosperms
(Fig. 505).

402. Vessels or ducts are
tubes or passages through which
the fluids pass from one part of
the plant's structure to another.
In the formation of these pas-
sages elongated cells arrange
themselves end to end, become
anastomosed ; the walls in the
ends -of the cells are ruptured or
disappear, and uninterrupted pas-
sages are produced.

403. Spiral vessels are con-
505, Lengthwise section of (Scotch structed by the union of spiral

Pine) Pinus Sylvestris, showing disk-
bearing tissue ; <*, Cambium wood-ceiis; cells, in the manner described in

a, Z>, c, etc., older cells ; t, t', t", bordered

pits; st, large pits (x225).-Socfts. ^Q ^g^ article (Fig. 506).

158

PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.

404. Annular or ringed ducts are produced by the
union end to end of annular cells, the walls of which
are held apart by rings or hoop-like

thickenings on the inner surface (Fig.
507, A, B, 0).

405. Scalariform ducts, character-
istic of ferns, are formed when the an-
nular vessels are compressed into pris-
matic forms whose sides present the
appearance of ladders (Fig. 507, D).

406. Dotted or pitted ducts are
formed of dotted or pitted cells, as in
the case of annular cells (Fig. 507, E).

407. Sieve ducts or tubes are
formed of colorless elongated cells, of

large diameter; the walls are soft and from Mamillaria-

very much enlarged and thickened at the joints ; at

the junctions finely perforated plates appear (Fig.

506

50 i

507, A, annular vessel from leaf-stalk of Melon ; B, duct, part spiral and part annular, from Melon ; C,
part annular and part reticulated duct from Melon ; D, annular and reticulated ducts pressed into pris-
matic shape, forming scalariform vessels, from Tree-fern ; E, pitted or dotted duct, formed by the union
of pitted cells from melon-stalk.

508, A) ; also on the internodes are spots of fine per-
forations and slits (Fig. 508, B). These spots of per-
forations are like a strainer or sieve ; hence the name.

TISSUES.

159

TOS, A, Cross-section of Pumpkin vine (x'550); si, walls or septa at the union of cells, developing Into
sieve plates; c, c, cambium cells ; p, p, parenchyma. J3, Lengthwise section, showing the enlarged joiD** ;
g, an edge view of sieve septa; «i, sieve spot on the side-wall.

408. Latex vessels are
produced by the union end
to end of latex cells; by
anastomosing and branch-
ing a reticulated tissue is
formed which conveys the
milky juices of the plant
through its structure. In
the tissues of the Ficus
elastica, Euphorbia and the
milk weeds, besides the
Latex tubes, numerous
closed cells are present,
charged with the same
milky fluids as the ducts
(Fig. 509). The free cells
frequently elongate, and
sometimes branch.

These vessels are ar-
ranged in the stem as rep-
resented in Fig. 510.

vessel m°r'

160

PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.

• c

510, A, Lengthwise section of the Castor-oil plant. Beginning with the bark, r, cortical cells; gs, bun-
dle sheath; 5, bast fibers; p, bast parenchyma; c, cambium; the cells between c and p become sieve tubes;
*, t, pitted vessels ; q, shows an absorbed septum ; A", h", annular ducts; h, h, pitted vessels, resembling
annular ducts; 7, vessel apparently made up partly of annular cells and partly of reticulated cells; «, spiral
vessel, of very small caliber, next to the pith; a', larger calibered spiral vessel; m, pith-cells.

610, By Lengthwise slice of wood from an Ailanthus glandulosa, highly magnified; g, g, pitted ducts; p,p,
wood parenchyma; If, woody fibers 5 st, st, cross-section of medullary rays; t, annular ducts.

SYSTEMS OF TISSUES AND PLANT GROWTH.

161

CHAPTER III.

SYSTEMS OF TISSUES AND PLANT GROWTH.

409. The brief account of the cell and its modifica-
tions into tissues and ducts, prepares for the considera-
tion of the manner in which these organs are arranged
in the structure of plants.

In the lowest groups of plant life the individual is
either a single cell or an assemblage of soft cells, with-
out special order of arrangement.

410. Unicellular plants. — The most simple forms
of plant life are single minute cells, called Bacteria,
the smallest objects that are

known to exercise vital func-

tions ; they are so small that

50,000 laid on a line side

by side would occupy a

space less than an inch in

length. The typical form

is globular, appearing under

the microscope as a minute

granule or dot, as No. 1 in

Fig. 511; they are, however, frequently elongated, and

appear in an oval form, as in No. 2 ; again, they take

on the form of a fine line, straight, curved, or crooked,

as in No. 3 ; another time they are spiral, as in No. 4.

These minute cells are stored with protoplasm, and

swim in fluids from which they obtain nourishment.

They increase by fission, and multiply with marvelous

rapidity. They are found in the watery fluids of both

animals and plants.

Sarclne; 2, Bacterium; 3i Vibro; 4, gpiril.
lum>

162

PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.

Some Bacteria separate into spores ; and diseases in men as well as plants
are believed to be due to the presence of Bacteria. They are parasitical or
saprophytic, feeding on living or decaying matter; they are the agents of de-
cay and revel upon the ruins they produce. As they multiply by fission, they
are called Schizomycetes (^x^, to divide, and M^S, a fungus). (Fig. 512.)

\ \

512

512, A, Bacterium Termo, magnified to 1,000 diameters, undergoing the process of fission. JB, Same,
magnified to 3,COO diameters, in which the process of fission is nearly completed. <7, Micrococci (x 1,000)
undergoing fission, the new cells arranging themselves in curved and crooked lines or in irregular groups.
D, Sarcina Ventriculi (x 1,000) undergoing fission in two directions, the new cells arranging themselves in
square groups.

411. The Yeast Plant (Fig. 513) is one of the most
interesting of the unicellular organisms ; it is the agent
of fermentation, and plays an important

part in bread-making, where it disinte-
grates the starch-grains in the flour, and
thereby liberates carbon dioxide ; the gas ^ ,
set free struggles to find its way through 513

513. Yeast Plant, Sac

the dough, becomes entangled, forms cav- charomyces cerevisi*.
ities in the mass, and makes it sponge-like or light.

412. The next grade above the plant which is a
single cell is one composed of a mass of cells without
a special axis of growth ; as some of the Sea-weeds,
which are mere masses of flat cells arranged in two
layers, forming irregular leaf-like expansions.

SYSTEMS OF TISSUES AND PLANT GROWTH.

163

413. This book is intended to consider the higher
plants only ; we shall therefore now proceed to describe
the manner in which the modi-
fied cells and vessels are ar-
ranged in the higher organized

plant structures.

414. Exogenous or Dicotyle-
donous structure. — Growth in the
most highly organized plants is
best illustrated by the examina-
tion of a tree or shoot of Oak,

Maple, Apple, or Cherry at the end of the first year of
its life. A cross-section of such a
scion presents a circle of pith in
the center, around which are con-
centric circular rings, the inner one
wood, the outer ones bark. In the
figure (514), a, the pith; 5, the
wood ; c, the bark. On the inner
edge of the wood is a ring of spi-
ral vessels, d, which is called the
medullary or pith sheath. The pith
is made up of parenchyma and
extends between the wedges of
wood in flat cells connecting the
pith with the bark (1, 2, 3, Fig.
515, A, cross-section of the stem of 514), forming the silver grain

a Maple at the end of the first season's . /--\i i •» /r i 11

growth; i, edge of the pith; 2, spiral seen in Oak and Maple planks,

vessels: 3, wood region made up of . , • i i • i j.' £t

woody fiber and dotted ducts and other Or III a longitudinal SCCtlOn Ol
vessels; 4, camhium layer made up of , ,, -, . j

new cells; 5, liber: 6, larger cells and thOS6 and Other Cabinet WOOQS
vessels of the liber or bast region; 7,

cellular envelope or green bark; 8, When Split.

corky envelope or outer bark ; 9, the .,

skin, or epidermis. B, shows corre- 415. The WOOQ IS made Up OI

sponding vessels and tissues in a ver-
tical section of the same plant, woody fiber interspersed with tis-

164

PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.

sues composed of the cells, vessels, and ducts which
have already been described.

416. The bark at the end of the first year's growth
is made up of three layers : the one next the wood,
called bast, is composed of pa-
renchyma, sieve vessels, and li-
ber-cells ; on account of the pre-
dominance of the bast ducts in
this layer, it has been called the
last region (Figs. 508, 516).
The liber-cells are long, strong
fibers, and in some plants are
very tenacious and flexible, form-
ing the material in Hemp, Flax,
and other textile substances util-
ized in manufacture of cordage
and fabrics.

Next to the bast is the green
cellular layer, called phellogen,
because by its dividing, it pro-
duces outside of it cork, which
increases by the addition of new

material to the inner surface. ^_^_

The cork is usually of a brown

.516, Is a photograph from nature of a

or ashv color, sometimes white layer of bast-fibrous bundles found in the

secondary bark of the' stem of an old Carica

or striped ; in old trees it is IGtfSZ^Stt&Z
cracked and broken by the KLTG^S-JJSSJ

o-TTkAxrtVi r»f fVifi ASrnorl nnH fflllQ have formed an irregular net- work with
giOW til Ul LI1U WUUU, c elongated sinuous meshes. These meshes

off in scales or strips, as in the J^S^'tJSJ^^SS1!!
shag-bark Hickory ; in the Paper moved by maceration'
Birch it peels off in sheets resembling paper. Upon
some trees it develops into thick porous layers, and
upon the Cork Oak furnishes the cork of commerce.

SYSTEMS OF TISSUES AND PLANT GROWTH. 165

417. During the season of activity the young stem
continues to increase both in height and diameter by
the multiplication of cells and the formation of the
various tissues required by the conditions of growth
(Chap. III., Introduction) ; hence a mass of infant cells
is constantly present between the wood and the bark,
and in the buds of the stem and branches.

On the approach of winter the leaves fall, the ter-
minal buds refuse to expand, and the entire process
of growth is arrested, until the revivifying warmth of
the succeeding spring unlocks the imprisoned forces
that have slept during the frosty season, when the
fluids from the earth begin to flow upward and out-
ward through the vessels and ducts of the last year's
wood to the bark and the leaves ; the young cambium
cells which have slumbered through the winter are
filled with sap and commence another season of
growth ; the buds burst into leaves or flowers, and the
greatest activity succeeds the late period of rest. The
young cells multiply and increase in size, most of
them being changed into woody fiber and ducts, com-
mencing a new layer of wood on
the outside of the last layer, and
a new layer of bast on the inside
of the old one ; also a new layer
on the inside of the cortex layer.
In this way the work goes on, and
layer after layer is added for each
period of activity, which in regions ^^jjjjjj^?' 517
of severe frost occurs yearly (Fig. 517, is a photograph of & cross-

T-rT' T • section of an oak-stem twenty-five

517). Within the trOpiCS and all years old, showing the annual circular

rings, the whole surrounded by the

regions of no frost, periods of rest rough bark.

and activity may occur more frequently than once a

166 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.

year, and therefore the number of rings on a cross-
section does not always indicate the number of years
in the age of a tree. But in the higher latitudes a
new tube of wood and one of the inner bark is formed
yearly.

That more than one ring of wood may, and sometimes does, form in one
season of growth, even in regions of severe frost, has been established by
observation.

418. Sap wood is a name applied to the new wood,
and usually includes several of the last formed layers ;
it is so called because the fluids in moving upward from
the ground pass through its vessels. In most trees it
is of a lighter color than the older layers, and on that
account was called by early botanists Lignum album,
white wood ; now called Alburnum, or white wood.

419. Heart wood is that part of the trunk or stem
near the center or heart, and for that reason called
Heart wood. It is usually more dense, and therefore
called Duramen, hard wood. In some species it is
much darker than the sap wood, hence former botan-
ists called it Lignum nigrum, Black wood. In some
plants, as the Black Walnut, the Duramen is very
dark, while the Heart wood of the Maple is not much
darker than the sap wood, though they may grow side
by side and draw from the earth the same materials.
It would seem, therefore, that chemical changes take
place either in the plant's structure or upon the ma-
terials taken in to suit the necessities of each case.

On account of the mode of growth in Dicotyledonous stems, the name
Exogens, or outside growers, was formerly applied to plants of this structure.
They are characterized by two or more seed leaves in their embryo, and pro-
duce netted-veined leaves. See Dicotyledons, pages 163-166.

Nearly all the trees and shrubs of the temperate
zones are Exogens or Dicotyledonous plants, well

SYSTEMS OF TISSUES AND PLANT GROWTH.

167

represented by the Oak,
Pine, Elm, Maple, Apple,
Pear, Peach, Cherry, and
other fruit and timber
trees.

420. The root is that
part of the plant that
grows downward into the
ground and holds the
whole firmly in the soil.
Its tissues correspond with
those of the stem to which
it belongs, and it increases
in diameter by additional
layers, one for each period
of activity, succeeded by
a rest. The extremity of
the root and that of each
of its branches is encased

519

520

519, Rootlet of Maple with hairs or fibrillae; «, root
cap. 520, Duckmeat, showing the root cap «.

518, a, Shrub; b, Fir; c, Oak-tree.

by a layer of older cells,
called the root .cap, a con-
trivance which seems to
be intended to protect the
tender infant cells just be-
hind it, which during the
growing season are increas-
ing and multiplying, to ex-
tend the root and rootlets
in all directions in the soil.
The parts of the root and
rootlets near the growing
points absorb the fluids
which are presented to
them in the soil, but this

168

PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.

absorption is largely helped by root hairs, which clothe
the root and rootlets, as seen in Figs. 519, 520. Fig.
519, root of a Maple sprinkled with hair-like processes
or minute fibrillse ; these are usually each a single
elongated cell, and appear on the newer parts of the
root, a little distance from the growing point, dying or
becoming useless on the older parts. The Boot, as to
use, form, etc., is treated in another place (see Chapter
XIII., Structural Botany).

CHAPTER IV.

MONOCOTYLEDONOUS STRUCTURE.

421. The woody fibers and vessels that make up
the stems of Palms, Indian Corn, Bamboo, Sugar Cane,
and all grass-like plants, are not arranged as they are
in the Oak, Maple, and Apple, already described. A
cross-section of a Palm stem presents
a mass of pith, dotted all over with
sections of woody fiber and vessels
without any apparent order of ar-
rangement (521); the whole inclosed
in a circular ring or rind, in which
the fibre-vascular bundles are smaller
than in the body of the stem. In a
longitudinal section the threads of woody fiber may
be traced from the bases of the leaves in a curve out
toward the center, and in a recurve back again to the
side whence they started (Figs. 522, 523). In stems
like the Indian Corn and the Grasses, with long spaces
between the leaves and closed nodes, the fibro-vascular
threads extend in straight lines from node to node,

521, Cross-section of the trunk
of a Palm.

MONOCOTYLEDONOUS STRUCTURE.

169

where they unite with those of the next internode.

The rind . of the Corn

stalk, Bamboo, Reed, etc.,

is smooth and flinty, due

to the deposition of silica

on the walls of the cells

that compose it. This mode

of growth is well shown in

the Palms of tropical and

SUb-trOpical regions, aS the 522' Vertical section of a Palm stem, showing

course and direction of fibers. 513, Theoretical

Palmetto of the Carolinas, plan of the direction of fibers in a vertical section of

7 a Palm stem ; a, a, bases of leaves, showing direc-

the Cocoanut Palm, many tiol> of fiber growth

thousands of which have been planted on the coast of

Florida.

422. The Palm, which is the type of the mono-

cotyledonous division of the
vegetable kingdom, reaches
perfection only in tropical or
sub-tropical regions. There
some of the members of
this great division tower to
the height of one hundred
and fifty feet, straight, un-
branched cylindrical col-
ums, crowned with a mass
of green foliage, presenting
to the eye magnificent ob-
jects of the picturesque and
beautiful. The Palm is one
of the most important or-
naments in planted grounds
in tropical countries, occu-
524, Paim, Agave, etc. pying a belt all around the

170 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.

globe of about thirty-five degrees both sides of the
Equator. It flourishes in the bare sands of the sea-
coast, skirts arid plains, beautifies the oasis of the
desert, and inhabits the murky bottoms of southern
swamps and low islands of Southern Asia and tropical
America. These plants are of vast utility, producing
food and many domestic and economic products.

There are certain noticeable things in the mode of
monocotyledonous growth. The stem has no proper
bark, does not increase in diameter after it is perfectly
formed, and, with few exceptions, consists of an un-
branched cylindrical column, made up of pith inter-
mingled with fibro-vascular threads, generally without
any order of arrangement, the whole inclosed in a
rind or false bark (521-524), well illustrated in a
cross-section of a stalk of Indian Corn. There are a
few plants that seem to be connecting links between
these two modes of growth ; a notable example of
which is Dracaena draco, or Dragon-tree, which has a
cambium region, and continues to increase in diameter.

Formerly these plants were called Endogens, meaning Inside growers,
in contradistinction to Exogens, or Outside growers, because the new ma-
terial of growth was then supposed to be deposited always inside of the last
deposit of woody bundles ; but as it is now known that the additions are
interspersed among the former ones, in most cases without special order, the
name is not expressive. Plants of this mode of growth have but one cotyle-
don, or seed leaf ; their flowers are mostly three-parted, and their leaves
generally parallel- veined. See Monocotyledons, pages 168-170.

423. Tissues of the Pteridophyta. — The Ferns and
their allies have a complicated and well-marked organi-
zation ; the outer bark is similar to that of the flower-
ing plants, and vascular-woody fiber extends through-
out the stem, and leaf stalks ramifying in the fronds,
to which the great beauty of this division of the
vegetable world is due.

LEAF STRUCTURE.

171

A cross-section of a Fern stem shows a mass of
parenchyma, supported by an outer sheath or tube of
vascular-woody bundles, the whole
inclosed by a cortex of dense scleren-
chyma, the leaf stems presenting the
same structure (Fig. 525).

424. Tissues of Bryophyta, moss-
like plants. — The higher types of this
division, while largely made up of
cellular masses, have a semi-vascu-
lar-fibro arrangement, and in some

525

525, Section of an Acrogenous
stem of Tree-Fern (Cyathea),

mosses the fibers are so strong as to showing the vascular bundles

imbedded near the circumference
of the cellular mass.

approach a woody character.

CHAPTER V.

LEAF STRUCTURE.

425. Leaves are composed of the same general
structure as the stems and branches which they clothe
and adorn, and are made up of vessels and tissues
already described: 1, woody fiber, which constitutes
the frame-work ; 2, cellular tissue, which fills up the
spaces between the ribs or frame-work formed by the
woody part. The leaf of a Maple, Elm, or Apple is
composed of: 1, the leaf-stalk, by which it is attached
to the stem or branch; 2, the blade, the expanded
part. The leaf-stalk or petiole is a column of bundles
of woody fiber and green tissue, covered by the epi-
dermal tissue. These bundles extend in length to suit
the size of the blade, throwing off branches and
branchlets to construct the frame, making an irregular
net-work, the meshes of which are filled up by the

172

PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.

green tissue. (See Structural Botany, Chapters XX.-
XXIII. inclusive.)

426. An important function of the leaf is to expose
a large surface ; consequently, the blade is thin and so
formed as to present the largest number of cells to
the air and sunlight.

The layer on the upper side of the blade is made
up of oblong cells, closely packed with their ends next
to the surface. The lower layers are made up of
smaller, more irregular and more loosely arranged
cells, and have their
longer diameters in the
direction of the surface
of the blade. The deep
green color of the up-
per surface of leaves is
largely due to the com-
pactness of the green
cells in the upper layer,
while the paler color of
the under side is the
consequence of the
loose arrangement of 8how its opening into the intercellular "assaees-
those in the lower strata. The epidermal covering of
the leaf, as before described, is a thin membrane made
up of one, two, or three layers of empty thick-walled
cells (Figs. 489-524 inclusive).

427. Respiration is the act of drawing air into the
lungs and casting it out again. (From the Latin re,
again, and spirare, to blow or breathe.) The air while
in the lungs is known to part with some of its oxygen,
and what is breathed out is charged with substances
which it did not possess when taken in ; therefore the

526, Magnified portion of the leaf of Viola tricolor in
perspective; a, cells of the epidermis, sometimes called
plate cells; b, compact layer of green cells next to the
upper surface; c, loose cells below; d, epidermal cells of
the lower surface, with stomata, one of which is cut to

LEAF STRUCTURE.

173

taking in of oxygen and its combination with other
substances while in the lungs and the liberation of
substances thus formed constitute respiration in ani-
mals. So with plants ; they suck or draw in air
through openings in the epidermis already described,
and when it is discharged it is found to be changed in
character, having been robbed of its oxygen or of its
carbon dioxide. The oxygen of the air while among

528

527, Is the section of a young stem or branch showing, at p, the pith; a, vascular-fibro bundle, passing
off from the stem to form the leaf-stalk and frame- work of the blade; d, the swelling just below the foot of
the stalk; I, the base of the footstalk; 6, the axillary bud; c, the articulation or point where the leaf-stalk
is attached to the branch or stem. 528, Magnified section of a leaf perpendicular to its surface; P, hair on
the upper surface; ST, stoma; Es, epidermis of the upper surface made up of plate cells (§ 391); Ps, oval
cells closely packed with longer ones perpendicular to the epidermis; M, interspace beneath the stoma;
i, interspaces among the irregular shaped, loosely packed cells of the lower stratum Pi; Fv, cross-section
of fibro-vascular bundle: JSi, lower epidermis with hairs. (See Figs. 489 to 500.)

the tissues unites with substances found there, and
new material for plant growth is thus formed ; in the
night carbon dioxide is breathed out. It has been
shown by experiment that air is not only required for
the health of plants, but that they can not exist with-
out it ; for when placed in a vacuum, they invariably
perish. Respiration is therefore' necessary to the life
of plants as well as to animal life. .

428. Breathing goes on in all parts of plants ex-
posed to the air, at night as well as in the daytime;

174 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.

and at night especially oxygen is consumed and car-
bon dioxide is set free. This fact has led to the in-
ference that

Potted plants in a living room render the air unfit
to breathe ; but carefully conducted experiments have
shown that one hundred ordinary stove plants would
not injure the air of a moderate sized sitting or living
room to an extent that could be in any way injurious.

429. Metabolism is the name applied to the process
which goes on in the structure of living plants that
alters one kind of material of plant growth into an-
other ; an example of which is the change of starch
into cellulose.

430. Assimilation is the process of taking into the
plant's structure surrounding substances and convert-
ing them into materials for plant growth, and consists
mainly in changing inorganic substances into vegetable
structure. The bulk of all woody plants is largely com-
posed of carbon, hence assimilation in such plants con-
sists mainly in disintegrating carbon dioxide, and ap-
propriating the carbon. Assimilation is carried on in
the cells of the green tissue and in sunlight.

Some of the substances suspended in the watery
fluids of plants and the constituents of water itself are
used directly by the protoplasm in the preparation of
food ; carbon dioxide, however, must first be decom-
posed, in which process its oxygen is set free, and the
carbon enters into the ligneous structure, or both oxy-
gen and carbon enter into new combinations which the
protoplasm can use. For example, water and carbon
dioxide contain all the materials found in starch.
These compounds having been separated into their
constituents, the elements reunite in quantities that

LEAF STRUCTURE. 175

produce starch and other carbohydrates, as oils, sugars,
gums, etc. These are either used to supply the plant's
immediate wants or stored in some of its organs for
future use.

The decomposition of water and carbon dioxide lib-
erates oxygen, which may be seen in bubbles on the
submerged parts of water plants ; this gas escaping
into the air, helps to keep it pure.

431. Movements of fluids. — The root takes up from
the earth the watery substances which are presented
to it ; the cells at the extremities of the root and
rootlets are first gorged ; these impart to the cells and
vessels next in contact, which take up the fluids by in-
filtration, and so they are passed on up the stem largely
through the cells and vessels of the last season's wood,
and outward through the same class of cells and
ducts, along the branches to the leaves and new twigs.
Having reached these green parts, much of the water
passes off by evaporation ; what remains becomes
changed by the action of sunlight and fitted for build-
ing up the plant's structure. It then by some mode
of transfusion finds its way back to all the growing
parts of the plant where new material is needed.

432. Circulation. — Careful observation and experi-
ment have demonstrated that there is an upward cur-
rent of water or watery fluids through the stem, by
way principally of the fibre-vascular tissues ; but no
downward movement has been detected answering to
a current. Hence there is not a circulation which cor-
responds to what takes place in the higher animals.
Yet the prepared sap reaches parts of the plant's
structure lower than the points where it was prepared ;
hence it must go downward,

176 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.

How the elaborated sap passes back and even
downward through the cells and vessels that are at
the same time employed conveying the crude watery
fluids up from the root is not understood. We are not
acquainted with any physical or chemical force which
causes the crude sap to creep through the cells and
ducts of the trunks and branches of great trees, hun-
dreds of feet in height ; nor is the transfusion of the
prepared fluids and cell materials to every part of the
plant's structure where food is required less difficult
to explain.

In fact, observation and experiment have thus far
failed to account for these mysterious movements.

CHAPTER VI.

FERTILIZATION.

433. The higher plants produce seeds, each of
which contains an embryo of a new plant. The seed
has already been defined as the ripened ovule or as
the fertilized and mature ovule. The fertilization of
the ovule is accomplished by the mingling of the
protoplasm of the pollen cell with the protoplasm of
the ovule, which is brought about in the following
manner :

434. Process of Fertilization. — The ripened anther
opens and discharges its pollen grains, some of which,
by the action of the wind or the aid of insects, reach
the stigma ; when one has secured a lodgment, influ-
enced by the moist surface of the stigma, it germi-
nates, sends down through the tube of the style a
tube as the radicle of the seed penetrates the earth

FERTILIZATION.

177

(Chapter III., Introduction). This delicate tube pro-
longs itself downward till it reaches the ovary, enter-
ing it ; comes in contact with
the ovule, which it penetrates,
and discharges the proto-
plasm of the pollen grain
upon the protoplasm of the
germ cell, or ovule, and thus
fertilizes it. The protoplasm
of the two cells having min-
gled, the ovule ripens into a
seed, in which resides the
embryo of a new plant.

The quantity of proto-
plasm in the ovule or germ
cell is greater than that con-
tained in the pollen grain.

435. Gamogenesis (Greek
ydpog, marriage, yeveais, pro-
duction).— Formation by mar-
riage is the name applied to
this mode of fertilization.

529, Section of the ovary of Polygonum Penn-

436. Conjugation iS the sylvanicum, in process of fertilization. (Magni-
fied 20 diameters.) c, Natural size; n, one of the

Of another mode Which stamens. having discharged its pollen ; «, a grain

of pollen and its tube; s, styles and stigmas; o,

3mpHshed bV the Union ovary> ovule< «ml>ry° sac containing the embry-
onic globule. The extremity of a pollen-tube is
Of tWO Similar CellS Side by seen in contact with the embryo sac.

side, the combination resulting in a germinating cell.

437. The ovule fertilized becomes a new center of
growth. First it expands to a proper cell, attached to
the wall of the sac near the micropyle. It then, by
division and subdivision, multiplies itself, and begins to
take form according to the species, showing cotyledon,
plumule, etc., until fully developed into the embryo.

178

PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.

In the case of the CONIFERS (Pines, Cedars, Mrs), where no styles or stig-
mas exist, the pollen falls directly into the microphyle of the naked ovule,
and its tubes settle into the tissue of the nucleus. •

438. Germination. —The ovule matures with the
completion of the embryo, and passes into the fixed
state of the seed in which the embryo

sleeps. A store of nutritive matter,
starch, gluten, etc., is thoughtfully pro-
vided in the seed for the use of the
young plant in germination, until its
root has gained fast
hold of the soil.

439. The changes
which occur in the
seed at the recom-
mencement of growth
are simply such as are
requisite to reduce its
dry deposits to a solu-
tion which shall

the proper

/? II •CrkT,TVI Q Tne fertilized cell has divided itself into several, of which c, b

-IOI ina- constitute the suspensor attached te the apex of the sac ; a, em-

tion or growth. Gluten b

and other nitrogenous matters, oil, starch, etc., are to
be changed to diastase and dextrine. To accomplish
this, water is taken up, oxygen absorbed, plant-food
dissolved and moved to points where it is needed, and
used in constructing new cells and tissues.

440. Ripening of Fruits. —After the fruit has attained its full growth
the process of ripening commences, during which the pulp becomes gradually
sweetened and softened, chiefly by the change of the starch into more or less
of soluble sugar. Thus ripening is to the pericarp what germination is to the
seed. In its earliest stage the pericarp consists of structure similar to that of
green leaves, composed of cellular, vascular, and woody tissues, and epider-
mis and stomata. Its distended growth afterward results from the accumula-
tion of the flowing sap, which here finds an axis incapable of extension. Thus

530, Ovule of Viola tricolor, showing the process of fertili-
zation; p, pollen; t, tube; r, raphe; c, chalaza; 6, primine; a,
secundine; n, nucleus; s, sac, which the tube appears to have
Illdf penetrated. 531, Growth of the embryo in Hippuris vulgaris.

FERTILIZATION. 179

arrested in its progress, it gorges the pistil and adjacent parts, is condensed by
exhalation, assimilated by their green tissues, which still perform the office of
leaves. Cell-formation goes on rapidly within, and the excess of cellulose is
deposited in the cells as starch. Oxygen is usually absorbed in excess, acidi-
fying the juices.

441. In the same way we account for the produc-
tion of honey in the flower. Copious deposits of starch
are provided in the receptacle and disk (§ 85). At the
opening of the flower, this is changed to sugar, to aid
in the rapid development of those delicate organs
which have no chlorophyl wherewith to assimilate
their own food. The excess of sugar flows over in the
form of honey. The wise economy of the honey is
seen in fertilization. For, attracted by it, the insect
enters the flower, rudely brushes the pollen from the
now open anthers, and inevitably lodges some of its
thousand grains upon the stigma !

442. Experiment has proved that in all these cases of the formation of
sugar from starch, a molecule of water is absorbed— a process which we might
expect, since starch (Cia H20 Oi0), or n(C8H10O5) contains proportionably two
less hydrogen and one less oxygen than sugar (d2 H22 On) contains.

443. Pollination, cross-fertilization, etc. — Pollen is
essential to the fertilization of the flower. It must
not only be produced, but must also in some way be
conveyed to the stigma, and lodged on its surface.
Another requisite is that the pollen and pistil shall
either be : 1st, parts of the same flower ; or, 2d, of other
flowers of the same plant ; or, 3d, of the same species ;
or, 4th, of closely related species. In the first and
second cases the -process may be called self-fertiliza-
tion ; in the third case, cross-fertilization; in the
fourth case, hybridization.

444. Whether the first, second, or third process
shall prevail in any given species will depend on the

180 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.

structure, number, or arrangement of the floral organs.
In the few flowers which never open, — the Cleisto-
gamous, such as the late apetalous flowers of the Blue
Violet, and also probably those of Gentiana Andrewsii,
only self-fertilization is possible. But in the multitude
of open flowers with both stamens and pistils exposed,
as in the Lily, Rose, Morning G-lory, either self or cross
fertilization is possible unless determined by some
other special circumstance. The stigma may receive
pollen directly from its own stamens, or indirectly
from other flowers near or remote, through the agency
of winged insects, humming-birds, or of the wind.
Again there are flowers in which the organs are so
situated that self-fertilization is very difficult, or even
impossible. Of this class are the Asclepiads and
Orchids, whose pollen, cohering in masses (pollinia), is
inclosed in cavities, and only dragged forth by insects
to be carried to other flowers. So in Iris, where the
extrorse anthers and petaloid stigmas are averted from
each other, the former beneath, and shedding its pollen
downward.

445. Dichogamous Plants. — In some species the
stamens and pistils are not cotemporary in the same
plant, but the stamens of one plant mature at the
same time with the pistils of another plant, and vice
versa. This necessitates cross-fertilization, and the
agency of the wind or of insects. We have examples
in the Grasses, the common Plantain, in Scrophularia,
etc.

446. Dimorphous Plants are such as the Mints
(Mentha), the Yellow Jessamine (Gelsemium), Hous-
tonia cserulea, etc. In these the flowers assume two
forms, with the stamens and pistils cotemporary in

FEETILIZATION. 181

both. In some the stamens are exserted and pistil
included, while in others the stamens are included and
style exserted. This arrangement also favors cross-
fertilization through insect agency.

447. The service thus performed by insects in be-
half of vegetation is very important. Numerous spe-
cies are wholly dependent on bees, moths, flies, for the
dissemination of their pollen, and consequently for
their very existence. Many other species, although
capable of self-fertilization, are still greatly benefited
by the intercrossings of pollen which the visits of
insects occasion. Of course the bees have no idea of
these benefactions. They visit the flowers solely for
their own good. The nectar which they seek is always
so situated as to oblige them to disturb the pollen or
pollinia as they pass and repass, get besprinkled with
it, and so encounter the stigmas from flower to flower.

448. It would seem important that the bee or moth
should confine its visits during any one excursion to
plants of the same species. And this it often does, as
shown4 by observation, avoiding the mingling of its
nectars as well as the confusion of its pollens. In
accomplishing this, the insect may be led by habit,
becoming accustomed, for the hour, to one form of
nectary ; or it may be drawn by uniform odor of the
flowers, or by their gay and special colors. For we
observe that the flowers of grasses and of forest trees
whose pollen is wafted by the wind, requiring no aid
from insects, are destitute both of bright colors and of
fragrance, and of honey.

449. From these observations and many others of
similar import, it is inferred that Nature insists on the
fertilization of the stigma in every plant by all means,

182 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY.

at least when growing in its native home ; also, that
of the two general modes, self, or cross, she greatly
prefers the latter.

450. What are the reasons for this preference?
The solution of this inquiry has engaged the attention
of many skillful investigators, until it seems to be
proved that the offspring of cross-fertilization are as a
rule decidedly superior in size, vigor, and variety,

PART THIRD.
SYSTEMATIC BOTANY.

CHAPTER I.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION.

451. Systematic Botany has for its object the ar-
rangement of Plants into Groups and Families accord-
ing to their characters, for the purpose of facilitating
the study of their names, affinities, habits, history,
properties, and uses. In this department the prin-
ciples of Organic and Physiological Botany are applied
and brought into practical use.

452. But there is another and higher import in the
study of Systematic Botany. It shows us Plants as
related to each other and constituting one magnificent
system. It reveals the Almighty Creator at once em-
ployed in the minutest details and upon the boundless
whole ; equally attentive to the perfection of the indi-
vidual in itself, and to the completeness of the System
of which that individual forms a necessary part.

453. The necessity for such an arrangement of the Species will appear
•when we consider their immense number. They meet us in ever-varying
forms at every step, clothing the hills, mountains, valleys, and plains. They
spring up in hedges and by the way-side. They border the streams and lakes,
and sprinkle over their surface. They stand assembled in forests, and cover
with verdure even the depths of the Ocean. Not less than 150,000 kinds are
already distinguished, and the catalogue is still growing.

184 SYSTEMATIC BOTANY.

454. Into this vast kingdom of Nature the student is introduced, and pro-
poses to acquaint himself with each and every object. How shall he begin?
Evidently he must begin with the individual — a single individual plant. But
(thanks to Him who created both the plant and the mind— the object and the
subject), he is not left to continue the study in a method so endless and so
hopeless. As if in special regard to the measure of the human intellect and
the means of its culture, the Great Author of Nature has grouped these
myriads of individuals into the following divisions :

455. Species are individuals of a common origin or
parentage capable of producing their kind, though fre-
quently differing from each other in size, form, and
other unimportant characters. A species has been de-
nned as a "succession of individuals which reproduces
and perpetuates itself."

456. Variety, or Race, is a sub-species. This term
is applied to individual plants that possess marked
variations from specific characters, but not of suffi-
cient constancy to entitle them to the rank of species.
These differences are frequently brought about by the
quality of the soil or locality, but especially by culti-
vation.

Race characters are perpetuated and become con-
stant by grafting, budding, and carefully selecting
well-marked individuals from which to obtain seed.

The desirable characters of most of our fruits and
table vegetables are made constant in this way.

457. Genus is the name for a Group of individual
plants which resemble each other in the form and
structure of their organs of Fructification and Repro-
duction.

Illustration — The individuals of the Crowfoot Kind differ in the size and
color of their flowers, some of which are yellow, others white ; in the size and
form of their stems, some of which grow erect, others prostrate and in the
shape of their leaves. Their organs of Fructification, however, are all con-
structed upon the same plan, and the function of polination is performed in

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION. 185

the same manner ; hence they are grouped together and constitute the Genus
Ranunculus.

458. Orders. —But natural affinities do not end here. The genera are yet
too numerous for the ready and systematic study of the naturalist. He, there-
fore, would generalize still further, and reduce the genera to still fewer and
broader groups. On comparing the genera with each other, he finds that they
also possess in common certain important characters which are of a more
general nature than those which distinguish them from each other. By these
general characters the genera are associated into Orders.

459. For example : comparing such genera as the Mustard, Radish, Cab-
bage, Cress, Wallflower, etc., it is seen that, while they differ sufficiently in
their generic characters, yet they all have certain marked resemblances in
their didynamous stamens, siliquous fruit, whereby they are obviously asso-
ciated in the same Order — the Cruciferee. So, also, the Pines, the Spruces,
the Cedars, the Larches, and the Cypress, while as genera they are obviously
distinct, yet all bear cones of some form, with naked seeds ; hence they are
naturally grouped into one Order — the Coniferae.

460. glasses. — In like manner the Orders, by traits of resemblance still
more general, are associated in a few groups, each of great extent, called
Classes.

461. Intermediate Groups, formed on the same principles, are recog-
nized as Subgenera, Suborders or Tribes, and Subclasses or Cohorts, which
will be particularly noticed in another place. Of the same nature, also, are
Varieties, which are groups subordinate to species, already described in § 28.

462. Systems. — Two independent and widely dif-
ferent methods of classifying the genera have been
generally approved — the Artificial Method of Linnaeus,
and the Natural System of Jussieu. The former is
founded solely on characters relating to the organs of
fructification, leaving all other natural affinities out of
view. It is simply an arrangement devised by Linnaeus
for convenience in the analysis of plants — as words in
a dictionary, for convenience of reference, are arranged
alphabetically, without regard to their nature. It is
now superseded by —

463. The Natural System. — This method or system
of classification, on the contrary, makes use of every
natural character and takes for its basis all those
natural affinities and resemblances of plants whereby
Nature herself has distinguished them into groups and

186 SYSTEMATIC BOTANY.

families. It seizes upon every character wherein plants
agree or disagree, and forms its associations only upon
the principle of natural affinity. Hence, each member
of any natural group resembles the other members ;
and a fair description of one will serve, to a certain
extent, for all the rest.

464. The species and genera are formed on this
principle of classification, as above stated, and are
truly natural associations. Individuals altogether simi-
lar— cast, as it were, in the same mold — constitute a
species. Species agreeing in nearly all respects, and
differing but in few, constitute a genus. Thence the
genera, associated by their remaining affinities in
groups of few or many, by this same method are
organized into Natural Orders and other departments
of the System.

CHAPTER II.

NATURAL SYSTEM.

465. Botanists during the last two hundred years
have labored to group and arrange the individuals of
the vegetable kingdom so that the natural characters
of each group shall be most like those of the next
preceding group.

466. In 1694, Tournefort, a French physician and
botanist, published a method of arrangement in which
he defined and established the term genus as we now
understand it.

467. Early in 1700, John Ray, an English natu-
ralist, separated the vegetable kingdom into the fol-
lowing general groups ;

NATURAL SYSTEM. 187

I. Phanerogamia. — Plants that bear Flowers.
II. Cryptogamia.— Plants that do not produce Flowers.

Suit-divisions of Flowering Plants.

1. Dicotyledones — Plants whose embryo has two seed

leaves, or more than two.

2. Monocotyledones — Plants whose embryo has one

seed leaf.

468. Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist, in 1736, while
only twenty years of age, published the outlines of
his celebrated sexual system, based upon the num-
ber, situation, and relative length of the pistils and
stamens, which, though artificial and misleading, earned
for its author a deathless fame.

469. In 1789, A. L. de Jussieu, embodying the
grand features of Ray with those of Tournefort, laid
the foundation of the natural system which, under
various modifications, has come down to us.

470. August P. de Candolle greatly modified the
arrangement of Jussieu, especially by reversing the
sequence, placing the most highly organized plants
first in order.

The following is a brief sketch of the latest ar-
rangement, and is substantially the one mapped out
by Sachs ; the order of sequence, however, is changed :

471. Phanerogamia. — Flowering plants, or plants
whose flowers or organs of fructification are exposed
to view.

Plants of this class have roots, stems, and leaves
through which bundles of woody fiber extend ; they
bear flowers, in special parts of which reproductive
organs are- produced that form embryonic bodies

188 SYSTEMATIC BOTANY.

called seeds; these seeds germinating, become new
plants.

472. Cryptogamia. — Flowerless plants or plants
that do not produce seeds ; their reproductive appa-
ratus forms cell-like bodies, without cotyledons, called
spores, which germinate indifferently from any part of
the cell ; these spore-like seeds of the Cryptogams
germinating, produce new plants.

These plants are called flowerless, because their
organs of reproduction are concealed or obscure ; hence
the name Cryptogamia, or concealed nuptials.

VEGETABLE KINGDOM.

SUB-KINGDOM I.

473. Phanerogamia. — Plants that bear proper flow-
ers and produce seeds, derived from the Greek words
cfxivepog, open, and yd^o^, marriage, signifying open mar-
riage.

474. CLASS I. Dicotyledones. — Plants with two seed
leaves or cotyledons. From the Greek words &V, two,
and KOTvhqduv, a hollow disk, alluding to the shape of
the coatings or walls of the seed leaves.

475. Angiosperms. — Plants whose seeds are in-
closed in a pericarp or vessel. From the Greek dyyeZov,
a vessel, and a-rrepfia, a seed, signifying plants whose
seeds are inclosed by a covering ; as, ?he Apple, Maple,
Oak, etc.

476. COHORT 1, A. Polypetalae. — Dicotyledonous
plants whose flowers have both calyx and corolla ;
corolla composed of separate petals, which are some-
times slightly coherent at their bases ; as, the flowers
of the Buttercup, Apple, Strawberry, etc.

477. COHORT 2, B. Gamopetalse. — Dicotyledonous

NATURAL SYSTEM. 189

plants whose flowers have both calyx and corolla, with
petals more or less united ; as, Elder, Arrow-wood, etc.

478. COHORT 3, C. Apetalae. — Dicotyledonous plants,
whose flowers have a calyx but no corolla, and some-
times neither ; as, Ragweed, Goosefoot, etc.

479. CLASS II. Gymnosperms, Dicotyledones or Poly-
cotyledones. — Plants whose seed is not inclosed by a
vessel or pericarp, derived tfrom the Greek words
ytyzvo^, naked, and anepfm, seed, naked seed. Stem
elongated, solid ; leaves nearly parallel-veined ; flowers
not perfect ; pistil scale-like ; no stigma ; ovules not
inclosed in a vessel ; embryo with two or more oppo-
site or whorled cotyledons.

480. COHORT 4, D. Coniferae. — Pines, Spruces, and
other cone-bearing trees and shrubs.-

481. CLASS III. Monocotyledones. — Plants whose em-
bryo has one cotyledon, or one seed leaf. Greek [i6vo$,
alone or one, and Korv^dov. Blade of the leaf usually
divided into two parts by a prominent midrib, with veins
extending from the base to the apex parallel to the
midrib ; flowers usually three-parted ; root not axial.

This class is separated into three cohorts.

482. COHORT 5, E. Spadiciflorae. — Monocotyledonous
plants, with flowers on a spadix, frequently enveloped
by a spathe ; Palms, Calla, and pond weeds.

483. COHORT 6, F. Petaloideae. — Monocotyledonous
plants whose flowers are usually perfect and complete ;
floral envelope three-parted and double ; outer whorl
colored green ; as, Lily, Lily of the Valley, etc.

484. COHORT 7, G. Glumiferae. — Monocotyledonous
plants whose floral envelope is chaff-like ; ovary single,
with one ovule ; as, grass-like plants, Wheat, Rye, the
Sedges, etc.

190

SYSTEMATIC BOTANY.

Pig. 532, c, A Fern ; Polypodium vulgare. a, Club-moss ; Lycopodium dendroideum. 6, Equisetum
(Scouring Rush or Horse Tail). d, a Liverwort Moss ; Marchantia. e, a Fungus or Mushroom ;
Agaricus, in three stages of growth.

SUB-KINGDOM n.

485. Cryptogamia. — Plants that do not produce
proper flowers. From the Greek upv-rrros, hidden, and
ya>oc, marriage.

486. CLASS I. Pt eridophy ta. — Vascular cryptogams-
Perns and their allies. From Greek words Trrep^, a
fern, and 0vrov, a plant, signifying a fern-like plant.

This class is divided into three cohorts.

487. COHOKT 1, H. Lycopodinse (Club Mosses). —
Stem herbaceous, rooting at the nodes and creeping,
simple or branched, sometimes tree-shaped ; foliage
small ; leaf one-nerved ; fructification at the base of
the leaf or in terminal catkins on the branches. Name
from Greek words MKO?, a wolf, and rrovg, a foot, due
to the fancied resemblance of the roots to the foot of
a wolf.

NATUKAL SYSTEM. 191

488. COHORT 2, I. Equisetacae (Horse Tails). — Stem
straight, simple or branched, cylindrical, channeled ;
stiff-jointed ; sheathed at the joints ; tops of the
sheaths toothed. From Latin equus, a horse, and seta,
a bristle or hair ; Equisetum, scouring rush.

489. COHORT 3, J. Filicinae. — Ferns proper. Stem
a horizontal creeping rhizome, sometimes erect ; foli-
age pinnate or variously divided ; veins forked ; fructi-
fication on the back or edge of the frond. Name from
Latin filix, a fern ; Osmunda, Flowering Fern.

THE FOLLOWING- FIVE CLASSES

are not treated in this book, and therefore will be
briefly noticed only.

490. CLASS II. Bryophyta. — Mosses and their allies
(Greek ftwov, a moss, (pvrov, a plant).

Sub-class 1. Hepaticse, Liverworts.
Sub-class 2. Musci, Mosses.

491. CLASS III. Carpophyta. — Spore-fruited plants
(Greek Kaprrog, fruit, 0vrov).

Sub-class 1. Coleochaetese, Green fresh-water plants
with few spores.

Sub-class 2. Floridese, Red or purple marine plants.
Sub-class 3. Ascomycetes, Parasites, spores in sacs.
Sub-class 4. Basidiomycetes, Spores on stalks.
Sub-class 5. Characea3, Green fresh-water plants.

492. CLASS IV. Odphyta. — Plants with egg-shaped
spores (Greek wov, an egg, and fyvrov).

Sub-class 1. Zoosporae, Spore cells locomotive.
Sub-class 2. CEdogonieae, Thread-like cellular body.
Sub-class 3. Cceloblastese, Thread-like tubular body.
Sub-class 4. Fucacese, Large, color olive green.

493. CLASS V. Zygophyta. — Unisexual plants (Greek

192 SYSTEMATIC BOTANY.

, a pair, and 4>vr6v), plants in which the sexes are
united.

Sub-class 1. Zoosporeae, Cells capable of motion.
Sub-class 2. Conjugatse, Cells fixed.

494. CLASS VI. Protophyta. — First or most simple
class of plants (Greek Trp&To?, first, and 0vr6v). These
plants are the lowest vegetable organisms, and consist
of single cells, or strings of cells.

Sub-class 1. Myxomycetes, Slime molds, naked pro-
toplasm, without regular form.

Sub-class 2. Schizomycetes, Bacteria minute cells.
Sub-class 3. Cyanophycese, Green Slimes.

495. Orders or Families succeed to the Cohorts.
The Natural Order is perhaps the most important of
all the associations. On the accuracy and distinct-
ness of the characters of these groups botanists have
bestowed the highest degree of attention, and the
student's progress will largely depend upon his acquaint-
ance with them.

496. Orders are formed by associating together
those genera which have the most intimate relations
to each other, or to some one genus previously as-
sumed as the type. As species form genera, so
genera form Orders. In regard to extent, they differ
widely ; some consisting of a single genus, as, Plata-
naceae, while others comprehend hundreds of genera,
as, Compositae. For convenience in analysis, the larger
Orders are broken up into Sub-orders or Tribes.

The Flowering plants of the whole world, known to botanists, have been
grouped under 200 Orders, 7,500 Genera, and 100,000 species. About 80,000 of
these species are Dicotyledons, and the remaining 20,000 are Monocotyledons.

It is a high accomplishment in a botanist to possess an extensive ac-
quaintance with individual plants. The ability to determine readily the genus
and species to which a plant belongs depends largely upon an accurate knowl-
edge of the characters of the orders and tribes.

RULES IN NOMENCLATURE. 193

497. The Natural System, then, with all its divis-
ions, groups, and subordinations, may be exhibited
at one view, as follows :
KINGDOM,
SUB-KINGDOMS,
CLASSES,
COHORTS,
ORDERS,
SUB-ORDERS, or
TRIBES,
GENERA,
SUB-GENERA,
SPECIES, or
RACES.

CHAPTER III.

RULES IN NOMENCLATURE.

498. The Names of the Orders are Latin adjectives,
feminine, plural (to agree with plantce, plants, under-
stood), usually derived from the name of the most
prominent, or leading genus, by changing or prolong-
ing the termination into acece, as Hosacece, the Rose
tribe, Papaveracece, the Poppy tribe, from Rosa and
Papaver. Earlier names, however, derived from some
leading character in the Order, and with various ter-
minations, are still retained. Thus, Composite^, with
compound flowers ; Labiatce, with labiate flowers.

499. Generic Names are Latin substantives, arbi-
trarily formed, often from some medicinal virtue, either
supposed or real, or from some obvious character of
the genus ; sometimes from some peculiar form of the
flower, or from the name of some distinguished bot-

194 SYSTEMATIC BOTANY.

anist, or patron of botany, to whom the genus is thus
said to be dedicated. Also the ancient classic names,
either Latin or Greek, are often retained. Examples of
all these modes of construction will be seen hereafter.

500. Specific Names are usually Latin adjectives,
singular, and agreeing in gender with the name of the
genus to which they belong. They are mostly founded
upon some distinctive character of the species ; as, Viola
blanda, Sweet-scented Violet ; V. cucullata, Hood-leaved
Violet. Frequently the species is named after some
other genus, which, in some respect, it resembles ; as,
Viola delphinifolia, Larkspur Violet.

501. Commemorative Specific Names. — SPECIES, like
genera, are also sometimes named in commemoration
of distinguished persons. The rules given by Lindley,
for the construction of such names, are : 1 st. If the
person is the discoverer, the specific name is a sub-
stantive in the genitive case, singular number; as,
Viola Selkirkiij Selkirk's Violet ; Lobelia Kalmii,
Kalm's Lobelia. 2d. If the name is merely conferred
in honor of the person to whom it is dedicated, it is
an adjective ending in nus, na, or num (according to
the gender of the generic name) ; as, Tulipa Gesneri-
ana, Gesnerian Tulip, or Gesner's Tulip ; Erica Lin-
neana, Linnaeus1 Heath.

502. Rules for the use of Capitals.— The names of
the order, the sub-order or tribe, and of the genus,
should always commence with a capital letter. The
name of the species should never commence with a
capital except in the following cases: (1), when it is
derived from the name of a person or of a country, as
Phlox Drummondii, Aquilegia Canadensis ; (2), when
it is a substantive, as Delphinium Consolida.

BOTANICAL ANALYSIS. 195

503. Synonyms. — Very frequently, the same species has been described
by different (or even by the same) authors, under different names. In such
cases it becomes a question, often of difficult solution, which name is to be
adopted. Obviously, the prior name, that is, the original one, if it can be
ascertained, is entitled to the most respect; and it is a rule with botanists
to adopt this name, unless it has been previously occupied, or be strongly
objectionable on some other account. All other names are synonyms.

504. Authorities.— In the flora which accompanies this work, immediately
after the Genus we insert the abbreviated name of the author by whom it
was originally published, with a comma between, thus: Trifolium, Tourn.
After a species the authority is inserted without a comma, as T. repens L.,—
that is to say, Trifolium repens (of) Linnaeus. In changing the generic rela-
tions of a species (as subsequent writers often deem necessary), it is a custom
for the author of the change to annex his own name, or a blank, instead of
the original authority. The custom is often unjust, and always liable to
abuse. It offers a bribe for innovations in the Q-enera, and recent works
abound in changes which otherwise could scarcely be accounted for. When
such changes become necessary, the just and proper rule (actually adopted in
Conchology) is the following. Let the original specific name and authority both
be retained, the latter in parenthesis, thus, Lychnis G-ithago (Linn.) — origi-
nally Agrostemma G-ithago Linn. This method is often but not always used
in the present work.

Authorities for our species of exotic cultivated plants, for want of space,
have all been here omitted.

CHAPTER IV.

BOTANICAL ANALYSIS.

505. Botanical Analysis is the application of the
rules and principles of botany to the study of the
natural plant, in order to determine its place in the
system, its names, history, uses — all that is on record
concerning it. In the flowering months, the learner
will constantly meet with new forms of bloom ; and
if he is duly interested in the science, he will not
fail to seize and analyze each new flower while the
short hour of its beauty may last. Thus in a few
seasons, or even in one, he may become well acquainted
with the flora of the vicinity where he dwells.

506. Suppose, now, the pupil to be in possession
of an unknown plant in flower and fruit. The first

196 SYSTEMATIC BOTANY.

requisite is, its Natural Order, and the first step in
analysis is an examination of the several organs, one
by one, until the general structure is well understood.
This done, the experienced botanist, who has in mem-
ory the characters of all the Orders, might determine
at once to which of them the plant in question belongs.
But the beginner must be content with a longer course
of inquiry and comparison, — a course which might be
indefinitely long and vague without the use of —

507. Analytical Tables. — These are designed to
shorten and define to exactness the processes of anal-
ysis. Those which appear in the present work are
peculiar in form, and more copious and complete than
the tables of any other similar work. These tables,
with proper use in connection with the specimen, will
very rarely fail to conduct the inquirer almost imme-
diately to the right Order, Genus, and Species.

We subjoin a few examples of the analysis of par-
ticular species by the aid of these tables. If the exer-
cise be conducted in the class-room, the successive
steps in the process (indicated by the numbers 1, 2, 3,
etc., below) may be assigned, in order, to each pupil
in the class.

ANALYSIS OF A POLYPETALOTJS HERB.

508. To determine the Cohort. — A good specimen of a little yellow-
flowered herbaceous plant, common in the grassy fields of cool regions, is sup-
posed to be now in the hands of each pupil of the class. (1.) Tne first pupil,
reading (if necessary) the characteristic of each sub-kingdom, pronounces the
plant one of the Phaenogamia, and refers the next pupil to the Classes I.,

n., or m.

(2.) The next reads the characters of those Classes, and comparing the
specimen (which has net-veined leaves and 5-merous flowers), concludes that it is
an Exogen. Refer next to the Class I.

(3.) "Stigmas present. Seeds inclosed in vessels."

" Stigmas none. Seeds naked. (Pines, Spruces, etc.) " Our plant has
stigmas, etc., and, moreover, is not a Pine, Spruce, etc. It is, therefore, an
Angiosperm. Refer next to Cohorts 1, 2, or 3.

BOTANICAL ANALYSIS. 197

(4.) "Corolla with the petals distinct." This characterizes our plant, and
it is pronounced one of the Polype talae. Refer them to A.

509. To determine the Order, the (5th) pupil reads the first alternative,
or triplet, noted by a star (*), and comparing his plant, finds it to corre-
spond with the first line, for it is an "herb with alternate leaves." Pass now
to (12).

(6.) " Mowers regular or nearly so. Fruit never a legume."

"Mowers irregular," etc. The flower is regular. Pass to (14).

Again, a (7th) pupil reads, " Stamens 3—10 times as many as the petals."
''Stamens few and definite." The stamens are many. Pass to (15).

(8.) The next pupil reads, compares, and determines that the stamens are
"perigynous on the base of the calyx," and announces the letter (d) as the
reference to the next alternative. (9.) Next, the pupil reads and compares
bis specimen with the triplet (tf), and concludes that the sepals are 5, and
Imbricated in the bud. Consequently, it is announced that the plant in hand
belongs to the Order ROSACES.

510. To determine the Genus. — After a careful comparison of their
specimen with the diagnosis of the Roseworts (Order 44), in order to verify
the analysis thus far, the learner or the class will then consult the table of
the Q-enera. (10.) A pupil reads the couplet marked A., and determines that
the "Ovary is superior, fruit not inclosed," etc. Pass to (a).

(11.) "Carpels 00. Calyx persistent, with 5 bractlets added," characterizes
our plant. Pass to (/), which is Tribe V. Pass on to (g). (12.) The next
pupil determines that the " style is deciduous." Pass to (k). (13.) " Torus
spongy or dry," is true of our specimens. Pass to (I). (14.) "Bractlets 5"
reads the next, and announces the plant to be a Potentilla. Now all turn to
Q-enus 13, and together verify this result by reading and comparing the stated
character of the genus.

511. To determine the Species. — (15.) As our plant has " stamens OO
and flowers yellow" it must be a true Potentilla. Pass to (a). (16.) "Leaves
palmately 3-foliate " suits our plant. It is, therefore, either species No. 3, 4,
or 5. Lastly (17), after a due comparison of their plant with each of these
three species, it is determined that it is P. Norvegica.

ANALYSIS OF A MONOCOTYLEDON.

512. A grass-like, blue-flowered herb is now supposed to have been dis-
covered and distributed to the Class for analysis. Having (1) determined
that it is a Monocotyledon (for it has " parallel- veined leaves and 3-parted
flowers "), they would now (2) determine its Class, which is HI.

" Mowers without glumes, and colored," etc.

"Mowers with green alternate glumes, and no perianth." The first line
is adopted, and the plant agrees with Petaloideae. Pass next to (t) Cohorts
5th or 6th, and read,

(3.) "Cohort 5. Mowers on a spadix, apetalous or incomplete."

" Cohort 6. Flowers complete, with a double perianth " — which
answers to the specimens in hand, and it is seen to belong to the Petaloideee.
Pass to P.

(4.) The next pupil having read and compared the first couplet under
"F, Cohort 6, Petaloideae," chooses the second line. Pass to No. 2. (5.)
"Perianth tube adherent to the ovary" is adopted. Pass to (4). (6.) "Flow-

.>>"O
» TT W T TT »

198 SYSTEMATIC BOTANY.

ers perfect." The second line of this couplet is true of our plant. Next pass
to (&). The (7.) pupil reads "Anthers 3 or 6," which is true of the plant.
Pass to (c). (8.) " Perianth glabrous outside " is true. Next read (d). (9.)
" Anthers 3, opening lengthwise, outward," is also true, and our plant is thus
traced to the order IRIDACE.E.

513. To determine the Q-enus and Species under the Irids, Order 146, is
the next and the last step. Having carefully compared their specimens with
the characters ascribed to the Irids, the pupils next apply to the Table of the
Q-enera. (10.) "Mowers regular and equilateral," in the first dilemma, is
chosen. Bead the (*) couplet next. (11.) " Sepals similar to the petals in
form, size, and position " is true. Next to (a). (12.) " Stamens monadelphous.
Elowers small, blue. Plants grass-like," describes the plant truly, and it must
be a Sisyrhinchium. They turn to G-enus 7, and verify by reading its char-
acters. Lastly, the brief diagnoses of the two species are compared, and the
plant is found to be S. Bermudiana.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

a (a, privative), prefixed to a Greek word,

signifies without; as aphyllous, without

leaves.

ab brS vl S'tions, page ?, Part IV.
a b6r'tion, non-development of apart.
ab sSrp'tion, 199.
ae'au le"s'9ent, or a eau ISs'eent, apparently

stemless, 223.

ae c6s'so ry, something ,'uperadded.
a« erfis'cent, growing after flowering, 109.
ae eum'bent, lying against a thing, 183.
a?'er ose or a^'er oue, needle-shaped, 299.
a ehS'ni urn, plural, a «hS'ni a, 151.
ach'lS m^d'e ous, without floral envelopes.
a slc'tl lar, finely needle-shaped.
a cot y 18d'o nous, without cotyledons.
ac'ro gens, summit growers.
a etl'le ate, armed with prickles.
a etl'mi nate, drawn out into a point, 307.
a €fite', ending in a sharp angle, 307.
ad hSr'ent, growing to, 82, 94.
fld'nate, growing fast to, 114.
ad ven tl'tious, growing out of the usual or

normal position, as roots, 206.
8 er a'tion, same as respiration, 483.
ses tl va'tiou, 335.

af fln'i ty, resemblance in essential organs.
age of trees, 47.

Sg'gre gate, assembled close together.
a glu ma'ceous, without glumes, the same as

pgt'al oid, 483.
air-bladders, 323.
air-plants, 208.
8'la, wing ; a'lae, wings, 101.
a' late, winged, 274. '
al bfi'men, 179.
al btTmi nous, 178.
al bur'num, sap-wood, 418.
ai'gse, seaweeds.
al'ter nate, 215, 262.

ai've o late, with pits like the honey-comb.
ftm'ent, a deciduous spike, 357.
a mOr'phous, without definite form.
am phlt'ro pous, 141.
am pl6x'I caul, stem- clasping, 275, 311.
a nary sis, botanical, 510.
a nas to mo'sis, reunion of vessels cr veins.
a nat'ro pous, i41.
an clp'l tal, two-edged.
an dne'cium, 110.
an dr6£'y nous, stamens and pistils on the

same peduncle.
an'gi o sperms, 475.
In'i mal, 15.

8n'nu al, yearly (sc. plants'), 40.
an'nu lar cells, 378.
an tS'ri or, parts (of a flower) adjacent to the

bract.

an'thel mln'tic, expelling or killiny worms.
an'ther, 111, 113.

an thg'sis, the opening of the flower ; flower-
ing.

a pgt'a lae, 478.

a pgt'al ous, without petals.

SpVyl lous or a phyl'lous, without leaves.

a p5ph'y sis, a swelling, e. g., under the
thecce of some mosses.

ftp pa ra'tus, 4.

ap pen dle'fl lar organs, 77.

ap prgssed', closely applied but not adhering
to ; the same as adpressed.

ap'ter ous, without wings.

a quat'ic, living in water.

ft rach'noid, resembling cobwebs.

ar'bor ous, arborescent, tree-like.

are'fl ate, arched or curved like a bow.

a r6'o Jiate, having the surface divided into
little spaces or areas.

ar'il, an extra seed-covering, 175.

a ris'tate, with an arista or awn (barley).

armed, bearing prickles, spines, etc.

ar tle'fl lat ed, jointed, as the culm of wheat.

Ss cSnd'Ing, arising obliquely • assurgent.

fts eld' I a, leaves holding water, 322.

as slm'i la'tion, 430.

at tgn'fl ate, becoming slender or thin.

&u rle'fl late, ear-bearing, 291.

awn, the beard of barley and the like.

aVi al root, 200.

ftx'il (arm-pit), the angle between the petiole
and the branch, on the upper side.

ax'il la ry, growing out of the axils.

ax'is, ascending, 211, 212; erect, procumbent,
prostrate, trailing, decumbent, 212 ; excur-
rent, solvent, 226 ; descending, 197.

bfte'eate, berry-like ; covered with pulp.

ban'ner, same as vexillum, 101.

bftn'yan tree, 207.

bark, 416.

tofts/i lar, basal, attached to the base, 186.

bftst-cells, wood-cells of bark, 416.

bSaked, ending in an extended tip.

bSard'ed, with tufts of long, weak hairs.

bSr'ry, 159.

bi, bis, twice (in compound words).

bl'eol or, two colored.

bi «us'pid i.te, with two points or cusps.

bi dgn'tate, with two teeth.

bi gn'ni al, of two years, 41.

bl'fld, cleft into two parts.

bi fO'li ate, with two leaflets.

bi f flr'«ate, twice forked, or merely forked.

bi la'bl ate, two-lipped.

bl'nate, 303.

bi pln'nate, 304.

bi pin nat'i fid, twice pinnatifld. (Fig. 342.)

bi tgr'nate, twice ternate, 305.

bi'vaived, two-valved.

blade. See lamina, 271.

200

INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

blanched plants, whitened for the want of

light.

bloom, aflne white powder, on some plants.
border, «ji, 92.
botany defined, 18.
botany, elementary, 20, 368, etc.
botany, physiological, 21, 368.
botany, systematic, 22, 153.
braeh'i ate, with opposite, spreading branches

(arms). (Pig. 275.)
brSet, 329, 345.
brae'te ate, having bracts.
brae'te Dies or bractlets, 345.
branches, 34, 214.
bristles, stiff, sharp hairs.
bry Sph'y $, 490.
bud, 33.
budding, ?59.

buds, axillary, 247 ; accessory, 250.
buds, adventitious, 251.
buds, suppression of, 248.
bud-scales, 246, 319.
bulb, 240 ; tunicated, 242 ; scaly, 242.
bulb'lets, 260.

ca dd'cous, dropping off early, 103.

cses'pi tose, forming tufts or turf.

cai'9e o late, slipper-shaped.

caTy cine, calyx-like.

ca lyc'tl late, having an outer calyx or calyx-
like involucre.

ca lyp'trsi, the hood of the sporange (spore-
case) of a moss.

ca'lyx, the outer floral envelope, 51.

cftm'bl urn. 417.

cam pSn'fi late, bell-shaped, 102.

cSm'py 15t'ro poiis, 141.

cSn'a Hc'fl late, channeled.

ca ngs'cent, grayish white.

cap'il la ry, capittaceous, hair-shaped.

c&p'i tate, head-shaped, growing in dose clus-
ters or heads.

ca plt'fl lum, a little head, 861.

cSp're o late, bearing tendrils.

capsule, 167.

sar'bon dl ox'Ide, 411.

carl'na, 101.

cSr'i nate, boat-shaped, having a sharp ridge
beneath.

ciir'pel, carpellary, 126.

ciir'po phore, 149, 151. (Fig. 17,7.)

car ti lag! nous, Jlrm and tough in texture,
like cartilage.

c&r'un cle, 175.

c3r y o phyl IS 'ceo us, 100.

car y Sp'sis, 153.

cat'kin, 357. (See ament.)

ca.u'dex, 227.

cau 16s' cent, 223.

cau'lis, 223.

cau'line, relating to the stem, 262.

ceTlu lar tissue, 396.

cell, 368.

cell-growth, 377-384.

ceTlu lar bark, 416.

c6Mu lose, 371.

cen trif ' 11 gal inflorescence, 35.

cen trip'e tal inflorescence, 352.

96ph'a lous, same as capitate.

cS're al, relating to grains, corn, etc.

per'nu ous, nodding (less inclined than pen-
dulous).

chaff, chaffy, 349. (See paleaceous )

cha IS'za, 140.

channeled, hollowed out like a gutter.

ehar ta'ceous, with the texture of paper.

chlO'ro phyl, 373, 381, 435.

chor'I sis, 76.

9ll'i ate, fringed with marginal hairs.

9l'on or sion, 218.

ci ne're ous, ashy gray, ash color.

9ir'9i nate, rolled inward from the top, 255.

cir cu la'tion of sap, 432.

cir'cum scis' slle, 149.

clr'rhose, furnished with a tendril.

cirrhose roots, 206.

classes, natural, £01.

elas si fi cS'tion, artificial, £03.

cla'vate, club-shaped. .

co arct'ate or co arc'tate, contracted, drawn

€8e'eus, a berry ; coc'^I (plural), the\-seeded

carpels of separable fruits.
eftch'le ate, spiral, like tJie snail-shell.
co h6 sion, 82.
cO'horts, 461.

ool lat'er al, placed side by side.
coTlum, 199.
col'ored, of any color except green, which in

botany is not a color, while white is.
cSl'umn, the combined stamens and styles.
eO'ma, 173.
cQm'mis sflre, the joined faces of the carpels

of the cremocarp, 151.
com'mon, belonging alike to several.
complete flower, GO.
com'pli cate, folded up upon itself.
compound leaf, 300.
compound flower, 348.
com pressed', flattened on the sides, 274.
con du'pli cate, folded on itself lengthwise.
cone, 169.

cOn'flu ent, uniting; same as coherent,
con glOm'er ate, clustered or crowded.
cQn'ju gate, coupled Joined by pairs.
cfin'nate, 311.

con ngc'tile, connective, 113, 114.
con nlv'ent, converging, coming together.
con tln'u ous, the reverse of jointed,
con tSrt'ed, twisted, 338.
con'vo lute, 256, 339.
cOr'date, heart-shaped, 291.
cO'ri a'ceous, leather-like, 315.
c6rm, 233.

c6r'ne ous, horn-like in texture.
cor nic'u late, with a small horn or spur.
co rSl'la, 52, etc.

cftr'ol line, pertaining to the corolla.
co rO'na, crown.
cOr'ti cal bark, 416.
cor'ymb, co rym'bose, 358.
c5s'tate, 'ribbed, with rib- like ridges.
cot y le'dons, 180, 3£0.
cras'sfl la, a genus of plants, 63.
era ter'i f6rm, of the form of a goblet. <
creep 'er. creeping stems, 231.
«rem 0 carp', 151.

crS'nate, bordered with rounded teeth.
crgn'O late, 809.

crgst'ed or cris'tate, with an elevated ridge.
crls'pate or crisped, 310.
crown of the root, 236.
cru'ci form (corolla), 100.
crude sap, 368.

crus ta'ceous, hard, thin, and brittle.
cryp to ga'mia, 472.
cu'cul late, rolled up into a hood shape.
culm, the straw of grasses, 224.
efl'ne ate, ctTne" i form, wedge-shaped, 290.
cup-shaped, 102.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

201

etTpflle, a little cup (sc. acorn), 155.
cus'pi date, with a sharp, stiff point, 307.
eQ'ti ele, outer lamina of wall of epidermis,

399.

9? an'ie, blue, or any color except yellow
9y ftth'i f8rm, cup-shaped.
9y'cle (in Phyllotaxy), 2632 264.
£y clO'sis, same as flotation, currents in the

cell.

9yme, cymous, 363.
pym'bi form, boat-shaped.
9yp'sel a, 151.

in Greek c&niposition), ten.
de 9id'fl ous, falling at the end of the season.
dge'li nate, bent downward.
dS'eom pound', much compoundedor divided,

304.

de eum'bent, 212. (Fig. 249 )
de eur'rent, 274.
de eus'sate (leaves), opposite, and the pairs at

dgf i nite, 118.

de flex'ed, bent downward.

de fo li 5'tion, the casting off of leaves.

de his '961196, 113, 148.

dgl i qugs'9ent (axis), same as solvent), 226.

dSl toid, form of the Greek letter A, 288.

dgn'droid, tree-like inform.

dgn'dron (in Greek compounds], a tree.

dgn'tate, 309.

den tie 'ft late, 309.

de nu ded, become naked.

de pan' per ate, less developed than usual.

de pend'ent, hanging down.

de pressed', flattened from above ; low.

dgx'trlne, a gummy substance produced by
the action of di istase upon starch.

dex'trorse (twining), turning to the right.

di (in Greek numerals'), two.

dl'a deTphous, 120.

di ag nO'sis, a brief statement of the distinc-
tive character of a plant or group.

dl aph'a nous, transparent or translucent.

di £n' drous, with two stamens, 118.

dl'as t-lse, a peculiar ferment in malt, alter-
ing starch into dextrine.

di chfig'a mous, 445.

di ehflt'o mous, forked or two-forked.

die 'li none, <>7.

di pot'y 16 dons, dicotyledonous, 182, 284.

dld'y mous, double.

di dvn'a mous, 119.

dif fuse', much divided and spreading.

dig'i tate, with several distinct leaflets pal-
mately arranged (as in the leaf of the
Horse-chestnut).

di mld'i ate (anther), halved, 114.

di mor'phous plants, 446.

di devious (flowers), 67.

dip'ter ous, having two wings.

disk, 85, 362.

dis'^oid, no rays. (Fig. 446.)

disk-bearing tissue, 401 .

dis sget'ed, cut into deep lobes.

dis sgp'i ment, same as partition, 132.

dis'ti-eh ous, arranged in two rows.

dis tinet, separate, not united, 82.

di v3r'i cate, wide-spread, straggling.

di ver'gent, spreading with a less angle.

dSr'sal, on or relating to the back.

dotted cells, 384.

dotted ducts, 406.

double terms, 301.

downy, clothed with short, weak hairs.

drupe, 156.

dru pa'ceus. (See tryma.)

drying-press, 6.

ducts, 402.

du'pli eate, inpairs^ double.

du ra'men, heart-wood, 418.

dwarfing. (Fig. 5.50, d.)

E, ex (in composition), without ; as.

e brfic'te ate, without bracts.

gch'i nate, prickly with rigid hairs.

ef fete, sterile, exhausted.

el'a ters, spiral, elastic threads accompanying

certain spores.

el Hp'tie, elliptical (leaf), 289.
e lOn ga'tgd, lengthened, extended.
e mar'gi nate, 307.
gm'bryo, 31, 180.
embryo sac, 142.
6n'do carp, 156.
gn'do chrome, the coloring matter of plants.

See chlorophyl.
en dOg'e nous structure, 421.
gn'do ggns, 180, 421, 422, 424.
en'do pleu'ra. same as tegmen, 172.
en dos' mOse, a thrusting, which causes

liquids of different densities to pass through

thin membranes, and mingle.
gn'si f6nu, sword-shaped, 297.
entire, even-edged, 308.
e phgm'e ral, enduring for one day.
gp'I (in Greek composition), upon : as.
gp'i carp, 156.

gp'i derm is, outside layer of cells, 391.
g pig'y nous, upon the ovary, 97, 119.
gp'i pet' al ous, on the petals, 119.
gp'i phytes, plants on other plants, 208.
gp'i sperm, the skin of the seed.
gq'ui tant (astraddle), 258.
e rose', eroded, as if gnawed, 310.
e ta?'ri 5, 158.

6'ti o la ted, colorless for want of light.
gx'al bfl'mi nous, without albumen, 178.
ex cur'rent, 226.
ex Qg'e nae, exogens, 182.
ex Og'e nous structure, 416-418.
gx'os mOse, flowing out.
ex sert'ed, projecting out of, or beyond.
ex stlp'd late, without stipules, 272.
ex'tra (in composition), beyond ,' as.
extra-axillary, same as supra axillary,
ex trOrse', turned outward, 114.

fSl'eate, scythe-shaped, curved.

ffir'i na'caous, flour-like in texture.

f&r'i nous, mealy on the surface.

fgs'9i -ele, a bundle. 365.

fas ci«'u late (leaves), 262.

fgath'er-veined, 285.

fer ru'gi nous, of the color of iron-rust.

fer'tile (flower), seed-producing, 67.

fer'ti li za'tion, etc., 433, 434, 447.

nb'rillae,^^fe, 199,428.

flT a ment, the stalk of a stamen, 111, 112.

fil I cl'nse.

ffl'i f6rm, slender like a thread.

flm'bri ate, fringed, having the edge bordered

with slender processes.
fls'sioh, a splitting into parts.
fist'fl lar, hollow, as the leaf of onion.
fla bgl'li fOrm, fan-shaped, 298.
fla ggl'li f6rm, whip-shaped; long, taper, and

fla vgs'9ent, yellowish, turning yellow.
flgx'fl ous, zig-zag or wavy.

202

INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

flo« «0se', with hairs in soft fleecy tufts.
flO'ra, (a) the spontaneous vegetation of a
country ; (6) a written description of the

flO'ral, relating to flowers.

floral envelopes, 50, 87.

flo'rets, the flowers of a compound flower,

362.

flow'er. 49, etc.: origin of, 37.
flower-bud, 244, 335, etc.
foil a'ceous, leaf-like in texture or form.
ffl'li 8'tlon, the act of leafing.
foTli «le, 164.

fo ra'men, same as micropyle, 140.
fo've o late, having shallow pits.
free, not adherent nor adnate, 81, 94.
fringed. (See fimbriate.)
frOnd, an organ which is both stem and leef,

as in duckmeat, fern.
fron descent, bursting into leaf.
frfi€'ti fi -ea'tion, flower and fruit as a whole.
fruit, 38, 143.

fru tgs'sent, shrubby, becoming shrubby.
lu ga'ceous, soon falling off.
f ul'era (roots), accessary, 206.
fu llgl nous, smoky brown, blackish.
fuTvotis, dull yellowish brown.
fu mVfl lus (a little rope), 140.
fun'nel-fOrm. (See infundibuliform), 102.
f fa' eate, forked, fork-veined, 284.
filr'fu ra'ceous, scurfy.
fur-rowed', marked with channels lengthwise.
fus'-eous, grayish or blackish brown.
f u'si f6rm, spindle-shaped, 203.

gS'le a, galeate, 103.

gSm'o pgt'S he, 477.

gam'o pgt'ai ous, with the petals united, 99.

ga mftph'yl lous, of united perianth leaves.

gam'o sgp'al lous, with the sepals united.

ggml nate, twin, two together.

gem mS'tion, state of budding (Latin, gemma,

bud), 382.

ge nte'fi late, bent as the knee (genu).
gS'nfis, 29, 457.
ggn'e ra, plural of genus, 457.
germ, the ovary. ( The term is obsolete.)
ger mi na'tion, 188, 438.
glb'boas, more tumid in a certain place.
gla'brous, smooth, not hairy, 312.
giad'i ate, sword-shaped, ensiform.
gland, glandular, 80, 393.
glans, 155.
glau'-eous, with a bloom, or whitish, waxy

powder, seen on the under side of cabbage

leaves, and on fresh plums, etc.
glo bose', inform nearly spherical.
glOm'er ate, collected into close heads.
glOm'er ule, 363.

gloss oTo gy, the explaining of technical terms.
glumes, 108, 349.
glum if'e KB, 484.
grafting. (Fig. 2oO, e.)
grand divisions, 65.
gran'S lar, composed of grains.
gym'nfts (a Grreek prefix), naked ,' as.
gym'nO sper'mae, gymnosperms, 479.
iym'no sperm'ous, with naked seeds.
gy nSn'drofis, 119.
gyn'O base, a process of the torus on and

around which the carpels are suspended

(sc. Geranium, Fig. 172).
g^ nee'?! um, 123.
gyn'o phore, a produced torus, bearing the

ovary on, its fummit. (Fig. 112.)

gy rate', same as circinate, 255.
gy rose', strongly bent to and fro.

, the general aspect of a plant.
habitat, the natural locality or place of

growth of a wild plant.
hairs, 392. Hairy, hirsute.
hal berd shaped, hastate. (Fig. 313.)
halved, one-half apparently deficient.
has'tate, with the base-lobes abruptly spread-

ing, asinahalbert,2Ql.
heart-shaped, 291.
heart-wood, 419.
herb, herbaceous, 40, 41.
her ba'ceous, green and cellular in texture.
her ba'ri um, 3.
hes'per id'I um, 160.
her m&ph'ro dlte (flower), with both stamens

and pistils.
hgt'gr 0 cgph'a lous, heads of two sorts in the

same plant, some 6 and some s .
h6t er 5g'a mous, two sorts of flowers in the

same head, some 6 and some ? .
hgx'S (Greek numeral}, six ; as in,
hex fig'o nal, 6-sided or G-angled.
hex Sm'er ous, Q-parted.
hex Sn'drous, having 6 stamens.
hl'lum, the eye or scar of the seed, 177.
hir sflte', hairy, with rather long hairs, 313.
hls'pid, bristly with stiff hairs, 313.
his t6To gy, description of cells and tissues,

368.

hoar'y, frost-colored, grayish-white.
ho mog'a mous, head with all the flowers

alike, as to the stamens and pistils.
ho'mo ge'ne ous, of the same kind.
hon'ey, honey-bee, 458.
hood. (See calyptra, 518.)
hooded. (See cucullate.)
h8rn'y, of the texture of horn.
hOr'tus siccus, the herbarium, dry garden, 3.
hfl'mi fuse, spreading on the ground.
hy'a line, transparent, or nearly so.
hybrid, a cross-breed between two species.
hy'per bO'rean, inhabiting northern regions.
hy'po (in Greek compounds), under ; as,
hyp'o «ra terl f6rm, salver-form, 102.
hyp'o ge'an, growing under ground.
by p5g'y nous, 95, 119.

Im'bri «ate, imbricated, 257, 339.

im mar'gin ate, having no rim or border.

im mersed'. (See submersed.)

in Sx'i al root. 201.

in clged, divided deeply as if cut, 310.

in -elfld'ed, enclosed within, or shorter than,

as the stamens in the corolla.
in-erSs'sate, thickened.
in -eiim'bent (sc. embryo), 183.
in'de his' sent', not opening, 148.
in dgf'i nite, 118.
in dlg'e nous, native of a country.
in dfl'pli «ate, 337.
in dH'gi um, the shield of the fruit-dot (sorus)

of a fern.
in fS'r

^ iS'ri or, lower in position.
in flg^t'gd, bent inward, inflexed.
in'flo rgs'senpe. 841, etc.
In 'fun dlb'fl li f6rm, funnel-shaped, 102.
in'nate (sc. anther), 114.
in sgrt'ed, insertion, refer to the point of junc-
tion or appai'ent origin.
in tg«' Q ment, a coal or covering.
In'ter node, 220.
In'ter pgt'I o lar, between the petioles.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

203

In'ter riipt'ed ly pinnate, 302. (Fig. 358.)
in trOrse' (anthers), turned inward, 114.
In'vo Ifl'-ere, involucel. 347,
In'vo lute, rotted inward, 256. (Fig. 287.)
Ir rSg'u lar flowers, 83, 101.

joint'ed, having joints, separable pieces.
jfl'gum, a pair ; as, bijugous, with two pairs
of leaflets; trijugous, three pairs.

keel, keeled. (See carinate.)
kidney-shaped. (See reniform, 295.)
kingdoms of Nature, 12-14.

la bSl'lum, the odd petal of an orchid, 101.

la'bi ate, lip-shaped, 103.

139 'er ate, torn irregularly by deep incisions.

la 9in'i ate, slashed, with deep incisions.

la« te"s'9ent, containing lac, or milk.

15e u" nOse', having lacunae or holes.

la eus'trlne, growing in lakes.

ISm'i nil, the blade of a leaf, a thin plate, 271.

la"n'9e o late, lance-shaped. (Fig. 317.)

la nu'gi nose, woolly, 312.

la'tex, (1) me turbid or milky juice of plants;

lac tif 'er ous tissue, 408.

latin names of plants, 25, 26.

layer. (See stolon, 217.)

leaf, 271, etc.; structure of, 431, etc.

leaf-bud, 244, etc.

leaflet, the piece of a compound leaf, 301.

leaf-stems, 222.

leg'fime, 165.

lens, 7.

len tl-e'Q lar, shaped like a convex lens.

H'ber, the inner bark, 412.

H chens, II kens', 519.

llg'ne ous system, 399.

lig'fi late, strap-shaped, 103.

lig files, the stipules of grasses, 279.

ml a'ceous flower, 100.

limb, the border, 91.

lin'e ar, long and narrow, 297.

lin noe'tis, 468.

liv'id, clouded with bluish, brown, and gray.

10'bate, lobed, 294.

IQe'fl li 9l'dal, opening into the cell, 148.

lo €us'ta, a spikelet of the grasses.

lO'ment, a jointed legume, 165.

10 rate', thong-shaped.

Ifl'nate, crescent-shape

ly'«o pO'di a'9C oe, 487.
ly'rate, ^innatifld. with the upper lobes much
larger than the lower, 2(J3.

m5e ros (in Greek compounds'), long.

maVd late, spotted or blotched.

male (flowers), same as staminate.

mar 96s'9ent, withering, but persistent, 109.

mar 'gin al, belonging to the border.

mar 'gin ate, having the border different.

me dul'la, pith.

m8d'ul la ry rays, 414.

mgd'ul la ry sheath, 414.

mgm'bra na'ceous, membranous, thin and

pellucid, 315.
mer'i carp, one of the carpels of a cremocarp

of an umbellifer. (Fig. 177.)
mer ous, consisting of parts.
mS tSb'O Hsm, 429.
ml'ero pyle, 177 ; same as foramen,
ml'ero seOpe, 8.

mld'rib, the central vein of a leaf, 282.
mld'veln (used in this work), 883,

mln'er al, 13.

mit'ri f6Tm,formed like a conical cap.
monos (in Greek compounds), one only ; as,
mon'a dglph'ous, 120.
mo nSn'drous, 1-stamened, 118.
mo nil'i fOrm (roots), 204.
mbn'o car'pic herbs. 42.
m5n'o chla myd'e ous (flowers), 66.
mOn'o cot'y Ig'dOns, 180, 284.
mo nee cious, 67.

mo nQg'y nous, with one style, 124.
mon'o pgt'a Ia3. (See gamopetalse, 513.)
mon'o pet'a lous, 80, 91.
mo nOph'yl lous, \-leaved.
m5n'o sgp'al lous, TO, 91.
m5n'strous flowers, 334.
mor ph51 o gy, 19 ; of the leaf, 271.
movements of fluids, 431.
mfi'-ero, a sharp, small, abrupt point.
mu'ero nate. 307.
mul'ti (in composition), many.
mill ti fid, cut half-way into many segments.
mu'ri -eate, bearing short, hard points.
mu'ri f6rm, like a wall of mason-work.
mus eol'o gy, a treatise on mosses.
mfi'ti cose, pointless, not pointed.
my 9e'li urn, the thallus of the fungi, usually
concealed, 519.

na'ked seeds. 147. (Fig. 166.)

na'pi f6nn (root). £03.

na'tant, swimming / underwater.

nat'u ral Ized, growing spontaneously, but not
native.

nSt u ral orders, 458, 463, 465, 497.

natural system, 504, 506, etc.

nge'tar, honey.

nectary, 77.

ne pgri'thgs, 322. (Fig. 891.)

nerves, the veins (282) are sometimes so called.

ngt'ted or net-veined. (See reticulate, 284.)

nea tral flower, 68.

nod 'ding, nutant, the summit bent over, as in
snmudrop.

node, a joint of the stem, 220.

no dose', knotted, large-jointed.

n5d'fi lose (root), 204.

no'men clat'ure, 25, 498. etc.

nor'mal, according to rule, regular.

nu'9i f6rm, nut-like-.

nu 9el'lus, kernel (sc. of ovule), 140, 172, cen-
tral body in cell.

nu-elS'o lus, dense body within a nucleus.

nfl'-ele us, dense spherical mass of protoplasm
in a cell.

nut. (See glans, 155.)

ob (in composition) denotes inversion ; as,

Qb'^om pressed', flattened back and front.

ob «0r'date, 307.

ob lftn'9e o late, 2fiO.

ob Hque', unequal- sided, as the leaves of elm.

Ob'long, 289.

ob O'vate, 290.

ob tfise', 307.

Ob'vo lute (in (estivation), 258.

Och'rea, sheathing stipules, 279.

Ofh'ro lea'«ose, cream color, pale yellow.

octo (in Greek composition), eight.

oc tSn'drose, having 8 stamens.

o« tog'y' nOee, having 8 styles.

off s5t, a short lateral shoot, 218.

oligos (in Greek composition), few ; as,

51T gSn dria, with few stamens.

81'i va'ceous, olive-green, brownish-green.

204

INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

o paque', dull, not shining.

o per'eu lar, with a lid, 114.

Bp'po site, two at a node, 215, 262.

or we'll lar, orbiculate, circular, 289.

Or'ehi dS'ceofis, 101.

or ggn'ic world, 12.

Or'gan Sg'ra phy, 19. See structural botany.

or thOt'ro pous (ovule), erect, 141.

6s'se ous, bony, as the peach-stone.

O'val, 289.

ovate, 288.

O'va ry, 125.

O'void, egg-shaped, as in fruits.

O'vule, the young seed, 138.

pS'lgae or pales, 108,349.

pa'le a'ceons, chaffy, having pales.

palm, 422.

paTmi-veined, 285.

paTmate, 295.

pan dfl'ri fOrm, fiddle-shaped.

pan! ele, 360.

pa nie'u late, panicled.

pa pll'io na'ceous, 101.

pSp'pus, the calyx of composites, 104.

pSr'al lei-veined, 2st

p5r 'a sites, 209.

pa ren'-ehy ma, 396.

pa rl'e tal, on the wall (paries), 133.

part'ed, deeply divided into parts.

pat'ent, wide open.

pat'fi lous, half open.

pear-shaped, obovoid, larger above.

pgc'ti nate, combed, finely pinnatifld.

pgd'ate, shaped like a bird's foot, 296.

pgd'i eel, peduncle, 343.

pgl'tate, shield-form, 295.

pend'ent, pendulous, hanging, drooping.

pgn'i 9!! 'late, with a tuft of hairs, as if a

pen tam'er ous, 5-parted.

pen tan'droiis, with 5 stamens, 118.

pen'tg (in Greek composition), Jive.

pS'po, a fruit like a melon, 161.

per gn'm al, living several years, 43.

perfect flower, (s) with both stamen and

pistil.

per fq'li ate, through the leaf, 811.
peri (in Greek composition), around : as,
pgr'i anth, 53, 87 ; forms of, 99.
pgr'i «arp, 146 ; forms of, ICO.
per'i gy"n i urn, 107.
pe rfg'y nous, 96, 119.
pgr'i sperm, same as albumen, 179.
per slst'ent, remaining long in place, 109.
pgr'son ate, 103
pgt'al or p6'tal,//w?i weTa\oi>, one of thefoli-

aceous expansions of the corolla, 52 ; forms

of, 89.

pgt'al oid, resembling petals.
pgt'al oi'de ae, 483.
pgt'I Ole, 274.
pgt'i o late, 271.
pgt'i o Iflle, 276.
phan'e ro ga'mia, 467, 471, 472.
phyl lo'di Im (plural phyllodia), r:i.
phyl lo tax'y, leaf -arrangement, CC1.
phys'i€8. 16.
phyg i 81'o gy, 21, 368.
phy toTo gy (Greek, phytos, a plant), 23.
pi lose', with erect, thin hairs, 1 13.
pln'nate, 302.
pin nat'i fid, 293.
pin nat'i sgct. See pinnatifid.
pls'tU, 56, 123.

pitch'ers (leaves).
pith, 414.

(See ascidia, 322.)

pit 'ted, with depressions or excavations.

pla 9en'ta, 127 ; free axile, 135.

plan of the flower, 58.

plant defined, 14.

plant growth, 409.

pli'eate, plaited lengthwise as a fan, 254, 340.

plu mose' , feathery.

pla'miile, a little plume, 31, 180.

p5Hen, 111, 121.

pollen-tube, 450.

pol II na'tion, 443.

p51 lin'I a, masses of pollen, 434.

pOl'i (in Greek compounds'), many; as,

pol'y a dgl'phous, 120.

pQTy Sn'drous, having many stamens.

po lyg'a moiis, with some imperfect flowery.

pol'y pgt'al se. 476.

poTy pgt'al ous, pOl y sgp'al ous, 90.

pome, a fruit like an apple, 162.

p6s tS'ri or, next the axis.

potted plants, 428.

po ta'to, manner of its growth, 238.

prS'fo li a'tion, vernation, 252.

pre morse', ending abruptly, 235.

press for drying plants, 6.

prlck'les, 392.

prl'mine, same as testa, 173.

prig mat'ic, prism-shaped, having several par-
allel, longitudinal angles.

pro cum'bent (stem), 212. (Fig. 248.)

pro duced', extended more than usual.

proliferous, reproducing; as cymes from
the midst of a cyme, flowers from the midst
of a flower.

pros'gn'-eh? mi, 398.

pro tOph'y ta, 494.

prO'to plasm, 368, 369.

pru'i nose, powdered, as if frosted, 314.

pru'ri ens, causing an itching sensation.

psefl'do (in Greek composition), spurious,
false.

pu bgs'cent, downy, with short, soft hairs.

pu bgr'u lent, minutely downy.

pu'ml lose (pumilus), dwarfed in size.

pune'tate, seeming as if perforate, or marked
with minute dots.

pun'gent, piercing, sharp-pointed.

pfl ta men, the bony nucleus of a drupe.

py ram'i dal, form of a cone or pyramid.

pyr'i form, of the form of a pear.

pyx'is, a pericarp with a lid, 163.

quad'ri (in composition), four ; as,

quad ran'gu lar, four-angled.

quad'ri fO'li ate, four-leaved.

quSd'rl jfl'gate, with four pairs of leaflets.

quad'ri lat'er al, four-sided.

quin'que (in composition), five.

qul'nate, growing in fives, 306.

qnln «un'cial, 339. (Fig. 300.)

quln'tu pie, five-fold.

race (Latin, stirps), a permanent variety, as

red-cabbage, 456.
ra cSme', 358,

ra'ehis, axis of the inflorescence, 301, 343.
ra'di ate, diverging from a common center.
radiate (in the composites), the outer row of

florets ligulate. (Fig. 388.)
ra'di ant, outer flowers enlarged (and often
neutral, Fig. 271).

INDEX AND GLOSSAKY.

205

rSd'I e&\,from the root, 262.

radical (of the flower), 65.

rSd'i «le, rootlet (of the embryo), 31, 180.

ra'mal (of a branch), 262.

ra'phe (of the ovule or seed), 141.

rSph'i dSs, 375.

rays, 359, 362.

re cep'ta «le, 57. (See torus.)

re -curved', bent (not rolled) backward.

re flexed', curved backward excessively.

re frgct'ed, bent back suddenly, as if broken.

r8g'ma,/r«W as of geranium, 168.

rSg'u lar, like parts similar, corresponding.

r8n'i f6rm, kidney -shaped, 295.

re p&nd' (margin), 310.

rS'pgnt, creeping (sc. stems, 232).

rgs'pi ra'tion, 427.

re sfl'pi nate, reversed, upside down.

re tic' Q late, netted, 388.

re trdrse, backward, downward.

re tflse' (apex), 307. (Fig. 367, c.)

rgv'o Iflte, rolled backward, 256.

rha'chis, same as rachfs.

rhl zo'ma, rhizome, 230, 233.

rhom'bie, rhomboidal, in the figure of a

rhomb, or approaching it.
ribs, the chief veins of a leaf, ridges.
rln'gent (corolla), 103.
rings of wood, 414.
root, 197.
root-cap, 419.
root-stock, 233.
ro sa'ceous (corolla), 100.
r8s'trate, beaked, with a beak.
ro §u late (leaves), arranged around the base

of the stem, as the petals of a rose, 262.
rO'tate, wheel-shaped, 10 1.
ro ta'tion, circulation of fluids in the cell.
ru'bi -eund, blushing, rosy red.
ru'di ment, a minute part.
ru. gOse, wrinkled, 315.
ru 'ml na'ted (albumen), full of chinks, as if

composed of numerous folds.
run 91'nate, hooked backward, 293.
riin'ner, 219.

sS-e «h3 rom'y 968, 410.
s&g'it tate, arrow-shaped, 291.
saTver-shaped. (See hypocrateriform, 102.)
sa ma'ra, 154.

sap, the watery fluid taken up by the root and
moved through the vessels up to the leaves, 431.
sap-wood.

sar'-eo c irp (of the drape), 156.
sea'brous. rough, 312.
s«a ISrl f&Tm (cells), ladder-shaped, 378.
scales, 319.
scale-stems, 79, 230.
seSn'dent, climbing.
scape, 344.
scarious, 315.

s«fit'tered, sometimes used for alternate,
scl'on or cl'on, 218.
8€l<5r en' ^h^'mS, 390.
8€l6'rose, hard, bony.
ee&r'pi oid (inflorescence), 365.
&ero bte'fl late, pitted, with little depressions.
sea-green, light bluish green, glaucescent.
sS'-eund, all on one side, or turned one way.
sSe'un dine, same as tegmen, 172.
seed, 172 ; vitality of, 185 ; dispersion of, 186.
seed-coverings, 173.
sSm'I (in composition), half,' as,
s6m'I cOr'date, half of cordate.
egm'I la'nar, half-moon shaped.

sSm'I eag'it tate, partly sagittate.

sS'pal or sgp'al, one of the foliaceous parts of

the calyx, 51.
sgp'a loi'd, sepal-like.
sgp'ti ^Id'al (dehiscence), 148.
sep tlf 'ra gal (dehiscence), 148.
sSp'tum, a partition between two spaces.
ee rl'ceous, silky, 312.
se rOt'i nous, occurring late in the season.
sgr'rate, serrulate, 309.
sgs'slle, sitting, not stalked, 125, 271.
85'tse, 106.

sS ta'ceous, bristle-form.
sS'tous, setigu-pus, bearing bristles, 313.
sheath, sheathing, as the leaves of the grasses,

275.

shrub, 45.

sll'ique, silicic, 166.

sp'i quos, bearing siliques (as the crucifers).
silver-grain (of wood), 414.
simple, of one piece, not compound.
sln'is trOrse', twining from right to left.
sin'n ate, 294.
slips, 218.

soTi t& ry, growing alone, or singly.
sQlv'ent axis, 47.
sO'rT, patches of fruit in ferns.
so ro'sis, 171.
spa'dix, 356.

spSthe, spathaceous, 346.
late (leaf), 290.

g, 27, 455.
epe cif 'ic name, 26.
spep'i mens (of plants), 2, 5.
spike, spicate, 355.
spike 'let, a little spike, as in a grass.
spine, a woody thorn, 327.
spin'dle-shaped (root), 203. (Pig. 238.)
spiral arrangement (of leaves), 263.
spiral cells or vessels, 386.
sponge'let, spongiole, 199.
spores, 184.

spur, a projecting, slender appendage, 78.
equar rose', spreading widely, as the involu-

cral scales of some composites.
stages of plant life, 31.
sta'mens, 55, 110.
stam'I nate flower, 67.
stam'I no di a, 117.
starch, 374.

stem, or ascending axis, 211.
stSr'Ile, not bearing seeds, 67.
stlg'ma, stigmatic, 125, 129.
stings, 393.
stipe, the stalk of the ovary orwaries; also,

the stem of a mushroom.
stl'pels, stipellate, 279.
etlp'i tate, on a stipe.
stip'flles, stipulate, 272, 277.
BtO'lon, 217.

stoTo nlf 'er ous, producing stolons.
stO'ma, 394, etc.

strap-shaped, flat, narrow, and straight.
strict, erect and very straight.
stri gOse', icith sharp, close, rigid hairs.
strob'ile (fruit), 169.
strO'phi o late, having an appendage (stro-

phiole or caruncle) about the hilum.
struc'tur SI botany or organography, treats of

the organs or parts of plants, of their forms

and uses.
style, 125.
styloid, style-like.
sub (in composition), slightly, 317.
sfib'e rose, corky in texture.

206

INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

sub-kingdoms, 473.

sfl'bfl late, awl-shaped, 299.

sfre'-eu lent, wry juicy and cellular, 315.

sflck'er, 216.

suf fru tes'cent, woody at the base only.

aureate, furrowed.

su pS'ri or, 97, 98.

superior calyx, calyx adherent to ovary.

superior ovary, ovary free from calyx.

sfl'per vo lute', 340.

sfl'pra, above.

sfl'pra-ax'il la ry, situated above the axil.

su'pra de-e6m pound, very much divided.

BUS pgnd ed (ovule), 139. (Fig. 158.)

sfit'flr al (dehiscence), 148,

sword-shaped, as the vertical leaves of iris.

s$vQ'nviS, fruit, such as the Fig., 170.

symmetry (of the flower), 60, c, 69.

sym p8t'ai ous, with petals united.

sy^n phyl'lous, with perianth leaves united.

syn (in Greek compounds), together, union.

syn Sn'ther ous, with anthers united.

syn -ear'pi urn, 169.

eyn -ear'pous, with carpels united.

ey'n'ge nS'gi ous, 120.

t'ic botany, 451, etc.

taper-pointed. (See acuminate, 307.)

tap-root, 203.

t%w'ny,fulvous, dull yellowish-brown.

tax On'o my, the science of classification.

tgg'men, the inner seed-coat, 140, 172.

ten'dril, 228, 324.

tSr'atolo gy, 334.

te rete', cylindrical, or nearly so.

term of plant life, 39, etc.

ter'mi nal, situated at the end or apex.

ter'mi noTo gy. See nomenclature, 498.

ter'nate (leaves), in threes, 303.

t8s'sel la'ted, checkered, as a pavement.

t8s'ta, the outer seed-coat, 140, 172, 173.

tSt'ra (in Greek composition), four.

tet'ra dyn'a mous, 119.

te trfig'o nal, with four corners.

te trSg'y nous, with four pistils.

thS'ca, thecse, sporangia or spore-cases.

thorn, 327.

throat, orifice of a monopetalous corolla.

thyrse (thirs), 360.

tis'sues, 409.

tO'men tose', with short, dense, woolly hairs,

top-shaped, inversely conical.

tO'rus, same as receptacle, 57, 84.

tor'fi lose, swollen at intervals.

tree, 46.

tri (in Greek compounds}, three ; as,

trl'a dglph'ous, the stamens in three sets.

tri fln'drous, having three stamens.

tri «6V€ous (fruit), with three 1-seeded car-

I'-eol ored (tricolor), with three colors.
tri gn'ni al, lasting three years.
tri fid, split half-way into three parts.
tri fo-li ate, with three leaflets, 303.
trig'y nous, having three styles, 124.
tri lo 'bate, having three lobes, 296.
tri mS'rous, 3-parted, 65.
tri part'a loletsepa? able into three parts.
tri partite, more deeply split than trifld.
trlp'le-veined, 285. (Fig. 319.)
tri pln'nate, thrice pinnate, 304.
tri quS'trous, three angled, 258, 339.
tri ter'nate, thrice ternate, 305.
tr&ue'ate, 307. (Fig. 367, d.)

trunk (of a tree), 225.

try'mS, fruit, as the hickory-nut, 157.

tube, 91.

tfi ber, 237.

tu ber'-eu lar, ^04.

tu ber'eu late, covered with warts (tubercles).

tu'bu lar corolla, 102.

tu'mid, swollen or inflated.

tu'ni €ate, coated, as the bulb, 242.

tflr'bi nate, shaped like a top.

tu'ri on, young shoot, as of asparagus.

typ ie al flower, 60. (Figs. 8-11.)

um'bel, a59.

um bel late, bearing umbels.

um'bel let, a partial umbel.

um bll'i «ate, with a sharp depression at end.

un armed', with no stings, thorns, etc.

un'cl nate, hooked.

un'der shrflb, a low shrub, 45.

un'du late, wavy, 310.

un e'qual ly pinnate, 302.

un guic'u late (petal), having a claw, 88.

uni (in compounds), one ; as,

u ni cel'lu Jar plants.

ti ni fo'li ate, with one leaf or leaflet.

u'ni f6rm, of one form.

u ni lat er al, 1-sided.

u ni lOe'fi lar, \-cetted.

u'ni vfilved, with but one valve.

ur'ce o late, urn-shaped, 102.

a 'tri ele (fruit), 152.

'i nate, sheathing ; the .flattened petiole
involving the stem.
vSlv'ate, 257, 337.
valves, valvular, 114, 148.
va rl'e ties, 28.
vfts'-eu lar tissue, 396.
vaulted, arched.
vgg'e ta tion, or physiology of plant life, 368.

vein 'lets, vein'u lets, 283.

ve na'tion (of the leaf), 282.

vfin'tri cose, swelling out on one side.

vgn'tral, belonging to the front side.

ver'nal, appearing in the Spring-time.

ver na'tion (of the leaf bud), 252.

v6r'ru cose, covered with warts (verruca).

ver'sa tile (anther), 114.

ver'tex, the summit, same as apex.

ver 'tie al, in the direction up and down, or

parallel with the axis.
ver tlc'il late, whorled, 215, 262.
ver ti ?il Ifts'ter, 366.
ves'per tine, appearing in the evening.
ves'sels, 402.

vSx'il la ry (aestivation). (Fig. 425.)
vex II lum, banner, 101 (Figs. 59, 60.)
vil lose', with long, weak hairs, 312.
vl mm'e ous, with long, flexible shoots, osier-

like.

rir'gate, twiggy, long, slender.
rine, 228.

nfe'cid, viscous, sticky or glutinous.
rl taTity of seeds, 185.
rft'ta, vittoe, the minute oil-tubes in the fruit-

coat of the umbettiferce.
^Qlva, membrane inclosing the young fungus.
wedge-shaped, tapering to the base.
whorl, a circle of similar organs.
vitch-grass, 231.
wood, 372, 415.
wood -cells, 399.
woody plants, 44.

x5n thte, yellowish.

x6n og a my, the fertilization of a flower, by

pollen from a flower of another plant, of the

same species ; cross-fertilizition.
xer'O phlles, plants that require great heat

and little moisture, or plants especially

adapted to arid regions. £epo?: dry, </>iAeu>,

I love / hence, plants that delight in dry

places.

xy'iem, wood. From £v\ov.
xy'lo e&rp, £vAop, wood, /capjros, fruit; hence,

hard and woody fruit.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

yeast plant, 411. (Fig. 513.)

207

zo 61 'o gy, 17.

zo Of II us, from the Greek £wov, animal, and
</>VTOI, plant; pertaining to plants whose
pollination is accomplished by the agency of
insects or other animals.

zO'O phyte, 493.

zyg'O spore, spore formed by the union of two
cells, tvnov, a yoke, <rnopa, a seed; hence, a
yoked or united seed.

ABBREVIATIONS AND SIGNS

§ BOTANICAL TERMS OFTEN RECURRING IN DESCRIPTIONS

wh. achenia.
ast. aestivation.
alter, alternate.
amplex. amplexicaul.
with, anther.
axil/, axillary.
col. calyx.
caps, capsule.
cor. corolla.
eyp. cypsela.
decid. deciduous.
diam. diameter.
ellip. elliptical.
emarg. emarginate.
epiy. epigynous.
/. or ft. feet.
/U. filaments.
A. flower ; Jls. flowers.

fr. fruit.

gl. glume ; gl*. plumes.
hd. head ; hds. Leads.
hyp. hypogynons.
irribr. imbricate.
inf. inferior.
invol. involucre.
irreg. irregular.
leg. legume.
If. leaf; Ivs. leaves.
Ifts. leaflets.
lorn, loment.
opp. opposite.
ova. ovary.
pap. pappus.
ped. peduncle.
pet. petals.
perig. perigynous.

perig. perigyninm,

pis. pales. •

pn. pinnae.

pnl. pinnulae.

recep. receptacle

reg. regular.

rhiz. rhizoma.

rt. root.

sc. scale, scales.

sds. seeds.

seg. segment.

sep. sepals.

st. stem.

sta. or stam. stamens

stig. stigmas.

stip. stipules.

sty. styles.

var. variety.

§ TIMES OP FLOWERING, AND LOCALITIES.

1. Names of the Months and Seasons are abbreviated in the usual manner, an, Jan.
January ; Apr. April ; Spr. Spring ; Aut. Autumn ; Sum. Summer ; &c.

2. The names of States and Territories of the D. S. are abbreviated precisely as in
other works, thus :— Ala. Alabama ; Ark. Arkansas ; Conn. Connecticut, &c.

3. Sections of States are thus designated:— N. N. Y. Northern New York; W. Pa.
Western Pennsylvania ; E. Fla. East Florida ; S. 111. Southern Illinois, &c.

4. Names of foreign Countries :—Eur. Europe ; Afr. Africa ; 8. Afr. Soutk AJr°.c» .
Aust. Australia ; Can. Canada ; Mex. Mexico ; 8. Am. South America &c.

5. E. East, Eastward, indicates the States of the Atlantic seaboard from Maine to V'J
Rinia inclusive ; N-E. or N. Eng. denotes the New England States.

6. M. is used to denote the Middle States ; viz., N. Y., Penn., N. J.. and Del.

I. N. North, Northward, indicates generally the territory north of 42° N. latitude.

8. N-W. Northwest, indicates Wis., Minn., and parts of 111. and Mich.

9. ft. South, Southward, is used to indicate the Southern States in general,— all lying
south of Virginia and Kentucky,

10. &-W. Southwest, viz., Mise., La., Ark., and perhaps Tennessee and Texas

II. W. Went, denotes the States lying due north of Tennessee and Arkansas.

ABBREVIATIONS AND SIGNS.

209

§ SIGNS.

At annual Herb.

A biennial Herb.

A perennial Herb.

An undershrub, deciduous.

An undershrub, evergreen.

A Shrub, deciduous.

A Shrub, evergreen.

A Tree, deciduous.

A Tree, evergreen.

An herbaceous Vine, (T) or (a).

A perennial Vine, u.

Woody Vine, deciduous.

£ Woody Vine, evergreen,
L, Trailing Herb, ® or (|J.
Lo Trailing Herb, if.
£? An aquatic Plant.
I Flowers perfect.
$ Flowers staminate.
? Flowers pistillate.
8 Monoecious.
$ ? Dioecious.
$ ¥ ? Polygamous.
0 Wanting, or none.
00 Numerous, or indefinite

at the end of the description.

§ A Plant introduced and naturalized ;

t Plant cultivated for ornament ;

J Plant cultivated for use ;

c =• Cotyledons accumbent ; \

«B Cotyledons incumbent ; V used only in the Cruciferse. (Page 34.)

o)) Cotyledons conduplicate ; J

! (Note of exclamation), used technically, denotes certainty.

T (Note of interrogation), implies doubt or uncertainty.

f (with or without a period), a foot \

' (a single acute accent), an inch > after a number.

" (a double accent), a line =1-12 of an inch. . )

5 AUTHORS' NAMES CITED IN THIS WORK.

Adans.
1. DC.

Anders.

Am.

Avb.

Bart.

Bartt.

Benth.

Bemh.

EtrL

BOM.

Bong.

B&rk.

Br.

Bw.

Case.

Cerv.

Cham

Darl.

Dttf.

Adanson.

Dill.

Dillenioa

Alphonsc Do Candolle.

Den.

DesvaoA

Aiton.

Dougl.

Douglas.

Allione.

Ehrh.

Ehrhart.

Anders son.

Eft.

EUiott.

Arnott.

EncU.

Endlicher.

Aublet.

Engel.

Engehnann.

Barton.

Fiech.

Fischer.

Bartling.

F. AM.

Fischer & Meyer

Beauvois.

Frcel.

Froelich.

Bentham.

Gccrt.

Gaertner.

Bernhardt.

Omel.

Gmelin.

Berlandier.

Good.

Goodenough.

Boissier.

Or.

A. Gray.

Bongard.

Qrc\

Greville.

Borkhauseu.

Griseb.

Grisebach.

Brown.

Gron.

Gronovius.

Bigelow.

Hedw.

Hedwig.

Cassini.

Hoffm.

Hoffman.

Cavanilles.

Hook.

Hooker (W. J.)

Chamissc

Hook.f. (JUius)

Hooker (J. D.)

Darlington.

Hornem.

Hornemann.

DE CANDOLLE.

Hude.

Hudson. [Kiinuv

DesfontaineA.

H.B. ¥

Homboldt, Bonptand &

Dewey

Jaeq

Jaoqnin.

210

ABBREVIATIONS AND SIGNS.

AUTHORS' NAMES— (CONTINUED).

Ap,

JU8BIEU.

Richn.

A. Jw»

Adrien Jussieu.

Rotm.

L. or Linn.

LlXN^EUB.

Salisb.

Lag.

Lagasca.

Schk.

Lam.

Lamarck.

Schrad.

Lamb.

Lambert.

Schreb.

Ledeb.

Ledebour.

Schult.

Lehm.

Lehmann.

Schw.

Lesq.

Leeqaereax.

Scop.

Lettto.

Lestibudoie.

Ser.

VHer.

L'Heritier.

Soland.

LincU.

Lindley.

Sprcng.

Mart.

Martins.

Steud.

Mich.

Micheli.

Sulliv.

Michx. or MX.

Micbaux.

Thurib.

Mx.f.

Michaux (the younger).

Torr.

Mm.

MUler.

T.&G.

Mitch.

Mitchell.

Tourn.

MvM.

Muhlenberg.

Trautv.

Nee*.

Nees von 3eenbeck.

Trin.

Nutt. or N.

Nuttall.

Tuckm.

Pal.

Pallas.

VaiU.

Pav.

Pavon.

Vent.

Pert.

Pereoon.

via.

Ph.

Pursh.

Wahl.

Plvk.

Plukenet.

Walp.

Plum.

Plumier.

Walt.

Pair.

Poiret.

Wangh.

R.Br.

ROBERT BROWN.

Wittd.

Eaf.

Raflneeque.

With.

Bdchml

ReiehonhMh.

Wvtf

Blah.

Bichord.

Richardson.

Roemer.

Salisbury.

Schkuhr.

Schrader.

Schreber.

Schultes.

Schweinitz.

Scopoli.

Seringe.

Solander.

Sprengel.

Steudel.

Snllivant.

Thnnberg.

Torrey.

Torrey & Qmy

Tournefort.

Trantvetter.

Triniua.

Tuckerman.

Vaillant.

Ventenat.

Villare.

Wahlenberg.

Walpera.

Walter.

Wangenhoim

WiUdenow.

Withering.

Wnliten.

ANALYSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS.

Founded on the most obvious or artificial characters : designed as a key for

the determination of the Order of any plant, native, or naturalized,

or cultivated, growing within the limits of this Flora.

KINGDOM.

Sub-kingdom I. Flowering Plants PHANEBOGAMIA.

Class 1. Leaves net-veined. Flowers never completely 3-parted
(mostly ~ty and ^). Embryo with 2 cotyledons. Wood (if
any) in annual circles. Seed in a vessel. Stigmas pres-
ent ANGIOSPERMS, DICOTYLEDONES.

Cohort 1. (A) Calyx and corolla present, petals separate Polypetalw.

Cohort 2. (B) Calyx and corolla present, petals more or less united. .Gamopetalae.

Cohort 3. (C) Calyx present, but no corolla, or both wanting Apetalae.

Class 2. Stigma wanting. Seed naked. Embryo with two or more

cotyledons GYMNOSPERMS-

Cohort 4. (D) Cone-bearing plants (Pines, etc.) Coniferee.

Class 3. Leaves parallel- veined (rarely netted). Flowers 3-parted.
Bark, wood, and pith commingled. Embryo with but one

cotyledon. Root not axial MONOCOTYLEDONES.

Cohort 5. (E) Flowers on a spadix Spadiciflorae.

Cohort 6. (F) Floral envelope in two 3-parted whorls, outer

one green (Lillies, etc.) Petaloidee.

Cohort 7. (G) Floral envelope, chaff-like (Grasses and Grains) Glumiferse.

Sub-kingdom II. Flowerless Plants CRYPTOG AMIA.

Class 1. Vascular Cryptogams (Ferns, and their allies) PTERIDOPHYTA.

Cohort 1. (H) Stem, herbaceous, rooting, or tree-like Llcopodinse.

Cohort 2. (I) Stem, stiff, channeled (Rushes) Equisetaceee.

Cohort 3. (J) Stem a creeping Rhizome or erect leaves pin-

ni-veined, veins forked (Ferns proper) Filicinee*

A. COHORT I. POLYPETALOUS DICOTYLEDONES.

* Herbs with the leaves alternate or all radical. .(12)

* Herbs with the leaves opposite on the stem. .(9)

* Shrubs, trees, or undershrubs . . (2)

2 Flowers regular or nearly so . . (8)

8 Flowers irregular (or the fruit a legume) (§ 165). .(/•)

3 Polyandrous,— stamens 3—10 times as many as the petals.. (4)

3 Oligandrous,— stamens 1—2 times as many as the petals or fewer. .(6)

212 ANALYSIS OF THE NATURAL OKDERS.

4 Leaves opposite . (s)
4 Leaves alternate.. (5)

5 Stamens on the torus or the hypogynous corolla. .(0
5 Stamens and petals on the calyx tube. . (v)

6 Ovaries simple, distinct, or one only. Vines or erect shrubs, .(w)
6 Ovary compound, and wholly adherent to the calyx (x)
6 Ovary compound aud free from the calyx or nearly so. . (7)

7 Stamens opposite to the petals and of the same number, .(y)
7 Stamens alternate with the petals or of a different number. .(8)
8 Leaves opposite on the stems.. (z)
8 Leaves alternate, and compound.. (yy)
8 Leaves alternate and simple.. (zz)

9 Polyandrous— stamens 3—10 tunes as many as the petals, .(m)
9 Oligandrous,— stamens 1—2 times as many as the petals or fewer. . (10)
10 Pistils separate and distinct, few or solitary, simple, .(n)
10 Pistils united into a compound ovary free from the calyx. .(11)
10 Pistils united into a compound ovary adherent to the calyx, .(o)
11 Stamens opposite to the petals and of the same number. . (p)
11 Stamens alternate with the petals or of a greater number, .(q)
12 Flowers regular or nearly so. Fruit never a legume . . (14)
12 Flowers irregular (rarely regular and the fruit a legume). . (13)
13 Stamens numerous, 3 or more times as many as the petals. . (k)
13 Stamens few and definite, 4— 12. .(I)

14 Stamens (or anthers) 3—10 times as many as the petals . . (15)
14 Stamens few and definite. Ovary free from the calyx. .(17)
14 Stamens few and definite. Ovary adherent to the calyx. . (J)
15 Stamens hypogynous— inserted on the torus. .(16)
15 Stamens perigynous— inserted on the corolla at the base, .(c)
15 Stamens perigynous— inserted on the calyx at the base . . (d)
16 Pistils few or many, distinct (at least as to the styles), .(a)
16 Pistils (and styles if any) completely united. . (b)
17 Pistils one, or indefinite and distinct, simple . . (e)
17 Pistils definitely—* 2 united, the short styles combined into one..(f)
—* 2, 8 or 4 united, styles or stigmas, 2, 3, 4 or 6. . (g)
— * 5, distinct or united, with 5 distinct styles. .(A)
— * 5, united and the styles also combined into one. . (i)

a Petals 5 or more, deciduous. Leaves never peltate KANUNCULACE^E.

a Petals 3 or numerous. Water plants with peltate leaves \

o Sepals 4—6, equal. Petals OO, imbricated in the bud.. . . f

b Sepals 5, equal. Petals 5, imbricate. Leaves tubular SABBACENIACE.E. 8

b Sepals 5, unequal. Petals 5, convolute. Flowers of 2 sorts CISTACE^E. 15

b Sepals 2, with— bb 5 petals imbricated in the bud POBTULACCACE.E. 20

— bb 4 or 8 petals usually crumpled in bud PAPAVEBACE.E. 9

c Filaments united into a tube. Anthers 1-celled MALVACEAE. 23

d Sepals 2, persistent, capping the lid of the pyxis POBTULACCACE^E. 20

d Sepals 3—5, valvate in the bud. Pod long, 2-carpelled TILIACE.E. 25

d Sepals 3— 5.— dd Petals imbricate in bud. Fruits simple ROSACEJE. 44

— dd Petals convolute in bud. Fruit compound — LOASACE^E. 55

e Stamens opposite to the petals and of the same number. Pistil 1 only. .BEBBEBIDACE^E. 6

e Stamens alternate with the petals or more numerous RANUNCULACEJS. 1

/ Stamens 6, tetradynamous. Pod 2-celled. Flowers cruciform CBUCIFEB^E. 11

/ Stamens 4—32, not tetradynamous. Pod 1-celled CAPPABIDACE.E. 12

g Sepals 5, unequal. Flowers perfect, numerous, minute CISTACE^J. 15

g Sepals 5, equal. Flowers mono3cious. Herbs woolly or scurfy OBDEB 113

ANALYSIS OF THE NATUKAL ORDERS. 213

g Sepals 5, or 3, equal, and the stamens twice as many GEBANIACE^E. 30

g Sepals 5, and the stamens (anthers) of the same number, .(gg)

gg Sterile filam. numerous, in several whorls. Climbing. . .PASSIFLOBACE^E. 57

gg Sterile filaments numerous, in 5 clusters. Herb erect SAXIFBAGACE.S:. 45

gg Sterile filaments 0. .(*)

* Flowers white, racemed. Climbing ORDER 106

* Flowers yellow. Plants erect TUBNEBACE.E. 56

* Flowers cyanic. Herbs stemless DROSERACE^S!. 17

h Stamens 5, alternate with the 5 petals. Styles 5 or 3. Seeds QO LINAGES. 28

h Stamens 5, opposite to the 5 petals. Styles 5, but the seed 1 f ORDER 83

h Stamens twice as many as the petals . . (hK)

hh Stamens 6. Leaves peltate NTMPELEACE.S:. 7

kh Stamens 6 — 24, distinct CRASSULACEJB. 46

hh Stamens 10, united at base GERANIACE^I. 30

i Ovary 1-celled. Leaves all radical, spinescent, irritable DBOSEBACEJS. 17

i Ovary 3-5 celled. Leaves mostly radical, not dotted ORDER 73

i Ovary 3-5 celled. Leaves cauline, pinnate, dotted RUTACEJS. 31

3 Style 1, but the carpels as many as the petals (2—6) ONAGBACEJE. 54

j Styles 3—5, ovary 3-5-celled, 3-5-seeded, wholly adherent ARALIACE^:. 64

j Styles 3—8, ovary 1-celled, half adherent. Sepals 2 PORTULACACE^E. 20

j Styles 2, carpels 2, fewer than the (5) petals.—* Seeds several SAXIFRAGACE^E. 45

— * Seeds 2 UMBELLIFER^:. 63

k Ovariee many, or few, rarely 1, always simple KANTJNCULACEJE. 1

k Ovary compound, 3-carpelled, open before ripe RESEDACE^E. 13

I Sepals (4 or 5) produced into 1 slender spur behind, petals 2 or 5 GERANIACE.S:. 30

I Sepals 2 (or vanished), petals 4 (2 pairs) with 1 or 2 blunt spurs FUMARIACE.S:. 10

I Sepals 5, very unequal; petals 3. Stamens 6 or 8. No spur POLYGALACEJS. 42

I Sepals and petals each of the same number, viz. .(ft)

tt 4, the flowers slightly irregular. Stamens 6—32. No spur CAPPARIDACEJE. 12

U 4, the flowers moderately irregular. Stamens 8. A vine SAPiNDACKas. 37

tt 5, with 5 stamens, and generally a blunt spur VIOLACBLE. 14

tt 5, with 10 or more stamens. No spur. Fruit a legume LEGTTMTNOSJB. 43

m Pistils many, entirely distinct, simple KANUNCULACEJE. 1

77i Pistils 3—5, united more or less completely HTPERIOACE^I. 16

m Pistils 5—10, united, with sessile stigmas and many petals FICOIDZLE. 61

n Pistil solitary, simple. Petals 6—9. Stamens 12—18 BERBERIDACE^S. 6

n Pistil 3 or more, distinct, simple. Flowers all symmetrical. . . . CRASSULACEJB. 46

n Pistils 2, consolidated with the 5 stamens. Juice milky OBDER 100

o Carpels as many as the sepals, (nn)

o Carpels fewer in number than the sepals, .(oo)

nn Anthers opening at the top. Flowers 4-parted MELASTOMACE^:. 52

nn Anthers opening laterally. Styles united into 1 OKAGRACE^S. 54

nn Anthers opening laterally. Styles or stigmas distinct. . .HALOBAGE.E. 48

oo Each carpel oc -seeded. Styles 2 SAXIFB AGACE.E. 45

oo Each carpel 1-seeded. Styles 2 or 3 ABALIACEJB. 64

oo Each carpel 1-seeded. Style 1 (double) COBNACE^. 65

p Style 3-cleft at the summit. Flowers 5-parted POBTULACACE.E. 20

p Style and stigma 1, undivided. Flowers 7-parted OBDER 81

q Leaves pinnate, with interpetiolar stipules ZTGOPHTLLACE.E. 29

q Leaves simple, toothed or lobed. Flowers cruciform. Stamens 6 CBUCIFERS:. 17

q Leaves simple,, toothed or lobed. Flowers 5-merous. Stamens 10. ..GEBANIACE^B. 30
q Leaves simple, entire, .(qq)

qq Petals and stamens on the throat of the calyx LYTHBACEJS. 123

qq Petals on the torus. .(*)

214 ANALYSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS.

* Flowers irregular, unsymmetrical POLYGALACE.E. 42

* Flowers regular, 2-(or 3-)parted throughout ELATINACE.E. 18

* Flowers regular, 5-parted. Leaves punctate HYPERICACE.E. 16

* Flowers regular, 5-parted. Leaves dotless CARYOPHYLLACEJB. 19

r Pistil a simple carpel, becoming a legume. Stamens 10—100 LEGUMINOS.E. 43

r Pistil compound, viz . . (rr)

rr 3-carpelled. Flowers perfect. Leaves digitate SAPINDACE^E. 37

rr 3-carpelled. Flowers monoecious. Cultivated . .BEGONIACE^E. 59

rr 5-carpelled.— * Stipules present. Cultivated GEKANIACE^J. 30

— * Stipules none. Native ORDER 78

s Stamens on the receptacle, in several sets. Leaves dotted HYPERICACEJE. 10

8 Stamens on the receptacle, in 1 set. Lvs. fleshy. (S. Fla).. Clusia. GUTTIFERE. (21)
Stamens on the calyx . . (ss)

88 Sepals, petals, and ovaries indefinite CALYCANTHACE^E. 3

88 Sepals, &c., definite. Leaves dotted, entire MYRTACE.SJ. 51

ss Sepals, &c., definite. Leaves dotless, entire LYTHRACE^B. 53

88 Sepals, &c., definite. Leaves dotless, subdentate SAXIFRAGACE^E. 45

t Filaments united into 1 set (monadelphous). Petals convolute. .<w)
t Filaments united into 1 or several sets. Petals imbricate . . (uu)
t Filament distinct.. (tf)

tt Petals 6, valvate, lurid. Erect shrubs ANONACE.S:. 4

it Petals 3—9, imbricate. Trees or shrubs MAGNOLIACE^E. 2

tt Petals 4—8, imbricate. Climbing or trailing MENISPEHMACE^E. 5

tt Petals 4, imbricated. Shrubs, S CAPPARIDACE^E. 12

u Anthers 1-celled. Sepals valvate in the bud MALVACEAE. 23

u Anthers 2-celled. Sepals valvate. Handsome tree STERCULIACE^E. 24

u Anthers 2-celled. Sepals imbricate. A large tree in S. Fla-.CANELLACEuE. (22)
uu Leaves punctate with pellucid dots, jointed to stalk. .AURANTIACE^E. 32
uu Leaves opaque. .(*)

* Sepals valvate. Flowers small TILIACEJE. 25

* Sepals imbricate. Flowers large CAMELLIACE^E. 26

v Style 1, with many stigmas. Green fleshy shrubs CACTACE^E. 60

v Styles several or 1, each with 1 stigma. Woody trees or shrubs ROSACES. 44

v Style 1, with 1 stigma. Stam. in 5 sets, long, red, very showy MYRTACE^E. 51

w Trailing vines, with crimson fls. Ovaries OO, in a little spike MAGNOLIACE.E. 2

w Climbing vines, with white-greenish fls. Ova. 2 — 6, capitate MENISPERMACEJE. 5

w Erect shrubs, with yellow flowers, 6-parted. Pistil only 1 BERBERIDACE^J. 6

w Erect shrubs (S. Fla.) with yellow fls. Pistils 5, 2-ovuled, 1-sded . . . SURIANACE.E. (62)

w Trees, with greenish fls.,—* and pinnate Ivs. Pist. 3-5, l-cvuled...SiMARUBACEjE. 34

— * and simple leaves. Follicles 3—5 — STERCULIACE.E. 24

x Flowers 4-parted. Stamens 8. (Fls. red or roseate, drooping).. .ONAGRACEJE. 54
x Flowers 4-parted. Sta. 8. Fls. light yellow. Coasts, S. Fla..RHizopoRACE^E. (49)

x Flowers 4-parted. Stamens 4. Flowers whitish, in cymes CORNACE^E. 65

x Flowers 5-parted . . (xx)

xx Ovary 5-carpelled, 5-styled, 5-seeded ARALIACE^E. 64

xx Ovary 5-carpelled, 1-styled, 1-seeded. S. Fla COMBRETACE^E. 50

xx Ovary 2-4 carpelled, OC-seeded SAXIFRAGACE.E. 45

y Leaves opposite. Stem climbing with tendrils or radicles . . . VITACE.E. 41
y Lvs. alternate. St. erect, or climbing without tendrils. . RHAMNACE-E. 40

z Leaves simple. Stamens 5. Carpels 3—5, style 1, short CELASTRACE^E. 38

z Leaves simple. Sta. 10. Carpels and sty. 3. S. Fla..Bym>mwa,MALPiGHiACE,E. (39)

z Leaves pinnate, or palmately lobed. Carpels and styles 2 or 3 SAPINDACE.E. 37

z Leaves pinnate. .(*)

* Stamens 10. Small tree with blue flowers. S. Fla ZYGOPHYULACE.E. 29

* Stamens 2. Carpels lor 3. Style 1 OBDBR 101

ANALYSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS. 215

* StamensS. Carpel and style 1 BUBSERACE,*:. 35

yy Filaments 10, united into a tube or cup. Flowers in panicles MELIACE^. 21

W Filaments 6—10, distinct. Flowers small, white, in racemes BURSERACE^E. 35

yy Filaments 6—10, distinct. Fls. small, white or hoary, paniculate. . SAPINDACILE. 81
yy Filaments 5, distinct.. (*)

* Leaves pellucid-punctate RUTACE.&. 81

* Leaves opaque. Ovary 1-celled, 1-seeded ANAOARDIACE^E. 36

tz Petals 4, yellow, strap-shaped, appearing in late Autumn HAMAMELACE.-E. 47

zz Petals 4—7, cyanic (rarely yellow), rounded or short.. (t)

t Style 0, the stigmas 1, 4, or 5, sessile. Drupe 4-6-seeded ORDEB 74

t Styles (or stigmas) 3, but the drupe only 1-seeded ANACARDIACE^E. 36

t Styles 3, capsule many-sded. Lvs. minute and pcale-form . . TAMARISCINEJE. 24 ftw
t Style l,..Ct)

$ Capsule 3-seeded. Seeds with a scarlet aril CELASTRACE^E. 38

J Caps. 00-seeded. Clusters fragrant. Lvs. evergreen. Cult. ..PITTOBPORAC**.
$ Capsule with few or many seeds. Native shrubs ORDER 7c

B. COHORT 2. GAMOPETALOUS DICOTYLEDONES.

Stamens (6— 00) more numerous than the lobes of the corolla. .(9)
Stamens (2—12) fewer than the corolla lobes or of the same number. . (2)
2 Ovary inferior, =adherent to the tube of the calyx.. (3)
2 Ovary superior, = free from the tube of the calyx. . (4)
3 Stamens cohering by their anthers, .(c)
8 Stamens entirely distinct.. (d)

4 Flowers regular and the stamens symmetrical. .(5)

4 Flowers regular and the stamens reduced to 2 or 4. .(n)

4 Flowers irregular. Stamens (except in 3 or 4 species) unsymmetrical. .(01

5 Stamens opposite to the lobes of the corolla (and distinct), .(e)

6 Stamens alternate with the corolla lobes (rarely connate).. (6)

6 Shrubs, trees, with the carpels or stigmas 3 — 6..(/)
6 Herbs 1-10-carpelled, or shrubs 2-carpelled..(7)
7 Ovary 1, deeply 4-parted or 4-partible, forming 4 achenia. .(g)
1 Ovaries 2, distinct (often covered by the stamens) .. (h)
7 Ovary 1, compound,—* one-celled.. (k)

— * two-six-celled.. (m)

9 Flowers irregular (rarely regular and the fruit a legume).. (a)
• Flowers regular and the fruit never a legume (§ 165). .(J)

a Flowers 1- or 2-sided, with 1 or 2 blunt spurs. Stamens 6, in 2 sets. . .ORDER 1C
a Flowers 1-sided, no spur..(*)

* Leaves compound. Fruit a legume ORDER 48

* Leaves simple. Fruit 2-celled, 2-seeded ORDER 42

* Leaves simple. Fruit 5-celled ERICACEAE. 73

6 Corolla lobes convolute in bud. Stamens 00, united into 1 tube ORDER 23

6 Corolla lobes imbricate in bud. Stamens 00, in 1 or several sets — ORDER 26
6 Corolla lobes imbricate or valvate. . (u)

u Stamens 10—24. Styles 5— 12 ORDER 46

« Stamens 5—10. Style 1. Capsule 5-celled EBICACE^:. 73

v StamensS— 00. Style 1. Nut 1-5-seeded STTBACAdtB. 76

«Btemen88. Style»4. BerrySaeeded EBKNACKJS. 71

u Stamens 8. Stylo 1. Drupe 1-secded OLAOAOHA 80 (p. 447)

216 ANALYSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS.

e Flowers in a compact head surrounded by an involucre .............. COMPOSITE. 7C

c Flowers separate, irregular, perfect. Plants erect or trailing ....... LOBELIACEJE. 71

e Flowers separate, regular, imperfect. Weak vines _____ .................. ORDER 58

d Leaves alternate. Flowers 5-parted, regular, separate ..... CAMPANULACE.E. 72

d Leaves alternate. Fls. irregular, 5-parted. S. Fla..Sccevola. GOO'DENIACE^E. (71$;
d Leaves opposite, with stipules between, or verticillate .......... RUBIACE^E. 61

d Leaves opposite. Stipules none. . (v)

v Stamens 5 — 4. Ovaries 2-5-celled ....................... CAPRIFOLIACE^E. 66

v Stamens 2— 3. Ovaries 1-celled ......................... VALERIANACE.E, 68

o Stamens 4. Flowers capitate ................................ DIPSACE.E. 69

e Herbs. Ovary with 5 styles and but 1 seed ................ PLUMBAGINACE^E. 83

€ Herbs. Ovary with 1 style and many seeds .................... PRIMULACEJS. 81

e Trees or shrubs. Appendages between the stamens ............ SAPOTACE^E. 78

• Trees or shrubs. No appendages between the stam. S. Fla. . MTRSINACE^E. (79)
/ Leaves opposite. Style 1. Drupe 4-seeded. Herbs, shrubs.. VERBSNACE^E. 90
/ Leaves alternate. . (w)

w Drape 4-6-seeded. Shrubs, trees .................... AQUIFOLIACE.E. 74

w Drupe 1-seeded. Thorny. S. Fla ........... Ximenia. OLACACE.E. (80)

tc Capsule 2-5-celled, QO-seeded ........................... ERICACEJE. 73

g Herbs, with alternate leaves, generally rough-hairy ..... BORRAGINACE.E. 92

k Stigmas connate. Flower bud convolute ............. APOCYNACE^E. 99

A Stigmas connate. Flower bud valvate ............ ASCLEPIADACEJS. 100

h Stigmas distinct. Flowers minute, yellow ........ CONYOLVULACEJS. 95

fc Ovule solitary. Corolla limb entire .............................. ORDER 103

ft Ovules several. Leaves cleft and lobed ............. HYDROPHYLLACE^B. 93

k Ovules several. Leaves or leaflets entire.. (x)

x Flowers not spicate .............................. GENTIANACEJS. 97

m Leaves opposite. Ovary 2-celled .......................... Lou AKIACE.E. 98

m Leaves alternate. . (y)

m Leaves opposite. Ovary 3-ceUed. Not twining.. ) .PQLEMONIACE^. 94
y Ovary 3-celled. Not twining .............. >

y Ovary 2-4-celled. Twining ...................... CONVOLVULACE.E. 95

y Ovary 2-4-celled, 4-seeded. Erect ............... BORRAGINACEJB. 92

y Ovary 2-celled, 00-seeded.— z Styles 2 ....... HYDROPHYLLACE^E. 93

—z Style 1 ............... SOLANAOEJS. 96

n Stamens 4. Ova. 4-(rarely 1- or 2-)celled, with as many sds . . VERBENACE^E.W
n Stamens 2. Ovary 2-celled, forming 1 or 2 seeds ............. OLBACEJS. 101

0 Ovary deeply 4-parted, forming 4 (or fewer) achenia. .(p)

O Ovary entire. 4-ovuled, 4- or fewer-seeded. Leaves opposite.. VEBBENACBJZ. 90

o Orary entire, 00-ovuled, OO- or several-seeded.. («)

p Leaves opposite. Stems square. Stamens 2—4 ............... LABIATE. 91

p Leaves alternate. Stems round. Stamens 5 ............ BORUAOINACK,*;. 92

6 Trees or climbing shrubs. Seeds winged ........ ............. BIGNONIACEJS 8€

• Trees. Seeds not winged ..... SCROPHTTL. 88. Erect shrubs — ERICACEAE. 73

Herbs.—** Leafless parasites. Native. Ovary 1-celled ..... OROBANCHACE^B. 85

—68 Leafy at base or in the water. Flowers spurred. . LENTIBULACEJS. 84
—ss Leafy. Flowers large, spurless. Ovary 1-celled... GESNERIACEJE. 87
— ss Leafy. Spurless. Fruit 4- or 5-celled ........... $ BIGNONIACEJS. 86

-*? Leafy. Fruit 2-celled . . (0
t Seeds on hooks or cups. Corolla mostly convolute ........... ACANTHACEJE. 89

t SoedH without hooks. Corolla imbricated in the bad.. . ..SOAOPHULABXACE^:. 88

f Seeds without hooks. Corolla mostlv nlicate .................... SOLANACEJS. 98

ANALYSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS. 217

C. COHORT 3. APETALOUS DICOTYLEDONES.

IMaute herbaceous, the flowers not in aments (except Humulus, 114). .(3)
Plants woody,— shrubs or trees . . (8)

2 Flowers with a regular calyx (or a calyx-like involucre). (3)

2 Flowers achlamydeous, — neither calyx nor corolla, .(k)

3 Calyx tube adherent to the ovary, limb lobed, toothed, or entire .(fl)

8 Calyx free from the ovary, sometimes enclosing it.. (4)

1 Ovaries several, entirely distinct, each 1-styled, l-ovuled..(gr)
4 Ovary 1 only, simple or compound.. (5)

5 Style or stigma 1 only. .(6)

5 Styles or stigmas 2— 12. .(7)

6 Ovary 1-ovuled, bearing but 1 seed, .(if)

6 Ovary many-ovuled, bearing many seeds. . (rf)

7 Ovary 1-3-ovuled, 1-3-seeded. .(e)

7 Ovary 4- 00-ovuled, 4- CD-seeded, .(h)
8 Flowers not in aments, with the leaves opposite. .(»)
8 Flowers not in aments, with the leaves alternate.. (10)
8 Flowers imperfect, the sterile only in aments. .(«)
8 Flowers imperfect, both the fertile and sterile in aments.. (c)

9 Stamens 1—12, as many or twice as many as the stigmas. . (a)
9 Stamens 2—10, not symmetrical with the 1 or 2 stigmas, .(ft)

10 Style or stigma 1. Fruit 1-seeded. . (11)
10 Styles or stigmas 2. .(s)
10 Styles or stigmas 3—9. . (Q

11 Calyx free from the ovary, .(p)
11 Calyx adherent to the ovary, .(r)

a Stigmas and cells of the ovary 1—4. Stamens 1—8 ORDERS 48, or 54

a Stigmas and cells of the ovary 6. Stamens 6 or 12. . .ARISTOLOCHIACEJE. 102

b Styles 2. Ovary many-seeded. Stamens 8—10 ORDER 45

b Style 1. Ovary 1- or 2-seeded. Stamens 5 SANTALACE^E. 110

e Flowers perfect. Calyx 4-lobed. Stamens 1 — 4 ORDER 44

e Flowers perfect. Calyx entire, funnel-shaped, colored. .NYCTAGINACE^E. 101

e Flowers diclinous. Calyx 4-5-parted, green URTICAOKS. 114

d Stamens 4, opposite to the 4 sepals. Leaves numerous ORDER 5C

d Stamens 4, opposite to the 4 sepals. Leaves about 6 ORDER 145

d Stamens 5, alternate with the 5 sepals ORDER 81

d Stamens CO. Leaves large and showy. Cultivated ORDER 9

« Fruit 3-(rarely 6-)seeded, with 3 (often cleft) styles EUPHORBIACEJE. 113

e Fruit 1-seeded. Stipules sheathing the stems .POLYGONAOE^E. 104

€ Fruit 1-celled, mostly 1 -seeded. Stipules none. (/)

f Calyx with scarious bractlets outside AMARANTACE^E. 107

/ Calyx naked (double in 1 genus). Lvs. alternate. . CHENOPODIACE.E. 106

/ Calyx naked. Leaves opposite ORDER 18

g Stamens hypogynous— on the torus ORDER 1

g Stamens perigynous — on the calyx ORDER 44

h Leaves opposite. Fruit circumscissile, a pyxis ORDER 61

h Leaves opposite. Fruit 4-5-valved, a capsule ORDER 19

h Leaves alternate .. (i)

i Fruit 5-horned, 5-celled, a capsule ORDER 40

i Fruit a fleshy 4-10-seeded berry PHTTOI.ACCACEJB:. 105

i Fruit circumscissile, a utricle AMARASTACE^E. 107

4 Flowers on a spadix with a spathe. Monocotyledons ORDBS 180

It Flowers in a long naked spike. Stamens 6 or 7 SAURTTRI OKLH, 1 1 5

ft Flowers solitary, axillary, minute. Aquatic plants. . (tn)

218 ANALYSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS.

m Stamen 1, styles 2. Leaves opposite CALLITRI JHACE^E. lie

m Stamens 2, styles 2. Leaves alternate, dissected. .PODOSTEMIACE>E. ll'i
m Sta. 12-24, style 1. Lvs. verticillate, dissected.. CERATOPHYLLACE.E. 118

n Fruit a double samara (2-winged) ORDER 7i

n Fruit a single samara (1-winged), or a drupe. Stamens 2 ORDER 101

n Fruit not winged,— o 3-seeded. Stamens 4 EUPHORBIACE.E. 113

— o 1-seeded. Stamens 4 or 8 ELEAGNACE^. 112

— o 1-seeded. Stamens 3. Parasites.. LORANTHACE^B. 109

p Anthers opening by valves. Calyx colored LAURACE.E. 108

p Anthers opening by slits.— q Calyx colored. Stam. 8 THYMELACE^E. Ill

— q Calyx greenish ; racemed ORDER 37

— q Cal. green ; spiked. S. Fla. .COMBRETACE.E. (50)

r Ovary and seed only 1, in the juicy drupe. Trees ORDER 65

r Ovaries 2—4, seed 1. Fruit a drupe or nut. Shrubs. . .SANTAXACE^E. 110

* Stamens numerous ORDER 47

0 Stamens as many as the calyx lobes § 1. URTICACE^;. 114

t Leaves pinnate. Pistils 5, scarcely united ORDER 31

t Leaves simple, linear, evergreen. Shrubs heath-like. .EMPETRACE^:. 119
t Leaves simple, expanded. Fls. 3-parted. Fruit dry.. EUPHORBIACE.E. 113

t Leaves simple, expanded. Fls. 4- or 5-parted. Fruit fleshy ORDER 40

c Nut drupaceous, naked. Leaves pinnate JUGLANDACE^B. 121

v Nut or nuts in a cup or involucre. Leaves simple CUPULIFERJE. 122

X Fruit fleshy, aggregated (sorosis). Juice (or sap) milky ...§ 2. URTICACEJE. 11.4
e Fruit dry. Plants with a watery juice or sap . . (y)

y Aments globular, racemed. Nutlets 2-celled, woolly ORDER 65

y Aments globular, solitary. Nutlets 1-celled, 1-aeeded PLATANACE^E. 120

y Aments cylindrical or oblong, .(z)

z Ovary 2-celled, 2-ovuled, 1-seeded. Fruit often winged.. BETULACE^E. 123

z Ovary 1-celled, 1-seeded. Fruit often fleshy MYRICACEJS. 124

* Ovary many-ovuled, many-seeded. Seeds comous SALICACE.E. 126

D. COHORT 4. THE CONOIDS.

* Leaven pinnate. Stem simple, palm-like. Sterile flowers in cones CYCADACE^E. 12ft

* Leaves simple. Stem branching. Fertile flowers in cones CONIFERS. 121

* Leaves simpie. Stem branching. Fertile flowers solitary TAXACE^E. 12?

E. COHORT 5. THE SPADICEOUS MONOCOTYLEDONES.

Trees or shrubs with palmi-cleft leaves all from one terminal bud, I j»ALMAOBA j jo

and a branching "spadix" from a spathe.. '"

Herbs with simple, rarely ternate leaves. Spadix simple. .(2)

2 Plants frond-like, minute, floating loose on the water LEMNACE^E. 131

2 Plants with stem and leaves, rooting and fixed. . (3)

3 Spadix evident, in a spathe or on a scape ARACEJB. 130

S Spadix obscure or spike-like. Stems leafy. .(4)

4 Flowers with no perianth, densely spicatc or capitate TYPHACE^E. 139

4 Flowers with a perianth or not. Plants submersed NAIADACEJE, 188

ANALYSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS. 219

**. COHORT 6. FLORIDE2E, OB FLOWERING MONOCOTYLEDON ES.

Flowers (not on a spadix) in a small, dense, involucrate head. .(o)
Flowers (not on a spadix) solitary, racemed, spicate, &c.'.(2)
2 Perianth tube adherent to the ovary wholly or partly. .(4)
8 Perianth free from the ovary. (3)

8 Petals and sepals differently colored (except in Medeola, 147).. (0)
3 Petals and sepals similarly colored. .(5)
4 Flowers imperfect (3 ? or & fi ?)..(a)
4 Flowers perfect.. (6)

5 Leaves net-veined, broad.. (k)
5 Leaves parallel-veined.. (6)

6 Styles and often the stigmas also united into one. .(m)
6 Styles and etigmas 3, distinct.. (»)

a Low aquatic herbs HYDROCHARIDACEJE. '<38

a Climbing shrubby vines DIOSCORIACE^E. 143

b Anthers 1 or 2, on the pistil (gynandrous) ORCHIDACE.B. 137

b Anthers 1 or 5, free from the pistil. Leaves ample SCITAMINB^E. 138

b Anthers 3 or 6.. (c)

c Perianth woolly or mealy outside. Ovary half free HJEMADORACE.B 141

e Perianth glabrous outside. . (d)

d Anthers 3, opening crosswise, inward BURMANNIACE.E. 136

d Anthers 3, opening lengthwise, outward IRIDACE^E. 142

d Anthers 6, opening inward AMARYLLIDACE^E. 139

0 Pistils 3— 00, distinct, forming achenia in fruit ALISMACE.E. 134

Pistils 3 only, more or less united, .(g)

g Leaves verticillate, in 1 or 2 whorls. Stigmas 3 TRILLIACE.E. 146

g Leaves alternate. . (h)

h Stigmas 3. Plants with dry leaves, often epiphytes BROMELIACE^E. 140

h Stigmas united into 1 COMMELTNACE^E. 151

k Flowers perfect, 4-parted ROXBURGHIACE^E. 145

k Flowers dioecious, 6-parted SMILACE^E. 144

m Flowers colored, regular. Stamens 6 (4 in one species) LILIACE^E. 147

m Flowers colored, irregular or else triandrous PONTEDERIACE^E. 149

m Flowers greenish, glume-like or scarious JUNCACE^E. 150

n Leaves rash-like. Ovary- of 3 1-seeded carpels I ]yiELANTHACE^B 143

n Leaves linear, lanceolate, &c. Ovary 6- 00 -seeded. . . '

o Petals yellow, small but showy. Plant acaulescent XYRIDACE^. 152

o Petals white, minute, fringed. Plant acaulescent EKIOCAULONACE^:. 154

G. COHORT 7. GRAMINOIDE^E, OR GRASS-LIKE MONOCOTYLEDONES.

Flowers with 6 bracts in 2 whorls (sepals and petals). Culms solid ORDER 150

Flower with a single bract (glume). Culm solid, sheaths entire CTPERACE^B 153

Flower with several bracts (glumes and pales). Culm hollow. I n

Sheaths split on one side. Ovary 1-seeded. Styles 2 > WRAMINE.E ]

SUB-KINGDOM n. CLASS I. COHORTS 1, 2, and 3.

Plants with well-developed foliage. .(5).
t Leaves few, mostly ample and from subterranean rhizomes ,, (a)

220

ANALYSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS.

a Fruit borne on the leaves which are often more or less contracted. .FTLICES. 169
1 Leaves numerous, small, mostly spirally Mnbricated on the stem. .(6)

b Fruit axillary, sessile, opening by a slit LTCOPODIACEJE. 157

§ Plants with verticillate branches instead of leaves, .(e)

c Fruit in terminal spikes EQUISETACE.E. 158

oy THB

!trinraasiTT]

UNIVERSITY OF CAL

IBRAEY

THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
STAMPED BELOW

•« 10

aiov 11

OCT 13 ,

AY 14

JAN CO

1926

30m-6,'14

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Full text of "Lessons in the structure, life, and growth of plants, for schools and academies"

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