UCSB
09
Z
H
LIBRARY of UNIVERSAL HISTORY
AND
POPULAR SCIENCE
CONTAINING
A RECORD OF THE HUMAN RACE FROM THE
EARLIEST HISTORICAL PERIOD TO THE PRESENT TIME;
EMBRACING A GENERAL SURVEY OF THE PROGRESS OF MANKIND
IN NATIONAL AND SOCIAL LIFE, CIVIL GOVERNMENT,
RELIGION, LITERATURE, SCIENCE AND ART
Complete in Twenty -five Volumes
THE TEXT SUPPLEMENTED AND EMBELLISHED BY MORE THAN SEVEN HUNDRED
PORTRAITS AND OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS, MAPS AND CHARTS
INTRODUCTION BY
HUBERT HOWE BANCROFT
HISTORIAN
GEORGE EDWIN RINES
MANAGING EDITOR
Reviewed and Endorsed by Fifteen Professors in History and Educators in
American Universities, among whom are the following :
GEORGE EMORY FELLOWS, Ph.D.,
LL.D.
President, University of Maine
KEMP PLUMMER BATTLE, A.M.,
LL.D.
Professor of History, University of North Carolina
AMBROSE P. WINSTON, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor of Economics, Washington Uni-
versity
WILLIAM R. PERKINS
Professor of History, University of Iowa
REV. GEO. M. GRANT, D.D.
S,ate Principal of Queen's University, Kingston,
Ontario, Canada
MOSES COIT TYLER, A.M., Ph.D.
Late Professor of American History, Cornell Uni-
versity
ELISHA BENJAMIN ANDREWS, LL.D.
D.D.
Chancellor, University of Nebrasl a
WILLIAM TORREY HARRIS, Ph.D.
LL.D.
Formerly United States Commissioner of Educatior
JOHN HANSON THOMAS McPHER-
SON, Ph.D.
Professor of History, University of Georgia
RICHARD HEATH DABNEY. A.M.
Ph.D.
Professor of History, University 01 Virginia
NEW YORK AND CHICAGO
THE BANCROFT SOCIETY
1910
COPYRIGHT, igo8, BY
GEORGE EDWIN RINE&
CONTENTS OF VOLUME II.
ANCIENT HISTORY. -CONTINUED.
CHAPTER IV.— THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
SECTION I. — The Hebrew Patriarchs 347
SECTION II. — Bondage in Egypt, Exodus and Wanderings 360
SECTION III. — Hebrew Conquest of Canaan 374
SECTION IV. — The Judges and the Hebrew Heroic Age 382
SECTION V. — The Hebrew Kingdom and Empire 390
SECTION VI. — The Kingdom of Israel 400
SECTION VII. — The Kingdom of Judah 403
SECTION VIII. — Babylonian Captivity and Restoration 411
SECTION IX. — Hebrew Civilization 413
CHAPTER V.— KINGDOMS OF ASIA MINOR.
SECTION I. — Geography of Asia Minor 417
SECTION II. — Phrygia and Cilicia , 420
SECTION III. — Kingdom of Lydia 421
CHAPTER VI— REPUBLIC OF CARTHAGE.
SECTION I. — Geography of Northern Africa 431
SECTION II. — Growth and Institutions of Carthage 433
SECTION III. — Carthaginian Commerce 437
SECTION IV. — Carthage's Wars with Greek Colonies 438
SECTION V. — Carthage's Struggle with Rome 444
CHAPTER VH.— MEDIA AND PERSIA.
SECTION I. — Plateau of Iran and Persian Provinces 447
SECTION II. — The Median Empire 463
345
346 CONTENTS.
SECTION III. — Median Civilization l 478
SECTION IV. — The Medo-Persian Empire 483
SECTION V. — Medo-Persian Civilization 535
SECTION VI. — Zoroastrianism and Magism 581
CHAPTER VIII.— THE SANSKRITIC HINDOOS.
SECTION I. — Geography of India 613
SECTION II. — Hindoo Origin and Civilization 616
SECTION III. — Brahmanism 621
SECTION IV. — Buddhism '. . . 653
CHAPTER IX.— ANCIENT CHINA AND JAPAN.
SECTION I. — Geography of China 673
SECTION II. — Ancient China 674
SECTION III. — Chinese Civilization 680
SECTION IV. — Confucius and His Religion 685
SECTION V. — Lao-tse and Tao-ism 692
SECTION VI. — Geography and Antiquity of Japan 694
Longitude E»«t from Cree.nvich
MAP OF
ANCIENT PALESTINE
SHOWING THE LOCATION OF
THE T1FEL VE TRIBES
B. C. 1600 - K. D. 70
By I. S. Clare
CHAPTER IV.
THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
His Call.
SECTION I.— THE HEBREW PATRIARCHS.
WHILE the great mass of the population of ancient Chaldaea about Abram.
two thousand years before Christ were polytheists, worshiping the
multitudinous deities of the Chaldsean pantheon, there was a small
Semitic band of nomads who were pure monotheists, recognizing Je-
hovah (or Elohim) as the only God. At this time the leader of this
small band was the famous patriarch Abram, the son of Terah, and
a native of " Ur of the Chaldees." This patriarch has become cele-
brated as the founder of several Semitic nations, among them the
Hebrews, or Israelites, and the Arabs. During the general migra-
tion of Semitic and Hamitic tribes from Chaldsea after the death of
Nimrod, Abram with his father, Terah, and his flocks and herds,
removed from Ur to Haran up the Euphrates.
Says the Book of Genesis : " And Terah took Abram his son, and
Lot the son of Haran his son's son, and Sarai his daughter-in-law, his
son Abram's wife; and they went forth with them from Ur of the
Chaldees, to go into the land of Canaan ; and they came unto Haran,
and dwelt there." After alluding to Terah's death in Haran, the
Mosaic narrative further says : " Now the Lord had said unto Abram,
Get thee out of thy country, and from thy kindred, and from thy
father's house, unto a land that I will show thee. And I will make
thee a great nation, and I will bless thee, and make thy name great;
and thou shalt be a blessing. And I will bless them that bless thee,
and curse them that curse thee; and in thee shall all families of the
earth be blessed."
Abram's brother, Nahor, delighted with the beauty and fertility of
the Mesopotamian plain, remained at Haran; while Abram, after the
burial of his father, migrated with his flocks and herds, and with his Promised
wife, Sarai, and his brother's son, Lot, " and all the souls they had
gotten in Haran," to the " promised land of Canaan," where the new
emigrants from Mesopotamia received from the inhabitants the name
347
His
Journey
to the
343 THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
" Hebrews," meaning " strangers from the other side," " the men who
had crossed the river," " the emigrants from Mesopotamia." Jour-
neying through the Syrian desert he tarried for some time at Damas-
cus, which was then an old city. At Damascus he met his faithful
servant Eliezer, whom he created " steward of his house." Thence
he passed on to the south, crossing the Jordan and entering the " Prom-
ised Land," halting in the valley of Sichem, or Shechem. The Hebrew
record goes on to say : " And the Lord appeared unto Abram, and
said, Unto thy seed will I give this land ; and there builded he an altar
unto the Lord, who appeared unto him." Abram proceeded " unto a
mountain on the east of Bethel, and pitched his tent, having Bethel
on the west, and Hai on the east; and there he builded an altar unto
the Lord, and called upon the name of the Lord."
His This country — then called Canaan, from one of Ham's sons, whose
descendants had peopled it, and afterwards known as Judsea, and now
Egypt. called Palestine — was inhabited by many idolatrous tribes. Abram
settled in the mountain region, where he was secure from the Canaan-
ites, who dwelt in the more fertile plains below, but where he had but
scant pasturage for his cattle. He pushed on farther southward, but
was driven by a famine into Egypt. Fearing that the Pharaoh who
then reigned over Egypt would be tempted by Sarai's beauty to kill
him to get her in his possession, Abram passed her off as his sister.
Thinking that she was an unmarried woman, the Egyptian monarch
took her to his house, and bestowed wealth and honors upon Abram
with a lavish hand. But says the Mosaic account : " The Lord
plagued Pharoah and his house with great plagues because of Sarai,
Abram's wife. And Pharoah called Abram, and said, What is this
that thou hast done unto me? why didst thou not tell me that she was
thy wife? Why saidst thou, She is my sister? so I might have taken
her to me to wife; now therefore behold thy wife, take her, and go
thy way. And Pharoah commanded his men concerning him; and
they sent him away, and his wife, and all that he had."
His Thereupon Abram left Egypt, with his wife and with Lot, " and all
to that he had," and returned to Canaan. " And Abram was very rich
Canaan. jn cattle, in silver, and in gold." Returning to Bethel, near which he
had before erected his tent, " Abram called on the name of the Lord."
" And Lot also, which went with Abram, had flocks, and herds, and
tents." The land was not rich enough for their sustenance; and
Abram and Lot here separated, because " there was strife between the
herdmen of Abram's cattle and the herdmen of Lot's cattle." Abram
at first remained on the mountains, while Lot descended to the fertile
plain of the Jordan, near Sodom. Abram then removed southward to
THE HEBREW PATRIARCHS.
the " oaks of Mamre," near Hebron, and that place thereafter re-
mained his usual abode.
Shortly afterward, Chedorlaomer, King of Chaldasa, who had built
up the first great empire in Western Asia, invaded the South of
Canaan, and conquered the five cities of Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah,
Zeboiim and Bela (afterwards called Zoar), which had risen in revolt
against him. In this war Lot and all his cattle were captured and
carried away by the victorious Chaldaeans. But Abram, with a band
of three hundred and eighteen of his own people and a body of
Amorite allies, pursued the hosts of Chedorlaomer, and routed them
near Damascus, rescuing Lot and recovering all the booty that they
had taken from the five Canaanite cities.
Says the Hebrew record : " After these things the word of the Lord
came unto Abram in a vision, saying, Fear not Abram; I am thy
shield, and thy exceeding great reward. And Abram said, Lord God,
what wilt thou give me, seeing I go childless, and the steward of my
house is this Eliezer of Damascus. And Abram said, Behold, to me
thou hast given no seed; and, lo, one born in my house is mine heir.
And, behold, the word of the Lord came unto him, saying, This shall
not be thine heir ; but he that shall come forth out of thine own bowels
shall be thine heir. And he brought him forth abroad, and said,
Look now toward heaven, and tell the stars if thou be able to number
them; and he said unto him, So shall thy seed be. And he believed
in the Lord and counted it for righteousness. And he said unto him,
I am the Lord that brought thee out of Ur of the Chaldees, to give
thee this land to inherit it. * * * And when the sun was going down,
a deep sleep fell upon Abram; and, lo, an horror of great darkness
fell upon him. And he said unto Abram, know of a surety that thy
seed shall be a stranger in a land that is not theirs, and shall serve
them; and they shall afflict them four hundred years. And also that
nation, whom they shall serve, will I judge; and afterwards shall they
come out with great substance. And thou shalt go to thy fathers in
peace; thou shalt be buried in a good old age. But in the fourth
generation they shall come hither again ; for the iniquity of the
Amorites is not yet full. And it came to pass, that, when the sun
went down, and it was dark, behold a smoking furnace, and a burning
lamp that passed between those pieces. In that same day the Lord
made a covenant with Abram, saying, Unto thy seed have I given this
land, from the river of Egypt unto the great river, the river Eu-
phrates."
After sojourning ten years in the land of Canaan, Sarai began to
despair of becoming the mother of Abram's heir and advised Abram
to take to wife her servant Hagar, an Egyptian woman, by whom
ma
Victory
over
Chedor-
laomer.
His
Vision.
Hagar's
Flight.
350
THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
Birth
of
Ishmael.
Abraham
and
Sarah.
Abram had a son. Before the birth of the child, Hagar, puffed up
with pride, treated her mistress with such insolence that Sarai felt
constrained to punish her. Thereupon Hagar fled into the wilderness
of Kadesh, southeast of Abram's abode. " And the angel of the Lord
said unto her, I will multiply thy seed exceedingly, that it shall not
be numbered for multitude. And the angel of the Lord said unto her,
Behold, thou art with child, and shalt bear a son, and shalt call his
name Ishmael; because the Lord hath heard thy affliction. And he
will be a wild man; his hand will be against every man, and every
man's hand against him ; he shall dwell in the presence of all his breth-
ren." Hagar was returned to her mistress before the child was born,
and Abram named the child Ishmael. He is regarded as the progen-
itor of the Bedouin Arabs, who have always lived in a wild state.
Regarding Ishmael as the heir promised him by Jehovah, Abram
treated him with fatherly affection.
We are further told that " when Abram was ninety 3rears old and
nine, the Lord appeared to Abram, and said unto him, I am the Al-
mighty God; walk before me, and be thou perfect. And I will make
my covenant between nie and thee, and will multiply thee exceedingly.
And Abram fell on his face ; and God talked with him, saying, As for
me, behold my covenant is with thee, and thou shalt be a father of
many nations. Neither shall thy name any more be called Abram,
but thy name shall be Abraham; for a father of many nations have
I made thee. And I will make thee exceedingly fruitful, and I will
make nations of thee, and kings shall come out of thee. And I will
establish my covenant between me and thee and thy seed after thee
in their generations for an everlasting covenant, to be a God unto
thee, and to thy seed after thee. And I will give unto thee, and to
thy seed after thee, the land wherein thou art a stranger, all the land
of Canaan, for an everlasting possession ; < and I will be their God.
And God said unto Abraham, Thou shalt keep my covenant therefore,
thou and thy seed after thee in their generations. This is my cove-
nant, which ye shall keep, between me and you and thy seed after thee ;
every man-child among you shall be circumcised. * * * And God
said unto Abraham, As for Sarai thy wife, thou shalt not call her
name Sarai, but Sarah shall her name be. And I will bless her, and
give thee a son also of her; yea, I will bless her and she shall be a
mother of nations; kings of people shall be of her. * * * And God
said, Sarah thy wife shall bear thee a son indeed; and thou shalt call
his name Isaac ; and I will establish my covenant with him for an
everlasting covenant, and with his seed after him. And as for Ish-
mael, I have heard thee; Behold, I have blessed him, and will make
him fruitful, and will multiply him exceedingly; twelve princes shall
THE HEBREW PATRIARCHS.
351
he beget, and I will make him a great nation. But my covenant I
will establish with Isaac, which Sarah shall bear unto thee at this set
time in the next year. And he left off talking with him, and God
went up from Abraham." Abraham and Ishmael and all the males
of his household were then circumcised.
We are told that some time after this, when Abraham was sitting
at the door of his tent, he saw three men approaching. He at once
arose and greeted them with a hearty welcome, and urged them to
remain for the night. They accepted his invitation, and when they
had partaken of the meal placed before them they revealed themselves
to him, one as the angel Jehovah and the other two as attendant angels.
It is said that the angels renewed to Abraham the Lord's promise that
Sarah should bear him a son within a year; and that Sarah, who was'
within the tent, hearing them, and being ninety years old, laughed at
this prediction; whereupon the angel reproved her for her skepticism,
and reassured Abraham of the Divine promise. The angels, we are
then told, went toward Sodom, accompanied part of the way by Abra-
ham. In consideration of the favor with which the Lord Jehovah
regarded Abraham as the founder of his chosen people, the angels
informed him of the Divine purpose to destroy Sodom and Gomorrah
and the cities of the plain as a punishment for their extreme wicked-
ness, and told him that they were on their way to warn Lot and his
family to save themselves by flight from the doomed cities. After the
departure of the angels, we are told that Abraham vainly interceded
for the cities ; and that the Lord, in response to the patriarch's prayer,
promised that if ten righteous men could be found in the cities he
would spare them, but that even so small a number could not be found.
Lot and his family, in obedience to the angels' warning, fled from
Sodom ; but his wife, in disregard of the warning, looked back, and,
says the Scriptural record, " became a pillar of salt." Sodom, Gomor-
rah, Admah and Zeboiim were destroyed by a dreadful convulsion of
nature, not a single individual escaping the terrible doom. Says the
Hebrew account : " And the Lord rained upon Sodom and upon Go-
morrah brimstone and fire from the Lord out of heaven ; and he over-
threw all those cities, and all the plain, and all the inhabitants of the
cities, and that which grew upon the ground." Lot and his daugh-
ters sought refuge in Zoar, which was spared, we are told, in answer
to his prayer ; but fearing to remain there, Lot fled to the hill country,
and found refuge in a cave east of the Dead Sea. There occurred the
incestuous birth of Moab and Ammon, the respective ancestors of the
Moabites and the Ammonites, whom Moses and Joshua found settled
in the region east of the Jordan and the Dead Sea.
1—25
The
Three
Angels.
Lot
and hif
Family.
Destruc-
tion of
Sodom
and
Gomor-
rah.
352
Birth
of
Isaac.
Banish-
ment of
Eagar
and
Ishmael.
Abraham
Offers
to
Sacrifice
Isaac.
THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
Soon after the destruction of the cities of the plain, Abraham pro-
ceeded to the south, establishing his abode in the tract between Egypt
and Canaan. He concluded a treaty with the king of the country,
named Abimelech, beside a well, which he named Beersheba (the Well
of the Oath), in memory of the event. During his residence at Beer-
sheba, his wife, Sarah, gave birth to the long-promised heir, who was
circumcised and called Isaac. When Isaac was weaned the patriarch
celebrated the occasion by a feast, during which Sarah observed Ish-
mael taunting Isaac, thus exciting her anger. She asked her husband
to send Hagar and Ishmael away, so that Isaac might have no rival
in his father's house. Abraham hesitated, as he had a paternal affec-
tion for Ishmael. " And God said unto Abraham, Let it not be griev-
ous in thy sight because of the lad, and because of thy bond-woman;
in all that Sarah hath said unto thee, harken unto her voice ; for in
Isaac shall thy seed be called. And also of the son of the bond-
woman will I make a nation, because he is thy seed." The next morn-
ing Hagar and her son were furnished with provisions and sent away.
Wandering in the wilderness of Beer-sheba, they were in danger of
perishing from thirst, when, it is said, they were rescued by an angel.
After growing up in the wilderness, Ishmael became a skillful archer.
His mother obtained for him a wife from her own people, the Egyp-
tians, and from him are descended the Bedouin Arabs. The Koreish
tribe, which inhabited Mecca, regarded themselves as the direct de-
scendants of Ishmael. The chief sanctuary of this tribe was the
Caaba, believed by them to have been built by Ishmael and Abraham.
Among the descendants of this tribe was Mohammed, the great prophet
and founder of Islam.
Abraham seems to have lived at Beersheba many years. During
his residence there, we are told, his faith in Jehovah was put to its
severest test. Savs the Scriptural account : " And it came to pass
after these things that God did tempt Abraham, and said unto him,
Abraham; and he said, Behold, here I am. And he said, Take thy
son Isaac, whom thou lovest, and get thee into the land of Moriah;
and offer him for a burnt offering upon one of the mountains which
I will tell thee of." With a sad heart, we are told that Abraham
obeyed the Divine command, and taking Isaac with him to the land
of Moriah, which is believed to be the hill on which the great temple
at Jerusalem afterwards was built, he there built an altar and pre-
pared to offer up Isaac as a sacrifice, when, says the narrative, " the
angel of the Lord called unto him out of heaven, and said, Abraham,
Abraham ; and he said, Here am I. And he said, Lay not thine hand
upon the lad, neither do thou anything unto him; for now, I know
that thou fearest God, seeing thou hast not withheld thy son, thine
! Stereograph, copyright IQOJ by Underwood &• Under-wood
MOSQUE MACHPELAH, THE BURIAL PLACE OF ABRAHAM, ISAAC AND JACOB
THE HEBREW PATRIARCHS. 353
only son, from me." The patriarch, seeing a ram caught by its horns
in the bushes, offered it as a sacrifice instead of his son. " And the
angel of the Lord called unto Abraham out of heaven the second time,
and said, By myself have I sworn, saith the Lord; for because
thou hast done this thing, and has not withheld thy son, thine
only son ; That in blessing I will bless thee, and in multiplying I will
multiply thy seed as the stars of the heaven, and as the sand which
is upon the sea shore ; and thy seed shall possess the gate of his ene-
mies; and in thy seed shall all the nations of the earth be blessed;
because thou hast obeyed my voice."
Some time after this Abraham returned to his old home at Mamre, Death
near Hebron, where Sarah died. After purchasing the cave of Mach- jj^iai
pelah from the Hittites of Hebron, then called Kirjath-Arba, Abra- of
ham buried Sarah there; and the cave became his family sepulcher.
After Sarah's burial Abraham returned to Beer-sheba. As he felt his
end approaching, he determined to secure a wife for his son Isaac;
and, in order that Isaac's posterity might be a pure race, he resolved
to secure one of his kindred as a bride for his son. For this reason
he sent his steward, Eliezer, to Mesopotamia, binding him by a solemn
oath to select from his own family a wife for Isaac. Reaching Haran,
Eliezer met the family of Bethuel, the son of Nahor, Abraham's
brother. He chose Rebekah, the youngest and most beautiful daugh- Marriage
ter of the house, who, upon hearing of his mission, agreed to leave her Isaac
own family and become her cousin Isaac's wife. Going with Eliezer and
Rebekah
to Canaan, she was greeted with joy by Isaac and his father. Isaac
was said to have been forty years old when he married. After a
marriage of twenty years Rebekah gave birth to twin sons — one called Birth of
Esau and also Edom (the Red), on account of his ruddy complexion;
the other name Jacob (the Supplanter).
After Isaac's marriage, Abraham took another wife, named Keturah, Abra-
by whom he had six sons, one of whom was Midian, the ancestor of s^Jna
the Midianites, who occupied the region between the Dead Sea and the Marriage.
Elanitic gulf of the Red Sea, to the east of the Nabastheans. Abra-
ham lavished gifts upon these sons, but sent them out of Canaan,
which was reserved exclusively as the inheritance of Isaac, to whom
the patriarch bequeathed all his vast wealth. Abraham died at Beer- DHi*i.
sheba " in a good old age, and full of years." His sons, Isaac and and
Ishmael, buried him in the family tomb in the cave of Machpelah. Bunal
Thus ended the career of the renowned patriach who was the ancestor
of the Israelites, the Bedouin Arabs, the Edomites and the Midianites.
After Abraham's death Isaac continued to dwell by the well of Esau
Lahai-roi, in the extreme South of Canaan, or Palestine, where his Jacob,
sons grew to manhood. Esau was a reckless man, an expert hunter,
354
THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
Esau
Sells
his
Birth-
right.
Jacob
Obtains
His
Father's
Blessing.
Jacob's
Flight.
and his father's favorite. He was rough and hairy in appearance,
and caused his parents much trouble. When forty years old he mar-
ried two Hittite wives, contrary to his father's wish ; thus introducing
heathen alliances into the chosen family. Jacob was peaceful and
prudent — ready to obtain by cunning and intrigue what Esau sought
to procure by violent means. He was smooth-skinned, and fond of
the peaceful occupation of the shepherd and the quiet life of the tent.
Jacob was his mother's favorite.
As Esau came in one day, tired and hungry from the chase, he saw
Jacob preparing a mess of red lentils, and asked him for " some of that
red." Jacob asked Esau's birth-right in payment for the mess; and
Esau, simply to gratify his appetite for the moment, agreed to the
demand, thus " selling his birth-right for a mess of pottage." For
this proceeding St. Paul calls him " a profane person, who for one
morsel of food sold his birth-right." Jacob, by his craft, became the
head of the chosen family, and the progenitor of the chosen race.
When, in his old age, Isaac felt that his end was near, he informed
Esau of his design of transmitting to him the patriarchal authority,
and ordered him to prepare a feast for the occasion. Esau started to
obtain venison, of which his father was very fond, whereupon Rebekah
informed Jacob of her husband's intention. With her help Jacob
craftily passed himself off upon his father as Esau, thus securing the
patriarchal blessing, which made him the head of his family, and which,
when once given, was irrevocable. Esau now returned from the chase,
and was apprised of the trick by which he had been defrauded of his
inheritance. His anger and grief were great. " He cried with a
great and exceeding bitter cry, and said unto his father, Bless me,
even me also, O my father." The spiritual blessing, having passed
to Jacob, could not be recalled, but Isaac blessed Esau by promising
him great earthly prosperity, qualified by submission to his brother,
whose yoke he should eventually break. Concerning this promise, Dr.
William Smith, in his History of the Bible, says : " The prophecy was
fulfilled in the prosperity of the Idumseans, their martial prowess, and
their constant conflicts with the Israelites, by whom they were subdued
under David, over whom they triumphed at the Babylonian captivity,
and to whom they at last gave a king in the person of Herod the
Great."
Thenceforth Esau was resolved to kill Jacob, delaying his design
until after Isaac's death. Becoming aware of this, Rebekah induced
her husband to send Jacob to her kindred for safety. Isaac was glad
to do this, to procure a wife of pure blood for Jacob. Taking his
staff Jacob started for Mesopotamia, taking the route by which Abra-
ham had entered Canaan. Upon arriving at Abraham's old encamp-
THE HEBREW PATRIARCHS.
355
merit at Bethel, he remained there all night, taking a stone for a pil-
low. " And he dreamed, and behold ! a ladder set up on the earth, and
the top of it reached to heaven ; and behold the angels of God ascend-
ing and descending on it. And behold! the Lord stood above it, and
said, I am the Lord God of Abraham thy father, and the God of
Isaac ; the land whereon thou liest, to thee will I give it, and to thy
seed. And thy seed shall be as the dust of the earth; and thou shalt
spread abroad to the west, and to the east, and to the north, and to
the south ; and in thee and in thy seed shall all the families of the earth
be blessed. And behold I am with thee, and will keep thee in all places
whither thou goest, and will bring thee again into this land ; for I will
not leave thee, until I have done that which I have spoken to thee of."
When Jacob awoke he acknowledged the Divine presence by erecting
an altar on the spot, which he named Bethel (the House of God), and
solemnly dedicated himself and all that Jehovah should give him to the
service of the Almighty. This was the turning point in Jacob's re-
ligious life, and occurred when he had reached a good age.
Proceeding on his journey, Jacob at length reached the home of
his uncle Laban, his mother's brother, at Padan-Aram. There he was
heartily welcomed, and fell in love with his beautiful cousin Rachel,
the youngest daughter of Laban. Entering his uncle's service as a
shepherd for wages, he asked of Laban the hand of Rachel, offering
to serve him seven years for her. Laban, more crafty than Jacob,
accepted this offer, but, taking advantage of the marriage customs
of the country, gave his eldest daughter, Leah, who suffered with sore
eyes, and could not easily be disposed of, in marriage to his nephew.
Jacob was indignant at the fraud practiced upon him, but was obliged
to submit, and consented to serve Laban seven years longer for his
beloved Rachel. In the progress of these years eleven sons and a
daughter were born to Jacob. Leah's sons were Reuben, Simeon, Levi,
Judah, Issachar and Zebulun. Rachael bore Jacob one son, named
Joseph. Leah bore him a daughter, named Dinah. Jacob had four
sons with two concubines. Rachael's handmaid, Billah, bore him Dan
and Naphtali; and Leah's handmaid, Zilpah, bore him Gad and
Asher.
After the birth of Joseph, Jacob's youngest and favorite child, the
son of Rachel, Jacob desired to return to his own country, but Laban
prevailed upon him to serve him longer for a part of his flocks, Jacob's
portion to be distinguished by certain marks. Laban endeavored to
defeat this arrangement by trickery ; but Jacob, more expert in cattle-
breeding, foiled him and obtained most of the produce of the flocks.
At length Jacob became rich in " cattle, and maidservants and man-
servants, and camels and asses."
Laban's
Craft.
Jacob,
Leah
and
Rachael.
Jacob's
Sons.
Joseph
356
Jacob's
Return
to
Canaan.
Jacob
or
Israel,
and the
Angel.
THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
V
After sojourning twenty years with Laban the Scriptural record
says, " the Lord said unto Jacob, Return unto the land of thy fathers,
and to thy kindred; and I will be with thee." Fearing that Laban
would detain him, Jacob secretly set out on his return to Canaan;
and after crossing the Euphrates, he passed through the desert by the
great fountain of Palmyra, traveled across the eastern portion of the
plain of Damascus and the plateau of Bashan, and entered the moun-
tain land of Gilead, east of the Jordan, which constitutes the frontier
between Palestine and the Syrian desert. There Laban with a con-
siderable force overtook him. Rachel had taken along her father's
household effects, and now, by an ingenious device, succeeded in con-
cealing them. " And God came to Laban the Syrian in a dream by
night, and said unto him, Take heed that thou speak not to Jacob either
good or bad." Not finding his idols, Laban made a treaty with Jacob
and set up a pile of stones as a witness of it. " And Jacob went on
his way, and the angels of God met him. And when Jacob saw them,
he said, This is God's host; and he called the name of that place
Mahanaim."
Approaching Mount Seir, of which his brother Esau had become
the powerful chieftain, Jacob was seriously alarmed, fearing that
Esau might kill him in revenge for the loss of his birth-right, and
seize his family and flocks. He sent him a conciliatory message, and
Esau came to him at the head of four hundred warriors. Jacob, in
great alarm, prepared to meet the peril which menaced him, dividing
his people and his flocks into two portions. Then he prayed to Je-
hovah, after which he sent rich presents to his brother, and then rested
for the night. He arose before day the next morning, and sent his
wives and children over the Jabbok, remaining behind to prepare by
solitary meditation for the day's trials. While he tarried " a man "
made his appearance and wrestled with him until the break of day.
And when " the man " observed " that he prevailed not against him,
he touched the hollow of his thigh; and the hollow of Jacob's thigh
was out of joint as he wrestled with him. And he said, Let me go,
for the day breaketh. And he said, I will not let thee go, except thou
bless me. And he said unto him, What is thy name? And he said,
Jacob. And he said, Thy name shall be called no more Jacob, but
Israel; for as a prince hast thou power with God and with men, and
hast prevailed. And Jacob asked him and said, Tell me, I pray thee,
thy name. And he said, Wherefore is it that thou dost ask after my
name? And he blessed him there. And Jacob called the name of the
place Peniel; for I have seen God face to face, and my life is pre-
served."
THE HEBREW PATRIARCHS.
357
It is said that Jacob never recovered from the lameness caused by
the angel's touch, and in memory of this the Israelites, in after times,
would not eat of the sinew in the hollow of the thigh.
Descending into the valley of the Jabbok, Jacob met Esau, who
gave him a brotherly welcome. He had long before forgiven his
brother for defrauding him of the spiritual blessing which his father
had designed for him, and was satisfied with the earthly prosperity
which he had achieved. After a pleasant interview between the broth-
ers, Esau returned to Mount Seir, and Jacob proceeded on his journey
to the Jordan, crossing the stream at Succoth. Entering Canaan,
he moved on to Shechem, which was then a considerable town of the
Amorites. He bought a piece of land from these people, and this was
the first possession of the chosen family in the " Promised Land."
There Jacob erected an altar to the " God of Israel," and renewed his
promise to serve Him. He likewise dug a well, which is yet shown
there, and known as " Jacob's well."
Jacob was now to experience the greatest trials of his life.
Shechem, son of Hamor, prince of the Shechemites, carried off and
outraged his daughter, Dinah, and notwithstanding he subsequently
demanded her in marriage, Jacob's sons resolved to avenge the wrong
done to their sister. They agreed to the marriage, and, throwing the
Shechemites off their guard, treacherously attacked them, killed all the
males, pillaged the city, and carried off the women and children, and
likewise the flocks and herds. Jacob was intensely indignant at this
treacherous act ; and, in fear that the Canaanites would endeavor to
avenge the massacre of their brethren, removed with his family and
possessions to Bethel, whence he proceeded southward towards Mamre,
where his father, Isaac, was yet living. In the vicinity of Bethlehem
his beloved wife, Rachel, died in giving birth to Benjamin, and was
buried at that place. Her tomb is preserved to this day. Jacob then
proceeded to Mamre, where he rejoined his father. It was some years
after this that Isaac died, when his sons, Esau and Jacob, buried him
in the cave of Machpelah. He died about thirteen years after Joseph
had been sold by his brethren.
Joseph, Rachel's eldest son, was Jacob's favorite, upon whom his
father bestowed such repeated and distinguishing marks of his affec-
tion as to excite the envy of his other sons. By playing the part of a
spy upon his brothers, and informing their father of their misdeeds,
Joseph won the implacable hatred of his brethren. When yet a mere
lad he dreamed several remarkable dreams, which he regarded as por-
tending his future greatness at the expense of his brethren, and he
very indiscreetly apprised them of these dreams. They at once re-
solved to put him out of the way ; and when Joseph had been sent by
Lame-
ness.
Jacob's
Altar and
Well.
Massacre
of the
Sheche-
mites.
Death
of
Rachel
and
Isaac.
Joseph
Envied
by His
Brothers.
358
THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
Sold to a
Caravan.
Sold as a
Bond-
slave
in
Egypt
Joseph
as a
Dream
Interpre-
ter.
Joseph,
Prime
Minister.
his father to visit his brethren, who were feeding their flocks at
Shechem, they determined to assassinate him. Reuben, the eldest son,
prevailed upon his brothers not to kill Joseph outright, but to cast him
into a dry well, where he would perish from hunger; intending to res-
cue him afterwards. They agreed to this ; but while Reuben was tem-
porarily absent, they sold Joseph to a caravan of Midianitish mer-
chants, who were on their journey to Egypt. Returning to their
father, they made him believe that Joseph had been killed by some
wild beast.
Joseph was carried to Egypt by his purchasers, who sold him as a
bond-slave to Potiphar, or Petephra, an officer of the Egyptian army.
Winning the favor of his master, Joseph was made superintendent of
his house. Potiphar's wife conceiving an unlawful passion for Joseph
and being repulsed by him, in revenge, brought an infamous accusa-
tion against him, causing him to be cast into prison by his master.
His good behavior won for him the favor of the prison officials, who
conferred upon him important duties.
Among the prisoners were the chief cupbearer and the chief cook
of the reigning Pharaoh, who had been imprisoned for complicity in
a conspiracy at the court of the king. Each of these prisoners
dreamed a dream prophesying his fate. Relating their dreams to
Joseph, the latter interpreted them. His interpretation was verified,
the chief cupbearer being pardoned and restored to office, and the
chief cook being executed, as he had predicted. The fortunate man
promised to intercede for Joseph, but forgot him for two years, when
the king, having had two dreams which caused him much trouble, and
which the wise men of Egypt could not explain, the chief cupbearer
remembered Joseph and informed the Pharaoh of the Hebrew prison-
er's interpretation of his own dream and its fulfillment. The Pha-
raoh thereupon sent for Joseph and told him of his dreams. Joseph
told him that his dreams were prophetic, and were sent by God to warn
him that Egypt would be blessed by seven years of rich harvests,
which would be followed by seven years of dreadful famine. He urged
the monarch to prepare for the famine by gathering stores of grain
at certain points in the country during the years of abundance.
Egypt was then divided into two kingdoms, Upper Egypt being
governed by a native Egyptian dynasty of Theban princes, and Lower
Egypt being ruled by those Canaanite or Hittite conquerors known in
Egyptian history as the Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings. These latter
had adopted the Egyptian customs and language. The Pharaoh who
sent for Joseph was one of this dynasty, and was called Apophis, or
Apepi. As he was himself of foreign origin, this monarch did not
indulge in the native Egyptian dislike of foreigners. Impressed with
THE HEBREW PATRIARCHS.
859
Joseph's interpretations of his dreams, Apepi at once declared that
Joseph was the best man in the land to make the provision he had sug-
gested against the famine. He therefore made the stranger his prime-
minister, giving him his signet-ring in proof of the royal favor.
Joseph was clothed in magnificent apparel, and received the Egyptian
name of Zaph-n-to, the " Nourisher of the Country " ; while all sub-
jects were commanded to render him implicit obedience. He also re-
ceived a bride in the person of Asenath, daughter of Petephra, the
High Priest of On (afterwards Heliopolis), by whom he had two sons,
Manasseh and Ephraim.
Joseph collected vast stores of grain from the abundant harvest in
public granaries, which he constructed for the purpose. This he ac-
complished by doubling the usual royal impost of one-tenth of the
grain. When the period of famine commenced he had stores of grain
sufficient to supply the Egyptian population, and to sell to the neigh-
boring nations which suffered from the famine. He sold to the Egyp-
tian people on very hard conditions, requiring them to surrender, in
return for the food which saved them from starvation, the fee simple
of their lands, and to pay a quitrent of one-fifth of the produce for
the right of occupation. The priests were exempt from this arrange-
ment, and had the right to draw supplies from the public stores.
As the famine reached that portion of Canaan in which Jacob was
living, he sent his sons to Egypt to purchase grain. They did not
know Joseph, although he recognized them at once. He subjected
them to a series of trials, partly as a punishment for their conduct
towards him, and partly to subject their affection for their father and
for their brother Benjamin to a test; after which he made himself
known to them, forgave them for the wrongs which they had inflicted
upon him, and brought them and their father into Egypt, where he
would be able to provide for them. The Pharaoh willingly allowed
them to settle in that portion of Lower Egypt east of the Delta known
as " the land of Goshen." In this proceeding the Pharaoh was only
carrying out a leading policy of the Shepherd Kings, encouraging the
development in Egypt of a non-Egyptian element to support them in
case of a formidable revolt of the native Egyptian population.
Jacob died seventeen years later, blessing his sons and declaring that
the posterity of Judah should inherit the Divine promises to Abraham
and should rank as the head of the chosen family; Reuben, Simeon
and Levi — the three elder sons of Jacob — having forfeited their suc-
cession by their crimes. Jacob's body was embalmed in the usual
Egyptian style, and was carried in great state by Joseph and his
brethren, with a formidable escort of Egyptian troops, back to Ca-
naan, and was interred in Abraham's tomb at Hebron. Joseph reached
VOL. 2. — 2
Saves
Egypt
from
Famine.
Brings
His
Father
and
Brothers
to
Egypt.
Jacob's
Death.
360
THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
Joseph's
Death.
a venerable age, enjoying high honors, and continuing to be the
protector of his family. On his death-bed he exacted a solemn oath
from his brethren that his embalmed body should be conveyed to the
land of Canaan when his Hebrew countrymen should leave Egypt.
The
Hebrew
History.
The
Hebrews
in
Egypt.
Hebrews
First
Favored.
Then
Oppres-
sed.
SECTION II.— BONDAGE IN EGYPT, EXODUS AND
WANDERINGS.
THE real history of the Hebrew nation, now called Israelites, only
commences with their exodus from Egypt. The three great patri-
archs— Abraham, Isaac and Jacob — and their posterity, were simply
wandering nomads, roaming over the Promised Land of Canaan, but
not possessing any portion of it.
The Hebrews, or Israelites, remained in the fertile land of Goshen
for over two centuries, and multiplied so rapidly that the family of
seventy persons which had entered Egypt with Jacob grew to be a
nation of almost three million people. They constituted a people dis-
tinct from the Egyptians, having their own language, manners, reli-
gion and patriarchal government. Although they had somewhat de-
parted from the pure monotheism of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, they
never adopted the Egyptian polytheism. They were governed directly
by their own patriarchal chiefs, who were responsible to the Egyptian
king for the collection of the taxes imposed upon the Hebrew colony.
During this period the native Egyptian dynasty reigning at Thebes
expelled the Shepherd Kings from Lower Egypt, and united all Egypt
into one great kingdom. This native dynasty was one of the greatest
that ever occupied the throne of Egypt, and its monarchs appear to
have favored the Hebrew colony in the land of Goshen.
But when the Eighteenth Dynasty, which had driven out the Shep-
herd Kings, was succeeded by the Nineteenth Dynasty, the Egyptian
policy toward the Hebrews changed. This new dynasty of Pharaohs
considered the Hebrews very dangerous on account of their rapid in-
crease and their location, and inflicted upon them a series of cruel
persecutions, with the design of weakening their power and destroying
them as a nation. This oppressive policy was inaugurated by Ra-
meses the Great, the most renowned of Egyptian kings, who was a
great conqueror and a heartless tyrant. He oppressed the Israelites
with overwork, and forced them to labor under brutal taskmasters in
building the treasure cities of Pithom and Rameses. In spite of his
cruelty and oppression — in spite of the heavy burdens which he im-
posed upon the Hebrews — their numbers continued to increase rapidly.
Alarmed and enraged at this, the despotic monarch ordered all the
BONDAGE IN EGYPT, EXODUS AND WANDERINGS.
Hebrew male children to be cast into the Nile as soon as they were
born. The female children were spared to furnish wives for the Egyp-
tians. By this means the great Pharaoh expected to wholly exter-
minate the race of Israel.
Amram, a man of the tribe of Levi, had married Jochebed, a woman
of the same tribe. They had two children — a son named Aaron and
a daughter named Miriam. Soon after the Pharaoh had issued his
cruel edict, Jochebed gave birth to a second son, and concealed him for
three months from the king's officers. Not being able to hide him
any longer, she put him in a basket, or ark, of bulrushes, covered with
pitch, and placed him among the flags on the bank of the Nile, where
the infant was discovered by the daughter of the Pharaoh, who had
gone down to the river to bathe. Touched with pity, the princess had
the child brought to her. She gave it to Jochebed, who offered her-
self as a nurse, and commanded her to rear the boy as " the son of
Pharaoh's daughter." She gave the child the name Moses, meaning
" drawn out of the water." When the boy had grown to manhood his
mother took him to the princess, who had him educated as one of the
royal family, and he became learned " in all the wisdom of the Egyp-
tians," and was instructed in military science. A tradition represents
him when reaching manhood as holding an important command in the
Egyptian army in an expedition sent against Ethiopia.
Notwithstanding his fortunate lot, and the high favor he enjoyed
at court, Moses felt deeply the wrongs inflicted upon his Hebrew
countrymen. He reflected upon their sufferings, and often went
among them to cheer them. On one occasion, when he was forty years
of age, he killed an Egyptian whom he had seen cruelly beating a
Hebrew. For this homicide Moses was obliged to flee from Egypt for
his life. He sought refuge in the peninsula of Sinai, and at length
found himself in the land of Midian, where there was a tribe ruled by
a chief and priest named Jethro. By defending Jethro's daughters
from the violence of some shepherds who endeavored to drive them away
from a well where they were watering their flocks, Moses was invited
by the chief to come to his home and was urged to remain with him.
Moses accepted Jethro's invitation and received the chief's daughter,
Zipporah, as a wife. Moses remained with Jethro many years, during
which Rameses the Great died, and the Pharaoh Menepta ascended
the throne of Egypt. Menepta pursued his predecessor's oppressive
policy toward the Hebrews. In their bitter distress the Hebrews
prayed for the aid of the Lord Jehovah, the God of their fathers.
At length, when Moses had led his flock to a remote portion of
Mount Horeb, we are told that he was startled by what appeared to
be a burning bush. The Hebrew record says : " And the angel of the
Hebrew
Male
Children
Ordered
De-
stroyed.
Birth
of
Aaron
and
Moses.
Moses
Saved.
Flight
of
Moses.
Angel
in the
Burning
Bush.
THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
Lord appeared unto him in a flame of fire out of the midse of a bush ;
and he looked, and behold, the bush burned with fire, and the bush was
not consumed. And Moses said, I will now turn aside and see this
great sight, why the bush is not burnt. And when the Lord saw that
he turned aside to see, God called unto him out of the midst of the bush,
and said, Moses, Moses. And he said, Here am I. And he said, Draw
not nigh thither; put off thy shoes from off thy feet, for the place
whereon thou standest is holy ground. Moreover he said, I am the
God of thy father, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the
God of Jacob. And Moses hid his face; for he was afraid to look
upon God.
Moses " And the Lord said, I have surely seen the affliction of my people,
D *? which are in Egypt, and have heard their cry by reason of their task-
His masters ; for I know their sorrows ; and I am come down to deliver them
People. ou£ Qf t^ hand of the Egyptians, and to bring them up out of that
land unto a good land and a large, unto a land flowing with milk and
honey; unto the place of the Canaanites, and the Hittites, and the
Amorites, and the Perizzites, and the Hivites, and the Jebusites. Now
therefore, behold, the cry of the children of Israel is come unto me;
and I have also seen the oppression wherewith the Egyptians oppress
them. Come now therefore, and I will send thee unto Pharaoh, that
thou mayest bring forth my people the children of Israel out of
Egypt."
His It is further related that Jehovah revealed to Moses his design of
Mission, making him the leader and the divine mouthpiece in this great move-
ment. Moses timidly shrank from this position, but it is said that
Jehovah reassured him and associated with him his brother, Aaron, who
was to be his spokesman to the Egyptian king and to the Hebrews.
The whole project of Jehovah is said to have been revealed to Moses,
who was commanded to make it known to the Elders of the tribes.
Jehovah, we are further told, directed Moses to return to Egypt, as-
semble the Elders of his people, disclose his mission to them, and, after
securing their obedience, to go before the Pharaoh and demand per-
mission for the Israelites to depart from Egypt. Jehovah, it is also
said, told Moses that the Pharaoh would not grant this demand, but
that He would display His power over Egypt and avenge the suffer-
ing of His " chosen people " by a series of punishments in the nature
of plagues such as Egypt had never endured at any other period of
its history.
Moses thereupon started on his return to Egypt, meeting on the way
Aaron his brother Aaron, who is also said to have been divinely directed to
to look for him. The two brothers returned to Egypt, and, summoning
Egypt the Elders of the Israelites, submitted to them the message from
BONDAGE IN EGYPT, EXODUS AND WANDERINGS,
363
Jehovah. The people consented to obey the Divine will, and promised
to faithfully execute all the commands of Jehovah, as good and
faithful Servants.
We are told that the Pharaoh not only contemptuously refused to
permit the Israelites to depart, but increased their burdens. Moses,
it is said, complained to Jehovah that his effort for their release only
brought sorrow and affliction upon his Hebrew countrymen; but was
encouraged by the prediction that, although the Pharaoh would stead-
ily refuse for some time to release the Israelites, and that he would
steadily increase their hard tasks, yet Jehovah would break the obsti-
nate pride of the Egyptian king and force him to agree to allow the
Hebrews to depart. Moses and Aaron again asked repeatedly the
Pharaoh Menepta to consent to the departure of the Israelites, but
were as often refused. We are further told that Jehovah punished
the king's refusals by inflicting upon Egypt ten violent plagues.
These are enumerated as follows: 1. The waters of the Nile, the
sacred river of Egypt, and the main support of its water supply, be-
came red like blood and offensively putrid. As they were not able to
use these waters, the Egyptians were obliged to sink wells along the
banks of the river to obtain water to drink. 2. Frogs increased to
such an extent as to become a dreadful pest to the Egyptians. 3.
Swarms of lice covered the land, producing great suffering alike to
man and beast. These increased and were a dreadful annoyance to
the scrupulously-cleanly Egyptians, and were likewise a religious de-
filement. 4. Clouds of flies, or beetles, covered the country, swarmed
in the houses, and devoured the harvest and shrubbery. The beetle
being an object of worship to the Egyptians, they were thus scourged
through their own gods. 5. An epizootic disease appeared among
the cattle, carrying off great numbers of them. 6. A grievous afflic-
tion of boils and blains broke out on the bodies of the Egyptians and
their beasts. Dr. Smith says : " This plague seems to have been the
black leprosy, a fearful kind of elephantiasis, which was long remem-
bered as the ' blotch of Egypt.' It also rendered the Egyptians re-
ligiously unclean." 7. A fearful hail storm, accompanied with thun-
der and lightning, devastated the country, destroying the crops and
killing men and beasts. 8. Swarms of locusts overspread the land,
devouring what the hail had left. 9. A remarkable darkness envel-
oped the country, and for three days the people could not see each
other, or follow their daily pursuits. None of these visitations afflicted
the land of Goshen, the dwelling place of the Hebrews. It is said that
the Pharaoh, terrified and humbled by these sufferings, more than once
sent for Moses and Aaron, and implored them to induce Jehovah to
release the Egyptians from these sufferings ; but as soon as one plague
Pharaoh
Menep-
ta's
Oppres-
sion.
The
Ten
THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
The
Tenth
Plague.
Menepta
Relents.
Exodus
of the
Hebrews.
Egyptian
Pursuit
and
Destruc-
tion of
Their
Army in
the Red
Sea.
ceased, the king's obstinate pride returned, and he refused to allow the
Israelites to depart from Egypt.
The Mosaic record now tells us that the tenth and most dreadful
plague was sent upon the land. It is said that Jehovah ordered Moses
to institute the Feast of the Passover, which, marking the commence-
ment of the Hebrew national history, was made the beginning of the
Jewish year. Minute directions were given concerning the manner of
celebrating the feast, no deviation being permitted from it, and the
feast being made an annual celebration — a perpetual memorial of the
deliverance of the Hebrew nation from the Egyptian bondage. Then
says the Mosaic account : " And it came to pass that at midnight the
Lord smote all the first-born in the land of Egypt, from the first-born
of Pharaoh that sat on his throne unto the first-born of the captive
that was in the dungeon; and all the first-born of cattle. And Pha-
raoh rose up in the night, he and all his servants, and all the Egyp-
tians ; and there was a great cry in Egypt ; for there was not a house
where there was not one dead."
Completely subdued in his haughty spirit by this last terrible visi-
tation upon his subjects, the Pharaoh Menepta sent for Moses and
Aaron and urged them to lead their countrymen out of Egypt at once.
By order of Moses, the Hebrews asked the Egyptians for jewels of
silver and gold and raiment, which demands were immediately com-
plied with. The Egyptians were glad to have the Israelites out of the
country, fearing that any further delay would cause further suffer-
ing.
Under the leadership of Moses, the Hebrews started upon their
march, taking the embalmed body of Joseph along with them. They
numbered six hundred thousand men on foot, besides women and chil-
dren. These, with the multitude following them, and consisting prob-
ably of other Semitic races, nomadic in their habits, who were doubt-
less glad of this opportunity to escape from Egypt, swelled the Israel-
ite host to almost three millions of people. The Mosaic narrative says :
"And the Lord went before them by day in a pillar of a cloud, to lead
them the way ; and by night in a pillar of fire, to give them light, to
go by day and night ; He took not away the pillar of the cloud by day,
nor the pillar of fire by night, from before the people." After a march
of three days the Israelites reached the head of the Red Sea, or Gulf
of Suez, which then extended much farther north than at present.
Meanwhile the Pharaoh Menepta, regretting that he had allowed
the Israelites to depart from Egypt, pursued them with a vast
host, and came up with them as they were encamped near the
Red Sea. Says the Mosaic account : " And Moses stretched out
his hand over the sea; and the Lord caused the sea to go back
BONDAGE IN EGYPT, EXODUS AND WANDERINGS.
365
by a strong east wind all that night, and made the sea dry land,
and the waters were divided. And the children of Israel went into the
midst of the sea upon the dry ground ; and the waters were a wall unto
them on their right hand, and on their left. And the Eyptians pur-
sued, and went in after them to the midst of the sea, even all Pha-
raoh's horses, his chariots and his horsemen. And it came to pass,
that in the morning watch the Lord looked unto the host of the Egyp-
tians, through the pillar of fire and of the cloud, and troubled the host
of the Egyptians. And took off their chariot wheels, that they drave
them heavily ; so that the Egyptians said, Let us flee from the face of
Israel; for the Lord fighteth for them against the Egyptians. And
the Lord said unto Moses, Stretch out thine hand over the sea, that the
waters may come again upon the Egyptians, upon their chariots, and
upon their horsemen. And Moses stretched forth his hand over the
sea, and the sea returned to his strength when the morning appeared ;
and the Egyptians fled against it; and the Lord overthrew the Egyp-
tians in the midst of the sea. And the waters returned, and covered
the chariots, and the horsemen, and all the host of Pharaoh that came
into the sea after them; there remained not so much as one of them.
But the children of Israel walked upon dry land in the midst of the
sea ; and the waters were a wall unto them on their right hand, and on
their left. Thus the Lord saved Israel that day out of the hands of
the Egyptians ; and Israel saw the Egyptians dead upon the seashore.
And Israel saw that great work which the Lord did upon the Egyp-
tians ; and the people feared the Lord, and believed the Lord and his
servant Moses."
In accordance with the chronology fixed upon by English Egyptolo-
gists the Exodus must have occurred about B. C. 1320. Among the
various dates assigned to this great event in Jewish national history
are the years B. C. 1652 and B. C. 1491.
After reaching the eastern shore of the Red Sea, the Israelites pro-
ceeded down the peninsula of Sinai towards the mountain peak of the
same name, instead of going directly to the Promised Land. For
forty years, we are told in the Mosaic account, did the Israelites wan-
der in the " Wilderness " in the desert region of North-western Arabia.
We are also told that Jehovah provided for the temporal wants of his
chosen people, sweetening the bitter waters of the region through which
they passed, making water gush forth from a rock to appease their
thirst, and sending them food, first in the shape of quails, and after-
ward in the form of manna, the latter falling with the dew every morn-
ing in the camp. Only a day's supply of manna is said to have been
allowed to be gathered, except on the sixth day, when a sufficient quan-
tity was gathered to last two days, so that the people could scrupu-
Datca
o- the
Exodus.
HebroV
W.ndtr-
in --
in the
Wiv>r«
ness.
366
Victory
over the
Amale-
kites.
THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
The Dec-
alogue.
Laws
of
Moses.
Sacrifices
and
Feasts.
Theoc-
racy.
lously observe the Sabbath. This heavenly supply is said to have con-
tinued every day during the forty years' " Wanderings in the Wilder-
ness.
When they arrived at Rephidim, believed to be the Wady-Feiran
of the present day, the Israelites were attacked by the Amalekites,
who endeavored to stay their advance into the Sinaitic peninsula. The
Hebrew army led by Joshua, the future conqueror of Canaan, gained
the victory. The Israelites then moved on to Mount Sinai, and en-
camped in the plain and in the ravines in the vicinity of that conse-
crated mountain.
We are now told that Jehovah descended upon Mount Sinai, and
amid thunder and lightning delivered the law to the Hebrew nation.
The Mosaic account says that Moses was called up into the mountain
by Jehovah, and that the people promised obedience to His Ten Com-
mandments. Says the narrative : " Then went up Moses, and Aaron,
and Nadab, and Abihu, and seventy of the Elders of Israel ; and they
saw the God of Israel. * * * And the Lord said unto Moses, Come
up to me into the mount, and be there ; and I will give thee tables of
stone, and a law, and commandments which I have written ; that thou
mayest teach them. And Moses rose up, and his minister Joshua ; and
Moses went up into the mount of God. * * * And Moses went up
into the mount, and a cloud covered the mount. And the glory of
the Lord abode upon Mount Sinai, and the cloud covered it six days ;
and the seventh day he called unto Moses out of the midst of the
cloud. And the sight of the glory of the Lord was like devouring
fire on the top of the mount in the eyes of the children of Israel. And
Moses went into the midst of the cloud, and gat him up into the mount ;
and Moses was in the mount forty days and forty nights." During
this time we are informed that Jehovah revealed to Moses minute
directions afterwards embodied in the " Laws of Moses," which con-
stituted the civil and religious systems of the Hebrew nation. The
Mosaic record says that the Ten Commandments were engraven on
tablets of stone by the hand of Jehovah Himself.
The Decalogue, or Ten Commandments, and the other Laws of
Moses were preserved in the Ark of the Covenant. The affairs of
religion were conducted by the High Priest and Levites. Sacrifices
of animals, and the feasts of the Passover, the Pentecost and the Taber-
nacles, formed the bond between Jehovah and His " chosen people."
Every fiftieth year — the year of Jubilee — a new and equal distribu-
tion of the lands was made. The civil government established by
Moses for the Hebrew nation was a theocratic system, and the Elders
of the Twelve Tribes of Israel conducted the government in Jehovah's
name.
BONDAGE IN EGYPT, EXODUS AND WANDERINGS.
367
During the long absence of Moses on Mount Sinai the Israelites,
in disregard of their covenant with Jehovah, we are told, compelled
Aaron to make a golden calf, in imitation of the Egyptian bull-deity
Apis. They abandoned themselves to the worship of this idol; and
Moses, upon returning to them from the mountain, found them thus
occupied. Overcome with anger, he rallied the tribe of Levi, and
attacked the idolaters with the sword, killing three thousand of them
and destroying the idol. The people acknowledged the justice of their
punishment, and promised to shun idolatry in the future. In conse-
quence of their loyalty to Jehovah on this occasion, the Levites were
constituted the sacerdotal class of the Israelitish nation.
The Israelites sojourned on Mount Sinai eleven months and twenty
days, during which the second celebration of the Passover was held.
This long halt was a busy season in the life of the nation. The He-
brews had arrived at Sinai without discipline, without institutions,
without laws, almost ignorant of their God, and with no established
form of religious worship. During the stay at Sinai this disorganized
mob was converted into a compact and powerful nation, with a code
of laws which has ever since won the admiration of all ages and of
all nations, and which remained in force among the Hebrews until the
end of their national career.
The Tabernacle, or sacred tent, was constructed in accordance with
the mode prescribed by God, and all the particulars of the religious
ceremonial were minutely arranged. The priesthood was organized,
and the succession to the sacred offices was definitely provided for.
The principle at the basis of the whole civil and religious system was
the supreme authority of Jehovah over the Hebrew nation. " He was,
in a literal sense of the word, their sovereign, and all other authority,
both in political and civil affairs, was subordinate to the continual
acknowledgment of His own. The other powers were instituted by
God to administer affairs in accordance with His laws, but were not
ordinarily chosen among the priests, descendants of Aaron, nor from
the tribe of Levi, consecrated to the various functions of public wor-
ship. Each tribe had its civil authorities, although certain causes
were reserved for the supreme central tribunal; but the unity of the
nation was, above all, founded on unity in faith and worship, on the
mighty recollections recalled each year by the solemn feasts ; the Pass-
over, or Feast of Unleavened Bread (commemorating the Exodus from
Egypt) ; Pentecost (the promulgation of the law), and the Feast of
the Tabernacles, or tents (the sojourn in the desert). The one taber-
nacle, where the solemn sacrifices were offered, and where was deposited
the ark, the symbol and covenant made between God and His people,
was equally the political and religious center of the nation. The
1—26
Golden
Calf.
Punish-
ment
of
Idolaters.
Hebrew
Organiza-
tion.
The
Mosaic
System.
368
THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
No
Doctrine
of a
Future
Life.
Severe
Mono-
theism.
Census.
Pillar
of
Cloud.
Murmurs
of the
Hebrews.
Mosaic law presents the spectacle, unique in the history of the world,
of a legislation which was complete from the origin of a nation, and
subsisted for long ages. In spite of frequent infractions, it was al-
ways restored, even although in its very sublimity it was in direct
opposition to the coarse inclinations of the people whom it governed.
He alone could impose it on the Israelites, who could say : ' I am the
Lord thy God,' and confirm the words by forty years of miracles."
Moses taught no doctrine of a future life, or future rewards and
punishments, or resurrection, or judgment; no traces of such doctrines
being found in the Old Testament before the Babylonian Captivity,
many centuries after the time of Moses and four centuries after the
times of David and Solomon. Moses taught a severe monotheism, with
Jehovah, or Elohim, as The One True God, a Deity above all worlds
and behind all time, with no history, no adventures, no earthly life —
one omnipresent, omniscient and omnipotent Supreme Being, not rep-
resented by idols or images, idolatry being severely prohibited by the
Mosaic code.
We are further told that when everything was arranged, Moses, at
the command of Jehovah, took a census of the males of the nation,
from and over the age of twenty years, capable of bearing arms. The
census was taken on the first day of the second month from the epoch
of the Exodus (Jyar — May, 1490, or 1319, B. C.), and fixed the
number of fighting men at 603,550. This great host was divided into
four camps, one being placed on each of the four sides of the taber-
nacle, which stood in the center of the camp.
Being thus organized as a nation and an army, the Israelites broke
up their camp at Sinai on the twentieth day of their second year —
about May 20, B. C. 1490, or 1319 — and continued their advance,
and, we are informed, were again led by the " pillar of cloud " which
was said to have guided them since the memorable night of the Exodus,
and which was to lead them to the " Promised Land." Thus guided,
the Israelites were conducted into the Wilderness of Paran.
.After several halts, the Israelites arrived at Kadesh Barnea, near
the frontiers of Canaan, whence Moses sent twelve spies, one from each
tribe of the Hebrew nation, into Canaan to examine the country and
to report the character, condition, strength and number of its inhabit-
ants and its cities. These spies were absent fourteen days, and dur-
ing that time they explored the country from the Dead Sea to the
slopes of Mount Hermon. On their return to Kadesh Barnea they
reported to Moses and the subordinate leaders that the land was ex-
tremely fertile, but that the Israelites would not be able to conquer it,
because its inhabitants were men of immense size and lived in strongly-
fortified cities. This report had a discouraging effect upon the Israel-
BONDAGE IN EGYPT, EXODUS AND WANDERINGS.
ites ; and Joshua and Caleb, who were two of the spies, vainly endeav-
ored to persuade their countrymen that the other spies had exaggerated
the impediments in the way of the conquest of Canaan, and tried to
raise their courage by means of a more favorable report. The people,
panic-stricken, broke out into open mutiny the following morning,
declaring that they intended to choose a chief who would lead them
back into Egypt. Moses and Aaron vainly fell on their faces before
their countrymen. Joshua and Caleb vainly sought to assure them of
victory and conquest, and to dissuade them from rebellion against
Jehovah. The enraged people were on the point of stoning Moses,
Aaron, Joshua and Caleb to death, when, we are again told, " the glory
of the Lord filled the tabernacle " and the people were induced to Jehovah's
repent of their rebellious conduct. Jehovah, it is said, threatened to ^er<
disinherit the rebellious nation and select as his chosen people the pos-
terity of Moses ; but when Moses interceded for his ungrateful coun-
trymen they were pardoned, but the rebels were threatened with the
displeasure of Jehovah, who is said to have informed Moses that, ex-
cepting Joshua and Caleb, not a man of the nation from and over
twenty years years of age should enter the " Promised Land," that
they should all die in the Wilderness, in which the nation was con-
demned to wander thirty-eight years longer, and that their children
should enter upon the promised inheritance of the Hebrew race.
The Israelites, stricken with anguish upon hearing of this doom, Hebrew
were anxious to be led into Canaan, but, we are told, the Divine decree
would not be revoked. The people, it is said, were persistent in their
resolve, and despite the warnings of Moses, who refused to lead them,
they attempted to force their way through a mountain pass defended
by the united armies of the Canaanites and the Amalekites. They
met with a bloody repulse, and were driven back into the desert. The
Israelites led a nomadic life for thirty-eight years, roaming over the Continued
desert north of the peninsula of Sinai, which the Arabs have named ings**'
Et Tih, or Tih Beni Israel (the wanderings of the Children of Israel).
Their range occupied the region from Kadesh Barnea on the north to
the head of the Elanitic gulf (now Gulf of Akaba) on the south.
They were not apparently disturbed by any of the neighboring tribes.
In the meantime the males of the nation over twenty years of age died,
and the succeeding generation consisted of men trained to fatigue and
war — men who were hardy and brave, and accustomed to freedom — a
generation superior to their predecessors, who had been reared in the
Egyptian bondage, and had suffered from the taint of that oppressive
servitude.
At the commencement of the fortieth year after the Exodus, Aaron, VtaXb.
the brother of Moses and the High Priest of the Hebrew nation, died Aaron.
370
THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
Canaanite
Defeat.
Sihon's
Defeat.
Og's
Defeat.
Hebrew
Apostasy
Punished
by
Moses.
at Masera at a ripe old age, and was buried there. Mount Hor was
on the border of the territory of the Edomites, the descendants of
Esau. Moses requested a free passage for his countrymen through
the Edomite territory, offering to respect the property of the inhabit-
ants, and to pay for even the water used by the people of Israel. But
the Edomites refused this request, and it is said that the Hebrews were
forbidden by Jehovah to attack their Jdndred, whereupon they turned
towards the south, marching toward the head of the Elanitic gulf,
and, rounding the mountain range, advanced again northward, east,
of the territory of Edom. The Canaanites of Arad endeavored to
obstruct the passage of the hosts of Israel, but suffered a defeat. The
Edomites permitted the. Israelites to march past their territory without
disturbing them. We are told that Jehovah forbade Moses attacking
the Moabites and Ammonites, descendants of Lot.
The Hebrews had now arrived at the Arnon, a small stream flowing
into the eastern side of the Dead Sea, and forming the southern bound-
ary of a new kingdom, founded by Sihon, an Amorite adventurer, who
had conquered it from the Moabites and Ammonites. The Jabbok
formed the northern boundary of this kingdom, and Sihon established
his capital at Heshbon. Moses sent a peaceful embassy to Sihon, re-
questing a free passage through his territory, promising to keep his
countrymen to the highway on their march, and to pay for everything
used by them. This request was refused by Sihon with extreme inso-
lence, and that prince led his army against the Israelites, but was
totally routed, his capital was taken by storm, and his kingdom fell
into the hands of the Hebrews. Og, the gigantic King of Bashan,
whose dominions extended from the Jabbok to Mount Hermon, and
who was a fortunate Amorite adventurer, attempted to avenge the
overthrow of Sihon, but was defeated and killed, and his kingdom was
likewise conquered by the Israelites. These two conquests made the
Israelites masters of all the territory east of the Jordan, from Mount
Hermon to the Dead Sea.
The hosts of Israel now encamped on the fertile plains opposite
Jericho. Balak, King of Moab, in great alarm because of the appear-
ance of so powerful a nation on his borders, entered into an alliance
with the Midianites against the Hebrews. Feeling sufficiently strong
to assail the strangers, Balak sought to induce Balaam, a noted diviner
from the country of the Ammonites, to pronounce a curse against the
Israelites and devote them to destruction. We are told, however, that
Balaam was obliged to bless the " chosen people," and to prophesy
to Balak their future triumphs. The Moabites and Midianites then
endeavored to seduce the Israelites from their religion by inducing
them to participate in their immoral and voluptuous worship of their
BONDAGE IN EGYPT, EXODUS AND WANDERINGS.
371
god Baal-Peor. This scheme was so successful that Moses had to
resort to severe measures to check the evil. All the Hebrews guilty
of this apostasy from the worship of Jehovah were put to death; and
twenty-four thousand men were carried off by a plague which broke
out in the camp. The Israelites then engaged in a war of extermi-
nation against their Midianites, defeated their armies, ravaged their
country and carried off a vast booty.
A new census taken at this time showed that there were 601,730
fighting men in the Israelitish host. The country conquered on the
east side of the Jordan was exceedingly fertile and was well adapted
to grazing. Delighted with this section the tribes of Reuben and Gad
and the half -tribe of Manasseh requested of Moses possession of this
region for their inheritance, as they had many cattle. Moses sternly
rebuked them for sowing dissensions in the nation; but agreed to the
arrangement upon obtaining the promise of these tribes that they
would only leave their families and their cattle in their new homes,
while their fighting men would cross the Jordan with the other tribes
and aid them in conquering the " Promised Land." The tribe of
Reuben was assigned the southern portion of the country east of the
Jordan, from the Arnon to Mount Gilead; the tribe of Gad was given
the tract north of the former, including Mount Gilead, to the southern
extremity of the Sea of Chinneroth (the Sea of Galilee) ; and the
half -tribe of Manasseh was allotted the district north of Gad as far
as Mount Hermon. The two tribes and a half faithfully observed
their pledges to their brethren and rendered them valuable service in
the conquest of the country west of the Jordan.
The great work of Moses was now finished. He had led the Chil-
dren of Israel to the borders of the " Promised Land " at a point where
it could be easily entered, and he is said to have been warned by
Jehovah that his end was near. The Scripture record says that both
Moses and his brother Aaron had been denied permission to enter the
" Promised Land," because their faith had failed when Jehovah had
commanded them to speak to the rock in Kadesh to give water to his
people. We are likewise told that Moses assembled the whole Hebrew
nation, recited the law in their presence, prophesied for them a bless-
ing, predicting for them a glorious future, named Joshua as his suc-
cessor, and exhorted the people to continue faithful to Jehovah. He
then bade his countrymen an affecting farewell, and we are told went
up into Mount Nebo at the command of Jehovah, who there showed
the great Hebrew lawgiver the land which was to be the inheritance
of his people, after which he disappeared from among the living.
" And Moses went up from the plains of Moab unto the mountain
of Nebo, to the top of Pisgah, that is over against Jericho. And the
New
Census.
Reuben,
Gad and
Half-
Manas-
seh.
End of
Moses's
Mission.
His
Death
and
Burial.
THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES,
Lord showed him all the land of Gilead, unto Dan. And all Naphtali,
and the land of Ephraim, and Manasseh, and all the land of Judah,
unto the utmost sea. And the south, and the plain of the valley of
Jericho, the city of palm trees, unto Zoar. And the Lord said unto
him, This is the land which I swore unto Abraham, unto Isaac, and
unto Jacob, saying, I will give it unto thy seed; I have caused thee
to see it with thine eyes, but thou shalt not go over thither. So Moses
the servant of the Lord died there in the land of Moab, according to
the word of the Lord. And he buried him in a valley in the land of
Moab, over against Beth-peor; but no man knoweth of his sepulcher
unto this day. * * * And the Children of Israel wept for Moses in
the plains of Moab thirty days ; so the days of weeping and mourn-
ing for Moses were ended. * * * And there arose not a prophet since
in Israel like unto Moses, whom the Lord knew face to face, In all
the signs and the wonders which the Lord sent him to do in the land
of Egypt to Pharaoh, and to all his servants, and to all his land, And
in all that mighty land, and in all the great terror which Moses showed
in the sight of all Israel."
His Thus died one of the grandest figures in all history — a great law-
ness giver, statesman, warrior, poet, historian, and the founder of a nation
with a religious mission destined to influence the future of the human
race. While Abraham was the ancestor of the Hebrew race, Moses
was the founder of the Hebrew state. As a leader and warrior Moses
led his people out of their Egyptian bondage. As a lawgiver and
statesman he founded their religious and political system. As a his-
torian and author of the Pentateuch he gave to the world the history
of the patriarchs and of his people to the time of his own death.
The following beautiful poem on the " Burial of Moses," by C.
F. Alexander, will not be out of place in this connection.
Poem. " By Nebo's lonely mountain,
On this side Jordan's wave,
In a vale in the land of Moab,
There lies a lonely grave;
But no man dug that sepulcher,
And no man saw it e'er,
For the angels of God upturned the sod,
And laid the dead man there.
" That was the grandest funeral
That ever passed on earth;
But no man heard the trampling,
Or saw the train go forth;
BONDAGE IN EGYPT, EXODUS AND WANDERINGS.
Noiselessly as the daylight
Comes when the day is done,
And the crimson streak on ocean's cheek
Grows into the great sun —
" Noiselessly as the spring-time
Her crown of verdure weaves,
And all the trees on all the hills
Open their thousand leaves —
So, without sound of music,
Or voice of them that wept,
Silently down the mountain crown
The great procession swept.
" Perchance the bald old eagle,
On gray Beth-peor's height,
Out of his rocky eyrie,
Looked on the wondrous sight.
Perchance the lion, stalking,
Still shuns the hallowed spot;
For beast and bird have seen and heard
That which man knoweth not.
" Lo ! when the warrior dieth,
His comrades in the war,
With arms reversed, and muffled drum,
Follow the funeral car.
They show his banners taken,
They tell his battles won,
And after him lead his masterless steed,
With peals of minute gun.
" Amid the noblest of the land
Men lay the sage to rest,
And give the bard an honored place,
With costly marble dressed,
In the great minster transept,
Where lights like glories fall,
And the choir sings, and the organ rings
Along the emblazoned wall.
*' This was the bravest warrior
That ever buckled sword;
This the most gifted poet
That ever breathed a word;
374 THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
And never earth's philosopher
Traced with his golden pen,
On the deathless page, truths half so sage
As he wrote down for men.
"And had he not high honor?
The hill side for his pall;
To lie in state while angels wait,
With stars for tapers tall;
And the dark rock pines, like tossing plumes,
Over his bier to wave;
And God's own hand, in that lonely land,
To lay him in the grave —
" In that deep grave, without a name,
Whence his uncoffined clay
Shall break again — Oh wondrous thought!
Before the judgment day;
And stand, with glory wrapped around,
On the hills he never trod,
And speak of the strife that won our life,
With the Incarnate Son of
" O lonely tomb in Moab's land !
O dark Beth-peor's hill!
Speak to these curious hearts of ours,
And teach them to be still.
God hath his mysteries of grace —
Ways that we cannot tell;
He hides them deep, like the secret sleep
Of him he loved so well."
SECTION III.— HEBREW CONQUEST OF CANAAN.
fr^mf d BEFORE proceeding with our historical narrative we will describe
Land, the country which the Israelites were now to wrest from its inhabitants
Palestine an(^ se*ze ^or their own fu^1"6 home. This country itself — known
Judaea, variously as the Promised Land, Canaan, Palestine, Judsea, or the
^o*Z.e Holy Land — was in many particulars a remarkable region. Its im-
Land. portance in the history of mankind vastly overshadows its small ter-
ritorial extent. Palestine is a very small country — about the size of
the principality of Wales or the State of New Jersey. Its entire
length from north to south is about one hundred and eighty miles,
MOSES
Colossal Statue by Michael Angelo
HEBREW CONQUEST OF CANAAN.
375
its
and its average breadth from east to west about forty-five miles,
thus giving the country an area of eight thousand square miles. It
lies between latitude thirty degrees forty minutes and thirty-three de-
grees forty-two minutes north, and between longitude thirty-three
degrees forty-two minutes and thirty-five degrees forty-eight minutes
east. It is bounded on the north by Syria, on the east by the Jordan
and the country now known as the Hauran, on the south by the Desert
of Et Tik, and on the west by the Mediterranean. It is located in
Western Asia, to the north of Egypt, and to the north and west of
Arabia.
It is practically a mountainous region. It has no independent
mountain chains, and other countries surpass it in the height and
grandeur of its mountains ; " but every part of the highland is in
greater or less undulation." The mountain region occupies the cen-
ter of the country, and lowlands border it on both the east and the
west, extending from the foot of the uplands to the boundaries of
Palestine. This lowland spreads out on the west into the two great
plains of Philistia and Sharon, which extend from the foot of the
mountains to the sea. The mountains are bordered on the east by the
remarkable depression of the Jordan valley, still continued by the yet
more remarkable depression of the Dead Sea and by the Ghor. " The
slopes, or cliffs, which form, as it were, the retaining walls of this
depression are furrowed and cleft by the torrent beds which discharge
the waters of the hills, and form the means of communication between
the upper and lower levels. These three features — the mountains, the
plains and the torrent beds — make up the principal physical charac-
teristics of the Holy Land."
Little over midway up the coast, the plain is suddenly broken by a
bold spur of the mountain chain, leaving the middle mass and running
abruptly north-west to the sea, there ending in the beautiful promon-
tory of Mount Carmel, which is also the name of the entire spur or
ridge. North of Carmel the plain again commences, and there pushes
back the mountains and reaches entirely across Palestine to the Jordan
valley. This is the famous plain of Esdraelon, or Jezreel. North of
this plain the mountains are again seen, first in the low hills of Galilee,
and rising higher until Mount Hermon and the Lebanons are reached.
The mountains again push their way out to the sea, and end in the
white headland of Has Nakhura, north of which is the ancient Phoe-
nicia.
The height of the mountainous region is usually uniform along its Valleys.
whole course, with an average of from fifteen hundred to eighteen hun-
dred feet above the level of the Mediterranean sea. Says Dr. William
Smith : " It can hardly be denominated a plateau, yet so evenly is
VOL.
Moun-
376
THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
Mountain
Passes
and
Fast-
nesses.
River
Jordan.
Canaanite
Tribes.
the general level preserved, and so thickly do the hills stand behind
and between one another, that when seen from the coast or the western
part of the maritime plain, it has quite the appearance of a wall."
This seeming monotony is broken at intervals by greater elevations,
and these constitute the most conspicuous features of the landscape.
The water-shed of the country lies between these highest points, and
on each side the many torrent beds descend to the Jordan valley on
the east, and to the Mediterranean on the west. The valleys on the
east are very steep and rugged, particularly in the middle and south-
ern parts of the country ; but those on the west slope more gradually.
As the level of the maritime plain is higher than that of the Jordan
valley, it gives them a more gradual descent, which is rendered easier
by the greater distance intervening between the mountains and the sea
than between the mountains and the Jordan. Upon the western side,
as upon the eastern, the valleys, or wadies, form the only means of
communication between the mountains and the plains.
. All roads from the borders to the interior are located along these
valleys. These mountain passes constitute a singular feature of Pales-
tine, and were very important to it in ancient times. Being difficult,
they presented very great obstacles to an army burdened with a camp
train or baggage. The western passes, though easier than the eastern,
were still difficult, and made it no easy task for an enemy to enter the
territory of the Israelites. Secure in their mountain fastnesses, the
Israelites were frequently undisturbed, while the cities of the plain
below them were captured and recaptured by the struggling armies of
Egypt and Asia. The plain of Esdraelon was the great battlefield
of Palestine, but the mountains were comparatively free from warlike
operations.
The river Jordan constituted the eastern boundary of the " Prom-
ised Land," and is one of the most remarkable rivers of the world. It
rises on the slope of Mount Hermon and flows through an extraordi-
nary depression, known as the Jordan valley, passing through Lake
Huleh and the Lake of Tiberias, or Sea of Galilee, and emptying into
the Dead Sea. Its source is 1,700 feet above the level of the Mediter-
ranean; its mouth is 1,317 feet below the sea level, making the entire
descent of the river 3,017 feet. The river is two hundred miles long ;
the distance in a straight line is sixty miles. The Jordan was never
a navigable stream, and was passed only by fords in ancient times. No
bridges were thrown over it until after the Roman conquest of Pales-
tine. No cities were located on its banks. Jericho and the other
towns were situated some distance away from the river.
We will now give an account of the character of the Canaanitish
tribes, or nations, with whom the Israelites were now to wrestle for the
z
<
Q
oi
O
a:
uj
>
Qi
UJ
X
H
HEBREW CONQUEST OF CANAAN. 377
possession of the " Promised Land." During the patriarchal period
Canaan, or Palestine, was occupied by numerous tribes of Canaanites,
descendants of Canaan, the fourth son of Ham. The name Canaan-
ites was sometimes assigned to a particular tribe occupying a certain
part of Palestine, but was more generally applied to all the inhabitants
of that country, and embraced seven distinct nations, as follows, ac-
cording to Dr. William Smith :
" I. The Canaanites, the ' lowlanders,' who inhabited the plain on Canaan-
the lower Jordan, and that on the sea-shore. These plains were the proper,
richest and most important part of the country.
" II. The Perizzltes seem, next to the Canaanites, to have been the Periz-
most important tribe. * * * In Judges I. 4, 5, they are placed in
the southern part of the Holy Land, and in Joshua XVI. 15—18, they
occupy, with the Rephaim, or giants, the ' forest country ' in the west-
ern flanks of Mount Carmel.
"III. The Hittites, or children of Heth, were a small tribe at Hittites.
Hebron, of whom Abraham purchased the cave of Machpelah. They
are represented as a peaceful people.
" IV. The Amorites, ' mountaineers,' a warlike tribe, occupied first Amorites.
the barrier heights west of the Dead Sea, at the same place which after-
wards bore the name of En-gedi, stretching westward towards Hebron.
At the time of the conquest they had crossed the Jordan and occupied
the rich tract bounded by the Jabbok on the north and the Arnon on
the south, the Jordan on the west and the wilderness on the east.
" V. The Hwltes are first named at the time of Jacob's return to Hivites.
the Holy Land, where they occupied Shechem. At the time of the
conquest by Joshua, they were living on the northern confines of West-
ern Palestine.
" VI. The Jebusites, a mountain tribe, occupying Jebus ( Jerusa- Jebusitea.
lem), where they continued to dwell with the children of Judah and
Benjamin to a late date.
" VII. The Girgasites, whose position is quite uncertain." Girga-
During the period when the Israelites were sojourning in Egypt sev- sites>
eral important changes occurred in the character and location of the _The
nations occupying the land of Canaan. The maritime people of Phoe-
nicia, situated immediately north of Palestine, had risen quietly and
suddenly, and had become the most enlightened and the wealthiest com-
munity of antiquity. Phoenicia, however, did not attain its highest
pinnacle of greatness and prosperity until several centuries later, about
B. C. 1050. At the time when the Israelites entered Canaan, the
Phoenicians, who occupied a narrow strip around the sea-coast, and
whose territory was embraced in the region assigned as a heritage to
Phoeni-
cians .
378 THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
the Hebrews, had established themselves firmly in the country, and
were sufficiently powerful to hold it against the strangers.
The The sea-coast of the Holy Land proper, on the coast south of Phoe-
tuJes3." nicia, was occupied by the Philistines, a warlike and powerful nation,
whom some authorities consider a Semitic people, while others regard
them as a Hamitic race. Those who believe them to be Semites main-
tain that they crossed over from the island of Crete, while those who
hold that they were Hamites suppose that they came into Canaan from
Egypt. Their territory was called Philistia, from which the name
Palestine has been derived. The Philistines are believed to have mi-
grated to Canaan before the time of Abraham, and during their so-
journ in that land they were a pastoral tribe in the vicinity of Gerar.
During the patriarchal period, and the epoch of the sojourn of the
Israelites in Egypt, the Philistines renounced their nomadic life and
developed into a settled and powerful nation. They established them-
selves in the fertile plain bordering upon the sea-coast, which was there-
fore called the Plain of Philistia. The great fertility of this plain
was the basis of their wealth and prosperity. In times of scarcity and
famine all the neighboring nations depended upon them for bread.
The low tract which they occupied favored their development as a
formidable military people, as it enabled them to transport their troops
with ease and rapidity, and admitted of the maneuvering of war-
chariots, " the artillery of the ancients," in which these people were
always very formidable. It is believed that the Philistines had a navy,
as historians several times allude to them in accounts of naval expedi-
tions and naval battles. Gaza and Ascalon were Philistine sea-ports.
Many well-fortified cities were built by the Philistines in the plain, its
undulating character affording numerous excellent sites for such
strongholds. The most important Philistine cities besides its seaports,
Gaza and Ascalon, were Ashdod, Ekron and Gath.
From Thus the two most important nations in Palestine when the Israelites
B^ej_° conquered the country were the Phoenicians on the north and the Philis-
sheba. tines on the south. We have seen that the " Promised Land " em-
braced the territory extending from the Arabian desert to the Mediter-
ranean, and from the desert of Sinai to " the entering in of Hamath,"
the name applied in Scripture to the low range of hills forming the
water-sheds between the Orontes and the Litany. Phoenicia, the north-
ern part of Canaan, was never occupied by the Israelites. The Philis-
tine plain was constantly contested, and was seldom a safe and peace-
ful possession of the Hebrews. The " Land of Possession " lay only
between Dan on the north and Beer-sheba on the south; hence the
frequency of the allusion in the Old Testament in speaking of the
HEBREW CONQUEST OF CANAAN.
379
northern and southern limits of the Hebrew state : " From Dan to
Beer-sheba."
After the thirty days of mourning for Moses — exactly forty years
from the time that they departed from Egypt — the Israelites broke
up their camp on the plains of Moab, and advanced toward the Jor-
dan under the leadership of Joshua. The column was led by the
priests carrying the Ark of the Covenant. The Jordan was swollen
with the spring freshets, and was too high to be forded. As the
priests stepped into the stream, carrying the sacred ark, the waters,
we are told, were miraculously divided, as had been the Red Sea, and
a wide path was opened, along which the Hebrew host passed to the
western side of the stream, and entered Canaan (B. C. 1451 or B. C.
1280). The Israelites encamped at Gilgal, on the plains of Jericho,
for the night. The supply of manna is said to have ceased here, and
thenceforth the Israelites subsisted upon the products of the country
which they had come to conquer.
The first exploit of the Israelites after entering Palestine was the
capture of the strong city of Jericho, which stood immediately in front
of the place where they had crossed the river Jordan, and which com-
manded the Jordan valley. The Israelites having no means of con-
ducting a siege, it is said that Jehovah came to their aid. The walls
are said to have been thrown down in a miraculous manner; and when
the Israelites entered the city over its ruined fortifications they put the
people to the sword and destroj^ed the city. The only family which
escaped the general massacre was that of " Rahab the harlot," who
had received and befriended the spies sent by Joshua into the city
before it fell, and who had consequently been promised protection to
her household. She afterward became the wife of one of the spies,
and was the ancestress of David. Proceeding up the Jordan valley
Joshua turned to the left and took the stronghold of Ai, near Bethel,
by stratagem, and, advancing rapidly to Shechem, captured the city
without striking a blow, and established himself in the heart of the
country.
The Canaanitish tribes now recovered from the surprise and dismay
into which they had been thrown by the quick and successful opera-
tions of the Israelites, and united in a general coalition against the
Hebrew invaders of their country. Joshua defeated the allied forces
of the Canaanitish kings in the great battle of Beth-horon, in which
we are told that the day was miraculously lengthened to enable the
Israelites to complete their victory. The kings of the five Canaanit-
ish tribes were taken prisoners, and were hanged. After this victory
the Israelites captured successively the cities of Makkedah, Libnah,
Lachish, Eglon, Hebron and Debir, and exterminated their inhabitants.
Joshua
Crosses
the
Jordan.
Capture
of
Jericho.
Rahab
the
Harlot.
Capture
of
Ai and
Shechem.
Battle
of
Beth-
horon.
Conquest
of
Southern
Palestine.
380
THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
Battle
of
Lake
Merom.
Conquest
of
Northern
Palestine.
Division
of the
Lands
by Lot.
Judah.
Ephraim.
These successes completed the conquest of Southern Palestine by the
Israelites.
A second coalition was now formed against the Hebrews, and em-
braced all the tribes of Northern Palestine. The leader of this coali-
tion was Jabin, King of Hazor. Joshua routed the allied army on
the banks of Lake Merom (now Lake Huleh), and Jabin was taken
prisoner and put to death. Many cities of Northern Palestine then
fell into the possession of the Israelites, and their inhabitants were
massacred. The Anakin of Southern Palestine were then attacked and
exterminated. The Israelites were occupied six or seven years in mak-
ing these conquests, and were finally in possession of all the " Promised
Land " from the foot of Mount Hermon to the borders of Edom. The
Canaanites still held many of their strongest cities in the midst of the
Hebrew conquests. The Philistines held the sea-coast of Southern
Palestine, and the Phoenicians that of Northern Palestine.
Joshua had now reached an advanced age, and concluded to sus-
pend his conquests and devote his remaining years to establishing the
Israelites firmly in the lands which their arms had won. It is said
that he was commanded by Jehovah to divide the " Promised Land "
by lot among the nine and a half tribes now located west of the Jor-
dan; the other two and a half tribes having received their allotment
east of the Jordan from Moses, and the Levites having no special terri-
tory bestowed on them. The division of the tribe of Joseph into the
two tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh made up for the withdrawal of
the Levites from the number of the twelve tribes to devote themselves
especially to the service of Jehovah. The territory divided among the
Hebrew tribes included many places yet held by the Canaanites and
the Philistines, and Joshua assigned to each tribe the duty of reducing
the strongholds and possessions of these people within the territory
allotted to the twelve tribes.
The tribe of Judah obtained the South Country. Its southern
boundary reached the territory of the Edomites and the Arabian desert,
while its northern limit was a line drawn from the mouth of the Jordan
westward to the Mediterranean sea. A considerable portion of the
Philistine plain was embraced in this allotment. The children of
Joseph were assigned the central part of the country, from the Jordan
to the Mediterranean.
The tribe of Ephraim obtained the southern part of this tract, and
its southern limit " was drawn from the Jordan along the north side
of the plain of Jericho to Bethel, whence it took a bend southward to
Beth-horon, and thence up again to the sea near Joppa. The north-
ern border passed west from the Jordan opposite the mouth of the
Jabbok, past Michmethah to the mouth of the river Kanah." It in-
HEBREW CONQUEST OF CANAAN.
381
eluded the sacred valley of Shechem and likewise the maritime plain
of Sharon.
The half -tribe of Manasseh occupied the district north of Ephraim
as far as the range of Mount Carmel and the plain of Esdraelon, from
the Jordan westward to the Mediterranean. To Benjamin was as-
signed the hill country north of Judah and south of Ephraim, from
the Jordan west as far as Jerusalem.
Dan received the tract between Ephraim on the north, Judah on the
south, Benjamin on the east, and the Mediterranean on the west. The
greater part of this region w^as occupied by the Philistines. For this
reason, and because their territory was too small for them, a portion
of the people of Dan migrated northward, and took the city of Leshem,
or Laish, at the source of the Jordan. They named the city Dan,
and acquired a considerable tract around it. This city became the
great northern landmark of the Promised Land, as Beer-sheba was the
southern. Hence the phrase " from Dan even to Beer-sheba," so fre-
quently used in alluding to the whole extent of the Hebrew country
from north to south.
The tribe of Simeon was allotted an inheritance out of Judah's por-
tion, and was seated in the south-western portion of the maritime plain.
Their frontier bordered on the desert from Beer-sheba westward to
Gaza, and their sea-coast extended north to Ascalon. Issachar was
given the great and fertile valley of Jezreel, known also as the plain
of Esdraelon.
Zebulun received the mountain range bordering the plain of Esdrae-
lon on the north, and which in after times constituted the upper part
of Lower Galilee. He possessed a small strip of sea-coast north of
Mount Carmel, and his eastern border included the Sea of Chinneroth
(Sea of Galilee).
Asher obtained the plain along the Mediterranean from Mount Car-
mel, in a northerly direction, including a considerable portion of Phoe-
nicia. The Israelites never made any attempt to secure the Phoenician
portion of their inheritance, and Asher's northern boundary was actu-
ally the Phoenician border south of Tyre. His territory extended to
the east about midway across Palestine. Naphtali was assigned the
country north of Zebulun to Mount Hermon and between the Jordan
and the territory of Asher.
Reuben, Gad and the half tribe of Manasseh, which were the two
tribes and a half east of the Jordan, were allowed to rest contented
with their share of the spoils of conquest, and were dismissed with
blessings, after which they returned to their homes beyond the river.
Feeling his end approaching, Joshua assembled the representatives
of the entire Hebrew nation at Shechem, and after reminding them
Half
Manasseh
and
Benja-
min.
Dan.
Simeon
and
Issachar.
Zebulun.
Asher
and
Naphtali.
Reuben,
Gad and
Half
Manas-
seh.
382
THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
Joshua's
Last
Days
and
Death
of the Divine goodness to the nation, exhorted them to remain faithful
to the worship of Jehovah and the laws of Moses, and to continue the
war against the Canaanites until they had ultimately expelled them
from the whole of the Promised Land. Joshua, who was said to have
been divinely commissioned to exterminate the Canaanitish race, be-
cause of its crimes, reminded his people of their duty, and predicted
great misfortunes for them if they renounced their religion, or ne-
glected to execute Jehovah's purposes regarding the Canaanites, or
mingled with them. "The people solemnly vowed to obey him and re-
newed their covenant with Jehovah. Thereupon Joshua set up in the
place of the assembly a monumental stone as a witness of this vow of
the Hebrew nation. Soon afterward Joshua died at a venerable age,
after conducting the affairs of Israel for twenty-five years, and was
greatly mourned by the whole Hebrew nation.
SECTION IV.-
Dissen-
sions and
Relapse.
Repulse
by
Philis-
tines.
Civil
Wars.
-THE JUDGES AND THE HEBREW HEROIC
AGE.
JOSHUA unfortunately failed to appoint a successor, and the nation
was thus left without a legitimate head. During the lives of the
Elders who had been his contemporaries, the Israelites reverenced the
laws of Moses and held fast to the worship of Jehovah ; but when these
Elders died dissensions and divisions distracted the nation, alienating
the different tribes from each other. No earnest effort was made to
conquer the cities still held by the Canaanites. The northern tribes
began to appear indifferent concerning the national ties, and secured
the best terms possible for themselves from the Canaanites in their
midst. The Israelites were repulsed in their efforts to conquer the
land of the Philistines, and the coast cities mostly remained in the pos-
session of that powerful and warlike people. The intercourse which
arose between the Israelites and the Canaanites soon led to evil results.
The great religious center of the Hebrew nation was Shiloh, where the
Tabernacle and the Ark of the Covenant had been set up. At this
time the Altar of God began constantly to become more and more
neglected, and the idolatrous worship of the Canaanites was introduced
among the Hebrews. Civil wars broke out among the tribes of Israel,
and in one of these the tribe of Benjamin was almost exterminated by
the other tribes. The Book of Judges describes this condition of
affairs in the following words : " There was no king in Israel ; every
man did that which was right in his own eyes." There was no central
or general government to hold the nation together or to enforce civil
order ; and although, according to the theocracy established by Moses,
THE JUDGES AND THE HEBREW HEROIC AGE.
383
Punish-
ments
and
Deliver
ances.
Jehovah was the King of the Hebrews, idolatry spread so rapidly and Idolatry,
obtained so firm a hold on the nation that the moral restraints which
had held the Israelites in loyalty to their Divine Ruler were utterly
disregarded. The result was division and weakness. The Canaanites
and Philistines were not slow to discover this, and sought to avenge
their past grievances by subjecting the Israelites to their yoke. We
are told that, as a punishment for their repeated apostasy from the
worship of Jehovah, the Israelites were as repeatedly abandoned to
their enemies, who cruelly oppressed them, and thus were blind instru-
ments to execute the Divine judgments upon the faithless and rebel-
lious nation. When the sufferings of the Israelites became unendur-
able, they realized the enormity of their sins and their ingratitude to
Jehovah, and in sorrow and humiliation they became penitent and im-
plored Jehovah for aid against their enemies. We are told that their
prayers were heard and answered by Jehovah, who raised up valiant
and heroic leaders to deliver His " chosen people " from the cruel yoke
of their oppressors. These leaders delivered Israel by defeating its
oppressors and reestablishing the independence of the Hebrew nation.
No sooner, however, were the Israelites liberated from the despotic
sway of foreign kings and peoples, than they again apostatized to
idolatry, and were again chastised by fresh defeats and subjugation.
The deliverers thus said to have been raised up by Jehovah to free
His people from the oppressive yoke of their enemies were called Judges.
Judges. By rescuing the people from their enemies they became their
governors or rulers, performing their duties as representatives or
agents of Jehovah, Whose desire was ascertained in a prescribed man-
ner. These Judges were not only the civil chiefs of the Hebrews, but
were their military commanders and led their armies in battle. The
Judge did not rank with a king in power or dignity. His station was
but little above that of the mass of the nation, and was not hereditary.
The Judge was believed to be supernaturally directed by revelations
from Jehovah, either to himself or to others. The consent of the
people was necessary for the exercise of his functions, and his author-
ity was not always recognized by the entire nation. He was ap-
pointed for life, but his successor was not always selected after his
death. There were sometimes long interregnums between the admin-
istration of one Judge and that of another. During these interreg-
nums the Hebrew nation was either without a civil head, or was subject
to the dominion of some foreign conqueror. The Old Testament gives
us the names of fifteen Judges altogether. The period of the Judges
covered several centuries, and its chronology is very uncertain. The
dates usually assigned for the events of this period are wholly
unreliable.
1—27
384
THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
Othniel
Defeats
the
King of
Mesopo-
tamia.
Ehud
Defeats
the
Moabites.
Shamgar
Defeats
the
Philis-
tines.
Jabin
Conquers
and
Oppresses
the
Hebrews.
Israelites
Delivered
by
Deborah
and
Barak.
During the lifetime of the generation of Hebrews following the con-
quest of Canaan, a King of Western Mesopotamia, called Chushan-
rishathaim, extended his dominions from the Euphrates to the borders
of Canaan, reduced the Israelites to a condition of subjection, and
held them tributary for eight years, during which he grievously op-
pressed them. At length Jehovah, we are informed, raised up Othniel,
the nephew of Caleb, the contemporary of Moses and Joshua. Oth-
niel, as Judge, defeated the invaders and recovered the independence
of his countrymen, who remained undisturbed for forty years.
At the end of this period of forty years, Eglon, King of Moab, who
had formed an alliance with the Ammonites and the Amalekites, crossed
the Jordan, defeated the Israelites, and established himself near the
site of Jericho. He held the Israelites in bondage for eighteen years,
after which he was assassinated by Ehud, a Benjamite, as the latter
was presenting to the king the tribute required of his tribe. Ehud
escaped, rallied the Israelites, and drove the Moabites beyond the Jor-
dan, inflicting a loss of ten thousand men upon them. This victory
secured tranquillity for portions of Palestine for twenty-four years,
but this state of peace did not embrace the whole country.
The Old Testament names Shamgar as the third of the Judges. He
is said to have led a body of laborers armed only with agricultural
implements, and to have defeated a Philistine army, himself slaying six
hundred of the enemy with an ox-goad.
After the death of Ehud the Israelites again apostatized to idolatry,
for which sin Jehovah is said to have delivered them into the power
of the Canaanite Jabin, King of Hazor, a descendant of the king whom
Joshua had defeated, and like him the chief of a powerful confederacy
in the North of Palestine. This monarch had nine hundred iron char-
iots in his army, which was under the command of a great general
named Sisera. Jabin overran the North of Palestine, reducing its
inhabitants to slavery. This bondage lasted twenty years.
At this time the prophetess Deborah administered justice to the
Israelites under a palm grove between Ramah and Bethel, in Mount
Ephraim. Excited by the wrongs of her people, she summoned Barak,
the son of Abinoam, of Kadesh, in Naphtali, to lead in an effort to free
the Hebrew nation, promising him that Jehovah would give him vic-
tory. Barak agreed to do so on condition that Deborah should ac-
company him. She consented, but warned him that he would win no
honor from the victory, as Jehovah would sell Sisera into the hands
of a woman. Barak gathered the forces of Naphtali, Zebulun and
Issachar, with a few men from Ephraim, Manasseh and Benjamin,
altogether about ten thousand men, and took position on Mount Tabor.
Sisera advanced to meet him without delay at the head of Jabin's army.
THE JUDGES AND THE HEBREW HEROIC AGE.
Barak attacked him on the banks of the Kishon, and, with the aid of
a severe storm which overflowed the stream and destroyed a portion of
the army of the Canaanites, routed him with frightful loss. Sisera
fled on foot and found shelter in the tent of Heber the Kenite, in the
North of Palestine. Jael, Heber's wife, killed him in his sleep, thus
fulfilling Deborah's prophecy. Barak took the city of Harosheth,
Sisera's home, afterwards Hazor, Jabin's capital, and killed Jabin him-
self. Aided by the other tribes, Barak continued the war until he had
liberated the whole Hebrew nation. These triumphs were followed by
forty years of peace for the tribes that had participated in the war.
The Israelites were next chastised for lapsing into idolatry by being Israelites
delivered into the power of the Midianites, who, aided by the Amale- quered
kites and the Bedouin Arab tribes, made repeated raids into Palestine, and
ravaging the country as far as Gaza, carrying off everything they by the
could transport, and destroying everything that they could not take Midian-
along. The Israelites were obliged to conceal their cattle and crops
in caves in the ground, and to live in fortified cities. This condition
of things lasted seven years, and finally the Hebrews, in humiliation
and penitence, implored Jehovah for deliverance. Jehovah, it is said,
summoned Gideon, the son of Joash, of the tribe of Manasseh, to head
the movement for the liberation of the Israelites, and promised success
to the enterprise. Gideon overthrew the altar of Baal and collected
an army of thirty-two thousand Israelites. The Midianites and their
allies, commanded by famous leaders, immediately took the field to sub-
due the rebellious Hebrews. Gideon took his position on Mount Gil-
boa, while the Arab tribes occupied the valley of Jezreel below. As-
sured of victory, Gideon allowed all of his men to depart who desired
to do so, and twenty-two thousand immediately retired, leaving only
ten thousand to face the foe. The Hebrew account states that Je-
hovah ordered Gideon to select three hundred warriors by a given test,
and to hold the remainder of his army in reserve. Gideon divided the Delivered
three hundred chosen men into three bands, with which he made a night Gideon,
attack on the camp of the Midianites. He armed his band with trump-
ets, and torches enclosed in earthenware pitchers. At a given signal
each of his men blew his trumpet, broke his pitcher, and displayed
his torch, shouting : " The Sword of the Lord and of Gideon ! " The
Midianites, aroused from their sleep, and utterly surprised and panic-
stricken, turned their swords upon each other, and fled toward the Jor-
dan, leaving their camp in possession of the Israelites. They were
pursued by the remainder of Gideon's army, and were utterly exter-
minated, scarcely a man escaping across the Jordan. This great and
decisive victory utterly broke up the power of the Midianites and lib-
erated Israel from their oppressive yoke. The Israelites, in gratitude
386
THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
Abime-
lech.
Hebrews
Subdued
* by
Ammon-
ites.
Delivered
by
Jephthah.
His
Succes-
sors.
Extinc-
tion
of the
Canaan-
ites.
for this brilliant victory, offered to make Gideon king, but he refused
the proffered dignity, saying : " Not I, nor my son, but Jehovah shall
reign over you." As some one has said, " After threshing barley
Gideon thrashed Midianites." Gideon ruled his countrymen for many
years afterward as Judge. His rule was not fully beneficial to the
nation, as he almost openly encouraged idolatry. After his death one
of his sons, named Abimelech, made himself King of Shechem and the
neighboring territory, but he only reigned three years, when he was
killed by a woman while engaged in the siege of a town that had re-
fused to acknowledge his authority.
The next Judge was Tola, who administered the government for
twenty-three years, and was succeeded by Jair, the Gileadite, who ruled
for twenty-two years. These two administrations were uneventful;
but the Israelites again plunged so deeply into idolatry that Jehovah
again, it is said, delivered them into the power of their enemies. The
two and a half Hebrew tribes east of the Jordan were subdued by the
Ammonites, who held them in bondage for eighteen years. During
this period the Ammonites often crossed the Jordan and ravaged the
lands of Judah, Benjamin and Ephraim. The tribes east of the Jor-
dan selected for their leader a man named Jephthah, the chief of a
band of outlaws occupying Mount Gilead. Jephthah defeated the
Ammonites in a great battle, and liberated the country. He vowed
at the beginning of his campaign that, if Jehovah would give him the
victory, he would sacrifice to Him the first living being that he should
meet at the door of his house when he returned home. The first who
met him on his return home was his daughter, whom Jephthah, feeling
himself bound by his vow, sacrificed after allowing her the respite
of two months which she requested. This sacrifice, directly opposed
to the laws of Moses, shows how far the Hebrew tribes east of the Jor-
dan had departed from the teachings of the great lawgiver. Jeph-
thah judged Israel for six years after his great victory over the Am-
monites, and was buried on Mount Gilead.
Ibzan, the Zebulunite, who was the next Judge, encouraged more
extensive intercourse with the neighboring nations by marrying his
children to foreigners. After judging Israel seven years, Ibzan was
succeeded by Elon, also a Zebulunite, whose judgeship lasted ten years
and was uneventful. Hillel, the Pirathonite, the next Judge, had an
uneventful term of eight years, and is identified by some writers with
Bedan, whom Samuel names among the Judges.
The great military triumphs of the Judges so completely broke the
power of the Canaanites that they are no more heard of. Still the
Israelites again offended Jehovah by relapsing into idolatry, for which
we are informed He gave them over into the hands of the Philistines,
THE JUDGES AND THE HEBREW HEROIC AGE.
a far more warlike and more powerful enemy than any they had hith- Israelites
erto encountered. As we have seen, these people occupied the strip >U|jyUe(
of country along the sea-coast of the South of Palestine. At this time Philis-
they conquered the whole South of Palestine, reducing the Hebrew
tribes of Simeon, Judah, Benjamin and Dan to subjection, and held
them in the severest bondage for forty years.
At this time Eli, of the house of Ithamar, Aaron's youngest son, was Eli and '
Judge of Israel. Eli, who was a man of sincere piety, resided at wicked
Shiloh, with the tabernacle; and his authority was generally acknowl- Sons,
edged by the Hebrew nation. The crimes of his vicious and profligate
sons disgraced the priesthood, but he passed them over, allowing his
sons to retain their sacred offices. A prophet warned Eli that Jehovah
would punish him for his indulgence to his sons, that they would be
killed for their wickedness, and that the sacred office would be trans-
ferred to another family; but Eli simply remonstrated with his sons,
permitting them to continue in their wickedness.
During Eli's judgeship, we are informed, Jehovah raised up two Samson's
great champions for Israel — Samson and Samuel. Samson belonged
to that portion of the tribe of Dan which dwelt to the westward of
Judah. It is said that his birth had been foretold by the angel of
Jehovah to his parents, and that they had been commanded to rear the
child as a Nazarite, to keep him from all unclean food and strong
drink, and not to allow a razor to be applied to his head. This child,
it was predicted, was to accomplish wonders for his countrymen against
the Philistines when he grew to manhood. Samson was the Hercules
of the Israelites, who constantly warred with their oppressors; the
sturdy warriors of the tribe of Dan living in a fortified camp near
Kirjath-jearim, where, we are told, " the spirit of Jehovah began -to
move Samson at times." Samson is represented to us as possessing
more than human strength, and as fearless and incapable of fatigue.
For the purpose of provoking the Philistines, he asked the hand of a
woman of Timnath, and on his way to seize her, it is said that he killed
a lion by seizing it by its mouth and tearing its jaws apart. He left
the dead lion by the wayside, and told no one of his exploit. Shortly
afterward returning that way, he observed that a swarm of bees had
made their abode in the dead lion's carcass. He ate the honey found
there, but told no one. At his marriage feast he propounded a riddle
to his thirty young groomsmen, the riddle to be solved during the week
of the marriage feast, for the stake of thirty tunics and thirty changes
of raiment. The young men induced Samson's wife to ask her hus-
band the answer to the riddle, by threatening to burn her and her
family if she refused. Samson, always subject to her wiles, told his
wife, and she disclosed it to her kinsmen, the Philistines, who solved
388
THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
Samson
and
Delilah.
Samuel.
the riddle properly on the appointed day. Samson, at once seeing
through the trick, and openly charging the Philistines with their
treachery, proceeded to the Philistine city of Ascalon, where he killed
thirty men, sent their clothing to their fellow-countrymen who had
given the answer to the riddle, and returned to his people. His wife
was given to one of his groomsmen, and he was refused permission to
see her. In revenge for this wrong, Samson burned the standing har-
vests of the Philistines ; whereupon they retaliated by burning his wife
and her father. He avenged this cruelty by attacking them and slay-
ing many of them, after which he took refuge in the territory of Judah.
Thenceforth Samson was continually at war with the Philistines, and
he is represented as repeatedly demonstrating his wonderful strength
by a series of remarkable exploits. We are told that on one occasion
" he slew a thousand Philistines with the jaw-bone of an ass."
As long as Samson remained true to his Nazarite's vow he escaped
all the snares set for him, but he ultimately yielded to temptation, and
this brought on his ruin. Falling in love with a Philistine woman,
named Delilah, living in the valley of Sorek, her countrymen bribed her
to betray her lover, and Samson finally yielded to her entreaties and
informed her of the source of his strength as being in his long hair.
As he lay asleep in her arms, the Philistines stole in upon him, cut off
his hair, took him prisoner, put out his eyes, bound him in fetters, and
took him to Gaza, where they compelled him to grind the prison-mill.
When Samson's hair grew long again he recovered his former strength.
Soon after this the lords and chief people of the Philistines held a
great feast in the temple of Dagon, at Gaza, and brought out Samson
to entertain them with feats of his strength. It is said that they then
allowed him to rest between two pillars supporting the roof of the
court, which, like the court itself, was filled with people, altogether
about three thousand in number. Wildly praying to Jehovah for
strength to avenge himself upon his enemies, the blind champion of the
Israelites seized the two pillars in his arms and bore upon them with
all his strength. The account says that the pillars gave way, where-
upon the house fell, killing Samson and the whole concourse of people.
" So the dead which he slew at his death were more than they which
he slew in his life." His Israelite kinsmen took his body and interred
it with the remains of his fathers. Samson is generally considered the
thirteenth of the Judges, but his authority apparently only extended
over his own tribe, that of Dan.
Samuel was the fifteenth and the last Judge of Israel. Like Sam-
son, we are told, he was a child of promise. His father, Elkanah, was
a descendant of Korah, and belonged to the tribe of Levi. He resided
at Ramathaim-zophim. He had two wives, Peninnah and Hannah.
THE JUDGES AND THE HEBREW HEROIC AGE.
389
The first of these was the mother of several children. The family
attended regularly the national religious festivals at Shiloh. While
they were feasting upon the free-will offering, Elkanah bestowed upon
Hannah a mark of his affection, thus arousing the jealousy of Penin-
nah, who reproached Hannah so bitterly that she retired from the
feast weeping. Hannah went to the door of the tabernacle and prayed
silently for a son, whom she vowed to devote to Jehovah as a Nazarite.
The High Priest, Eli, saw her lips in motion, and thinking that she
had drunken at the feast rebuked her sharply. She assured him that
she was stricken with sorrow, and was bewailing her griefs before
Jehovah. Thereupon Eli spoke more mildly to her, bestowed upon her
his blessing, and implored Jehovah to grant her prayer. She returned
home in a happier state of feeling, and in due time gave birth to a son
who was named Samuel. His mother kept him until he had reached
a proper age to be separated from his family, after which she took him
to Shiloh, where she solemnly dedicated him to the service of Jehovah,
leaving him with the High Priest. Hannah afterwards bore her hus-
band three sons and two daughters. Samuel grew up in the service
of the tabernacle, gaining the favor of Jehovah and his Hebrew coun-
trymen. We are told that when Samuel was still quite a youth, Je-
hovah spoke to him in the night, telling him of His design to destroy
the house of Eli, and to deprive it of the office of High Priest in
punishment for the sins of Eli's sons and for his own indulgence to-
ward them. Thenceforth Samuel was a prophet of Jehovah. All his
predictions are said to have been verified, and his renown and his influ-
ence over his countrymen increased as he grew up.
The favor bestowed upon Samuel by Jehovah inspired the Israelites
with the belief that their God would aid them to cast off the Philistine
yoke. They consequently arose in arms, but suffered a defeat in the
hill country of Benjamin, a little north of Jerusalem. Eli's sons,
Hophni and Phinehas, brought the Ark of the Covenant from Shiloh
to the camp of the Israelites, thinking that such sacrilegious use of the
Ark would give them victory. We are informed that Jehovah pun-
ished this sacrilege by permitting the Philistines to defeat the Hebrews
with a loss of thirty thousand men. Hophni and Phinehas were both
among the slain, and the Ark of the Covenant fell into the hands of
the Philistines. Upon hearing of this misfortune, Eli, who was then
sitting at the gates of the tabernacle, fell backward from his seat, broke
his neck and died.
The Philistines carried the Ark in triumph into their own country,
but the Hebrew record tells us that Jehovah chastised them so severely
by means of a severe plague that they sent the sacred Ark to Beth-
shemesh. Excited by curiosity the men of Bethshemesh opened the
Israelite
Defeats
by
Philis-
tines.
Capture
of the
Ark of the
Covenant.
Philistine
Defeat.
390
THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
Israelites
Oppres-
sed by the
Philis-
tines.
Philistine
Defeat.
Hebrews
Ask for a
King.
Saul
Anointed
King.
Ark and looked into it, but Jehovah put 50,070 of them to death in
punishment for this sacrilege. Appalled at this judgment, those who
survived sent for the men of Kirjath-jearim to take the Ark away.
These people took it to their own city, where it was kept in the house
of Aminidab, a Levite, until David had it conveyed to Jerusalem.
Samuel was Eli's successor as Judge of Israel, and his authority was
generally acknowledged by the Hebrew nation. For twenty years
after the loss of the Ark, the Israelites were sorely oppressed by the
Philistines. At the end of this time Samuel summoned the nation to
make a bold strike for their deliverance from the Philistine yoke; and
to prepare them for it he convened a solemn assembly at Mizpeh, where
the Israelites renewed the broken covenant with Jehovah, amid fasting
and repentance for their past transgressions. Upon hearing of this
assembly the Philistines sent an army to disperse it. Samuel incited
his countrymen to attack this Philistine force, and it is said that the
Israelites were aided by a violent storm from heaven, which destroyed
a great portion of the hostile army. The Philistines fled in dismay,
and were pursued by the Israelites, who slaughtered a vast number of
them.
This great Hebrew victory shattered the power of the Philistines in
Palestine, and firmly established Samuel's authority over the Israelites.
He made circuits of the country to administer justice, and appointed
his sons, Joel and Abiah, as his assistants in the government of the
nation. Under Samuel's administration, the Israelites enjoyed a period
of peace and prosperity which they had never before known. But
still they were dissatisfied, and longed for a king who should govern
them in peace and lead their armies to victory in war. They ascribed
their past misfortunes to their want of union under a strong central
government, and feared that the same cause might subject them to
similar calamities in the future. Samuel vainly remonstrated with
them, and tried to dissuade them from their determination to have an
earthly sovereign to govern them, reminding them that Jehovah was
their King. But they were deaf to all his arguments and entreaties,
replying : " We will have a king over us." We are told that Jehovah
therefore authorized Samuel to comply with the demand of his people ;
and in accordance with the Divine directions, Samuel anointed SAUL,
the son of Kish, a Benjamite, as the first King over Israel, B. C. 1095.
Saul's
Acces-
sion.
SECTION V.— THE HEBREW KINGDOM AND EMPIRE.
SAUL, the first King of Israel, was about forty years old when he
ascended the throne. The Book of Kings describes him as " taller than
any of the people," and so kingly in bearing that when Samuel pre-
THE HEBREW KINGDOM AND EMPIRE.
391
sented him to the people as their monarch, they hailed him with rap-
turous shouts of " God save the king." He possessed all the vigor of
his race and tribe, all their courage and energy, but was impulsive and
vacillating, and possessed a temper so utterly uncontrollable that oppo-
sition aroused him to a condition approaching madness.
The choice of a sovereign from the smallest of the Hebrew tribes
greatly offended a considerable portion of the nation, and Samuel
thought it prudent to postpone the solemn public installation of Saul
until this opposition could be allayed. At this juncture, Gilead, the
Israelitish territories east of the Jordan, suffered an invasion from
Nahash, King of the Ammonites. Saul speedily collected the forces
of Israel, crossed the Jordan, annihilated the Ammonites, and rescued
Gilead. The valor and military ability displayed by Saul in this cam-
paign utterly silenced the opposition to him, and his authority was
acknowledged with enthusiasm by the whole Hebrew nation.
Samuel continued to exercise a great influence over the affairs of the
Israelites. He considered the king simply a military chief, destitute
of power to interfere with the old constitution and laws bequeathed
to the nation by Moses, and entirely unlike the sovereigns of the neigh-
boring nations. For some time Saul accepted Samuel's view of the
powers of royalty, and submitted to the prophet's influence; but his
ferocious temper could not long permit him to endure this control, and
Saul began to resent the restraint exercised over him by Samuel, and
desired to be king in fact as well as in name.
Saul's solemn installation as King of Israel occurred at Gilgal on
his return from his triumphant campaign against the Ammonites ; after
which he dismissed the Israelites to their homes, and kept a force of
only three thousand men in the field, retaining two thousand under his
own command, and placing the remaining thousand under his son Jona-
than, a very worthy young man. Jonathan surprised and took the
Philistine stronghold of Gibeah, in the land of Benjamin, relieving that
tribe of a constant annoyance. Thereupon the Philistines set a pow-
erful army in motion, and Saul summoned the forces of Israel to as-
semble at Gilgal, where Samuel was to join him and offer a solemn
sacrifice to Jehovah as the opening act of the campaign. The Israel-
ites assembled at the appointed time, but Samuel did not appear. Saul
waited for him seven days, when, seeing that the people were impatient,
he seized the opportunity to throw off entirely the control of Samuel
and usurped the sacerdotal power belonging to the High Priest. He
offered the sacrifice himself, thus claiming priestly as well as kingly
authority. Soon afterward Samuel arrived, and immediately perceived
that Saul's action was directed at putting the Hebrew monarchy on
the same level as those of the neighboring nations, giving the king the
VOL. 2. — 4
Defeat
of the
Ammon-
ites.
Samuel
and
Saul.
Saul's
Installa-
tion.
Capture
of
Gibeah.
Saul's
Usurpa-
tion.
393
THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
Battle
of
Mich-
mash.
Saul's
Victories.
Saul
Defeats
the
Amalek-
ites.
Samuel's
Displeas-
ure.
Breach
Complete.
supreme spiritual power, as well as the chief civil authority, over the
Hebrew nation. The prophet rebuked Saul sharply for his sacrilegi-
ous proceeding; and in the name of Jehovah told him that the Divine
favor would thenceforth be withdrawn from him, and that at his death
the royal dignity would be transferred to another family. The bond-
age of the Philistines bore heavily upon the Southern Hebrew tribes,
whose smiths were forbidden to pursue their occupation, in consequence
of which weapons were so scarce that Saul found only six hundred
armed men in the entire assembly of people. Notwithstanding this
drawback, he advanced northward to Michmash to confront the foe;
while Jonathan, accompanied only by his armor-bearer, surprised the
camp of the Philistines, who, seized by a panic, turned their arms
against each other, and fled. Saul immediately pursued the flying foe,
and was joined by all the Israelites who could obtain arms. He soon
found himself at the head of ten thousand men, and pursued the re-
treating Philistines to Beth-aven, inflicting frightful losses upon them.
The Philistines retired into their own territory, and did not molest
the Israelites again for some years. During this time Saul repulsed
the attacks of the Ammonites, the Moabites, the Edomites, and the
Syrians of Zobah, who in succession endeavored to invade the Hebrew
dominions. About the same time the Hebrew tribes east of the Jordan
conquered the nomadic Arab tribe of the Hagareens and extended their
territory in the direction of Damascus. Conscious that the security
of his kingdom depended upon its defensive power against invasion, he
made great exertions to organize a standing army, which, though not
large, consisted of veterans and was kept in a high state of discipline
and thorough efficiency. He assigned the command of this army to
his cousin Abner, the son of Ner.
The High Priest Samuel, now venerable for his years, came to Saul
and ordered him to undertake a war against the Amalekites, the earliest
and most implacable foes of Israel. Saul immediately took the field
against them and defeated them, but disobeyed the prophet's command
to destroy everything he captured, carrying away a vast booty and
sparing Agag, the Amalekite king, with the design of receiving a ran-
som for him.
Samuel met Saul at Gilgal when he returned from the campaign, and
severely reproached him for his disobedience of the Divine command.
In Jehovah's name, the prophet pronounced a curse upon the disobe-
dient monarch, telling him that Jehovah had rejected him from that
day. At the same time Samuel slew Agag with his own hand.
Samuel then departed from Saul, and the breach between the king
and the High Priest of the nation was complete. The Divine protec-
tion, it is said, was withdrawn from Saul thenceforth ; and Samuel, we
THE HEBREW KINGDOM AND EMPIRE.
393
are told, was commanded by Jehovah to go to Bethlehem to anoint the
future King of Israel.
Samuel obeyed the Divine command, according to the Hebrew ac-
count, and going to Bethlehem he solemnly anointed, with sacred oil,
DAVID, the youngest and most gifted son of Jesse, of the tribe of
Judah. The newly-anointed King of Israel was descended from Nah-
shon, who had been the chief, or prince, of the tribe of Judah, in the
Wilderness, and also from Rahab,the harlot of Jericho, and from the
beautiful Ruth. David had already arrived at man's estate, and had
proved his courage by his many successful defenses of his father's flock
against the bandits and the wild beasts of that region.
After the breach with Samuel, Saul fell into a state of deep melan-
choly, amounting sometimes to madness, and which only the music of
David's harp could alleviate ; David having been introduced into Saul's
palace through the secret influence of Samuel. Saul cherished a warm
affection for David, conferring honors upon him and making him his
armor-bearer.
The war with the Philistines had been renewed in the meantime, and
the armies of Israel and Philistia confronted each other in the South
of Palestine. The Philistines brought forward a champion in the
person of the giant Goliath, of Gath. No Israelite had courage to
meet him, until David, after joining the army, offered to fight him.
Saul sought to prevail upon David not to venture upon so dangerous
a proceeding, but finding him determined and depending upon Jehovah
for victory, agreed to the encounter.
It is said that David was armed only with his shepherd's sling, in
the use of which he had become an expert, and that he killed the giant
with a stone from this sling, the stone striking him on the forehead.
After killing the giant, it is also said that David cut off his victim's
head with his own sword. Appalled at the death of their champion,
the Philistine army fled in dismay, and was pursued by Saul's forces
to the gates of Gath and Ekron, suffering frightful slaughter during
the retreat.
Saul, highly delighted with the prowess of David, gave him his
daughter Michal in marriage. Saul's son, Jonathan, entertained a
deep and permanent affection for the youthful hero. But soon after-
ward the vacillating Saul suddenly displayed a deadly jealousy of his
young son-in-law, upon hearing the praises which were lavished upon
him on account of his great feat in slaying the giant champion of the
Philistines. Thenceforth Saul sought the life of David, who was at
length obliged to flee from the court of Saul, and to seek refuge from
his father-in-law's anger by fleeing to the court of the King of Gath,
where he feigned madness, in order to escape the vengeance of the
David
Anointed
King.
Saul's
Melan-
choly.
Philistine
Invasion.
Goliath
of Gath.
Goliath
Slain by
David.
Saul's
Enmity
toward
David.
Civil
War,
394
THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
Samuel's
Death.
Saul's
Persecu-
tions
and
Massa-
cres.
Saul
Pursues
David.
Philistine
Invasion.
Battle
of
Mount
Gilboa,
Saul's
Suicide.
David
Sole
King.
End of
Civil
War.
Capture
of
Jerusa-
lem and
Mount
Zion.
Philistines. Soon afterward he became the leader of a band of out-
laws, living for some time in Moab, and then establishing himself in
the dens and caves of the mountains in the region of the wilderness of
Judaea, in the territory of Judah.
Samuel died about this time at Ramah, at an advanced age, and was
deeply mourned by all Israel. After Samuel's death Saul gave full
vent to his furious temper. He violently persecuted all who supported
the laws of Moses, and massacred the High Priest Abimelech, eighty-
five priests, and all the inhabitants of the city of Nob, the residence of
the High Priest. Abiathar, the son of Abimelech and the heir to the
office of High Priest, escaped the massacre by fleeing to David for
protection.
Saul now turned his arms against David, and hunted him through
the South of Palestine. On two occasions David had the king within
his power, but magnanimously spared his life. He was finally obliged
to take refuge with Achish, King of Gath, who assigned him the city
of Ziklag, where he resided for some years, leading many expeditions
against the Amalekites, the enemies of both Israel and Philistia.
The war between the Israelites and the Philistines was again re-
sumed, and Achish, King of Gath, ordered David to join the Philistine
army and advance against Saul. David was forced to obey, but the
Philistine leaders, suspicious of the young Israelite refugee, induced
the king to order him to return to Ziklag. The Philistines invaded
the Hebrew territory; and in a great battle on Mount Gilboa the
Israelites were routed, and Jonathan and two others of Saul's sons were
slain, and Saul himself, being severely wounded, killed himself by fall-
ing on his own sword, in order to avoid being made prisoner by the
victorious Philistines, B. C. 1055. Saul had reigned forty years (B.
C. 1095-1055).
Upon hearing of the death of Saul and Jonathan, David returned
to his own country, and was acknowledged as king by his own tribe
of Judah; while all the other tribes adhered to Ishbosheth, the only
surviving son of Saul, whom Abner had caused to be crowned at Ma-
hanaim. For the next seven years the Hebrew kingdom was rent by
a sanguinary civil war. When Abner deserted to the side of David,
and Ishbosheth was assassinated by two of his guards, the whole He-
brew nation acknowledged David as its sovereign, and the civil war was
brought to a close. David was solemnly anointed King of Israel at
Hebron, his capital, B. C. 1095.
DAVID was almost thirty-eight years of age when he began to reign
over the entire Kingdom of Israel. He soon proved himself a great
warrior and conqueror. His first great military exploit was the cap-
ture of Jebus, or Jerusalem, with its strong fortress, Mount Zion, from
THE HEBREW KINGDOM AND EMPIRE.
the Jebusites. He made this city the capital of his kingdom, and like-
wise the center of the Hebrew worship by bringing thither the Ark of
the Covenant. He organized a standing army, set up a splendid court
at his capital, provided himself with a large harem, or seraglio, after
the usual fashion of Oriental monarchs, and introduced a royal mag-
nificence hitherto unknown in Israel. He is ranked as a faithful ser-
vant of Jehovah, whom he delighted to honor and worship. The proph-
ets Gad and Nathan were intimate associates of David, who always
heard them with deference, even when they reproached him with the
faults of his public and private life.
David was the greatest and most powerful monarch that ever reigned
over the Hebrew nation. He extended his kingdom in every direction
by successful wars. He broke the power of the Philistines by con-
quering their country as far south as Gaza. He subdued Moab, ex-
terminating two-thirds of its population, and compelling the remaining
third to pay tribute. He conquered the Ammonites and the various
Syrian kingdoms between the Jordan and the Euphrates, including
that of Damascus, thus extending his dominions eastward to the Eu-
phrates. He also subdued Edom, and extended the Hebrew territory
to the Red Sea and the frontier of Egypt. Thus David founded an
empire extending from the Red Sea to the Euphrates, and from Phoe-
nicia and the Mediterranean to the Arabian and Syrian deserts. He
secured an important and powerful ally in Hiram, King of Tyre, who
furnished him with cedars of Lebanon and with workmen and artificers
for the construction of the splendid palace which he erected at Jeru-
salem.
David proved himself a wise and beneficent sovereign. He thor-
oughly organized the Israelitish army, personally superintended the
civil administration, inaugurated an admirable internal service for the
despatch of public business, and revised and settled the religious insti-
tutions upon a permanent basis. David was a great poet, as well as a
successful king and warrior, as is proven by the Psalms, or hymns,
which he composed, and which have ever since been ranked among the
most soul-stirring productions of lyric poetry.
Says a certain writer concerning David's poetry : " Great as was
the military glory of David, his fame with later times is derived from
his psalms and songs. He was the first great poet of Israel, and per-
haps the earliest in the world. The freshness of the pastures and
mountain-sides among which his youth was passed, the assurance of
Divine protection amid the singular and romantic incidents of his
varied career, the enlargement of his horizon of thought with the mag-
nificent dominion which was added to him in later life, all gave a rich-
ness and depth to his experience, which were reproduced in sacred
David's
Army and
Harem.
David's
Con-
quests.
His
Vast
Empire.
His
Govern-
ment.
Psalms.
Israel's
First
Great
Poet.
396
THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
Temple
Planned.
David
and
Uriah's
Wife.
David's
Family
Troubles.
Absa-
lom's
Rebellion
and
Death.
David's
Death.
melody, and found their fitting place in the temple service; and every
form of Jewish and Christian worship since his time has been enriched
by the poetry of David."
David had designed building a gorgeous temple to Jehovah at Jeru-
salem, but is said to have been forbidden to do so by Divine command,
because his hands had been stained by blood. The temple was to be
built by a man of peace, and was therefore to be deferred until the
reign of his son and successor. David merely confined his efforts to
securing a location and the collection of materials for the sacred edifice.
David sometimes yielded to temptation and gave way to the baser
passions of his nature. During the siege of Rabbah, the Ammonite
capital, David offended Jehovah by seducing the beautiful Bathsheba,
the wife of Uriah, the Hittite, one of his captains, and taking her to
himself, giving her husband a dangerous command in which he was
treacherously slain. For this crime David was severely reproved by
the prophet Nathan, and we are told that he humbly confessed his sin
and that his remorse and repentance obtained for him the pardon of
Jehovah. He took Bathsheba to his harem, but the child which she
bore him died in accordance with the prediction of the prophet Nathan.
Another child born to Bathsheba was the illustrious successor of David.
The prosperity of David's reign was interrupted by domestic calami-
ties, due directly to the evil of polygamy, which David had introduced
into the kingdom. His sons by different wives tormented his later
years by their jealousies and crimes. Ammon, his eldest son, was slain
by Absalom in revenge for a gross insult offered to his sister. As soon
as Absalom was pardoned and received into favor he conspired to de-
throne his indulgent father, and raising the standard of rebellion,
forced the king to flee from Jerusalem and take refuge in the country
east of the Jordan ; but a large army under Joab and his brothers took
the field against Absalom and utterly routed his forces in the forests
of Ephraim, and the unfortunate prince, in his endeavors to escape,
was entangled by his long hair in the branches of an oak, being slain
in that situation by Joab, contrary to the express command of David,
who was fondly attached to this rebellious son. Adonijah also plotted
to dethrone his father and rose in rebellion, but atoned for this crime
with his life. David thereupon gave orders that Solomon, his son with
Bathsheba, should be proclaimed king. The northern tribes revolted
under a leader named Sheba, but were soon subdued, and the leader was
punished with death. After a glorious but troubled reign of forty
years, of which thirty-three were spent in Jerusalem, David died B. C.
1015, at the age of seventy-eight years, leaving to his people the
proudest name in their history, and to his successor a flourishing em-
pire.
MAP OF
SOLOMON'S
KINGDOM
AND
P H <E N I C I A.
B. C. 1015 - 976
By I. S. Clare
THE HEBREW KINGDOM AND EMPIRE.
397
SOLOMON — David's son with Bathsheba, and the favorite of his
father — succeeded the illustrious warrior and psalmist on the throne
of Israel. He began his reign by putting Adonijah, his rebel half-
brother, to death. It is said that Jehovah appeared to him in a dream
and promised to give him whatever he should ask, and that Solomon
chose wisdom, and not only was this granted, but also riches, honor and
length of days, on condition of his continued obedience to the Divine
command. Solomon's reign was the most splendid period of Jewish
history. He began his reign in peace, and all the neighboring nations
acknowledged his dignity ; and the reigning Pharaoh of Egypt gave
him his daughter in marriage, and she received as her dowry a part of
Canaan which had been conquered by that king. The Israelites were
now the ruling people in Syria. Many kings were tributary to the
Hebrew monarch, and the court of Jerusalem rivaled those of Nineveh
and Memphis in its glory and magnificence. The fame and wisdom
of Solomon secured for him the alliances of the most powerful Eastern
monarchs ; and thus tranquility was established, and his entire reign
was one of peace and prosperity.
Solomon's enterprise and luxury gave a wonderful impulse to com-
merce. Hiram, King of Tyre, was as warm a friend of Solomon as he
had been of his father, David ; and cedars were brought from Lebanon
for the construction of the great Temple and a palace at Jerusalem.
Through his alliance with Hiram, Solomon was allowed to participate
in the Tyrian trade; and to facilitate commercial intercourse between
Central and Western Asia, he founded two cities in the Syrian desert
which became great emporiums for the caravan trade — Tadmor (after-
wards Palmyra), and Baalath (afterwards Baalbec, or Heliopolis).
Says the Book of Kings : " He founded Baalath and Tadmor in the
desert." Solomon also opened a lucrative trade with Egypt, and by
the influence of the reigning Pharaoh, his father-in-law, he obtained
from the Edomites the port of Ezion-geber (now Akaba), a convenient
harbor on the Gulf of Akaba, at the northern end of the Red Sea, where
he constructed a great fleet of merchant vessels, and whence his sub-
jects, with the aid of the experienced mariners of Tyre, carried on a
lucrative traffic with the rich countries of Southern Asia and Africa.
Through these various channels of commerce, the rarest products of
Europe, Asia and Africa were poured into Jerusalem. Gold and prec-
ious stones, sandals and spices from India, silver from Spain, ivory
from Africa, and gold from Ophir, increased the wealth and luxury
of the court of the great Hebrew monarch. Horses from Egypt, now
first introduced into Palestine, filled the royal stables ; and by tribute
from the dependent monarchs, as well as by commerce, a constant stream
of gold and silver flowed into Palestine. Solomon was the first to intro-
Solo-
mon's
Acces-
sion.
His
Wisdom.
Splendor
of his
Reign.
Hebrew
Com-
merce.
THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
The
Great
Temple
on
Mount
Moriah.
Solo-
mon's
Palace.
Solo-
mon's
Glory.
Proverbs.
Visit of
Sheba's
Queen.
duce horses and war-chariots into Israel, and these were procured from
Egypt, from which linen-yarn and cotton manufactures were likewise
brought into his kingdom.
Solomon's greatest work was the grand Temple to Jehovah, which
he erected on Mount Moriah at Jerusalem, in which the Ark of the
Covenant was thenceforth kept, and which has become famous as the
sacred spot towards which the prayers of Israelites, though for many
centuries dispersed in every portion of the world, have ever since been
directed. The precincts of the Temple included apartments for the
priests and towers for defense ; and it has been said that the different
purposes of forum, fortress, university and sanctuary were united in
this immense and magnificent national edifice. Solomon enlisted the
superior skill of the Phoenicians in wood and metal work in his service
in the erection of the Temple. His warm, royal friend and ally,
Hiram, King of Tyre — who was half Tyrian and half Israelite — was
the chief architect and sculptor, and furnished the Hebrew monarch
with cedars from Lebanon for the wood-work and with skilled workmen
to build the grand structure. Seven and a half years were occupied in
the erection of the splendid edifice, and the costliness of its materials
was only surpassed by the beauty of its workmanship, all the resources
of wealth and ingenuity being expended on the magnificent structure.
When the work was completed it was solemnly dedicated to Jehovah;
and the Feast of the Dedication brought to Jerusalem an immense mul-
titude from both ends of the Hebrew dominions — " from Hamath to
the river of Egypt." It is- said that on this occasion the Shekinah, or
cloud of glory hovering over the splendid edifice, announced the visible
presence of Jehovah. This event is of such importance as a turning
point in Jewish history as to mark the commencement of their con-
nected record of months and years. Solomon also built a magnificent
palace opposite Mount Moriah, on which the Temple was erected, and
furnished it with unrivaled splendor.
Solomon's early years were marked by all the virtues which could
adorn a prince. Humbly conscious of the great duties assigned him,
and of the insufficiency of his powers, he preferred wisdom to long life
or wealth or kingly dominion, and was rewarded with the possession
of even what he had not asked for. His wisdom exceeded that of all
the philosophers and learned men of the East, and his Proverbs are
classed among the wisest maxims of antiquity. His knowledge of nat-
ural history, improved by the collections of rare plants and strange
animals, which he obtained from every quarter of the world, was re-
garded as miraculous. All monarchs sought Solomon's alliance and
friendship ; and the Queen of Sheba, whose dominion is supposed to
have been in the modern Abyssinia, or Southwestern Arabia, and who
THE HEBREW KINGDOM AND EMPIRE.
399
had heard of his fame and wisdom, came to visit him from a far
country.
But Solomon's character was corrupted by prosperity. He had in-
troduced the licentious luxury of an Oriental court into the Holy City
of David, and his harem, or seraglio, was vastly augmented, so that
it reached a point which has no parallel, as we are told that Solomon
had seven hundred wives and three hundred concubines. His com-
merce was a monopoly of the government and did not benefit the people.
His enormous and expensive court was maintained by taxes so exces-
sive as to impoverish the nation and arouse general discontent. His
great public works withdrew large numbers of men from the tillage
of the soil, and from the proper channels of industry, thus lessening
the resources of the nation. The luxury and sensuality of the court
had a corrupting influence upon the nation, and the people were
estranged from the ancient faith by the encouragement given heathen
religions by their luxurious and sensual monarch. One feature of
Solomon's religious views when corrupted by prosperity reveals his
pessimism and unbelief, as disclosed in the book of Ecclesiastes, as ex-
pressed in the words : " Let us eat and drink, for to-morrow we die."
Seduced by his many " strange wives," who were taken from all the
surrounding nations, Solomon not only permitted them their idolatrous
worship, but even participated in the rites of their impious and licen-
tious idolatry, and forsook Jehovah, to whose glory he had erected the
magnificent sanctuary on Mount Moriah. Then we are told enemies
arose against him on all sides, and the subject kingdoms arose in revolt.
Rezon, King of Damascus, threw off the Hebrew yoke. Hadad en-
deavored to restore the independence of Edom, but was defeated and
compelled to flee to Egypt. The tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh
almost broke out into open rebellion; but the attempt was discovered,
and Jeroboam, the leader in the conspiracy, was obliged to flee to
Egypt, where he found refuge at the court of King Shishak. Solo-
mon died in B. C. 975, after a reign of forty years, like those of Saul
and David.
The glory of Solomon's reign dazzled the Hebrew nation and si-
lenced all discontent, but when he was succeeded on the throne by his
son REHOBOAM, the smothered dissatisfaction assumed the form of open
rebellion. Rehoboam, instead of quieting his subjects by necessary
reforms, exasperated them by his haughty refusal to lessen their bur-
dens. Ten of the twelve tribes therefore at once revolted, under the
leadership of JEROBOAM ; and the Hebrew kingdom, which had cut such
a grand figure under David and Solomon, was rent in twain, B. C. 975.
This secession and successful revolution is known as the " Revolt of the
Ten Tribes." Thenceforth there were two Hebrew states — the King-
1—28
Solo-
mon's
Corrup-
tion and
Decline.
His
Harem.
His
Idolatry.
Revolts
against
His Rule.
His
Death.
Reho-
boam's
Acces-
sion.
Revolt
of the
Ten
Tribes.
400
THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
The Two dom of Judah, embracing the two tribes of Judah and Benjamin, which
domi" remained true to the House of David, represented by Rehoboam and
his successors, whose capital was Jerusalem ; and the Kingdom of Israel,
comprising the ten revolted tribes, governed by Jeroboam and his suc-
cessors, who were idolaters, and whose capital at first was Shechem.
Extent.
King
Jero-
boam's
Idolatry.
National
Apostasy.
The
Kings
of Israel.
Their
Wars.
Nadab.
Baasha.
SECTION VI.— THE KINGDOM OF ISRAEL.
THE Kingdom of Israel, established by the Northern tribes under
Jeroboam, extended from the borders of Damascus to within ten miles
of Jerusalem, including all the Hebrew territory east of the Jordan,
and held Moab as a tributary. It had far the more extensive and
fertile territory, and twice the population of Judah; but its capital
was far inferior to Jerusalem, alike in strength, beauty or sacred asso-
ciation. Its successive capitals were Shechem, Tirzah and Samaria.
Jeroboam, the first monarch of the new Kingdom of Israel, in order
to sever the most powerful tie binding the people to the House of
David, made golden calves for idols, setting up two national sanctu-
aries, one at Dan and the other at Bethel, with idolatrous emblems, say-
ing : " It is too much for you to go to Jerusalem ; behold thy gods, O
Israel, which brought thee up out of the land of Egypt ! " A new
priesthood was instituted in opposition to that of the Levites, where-
upon many Levites and other faithful adherents of the religion of
Jehovah migrated into the Kingdom of Judah. The people of the
Northern kingdom fell into the snare set for them by their sovereign.
A succession of prophets, some of them the greatest in Hebrew history,
strove to keep the people faithful to Jehovah, but the taint of idolatry
had become so deeply rooted into the national life that it could not
be eradicated. In the time of Elijah only seven thousand were left
who had not " bowed the knee unto Baal " ; and even these were not
known by the prophet, being forced by persecution to hide their re-
ligion.
The Kings of Israel belonged to nine different dynasties, only two of
which, those of Omri and Jehu, occupied the throne for any consider-
able time. All but a few of the nineteen kings had short reigns, and
eight met with violent deaths. The kingdom was repeatedly at war
with Judah, Damascus and Assyria. Jeroboam was aided in his war
with Judah by his friend and protector in his exile, Shishak, King of
Egypt. Jeroboam's reign of twenty-two years was passed in almost
constant war with Judah. He died in B. C. 953 ; and his son and suc-
cessor NADAB, after a reign of two years, was murdered by BAASHA,
the commander of the army, who then usurped the throne. Baasha
THE KINGDOM OF ISRAEL.
401
removed the capital to Tirzah. He was grossly addicted to idolatry.
The remnant of the worshipers of Jehovah retired from Israel and set-
tled in Judah, being attracted thither by the piety of its king, Asa.
To check this defection, Baasha made war upon Judah, and built the
fortress of Ramah, by which he designed holding the Jewish frontier,
but was forced to desist by Ben-hadad of Damascus, whose alliance had
been bought by Asa.
Baasha died in B. C. 930, and was succeeded by his son, ELAH, who,
while intoxicated, was murdered by ZIMRI, who usurped the throne, but
was not acknowledged by the army, which set up its commander, OMBI.
A civil war of seven years ensued, and Zimri, being defeated, shut him-
self up in his palace, which he set on fire, himself perishing in the
flames. Omri began to reign B. C. 929. At first he had a rival named
Tibni, whose claim was supported by half the people, but Omri over-
came him and reigned until B. C. 918. Omri built the strong city of
Samaria and made it his capital. He made war on Damascus, but was
obliged to conclude a humiliating peace.
The next king was AHAB, who strengthened himself by marrying
Jezebel, the daughter of Ethbaal, King of Tyre and High Priest of
Astarte; and the result of this alliance was the introduction of the
Phoenician religion into Israel. Near the end of this century the
prophet Elijah came to denounce upon the king and people of Israel
the Divine punishment for their sins, and a famine for three years
devastated the kingdom. At its close Elijah offered sacrifice on Mount
Carmel, and the priests of Baal were slaughtered, which was regarded
as a vindication of Jehovah's power. In the latter part of his reign
Ahab waged a successful war with Damascus and reestablished the in-
dependence of Israel. Three years of peace followed. About B. C.
897 Ahab renewed the war with Damascus, by uniting with Jehosha-
phat, King of Judah, in an effort to seize the strong frontier of
Ramoth-Gilead, but in the battle which followed the allied army was
routed and Ahab was killed.
AHAZIAH, the son of Ahab, became his successor, and reigned a little
more than a year, during which Moab revolted. JEHORAM, Ahaziah's
brother and successor, continued the alliance with Judah. He abol-
ished the worship of Baal, though he adhered to the idolatry of Jero-
boam. He waged war with Moab, and was joined in the struggle by
Jehoshaphat and by the King of Edom, the vassal of the King of
Judah. We are told that the allied army was miraculously supplied
with water, and that the Moabites met with a decisive defeat, after
which Jehoram ravaged " the land of Moab with fire and sword," but
his cruelties caused the King of Judah to desert his alliance and return
to his own kingdom. Before the end of his reign the worship of Baal
Elah.
Zimri.
Omri.
Civil
War.
Ahab.
The
Prophet
Elijah.
Wars
with
Damas-
cus.
Ahaziah.
Jehoram.
Wars
with
Moab and
Damas-
cus.
402
THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
Jehu.
Jehoahaz.
Wars
with
Damas-
cus.
Jehoash.
Wars
with
Damascus
and
Judah.
Jeroboam
II.
Wars
with
Moab,
Ammon
and
Damas-
cus.
Zacha-
riah.
Shallum.
Mena-
hem.
Wars
with
Assyria.
Peka-
hiah.
Pekah.
Wars
with
Judah
and
Assyria.
was restored in Israel. Jehoram renewed the war with the Syrians of
Damascus by seizing Ramoth-Gilead. Being wounded in the battle
with the Syrians, he went to Jezreel to be healed, and was there visited
by his ally, Ahaziah, King of Judah. During his stay at Jezreel,
JEHU was proclaimed king by the army. Jehu went to Jezreel, and
slew both Jehoram and Ahaziah, after which he caused Jezebel, Ahab's
wicked widow, to be thrown from the walls of Jezreel, thus exterminat-
ing all of Ahab's family, in full accordance with the prophecy of
Elijah.
Jehu began to reign B. C. 884. He violently suppressed the wor-
ship of Baal, but retained the idolatry of Jeroboam. Hazael of Da-
mascus deprived Jehu of his provinces east of the Jordan, and at one
time he paid tribute to Shalmanaser II. of Assyria, the Black Obelisk
King. JEHOAHAZ, Jehu's son, became king B. C. 856, and under him
the Kingdom of Israel was still further weakened by Syrian conquests,
the King of Damascus even forcing Jehoahaz to limit the strength of
his standing army. JEHOASH, the son of Jehoahaz, became king B.
C. 839, and was a vigorous and warlike monarch. He defeated Ben-
hadad III. of Damascus in three successive engagements, and re-con-
quered a part of the territory wrested from Israel. He likewise de-
feated Amaziah, King of Judah, and entered Jerusalem in triumph.
He was succeeded by his son, JEROBOAM II., B. C. 825. This king
raised Israel to the highest pinnacle of power and glory. He con-
quered Moab and Ammon, thus recovering all the territory lost by
Israel east of the Jordan, and attacked Damascus, which had been
weakened by the sudden rise of Assyria, adding a large portion of the
Syrian territory to the Kingdom of Israel.
ZACHARIAH, the son of Jeroboam II., who succeeded his father about
B. C. 772, was assassinated six months later by SHALLUM, who thus put
an end to the house of Jehu and usurped the throne of Israel, but was
himself murdered after a reign of little over a month by MENAHEM,
who became his successor. Menahem invaded the Assyrian territory
east of the Euphrates and took Thapsacus, but the Assyrian king de-
feated him and reduced him to tribute. In B. C. 762 Menahem was
succeeded by his son PEKAHIAH, who was murdered by PEKAH, one of
his generals, who then usurped the throne, B. C. 760.
Pekah's reign of thirty-three years was marked by a series of calami-
ties. He formed an alliance with Rezin, King of Damascus, to protect
his kingdom against Assyria and to conquer Judah. The allied armies
of Pekah and Rezin then invaded Judah and reduced that kingdom to
great extremities ; but Ahaz, King of Judah, called in the aid of Tig-
lath-Pileser II., King of Assyria, who came to the rescue of Judah
and forced Pekah to make peace. The Assyrian monarch again in-
THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH.
403
vaded Israel, ravaged its provinces east of the Jordan, and earned the
inhabitants captive to Assyria.
Pekah was assassinated by HOSHEA, who then usurped the throne,
B. C. 730. Hoshea was the last King of Israel. That monarchy was
now rapidly nearing its end. Hoshea vainly endeavored to suppress
idolatry. He began to reign as a tributary of Assyria, but soon re-
nounced his allegiance to the Assyrian monarch and entered into an
alliance with Egypt to recover his country's independence. There-
upon Shalmanezer IV., King of Assyria, invaded Israel, overran the
country and besieged Samaria, its capital, which held out heroically
for two years, but was taken by Sargon, Shalmanezer's successor; and
with its capture ended the Kingdom of Israel, after having lasted two
hundred and fifty -five years (B. C. 975—721). In accordance with
the policy of the Assyrian monarchs, the inhabitants of the conquered
kingdom were carried captive to remote portions of the Assyrian Em-
pire ; and with the " Assyrian Captivity " the history of the " ten
tribes " is ended forever, B. C. 721.
The Israelite territory remained depopulated until Esar-haddon,
King of Assyria, Sargon's grandson and second successor, in the sev-
enth century before Christ, colonized this fertile region with Baby-
lonians, Susianians and others. These strangers brought their idola-
trous worship with them. The depopulation of the country rendered
it so desolate that for a time wild beasts multiplied in the cities. The
new settlers considered themselves free to serve their own national gods,
and their religion was a strange mixture of the worship of Jehovah
with their own polytheism, which the Hebrew Scriptures describe thus :
" They feared Jehovah and served their own gods." The descendants
of these colonists were known in the later Jewish history as Samaritans,
and were the most inveterate enemies of the Hebrew race. We are told
that " the Jews had no dealings with the Samaritans."
Hoshea.
Assyrian
Conquest
of Israel.
Assyrian
Cap-
tivity.
The
Samari-
tans.
SECTION VII.— THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH.
THE Kingdom of Judah occupied the southern and least fertile part
of the Holy Land. It began its separate national existence at the
same time with Israel, but survived that kingdom one hundred and
thirty -five years. It embraced the two tribes of Judah and Benjamin,
with great numbers of refugees from the ten revolted tribes, who will-
ingly sacrificed home and lands for the religion of Jehovah. The
people were thus closely united in bonds of common interest in the
wonderful traditions of the past and the hopes for the future. Though
territorially smaller and numerically weaker than the Kingdom of
Israel, Judah was really the stronger and more important kingdom of
Extent.
National
Charac-
ter.
404
THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
King
Reho-
boam's
Idolatry.
Sliishak's
Capture
of
Jerusa •
lem.
Abijah.
War
with
Israel.
Asa.
Defeat
of
Egyptian
Invaders.
War with
Israel.
the two. Its inhabitants were thoroughly convinced that they were
the true people of God and the legitimate heirs of Jehovah's promises,
and they exhibited remarkable vigor and wonderful recuperative pow-
ers. It was less given to apostasy from Jehovah than the Kingdom of
Israel, and suffered fewer calamities. The indomitable spirit of its
people enabled them to defy successively the power of Assyria and of
Egypt, and required the exertion of the whole force of the Babylonian
Empire to crush it. Although exposed to peril from the attacks of
many enemies, because of its situation between the two great rival em-
pires of Egypt and Assyria, this little kingdom maintained its ex-
istence for almost four centuries, and was governed during all that
period by monarchs of but one dynasty, the House of David.
The reign of REHOBOAM, the first King of Judah, lasted eighteen
years, and was one of disaster. In B. C. 970, Shishak, King of Egypt
(called Sheshonk in Egyptian history), invaded Judah in support of
the ten revolted tribes, captured Jerusalem and plundered the Temple
and the palace of their treasures, and, after reducing Judah to tribute,
retired from the country. Rehoboam was constantly at war with the
Kingdom of Israel, and during his reign a considerable portion of
the people lapsed into idolatry.
ABIJAH, the son of Rehoboam, became King of Judah upon his fath-
er's death, B. C. 958. He prosecuted the war with Israel with great
vigor, defeated Jeroboam at Zemaraim, in Mount Ephraim, and cap-
tured Bethel, Jeshanah and Ephraim, which closed the struggle for ten
years. ASA, who succeeded to the throne upon his father Abijah's
death, in B. C. 955, was a devout follower of Jehovah. He sternly
put down idolatry, and replaced the treasures of the Temple carried
away by Shishak with rich offerings of gold and silver. He strength-
ened the fortifications of his cities and increased his army. About
B. C. 941 Judah was invaded by a strong army led by " Terah the
Egyptian," believed to be Osorkon II. of Egypt ; but Asa routed this
army at Mareshah, pursued it to Gerar, and returned to Jerusalem
with the spoils of victory and of the cities around Gerar. Urged by
the prophet Azariah, Asa summoned a convocation at Jerusalem in
B. C. 940, when the nation entered into a solemn covenant to be faith-
ful to the worship of Jehovah. Many devout Israelites from the
Northern kingdom attended this assemblage ; and this migration of the
worshipers of Jehovah in Israel to Judah so alarmed Baasha, King of
Israel, that he fortified Ramah, on the road between Judah and Israel,
to check this emigration, and made war upon Asa, who, in alarm, pur-
chased the alliance of Ben-hadad I., King of Damascus, with the treas-
ures of the Temple. Ben-hadad at once invaded Israel, and the Israel-
itish army was withdrawn from Judah to met this invasion. Asa was
THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH. 405
engaged in constant war during the remainder of his reign, and died
in B. C. 916.
Asa's son and successor, JEHOSHAPHAT, passed much of his reign in Jehosha-
crushing out idolatry, and in fortifying the cities of his kingdom, and ^
likewise those captured by his father in Mount Ephraim. Jehosha- Defeat of
phat reigned twenty-five years. He reduced the Moabites and the ' °anaes
Philistines to the condition of tributaries. He contracted an alliance Philis-
with Ahab, King of Israel, by the marriage of his eldest son Jehoram
with Athaliah, the daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, a union productive War with
of very much trouble for Judah. He aided Ahab in his wars with the cus
Syrians of Damascus, and was with that king at Ramoth-Gilead, where Alliance
Ahab was defeated and killed in battle. This defeat of the forces of _wltl
Israel.
Judah and Israel encouraged the Moabites, the Ammonites and the
Edomites to invade Judah in great force. It is said that the invaders Moabites,
were miraculously defeated by Jehovah, in response to the prayer of ^mmon~
Jehoshaphat. This victory of Judah terrified all the neighboring na- Edomites
tions and secured peace for the remainder of Jehoshaphat's reign. Defeated-
Jehoshaphat, in alliance with Ahaziah, King of Israel, Ahab's succes- Alliance
sor, endeavored to renew the maritime enterprises of Solomon by way
of the Red Sea, but his fleet was wrecked at Ezion-geber, it is said,
in punishment for his alliance with Ahaziah, whereupon Jehoshaphat
relinquished the enterprise.
Jehoshaphat died in B. C. 889, and his son JEHORAM, whom he had Jehoram.
associated with him in the government for three years, became his suc-
cessor. Jehoram's reign was short and disastrous. He was utterly
corrupted by his marriage with Athaliah, the daughter of Ahab, and His
he introduced the worship of Ashtoreth, with all its immoral rites, into
Judah. To avoid a disputed succession he murdered all his brothers,
but we are told that Jehovah punished his wickedness, inflicting dire
calamities upon his kingdom. Edom successfully revolted and re- Edom's
covered its independence under its own kings, and, though afterwards
defeated in battle by Judah, it never again became tributary to it. Philistine
The Philistines and the Arabs, who had been tributary to Jehoshaphat, capture
invaded Judah and captured and pillaged Jerusalem, and carried away of
all the king's wives except Athaliah, and all his children except Aha- iem.
ziah, the youngest son.
AHAZIAH came to the throne upon his father's death in B. C. 885. Ahaziah.
He entered into an alliance with his uncle, Jehoram, King of Israel, Alliance
the brother of his mother, Athaliah. He was with his uncle in the Israel,
battle of Ramoth-Gilead, where Jehoram was wounded, and was slain
shortly afterward by Jehu in the revolt which made that warrior King Athaliah.
of Israel, B. C. 884. His mother, ATHALIAH, became his successor Her
and slew all the royal family of Judah, except Joash, a newly-born Crimes.
406
THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
Joash.
Idolatry
Sup-
pressed.
Restored.
Defeated
by
Damas-
cus.
AmaziaL.
Unsuc-
cessful
Wars
with
Edom and
Israel.
Uzziah.
Subdues
Ammon-
ites and
Philis-
tines.
Jotham.
Wars
with
Ammon-
ites,
Israel and
Damas-
cus.
infant, the youngest son of Ahaziah, and made herself queen. Joash
was hidden in the Temple by his aunt, the wife of the High Priest,
Jehoiada. Athaliah reigned six years, during which Joash remained
concealed in the Temple.
At length Jehoiada headed a rebellion, and was supported by the
army and the people. JOASH was proclaimed king and Athaliah was
put to death, B. C. 878. Jehoiada became regent. For the first
twenty-three years of his reign, during which period Jehoiada was his
chief counselor, Joash administered the government with success, and
the kingdom was prosperous. Idolatry was stamped out and merci-
lessly punished. Joash repaired the Temple, and put an end to the
peculations of the Levites who had squandered the sacred funds.
After the death of Jehoiada, Joash plunged into idolatry. Hazael,
King of Damascus, attacked Judah and compelled Joash to purchase
peace by surrendering all the treasures of the Temple and the palace,
including the sacred vessels.
In B. C. 839 Joash was murdered by two of his servants and was
succeeded by his son AMAZIAH, who at once executed his father's assas-
sins. Amaziah attempted to reconquer Edom, which had revolted from
Jehoram. He defeated the Edomites and took their capital, Petra,
where he massacred ten thousand Edomites, but he failed to subdue
Edom. He made war on Jehoash, King of Israel, but was defeated
and taken prisoner at Beth-shemesh. The King of Israel led his cap-
tive in triumph to Jerusalem, where he plundered the Temple and the
palace, and broke down the north wall of the city. After taking host-
ages for the future peaceable conduct of Judah, Jehoash returned to
Samaria. Amaziah grew so tyrannical and corrupt in his last years
that his subjects hated him, and he was finally assassinated at Lachish,
B. C. 809.
Amaziah's successor was his son UZZIAH, who was a great and war-
like monarch. At the beginning of his reign he recovered and rebuilt
the ancient port of Elath, at the head of the eastern arm of the Red
Sea. He reigned sixty-two years, during which his kingdom enjoyed
great prosperity. He subdued the greater part of Philistia, and re-
ceived tribute from Ammon. His arrogance in assuming sacerdotal
functions, we are told, was punished, as he was attacked with leprosy
while offering incense in the Temple. This obliged him to remain
secluded, and for the remaining six or seven years of his reign his son
and successor, Jotham, conducted the government.
JOTHAM became sole sovereign upon his father's death in B. C. 757.
He was a pious and prosperous monarch, but during his reign the
people of Judah grew more and more corrupt. Jotham fortified Jeru-
salem, and compelled the Ammonites to pay tribute. In the latter part
THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH.
407
of his reign Pekah, King of Israel, and Rezin, King of Damascus,
began the war with Judah which was eventually so disastrous to them.
At his death, in B. C. 742, Jotham was succeeded by his son AHAZ,
who reestablished the worship of Baal and corrupted the people. The
war began against Judah by the Kings of Israel and Damascus during
the reign of Jotham was prosecuted with vigor; and Ahaz prevailed
upon Tiglath-Pileser II. to come to his aid, purchasing his powerful
help by becoming his tributary. The Assyrians invaded Syria, took
Damascus, and put an end to the Syrian kingdom. Israel was also
severely chastised and forced to make peace.
Ahaz died in B. C. 726, and his son HEZEKIAH became his successor.
Hezekiah was one of the best Kings of Judah, and began his reign by
restoring the pure worship of Jehovah and destroying all the idols.
He was a wise and virtuous ruler, and " did that which was right in the
sight of Jehovah." He defeated the Philistines, and boldly attempted
to cast off the Assyrian yoke. Thereupon Sennacherib, King of As-
syria, attacked him and forced him to remain a tributary of Assyria;
but he soon again revolted against Sennacherib and entered into an
alliance with Egypt, then at war with Assyria.
In B. C. 699 Sennacherib again invaded Judah, with the design of
crushing the little kingdom before invading Egypt,»which he resolved
to chastise severely for assisting his rebellious vassal. He marched
along the coast to the southern extremity of the Philistine plain, the
cities of the low country falling into his possession, and, having cap-
tured Lachish, he besieged Libnah. In the meantime he sent a message
to Hezekiah demanding his unconditional submission, blasphemously
asserting that Jehovah was unable to protect him against the ven-
geance of Assyria. Hezekiah went to the Temple, where he turned
in prayer to Jehovah and " spread Sennacherib's letter before the
Lord." It is said that the destruction of " one hundred fourscore and
five thousand " of Sennacherib's army at Pelusium, while camping op-
posite the Egyptian army, was the miraculous answer which Jehovah
gave to Hezekiah's prayer. Sennacherib hastily returned to Assyria,
dismayed and disheartened. The prophet Isaiah is represented as an-
nouncing the purposes of Jehovah in advance and as foretelling the
fate of Sennacherib's army.
Hezekiah, at his death in B. C. 697, was succeeded by his son
MANASSEH, who reigned fifty-five years, and was one of the most wicked
of all the Kings of Judah. He restored every system of idolatry that
had ever been practiced in Judah or Israel, and these abominable rites
became so firmly rooted in the nation that the Temple was closed and
the laws of Moses were almost forgotten by the people, while the wor-
shipers of Jehovah were actually persecuted in the Holy City itself.
VOL. 2. — 5
Ahaz.
Idolatry.
Wars
with
Israel and
Damas-
cus.
Hezekiah.
Idolatry
Sup-
pressed.
Philis-
tines.
Defeated.
Wars
with
Assyria.
Sennac-
herib's
Invasion
and
Defeat.
Manas-
seh.
His
Idolatry.
408
THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
Manasseh
Made
Captive
by Esar-
haddon.
Amon.
Josiah.
Idolatry
Sap-
pressed.
War with
Egypt.
Battle of
Meggido.
Jehoahaz.
Jehoia-
kim.
Daniel's
Captivity
in
Babylon.
The prophets denounced this apostasy in the severest terms, and were
cruelly persecuted by the idolatrous monarch. Isaiah is believed to
have been among the first victims put to death by Manasseh.
About B. C. 677 Esar-haddon, King of Assyria, suspecting Manas-
seh of a design to rebel against him, deposed him and carried him
captive to Babylon. We are told that Manasseh was brought to re-
pentance by the hardships of his captivity, and that Jehovah was
pleased to hear his prayers. Esar-haddon generously pardoned him
and restored him to his throne as a vassal monarch. Thereafter
Manasseh had a long and prosperous reign, and exerted himself to his
utmost to suppress idolatry and to restore the religion of Jehovah.
He likewise strengthened the defenses of Jerusalem. About this time
the colonization of the territory of the Kingdom of Israel by direction
of the Assyrian monarch took place.
AMON, the son of Manasseh, succeeded to the throne of Judah upon
his father's death in B. C. 642. Amon sought to restore idolatry, but
was assassinated after a short reign of two years, and was succeeded by
his son JOSIAH, a boy of eight years, B. C. 640. Josiah at once set
about uprooting idolatry and restoring the worship of Jehovah. He
reigned thirty-one years, and was one of the best of the Kings of
Judah. In his reign the Assyrian Empire fell. In B. C. 608 Neko,
King of Egypt, declared war against Babylon, invaded Palestine, con-
quered the Philistine cities, and advanced along the Mediterranean
coast of Palestine to Carmel, thence crossing the great plain of Esdrae-
lon and marching toward the Euphrates. Josiah assembled his army,
and, in accordance with his duty to his suzerain, the King of Babylon,
prepared to resist the advance of the Egyptian monarch. Neko
warned him to desist, as his expedition was simply directed against
Babylon ; but the Jewish king persisted in his opposition, and was
defeated and slain in the battle of Megiddo, nearly on the very spot
where Deborah and Barak had won their great victory over the Ca-
naanites about six centuries before.
JEHOAHAZ, the second son of Josiah, succeeded to the throne of
Judah, B. C. 608. Jehoahaz had been made king by the people, but
reigned only three months, when he was dethroned by Neko, who be-
stowed the crown on JEHOIAKIM, the eldest son of Josiah, B. C. 608.
Jehoiakim reigned four years as a tributary of the King of Egypt,
when Judah was forced to submit to the supremacy of Babylon, in
consequence of the great victory of the Babylonian crown-prince Nebu-
chadnezzar over the Egyptian king at Carchemish, B. C. 604. Many
Hebrew youths, the prophet Daniel being among them, were carried
captive to Babylon by the conquering Nebuchadnezzar, and were there
educated " in all the learning of the Chaldasans." Daniel arrived at
THE KINGDOM OF JUDAH.
409
high honors under Nebuchadnezzar, and was made chief of the order
of " wise men " ; and it was at Babylon that he delivered his prophetic
visions, and that he foretold the coming of the Messiah. In B. C.
602 Jehoiakim revolted against the Babylonian supremacy and en-
deavored to recover his absolute independence. The prophet Jeremiah
uttered his first predictions during the reign of Josiah, and continued
his prophecies during the reigns of his sons, Jehoahaz and Jehoiakim.
Jehoiakim opened his rebellion against Babylon under favorable
auspices. He was promised the aid of Egypt; and Phoenicia, under
the leadership of Tyre, had also risen in revolt against the power of
Babylon. In B. C. 598 Nebuchadnezzar, who had been King of Baby-
lon for six years, took the field against both Phoenicia and Judah, deter-
mined to reduce these rebellious provinces to submission. First enter-
ing Phoenicia, he laid siege to Tyre, but finding it too strong to be
reduced speedily, he left a part of his army to continue the siege, while
he himself led the remainder against Judah and moved upon Jerusa-
lem, which submitted upon his approach. Jehoiakim was put to death,
and his body was treated with indignity, contrary to general Oriental
usage, thus fulfilling Jeremiah's prophecy concerning this monarch.
JEHOIACHIN, the son of Jehoiakim, a mere youth, was placed upon
the throne of Judah by Nebuchadnezzar, who allowed him to reign only
three months, when, distrusting him, he carried him to Babylon, and
placed his uncle, ZEDEKIAH, the brother of Jehoiakim and the son of
Josiah, upon the throne. Zedekiah remained loyal to the Babylonian
monarch for eight years, and then entered into an alliance with
Uaphris, King of Egypt, who agreed to aid him with a powerful army
in his effort to throw off the Babylonian yoke; and Zedekiah at once
raised the standard of rebellion, B. C. 589.
The siege of Tyre was still in progress, and Nebuchadnezzar led a
large army against Jerusalem, defeating the Egyptian king in his
effort to relieve his ally, the King of Judah, and took Jerusalem by
storm. Zedekiah and the remnant of his army fled, and were over-
taken in the plain of Jericho. Zedekiah was made a prisoner and his
troops were cut to pieces. Nebuchadnezzar stained his triumph by
the most shocking atrocities, causing Zedekiah's sons to be slain before
the eyes of their father, and the eyes of the unfortunate monarch him-
self to be put out, after which he was carried captive to Babylon ;
while the city of Jerusalem and the Temple were then pillaged and
burned, and the population, except a small remnant, were carried into
the seventy years' " Babylonian Captivity," being transported as col-
onists to Chaldsea, B. C. 586. Thus ended the Kingdom of Judah
and the dynasty of the House of David. This work of destruction
was bewailed by the prophet Jeremiah in his Lamentations.
Jehoia-
kim's
Revolt.
Jere-
miah's
Prophe-
cies.
Jerusa-
lem
Captured
by
Nebu-
chadnez-
zar.
Jehpia-
chin.
Zedekiah.
Revolts
against
Babylon.
Jerusa-
lem
Taken
and
Destroyed
by
Nebu-
chadnez-
zar.
Baby-
lonian
Cap-
tivity.
410
THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
Judah a
Baby-
lonian
Province.
Judaea was placed under a Babylonian governor, who was murdered
soon afterward. His assassins found refuge in Egypt, taking with
them the prophet Jeremiah, who had sought to dissuade them from
their dangerous course. The Jews afterwards became involved in the
fate of Egypt, and the remnant left in Judaea were carried into captiv-
ity in Babylon about the same time, thus almost entirely depopulating
the country.
HEBREW KINGS.
BEGAN TO REIGN.
KINGS OF THE UNITED MONARCHY.
B. C. 1095
Saul — Reigned 40 years.
David — Reigned 40 years.
Solomon — Reigned 40 years.
« 1055
" 1015
" 975
KINGS OF JUDAH.
KINGS OF ISRAEL.
Rehoboam
Jeroboam.
Nadab.
Baasha.
Elah.
Zimri.
Omri.
Ahab.
Ahaziah.
Jehoram.
Jehu.
Jehoahaz.
Joash.
Jeroboam II.
Zachariah.
Shallum.
Menahem.
Pekahiah.
Pekah.
Hoshea,
Assyrian Captivity.
« 958
Abijah.
Asa.
" 956
" 954
" 953
' 930
' 929
< <(
' 918
' 916
Jehoshaphat.
' 897
" 896
" 892
Jehoram.
Ahaziah.
Athaliah
" 885
" 884
" 878
Joash.
" 856-
" 839
" 838
Amaziah.
" 823
" 809
Azariah, or Uzziah.
" 772
« «
« <C
« 762
" 760
" 757
Jotham.
Ahaz.
" 742
" 730
" 726
Hezekiah.
" 721
" 697
Manasseh.
Amon.
Josiah.
Jehoahaz.
Jehoiakim.
Jehoiachin.
Zedekiah.
Babylonian Captivity.
" 642
" 640
" 609
« (C
« 598
« 597
« 586
BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY AND RESTORATION.
411
SECTION VIII.-
-BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY AND
RESTORATION.
NEBUCHADNEZZAR colonized in Chaldaea the Jews whom he removed
from their own homes. They were comforted in their captivity by the
promises said to have been made by Jehovah, " through the mouths of
his holy prophets," that he did not intend to exterminate His " chosen
people " as a nation, but simply to chasten them for their disobedience
and transgressions, and that he would restore them to their own land
after they had suffered the chastisement He was then inflicting upon
them.
During the Babylonian captivity of the Jews the Babylonian Em-
pire was overthrown by Cyrus the Great, and the Babylonian domin-
ions were absorbed in the great Medo-Persian Empire. When Cyrus
captured Babylon in B. C. 538 he there found the Jews " an oppressed
race, in whose religion he found a considerable resemblance to his own."
He became ardently interested in these people, and learning that many
of them strongly desired to return to their own land, he issued an edict
permitting them to do so. In pursuance of this edict, a Jewish colony
of 42,360 persons, besides their servants, returned to Jerusalem from
Babylonia in B. C. 535. They proceeded directly to Jerusalem under
the leadership of Zerubbabel, a descendant of the legitimate royal race ;
and most of them at first settled on the site and in the immediate vicin-
ity of the Holy City. The far greater portion of the Jewish nation
yet remained in Chaldaea.
The restored Jews under Zerubbabel at once devoted their efforts to
rebuilding the Holy City and the Temple and restoring the worship of
Jehovah and the Mosaic laws. They began the work in the year of
their return, but were stopped by the interference of the Samaritans,
who were a mixed race occupying the old territory of Ephraim and
Manasseh and descended from foreign colonists settled in that country
by Esar-haddon, King of Assyria. The Samaritans, when the Jews
had returned, offered to unite with them in rebuilding the Temple, de-
siring to make it a common sanctuary for both races. They claimed
to be descendants of the ancient tribes of Israel, but the Jews repu-
diated their claim and " would have no dealings with the Samaritans."
In consequence of this refusal to allow them a share in the work of
rebuilding the Temple, the Samaritans became the bitter enemies of
the Jews, and endeavored by every possible means to thwart their work.
They succeeded in delaying the rebuilding of the Temple and the city
for a time in B. C. 522, but it was resumed by order of the great Per-
sian king, Darius Hystaspes, in B. C. 519, and the Temple was finished
and dedicated in B. C. 515.
The Jews
in
Chaldaea.
Edict of
Cyrus
the Great.
Zerubba-
bel's
Colony.
Rebuild-
ing
Temple
Delayed.
Resumed
and
Comple-
ted.
412
THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
Hainan's
Plot and
Execu-
tion.
Ezra's
Colony.
Nehe-
miah,
Governor
of Judaea,
when a
Persian
Province.
Through the favor shown them by Darius Hystaspes, the Jews were
enabled to firmly establish themselves in their old homes, in spite of the
jealousy and hostility of the Samaritans and other neighboring na-
tions. Xerxes the Great, the successor of Darius Hystaspes on the
throne of Persia, notwithstanding that he was favorably disposed to-
wards the Jews, almost caused their extermination by weakly giving
his consent to a plot with that design formed by his prime-minister,
Haman. This plot was detected by Mordecai, a Jew and the uncle of
Esther, the favorite wife of Xerxes. Through the efforts of Mordecai
and Esther, King Xerxes was prevailed upon to put the Jews on their
guard and to permit them to defend themselves against their enemies.
Consequently the plot resulted in the death of Haman, who was hanged
from the same scaffold which he had designed for others, and the Jews
successfully defended themselves in every portion of the empire. Tak-
ing advantage of the king's permission, they caused their most promi-
nent antagonists to be put to death. This event, which occurred about
B. C. 473, has ever since been commemorated in the Feast of
Purim.
Ezra, a Jewish priest, who enjoyed the favor of the King of Persia,
led a second colony of his countrymen from Babylon to Jerusalem in
B. C. 458. As soon as he arrived he stopped the custom of inter-
marriages between his countrymen and the neighboring nations, which
had already assumed proportions so formidable as to threaten the ex-
tinction of the pure Jewish race. Ezra made other essential reforms
in church and state, and had the books of the Old Testament definitely
and authoritatively arranged.
Nehemiah, a Jewish favorite of the Persian king Artaxerxes Longi-
manus, the successor of Xerxes, who had been the king's cupbearer,
arrived at Jerusalem, having been given permission to restore the walls
and fortifications of the Holy City. In spite of the king's orders, the
surrounding nations tried to stop the work, but the vigilance of Nehe-
miah caused his countrymen to perform their labors under arms, and
thus thwarted the plans of their enemies. The Jewish people were
divided between the Holy City and the royal districts, after the walls
and fortifications of Jerusalem were restored. The laws of Moses were
now reestablished in Judaea. Nehemiah, as High Priest of his people,
was appointed governor of Judaea, which had followed the fortunes of
the other Babylonian dominions in becoming a province of the vast
Medo-Persian Empire; and thenceforth Judaea was usually governed
by the High Priest. Judaea was afterwards joined to the Persian
satrapy of Syria. The Persian monarchs allowed the Jews to manage
their domestic affairs in their own way, so long as they paid their trib-
ute regularly.
HEBREW CIVILIZATION.
The Babylonian Captivity thoroughly cured the Jews as a nation Effect of
of their fondness for idolatry, and they were therefore careful thence- jjiTfoi>
forth to shun idolatry and to avoid all intercourse with idolatrous tunes,
nations. They ever afterward remained steadfast in the worship of
Jehovah and faithfully observed the laws of Moses.
From the time of the return of the Jews from the Babylonian Cap- Judaea
tivity, the ancient territory of Judah was called Judaa, and its in- ajewse
habitants were named Jews. The Jews in Babylonia returned by de-
grees to Palestine, but many remained in Babylonia and kept up a con-
stant intercourse with their brethren in Judaea to the latest period.
Here the Old Testament history of the Jews ends, and we will give End of
the remaining portions of Jewish history as it is connected with the ®ld _
history of other nations. ment
History.
SECTION IX.— HEBREW CIVILIZATION.
THE Hebrew race contributed little to ancient civilization in the way Hebrew
TUT" *
of science, art or politics. Such was not the mission of the Israelites. 1SS
The world has received no impulse from their national achievements
or history in this respect. But their religious institutions, spiritual
ideas and moral teachings have exerted a mighty influence on modern
civilization. The sacred writings of the Jews, and the sublime works
of the Hebrew bards and sages, reverenced by us as the body of Old
Testament literature, have become the permanent possession of all man-
kind, and their influence pervades the most civilized nations of the
globe.
Moses was the earliest sacred historian, as well as the lawgiver and Hebrew
founder of the Hebrew state. David's Psalms are among the most ture*"
soul-stirring productions of lyric poetry, and Solomon's Proverbs are
among the wisest maxims of antiquity. The most noted of the Hebrew
prophets were Elijah, Elisha, Jonah, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Daniel and Prophets.
Ezekiel. Isaiah, in his sublime strains of lyric poetry, foretold the
coming of the Messiah. Jeremiah denounced divine judgments on his
people for their apostasy from Jehovah, and in his Lamentations vented
his sorrow for their downfall. Daniel and Ezekiel, during their cap-
tivity in Babylon, delivered their prophetic visions, and Daniel arrived
at high honors under the Babylonian kings. He predicted the time
of the advent of the Messiah with such precision that a general expecta-
tion of his appearance prevailed among the Jews at the time of Christ's
coming. Sacred
Among the sacred places or structures before the Captivity were g^uc-0*
the Tabernacle, with its altar and brazen laver, its golden candlestick, tures.
THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES.
Sacred
Seasons
and
Feasts.
The
Levites.
Sacred
Rites.
Hebrew
Doctrine
and
Teach-
ings.
table of show-bread, and Ark of the Covenant; and Jerusalem, the
Holy City, with its Mount Moriah and Temple, and the sanctuary of
that Temple. The Tabernacle was the place where public worship
was conducted from the time of Moses to the time of Solomon; and
consisted of three parts — the area, or court, a space of about one hun-
dred feet long and seventy-five feet wide ; the Tabernacle proper, located
in the middle of the western side of the court, being an oblong square
of about forty-five feet long and fifteen feet broad, covered on every
part, and also walled up with boards ; and the entrance, which was
closed by means of a curtain made of cotton.
Among the sacred seasons of the Hebrews were the Sabbath, the
sabbatical year, the year of Jubilee, and the great festivals of the
Passover, Pentecost and the Tabernacles. The Passover was the Feast
of Unleavened Bread. The Pentecost, the fiftieth from the second day
of the Passover, is also called the Feast of the Weeks, because it fol-
lowed a succession of weeks. It was a festival of thanks for the har-
vest. The Feast of the Tabernacles, celebrated from the fifteenth to
the twenty-third of the seventh month, was to commemorate the Wan-
derings in the Wilderness, and was also in honor of the vintage and
the gathering of the fruits. It was a season of joy and gladness.
The Israelites considered themselves as sacred and holy — as the spe-
cial guardians of the only true religion; but the tribe of Levi, and
particularly the priests of that tribe, called Levites, were more espe-
cially viewed in that light. Aaron and his posterity, who were from
this tribe, were consecrated to the priesthood, who were given a close
access to the throne of Jehovah, in the Holy Place. The other Levites
performed the inferior religious duties, but were allowed servants for
the more menial offices. The High Priest sustained the most exalted
office of the tribe.
Among sacred things we may name sacrifices, of which there were
many kinds and for different purposes — purification, the first-born,
the first fruits, tithes, oaths and vows. Concerning these there were
many particular regulations. One peculiar rite was the sending forth
of the scape-goat into the wilderness, in atonement for national sins.
After the illustration of the Holy Place, the Tabernacle and the altar,
the High Priest was directed to procure a live goat, lay both hands
upon his head, confess over him all the iniquities, transgressions and
sins of the nation, putting the blame for them on the goat, and then
letting him go free in the desert.
The Hebrews were taught that Jehovah is the Only God — the Crea-
tor and Ruler of the entire universe, to whom all men owe gratitude
and obedience. They were only admonished to abstain from such kinds
of food as were regarded unclean, to keep themselves free from moral
HEBREW CIVILIZATION.
pollution, and to be pure as God is pure. They were taught to be
kind to the poor, to the widow and the orphan. They were forbidden
to utter falsehoods and to spread scandal. They were not allowed to
curse such magistrates as they disliked. Thus the Laws of Moses
generally had a good moral tendency. The laws respecting circum-
cision, cleanliness, tithes, usury, slavery, property, marriage, theft,
war, and the like, were adapted to the peculiar circumstances of the
Hebrew nation. These laws were rigidly enforced.
Polygamy was prevalent among the Hebrews from the Mosaic times.
Moses endeavored to check this institution by narrating the original
institution of marriage, and showing the evils resulting from a plu-
rality of wives — evils which are very great in all Asiatic countries.
There were likewise some special regulations restraining polygamy,
and the evil considerably diminished in the progress of time.
Agriculture, and likewise the keeping of flocks and herds, prevailed
in the primitive ages, and the Mosaic laws specially favored the tillage
of the soil. This art was held in high esteem among the Hebrews.
The naturally-fertile soil of Palestine was made more fertile by the
care taken to improve it. Such grains as wheat, millet, spelt, barley,
beans, lentils, meadow-cumin, etc., were cultivated; while flax, cotton,
melons, cucumbers and rice were likewise raised. The beasts of bur-
den used in agriculture were bulls, cows and asses. The vine was ex-
tensively cultivated.
Agriculture was the chief pursuit of the Hebrews. Every seventh
year the lands were left untilled, and whatever grew of itself was to be
given to the destitute. The houses were mostly poor and low, and
were built of sun-dried mud or unhewn stones until the time of the
kings, when more attention was devoted to architecture. The street-
doors were adorned with inscriptions from the Laws of Moses. The
windows had no glass, but were latticed. The roofs were flat, and the
people often resorted to them for cool air, and even slept there in sum-
mer time. Domestic implements were rare and of simple construction.
Grain was ground in hand-mills by the women. Olive-oil was used
in lamps to give light. The towns presented a mean appearance, be-
cause of the want of public buildings. The Hebrew books, like those
of other ancient nations, were in the form of rolls.
415
Polyg-
amy.
Agricul-
ture.
Social
Life and
Customs.
1-29
CHAPTER V.
KINGDOMS OF ASIA MINOR.
SECTION I.— GEOGRAPHY OF ASIA MINOR.
ASIA MINOR is a large peninsula, forming the western extremity of Location.
Asia, and is now a part of the Ottoman, or Turkish Empire. It is
bounded on the north by the Euxine, or Black Sea; on the east by
Armenia ; on the south by the Mediterranean ; and on the west by the
^Egean Sea (Grecian Archipelago), the Hellespont (Dardanelles), the
Propontis (Sea of Marmora), and the Bosphorus.
The term Asia Minor, or Lesser Asia, was given to this peninsula Designa-
in the Middle Ages. The region is now called Anatolia, or Naiolia, tions.
meaning the East, or the place where the sun rises ; being thus equiva-
lent to the French term Levant, as often applied to the shores along
the eastern portion of the Mediterranean.
Asia Minor is five hundred miles in extent from east to west, and two Area,
hundred and sixty from north to south, having an area of about one C1*m.ate>
hundred thousand square miles, or about half that of France. It is Products,
in the same latitude as the Middle States of our Union, but has a
warmer climate. In the North, along the Black Sea, ice and snow
are sometimes seen in winter. In the elevated central regions the win-
ters are very severe. In the South the seasons are mild ; and here such
fruits as figs, oranges, lemons, citrons and olives are yielded in large
quantities. Corn, wine, oil, honey, coffee, myrrh and frankincense are
produced in abundance in Asia Minor. The country has varied soil,
climate and productions, and many portions of it are extremely fertile.
The coasts of the Black Sea are considered the finest portions of Asia
Minor. The western shores, along the JEgean, are likewise produc-
tive, and have always been noted for their delightful climate.
The rivers of Asia Minor, though small, are celebrated in history. Rivers.
The Halys (now Kizil-Ermak) anciently divided Paphlagonia and
Pontus, and is the largest river of Asia Minor, being about three hun-
dred and fifty miles long. The Iris (Yeshil-Ermak) is a considerable
river. The Thermodas (Tarmeh) flowed through Themiscyra, the
417
418
KINGDOMS OF ASIA MINOR.
Moun-
tains.
Lakes.
Minerals.
Islands.
Part in
History.
home of the fabled Amazons. The Sangarius (Sakaria) is the second
river in length. All these and numerous smaller streams rise in the
Anti-Taurus mountain range, and flow north into the Black Sea. The
rivers in the South are small. The Granicus (Ousvola) — famed for
the first great victory of Alexander the Great over the Persians —
flows north into the Propontis. The Hermus and its tributary, the
Pactolus, were celebrated for the gold found in their sands. The
Meander was remarkable for its windings, and thence was derived the
term meandering, as used in describing a crooked stream. These and
other small rivers flowed west into the ^gean.
Two mountain ranges traverse Asia Minor from east to west, the
southern range being the Taurus, and the northern the Anti-Taurus.
Some of their summits are twelve thousand feet high, and are perpetu-
ally covered with snow. Many peaks of these mountains are renowned
in history. Mount Cragus was the supposed abode of the fabled Chim-
era. Mount Ida was the place where Paris adjudged to Venus the
prize of beauty. Mount Sipylus was the residence of Niobe. The
sides of these mountains produce rich forests of oak, ash, elm, beech,
etc. Here the plane-tree reaches its perfection. These forests yield
a never-failing supply of timber for the Turkish navy.
Asia Minor has many fresh and salt water lakes. The mountains
divide the surface into long valleys and deep gorges, with many plat-
eaus. In the more elevated tablelands of the center, the South and
the South-east are still lakes. The fresh water lakes are in the North-
west, in the ancient Bithynia, five being of considerable size. Of these,
the Ascanius is celebrated for its beauty, and on its eastern shore is
the city of Nice (now Isnek), famous for the ecclesiastical council
held there in A. D. 325, which established Christianity as the state
religion of the Roman Empire.
Asia Minor abounds in mineral wealth. The Chalybes, in the North-
east, were early celebrated as metal-workers. Copper is found near
Trebizond, the ancient Trapezus, and other places along the Black Sea.
There are likewise mines of lead, cinnabar and rock-alum. The gold
of the Pactolus filled the treasury of the Lydian kings. Volcanic con-
vulsions have made deserts of certain spots in Asia Minor. Many of
the old Roman roads in the country yet remain.
Along the southern coast of Asia Minor, in the Mediterranean, are
the beautiful islands of Cyprus and Rhodes. On the western shores,
in the JEgean, are the fine islands of Cos, Icaria, Samos, Chios and
Lesbos ; all of whose history is closely connected with that of the adja-
cent territory upon the mainland.
Asia Minor played a considerable part in the drama of the world's
history, and was the theater of many important events. Though never
GEOGRAPHY OF ASIA MINOR.
419
the seat of any very great empire — the ancient Lydian being the most
powerful — its soil witnessed many struggles for dominion in ancient
and mediaeval times. It has been rendered famous by the personal
prowess and the martial deeds of Achilles, Darius, Xerxes, Alexander
the Great, Mithridates, Pompey, Caesar, Tamerlane, Bajazet and Mo-
hammed II.
There is very little unity in the history of Asia Minor. Only three
of its ancient independent kingdoms are of any importance — Cilicia,
Phrygia and Lydia — the last of which was the most powerful, and was
contemporary with the great empires of Media and Babylonia. Since
the fall of the last of these, Asia Minor has been under the successive
dominion of the Persians, the Macedonian Greeks, the Romans, the
Seljuk Turks, the Mongol Tartars, and for the last five centuries
under the Ottoman Turks, under whose pernicious rule the country has
everywhere fallen into decay.
The petty states or divisions of ancient Asia Minor varied in their
respective boundaries at different times, and some of them were only
geographical divisions or dependent provinces of other states, while
others were independent kingdoms at various periods. In the northern
part of the peninsula, bordering on the Euxine, beginning from the
west, were Bithynia, Paphlagonia and Pontus. In the western por-
tion, bordering on the JEgean, beginning from the north, were Mysia,
Lydia and Caria. In the southern part, bordering on the Mediter-
ranean, commencing from the west, were Lycia, Pamphylia and Cilicia.
In the interior, beginning from the west, were Phrygia, Galatia, Lyca-
onia, Pisidia, Isauria and Cappadocia.
The western part of Mysia, on the coast, was called Lesser Phrygia,
Troas, or the Troad. It was famous for the Trojan plains and the
city of Troy, immortalized by Homer.
Bithynia, Paphlagonia and Pontus were skirted with Greek colonies
on the Euxine coast, during the period of Grecian commerce. The
Halys and Sangarius, the principal rivers of Asia Minor, which flow
north into the Euxine, were in this section.
The whole western or ^Egean coast of the peninsula, in Mysia, Lydia
and Caria, were colonized by the Greeks, whose commercial cities in
Ionia, JEolia and Doris were the most flourishing free states of an-
tiquity, prior to their conquest by the Persians. The chief Greek
cities of Asia Minor were Ephesus, Smyrna, Miletus and Halicarnas-
sus.
Lydia — at first called Maeonia — was the richest and most fertile, and
ultimately the most famous and the most powerful, country of Asia
Minor. Its renowned capital and metropolis, Sardis, was situated on
the river Pactolus at the foot of Mount Tmolus, famous for its rich
Lack of
Historic
Unity.
Ancient
Petty
States.
The
Troad.
Bithynia.
Paphla-
gonia,
Pontus.
Mysia,
Lydia,
Caria,
Ionia,
JEolia,
Doris.
Lydia.
420
KINGDOMS OF ASIA MINOR.
Phrygia.
Galatia,
Isauria,
Lycaonia,
Cappado-
cia.
Caria,
Lycia,
Fisidia,
Pam-
phylia,
Cilicia.
veins of gold. Magnesia and Philadelphia were other leading cities
of Lydia.
The limits of Phrygia were constantly changing. Its chief cities
were Gordium, the capital, and Celaenae in ancient times; but many
others were erected when the Macedonian Greeks became masters of
the country, the chief of which were Apamea, Laodicea and Colosse.
Galatia was so called from a horde of Gauls who entered the country
in the third century before the Christian era. Isauria and Lycaonia
were intersected by the Taurus mountain chain. Cappadocia lay be-
tween the rivers Halys and Euphrates, and its chief town was Mazaca.
Caria was chiefly celebrated for the prosperous Greek colonies on
its coast. Lycia, Pisidia and Pamphylia were mountainous regions in
the South. Cilicia was in the South-east, and was separated from
Syria by the Amanus mountains; its chief cities being Tarsus and
Anchiale, both founded by Sennacherib, the renowned Assyrian mon-
arch.
Early
Aryan
Migra-
tions.
The
Phrygi-
ans.
SECTION II.— PHRYGIA AND CILICIA.
IN early times Asia Minor was occupied by various Aryan nations —
Phrygians, Cilicians, Lydians, Carians, Paphlagonians and Cappado-
cians — who migrated into the country from the East in primitive times,
and were almost equal in power. This equality, along with the natural
division of the country by mountain ranges, prevented the growth of
a powerful empire in Asia Minor, and favored the development of a
number of parallel, independent kingdoms. Herodotus states that
the country contained thirty nations in his time.
The Phrygians are said to have been the first Aryan immigrants
into Asia Minor, and they probably at one time occupied the whole
peninsula, but successive migrations of other tribes from the east and
the west pressed them in from the coast, except in the region just south
of the Hellespont, and caused them to settle in the center of the penin-
sula, where they occupied a large and fertile country, abounding in
rich pastures and containing a number of salt lakes. The Phrygians
were a brave, but brutal race, engaged chiefly in agriculture, par-
ticularly in the culture of the vine. They migrated from the moun-
tains of Armenia, bringing with them a tradition of the Deluge and
of the resting of the ark on Mount Ararat. In primitive times they
lived in caves or habitations which they hollowed out of the rocks on
the sides of the hills, and many of these rock-cities can yet be found
in every portion of Asia Minor. Before the time of Homer, however,
the Phrygians had well-built towns and a flourishing commerce. Their
religion consisted of many dark and mysterious rites, some of which
KINGDOM OF LYDIA.
421
were subsequently adopted by the Greeks. The worship of Cybele,
and of Sabazius, the god of the vine, was accompanied by the wildest
music and dancing.
The Phrygians appear to have had a well-organized monarchy about
B. C. 750, or probably earlier, their capital being Gordium, on the
Sangarius river. Their kings were alternately named GOEDIAS and
MIDAS, but we have no chronological list of these. Phrygia declined
as Lydia grew powerful, and was conquered by Lydia and became a
province of that monarchy about B. C. 560.
Cilicia occupied the south-eastern part of Asia Minor, and was a
rich and fertile country, whose inhabitants were employed in agricul-
ture. It was an independent monarchy during the early period of the
Assyrian kingdom. It was subdued by Sargon, who, about B. C. 711,
bestowed the country on Ambris, King of Tubal, as a dowry for his
daughter, thus making it tributary to Assyria. Having revolted from
Assyria, Cilicia was invaded and ravaged by Sennacherib about B. C.
701. That great Assyrian king founded in Cilicia the city of Tarsus,
about B. C. 685 — afterwards so renowned as the birth-place of St.
Paul. Cilicia having again revolted against Assyrian rule, Esar-had-
don invaded and ravaged the country about B. C. 677. A king named
TYENNESIS ascended the throne of Cilicia about B. C. 616, and there-
after all the Cilician monarchs bore that name. Cilicia maintained
her independence against Lydia, but was conquered by the Persians
and became a province of the vast Medo-Persian Empire during the
reign of Cambyses, the son and successor of Cyrus the Great.
Kingdom
of
Phrygia.
Kingdom
of
Cilicia.
SECTION III.— KINGDOM OF LYDIA.
THE most famous, and ultimately the most powerful, of all the king-
doms of Asia Minor was Lydia, at first called Maeonia. Its territory
varied in geographical extent at different times. Lydia proper was
bounded on the north by Mysia, on the east by Phrygia, on the south
by Caria, and on the west by the JEgean sea. It ultimately embraced
the whole peninsula, except Lycia, Cilicia and Cappadocia. Sardis,
its renowned capital and metropolis, was situated on the Pactolus, at
the foot of Mount Tmolus, with its strong citadel on the side of a
lofty hill with a perpendicular precipice on one side. The other cities
of Lydia were Magnesia, at the foot of Mount Sipylus ; Thyatira and
Philadelphia. Ephesus was the chief of the Greek cities on the coast
of Lydia. The original territory of Lydia was noted for its wonder-
ful fertility and for its mineral wealth. The Pactolus, a branch of
the Hermus, carried a rich supply of gold from the sides of Mount
Lydia
and its
People.
KINGDOMS OF ASIA MINOR.
Origin.
Dynasties
of the
Atyadae,
Heraclidae
and
Mermna-
dae.
Lydian
Tradi-
tions.
Over-
throw
of the
Heraclidae
by the
Mermna-
dae.
Gyges.
Tmolus, and this precious metal was washed into the streets of Sardis.
Mounts Tmolus and Sipylus contained rich veins of gold. The Lydi-
ans were celebrated for their wealth and culture, and were the first
people who coined money. They " were one of the earliest commer-
cial people on the Mediterranean, and their scented ointments, rich
carpets, and skilled laborers or slaves were highly celebrated. The
Greeks received from them the Lydian flute, and subsequently the
cithara of three and of twenty strings, and imitated their harmony.
The Homeric poems describe the Lydians, or Maeones, as men on horse-
back, clad in armor, and speak of their commerce and wealth. It
seems that the worship of the Lydians resembled that of the Syrians,
and was polluted with its immoral practices. The ancient writers
often mentit, the depravity of the Lydians, while admitting their skill
and courage in war. When subdued they submitted quietly to their
conquerors."
According to Josephus, the Lydians were named from Lud, a son of
Shem. Herodotus, however, derives the name from LYDUS, an ancient
king of the country. An absolute hereditary monarchy was early
established in Lydia. Three successive dynasties governed the country
— the Atyadce, so called from ATYS, the son of MANES, the first of the
kings regarding whom no distinct account is given ; the Heraclidce, or
descendants of Hercules ; and the Mermnadce, under whom Lydia ulti-
mately became a powerful kingdom.
Herodotus tells us that the Lydian traditions represented Ninus and
Belus as going from Lydia to found the cities of Nineveh and Baby-
lon. We also learn from Herodotus of other Lydian traditions. It
is said that in the reign of Atys, the son and successor of Manes, the
pressure of a severe famine caused the king to compel a portion of the
nation to emigrate to the distant Hesperia, under the command of
Tyrrhenus, the king's son. After building a fleet at Smyrna, they
sailed westward for their new country, which proved to be Etruria, in
Italy; and thus was founded the Etruscan nation. At another time
the Lydians pushed their conquests beyond the limits of Asia Minor
to the very southern extremity of Syria, where their general, Ascalus,
is said to have founded the famous city of Ascalon, in the land of the
Philistines. Little confidence is to be placed in any of these early
Lydian traditions concerning the remote period of the nation.
The real history of Lydia extends only as far back as the ninth cen-
tury before Christ. The ruling dynasty of the Heraclidae grew jeal-
ous of the Mermnadae and treated them with injustice, whereupon the
Mermnadae sought safety in flight; but when they found themselves
strong enough they returned, murdered the Heraclide king, and placed
their leader, GYGES, upon the throne of Lydia, about B. C. 700. The
KINGDOM OF LYDIA.
prosperity of Ljdia greatly increased under Gyges, and the nation
assumed an aggressive attitude toward its neighbors. The great
amount of his revenue made the name of Gyges proverbial, and he
spread abroad his fame by sending to the temple of Delphi, in Greece,
presents of such magnificence that they were the admiration of after
times. The predecessors of Gyges had been on friendly terms with
the Greek colonists on the western coast of Asia Minor. But Gyges
changed this peaceful policy for the purpose of extending his sea-
board, and thus made war on the Greek maritime cities, attacking Mile-
tus and Smyrna unsuccessfully, but capturing the Ionic city of Colo-
phon. Herodotus, Eusebius, Nicolas of Damascus, and Xanthus are
our main authorities for the history of Lydia thus far related. Some
tell us that Gyges also quarreled with the inland city of Magnesia, and
reduced it to submission after many invasions of its territory; but
Herodotus says nothing about this event. Strabo says that Gyges con-
quered the whole of the Troad, and that the Milesians could only estab-
lish their colony of Abydos on the Hellespont after obtaining his per-
mission. The Greeks of Asia Minor and the islands of the JEgean evi-
dently considered Gyges a rich and powerful monarch, and constantly
celebrated his wealth, his conquests and his romantic history.
At the end of the long reign of Gyges a great calamity fell upon Cim-
Lydia. The Cimmerians, from the peninsula now known as the Cri- i^e/si°n
mea, and the adjacent region of the present Southern Russia, pressed of Lydia.
on by the Scythians from the steppe region, crossed the Caucasus and
entered Asia Minor by way of Cappadocia, spreading terror and deso-
lation all around. Alarmed at this barbarian invasion, Gyges placed
himself under the protection of Assyria, and defeated the Cimmerians,
taking several of their chiefs prisoners. Grateful for the Assyrian
alliance, Gyges sent an embassy to Asshur-bani-pal and courted his
favor by rich gifts and by sending him Cimmerian chiefs. These the
Assyrian monarch looked upon as tribute. Gyges, however, afterwards
broke with Assyria, and aided the Egyptian rebel, Psammetichus, in
reestablishing his independence. Assyria thereupon withdrew her pro-
tection from Lydia, and Gyges was left to his own resources, which
were totally inadequate when the great crisis came. Sweeping every-
thing before them, the fierce Cimmerian hordes swarmed resistlessly
into the western portions of Asia Minor; overrunning Paphlagonia,
Phrygia, Bithynia, Lydia and Ionia. Gyges was defeated and killed
in battle with them. The inhabitants shut themselves up in their walled
towns, where they were often besieged by the barbarians. Sardis it-
self, except its citadel, was taken, and a terrible massacre of its in-
habitants ensued. Within a generation Lydia recovered from this ter-
rible blow and renewed her attacks on the Greek colonies on the coast.
VOL. 2.— 6
424
KINGDOMS OF ASIA MINOR.
Ardys,
Sady-
attes,
Alyattes.
Expul-
sion of the
Cim-
merians.
War with
Media.
Lydia's
Allies.
Warlike
Character
of the
Lydians.
Gyges was succeeded on the Lydian throne by his son, ARDYS, who
made war on Miletus. SADYATTES, the son and successor of Ardys,
continued this war. ALYATTES, the son and successor of Sadyattes,
pursued the same aggressive policy toward Miletus, and besieged and
took Smyrna and ravaged the territory of Clazomenae. Herodotus,
Nicolas of Damascus, Strabo and Eusebius are our main authorities for
the events of these reigns.
The great task of the reign of Alyattes was the expulsion of the
Cimmerians from Asia Minor. The barbarian hordes, greatly ex-
hausted by time, by their losses in battle, and by their excesses, had
long ceased to be dangerous, but were still able to menace the peace
of the country. According to Herodotus, Alyattes is said to have
" driven them out of Asia." This would imply that they were ex-
pelled from Paphlagonia, Bithynia, Lydia, Phrygia and Cilicia; a
result which the Lydian king achieved by placing himself at the head
of a league embracing the states of Asia Minor west of the Halys.
Thus Alyattes, by freeing Asia Minor of the presence of the Cim-
merian hordes, proved his great military capacity, and laid the founda-
tions of the great Lydian Empire.
The conquest of Cappadocia by Cyaxares the Mede, who thus ex-
tended the western frontier of the Median Empire to the Halys, brought
the Median and Lydian monarchs into collision. Coveting the great
fertile plains west of the Halys, Cyaxares soon found a pretext for
attacking the dominions of Alyattes. Herodotus tells us that a body
of nomad Scyths had served under the Median king, serving him
faithfully for some time, chiefly as hunters ; but disliking their posi-
tion or distrusting the intentions of their Median masters, they finally
abandoned Media, and proceeding to Asia Minor, were welcomed by
Alyattes. Cyaxares sent an embassy to Sardis demanding of the
Lydian king the surrender of the fugitive Scyths; a demand which
Alyattes answered with a refusal and immediate preparations for war.
The numerous other princes of Asia Minor, alarmed at the rapid ad-
vance of the Median dominion westward, willingly placed themselves
under the protection of the King of Lydia, to prevent the absorption
of their respective territories into the powerful Median Empire, as they
had previously put themselves under his leadership in the struggle
which resulted in the expulsion of the Cimmerians.
Lydia herself had considerable resources. She was the most fertile
country of Asia Minor, which was one of the richest regions of the
ancient world. At this time Lydia was producing large quantities of
gold, which was found in great quantities in the Pactolus, and perhaps
in other small streams flowing from Mount Tmolus. The Lydian
people were warlike and ingenious. They had invented the art of coin-
KINGDOM OF LYDIA. 435
ing money, say Xenophon, Herodotus and others. They exhibited
much taste in their devices. They also claimed to have invented many
games familiar to the Greeks. Herodotus also informs us that they
were the first who earned a living by shop-keeping. They were skill-
ful in the use of musical instruments, and their own peculiar musical
style was much favored by the Greeks, though condemned as effeminate
by some of the Grecian philosophers. The Lydians were also brave
and manly. They fought mostly on horseback, and were good riders,
carrying long spears, which they employed very skillfully. Nicolas
of Damascus says that, even as early as the time of the Heraclide dy-
nasty, they were able to muster thirty thousand cavalry. They found
recreation in the chase of the wild-boar.
Thus Lydia was no contemptible enemy, and, with the aid of her al- Peace and
lies, she proved herself fully a match for the great Median Empire, ^^een
For six years, Herodotus tells us, did the war go on between Media and Mediaand
Lydia with various success, until, as we have seen in the history of
Media, it was terminated by the sudden eclipse of the sun in the midst
of a battle, which excited the superstitious fears of both parties and
led to the negotiation of a peace. Syennesis, King of Cilicia, the ally
of the King of Lydia, and Labynetus of Babylon, the ally of the King
of Media, proposed an armistice, which being agreed on, a treaty of
peace was at once concluded, which left everything in status quo. The
Kings of Media and Lydia swore a friendship, which was to be ce-
mented by the marriage of Aryenis, the daughter of Alyattes, with
Astyages, the son of Cyaxares. By this peace the three great empires
of the time — Lydia, Media and Babylonia — became firm friends and
allies, and stood side by side in peace for fifty years, pursuing their
separate courses without jealousy or collision. The crown-princes of
the three empires had became brothers, and all Western Asia, from the
shores of the JEgean on the west to the Persian Gulf on the east, was
ruled by interconnected dynasties, bound by treaties to respect each
other's rights, and to assist each other in certain important emergen-
cies ; and this quarter of the globe entered upon an era of tranquillity
which it had never before known.
Relieved from the fear of Median conquest by the treaty just men- War
tioned, Alyattes renewed the war against the Greek colonists on the the
western coast of Asia Minor during the last years of his reign. He colonists.
captured Smyrna and gained other important successes.
On the death of Alyattes in B. C. 568, his son, CROESUS, became his Croesus.
successor. Croesus was the most famous, as well as the last, of the
Kings of Lydia. He continued the wars begun by his father against HisCon-
the Asiatic Greeks, and conquered the Ionian, ^Eolian and Dorian **ue
Greeks, and all Asia Minor west of the Halys, excepting Lycia and
426
KINGDOMS OF ASIA MINOR.
Lydia's
Power.
Wealth
of
CrcEsus.
His
Interview
with
Solon.
Solon's
Answers.
Cilicia; thus enlarging his dominion by the acquisition of Phrygia,
Mysia, Paphlagonia, Bithynia, Pamphylia and Caria. Herodotus re-
marks that he was the first conquerer of the Greeks of Asia Minor,
who had hitherto never been subject to any foreign power. Under him
Lydia attained the highest pinnacle of her glory and prosperity ; but
no sooner had she reached this position among the nations of the time
than she was overthrown by a power which made itself master of all
the then-known world outside of Europe — the great Medo-Persian Em-
pire, founded by Cyrus the Great on the ruins of the Median Empire,
and which absorbed Babylonia and Egypt along with Media and
Lydia.
The Kingdom of Lydia was now one of the great powers of the
world and was far more extensive than at any previous period, and
may truly be called an empire. Its capital, Sardis, advantageously
situated at the foot of Mount Tmolus, on the river Pactolus, famous
for its golden sands, now became famed among the great cities of
Asia. Xenophon regarded it as second only to Babylon in riches.
Herodotus observes that it was a place of great resort, and was fre-
quented by all Grecians distinguished for their talents and wisdom.
Cro2sus was renowned throughout the ancient world for his wealth,
and his name became proverbial for great riches. His story has fur-
nished a subject for moralists of every subsequent age to illustrate the
uncertainty of earthly prosperity and the vicissitudes of human life.
Croesus considered himself the most fortunate of men. When only
crown-prince his father had associated him in the government of the
kingdom, and while holding this station, he was visited by Solon, the
great sage and lawgiver of Athens, and one of the " Seven Wise Men
of Greece." Croesus entertained his distinguished guest with great
hospitality in his palace; but the sage viewed the magnificence of the
court with calm indifference, which mortified Croesus. Solon was con-
ducted to the royal treasury to view and admire the riches contained
therein. Croesus then asked him whom he considered the happiest man
in the world, expecting to hear himself named. Solon replied : " Tel-
lus, an Athenian, who, under the protection of an excellent form of
government, had many virtuous and amiable children. He saw their
offspring, and they all survived him. At the close of an honorable
and prosperous life, on the field of victory, he was rewarded by a
public funeral by the city."
Croesus, disappointed with this reply, then asked Solon whom he
regarded as the next happiest person. The sage mentioned two broth-
ers of Argos, who had won the admiration of their countrymen by their
devotion to their mother, and who had been rewarded by the gods with
a pleasant and painless death. Croesus, in astonishment, asked : " Man
KINGDOM OF LYDIA.
427,
of Athens, think you so meanly of my prosperity as to rank me below
private persons of low condition? " Solon, not willing either to flat-
ter or disappoint Croesus, replied : " King of Lydia, the Greeks have
no taste for the splendors of royalty. Moreover, the vicissitudes of
life suffer us not to be elated by any present good fortune, or to admire
that feh'city which is liable to change. He, therefore, whom Heaven
smiles upon to the last, is, in our estimation, the happy man 1 " After
giving this answer, the Athenian sage took his departure, leaving
Croesus chagrined, but none the wiser. JEsop, the celebrated fabulist,
is also said to have visited Croesus at Sardis, and is said to have ob-
served to Solon : " You see that we must either not come near kings,
or say only what is agreeable to them." To which the sage replied:
" We should either say what is useful, or say nothing."
The vicissitudes of fortune, which Solon desired Croesus to ponder
upon, were soon exemplified in his own case. Croesus had two sons,
one of whom was dumb, but the other, named Atys, was endowed with
superior accomplishments. Croesus is said to have had a vision warn-
ing him that this son would die by the point of an iron spear. The
frightened father resolved to settle him in marriage and devote him to
a peaceful life. He took away his command in the army, and removed
every military weapon from those about his person. About this time
a certain Adrastus, who had accidentally killed his brother, sought
refuge in Sardis, having been banished from home by his father ; and,
in accordance with ancient pagan custom, sought expiation of a neigh-
boring prince. Belonging to the royal family of Phrygia, he was
received in a friendly manner by Croesus, who allowed him an asylum
at his court. Shortly afterward a wild-boar of remarkable size made
his appearance near Olympus, in Mysia. The frightened inhabitants
requested Croesus to send his son with hunters and dogs to destroy
the beast. The king, who had not forgotten the vision, kept back his
son, but offered them a select band of dogs and hunters. The young
man, mortified by his father's resolution, remonstrated, until he was
permitted to go to the chase, under the protection of Adrastus. They
attacked the boar, and the king's son was kiUed by an accidental thrust
from the spear of the Phrygian refugee. The unhappy monarch
pardoned Adrastus, thinking that he was the instrument of an inevita-
ble fatality; but the killer, in the deepest anguish for what he had
done, retired, in the darkness of night, to the grave of Atys, confess-
ing himself the most miserable of mankind, and there committing sui-
cide. Croesus mourned for two years the loss of his son, who was his
heir to the throne of Lydia.
Alarmed at the rapid growth of the new Medo-Persian Empire,
which had recently been founded by Cyrus the Great on the ruins of
^Esop's
Visit.
Singular
Death
of the
Son of
Croesus.
with
Persia.
KINGDOMS OF ASIA MINOR.
Reply
of the
Delphic
Oracle.
Answer,
of
CroBoUS
His
Gift t^ the
Delphic
Oracle.
Ambig-
uous
Reply.
the great Median power, and seeing that a struggle for the dominion
of Asia Minor was inevitable, Croesus entered into an alliance with
Egypt and Babylonia against the new Persian power. Before enter-
ing upon the struggle, the King of Lydia, who was very superstitious
and would never begin any important undertaking without consulting
the ministers of the various deities worshiped in those countries, in-
quired of various oracles as to the result of his enterprise. But to
assure himself of the truth of the answers of the oracles he consulted,
he sent messengers to all the most famous oracle of Greece and Egypt,
with orders to inquire, every one at his respective oracle, what Croesus
was doing at such a day and such an hour, before agreed upon. The
replies are said to have been unsatisfactory to the monarch. But it
is said that as soon as the messengers entered the temple of Delphi, the
oracle there gave this answer:
" I count the sand ; I measure out the sea ;
The silent and the dumb are heard by me;
Even now the odors to my sense that r"p ,
A tortoise boiling with a lamb supplies
Where brass below and brass above it lies."
When Croesus heard of this reply, he declared that the oracle of
Delphi was the only true one; because, on the day mentioned resolv-
ing to do what would be difficult to discover or explain, he had cut a
lamb and a tortoise in pieces and boiled them together in a covered
brass vessel. This story is given us by Herodotus. There is no doubt
about Croesus consulting the oracle, but the marvelous part of the tale
was likely an invention of the priests of Delphi to raise the reputation
of their oracle.
Croesus is represented as being satisfied of the divine character of
the responses of the Delphic oracle, and as therefore resolved to make
a magnificent gift to the oracle. Collecting three thousand chosen
victims, a vast number of couches overlaid with gold and silver, along
with goblets of gold and purple vests of immense value, he cast all
these into a sacrificial pile ai»J burned them. The melted gold ran into
a mass, and he made of this a vast number of large tablets, and like-
wise a lion ; and these and a number of vessels of gold and silver he sent
to the Delphic oracle. The Lydians conveying these presents were
instructed to inquire whether Croesus could successfully undertake an
expedition against the Persians, and whether he should strengthen
himself by forming any new alliances. The response of the oracle was,
that if Croesus made war on the Persians he would ruin a great em-
pire, and that he would do well by making alliances with the most
powerful of the Grecian states.
CRCESUS ON THE FUNERAL PYRE
From the Drawing by H. Vogel
KINGDOM OF LYDIA. 439
The Lydian king, regarding this ambiguous answer as fully satis- Croesus
factory, was exceedingly elated with the hope of conquering Cyrus k
the Great. He consulted the Delphic oracle a third time, wishing to
know if his power would be permanent. He obtained the following
reply :
" When o'er the Medes a mule shall sit on high, The
O'er pebbly Hermus, then soft Lydian fly; Further
Fly with all haste ; for safety scorn thy fame, Reply.
Nor scruple to deserve a coward's name."
Fully satisfied with this new answer, Croesus advanced against Cyrus, Battle of
crossing the Halys and marching through Cappadocia into Syria, and
laying waste the country as he advanced. After some minor engage-
ments, Croesus was decisively defeated in the great battle of Thymbra,
in which the army of Croesus is said to have amounted to four hundred
thousand men, and that of Cyrus to one hundred and ninety-six thou-
sand. This is the first pitched battle of which the ancient writers give
us any details. The mercenaries in the Lydian army dispersed, return-
ing to their respective homes. Croesus, with the remainder, retreated
to Sardis, whither he was pursued by the triumphant Persians, who Defeat of
gained a second great victory, this time before the walls of the Lydian
capital itself. The hopes of Croesus now completely vanished, and his
capital was taken by storm, B. C. 546.
Croesus was taken prisoner by his conqueror, who condemned him Captivity
to be burned alive. After the captive monarch had been led to execu- Croesus.
tion on the funeral pile, and as the torch was about to be applied,
Croesus remembered the admonitions given him by the sage of Athens.
Struck with the truth of Solon's words, and overwhelmed with grief
and despair, the unhappy monarch exclaimed : " Solon ! Solon ! Solon ! "
Cyrus, who was present at the scene, demanded the reason for this ex-
clamation, and the entire story was related to him. Greatly affected
by the wisdom of Solon's words, and pondering on the vicissitudes of
human affairs, the victorious Persian king was moved to compassion His
for his unfortunate captive, and therefore ordered the fire to be extin- e
guished and Croesus to be given his liberty.
Upon being restored to freedom, Croesus at once sent to Delphi the Expiana-
fetters by which he had been confined, with the design of thus re- Delphic8
preaching the oracle for deceiving him with false promises of victory Priests,
for his arms. The Delphian priests explained the story of the mule
as designating Cyrus, who had a double nationality, being born both
a Persian and a Mede. It was explained that the great empire of
which Croesus was informed that he would ruin if he made war on
Persia was his own, as that empire had been great, but was now ruined ;
KINGDOMS OF ASIA MINOR.
Lydia, a
Persian
Province.
but Croesus was not comforted by this explanation of the Delphian
priests.
In consequence of the overthrow of Croesus, Lydia ceased to be an
independent nation, and became a province of the great Medo-Persian
Empire ; and Sardis, the Lydian capital, became one of the chief cities
of that vast empire. Cyrus ever afterward treated Croesus as a friend,
and Xenophon tells us that he took him along with him wherever he
went.
KINGS OF LYDIA.
DYNASTIES.
KINGS.
TIME OF REIGNS, ETC.
Atyadse
Manes
} Known Kings Before B. C. 1229, Accord-
ing to Herodotus.
From B. C. 1229 to B. C. 724 or 698.
(Last Six Heraclide Kings, According to
Xanthus and Nicolas of Damascus.
Heraclidse .......
Atys
Lydus
Meles
Mermnaclae
Adyattes I
Ardys
Adyattes II
TIME ACCORDING TO «
HERODOTUS.
ETTSEBITJS.
B. C. 724-686.
" 686-637.
" 637-625.
" 625-568.
" 568-554.
B. C. 698-662.
" 662-624.
" 624-609.
" 609-560.
" 560-546.
VJiJglAJ
Ardys
Sadyattes
Alyattes
Croesus
CHAPTER VI.
REPUBLIC OF CARTHAGE.
SECTION I.— GEOGRAPHY OF NORTHERN AFRICA.
ALTHOUGH Africa was circumnavigated in very early times, the in- Northern
terior is not yet fully explored; and the southern part, because of the
difficulty of navigation in the ocean, was neglected until all knowledge
of its discovery had been forgotten. But the northern coast border-
ing on the Mediterranean became lined with Greek and Phoenician
colonies. This vast region was naturally divided into three strips, dif-
fering in width, almost parallel with the sea-line — 1, the maritime
country, which consisted mainly of very fertile tracts, whence it was
called Inhabited Africa, is now styled Barbary ; 2, a rugged mountain
district, whose loftiest peaks form the chain of Mount Atlas, in which
abound wild horses and palm-groves, whence the ancients called it the
land of lions, and the moderns Beled el Gerid, or the Land of Dates,
while the Romans generally called it Gastulia; 3, a vast sandy desert,
called Sahara by the Arabs.
Several small rivers flow north into the Mediterranean from the Rivers.
chain of Mount Atlas, but there are no important streams on the south
side of these mountains, and there is no great river in the interior north
of the distant Niger, of which the ancients knew very little or nothing ;
and nothing was actually known of its real course until the present
century, when the Lander brothers first explored it along its entire
course.
The Mediterranean coast of Africa west of Egypt embraced six Political
political divisions. Of these, Marmarica, the most eastern division,
bordering on Egypt, was a sandy tract occupied by nomad tribes.
Cyrenaica, west of Marmarica, was a fertile district planted with Greek
colonies, extending to the greater Syrtis, and its chief cities were
Cyrene and Barca. Both Marmarica and Cyrenaica embrace the ter-
ritory of the modern Barca. Regio Syrtica, the modern Beylik of
Tripoli, was a sandy region subject to the Carthaginians, but princi-
pally occupied by nomad hordes. The domestic territory of Carthage
REPUBLIC OF CARTHAGE.
embraced that of the modern Beylik of Tunis. West of this section
was a very fruitful country subject to Carthage, the northern part
being called Byzacena, and the southern Zeugitana. Numidia em-
braced the eastern part of the territory of the present Algeria.
Mauritania comprised the middle and western portion of the present
Algeria and the northern part of the domain included in the present
Empire of Morocco. Numidia and Mauritania were both occupied by
nomad hordes, the ancestors of the present Moors and Berbers; but
both these countries had some Carthaginian colonies along the coasts.
Carthage. The mighty city of Carthage — for a long time the mistress of the
Mediterranean — was built on a peninsula in the interior of a large
bay, now known as the Gulf of Tunis, formed by the projection of
the Hermsean promontory (now Cape Bon) on the east, and the pro-
montory of Apollo (now Cape Zebid) on the west. The peninsula
was about midway between Utica and Tunis, both these cities being
visible from the walls of Carthage; Utica being about nine miles dis-
tant, and Tunis only six miles. This peninsula was connected with
the mainland by an isthmus with an average of about three miles in
length ; and on the seaside was a narrow neck of land pro j ecting west-
ward, forming a double harbor, and serving as a mole or breakwater
to protect the shipping. Towards the sea the city was fortified only
by a single wall; but the isthmus was guarded by the citadel Byrsa,
and by a triple wall eighty feet high and about thirty feet wide.
Territory The African territory of Carthage extended westward along the
Carthage coas^ of the Pillars of Hercules (now Straits of Gibraltar) ; eastward
to the altars of Philseni, which marked the frontier between the terri-
tories of Cyrene and Carthage ; and southward to the Tritonian lake,
but many of the nomad tribes beyond these limits were nominally sub-
ject to the great commercial republic.
Provinces The fertile provinces of Carthage were occupied by a people who
Carthage, tilled the soil, and extended in a direct line from Cape Bon to the most
eastern angle of the Triton lake, a distance of almost two hundred
geographical miles, with an average breadth of one hundred and fifty
miles.
Foreign The foreign possessions of Carthage embraced the Balearic Isles,
^?™tS~ Corsica, Sardinia and the smaller islands in the Mediterranean, the
810113*
southern portions of Sicily and Spain, some settlements on the western
coast of Africa, and the Fortunate Isles in the Atlantic, supposed to
be the Canaries and the fertile Madeira.
Domin- Thus, while Carthage ruled directly the region embraced in the
r^rfii °f modern Tunis and Tripoli, she held as tributary the region com-
prised in the present Algeria and Morocco, thus ruling directly or
indirectly the whole of what is included in the modern Barbary states.
GROWTH AND INSTITUTIONS OF CARTHAGE,
SECTION H.— GROWTH AND INSTITUTIONS OF
CARTHAGE.
WHEN Queen Dido and the aristocratic party fled from Tyre to Queen
escape the tyranny of the queen's brother Pygmalion, they sailed for l ^n
the coast of Northern Africa, in the modern Beylik of Tunis, upon Founding
which several flourishing Phoenician colonies had already been estab- Carthage.
lished, such as Utica, Hadrumetum, Leptis and others. The Tyrian
fugitives under Dido selected as the site for the new colony the head
of a peninsula projecting eastward into the Gulf of Tunis, on the
tenth meridian of longitude, and joined with the mainland by an isth-
mus three miles wide. Here were several excellent land-locked harbors,
a position easily defended, and a fairly fertile soil. The settlement
was made with the good will of the natives, who understood the benefits
of commerce, and willingly gave the new colonies a part of the soil
at a certain specified rent. Thus Carthage was founded B. C. 869.
The growth of Carthage was slow, but gradually it grew into im- Growth of
portance ; and within one or two centuries from the date of her f ounda- Carthage.
tion Carthage had become a considerable power, far outstripping all
the other Phoenician colonies in that region and had acquired a rich
and extensive dominion. The native tribes in the vicinity of the new
city, who had originally been nomads, were induced to adopt agricul-
tural pursuits. Carthaginian colonies were thickly planted among
them, intermarriages between the colonists and the natives were en-
couraged, and a mixed population arose in the fertile tract south and
south-west of Carthage, known as Liby-Phoenices, and these adopted
the language and habits of the settlers and became faithful and at-
tached subjects. Beyond this occupied territory Carthaginian influ-
ence was extended over numerous pure African tribes, most of which
were nomads, while a few were agricultural. The tribes were held in
loose and nominal subjection, as are the Arab tribes of modern Algeria
by the French; but they were still considered Carthaginian subjects,
and doubtless contributed to the resources of Carthage. The proper
territory of Carthage was regarded as extending southward to Lake
Triton, and westward to the river Tusca, which separated Zeugitana
from Numidia, thus almost corresponding to the modern Beylik of
Tunis. From this compact and valuable territory the Carthaginians
proceeded to extend their supremacy or influence over all Northern
Africa from the Cyrenaica (the modern Barca) on the east to the
Atlantic on the west; and their authority came to be gradually ac-
knowledged by all the coast tribes between the Tusca and the Pillars
of Hercules, and also by the numerous nomad races between Lake Tri-
REPUBLIC OF CARTHAGE.
Her
Con-
quests in
Northern
Africa.
Conquest
of
Sardinia,
Corsica,
Malta,
Balearic
Isles,
Madeiras
and
Canaries.
Foreign
Mercena-
ries.
Naval
Power.
ton and Cyrenaica. In the former region numerous Carthaginian
settlements were made, while Carthage claimed and exercised the right
to march troops along the shore. From the latter tract only commer-
cial advantages were obtained, but these were very important.
We have already observed that the Phoenicians had established nu-
merous settlements on the northern coast of Africa long before the
founding of Carthage, but Carthage soon eclipsed all these in power
and importance. Utica, Hadrumetum, Leptis Magna and other cities
were at first independent Phoenician colonies, as free of the authority
of Carthage as she was of their dominion. But by degrees Carthage
extended her sway over these cities. Yet to the very last Utica and
several others of these Phoenician communities maintained a certain
degree of independence, being only members of a confederacy under
the leadership of Carthage. These confederates of Carthage were
unable to resist her, or to exercise much check upon her policy, but
she was not absolute mistress upon all places within her territory.
Carthage even extended her dominion beyond the limits of Northern
Africa. She established her influence in the West of Sicily at an
early date, and superseded the more ancient influence of Phoenicia in
that island. The Carthaginians conquered Sardinia near the end of
the sixth century before Christ, after long and sanguinary wars. They
had already occupied the Balearic Isles — Majorca, Minorca and Ivica.
They subsequently made settlements in Corsica and in Spain, and sub-
jugated the smaller islands of Malta, Gaulos (now Gozo) and Cercina
in the Mediterranean, and those of Madeira and the Canaries in the
Atlantic. By the end of the sixth century before Christ, Carthage
had extended her power from the Greater Syrtis on the east to the
Fortunate Isles (the Canaries) on the coast, and from Corsica on the
north to the Atlas mountain chain on the south.
The great commercial city effected her extensive conquests by the
employment of foreign mercenaries. Besides the disciplined force
which Carthage obtained from her own native citizens and from the
mixed race of Liby-Phoenices, and besides the irregular troops which
she drew from her other subjects, she employed large bodies of hired
troops, derived partly from the independent African nations, such as
the Numidians and the Mauritanians, and partly from the warlike
European races brought into contact with her by her foreign trade,
such as the Iberians of Spain, the Gauls of Gaul (now France), and
tthe Ligurians of Northern Italy. We have evidence that this prac-
tice existed as early as the year B. C. 480, and there are abundant
reasons for believing that it began at a considerably earlier period.
The naval power of Carthage must have dated from the very found-
ing of the city. As the sea in ancient times swarmed with pirates, an
GROWTH AND INSTITUTIONS OF CARTHAGE.
extensive commerce required the possession of a powerful navy to pro-
tect it.
For several centuries Carthage must have been undisputed mistress
of the Western Mediterranean. The officers and sailors in her fleets
were mainly native Carthaginians, while the rowers were principally
slaves, bred or bought by the state for the purpose.
Carthage was an aristocratic republic, and its constitution vested
the political power in a privileged class. The native element, located
at Carthage, or in its immediate vicinity, were the ruling element, and
virtually governed all the rest of the Carthaginian dominion. This
native element itself was divided by class distinctions, according to
wealth. The two Suffetes, who stood at the head of the state, were
chosen only from certain families, but all native Carthaginians were
eligible to all other offices. Still, as no office was salaried, the poor
man could not afford to serve the state in any civil or political capacity,
and thus the offices virtually fell into the hands of the rich. Public
opinion was likewise strongly on the side of wealth. Candidates for
office were expected to expend large sums of money in treating on the
most extensive scale, if not in actual bribery. Thus office and political
power practically became the heritage of a circle of wealthy families.
At the head of the state were two Suffetes, or Judges, who, in early
times, were Captains-general, as well, as civil chief magistrates, but
whose offices by degrees came to be regarded as only civil and not
military. These Suffetes were chosen by the citizens from certain
wealthy families, perhaps for life. Next to these magistrates was the
Council, consisting of several hundred men, and from this body almost
all the officers of the government were appointed, either directly or
indirectly — as the Senate of One Hundred, a select committee of the
Council, which directed all its proceedings ; and the Pentarchies, com-
missions of five members each, which managed the different depart-
ments of state and filled vacancies in the Senate. The Council of One
Hundred Judges (or with the two Suffetes and the two High Priests,
104), a high court of judicature chosen by the people, was the most
popular element in the constitution of Carthage; but the members of
the court were virtually selected from the upper classes, and their power
was rather employed to check the excessive ambition of individual
members of the aristocracy than to enlarge the civil rights or improve
the social condition of the masses. The people were contented, how-
ever, as they elected the Suffetes under certain limitations, and usually,
freely. The people may have filled vacancies in the Great Council;
and when the Suffetes and the Council disagreed on public measures
the people discussed and took action, and their decision was final.
Questions of peace or war were frequently brought before them, though
Naval Su-
premacy.
Aristo-
cratic
Rule.
Govern-
ment.
Suffetes.
Council.
Senate.
Pentarch-
ies.
Aristo-
cratic
System.
436
REPUBLIC OF CARTHAGE.
Banking.
not necessarily so. The aristocratical features of the constitution were
upheld by the weight of popular sentiment, which favored the vesting
of political power in the hands of the rich. The openings which trade
gave to enterprise enabled any one to become rich, and abject poverty
was scarcely known, because as soon as it made an appearance it was
relieved by the planting of colonies and the allotment of waste lands
to all such as applied for them.
Revenue. It was necessary for Carthage to have a large and secure revenue,
since her power mainly depended upon her maintenance of vast armies
of foreign mercenaries. This revenue was partly drawn from state
property, especially rich mines in Spain and elsewhere; partly from
the tribute which was paid by the confederated cities, such as Utica,
Hadrumetum and others, as well as by the Liby-Phoenices, the depend-
ent African nomads, and the provinces, such as Sardinia, Sicily, etc. ;
and partly from customs rigorously exacted from all the Carthaginian
dominions. The tribute was the most elastic of all these sources of
revenue, which was increased or diminished as the demands of the state
required, and is reputed to have sometimes amounted to fifty per cent,
on the income of those subject to it.
A curious kind of banking was established at Carthage. Pieces of
a compound metal, the secret of whose composition was strictly pre-
served, so as to prevent forgery, were sewed up in leather coverings
and marked with a government seal declaring the nominal value. This
money was only current in Carthage itself.
The religion of Carthage was that of her mother Tyre, and was
therefore polluted by obscene rites and sanguinary human sacrifices.
But the Carthaginians also introduced foreign gods into their pan-
theon, as they adopted the worship of Ceres from the Sicilians, and sent
ambassadors to Greece to consult the oracle of Delphi. There does
seem to have been a distinct priestly caste, or even order, in Carthage,
the sacerdotal functions being exercised by the magistrates. Diodorus
informs us that in the temple of Saturn at Carthage the brazen image
of the god stood with outstretched hands to receive the bodies of chil-
dren offered to it. Mothers brought their infants in their arms; and
as any indications of reluctance would have rendered the sacrifice unac-
ceptable to the image, they caressed them to keep them quiet until the
moment when they were handed over to the image, which was con-
trived so as to consign whatever it received to a fiery furnace beneath
it. Inscriptions have been discovered at Carthage recording the offer-
ing of such sacrifices. They continued after the Roman conquest of
Carthage, until the Roman Proconsul Tiberius suppressed these bloody
rites by hanging the priests who conducted them on the trees of their
sacred grove. Thenceforth the public exhibitions of the sacrifice
Religion.
Horrible
Sacrifices
of
Infants.
CARTHAGINIAN COMMERCE.
437
ceased, but they continued in secret to the time of Tertullian, in the
third century of the Christian era. In the history of Phoenicia we
have given accounts of these sacrifices.
SECTION III.— CARTHAGINIAN COMMERCE.
THE commerce of Carthage extended in the north as far as Corn-
wall in Britain and the Scilly Isles, in the east to Phoenicia, in the west
to Madeira and the Canaries, in the south by sea to the coast of Guinea,
and by caravans across the Great Desert to Fezzan and to Central
Africa. Carthage obtained the commodities that she needed mainly
by trade, exchanging for them her own manufactures, such as textile
fabrics, hardware, pottery, personal ornaments, harness for horses,
tools, etc. But it was likewise to a great extent a carrying trade, by
which Carthage enabled the nations of Western Europe, Western Asia
and Central Africa respectively to obtain each other's products. Car-
thaginian commerce was partly a sea and partly a land traffic. By
sea this commerce was mainly with her mother Tyre, with her own
colonies, with the nations along the Western Mediterranean, with the
tribes along the Atlantic coast of Africa from the Pillars of Hercules
to the coast of Guinea, and with the savage Britons of Cornwall and
the Scilly Isles. But while Carthaginian merchants scoured the sea in
every direction in their trading ships, caravans directed by Cartha-
ginian enterprise crossed the Great Desert and brought to Carthage
from Central Africa the products of those remote regions, such as
gold-dust and negro slaves, while from the districts north of the desert
were obtained dates and salt. Upper Egypt, Cyrene, the oases of the
Sahara, Fezzan, and probably Ethiopia and Bornou carried on this
traffic with the famous commercial republic.
The principal commerce of the Carthaginians in the Western Medi-
terranean was with the Greek colonies in Sicily and Southern Italy,
from which they obtained wine and oil in exchange for negro slaves,
precious stones and gold, procured from the interior of Africa, and
also for cotton cloths manufactured at Carthage and in the island of
Malta. From Corsica they procured honey, wax and slaves ; from
Sardinia, corn ; from the Balearic Isles, the best breed of mules ; from
the Lipari Isles, resin, sulphur and pumice-stone ; from Southern Spain,
the precious metals. Beyond the Pillars of Hercules the Carthagin-
ians superseded the Phoenicians in the tin trade with the British Isles
and the amber traffic with the nations along the Baltic. On the west-
ern coast of Africa, Carthaginian colonies lined the shores of the pres-
ent Morocco and Fez, but their chief mart in this region was the island
Extent
of
Cartha-
ginian
Com-
merce.
Nearby
Com-
merce.
438 REPUBLIC OF CARTHAGE.
Cerne. of Cerne, now Suana, in the Atlantic Ocean, which was the great depot
of merchandise, and from which goods were transported in light barks
to the opposite coast, where they were bartered with the natives. The
Commod- Carthaginians exported trinkets, saddlery, cotton webs, linen, pottery
and arms ; receiving in exchange undressed hides and elephants' teeth.
Besides this trade there was a very lucrative fishery; the tunny fish
(thynnus scomber) , still abundant on the north-western coast of Africa,
being regarded as a great luxury by the Carthaginians.
SECTION IV.— CARTHAGE'S WARS WITH GREEK
COLONIES.
War with CYBENE, the Greek colony which had attained great commercial pros-
yrene. perjty9 regarded the Carthaginians with jealousy, and war soon broke
out between the rival commercial cities.
Mago While the great Medo-Persian Empire was making itself master of
y' the East, the Republic of Carthage was fast becoming supreme in the
West, under the family of Mago — a family which possessed the chief
power for more than a century. But just as they were rising into
importance they had to meet a powerful enemy in the Western Medi-
terranean, whose recognized skill and valor threatened a dangerous
rivalry.
War with The enterprising inhabitants of Phocaea, a great maritime city of
Ionia, in Grecian Asia Minor, unable to resist the conquering Persians,
abandoned their country and settled in the island of Corsica, a portion
of which was already occupied by the Carthaginians. The Cartha-
ginians and Tyrrhenians, or Tuscans, of Italy, jealous of the rivalry
of the Phocaeans, entered into an alliance to exterminate them, and sent
a fleet of one hundred and twenty sail to drive them from Corsica;
but this allied fleet was defeated by a Phocsean fleet half as large, after
which, however, they abandoned Corsica for the southern shores of
Gaul, where they founded the city of Massilia, now Marseilles.
Alliance In B. C. 508, just after Rome had become a republic by the expul-
Rome s*on °^ Tarquin the Proud, a commercial treaty was concluded between
the republics of Rome and Carthage, from the terms of which it is
shown that Carthage was already mistress of the Western Mediter-
ranean, being supreme on the northern coast of Africa and the island
of Sardinia, and also holding possession of the Balearic Isles and a
large part of Sicily and Spain.
First War Carthage, iealous of Grecian valor and enterprise, and alarmed at
in Sicily. ., . ,,& . . ... , „ ., „, r , , . . c. .,
the rapidly-increasing wealth and power of the Greek colonies in bicily
and Southern Italy, entered into an alliance with Xerxes the Great,
CARTHAGE'S WARS WITH GREEK COLONIES. 439
King of Persia, when that famous monarch led his gigantic expedition
into Greece, and agreed to assail the Grecian colonies while he waged
war with Greece itself. Accordingly a Carthaginian armament was
prepared, consisting of two thousand ships of war, three thousand
transports and vessels of burden, and an army of three hundred thou-
sand men; the command of the entire expedition being assigned to
Hamilcar, the head of the celebrated family of Mago. This vast host
consisted mainly of African mercenaries, and was composed of light
troops, wholly undisciplined. This immense expedition landed in Sic-
ily at Panormus (now Palermo) ; and, after a short rest, Hamilcar
advanced and besieged Himera. The governor of the city, Theron,
made a heroic defense, and sorely pressed by famine and the over-
whelming force of the besiegers, urgently requested aid from Syra-
cuse.
Thereupon Gelo, King of Syracuse, led a force of five thousand Cartha-
horse and fifteen thousand foot against the Carthaginians. On the rx?1"?1?
way he captured a messenger from the Selinuntines to Hamilcar, prom- Gelo,
ising on a certain day to join the Carthaginians with the auxiliary gKing of
force of cavalry that he had requested. Hamilcar had offered large
bribes to win over some of the Greek colonies in Sicily to the side of
the Carthaginians; but the Selinuntines, the old foes of the Syracu-
sans, alone agreed to aid him. Gelo sent the letter to Hamilcar; and
having taken steps to intercept the treacherous Selinuntines, he sent a
select body of his own troops to the Carthaginian camp in their stead
at the stated time. The Syracusans being admitted without being
suspected, suddenly galloped to Hamilcar's tent, killed the general and
his principal officers, and set fire to the Carthaginian fleet in the har-
bor. The blaze of the burning ships, the cries of Hamilcar's servants,
and the triumphant shout of the Syracusans, threw the entire Cartha-
ginian army into confusion, in the midst of which it was attacked by
Gelo with the remainder of his forces. Having lost their leaders, the
Carthaginians could make no successful resistance, and lost more than
half their number in the field; while the remainder, without arms or
provisions, sought refuge in the interior of the island, where most of
them perished. This great victory of the Greek race in Sicily was won
on the same day that the Greeks in the mother country resisted the
Persian hosts at Thermopylae and defeated the Persian fleet at Arti-
misium — three of the grandest triumphs won in the gigantic struggle
for Hellenic freedom, B. C. 480. The miserable remnant of the
mighty Carthaginian hosts under Gisgon, Hamilcar's son, was obliged
to surrender at discretion. Con-
For the next seventy years Carthage made no further effort to con- ^orth"1
quer Sicily from the Greeks, but greatly extended her power over the Africa.
VOL. 2.— 7
440
REPUBLIC OF CARTHAGE.
War with
Syracuse.
Cartha-
ginian
Con-
quests in
Sicily.
Capture
of Agri-
gentum
and Gela.
Insincere
Peace.
Greek
Treach-
ery.
Siege of
Syracuse.
Cartha-
ginian
Surren-
der.
native tribes of Northern Africa, and made important conquests from
the Cyrenians.
After an Athenian fleet had been destroyed in an attack upon Syra-
cuse, B. C. 416, the Carthaginians again had their attention directed
to Sicily by an embassy from the city of Segesta, asking their protec-
tion against the Syracusans, whose anger it had incurred by its alli-
ance with the Athenians.
The Carthaginians readily seized the pretext afforded them by the
Segestan embassy, and sent another expedition against Sicily under
the command of Hannibal, the son of Gisgon. This invasion was
successful. Selinuntum and Himera were taken by storm, and their
inhabitants were massacred. The Silician Greeks requested a truce,
which was granted them on conditions exceedingly favorable to the
Carthaginians.
Elated with this success the Carthaginians now aimed at the com-
plete conquest of Sicily. Inules, the son of Hanno and Hannibal,
at the head of a large armament, besieged Agrigentum, the second city
of the island. The siege lasted eight months, during which the be-
siegers suffered severely from pestilence, and the garrison from famine.
The Agrigentines finally sallied from the city, forced their way through
the Carthaginian lines by night, and retreated to Gela, leaving the
aged, the sick and the wounded to the mercy of the Carthaginians.
Himilco, who had succeeded to the chief command of the Carthaginians
on the death of his father Hannibal, ordered the massacre of these
helpless victims. Gela soon shared the fate of Agrigentum; and Dio-
nysius I., King of Syracuse, who had assumed the command of the
confederated Sicilians, negotiated for peace; whereupon a treaty was
concluded, which neither party sincerely desired to observe any longer
than would be necessary to prepare for a more decisive struggle, B.
C. 405. As soon as the Carthaginians had retired, Dionysius I. sent
deputies to all the Greek states of Sicily, requesting them to make a
simultaneous attempt to drive the Carthaginians from the island, and
secure their independence from any danger in the future. He suc-
ceeded in his plans. The Carthaginian merchants who had settled in
the chief towns, on the faith of the late treaty of peace, were treacher-
ously massacred; while Dionysius, at the head of a formidable army,
took several important Carthaginian fortresses, B. C. 397.
Carthage sent a gigantic force to punish this treachery, and Him-
ilco advanced against Syracuse and besieged the city, but a violent
plague carried off a large part of the Carthaginian army; while Dio-
nysius sallied from the city with all his forces, and assailed the camp
of the besiegers with such success that Himilco found himself obliged
to surrender on terms sparing the lives of himself and his Cartha-
Z
UJ
O
Z -Q
uu -a
X S
o jg
1 I
CARTHAGE'S WARS WITH GREEK COLONIES. 44,1
ginians, but abandoning all his auxiliaries to the vengeance of the
Syracusans.
The Carthaginians sent another armament under Mago, a noble- Cartha-
man of high rank, to repair their losses in Sicily, but these forces were Defeat
routed with terrible slaughter, Mago himself being slain. His son, the and
younger Mago, being reinforced from Africa, won a great victory
over the Syracusans ; and Dionysius was obliged to sue for peace, Peace,
which was concluded on terms honorable to both parties.
After this war in Sicily, a frightful plague carried off multitudes Plague at
of the inhabitants of Carthage, B. C. 347. Immediately after this,
insurrections broke out in the African provinces of Carthage and in Revolts,
the Carthaginian colonies of Sicily and Sardinia ; but the Carthaginian
Senate, by a policy of firmness, tempered by conciliation, overcame these
dangers, and the state recovered its former vigor and prosperity.
Meanwhile Syracuse was torn by domestic troubles following the Dissen-
death of Dionysius L, who, though called a tyrant by the Greek his- Syracuse
torians, was a wise and prudent monarch. Says Scipio Africanus:
" No one ever concerted his schemes with more wisdom or executed War with
them with more energy than the elder Dionysius." His son and sue-
cessor, Dionysius II., was a profligate sovereign, whose excesses were
a cause of tumult and distraction to the state. The Carthaginians
took advantage of the internal dissensions in Syracuse with great eager-
ness to execute their favorite design of conquering Sicily ; and a large
armament was equipped for the purpose and placed under the chief
command of Mago, B. C. 346.
In his first attack Mago made himself master of the harbor of Syra- Mago's
cuse. The Syracusans, destitute of money, solicited the aid of the of siciiy>
Corinthians, and Timoleon, one of the greatest generals and purest
patriots of antiquity, was sent to their aid. A large portion of the
Carthaginian army had been levied in the Greek colonies. Timoleon,
appealing to their patriotism, addressed letters to the leaders of these
mercenaries, remonstrating with them on the disgrace of bearing arms
against their kindred. Hearing of these intrigues of Timoleon, and
thus distrusting his Greek mercenaries, Mago returned to Carthage. Return to
The Carthaginians were aroused to the highest pitch of indignation
at the unexpected termination of the campaign, and Mago committed
suicide to escape their wrath. New forces were raised to retrieve their
losses in Sicily. Hannibal and Hamilcar were appointed to the com-
mand, and were entrusted with an army of seventy thousand men, and
a fleet of two hundred war-galleys and a thousand ships of burdeV
Timoleon hastened to meet the invaders, though his forces scarce!*
numbered seven thousand men. He unexpectedly attacked the C*»-
thaginian army on its march, near the river Crinisus, and the Cartha-
44£
REPUBLIC OF CARTHAGE.
Cartha-
ginian
Defeats in
Sicily.
Hanno's
Plot in
Carthage.
ma
Defeat
and
Death.
Intrigues
of
Agatho-
cles in
Syracuse.
' His
Defeat.
Siege of
Syracuse.
Invasion
of Africa
by
Agatho-
cles.
ginians, completely surprised, were routed in confusion. The Syra-
cusans took one town after another, until finally the Carthaginian
Senate was obliged to solicit peace and to accept the terms dictated
by the triumphant Syracusans.
While Carthage was thus unsuccessful abroad her liberties were men-
aced with destruction. Hanno, one of the chief men of the state,
determined to make himself master of his country by poisoning the
leading men of the Senate at a banquet. This nefarious plot was
foiled by its timely discovery, and the chagrined traitor determined to
openly rebel. Arming his slaves, twenty thousand in number, Hanno
took the field, inviting the native African tribes to join his standard,
but this appeal was disregarded. Before Hanno could collect fresh
forces, he was surrounded by an army hastily gathered, his followers
were routed, and Hanno himself was made prisoner. He was put to
death with the most cruel tortures, and, in accordance with the bar-
barous custom of Carthage, his children and nearest relatives shared
his fate.
Fresh dissensions in Syracuse gave the Carthaginians a new pretext
for interfering in Sicilian affairs. Agathocles, an intriguing dema-
gogue of low extraction, had acquired great influence among his coun-
trymen, and, finally, by the secret aid of the Carthaginians, became
master of the state. But he displayed so little gratitude that he an-
nounced his intention to drive the Carthaginians from the island. The
Carthaginian Senate at once sent Hamilcar with a formidable army
against Agathocles, who was utterly defeated and forced to shut him-
self up within the walls of Syracuse. The city was soon besieged, but
Agathocles assembled the Syracusans and declared that he would save
them from all dangers if an army and a small sum of money were
placed at his disposal, saying that his plan would completely fail if
he disclosed its nature. Thereupon an army of liberated slaves was
hastily levied, the sum of fifty talents was intrusted to his discretion,
and a fleet was raised secretly. When all was ready Agathocles de-
clared his design of transporting his forces into Africa, and alarming
the Carthaginians into the evacuation of Sicily.
Eluding the vigilance of the blockading squadron, Agathocles safely
arrived in Africa before the Carthaginians were aware of his designs,
B. C. 309. He cut off all opportunity of retreat by burning his trans-
ports, for the purpose of inspiring his soldiers with a resolution to
conquer or die. He then boldly advanced, stormed Tunis and several
other cities, dividing their plunder among his soldiers, and instigated
the native African princes to revolt against Carthage. Hanno and
Bomilcar were sent to check the progress of this bold invader, with
forces four times the size of the Sicilian army ; but they were decisively
CARTHAGE'S WARS WITH GREEK COLONIES.
448
defeated by Agathocles, who followed up his success by storming the
Carthaginian camp, where he found heaps of fetters and chains, which
the Carthaginians, in proud confidence of victory, had prepared for
the Sicilian invaders.
This unexpected defeat produced dreadful consternation at Car-
thage. Hamilcar, who was prosecuting the siege of Syracuse with
vigor, was surprised by the unexpected order to return home to defend
his own country. He raised the siege and sent five thousand of his
best troops, and, after supplying their place with fresh mercenaries,
he again invaded the territories of Syracuse, but was unexpectedly
attacked, defeated and slain.
Ophelias, King of Cyrene, had joined Agathocles with all his forces ;
but the King of Syracuse, jealous of his influence, caused him to be
privately poisoned. Having thus rid himself of his rival, Agathocles
thought he could safely return to Sicily and leave his army in Africa
under the command of his son. But in his absence all the results of
his former victory were lost; as the army threw off all restraint and
discipline, while the Greeks, indignant at the murder of Ophelias, with-
held their contingents, and the African princes returned to their al-
legiance to Carthage. Hearing of these disorders, Agathocles has-
tened to remedy them, but utterly failed and fled back to Sicily, leaving
both his sons and his soldiers to their fate. Indignant at this deser-
tion, the Syracusan army surrendered to the Carthaginians ; and
Agathocles soon afterward died either from grief or poison.
After the death of Agathocles the Carthaginians renewed their in-
trigues in Sicily and soon gained a controlling influence in the island.
The Greek colonies, in alarm, solicited the aid of Pyrrhus, King of
Epirus, who had married a daughter of Agathocles, and who was then
in Italy defending the colonies of Magna Grgecia against the Romans
(B. C. 277). Pyrrhus took every Carthaginian town in Sicily, except
Lilybseum, but soon returned to Italy ; and the fruits of his victories
were lost, notwithstanding the efforts of Hiero, King of Syracuse.
The result of the wars in Sicily was not encouraging to the Cartha-
ginians. Carthage had only succeeded in keeping possession of one
third of the island at the cost of several hundred thousand lives, of
large fleets, and of a vast treasure ; but she had not advanced her pos-
sessions a single mile. Her armies had been generally beaten, when
they encountered their foes on equal terms. The Carthaginian gen-
erals were usually inferior to those of the Greeks. Carthage had also
discovered that descents could be made upon her own shores, and that
her African subjects could not always be relied upon. Yet she did
not abandon her purpose. After the death of Agathocles the power
of the Greeks in Sicily rapidly declined.
His
Victories.
Siege of
Syracuse
Raised.
Hamil-
car's
Defeat
and
Death.
Ophelias
Poisoned.
Syracu-
san
Disasters.
Victories
of
Pyrrhus
in Sicily
over the
Cartha-
ginians.
Results
of these
Wars.
444
REPUBLIC OF CARTHAGE.
The
Punic
Wars.
Mamer-
tines
Defeated
by Hiero,
King of
Syracuse.
First
Punic
War.
Its
Result.
Hamilcar
Barca
and
Hannibal.
Hamil-
car's
Con-
quests
in Spain.
SECTION V.— CARTHAGE'S STRUGGLE WITH ROME.
CAETHAGE was now about to enter a struggle with a new enemy —
Rome. This gigantic struggle embraced three long wars covering
more than a century, and included the three Punic Wars, the details
of which will be related in the history of Rome. Pyrrhus, upon leav-
ing Sicily, exclaimed to his attendants : " What a fine field of battle
we are leaving to the Carthaginians and the Romans ! " His predic-
tion was soon fulfilled. A body of mercenaries called Mamertines, in
the pay of Agathocles, after the death of that king, treacherously
seized the city of Messina and massacred all the inhabitants. Hiero,
King of Syracuse, took the field against the Mamertines and defeated
them in battle. Half the Mamertines invoked the aid of the Cartha-
ginians and gave the citadel in their possession, while the other half
sought the protection of Rome. The Romans granted the aid re-
quired, invaded Sicily, took Messina by siege and routed the Cartha-
ginians with terrible slaughter. This was the beginning of the First
Punic War, which lasted twenty-three years (B. C. 264-241), the
details of which will be found in our account of Roman history. In
this war Carthage lost Sicily and her supremacy in the Western Medi-
terranean, and in consequence all her other insular possessions. The
mercenaries mutinied and besieged Tunis. They then marched against
Utica, while the light African cavalry, that had also mutinied, rav-
aged the country to the very gates of Carthage. The mutineers were
only subdued after they had reduced the fairest provinces of the repub-
lic to a desert waste. The mercenaries in Sardinia had likewise re-
volted ; and the Romans, in violation of the late peace, seized the island,
and Carthage was not in a position to resent this injury.
Hamilcar Barca, grieved at the evident decline of his country,
formed a plan to elevate it again to an equality with its insolent rival
by completely conquering the Spanish peninsula. His son Hannibal,
then only a boy of nine years, earnestly requested permission to accom-
pany his father on this expedition; but before granting the request,
Hamilcar led the boy to the altar and made him swear eternal enmity
to Rome.
For nine years Hamilcar commanded the Carthaginian forces in
Spain, and conquered the whole peninsula by force or negotiation.
He used the treasures he acquired to strengthen his family's influence
in the state, depending mainly on the democracy for support against
his powerful rival, Hanno, who had the chief influence among the aris-
tocracy.
Hasdrubal, Hamilcar's son-in-law, inherited his power and his proj-
ects. It is thought that he designed founding an independent king-
CARTHAGE'S STRUGGLE WITH ROME. 4,4,5
dom in Spain after failing to make himself absolute in Carthage. He Hasdru-
f ounded a magnificent new capital in that country, naming it Carthago
Nova (New Carthage) — now called Carthagena — in a region where pouring
the richest silver-mines were opened; and large bribes were sent to of
Carthage to allay jealousy or stifle inquiry. He exerted himself to *a j£
his utmost to conciliate the native Spaniards, and married a daughter Spain,
of a Spanish king. The Romans, alarmed at his success, at length
forced him to sign a treaty, by which he agreed not to cross the Iberus
(now Ebro), nor to attack the territory of the Greek city of Sagun-
tum, an ally of Rome.
When Hasdrubal fell a victim to an assassin's dagger, the family of Hannibal.
Barca was sufficiently influential to obtain Hannibal's appointment
as his successor, though he had scarcely reached his legal majority,
B. C. 221. The youthful commander, after gaining several victories His
over the Spaniards, besieged and captured Saguntum, thus causing the CaP*un
second war with Rome, whose details will be found in our account of Sagun-
Roman history.
During this Second Punic War (B. C. 218-201), the Carthaginian Second
navy, the source of the greatness and security of the state, was ne- war.
glected; and party spirit also distracted Carthage with violence. At
the close of the war Carthage was deprived of all her foreign posses-
sions outside of Africa, and her fleet was surrendered to the Romans.
Thenceforth Carthage was virtually only a commercial city under the H"miu*-
protection of Rome. The Romans, by entering into an alliance with Carthage.
Massinissa, King of Numidia, raised up a powerful rival against Car-
thage in Africa itself, and that monarch seized most of the western
Carthaginian colonies.
Notwithstanding his recent reverses, Hannibal yet remained at the Hfmjj~,,
head of the state in Carthage, and reformed several abuses that had Fate,
crept into the management of the public finances and the administra-
tion of justice. By these wise reforms Hannibal aroused the antagon-
ism of the factious nobility who had previously fattened on public plun-
der. They united with the old rivals of the Barcan family, and even
went so far as to act as spies for the Romans, who still feared the
abilities of Hannibal. As a result of their machinations, the old gen-
eral who had made Rome tremble for her existence was forced to flee
from the country he had so long and so faithfully served; and after
some years of exile the old victor of Trasimenus and Cannae poisoned
himself to escape the malignant enmity of the Romans, who even per-
secuted him in exile and by threats forced the King of Bithynia to
deny him protection. The mound marking his last resting-place is
a remarkable object to this day.
446
REPUBLIC OF CARTHAGE.
Numidian
Aggres-
sions on
Carthage.
Cartha-
ginian
Dissen-
sions.
Cruel
Roman
Demands.
Third
Punic
War.
Destruc-
tion of
Carthage.
Its
Unhappy
Fate.
The Carthaginians soon had cause to lament the loss of their greatest
leader. The Romans were not conciliated by his exile ; and Massinissa,
depending upon their support, made frequent raids into the Cartha-
ginian territories. Both parties accused each other of aggression be-
fore the Roman Senate (B. C. 162) ; and though both received an equal
hearing, the decision had long before been settled in Massinissa's in-
terest. During the progress of these negotiations Carthage was dis-
tracted by political dissensions. The popular party ascribed the low
condition into which the republic had sunk to the animosity shown by
the aristocratic faction to the Barcan family, and particularly to Han-
nibal, because of his financial and judicial reforms; and a tumultuous
assembly of the people banished forty of the leading Senators, exact-
ing an oath from the citizens that they would never allow them to re-
turn. The exiles sought refuge with Massinissa, who sent his sons to
intercede with the Carthaginian populace in their favor. The Nu-
midian princes were denied permission to enter the city, and were even
driven from the Carthaginian territory. This insult caused another
war between Carthage and Numidia, in which Carthage was defeated
and forced to accept a humiliating peace.
The Roman Senate, under the constant solicitations of the elder
Cato, at length determined upon the complete destruction of Carthage.
To provoke Carthage into a war, the Romans made one arrogant de-
mand after another, all of which the Carthaginians, conscious of their
weakness, readily obeyed. The Carthaginians gave three hundred
noble children as hostages, surrendered their ships of war and their
magazines of arms ; but when the Romans finally demanded that they
should abandon their city and consent to its destruction, they took
courage from despair and absolutely refused to obey, making the most
vigorous exertions to defend their city to the last. War at once re-
sulted. The Romans were almost uniformly successful; and after a
struggle of four years (B. C. 149—146), the Third Punic War ended
in the fall of Carthage, which was taken by storm and completely
destroyed, the city being set on fire and many of its inhabitants perish-
ing in the flames rather than survive the ruin of their city, B. C. 149.
Thus perished the mighty commercial republic of ancient Africa,
after an existence of more than seven centuries. This great power
which had for several centuries controlled the destinies of the West,
while Persia ruled supreme in the East — this great maritime power
which had once made Rome tremble for her own national existence —
now fell a helpless victim to her powerful and merciless enemy, and
forever ceased to live except in the memory of her glory and great-
ness.
•JO
40 Longitude Eut of Green« U-b 45
A P
or THE.
MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE
SHOWING ITS TWENTI SATRAPIES
; C. 629 , 831
By I. S. Clara
CHAPTER VII.
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
SECTION I.— PLATEAU OF IRAN AND PERSIAN
PROVINCES.
THE great Medo-Persian Empire was the first of the three greatest Extent,
empires of antiquity; the other two being those of Alexander the compact-
Great, which comprehended very near the same regions and territories, ness of the
and the Roman. The Medo-Persian was thus the first of the great persian
ancient Asiatic empires, covering the widest territorial area, and was Empire,
four times as large as the Assyrian had been ; being about three thou-
sand miles in extent from east to west, and from five hundred to fifteen
hundred miles from north to south, covering an area of about two mil-
lion square miles. It extended from the Hyphasis and the Sutlej on
the east to the African desert, the Mediterranean, the JEgean and the
Euxine on the west; and from the Euxine, the Caucasus, the Caspian,
the Oxus and the Jaxartes on the north to the frontiers of Ethiopia,
Arabia, the Persian Gulf and the Erythraean Sea (now Arabian Sea)
on the south. In this vast domain were various races and many tribes
and nations, likewise every variety of soil and climate, and different
kinds of animal, vegetable and mineral productions. The Medo-Per-
sian Empire was the first of the great ancient Oriental monarchies
which really was an empire; being more compact and centralized than
any of those which had preceded it, such as the Assyrian, Median and
Babylonian, which were mere collections of kingdoms, each with its
own sovereign, its own laws and institutions, acknowledging the su-
premacy of the great monarch whose arms had triumphed over their
kingdom; while the empire now under consideration was a vast domin-
ion comprising many nations whose kings had been dethroned, and
which all formed provinces ruled by satraps appointed by the Medo-
Persian monarch.
The countries included as provinces, or satrapies, in the Medo- provinces
Persian Empire were Media, Persia, Susiana, Babylonia, Assyria, Ar- and. Its
tnenia, Iberia, Colchis, Asia Minor, Cyprus, Syria, Phoenicia, Palestine, bora."
1-51 ***
448
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Location
and
Extent of
the
Plateau
of Iran.
Location
and Area
of Media.
Two
Regions.
Egypt, Cyrenaica, Mycia, Carmania, Sagartia, Cadusia, Hyrcania,
Parthia, Aria, Arachosia, Sattagydia, Gandaria, Sarangia, Gedrosia,
Chorasmia, Sogdiana, Bactria and India. The countries bordering on
the Empire were the Indian desert on the east, the Arabian desert and
Ethiopia on the south, the African desert and Greece on the west, and
the vast Scythian countries of Europe and Asia on the north.
The central and eastern portion of this vast ancient empire included
the large plateau of Iran, comprising the region embraced in the mod-
ern countries of Persia, Afghanistan and Beloochistan, and which
anciently included Media, Persia and the eastern provinces. Thus,
between the Elburz and Zagros mountains on the north and west, the
Suliman and Hala ranges on the east, and the coast-chain running from
Persia proper almost to the Indus on the south, is the great plateau
of Iran, from three thousand to five thousand feet above the sea-level ;
being eleven hundred miles long, and from five hundred to seven hun-
dred miles wide. Two-thirds of this table-land is a desert. The rivers
flowing from the mountains, except the Etymandrus, or Helmend, are
insignificant, and their waters lose themselves in the sands of the in-
terior. Only the Helmend and the Ghuzni form lakes, the others being
absorbed by irrigation, or sucked up by the desert. A few rivers force
their way through the mountain barriers and reach the sea, especially
in the south ; while the Heri-rud, or river of Herat, in the north, makes
its escape from the plateau in a similar way, but is absorbed in the
sands of Kharesm, after passing through two mountain-chains. Thus
most of this region is desert throughout the year, " while as the sum-
mer advances, large tracts, which in the spring were green, are burnt
up — the rivers shrink back towards their sources — the whole plateau
becomes dry and parched — and the traveler wonders that any portion
of the land should be inhabited." The great plateau is not a single
unbroken plain. In the western portion are " brown irregular rocky
ridges."
Media occupied an extensive region south and south-west of the
Caspian Sea, east of Armenia and Assyria, north of Persia proper,
and west of the great salt desert and Parthia. It was about six hun-
dred miles in extent from north to south, and about two hundred and
fifty miles from east to west ; thus having an area of nearly one hun-
dred and fifty thousand square miles, a greater extent than Assyria
and Chaldaea combined. It occupied a tract in one solid mass, " with
no straggling or outlying portions ; and it is strongly defended on
almost every side by natural barriers offering great difficulties to an
invader."
The Median territory comprises two regions — the northern and west-
ern portion being a mountain district embracing a series of lofty
PLATEAU OF IRAN AND PERSIAN PROVINCES.
449
The
Zagros,
ridges ; and the southern and eastern section forming a part of the
great plateau of Iran, extending southward to the Indian Ocean, em-
bracing all of ancient Persia and Carmania, the latter being the modern
Kerman, while eastward this extensive table-land is bounded by the
modern Afghanistan. The average elevation of the territory occu-
pied by ancient Media is about three thousand feet above the level of
the sea.
The western part of the mountain region of Media was anciently
called the Zagros, and is part of the modern Kurdistan and Luristan.
It is thus spoken of : " Full of torrents, of deep ravines, of rocky sum-
mits, abrupt and almost inaccessible; containing but few passes, and
those narrow and easily defensible ; secure, moreover, owing to the rigor
of its climate, from hostile invasion for more than half the year, it has
defied all attempts to effect its permanent subjugation, whether made
by the Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, Parthians or Turks, and remains
to this day as independent of the great powers in its neighborhood
as it was when the Assyrian armies first penetrated its recesses. Na-
ture seems to have constructed it to be a nursery of hardy and vigor-
ous men, a stumbling-block to conquerors, a thorn in the side of every
powerful empire which arises in this part of the great Eastern con-
tinent."
The northern part of the mountain region is called Elburz, and
contains the lofty, snow-covered peak of Demavend, which overlooks
Teheran, the present capital of Persia, and is the highest portion of
Asia west of the great Himalaya mountain chain. The Elburz region
is not as well watered as the Zagros district, its streams being small,
frequently dry in summer, and absorbed by the Caspian Sea, which
bounds the region on the north.
" The elevated plateau which stretches from the foot of these two
mountain regions to the south and east, is for the most part a flat,
sandy desert, incapable of sustaining more than a sparse and scanty Plateau,
population. The northern and western portions are, however, less arid
than the east and south, being watered for some distance by the streams
that descend from Zagros and Elburz, and deriving fertility also from
the spring rains. Some of the rivers which flow from Zagros on this
side are large and strong. One, the Kizil-Uzen, reaches the Caspian.
Another, the Zenderud, fertilizes a large district near Isfahan. A
third, the Bendamir, flows by Persepolis and terminates in a sheet of
water of some size — Lake Bakhtigan. A tract thus intervenes between
the mountain regions and the desert, which, though it cannot be called
fertile, is fairly productive, and can support a large settled popula-
tion. This forms the chief portion of the region which the ancients
called Media."
The
Elburz.
Median
Part of
450
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Soil and
Climate.
Minerals.
Animals i
Media
Magna
and
Media
Atropa-
tene.
The
Southern
Ecbatana.
Media was mainly a sterile country, and had an attractive appear-
ance only in spring. In the mountain region the climate is severe. On
the plateau it is more temperate, but the thermometer does not often
reach ninety degrees in the shade. All in all, the climate is consid-
ered healthy. With the aid of irrigation the great table-land yields
" good crops of grain, rice, wheat, barley, Indian corn, doura, millet
and sesame. It will likewise produce cotton, tobacco, saffron, rhu-
barb, madder, poppies which give a good opium, senna and asafoetida.
Its garden vegetables are excellent, and include potatoes, cabbages,
lentils, kidney-beans, peas, turnips, carrots, spinnach, beet-root and
cucumbers."
Media produced various valuable minerals. Many different kinds
of stone are yet found throughout the country, chief of which is the
beautiful Tabriz marble. Iron, copper and native steel are still mined.
Gold and silver were found in the mountains in ancient times. Sul-
phur, alum and gypsum are found in different portions of the country,
and salt likewise exists in abundant quantities.
The wild animals of Media were the lion, the tiger, the leopard, the
bear, the beaver, the jackal, the wolf, the wild ass, the ibex, or wild
goat, the wild sheep, the stag, the antelope, the wild boar, the fox, the
hare, the rabbit, the ferret, the rat, the jerboa, the porcupine, the mole
and the marmot. The domestic animals were the camel, the horse, the
mule, the ass, the cow, the goat, the sheep, the buffalo, the dog and
the cat.
The southern part of Media, or Media proper, was called Media
Magna; while the northern, or mountainous, portion was known as
Media Atropatene. The capital and metropolis of each of these divi-
sions was a city called Ecbatana. Next to the two Ecbatanas were
Rhages, Bagistan, Adrapan, Aspadan and a few other large and im-
portant cities.
The southern Ecbatana, or Agbatana — the capital and metropolis
of Media Magna — was called Hagmatan by the Medes and Persians
themselves; and, according to Polyhistor and Diodorus, was situated
on a plain at the foot of Mount Orontes, a little west of the Zagros
range. The notices of these writers and those of Eratosthenes, Isi-
dore, Pliny, Arrian and others would imply that the site of this famous
city was that of the modern town of Hamadan, the name of which is
a slight corruption of the ancient name as known by the Medes and
Persians. Mount Orontes has been identified as the modern Elwend,
or Erwend, a long and lofty mountain connected with the Zagros
range, and surrounded with fertile plains famed for their rich and
abundant vegetation and their dense groves of forest trees with their
luxuriant foliage. Hamadan lies at the foot of this mountain.
PLATEAU OF IRAN AND PERSIAN PROVINCES. 451
Ecbatana was mainly renowned for its magnificent royal palace, Its
which Diodorus ascribed to Semiramis. Polybius assigned the edifice j^™
a circumference of seven stadia, or 1420 yards, a little over four-fifths Palace,
of an English mile. The latter writer also spoke of two classes of
pillars, those of the main buildings and those which skirted the courts,
thus implying that the courts were surrounded with colonnades. These
wooden pillars, either of cedar or cypress, supported beams of the same
wood crossing each other at right angles, leaving square spaces be-
tween, which were then filled in with wood- work. Above the whole was
a roof sloping at an angle and composed of silver plates in the shape
of tiles. The pillars, beams and the other wood-work were also lined
with a thin coating of gold and other precious metals. Herodotus
described an edifice which he called " the palace of Dei'oces," but this
is believed to apply to the northern Ecbatana. Polybius says that
Ecbatana was an unwalled city in his time, which was in the second
century before Christ. The Medes and Persians did not generally
surround their cities with walls, being satisfied with establishing in each
town a fortified citadel or stronghold, around which the houses were
clustered. Ecbatana therefore never withstood a siege, and always
submitted to a conquering foe without resistance. The description in
the Apocryphal Book of Judith — which, contradicted by every other
evidence, is purely mythical — represents Ecbatana as having walls of
hewn stone nine feet long and four and a half feet wide; the walls
being one hundred and five feet high and seventy-five feet wide, the
gates of the same altitude, and the towers over the gates one hundred
and fifty feet high.
The chief city of Media Atropatene was the northern Ecbatana, The
which the Greeks sometimes mistook for the southern metropolis and
the real capital of Media, and which in later times was known as Gaza,
Gazaca, Canzaca, or Vera. The description of Ecbatana accords with
the remains of a city in Azerbijan, and not with the local features
of the site of Hamadan ; and a city in this region was called by Moses
of Chorene " the second Ecbatana, the seven-walled town." This city
was located on and about a conical hill sloping gently down from its
summit to its base, interposed by seven circuits of wall between the
plain and the crest of the hill. The royal palace and the treasuries
were at the top of the hill, within the innermost circle of the defenses ;
while the fortifications were on the sides, and the dwellings and other
edifices of the city were at the base of the hill, outside the circuit of
the outermost wall. Herodotus states that the battlements crowning
the walls were differently colored; those of the outer being white, the
next black, the third scarlet, the fourth blue, the fifth orange, the
sixth silver, and the seventh gold. This gave the citadel towering
452
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Rhages
and
Char ax.
Bagistan.
above the town seven distinct rows of colors. The city thus described
by Herodotus coincides with the ruins at the modern town of Takht-i-
Sulei'man, in the upper valley of the Saruk, a tributary of the Jag-
hetu ; and this is believed to be the site of the ancient northern Ecbat-
ana, though only one wall can now be traced.
Rhages, the Median city next in importance to the two Ecbatanas,
was situated near the Caspian Gates, near the eastern extremity of
the Median territory. It is mentioned in the "Zend-Avesta among the
primitive Aryan settlements, and in the Books of Tobit and Judith.
In the Behistun Inscription, Darius Hystaspes, the great Persian king,
mentioned it as the scene of the closing struggle of the great Median
revolt. Darius Codomannus, the last Persian king, sent thither his
heavy baggage and the ladies of his court when he determined to leave
Ecbatana and flee eastward after his final defeat by Alexander the
Great. The site of this ancient city has sometimes been identified
with the ruins of a town called Rhei, or Rhey, though this is uncer-
tain. In the same vicinity, perhaps on the site of the present ruins
known as Uewanukif, was the Median city of Charax. The cities
of Bagistan, Adrapan, Concobar and Aspadan were in the western
part of Media.
Bagistan is described by Isidore as " a city situated on a hill, where
there was a pillar and a statue of Semiramis." Diodorus gives an
account of the arrival of Semiramis at the place ; of a royal park being
established by her in the plain below the mountain, which was watered
by an abundant spring ; of the face of the rock of the lofty precipice
on the side of the mountain, and of her carving her own effigy on the
surface of this rock with an Assyrian cuneiform inscription. This
ancient city has been identified with the celebrated Behistun, where
the plain, the fountain, the precipitous rock and the scraped surface
are yet to be seen, though the supposed figure of Semiramis, her pillar
and her inscription are not visible. The Assyrian, Persian and Par-
thian monarchs made this rock renowned by giving it the sculptures
and inscriptions which showed them to have been the successive lords
of Western Asia during a period of a thousand years. The great
inscription of Darius Hystaspes at this place has already been alluded
to. The Parthian Gotarzes inscribed on this famous rock a record
of his victory over his rival Meherdates.
Adrapan. Adrapan was mentioned by Isidore as being situated between Bagis-
tan and Ecbatana, at the distance of twelve schoeni — thirty-six Roman,
or thirty-four English miles — from the latter city. He described it
as the site of an ancient city destroyed by Tigranes the Armenian.
This place has been identified with the modern village of Arteman,
on the southern face of Elwend, near its base. Sir Henry Rawlinson
PLATEAU OF. IRAN AND PERSIAN PROVINCES. 453
says of this place that " during the severest winter, when Hamadan
and the surrounding country are buried in snow, a warm and sunny
climate is to be found; whilst in the summer a thousand rills descend-
ing from Elwend diffuse around fertility and fragrance." Professor
George Rawlinson, in describing the same place, says : " Groves of
trees grow up in rich luxuriance from the well-irrigated soil, whose
thick foliage affords a welcome shelter from the heat of the noonday
sun. The climate, the gardens, and the manifold blessings of the
place are proverbial throughout Persia, and naturally caused the choice
of the site for a retired palace, to which the court of Ecbatana might
adjourn when either the summer heat and dust, or the winter cold,
made residence in the capital irksome."
Concobar was in the vicinity of Adrapan, on the road leading to Concobai
Bagistan, and is believed to be the modern Kungawar. It is also sup- ,. * nl ~
posed to be the place called Chavon by Diodorus, where he says that
Semiramis built a palace and laid out a paradise. Isidore says that a
famous temple to Artemis was at this place. Colossal ruins crown the
summit of the acclivity on which Kungawar is situated. The Median
town of Aspadan — mentioned by Ptolemy — has been identified as the
famous modern Persian city of Isfahan, the great capital of the Suffee
Kings of Persia several centuries ago.
Persia proper was a comparatively small country, and corresponded Location
to the modern Persian province of Iran, Farsistan, or Fars. It lay Of
upon the gulf bearing its name, extending from the mouth of the Tab
(Oroates) to a point where the gulf connects with the Indian Ocean.
It was bounded on the north by Media Magna, on the east by Mycia,
on the south by the Erythraean, or Arabian Sea, and on the west by
Susiana. It was about four hundred and fifty miles in length, and
about two hundred and fifty miles in width, having an area of over one
hundred thousand square miles.
Persia embraced two distinct regions, which modern geographers Two
term the " warm district " and the " cold region." The " warm dis- eglons-
trict " occupied about one-eighth of the country, and was a tract of
sandy plain, in many places impregnated with salt, extending between
the mountains and the sea the entire length of the kingdom. The soil
is poor and badly watered. The other seven-eighths of the country
embraced the " cold region," and was a mountainous tract, " consist-
ing of alternate mountain, plain, and narrow valley, curiously inter-
mixed, and as yet very incompletely mapped." It has taken altogether
an aspect of sternness and sterility, although it has numerous spots
of rare beauty and fertility. It has a scant water supply, and very
few lakes have any outlets. Numerous lakes, some of which are salt,
abound in Persia, and these receive the waters of most of the streams.
454
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Pasarga-
dcea and
Persepo-
lis.
Gorges. " The most remarkable feature of the country consists in the extra-
ordinary gorges which pierce the great mountain chain, and render
possible the establishment of routes across that tremendous barrier.
Scarped rocks rise almost perpendicularly on either side of the moun-
tain streams, which descend rapidly, with frequent cascades and falls.
Along the slight irregularities of these rocks the roads are carried in
zigzags, often crossing the streams from side to side by bridges of a
single arch, which are thrown over profound chasms where the waters
chafe and roar many hundred feet below. The roads have for the most
part been artificially cut in the sides of the precipices, which rise from
the streams sometimes to the height of two thousand feet. In order to
cross from the Persian Gulf to the high plateau of Iran, no fewer than
three or four of these kotuls, or strange gorge passes, have to be
traversed successively. Thus the country towards the edge of the
plateau is peculiarly safe from attack, being defended on the north
and east by vast deserts, and on the south by a mountain barrier of
unusual strength and difficulty."
In these regions, which combined facility for defense with pleasant-
ness of climate, the principal cities of the country have always been
located. The earliest known capital of Persia was Pasargadae, or Per-
sagadse, whose ruins yet exist at Murgab, in latitude 30° 15' north
and longitude 50° 17' east. Here are the famous tomb of Cyrus the
Great and other interesting remains of ancient Persian architecture.
About thirty miles south from Pasargadas, or more than forty by the
ordinary road, was Persepolis, the second capital, situated towards the
edge of the plateau, having the mountain barrier to the south-west and
the desert at no great distance to the north-east. Like Pasargadae,
Persepolis was situated in a plain, but in a larger and more fertile one.
The plain of Merdasht is one of the most productive in Persia, being
watered by the Bendamir and Pulwar rivers, which unite a few miles
above the site of the ancient city. " From these two copious and never-
failing rivers a plentiful supply of the precious fluid can at all times
be obtained ; and in Persia such a supply will always create the loveliest
verdure, the most abundant crops, and the richest and thickest foliage.
The site of Persepolis is naturally far superior to that in which the
modern provincial capital, Shiraz, has grown up, at about the same
distance from Persepolis as that is from Pasargadas, and in the same —
i. e., in a southwest — direction."
Carmana. Besides Pasargadae and Persepolis, Persia proper had few important
cities. The capital of Carmania was Carmana, a town of some conse-
quence, mentioned by Ptolemy and Ammianus, and may be identified
with the modern Kerman, the capital of the province of the same name,
and one of the chief cities of modern Persia. " Situated, like Pasar-
PLATEAU OF IRAN AND PERSIAN PROVINCES.
455
gadae and Persepolis, in a capacious plain, surrounded by mountains
which furnish sufficient water for cultivation to be carried on by means
of kanats in most parts of the tract enclosed by them, and occupying a
site through which the trade of the country almost of necessity passes,
Kerman must always be a town of no little consequence. Its inland
and remote position, however, caused it to be little known to the Greeks ;
and, apparently, the great Alexandrian geographer was the first who
made them acquainted with its existence and locality."
The chief Persian towns, or villages, upon the coast of the Gulf were
Armuza, in the province of Armuzia, opposite the modern island of
Ormuz ; Sisidona, near Cape Jerd ; Apostana, probably about Shewar ;
Gogana, perhaps the modern Kongoon; and Taoce, on the Granis,
celebrated for the royal palace in its vicinity. The most important
inland towns, after Persepolis, Pasargadae and Carmana, were Gabse,
near Pasargadae, likewise the site of a palace ; Uxia, or the Uxian city,
whose site modern archaeologists have not thus far definitely located
or identified.
Persia proper had a twofold climate; being hot and enervating in
the low country, and cold in the mountain region in winter, but pleas-
ant during the remainder of the year. The vegetable productions
were neither numerous nor remarkable. The low country produced
dates in moderate quantities ; and in a few localities corn, the vine and
various kinds of fruit trees were cultivated. The mountain region fur-
nished an abundance of rich pasture; an admirable quality of grapes
flourishing in those parts, and most of the fruits being abundant.
Persia is believed to be the native country of the peach and the citron.
The grains chiefly raised in Persia were wheat, barley, millet and rice.
Indian corn, introduced from America, has been successfully grown
there in modern times. Pulse, beans, sesame, madder, henna and cotton
were cultivated in ancient times.
The wild animals of Persia proper were the lion, the bear, the wild
ass, the stag, the antelope, the ibex, or wild goat, the wild boar, the
hyena, the jackal, the wolf, the fox, the hare, the porcupine, the otter,
the jerboa, the ichneumon and the marmot. The domestic animals
were the camel, the horse, the mule, the ass, the buffalo, the cow, the
goat, the sheep, the dog and the cat.
Besides Media and Persia, the extreme western and the most impor-
tant countries of the great plateau of Iran — the countries peopled with
the dominant race of the Medo-Persian Empire — this immense table-
land, all of which constituted the larger portion of the Empire, in-
cluded a full dozen other countries, which comprised by far the larger
portion of this vast plateau, embracing a large desert region. These
eastern countries, or provinces of the Medo-Persian Empire, were My-
VOL. 2.— 8
Other
Towns.
Climate.
Animals.
Iranic
Provinces
of the
Medo-
Persian
Empire.
456
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Mycia.
Carraa-
nia.
Cadusia.
cia, Carmania, Sagartia, Cadusia, Hyrcania, Parthia, Aria, Arachosia,
Sattagydia, Gandaria, Sarangia and Gedrosia.
Mycia was a small tract south-east of Persia, on the shores of the
Persian Gulf, opposite the island of Kishm and the promontory of
Ras Mussendum. It was ultimately absorbed in Persia proper.
Carmania was east of Persia proper and corresponded to the modern
Kerman. It was a very fertile region, and was often regarded as
forming a part of Persia proper. Its capital was Carmana, now Ker-
man.
Sagartia. Sagartia was the largest and the most populous of the plateau coun-
tries. It comprised the entire desert of Iran, reaching from Kashan
and Koum on the west to Sarawan and Quettah towards the east, a
distance of nine hundred miles. It was bounded on the north by Media,
Parthia and Aria; on the east by Sarangia and Sattagydia; on the
south by Mycia and the Eastern Ethiopia; on the west by Media and
Persia. It contained no important city in ancient times, the people
being nomads, whose flocks and herds found a scanty pasturage on the
less barren parts of the vast table-land.
Cadusia was a thin strip of country along the south-eastern and
southern shores of the Caspian, corresponding to the modern Ghilan
and Mazanderan. It hardly belonged to the great plateau, as it lay
outside the Elburz mountain range, on the northern slopes of the chain,
and between them and the Caspian Sea. It contained no important
city, but was fertile, well-wooded and well-watered, and had a large
population.
Hyrcania lay east of Cadusia, at the south-eastern corner of the
Caspian, where the name yet exists in the modern river Gurgan. The
Elburz chain here widens to two hundred miles, and a fertile region is
formed, containing many rich valleys and lofty mountain pastures, to-
gether with some considerable plains. The principal city of Hyrcania
was Zadracarta.
Parthia lay south and south-east of Hyrcania, including the sunny
flank of the Elburz mountain-chain and the low country at the north-
ern edge of the desert, where it bordered on Sagartia. It was a nar-
row but fertile territory, watered by many streams which here flow from
the mountains.
Aria, the modern territory of Herat, adjoined Parthia on the east.
It was a small but fertile region on the river Arius (the modern Heri-
rud), with a capital city called Aria, or Artacoano (the modern
Herat).
Arachosia, east of Aria, embraced most of Western and Central
Afghanistan. Its rivers were the Etymandrus (the modern Helmend)
and the Arachotus (the modern Arghand-ab). The capital was
Hyrcania.
Parthia.
Aria.
Aracho-
sia.
PLATEAU OF IRAN AND PERSIAN PROVINCES. 457
Arachotus (now Candahar). It was an extensive country, mountain-
ous and mainly barren, but containing a fair amount of good pastur-
age and a few fertile valleys.
Sattagydia adjoined Arachosia on the east, corresponding to South- Satta-
eastern Afghanistan, or the tract between Candahar and the Indus £?&&•
valley. It closely resembled Arachosia in character, but was on the
whole wilder and more rugged.
Gandaria lay north of Sattagydia, and embraced the modern Cabul Gandaria.
and Kaferistan. It consisted of a mass of tangled mountain-chains,
with fertile valleys between them, frequently, however, narrowing to
gorges difficult to penetrate. Its chief stream was the Cophen (or
river of Cabul), a tributary of the Indus; and its principal town was
Caspatyrus (now Cabul).
Sarangia was the region lying about the salt lake (Hamoon), into Sarangia.
which the Etymandrus (Helmend) river empties itself. This tract is
flat, and generally desert, except along the courses of the numerous
streams which flow into the Hamoon from the north and the east.
Gedrosia corresponded to the modern Beloochistan. It lay south Gedrosia.
of Sarangia, Arachosia and Sattagydia, and east of Sagartia and
Mycia. It was bounded on the east by the Indus valley, and on the
south by the Erythraean Sea (now Arabian Sea).
Having described Media, Persia and the other countries of the vast Central
plateau of Iran — all of which constituted the great bulk of the immense provinces
Medo-Persian Empire — we will next proceed to give a short geo- of the
graphical description of the Central Asian countries, in the region of Persian
the modern Turkestan, which formed a part of the same great ancient Empire,
empire. These were Chorasmia, Sogdiana and Bactria.
Chorasmia, to the extreme west, between the Caspian and the Lower Choras-
Oxus river, was a desolate region, except close along the river-bank,
known yet as Kharesm, and forming a portion of the Khanate of
Khiva.
Sogdiana, between the Lower Oxus and the Lower Jaxartes, resem- Sogdiana,
bled Chorasmia in its western portion, but towards the east was trav-
ersed by spurs of the Bolor and the Thian-Chan mountains, and was
watered by many streams descending from them. The chief of these
rivers was the Polytimetus of the Greeks, on which was Maracanda
(now Samarcand), the capital.
Bactria, on the Upper Oxus, between Sogdiana and the Paropamisus Bactria.
(now Hindoo-Koosh ) mountains, was mountainous, fertile, and well
watered towards the east, but towards the west descending into the
desert. The principal cities were Bactra (now Balkh), the capital,
a little south of the Oxus and Margus (now Merv), on a stream of its
own, in the western desert. According to tradition Bactria was a
458
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Indian
Province
of the
Medo-
Persian
Empire.
Western
Provinces
of the
Medo-
Persian
Empire.
Armenia.
country of very great importance in primitive or prehistpric times.
Philologists believe this country to have been the primeval seat of the
Aryan nations before their migration into India, Media and Persia,
and Europe. Bactra, the capital of the country, is believed to have
been the first great capital of the Aryan race. Some moderns have
reported that the bricks of Balkh bear cuneiform inscriptions, but as
yet the site has been but partially explored.
East of the plateau of Iran lay the valley of the Indus, called India
from that river. The region was cut off from the rest of Hindoostan
by a wide belt of desert, and comprised two regions. The region of
the modern Punjab, abutting on the Himalaya mountain-chain, and
containing fifty thousand square miles, was a vast triangular plain,
intersected by the courses of five great rivers (whence Punjab — five
rivers) the Indus, the Hydaspes (now Jelum), the Acesinus (now
Chenab), the Hydraotes (now Ravee), and the Hyphasis (now Sutlej)
— fertile along their course, but otherwise barren. The region now
known as Scihde, or the Indus valley below the Punjab, was a tract
about the same size, including the rich plain of Cutchi Gandava on the
west bank of the river, and the broad delta of the Indus towards the
south. The chief town of the upper region was Taxila (now Attock).
The principal town of the lower region was Pattala (now Tatta).
Such was the eastward extent of the Medo-Persian Empire. Terri-
torially the great mass of the empire lay towards the east, between the
Zagros mountains and the Indian desert; but its most important prov-
inces were its western ones. The only regions of much value east of
Persepolis were the valleys of the Indus and the Oxus. West of the
Iranic plateau were Susiana, Babylonia, Assyria, Armenia, Iberia,
Colchis, Asia Minor, Cyprus, Syria, Palestine, Phoenicia, Egypt,
Cyrenaica — all of them great, and mainly productive countries. The
two richest grain tracts of the ancient world, the best pasture regions,
the districts producing the most valuable horses, the most abundant
of known gold fields of antiquity, were within the limits of this vast
empire, which was self-sufficing, containing within it all that man
required in those times, for his most highly cherished luxuries, as well
as for his absolute necessities. As all these countries, except Armenia,
Iberia and Colchis, are described in other parts of this work, we will
here give a geographical description only of the three countries not
elsewhere described.
Armenia lay east of Asia Minor, north of Assyria, and north-west
of Media. It was a lofty region, consisting almost wholly of moun-
tains, and has been termed " the Switzerland of Western Asia." The
mountain system culminates in Mount Ararat, which has an elevation
of seventeen thousand feet. Therefore all the great rivers of Western
PLATEAU OF IRAN AND PERSIAN PROVINCES.
459
Asia here take their rise, namely, the Tigris, the Euphrates, the Halys,
the Araxes and the Cyrus. In the highest part of this lofty region
are the elevated lake-basins of Urumiyeh and Van, each of which has
a distinct and separate water-system of its own. The only important
ancient town in this section occupied the site of the modern Van, on
the east coast of the lake of the same name.
Iberia, or Sapeiria, adjoined Armenia to the north-east. It em-
braced all of the modern Georgia, together with some portions of
Russian and Turkish Armenia, especially the tract about Kars, Ispir
and Akhaltsik. Its rivers were the Cyrus (now Kur) and the Araxes
(now Aras), which flow together into the Caspian. Its one lake was
Goutcha, in the mountain region north-east of Mount Ararat.
Colchis, or the valley of the Phasis, between the Caucasus and West-
ern Iberia, corresponded to the modern districts of Imeritia, Mingrelia
and Guriel. Its main importance lay in its commanding one of the
principal routes of early commerce, which passed by way of the Oxus,
the Caspian, the Aras and the Phasis, to the Euxine. The chief town
of Colchis was Phasis, a Greek settlement at the mouth of the Rion
river. The natives of Colchis were black and believed to be Egyp-
tians.
The principal cities of the empire, besides Pasargadae and Persepolis
in Persia, were Susa, the capital of Susiana ; Babylon ; Ecbatana,
Rhages and Zadracarta, in Media; Bactra (now Balkh), in Bactria;
Maracanda (now Samarcand), in Sogdiana; Aria, or Artacoana (now
Herat), in Ariana; Caspatyrus, on the Upper Indus; Taxila (now At-
tock), on the Lower Indus; Pura, in Gedrosia (the modern Beloochis-
tan) ; Carmana (now Kerman), in Carmania (now Kerman) ; Arbela,
in Assyria; Amida (now Diarbekr), in Armenia; Mazaca, in Cappa-
docia; Trapezus (now Trebizond), in Pontus; Perga and Tarsus, in
Asia Minor ; Damascus, in Syria ; Jerusalem, in Palestine ; Tyre and
Sidon, in Phrenicia ; Azotus, or Ashdod, and Gaza, in Philistia ; Sardis,
in Lydia ; Memphis and Thebes, in Egypt ; and Cyrene and Barca, in
Cyrenaica. The cool Ecbatana became the summer capital of the em-
pire; Susa, the spring capital, and Babylon, the winter capital; so
that the Persian court moved with the seasons.
The productiveness of the empire is to be attributed to its many
large streams. The six great rivers of the empire, which contributed
to fertilize the lands through which they flowed, were the Nile, the
Tigris, the Euphrates, the Indus, the Oxus and the Jaxartes. The
first three have already been described in other parts of this work. The
Indus rises north of the Himalayas, and flows in a south-westerly direc-
tion into the Arabian Sea, being nineteen hundred and sixty miles long,
of which twelve hundred and sixty were through Persian territory.
Iberia
Colchis.
Pro-
vincial
Cities and
Imperial
Capitals.
Rivers
and
Lakes
of the
Medo-
Persian
Empire.
460 MEDIA AND PERSIA.
The Oxus (now Amoo) rises at a lake west of the Bolor mountains and
flows north-westerly through the great desert of modern Turkestan
into the Sea of Aral, and is at present fourteen hundred miles long;
but anciently, after reaching the Sea of Aral, it flowed westward into
the Caspian Sea, thus increasing its length by four hundred and fifty
miles, making the entire stream at that time eighteen hundred and fifty
miles long. The Jaxartes (now Shion, or Sir Daria) rises from two
sources in the Thian-Chan mountains, and flows first west, then north,
and finally north-west into the Sea of Aral; its entire length being
fourteen hundred and fifty-eight miles. There were numerous lakes in
the empire; but of these only the Caspian and Aral seas, Lakes Van
and Urumiyeh in Armenia, the Dead Sea in Palestine, and Lake Moeris
in Egypt, are of any note.
Climate The climate of the whole southern coast of the empire, from the
Empire mouth of the Tigris to that of the Indus, in the lower valleys of the
great streams, was a damp, close heat, intolerably stifling and op-
pressive. The upper valleys of these streams and the plains into which
they expanded were less hot and less moist, but were subject to violent
storms, on account of the nearness of the mountains. In the mountains
of Armenia, in the Zagros region and in the Elburz, the climate was
more rigorous, being intensely cold in winter, but pleasant in summer.
Asia Minor had a warmer climate than the high mountain districts, and
its western and southern coasts, fanned by fresh sea-breezes or moun-
tain-breezes from the Amanus and the Taurus, and cooled by frequent
showers during the summer, were particularly delightful. In Syria
and Egypt the heats of summer were oppressive, especially in the Ghor,
or depressed Jordan valley, and in those portions of Egypt bordering
on Ethiopia; but the winters were mild and the springs and autumns
delightful. In the Cyrenaica there was a cool, delicious summer cli-
mate— an entire absence of rain, as in Egypt, with cool sea-breezes,
cloudy skies and heavy dews at night, which, in the place of moisture,
covered the ground with the freshest and loveliest verdure during the
entire summer. The autumn and winter rains were violent, and ter-
rific storms frequently occurred. " The natives regarded it as a bless-
ing that over this part of Africa the sky was ' pierced,' and allowed
moisture to fall from the great reservoir of water * above the firma-
ment.' ' In the northern and north-eastern portions of the empire,
"in Azerbijan, on the plateau of Iran, in the Afghan plains, in the
high flat region east of the Bolor, and again in the low plain about
Aral lake and the Caspian, a severe climate prevailed during the win-
ter ; while the summer combined intense heat during the day with extra-
ordinary cold — the result of radiation — at night." In the mountain
regions of the Bolor, the Thian-Chan, the Himalaya, and the Paro-
PLATEAU OF IRAN AND PERSIAN PROVINCES. 4,51
pamisus, or Hindoo-Koosh, the winters lasted over half the year, with
deep snow covering the ground almost all that time, while the sum-
mers were moderate. In the Indus valley the climate was hot and dry,
with oppressive tornadoes of dust ; or close and moist, swept by heavy
storms which make the region more unhealthful. Altogether the cli-
mate of the empire belonged to the class of warmer temperate climates.
In the Indus valley, along the coast from the mouth of the Indus to
that of the Tigris, in Chaldasa and parts of Susiana, in the South of
Palestine and in Egypt frost was entirely unknown; while in the
high mountain regions the winters were intensely cold. In the more
elevated regions — in Phrygia and Cappadocia, in Azerbijan, on the
great plateau of Iran, in the district about Kashgar and Yarkand —
there was a long period of sharp and bracing weather. Nevertheless
the summer heat of the whole empire was great. The springs and
autumns were mostly mild and agreeable. There were few unhealthy
localities within the empire. Although the variations of temperature
in the course of a single day and night were uncommonly great, there
was on the whole a healthy and agreeable climate.
The animals of the empire in general were the tiger, the elephant, Animals
the hippopotamus, the crocodile, the monitor, the two-humped camel,
the Angora goat, the elk, the monkey and the spotted hyena. The
tiger was found in the low tract between the Elburz and the Caspian, in
the low flat region about the Sea of Aral, and in the Indus valley.
The elephant was found in the Indus valley. The hippopotamus was
found in Egypt, where it was a sacred animal. The crocodile — an-
other sacred Egyptian animal — frequented the Nile and Indus valleys.
The two-humped camel belonged to Bactria. The elk was found in
Armenia, in the modern Afghan region, and in the Indus valley. The
spotted hyena was an Egyptian animal. The rarer birds of the empire
were the ostrich in Mesopotamia, the parrot in the Indus valley, the
ibis in Egypt, the great vulture in the Taurus region in Asia Minor,
the Indian owl, the spoonbill, the benno and sicsac. The most valu-
able fish of the Persian seas were the pearl-oyster of the Persian Gulf,
and the murex of the Mediterranean, which furnished the celebrated
purple dye of Tyre. There were all kinds of fish found in the rivers,
lakes and seas of the empire; while various reptiles, as turtles, snakes
and lizards, abounded. The Egyptian asp was a dangerous reptile.
The chameleon was found in Egypt, in the Caucasus region and in
India.
The vegetable productions of the empire were numerous. In the Vegetable
northern portions were such trees as pines, firs, larches, oaks, birch, ofthe
beech, ash, ilax and junipers; while shrubs and flowers also flourished, Empire.
as in the more temperate regions. The southern tracts grew various
462
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Minerals
of the
Empire.
kinds of palms, mangoes, tamarind-trees, lemons, oranges, jujubes,
mimosas and sensitive plants. The empire embraced a variety of trees,
shrubs and flowers. The walnut and the Oriental pine grew to a vast
size in many places. Poplars, willows, fig-mulberries, konars, cedars,
cypresses and acacias were common. Bananas, egg-plants, locust-
trees, banyans, terebinths, the gum-styrax, the gum-tragacanth, the
asafoetida plant, the arbor vitae, the castor-oil plant, the Judas tree,
the pomegranate, the oleander, the pistachio-nut, the myrtle, the bay,
the laurel, the mulberry, the rhododendron and the arbutus also pre-
vailed in luxuriant abundance. The empire produced all the known
kinds of grain and nearly all the known fruits. The excellent and
rare kinds were the famous wheat of JEolis, the dates of Babylonia,
the citrons of Media, the Persian peach, the grapes of Carmania, the
Hyrcanian fig, the plum of Damascus, the cherries of Pontus, the mul-
berries of Egypt and of Cyprus, the silphium of Cyrene, the wine of
Helbon, the wild grape of Syria and the papyrus of Egypt. Alto-
gether the Medo-Persian Empire produced as excellent a variety of
vegetable products as any other state or community of ancient or
modern times.
The mineral treasures of the empire were various and abundant.
Persia proper and Carmania possessed mines of gold, silver, copper,
iron, red lead, orpiment, salt, bitumen, naphtha, sulphur, and lead.
Drangiana, or Sarangia, furnished rare and valuable mineral tin, with
which copper could be hardened into bronze. Armenia yielded emery,
so essential for the polishing of gems. The mountains and mines of
the empire supplied almost all kinds of useful and precious stones.
Gold was also supplied by the mountains and desert of Thibet and
India, from the rivers of Lydia, from the mountains of Armenia, from
the regions in the vicinity of the modern Cabul and Meshed. Silver,
the great medium of exchange in Persia, was also abundant, and was
found in the mines of Carmania, Armenia, Asia Minor, and the Elburz.
Copper was abundant in Cyprus and Carmania, and, perhaps was also,
as now, found in Armenia. Iron was found within the empire in the
form of immense boulders and also in iron-stone. Lead was procured
from Bactria, Armenia, Carmania and many portions of the present
Afghanistan. Orpiment was obtained from Bactria, Carmania and
the Hazareh country. Antimony was found in Armenia, Media and
the modern Afghanistan. Hornblende, quartz, talc and asbestos were
obtained from various places in the Taurus mountain region in Asia
Minor. Salt was widely diffused, being abundant in Persia proper,
in Carmania, in Media, in Chaldaea and Palestine, in India and in North
[Africa. In Carmania and Palestine it was found in large masses called
" mountains." In India it was the chief production of a long moun-
THE MEDIAN EMPIRE.
463
tain-range, which is capable of furnishing the entire world with salt
for thousands of years. Bitumen and naphtha were also widely dif-
fused; being found at the eastern foot of the Caucasus, in Mesopo-
tamia, in the low country of Persia proper, in the Bakhtiyari moun-
tains, and in the Jordan valley in Palestine. Sulphur was found in
Persia proper, in Carmania, on the coast of Mekran, in Azerbijan, in
the Elburz mountain region, on the plateau of Iran, in the vicinity
of the Dead Sea in Palestine, and very abundantly near the site of
Nineveh.
Excellent building stone was found in various portions of the em-
pire. Egypt furnished granite, various marbles, sandstone, limestone,
etc. Basalt was obtained from the Taurus region. Gray alabaster
was procured in great abundance in the vicinity of Nineveh, and a
better quality was quarried near Damascus. Mill-stones were supplied
by a gritty silicious rock on the banks of the Euphrates, above Hit.
The various provinces of the empire furnished numerous gems, such
as the emerald, the green ruby, the red ruby, the opal, the sapphire,
the amethyst, the carbuncle, the jasper, the lapis-lazuli, the agate and
the topaz. Emeralds were found in Egypt, Media and Cyprus ; green
rubies in Bactria; red rubies in Caria; opals in Egypt, Cyprus and
Asia Minor ; amethysts in Egypt, Cyprus, Galatia and Armenia ; sap-
phires in Cyprus ; carbuncles in Caria ; jaspers in Cyprus, Asia Minor
and Persia ; sard in Babylonia ; agates in Carmania, Susiana and Ar-
menia; topaz in Upper Egypt; jet in Lycia; garnets and the beryl
in Armenia, and lapis-lazuli in Egypt, Media and Cyprus. Lapis-
lazuli existed in huge masses. Whole cliffs of this gem overhang the
river Kashkar in Kaferistan. The myrrhine vases of antiquity, sup-
posed to be of agate, came from Carmania, and seem to have been of
great size.
SECTION II.— THE MEDIAN EMPmE.
THE origin of the Medes is involved in impenetrable obscurity.
They were of Aryan descent, and were a kindred people with their
southern neighbors, the Persians, from whom they differed but little
in race, language, institutions and religion. From the little that we
know of their primitive history it appears that they were an important
tribe in very early times. The Book of Genesis mentions them under
the name of Madai, and Berosus states that they furnished a dynasty
to Babylon at a period anterior to B. C. 2000. These circumstances
would seem to show that the Medes were a powerful primeval race, and
actually constituted a ruling power in Western Asia as early as the
1—32
Building
Stone.
Gems.
Aryan
Origin
of the
Medes.
464
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
The
Four
Tongues.
Media
and
Androm-
eda.
Beginning
of
Median
History.
twenty-third century before Christ — long before Abraham migrated
from Ur to Harran.
Recent linguistic research has satisfactorily shown that the Arba
Lisun, or " Four Tongues," of ancient Chaldaea, so frequently men-
tioned on the ancient monuments, included an Aryan formation, thus
confirming Berosus's account of an Aryan conquest of Chaldaea B. C.
2286. There are other evidences of the early spread of the Median
race, thus implying that they were a great nation in Western Asia
long prior to the date of the Aryan, or Iranic, movements in Bactria
and adjacent regions. Scattered remnants of a great migratory host,
which issued from the mountains east of the Tigris and dispersed itself
over the regions to the north and north-west in prehistoric times, are
plainly visible in such races as the Matieni of Zagros and Cappadocia,
the Sauromatas (or Northern Medes) of the country between the Palus
Maeotis and the Caspian Sea, the Mastaeor Masotae of the tract about
the mouth of the Don, and the Masdi of Thrace. A tribe mentioned
by Herodotus — the Sigynnae in the region between the Danube and the
Adriatic — claimed to be of Median descent, and this claim was sub-
stantiated by the resemblance of their national dress to that of the
Medes. Herodotus, in relating these facts, remarks that " nothing
is impossible in the long lapse of ages."
Two Greek legends designated the Medes under the two eponyms
of Media and Andromeda, and refer to a period anterior to the age of
Homer — no later than B. C. 1000. These legends connect the Medes
with Syria and Colchis — two countries remote from each other — thus
showing that the fame of the Medes was great in that part of Asia
known to the Greeks. From these observations it would seem that the
Medes must have been as great and powerful a people in primitive
times as they became in the period of the decline and fall of Assyria.
We possess no distinct historical knowledge of the first period of Me-
dian greatness, the only traces of early Median preponderance being
found in ethnological names and mythological speculations. Recent
discoveries show that the Median dynasty which governed Chaldaaa
from B. C. 2286 to B. C. 2052 was a Susianian, or Elamite, race of
kings.
The history of the Medes as a nation begins in the latter half of the
ninth century before Christ. The Assyrian monarch, Shalmaneser II.,
the Black Obelisk king, states that in the twenty-fourth year of his
reign, B. C. 835, after conquering the Zimri of the Zagros mountain
region and reducing the Persians to tribute, he invaded Media Magna,
which he plundered after ravaging the country with fire and sword.
The Medes were then divided into many tribes ruled by petty chief-
tains, and were thus a weak and insignificant people.
THE MEDIAN EMPIRE.
465
The time of this first Assyrian attack on Media, when Assyria was
in her prime, and Media was only emerging from weakness and ob-
scurity, was the period which Ctesias assigned to the fall of Assyria and
the rise of Media. The account of Ctesias regarding this fact was
accepted until the recent discoveries of the native Assyrian records
showed the untrustworthiness of his chronology.
The Assyrian king, Shamas-Vul II., the son and successor of Shal-
maneser II., also invaded Media and devastated the country with fire
and sword. Shamas-Vul's son and successor, Vul-lush III., reduced the
Medes to tribute. Towards the end of the ninth century before Christ
the Medes agreed to pay an annual tribute to exempt their country
from ravage.
A century later, about B. C. 710, the great Assyrian king, Sargon,
invaded Media with a large army, overran the country, seized several
towns and " annexed them to Assyria," and also established a number
of fortified posts in portions of the country. A standing army was
stationed in these posts to overawe the inhabitants and to prevent them
from making an effectual resistance to the arms of the Assyrians.
With the same end in view wholesale deportations were resorted to,
many of the Medes being colonized in other portions of the Assyrian
Empire, while Samaritan captives were settled in the Median cities.
By way of tribute the Medes were required to furnish annually a
number of horses to the Assyrian royal stud.
As Ctesias's account of the Median revolt under Arbaces and the
conquest of Nineveh synchronizes almost with the first known Assyr-
ian ravages in Media, so Herodotus's account of the revolt of the
Medes under Dei'oces corresponds with the date assigned by the As-
syrian records for the full and complete Assyrian subjugation of
Media.
After Sargon's conquest of Media Magna the Medes of that region
quietly submitted to Assyrian domination for almost three-fourths of
a century. During this period the Assyrian supremacy was extended
over the more remote Median tribes, particularly those of Azerbijan.
Sennacherib boasted that in the beginning of his reign (B. C. 702)
he received an embassy from the more distant portions of Media —
" parts of which the kings his fathers had not even heard " — which
brought him presents in token of submission, and willingly accepted
his yoke. Sennacherib's son, Esar-haddon, stated that about his tenth
year (B. C. 671) he invaded Bikni, or Bikan, a remote Median prov-
ince— " whereof the kings his fathers had never heard the name " — and
compelled the cities of this region to acknowledge his dominion. The
numerous petty independent chiefs who ruled the cities of this terri-
tory, according to Esar-haddon's account, submitted to his arms and
Account
by
Ctesias.
Assyrian
Conquest
of
Media.
Sargon's
Invasion
of
Media.
Accounts
by
Ctesias
and
Herod-
otus.
Assyrian
Supre-
macy
over
Media.
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Median
Kings.
agreed to pay tribute, after he had carried two of them captive to
Assyria, and Assyrian officers were admitted into their cities.
The Median kings according to Ctesias, beginning with Arbaces,
are regarded by modern writers as fictitious personages, as is also the
Dei'oces at the head of the list according to Herodotus. The follow-
ing is a table of the Median kings according to these two Greek
writers :
Mythical
Character
of
Deioces.
Esar-
haddon's
Conquest
of
Media.
Rise of
Media
under
Cyaxares.
MEDIAN KINGS ACCORDING TO CTESIAS.
Arbaces 28 years.
Maudaces 50 "
Sosarmus 30 "
Artycas 50 "
Arbianes 22 "
Artseus 40 "
Artynes 22 "
Astibaras . . 40 "
MEDIAN KINGS ACCORDING TO HERODOTUS.
Interregnum
Deioces 53 years.
Interregnum
Deioces 53 "
Phraortes 22 "
Cyaxares 40 "
Phraortes 22 "
Cyaxares 40 "
As the time assigned by Herodotus to the reign of Deioces, whom he
represents as the founder of a centralized monarchy in Media, is the
very period during which Sargon of Assyria was establishing fortified
posts in the country and settling his Israelite captives in the " cities
of the Medes " — and as the alleged reign of Deioces according to
Herodotus synchronizes with the brilliant Assyrian reigns of Sargon,
Sennacherib, Esar-haddon and Asshur-bani-pal — it is evident that the
whole story of Deioces is purely mythical, as his name is not mentioned
in the contemporary annals of Assyria, according to which the Medes
were still a weak, disorganized and divided people. Even as late as
B. C. 671 Esar-haddon is said to have subdued the more distant Medes,
whom he still found under the government of many petty chiefs. Ac-
cording to the evidence furnished us by modern investigation and dis-
covery, a consolidated monarchy could not have been organized in
Media before B. C. 660, almost a half century subsequent to the time
assigned by Herodotus.
The sudden development of national power and the rise of a central-
ized monarchy in Media were owing to the recent Aryan migrations
from the regions east and south-east of the Caspian sea. CYAXARES,
who about B. C. 632 conducted a Median expedition against Nineveh,
was known to the Aryan tribes of the North-east, and in the reign of
the great Persian king, Darius Hystaspes, a Sagartian headed a revolt
in that region, claiming the Sagartian throne as a descendant from
Cyaxares. It is supposed that Cyaxares and his father, the Phraortes
of Herodotus, conducted fresh Aryan migrations from Bactria and
Sagartia to Media, thus augmenting the strength of the Aryan race
THE MEDIAN EMPIRE.
467
in the region just east of the Zagros range, and laying the founda-
tions of a powerful consolidated kingdom in that mountain land. Ac-
cepted by the Aryan Medes as their chief, Cyaxares reduced the scat-
tered Scythic tribes who occupied the high mountain region, and sub-
dued the Zimri, the Minni, the Hupuska and other small nations occu-
pying the territory between Media Magna and Assyria.
Thus Cyaxares is generally regarded as the founder of the great
Median Empire; and Phraortes, whom Herodotus represents as the
second King of Media and as the father of Cyaxares, is believed to
be a fabulous personage. The testimony of ./Eschylus and the Behis-
tun Inscription both make Cyaxares the founder of the Median mon-
archy.
No sooner did Cyaxares find himself at the head of a powerful cen-
tralized monarchy, and free from all danger of Assyrian conquest,
than he meditated the bold enterprise of attacking the colossal power
which had for almost seven centuries swayed the destinies of Western
Asia. The last great Assyrian king, Asshur-bani-pal, was now in his
old age, and his declining vigor and energy afforded encouragement
to the ambitious designs of the warlike Median monarch. Therefore
about B. C. 634, when Cyaxares had reigned thirty-four years, the
Medes suddenly issued from the passes of the Zagros and overran the
fertile plains of Assyria at the base of the mountains. The Assyrian
monarch, in great alarm, placed himself at the head of his troops and
took the field against the invaders. The Medes were thoroughly de-
feated in a great battle, their army being entirely cut to pieces, and
the father of Cyaxares being among the slain.
Thus the first Median attack on Assyria ended in complete disaster.
The Medes had overrated their military strength. Although they had
already proven themselves a match for the Assyrians while acting on
the defensive in their mountain fastnesses, they could not withstand
their enemy in the open plain while assuming the aggressive. Cyax-
ares abandoned the struggle until his troops could be properly disci-
plined to prevail against the armed hosts of Assyria. He at once set
about organizing his army into several distinct corps, consisting re-
spectively of infantry and cavalry, of archers, slingers and lancers.
Feeling himself able to cope with the Assyrians, Cyaxares renewed the
war and led a large army into Assyria, signally defeating the troops
of Asshur-bani-pal and forcing them to seek refuge behind the de-
fenses of Nineveh. The victorious Median king pursued the fleeing
Assyrian hosts to the very walls of their capital, which he at once be-
sieged, but he was soon recalled to the defense of his own land by the
terrible Scythian inundation which swept ruin and devastation over
both Assyria and Media.
Fabulous
Of
War with
ssyna-
Median
Defeat-
Median
victoiT*
4(}8 MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Scythian The Scythians, as we have noticed in the history of Assyria, occu-
Conquest. p«e(j ^ vagj. pjajns north of the Euxine (now Black Sea), the Caucasus
mountains, the Caspian sea, and the Jaxartes, or Sihon river. Their
characteristics have been described in our account of their invasion of
Assyria. After pouring over the Caucasus, the Scyths attacked the
Medes under Cyaxares as they were returning from the siege of Nin-
eveh to defend their own country from the barbarous hordes of the
North. The Medes and the Scyths were fully matched, each being
hardy, warlike, active and energetic, and each having the cavalry as its
chief arm and the bow as its chief weapon. The Medes were doubtless
the better disciplined. They had more of a variety of weapons and
soldiers, and were personally the more powerful. But the Scythians
were by far the more numerous, besides being recklessly brave and
masters of tactics which made them well-nigh irresistible. The Scyths
had overrun Western Asia to plunder and ravage. Madyes, the Scy-
thian leader, defeated Cyaxares and forced him to accept the suzerainty
of the Scyths and to pay an annual tribute. The Scythian invaders
continued to levy contributions upon the conquered people and op-
pressed them with repeated exactions. Spreading over all Western
Asia the Scythic invaders carried plunder, devastation and massacre
wherever they went.
Massacre The brave and patriotic Medes, with the love of independence so
Scythian characteristic of mountaineers, and inspired with pride by their sudden
Chiefs. r{se an(j their great success in Assyria, took advantage of the gradual
weakening of the barbarians, who were constantly dispersing their
hosts over Assyria, Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, Armenia and Cappa-
docia, plundering and marauding everywhere and settling nowhere,
conducting sieges and fighting battles, while their numbers were by
degrees reduced by the sword, by sickness and excesses. Still fearing
to encounter the Scyths in open battle, the Median king and his court
invited the Scythian chiefs to a grand banquet, and, after making
them helplessly intoxicated, remorselessly massacred them.
Median The Medes at once flew to arms and attacked their Scythian op-
Revolt. pressors with a fury intensified by years of repression. Nothing is
known of the duration and circumstances of the war which ensued,
and the stories of Ctesias concerning it are utterly without credit. He
says that the Parthians united with their Scythian kinsmen, and that
the war continued many years, numerous battles being fought with
heavy losses on both sides, and the struggle ending without any de-
cisive result. This fanciful writer also states that the Scyths were
led by a queen of great beauty and bravery named Zarina, or Zari-
naea, who won the hearts of her foes when unable to withstand their
arms.
THE MEDIAN EMPIRE.
A singularly-romantic love story is related concerning this beautiful
Amazon. She was said to be the wife of Marmareus, the Scythian
king, and to have gone with him to the field, participating in all his
battles. Being at one time wounded she was in danger of being taken
prisoner by Stryangasus, son-in-law of the Median king, and only
escaped by earnestly imploring Stryangaeus to permit her to go.
When Stryangagus was shortly afterwards made prisoner by Mar-
mareus and threatened with death by his captor, Zarina interceded for
him, and when her entreaties failed she murdered her husband in order
to save her preserver's life. By this time Stryangaeus and Zarina were
in love with each other; and peace having been arranged between the
Scyths and the Medes, Stryangaeus visited Zarina at her court and was
received with hospitality ; but when he revealed the secret of his love
Zarina repulsed him, reminding him of his wife, Rhaetasa, who was
famed as being more beautiful than herself, and entreating him to
exhibit sufficient manhood by conquering an improper passion. There-
upon Stryangasus retired to his chamber and committed suicide, after
having written to reproach Zarina with being the cause of his death.
Ctesias mentions Zarina's capital as a town named Roxanace, which
is unknown to any other historian or geographer. The same writer
mentions Zarina as having founded other towns. He says that the
tomb of Zarina was a triangular pyramid, six hundred feet high and
more than a mile around the base, crowned with a gigantic figure of
the queen constructed from solid gold. This structure is represented
as being the principal architectural monument of Zarina's capital.
But, casting aside these fabulous stories by Ctesias, we only know
that the war ended in the utter discomfiture of the Scythians, who were
driven from Media and the neighboring countries across the Caucasus
into their own homeland. The only vestiges which they left behind
were the names of the Palestinian city of Scythopolis and the Armenian
province of Sacassene.
Herodotus assigned the duration of the Scythian supremacy over
Western Asia a period of twenty-eight years from their defeat of Cyax-
ares to his treacherous massacre of their chiefs. But the chronology
of Herodotus is disputed by modern writers, many of whom give the
year B. C. 625 as the date of the fall of Nineveh. According to
Herodotus that event would have occurred B. C. 602. The belief that
625 is the proper date rests upon the statement of Abydenus and Poly-
histor, who connect the fall of Nineveh with the accession of Nabo-
polassar at Babylon, which event the Canon of Ptolemy fixes at B. C.
625. Besides, the Lydian war of Cyaxares, which took place between
B. C. 615 and 610, must have occurred after the fall of Nineveh.
Eusebius gives B. C. 618 as the year of the destruction of Nineveh,
Story
of the
Scythian
Queen
Zarina.
Her
Capital
and
Tomb.
Expul-
sion
of the
Scyths.
Accounts
of the
Scythian i
Suprem-
acy
by the
Ancient
His-
torians.
470
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Cyaxares
Attacks
Assyria.
Susianian
and
Baby-
lonian
Revolt
against
Assyria.
Median
and
Baby-
lonian
Alliance.
Capture
and
Destruc-
tion of
Nineveh.
Extinc-
tion
of the
Assyrian
Empire.
and assigns a much shorter period to the Scythian domination over
Western Asia than twenty-eight years ; and his view is to be preferred
to that of Herodotus. It is more likely that the twenty-eight years
covered the entire period from the time of this first Scythian attack
on Media to the final expulsion of the Scyths from Western Asia.
The decline and weakness of Assyria and the exhaustion of her re-
sources after the Scythian inroad encouraged Cyaxares to renew his
attack on Nineveh, which lay apparently at the mercy of any bold
enemy ready to assail her. The gigantic power which had so long
dominated Western Asia had thus fallen into decay; her prestige was
gone, her glory had departed, her army had lost its spirit and organi-
zation, her defenses had been weakened, her haughty spirit had been
broken.
While Cyaxares and his Medes were marching against Nineveh from
the east, the Susianians rose in revolt and advanced against Assyria
from the south. The last Assyrian king, Asshur-emid-ilin, or Saracus,
with a portion of his army prepared to defend his capital against the
Medes, and sent another portion under his general, Nabopolassar, to
check the advance of the Susianians from the south. But Nabopo-
lassar, as already related, betrayed his master and led a revolt of the
Babylonians against the Assyrian king. He at once sent an embassy
to the Median king, and the result was the close alliance between Cyax-
ares and Nabopolassar, cemented by the marriage of the daughter of
Cyaxares with Nabopolassar's son Nebuchadnezzar, as also before
noted. The united armies of the Medes and the Babylonians besieged
Nineveh, which they finally took and destroyed. The fabulous account
of this siege as narrated by Ctesias has been given in our account of
Assyria, to which the reader is referred for its details. Ctesias called
the Assyrian king Sardanapalus, the Median commander Arbaces, and
the Babylonian Belesis. The self-immolation of the last Assyrian
king, as related by Ctesias, is, however, confirmed by Abydenus and
Berosus ; and the story of Saracus perishing in his palace in a funeral
pyre lighted with his own hand may therefore be accepted without
question.
The conquerors divided the Assyrian Empire between them, Cyax-
ares obtaining Assyria proper and all the provinces to the north and
north-west, while Nabopolassar obtained Babylonia, Susiana, Upper
Mesopotamia, Syria, Phoenicia and Palestine. Thus two great em-
pires— the Median and the Babylonian — arose out of the ashes of the
Assyrian. These empires were founded by mutual consent, and were
united in friendship and alliance by treaties and by a royal intermar-
riage. In all emergencies they were ready to give each other important
aid. Thus once in the history of the ancient world two powerful
THE MEDIAN EMPIRE. 471
monarchies stood beside each other in peace, and without jealousy or
hatred. Media and Babylonia were content with sharing the domin-
ion of Western Asia between them, and, considering the world large
enough for both, they remained fast friends and allies for more than
half a century.
The overthrow of Assyria did not bring repose to the Median king. Fresh
Roving bands of Scyths still ravaged Western Asia; while the vassal §y
states of Assyria, released from her yoke by her downfall, made use Cyaxares.
of the occasion to assert their independence; but they were soon re-
minded that a new master, as powerful and aggressive as the one from
which they had been freed, had arisen to claim as her inheritance the
suzerainty of the vassal states of the fallen Assyrian Empire. Cyax-
ares, encouraged by his successes, was stimulated to fresh conquests.
Herodotus briefly tells us that Cyaxares " subdued to himself all Asia
above the Halys." This would imply the conquest of the countries
between Media and Assyria on the east and the river Halys on the
west, which would include Armenia and Cappadocia. For centuries
had Armenia, strong in its lofty mountains, its deep forges and its
many rapid rivers — the sources of the Tigris, the Euphrates, the Kur
and the Aras — withstood all efforts at conquest by the Assyrian kings,
and had only agreed to a nominal dependence upon Assyria during the
reign of the last great Assyrian king. Cappadocia had not even been
subject to Assyria in name, and had not thus far come into collision
with any great Asiatic power. Other tribes of this region — neighbors
of the Armenians and Cappadocians, but more remote from Media —
were the Iberians, the Colchians, the Moschians, the Tibarenians, the
Mares, the Macrones and the Mosynrecians ; and were, according to
Herodotus, conquered by Cyaxares, who thus extended his dominions
to the Caucasus and the Euxine, or Black Sea, upon the north, and to
the Halys river upon the west. But it is likely that the terrible Scyth-
ian ravages in Armenia and Cappadocia had made the inhabitants of
those countries willing to accept the suzerainty of the powerful and
civilized Medes, as the various tribes and nations of Asia Minor ac-
cepted the sovereignty or the suzerainty of the powerful Kings of
Lydia.
Contemporaneously with the great Aryan migration from the East Aryan
under Cyaxares, or his father, Phraortes, an Aryan wave swept over 1^*
Armenia and Cappadocia, which had previously been under the su- Armenia
premacy of Turanian tribes. In Armenia the present Aryan Ian- ^sia
guage supplanted the former Turanian in the seventh century before Minor.
Christ, as shown by the cuneiform inscriptions of Van and its vicinity.
In Cappadocia the Moschians and Tibarenians were forced to yield
their habitations to a Medo-Persian tribe called Katapatuka. This
VOL. 2.— 9
472
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Median
Annexa-
, tion of
Armenia,
Cappa-
docia and
Adjacent
Regions.
War with
Lydia.
Median
and
Lydian
Alliance.
spread of Aryan nations into the region between the Caspian Sea and
the Halys prepared the way for Media's supremacy over this part of
Western Asia, as Cyaxares was welcomed by the Aryan immigrants,
who joined his standard in the wars against the barbarous Scyths and
the old Turanian aborigines of these countries. The last remnants
of the Scyths were expelled, and within less than ten years from the
overthrow of Assyria, Cyaxares enlarged the Median Empire with the
addition of the fertile and valuable tracts of Armenia and Cappadocia
— countries never really subject to Assyria — and also the entire region
between Armenia and the Caucasus, and between the Caspian and Eux-
ine seas.
The advance of the Median Empire westward to the Halys, involv-
ing the absorption of Cappadocia, brought the Medes in collision with
Lydia, a new power in Asia Minor, which, like Media, had suddenly
risen to greatness. Lydia headed a confederacy of all the nations of
Asia Minor west of the Halys to resist the further progress of the
Median power westward. Cyaxares obtained assistance from his old
ally, Nabopolassar of Babylon, against the Lydians. With a large
army the Median king invaded Asia Minor, and, according to Herod-
otus, fought many battles with the Lydians with various success.
After the war had continued six years it was brought to an end by
a remarkable circumstance. On a certain occasion, as the Median and
Lydian armies were engaged in battle, a sudden darkness enveloped the
combatants and filled them with superstitious awe. The sun was
eclipsed, and the two armies, ceasing from the struggle, gazed with
dread upon the celestial phenomenon. Amid the general alarm, we
are told, a desire for peace seized both armies. Two chiefs, the fore-
most allies on their respective sides, improved the occasion to induce
the warring monarchs — Cyaxares of Media and Alyattes of Lydia —
to sheathe their swords. Herodotus says that Syennesis, King of
Cilicia, as the ally of the Lydian king, and Labynetus of Babylon,
probably either Nabopolassar or Nebuchadnezzar, as the ally of the
Median monarch, came to propose an immediate suspension of hostili-
ties; and when this proposal was accepted a treaty of peace was ar-
ranged, B. C. 610. Both parties retained the territories they had
respectively held before the war, so that the treaty left everything in
status quo. The Kings of Media and Lydia agreed to swear a friend-
ship, and to cement the alliance Alyattes agreed to give his daughter
in marriage to Astyages, the son of Cyaxares. In accordance with the
barbarous customs of the time and place, the two kings, having met and
repeated the words of the formula, punctured their own arms, and then
sealed their contract by each sucking a part of the blood from the
other's wound.
THE MEDIAN EMPIRE.
473
By this peace the three great Asiatic empires of the time — Media,
Lydia and Babylonia — became fast friends and allies, and stood side
by side in peace for fifty years, until each was in turn absorbed in the
great Medo-Persian Empire, which for several centuries held sway
over all Western Asia and Egypt. The crown-princes of Media,
Lydia and Babylonia were placed on terms of blood relationship, and
" had become brothers." Thus all Western Asia, from the shores of
the ^Egean on the west to the Persian Gulf on the east, was now ruled
by dynasties united by intermarriages, bound to respect each other's
rights and animated by a spirit of mutual friendliness and genuine
attachment. After more than five centuries of perpetual war and
ravage, after fifty years of strife and bloodshed, during which the
venerable monarchy of Assyria, which for seven centuries had ruled
Western Asia at her will, had gone to pieces, and the new Median and
Babylonian Empires had taken her place, that quarter of the globe
entered upon a period of repose which contrasted strongly with the
previous long period of almost constant struggle. Media, Lydia and
Babylonia, as fast friends and allies, pursued their separate courses
without quarrel or collision, thus allowing the nations under their re-
spective dominions a repose which they greatly needed and desired.
According to Herodotus, Cyaxares, the founder of the great Median
Empire, died B. C. 593, after a reign of forty years, and was sue-
ceeded by his son, ASTYAGES, who, as we have observed, had received
as a bride the daughter of Alyattes, King of Lydia. Cyaxares, as a
great warrior and the founder of an empire, was a conqueror after the
Asiatic model. He possessed ability, perseverance, energy, ambition,
and force of character, and these qualities made him a successful leader.
He was faithful to his friends, but considered treachery permissible
to his foes. He did not, however, possess the ability to organize the
empire his conquests had built up ; and his establishment of Magianism
as the state religion was the only one of his institutions that appeared
to be laid on deep and stable foundations. The empire which he
founded was the shortest-lived of all the great ancient Oriental mon-
archies, having risen and fallen within the short space of threescore
years and ten — the period allotted by the Psalmist RS the natural life-
time of an individual.
Astyages lacked his father's ability and energy. Born to the in-
heritance of a great empire, and bred in the luxury of a magnificent
Oriental court, he was apparently content with the lot which fortune
seemed to have assigned him, and had no further ambition. He was
said to have been handsome, cautious, and of an easy and generous
temper; but the anecdotes of his manner of living at Ecbatana, as
related by Herodotus, Xenophon and Nicolas of Damascus, are mainly;
Alliance
ship of
Baby-
Death of
cyaxares-
The
Median
King
^3 His
Court,
474
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
legendary and therefore unreliable as material for history. Still the
united testimony of these three writers gives us some idea of the court
of Astyages, which resembled that of the Assyrian kings in its main
features. The Median monarch led a secluded life, and could only
be seen by those who asked and obtained an audience. He was sur-
rounded by guards and eunuchs, the latter holding most of the offices
about the royal person. The court of Ecbatana was celebrated for
the magnificence of its apparel, for its banquets and for the number
and organization of its attendants. The courtiers wore long flowing
robes of various colors, red and purple predominating, and adorned
their necks with gold chains or collars, and their wrists with bracelets
of the same costly material. Their horses frequently had golden bits
to their bridles. One royal officer was called " the King's Eye " ; an-
other was assigned the privilege of introducing strangers to the sover-
eign; a third was his cupbearer; a fourth his messenger. Guards,
torch-bearers, serving-men, ushers and sweepers were among the lower
attendants. " The king's table-companions " were a privileged class
of courtiers of the highest rank. Hunting was the chief pastime in
which the court indulged. This usually took place in a park, or
" paradise," near the capital ; but sometimes the king and court went
out on a grand hunt in the open country, where lions, leopards, bears,
wild boars, wild asses, antelopes, stags and wild sheep abounded, and
when the beaters had driven the beasts into a confined space the hunt-
ing parties dispatched them with arrows and spears.
Herodotus tells us that the priestly caste of the Magi, who were held
in the highest esteem by both king and people, were in constant attend-
ance at the Median court, ready to expound dreams and omens, and to
give advice on all matters of state policy. They had charge of the
religious ceremonial, and often held high offices of state. They were
the only class who possessed any real influence over the monarch.
The long reign of Astyages was mainly peaceful until near its close.
Eusebius. Eusebius contradicts Herodotus by saying that Astyages, and not Cy-
axares, conducted the great war with Alyattes of Lydia; and Moses
of Chorene alone states that Astyages carried on a long struggle with
Tigranes, an Armenian king — neither of which statements deserve any
credit. The Greeks evidently regarded Astyages as an unwarlike
king. On the north-eastern frontier of his empire, Astyages extended
his dominion by the acquisition of the low country now called Talish
and Ghilan, where the powerful tribe of the Cadusians had thus far
maintained its independence. Diodorus alone states that they were
able to bring two hundred thousand men into the field — a statement
unsupported by any other writer and unworthy of credit. At this
time the Cadusian king, Aphernes, or Ornaphernes, uncertain of his
The
Magi.
Account
by
Account
by
Diodorus.
THE MEDIAN EMPIRE.
475
position, surrendered his sovereignty to Astyages by a secret treaty,
and the Cadusians peacefully passed under the sway of the Median
king.
Astyages was unhappy in his domestic relations. His " mariage de
convenance " with the Lydian princess, Aryenis, brought him no son,
and the want of an heir led him to contract those marriages mentioned
by Moses of Chorene in his History of Armenia — one with Anusia, and
another with the beautiful Tigrania, sister of the Armenian king, Ti-
granes. Still he had no male offspring. Herodotus and Xenophon
assigned him a daughter named Mandane, whom they considered the
mother of Cyrus the Great; but Ctesias denied this, and gave him a
daughter named Amytis, whom he regarded as the wife, first of Spitaces
the Mede, and afterwards of Cyrus the Persian. These stories, de-
signed to gratify the vanity of the Persians and to flatter the Medes,
are entitled to no credit. It is therefore doubtful if the second and
last Median king had any child at all.
In his old age, B. C. 558, occurred the event which ended the reign
of Astyages and the empire of Media. The Persians — the Aryan kins-
men of the Medes — had become settled in the region south and south-
east of Media, between the 32d parallel and the Persian Gulf, and had
acknowledged the suzerainty of the Median kings during the period
of their greatness. But dwelling in their rugged mountains and high
upland plains, the Persians had retained the primitive simplicity of
their manners, and had intermingled but slightly with the Medes, being
governed directly by their own native kings of the Achagmenian dy-
nasty, whose founder was said to have been the legendary Achsemenes.
These princes were related by marriage with the Cappadocian kings,
and their royal house was considered one of the noblest in Western Asia.
Herodotus regarded Persia as absorbed into Media at this time, and the
Achaemenidae as simply a noble Persian family. Nicolas of Damascus
considered Persia a Median satrapy, Atradates, the father of Cyrus,
being satrap. Xenophon and Moses of Chorene gave the Achasmenidas
their royal rank, and considered Persia as completely independent of
Media, while they regarded Cyrus as a great and powerful sovereign
during the reign of Astyages ; and this view is sustained by the native
Persian records. In the Behistun Inscription, Darius declares : " There
are eight of my race who have been kings before me. I am the ninth."
In an inscription found on a brick brought from Senkereh, Cyrus the
Great calls himself " the son of Cambyses, the powerful king." The
residence of Cyrus at the Median court at Ecbatana — which is asserted
in almost every narrative of his life before he became king — would
seem to imply at least an acknowledgment of nominal Median suprem-
acy over Persia.
Unhappy
Domestic
Relations
of
Astyages.
Accounts
by
Ancient
Writers.
Persia
under the
Achseme-
nian
Dynasty.
Accounts
by
Ancient
Writers.
Cyrus
the
Great.
476
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Cyrus
at the
Median
Court.
Cyrus
Returns
to
Persia.
Median
Pursuit
of
Cyrus
and his
Escape.
Median
Invasion
of
Persia.
During his residence at the Median court Cyrus observed the unwar-
like disposition of that generation of Medes, who had not seen any
actual military service. He had a contempt for the personal character
of Astyages, who spent his life in luxury, mainly at Ecbatana, amid
eunuchs, concubines and dancing-girls. The Persian crown-prince re-
solved to raise the standard of rebellion, to free his country from
Median supremacy, and to vindicate the pure Zoroastrian religion,
which the Achasmenians championed, and which the Magi, aided and
upheld by the Median monarchs, had corrupted.
Cyrus asked permission from Astyages to visit his father, who was
in poor health, but this request was refused by the Median king on the
plea that he was too much attached to the Persian crown-prince to miss
his presence for a single day. But on the application of a favorite
eunuch, Cyrus was allowed a leave of absence for five months, and with
several attendants he left Ecbatana by night, taking the road leading
to his native Persia.
The next evening, enjoying himself over his wine as usual, in the
company of his concubines, singing-girls and dancing-girls, Astyages
asked one of them to sing. The girl took her lyre and sang as follows :
" The lion had the wild-boar in his power, but let him depart to his own.
lair ; in his lair he will wax in strength, and will cause the lion a world
of toil; till at length, although the weaker, he will overcome the
stronger." The words of this song caused the king extreme anxiety,
as he had already learned of a Chaldzean prophecy designating Cyrus
as a future king of the Persians. Astyages at once ordered an officer
with a body of horsemen to pursue the Persian crown-prince and bring
him back dead or alive. The officer overtook Cyrus and announced his
errand, whereupon Cyrus expressed his willingness to return to the
Median court, but proposed that, as it was late, they should rest for
the night. The Medes agreed to this ; and Cyrus, feasting them, made
them all intoxicated, after which he mounted his horse and rode off at
full speed with his attendants, until he arrived at a Persian outpost,
where he had arranged with his father to meet a body of Persian
troops. After having slept off their drunkenness and discovering that
their prisoners had fled, the Medes pursued, and again overtaking Cy-
rus, who was backed by an armed force, they attacked him, but were
defeated with great loss and driven into retreat; and Cyrus escaped
into Persia.
Upon hearing of the escape of the Persian crown-prince, Astyages
was greatly chagrined, and, smiting his thigh, he exclaimed : " Ah !
fool, thou knewest well that it boots not to heap favors on the vile;
yet didst thou suffer thyself to be gulled by smooth words ; and so thou
hast brought upon thyself this mischief. But even now he shall not
THE MEDIAN EMPIRE. 477
get off scotfree." Instantly the Median king, in his rage, sent for
his generals, who, in pursuance of the royal orders, soon collected an
army of three thousand chariots, two hundred thousand horse, and a
million footmen, to reduce Persia to obedience. With this immense
host Astyages invaded the revolted province, and engaged the army
which Cyrus and his father, Cambyses, had assembled for defense.
The Persian army consisted of a hundred chariots, fifty thousand horse-
men, and three hundred thousand light-armed foot, who were drawn
up in front of a fortified town near the frontier.
At this town the first day's battle was sanguinary but indecisive ; but Two
on the second day Astyages, by a skillful use of his superior numbers, victories.
won a decided victory. After he had detached one hundred thousand
men with orders to make a circuit and get into the rear of the town,
the Median king renewed the attack ; and when the Persians had their
whole attention directed to the battle in their front, the detached Me-
dian troops fell on the city and took it, before the garrison was aware.
Cambyses, who commanded the garrison, was mortally wounded and
taken prisoner. The Persian army in the open field, finding itself at-
tacked in front and rear, broke and fled towards the interior, to defend
Pasargadse, the Persian capital. After giving Cambyses an honorable
burial, Astyages hotly and relentlessly pursued the defeated and flee-
ing Persian host.
Between the battlefield and Pasargadae was a barrier of lofty and Median
precipitous hills, penetrated only by a single narrow pass, guarded by
ten thousand Persians. Seeing that the pass could not be forced,
Astyages sent a detachment along the foot of the range till they found
a place where they could ascend the mountain, when they climbed the
rugged declivity and seized the heights directly above the defile.
Thereupon the Persians were obliged to evacuate their strong position
and to fall back to a lower range of hills near Pasargadae, where an-
other conflict of two days occurred. On the first day the Medes failed
in all their efforts to ascend the low but steep hills, the Persians hurling
heavy masses of stone upon their ascending columns. On the second
day Astyages had placed a body of troops at the foot of the hills below
his attacking columns, with orders to kill all who refused to ascend, or
who, after ascending, endeavored to descend the heights. Thus forced
to advance, the Medes fought with desperation, driving the Persians
before them up the slopes of the hill to its summit, where the Persian
women and children had been placed for safety. The courage of the
Persians was aroused by the taunts and reproaches of their mothers
and wives, and, by a sudden furious charge, they overbore the aston-
ished Medes, driving them in headlong flight down the declivity in such
confusion that the Persians slew sixty thousand of them.
478
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Final
Median
Over-
throw.
End
of the
Median
Empire.
Its
Extent
and Area
Astyages still persevered, but was decisively defeated by Cyrus in a
fifth battle near Pasargadae, his army being routed and his camp taken.
All the Median royal insignia fell into the hands of the victorious Per-
sian king, who assumed them amid the enthusiastic shouts of his troops,
who saluted him as " King of Media and Persia." Astyages sought
safety in flight, his army dispersed, and most of his followers deserted
him. He was hotly pursued by his triumphant foe, who, forcing him
to an engagement, again defeated him and took him prisoner.
The Median Empire had now received its death-blow. Media and
all its dependencies at once submitted to Cyrus, who thus became the
founder of the great Medo-Persian Empire, which for two centuries
swayed the destinies of all Western Asia and North-eastern Africa, after
the conquest and absorption of the great Oriental empires contempo-
rary with Media — namely, Lydia, Babylonia and Egypt. Thus the
supremacy of the Aryan race in Asia was transferred from the Medes
to their near kinsmen, the Persians; and pure Zoroastrianism was re-
stored on the ruins of the corrupt Magian system which the Median
kings had allowed to take the place of the primitive faith of the Bac-
trian prophet. The law of the new empire was still " the law of the
Medes and Persians." Official employments were open to the people
of both these kindred Aryan nations.
The Median Empire, in its extent and fertility of territory, was not
inferior to the Assyrian. It reached from Rhages and the Carmanian
desert on the east to the river Halys on the west — a distance of about
thirteen hundred miles. From its northern confines along the Euxine
(now Black Sea), the Caucasus and the Caspian, to its southern limits
along the Euphrates and the Persian Gulf, its width was about five
hundred and forty miles in its eastern portion and about two hundred
and forty miles in its western portion. It thus had an area of about
half a million square miles; being as large as Great Britain, France,
Spain and Portugal combined.
Aryan
Origin
and
Kinship
of the
Medes
and
Persians.
SECTION III.— MEDIAN CIVILIZATION.
ALL sacred and profane history classes the Medes and Persians as
kindred nations — a fact sustained by recent linguistic research, which
proves them to have been a people similar in race and language, as well
as in institutions and religion. This fact, along with the express state-
ments of Herodotus and Strabo, shows that the Medes and Persians,
the leading Iranic nations, belonged to the great Aryan, or Indo-
European branch of the Caucasian race. In ancient times all the lead-
ing tribes and nations of the great plateau of Iran and even beyond it
MEDIAN CIVILIZATION.
479
in a northerly direction to the Jaxartes (now Sihon) river and east-
ward to the Hyphasis (now Sutlej ) — Medes, Persians, Sagartians,
Chorasmians, Bactrians, Sogdians, Hyrcanians, Sarangians, Ganda-
rians and Sanskritic, or Brahmanic Indians — all belonged to a single
stock, united by the tie of a common language, common manners and
customs, and mainly a common religious faith. The Medes and Per-
sians— the two leading Aryan nations of Asia — were scarcely distin-
guishable from each other in any ethnic features.
The sculptures of the Achsemenian Kings of Persia represent the
Medes and Persians as a noble variety of the human species — with a
tall, graceful and stately physical form; a handsome and attractive
physiognomy, frequently bearing some resemblance to the Greek; a
high and straight forehead ; the nose nearly in the same line, long and
well-formed, sometimes markedly aquiline ; the upper lip short, usually
shaded by a mustache ; the chin rounded and commonly covered with a
curly beard. The race was proud of their hair, which grew plenti-
fully. On the top of the head the hair was worn smooth, but was drawn
back from the forehead and twisted into a row or two of crisp curls,
being also arranged into a large mass of similar small close ringlets at
the back of the head over the ears.
Xenophon tells us that the Median women were remarkable for their
stature and beauty. Plutarch, Ammianus Marcellinus and others say
the same of the Persian women. The ancient Aryan nations appear to
have treated women with a spirit of chivalry, allowing them the full
development of their physical powers, and rendering them specially
attractive to their own husbands as well as to men of other ancient
nations.
Says Rawlinson : " The modern Persian is a very degenerate repre-
sentative of the ancient Aryan stock. Slight and supple in person,
with quick, glancing eyes, delicate features and a vivacious manner,
he lacks the dignity and strength, the calm repose and simple grace of
the race from which he is sprung. Fourteen centuries of subjection
to despotic sway have left their stamp upon his countenance and his
frame, which, though still retaining some traces of the original type,
have been sadly weakened and lowered by so long a term of subser-
vience. Probably the wild Kurd or Lur of the present day more nearly
corresponds in physique to the ancient Mede than do the softer in-
habitants of the great plateau."
The ancient Medes were noted for their bravery. Originally equal,
and perhaps superior to their Persian kinsmen, they were during the
entire period of Persian supremacy only second to them in courage
and warlike characteristics. When allowed to take his choice out of
the vast host of Xerxes during the war with Greece, Mardonius selected
1—33
Their
Physi-
ognomy
and Form.
The
Median
Women.
Rawlin-
son's
Account.
Median
Bravery.
480
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Median
Cruelty.
Primitive
Sim-
plicity.
the Median troops next to the Persians. When the battle opened he
kept the Medes near himself, assigning them their place in the line near
that of the Persian contingent. Diodorus states that the Medes were
chosen to make the first attack upon the Greek position at Thermopy-
lae, where they showed their valor, though unsuccessful. In the earlier
periods of their history, before they had been corrupted by wealth and
luxury, their courage and military prowess fully earned them the titles
applied to them by the Hebrew prophet Ezekiel : " the mighty one of
the heathen — the terrible of the nations."
Median valor was utterly merciless. Median armies, we are told,
did " dash to pieces " the fighting-men of other nations, giving them
no quarter ; and inflicted indignities and cruelties upon the women and
children of their enemies. The worst atrocities which lust and hate
inspired accompanied the Median conquests, neither the virtue of
women nor the innocence of children being any protection to them.
The infant was slain before its parents' eyes, and the sanctity of the
domestic hearth was invaded. Insult and vengeance were allowed full
scope, and the brutal Median soldiery freely indulged their tiger-like
thirst for the blood of their foes.
The habits of the Medes were at first simple and manly ; but, as with
all conquering Oriental nations, success was at once followed by degen-
eracy, and the Medes in due time became corrupted and enervated by
the luxuries of conquest. After their conquests they relaxed the strin-
gency of their former habits and indulged in the pleasures of soft and
luxurious living. Xenophon contrasted in vivid colors the primitive
simplicity of Persia proper, where the old Aryan habits, once common
to both nations, were still maintained in all their original stringency,
with the luxury and magnificence prevailing at Ecbatana. Herodotus
and Strabo alluded to the luxury of the Median dress. Thus it ap-
pears that the Medes in the later days of their empire were a luxurious
people, displaying a pomp and magnificence unknown to their ances-
tors, affecting splendor in their dress, grandeur and elegant ornamenta-
tion in their buildings, variety in their banquets, and reaching a degree
of civilization almost equal to that of the Assyrians, though vastly
inferior to them in taste and refinement. Their ornamentation dis-
played a barbaric magnificence, distinguished by richness of material.
Literature and letters received little attention. A stately dress and a
new style of architecture are the only Median inventions. Professor
Rawlinson says of the Medes : " They were brave, energetic, enter-
prising, fond of display, capable of appreciating to some extent the
advantages of civilized life; but they had little genius, and the world
is scarcely indebted to them for a single important addition to the gen-
eral stock of its ideas."
MEDIAN CIVILIZATION.
481
Herodotus says that in the army of Xerxes the Medes were armed
exactly like the Persians, and that they wore a soft felt cap on the
head, a sleeved tunic on the body, and trousers on the legs. He tells
us that their offensive arms were the spear, the bow and the dagger.
They had large wicker shields, and carried their quivers suspended at
their backs. The tunic was sometimes made into a coat of mail by
adding to it on the outside a number of small iron plates arranged so
as to overlap each other like the scales of a fish. They served alike
on horseback and on foot, with like equipments in both cases. Strabo
and Xenophon, as well as Isaiah and Jeremiah, describe the Median
armies as originally simpler in character. The primitive Medes were
a nation of horse-archers. Trained from early boyhood to a variety
of equestrian exercises, and skillful in the use of the bow, they dashed
upon their enemies with swarms of horse, like the Scythians, and won
their victories mainly by the skillful discharge of their arrows as they
advanced, retreated, or manoeuvred about their foe. The prophet
Jeremiah spoke of the sword and the spear being used by the Medes
and Persians.
The sculptures of Persepolis represent the bow used by the Medes
and Persians as short, and curved like that of the Assyrians. It was
generally carried in a bow-case, either suspended at the back or from
the girdle. The arrows, carried in a quiver suspended behind the right
shoulder, were not over three feet long. The quiver was round, cov-
ered at the top and fastened by means of a flap and strap, the last
passed over a button. The Median spear, or lance, was six or seven
feet long. The sword was short, and was suspended at the right thigh
by means of a belt encircling the waist, and was also held by a strap
fastened to the bottom of the sheath and passing around the right leg
just above the knee. Median shields were either round or oval.
The sculptures show us the favorite dress of the Medes in peace.
The Persian bas-reliefs represent the long flowing robe, with its grace-
ful folds, as the garb of the kings, the chief nobles and the chief
officers of the court. This dress is also seen upon the darics and the
gems, and is believed to be the celebrated " Median garment " men-
tioned by Herodotus, Xenophon and Strabo. This garment fitted
closely to the chest and shoulders, but hung over the arms in two large
loose sleeves open at the bottom. It was fastened at the waist by a
cincture. Below it drooped in two clusters of perpendicular folds at
both sides, and hung between these in festoons like a curtain. It
reached to the ankles. The Median robes were of many colors, some
being purple, some scarlet, and others a dark gray or a deep crimson.
Procopius says that they were made of silk. Xenophon says that the
Medes wore undergarments, such as a sleeved shirt, or tunic, of a pur-
The
Median
Armies.
Weapons
of
Warfare.
Median
Dress.
483
Cos-
metics,
Dyes and
Orna-
ments.
Banquets.
Court
Ceremo-
nial.
Royal
Hunting.
Royal
Harem.
pie color, and embroidered trousers. The feet were covered with high
shoes or low boots, opening in front and fastened with buttons. The
Medes wore felt caps like the Persians, or high-crowned hats, made of
felt or cloth, and dyed in different hues.
Xenophon tells us that the Medes used cosmetics, rubbing them into
the skin to improve the complexion. They also used false hair in
abundance. Like other Oriental nations, ancient and modern, they
used dyes to improve the brilliancy of the eyes and make them appear
larger and softer. They also wore golden ornaments, such as chains
or collars around the neck, bracelets around the wrists, and ear-rings
fastened into the ears. The bits and other parts of the harness of
their horses were also frequently of gold.
Xenophon also tells us that the Medes were extremely luxurious at
their banquets. Not only plain meat and various kinds of game, with
bread and wine, but many side-dishes and different kinds of sauces,
were set before their guests. They ate with the hand, as Orientals still
do, and used napkins. Each guest had his own dishes. Wine was
drunk at the meal and afterwards, and the feast often ended in turmoil
and confusion. At court the king received his wine at the hands of
the cup-bearer, who first tasted it, so that the king might be certain
that it was not poisoned, and then handed it to his master with much
pomp and ceremony.
The court ceremonial was imposing. Herodotus tells us that the
monarch was ordinarily kept secluded, and that no person could be
admitted to his presence without formally requesting an audience and
without being led before the sovereign by the proper officer. Strabo
says that when he was admitted he prostrated himself with the same
signs of adoration as when he entered a temple. The king, surrounded
by his attendants, eunuchs and others, maintained a haughty reserve,
and the visitor only saw him from a distance. Business was mainly
transacted by writing. The monarch seldom left his palace, and was
informed of the state of his empire through the reports of his officers.
The chief court amusement was hunting, but the king himself seldom
participated in this pastime. Beasts of the chase were always abund-
ant in Media; and the Median nobles are mentioned by Xenophon as
hunting lions, bears, leopards, wild boars, stags, gazelles, wild sheep
and wild asses. The first four of these were considered dangerous,
the others harmless. These animals were usually pursued on horse-
back, and aimed at with the bow or the spear.
The Median monarch, like other Oriental sovereigns, maintained a
seraglio, or harem, of wives and concubines ; and polygamy was a com-
mon custom among the wealthy. Strabo tells us of a peculiar law
among some Median tribes which required every man to have at least
THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE.
483
five wives. The eunuchs, who swarmed at court, were mostly foreign-
ers purchased in their infancy. This despised class were all-powerful
with their royal master near the close of the Median Empire.
Thus corruption gradually sapped the vitality of the empire; and
both the court and people had abandoned the hardy and simple cus-
toms of their ancestors, and had become enervated through luxury when
the revolt of the Persians under Cyrus brought the Median Empire
to a speedy end.
Median architecture was characterized by a barbaric magnificence.
It is believed that the Medes had learned sculpture from the Assyrians
and that they taught it to the Persians ; as everywhere among the re-
mains of the Achaemenian kings are seen modifications of Assyrian
types, such as the carving of winged genii, of colossal figures of bulls
and lions, of grotesque monsters, and of clumsy representations of
actual life, in imitation from Assyrian bas-reliefs. The only remnant
of sculpture remaining that can be assigned to the Medes is a portion
of a colossal stone lion yet to be seen at Hamadan, greatly injured by
time, and consisting of the head and body of the lion, measuring about
twelve feet, the tail and the forelegs being broken off. Its posture
indicates some originality in Median art.
National
Corrup-
tion p.nd
Decay.
Median
Art.
SECTION IV.— THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE.
THE history of the Medo-Persian Empire begins with the overthrow
of Astyages, the last King of Media, by CYRUS THE GREAT. But in
the present narrative we must go considerably farther back ; because in
this instance, as in most other cases, the empire grew out of a previ-
ously-existing monarchy. Darius Hystaspes reckoned eight Persian
kings before himself. The inscriptions of the Assyrian kings begin
to notice the Persians about the middle of the ninth century before
Christ. At that time Shalmaneser II., the Black Obelisk King of
Assyria, found them in South-western Armenia, where they were in
close contact with their Aryan kinsmen, the Medes, but of whom they
appear to have been then entirely independent. Like the modern
Kurds in the same region, they were not subject to a single head, but
were governed by many petty chieftains, each of whom was the lord
of a single town or a small mountain district. Shalmaneser II. says
in his inscription that he took tribute from twenty-five such chiefs.
His son and grandson received similar tokens of submission from this
people. For almost a century thereafter the Assyrian records say
nothing of the Persians, until the reign of Sennacherib, when they are
found to be no longer in Armenia, but to have migrated beyond the
The
Primitive
Persians.
484
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Origin
of the
Persian
Kingdom.
Achae-
mtnes.
Teispes.
Accounts
by
Herod-
otus,
Xenophon
aud the
Behistun
Inscrip-
tion.
Median
Suze-
rainty
and
Persian
Vas-
salage.
Zagros, into the regions north and north-east of Susiana, where they
established their permanent home.
The Persians thus did not finish their migrations until near the end
of the Assyrian period, and perhaps did not form an organized mon-
archy until near the fall of Nineveh. The establishment of a power-
ful monarchy in the neighboring country of Media about B. C. 660,
or a little later, doubtless induced the Persians to follow the example
of their kindred.
According to the native Persian tradition, the first Persian king was
ACH^EMENES ( Hakhamanish ) , from whom all the later Persian mon-
archs were descended, excepting probably the last, Darius Codomannus,
who, some writers say, was not a member of the royal clan. The name
of the first Persian king, Achasmenes, was derived from the royal clan
of the Achasmenidae. Certain writers have doubted the existence of
Achasmenes, but he may have been a real king, who founded the orig-
inal Persian monarchy by uniting the scattered tribes into one nation,
and raised Persia into a power of some importance.
The successor of Achaemenes was his son TEISPES, according to the
Behistun Inscription. Little is known of him and the next three mon-
archs, and the names of two are quite uncertain. One tradition ascribes
either to the second or to the fourth king the establishment of friendly
relations with a certain Pharnaces, King of Cappadocia, by the inter-
marriage of Atossa, a Persian princess, with the Cappadocian mon-
arch.
According to Herodotus, Persia, under these early kings, was abso-
lutely subject to the dominion of the Medes, who conquered Persia and
imposed their yoke upon its people before B. C. 634. But the native
Persian records and the accounts of Xenophon represent Persia as
being at this time a separate and powerful kingdom, either entirely
independent of Media, or only nominally dependent. In the Behistun
Inscription, Darius Hystaspes says : " There are eight kings of my
race before me; I am the ninth. For a length of time we have been
kings." The political condition of Persia as represented to us by
Xenophon and the Behistun Inscription is perhaps the true one, and
it may be doubted if there ever was a Median conquest of Persia ; but
Persia, being weaker and less developed, may have acknowledged the
suzerainty of the more powerful Media, while being left undisturbed
in the control of her own domestic affairs, and perhaps not much inter-
fered with in her relations with foreign nations. Persia may have
occupied the same relation toward Media that Egypt now does toward
Turkey. This position was irksome to the Persian kings and un-
pleasant to their subjects. It detracted from the dignity of the Per-
sian monarchs as independent sovereigns, and perhaps sometimes ham-
THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE, 435
pered them, as they would from time to time have to pay court to their
suzerain. Towards the close of the Median period the Persian mon-
arch was obliged to send his eldest son, the heir and crown-prince, to
Ecbatana, to reside at the Median court as a hosatge for the faithful
discharge of the duties of his father as a vassal king. The Persian
crown-prince was thus kept in a sort of honorable captivity, not being
permitted to leave the Median court and return home without the con-
sent of the Median king, though otherwise well treated.
Xenophon and Nicolas of Damascus represent this as the actual con- The First
dition of Persia at that time. CAMBYSES, the father of Cyrus the andCyrus
Great — called Atradates by the latter writer — was King of Persia, and the Great,
resided at Pasargadae, while his son Cyrus was a resident at the Median
court at Ecbatana, where he was in high favor with the reigning sov-
ereign, Astyages. Xenophon and Herodotus represent Cyrus as the
grandson of Astyages, whose daughter was the wife of Cambyses and
the mother of Cyrus ; but Nicolas of Damascus and Ctesias assert that
there was no relationship between them, the Median monarch simply
retaining the young Persian prince at his capital because he was at-
tached to him.
According to Ctesias, Cyrus, while at the Median court, resolved to Account
liberate his country by a revolt, and secretly communicated with his ctesias.
father for this purpose. His father assented reluctantly, and prepa-
rations were made which led to the escape of Cyrus and the beginning
of the war of Persian independence. The detailed account of the
struggle has already been given in the history of Media, and need not
be repeated here. After repeated defeats, the Persians made a final Over-
stand at Pasargadas, the capital of their kingdom, where in two great QfW
battles they destroyed the power of Astyages, who was himself taken Media,
prisoner ; and thus was inflicted the death-blow upon the Median Em-
pire.
Cambyses lost his life during the struggle, and the Persian triumph Ofthe
gave the sovereignty of the great Aryan empire to the youthful Cyrus, Medo-
who thus became the founder of the great Medo-Persian Empire, which Empire
was the dominant power in Western Asia for the next two centuries b7
(B. C. 558-B. C. 331). The greater portion of Astyages's subjects the Great
quietly submitted to the young conqueror, who was to rule them from
Pasargadae as the Median monarchs had previously governed them from
Ecbatana. Fate had destined a single lord for the many tribes and
nations occupying the vast domain situated between the Persian Gulf
and the Euxine, or Black Sea ; and the arbitrament of the sword had
decided that Cyrus should be that single lord. The statement of Nico-
las of Damascus, that the nations previously subject to the Medes vied
with each other in the readiness and zeal which they displayed in mak-
486
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Wealth
and
Power of
Cyrus
the Great.
War with
Croesus,
King of
Lydia.
Victories
of Cyrus
over
Croesus.
ing their submission to the triumphant Persian prince, seems altogether
probable. Cyrus immediately succeeded to the undisputed inheritance
of which he deprived Astyages, and was recognized as king by all the
tribes between the Halys and the desert of Khorassan. Nicolas even
represents the Parthians, the Bactrians and the Sacae as submitting at
once to the young conqueror.
Cyrus is said to have been exactly forty years of age when, by his
triumph over Astyages, he transferred the supremacy of the Aryan
race from the Medes to their Persian kinsmen. With dominion came
riches ; the wealth of the Assyrian kings — the gold, the silver, and the
" pleasant furniture " of those mighty monarchs, of which there was
" none end " — along with all the additions made to those immense stores
by the Median sovereigns, had come into his possession; so that from
comparative poverty he had suddenly become one of the wealthiest — if
not the very wealthiest — of princes. With an insatiable ambition and
more than ordinary ability, Cyrus aimed at universal dominion. Cte-
sias tells us that as soon as he was seated on his throne he led an expedi-
tion against the renowned Bactrians and Sacans of the distant North-
east; but the quarter which really received his first attention was the
North-west, where the powerful empire of Lydia had absorbed all the
kingdoms of Asia Minor west of the Halys.
Having become master of all Asia Minor except Lycia, Cilicia and
Cappadocia, Croesus, the famed wealthy King of Lydia, had for some
years surrendered himself to the enjoyment of his immense riches and
to an ostentatious display of his magnificence. But the revolution in
the East which had overthrown his ally, Astyages, and transferred the
sovereignty in that quarter to the enterprising Persian prince, roused
the indolent and self-complacent Croesus from his lethargy. He at
once made preparations for the inevitable struggle which was to decide
the lordship of this part of Asia. After consulting the Grecian oracles
he sent ambassadors to Babylon and Memphis, and the result was an
alliance of the Kings of Lydia, Babylonia and Egypt, along with
Sparta, against the growing power of the Medo-Persian monarch.
Cyrus in the meantime sent emissaries into Asia Minor to incite re-
volt amongst the Asiatic Greeks and other subjects of the Lydian king,
but in this he was disappointed, as the Ionian Greeks remained loyal
to their master. Cyrus then led a large army into Cappadocia, into
which country Croesus had advanced to meet them. In the district of
Pteria an indecisive engagement occurred, and the next day Croesus
retreated, and was not pursued by Cyrus until he had retired across
the Halys into his own dominions. Herodotus, our main authority for
the account of this war, states that Croesus raised a new army from the
contingents of his allies to renew the struggle. Cyrus, biding his
THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE. 487
time, crossed the Halys and advanced directly toward Sardis. Upon
reaching his capital Cro3sus had dismissed most of his troops to their
homes for the winter, giving orders for their return in the spring, when
he expected auxiliaries from Sparta, Babylon and Egypt. Thus left
defenseless, he suddenly learned that his intrepid enemy had followed
him into the heart of his own kingdom and had approached almost to
his capital. Hastily collecting an army of native Lydians, Croesus
encountered the advancing foe in the rich plain a few miles east of
Sardis. Cyrus, aware of the merits of the Lydian cavalry, put his
camels in front of his army, thus frightening the Lydian horses so that
they fled from the field. The riders dismounted and fought bravely
on foot, but their valor was unavailing. After a long and sanguinary
conflict the Lydian army was utterly defeated and obliged to seek ref-
uge behind the walls of Sardis.
Croesus hastily sent fresh messengers to his allies, soliciting them to Siege and
come immediately to his aid, hoping to maintain himself until their Capture
arrival, as his capital was defended by walls of such strength as to be Sardis
considered impregnable by the Lydians themselves. An unsuccessful ^ Cyrus,
attempt was made to take the city by storm, and the siege would have
become a blockade but for an accidental discovery. A Persian soldier
having approached to reconnoiter the citadel on the side which was nat-
urally strongest, and therefore the least guarded, perceived one of the
garrison descending the rock after his helmet, which had dropped from
his head over the precipice, and picking it up and returning with it.
Being an expert in climbing, he succeeded in ascending the same rock
to the summit, and was followed by several of his comrades. Thus the
citadel was surprised, and the city was taken and plundered.
Thus the chief city of Asia Minor fell into the hands of the Per- Captivity
sians after a siege of fourteen days. The Lydian king narrowly es-
caped with his life from the confusion of the sack ; but, being recog-
nized in time, was made prisoner and brought into the presence of the
victorious Persian monarch. Herodotus and Nicolas of Damascus tell
us that Cyrus condemned his captive to be burned alive, but relented
after Croesus had been on the funeral pile, and ever afterward treated
him with clemency, assigning him a territory for his maintenance and
giving him an honorable position at court, where he passed thirty years
in high favor with Cyrus and his son and successor, Cambyses.
With the fall of Sardis, Lydia and its dependencies were absorbed Persian
into the Medo-Persian Empire ; but the Greek cities upon the coast of ' Of
Lydia were not permitted quietly to become tributaries, and the Carians Lydia.
in the south-western corner of Asia Minor refused to submit to the new
conqueror without a struggle. For several weeks after the capture
of Sardis, Cyrus remained in that city, receiving during that time an
VOL. £1—10
488
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Lydian
Revolt
Sup-
pressed.
Persian
Conquest
of the
Greek
Cities of
Asia
Minor.
Generous
Treat-
ment of
Miletus.
Adrice of
Thales.
insulting message from Sparta, to which he made a threatening re-
sponse; and after arranging the government of the newly-conquered
province and transmitting its treasures to Ecbatana, he left Lydia for
the Median capital, taking Croesus along with him.
Cyrus was contemplating schemes of conquest in other quarters, but
no sooner had he left Sardis than an insurrection broke out in that
city. Pactyas, a Lydian, who had been assigned the task of convey-
ing the treasures of Croesus and his wealthiest subjects to Ecbatana,
revolted against Tabalus, the Persian commandant of the city, and,
being joined by the inhabitants and by Greek and other mercenaries
whom he had hired with the treasures entrusted to his care, besieged
Tabalus in the citadel. Cyrus heard of this revolt while on his march,
but sending Mazares, a Mede, with a strong body of troops to suppress
it, proceeded eastward. When Mazares reached Sardis, Pactyas had
fled to the coast, and the revolt was ended. The rebellious Lydians
were disarmed; and Pactyas, relentlessly pursued, and demanded suc-
cessively of the Cymaeans, the Mitylenaeans and the Chians, was finally
surrendered by the last-named people. The Greek cities which had
supplied Pactyas with auxiliaries were next attacked; and the inhabit-
ants of Priene, the first of these cities which was taken, were all sold
into slavery.
Mazares died shortly afterward, and was succeeded by Harpagus,
also a Mede, 'who dealt less harshly with the unfortunate Greeks. Be-
sieging their cities one after another, and gaining possession of them
by means of banks or mounds piled up against the walls, Harpagus
sometimes connived at the escape of the inhabitants to their ships, while
in other cases he permitted them to become Persian subjects, liable to
tribute and military service, though not disturbed otherwise. The
lonians, even those of the islands, excepting the Samians, voluntarily
accepted the same position and also became subjects of Cyrus the
Great.
Only one Greek continental town suffered nothing during this trou-
blesome time. When Cyrus refused the offers of submission from the
Ionian and ^Eolian Greeks after he had taken Sardis, he excepted Mile-
tus, the most important and the most powerful Greek city of Asia
Minor. Four Lydian kings had failed to subdue Miletus, and Croesus,
the last, only succeeded in the attempt.
Thales, the great Milesian philosopher, suggested that the Ionian
Greeks of Asia Minor should unite in a confederation to be governed
by a congress which should meet at Teos, each city retaining its own
laws and domestic independence, but uniting for military purposes into
a federal union. But the advice of Thales was disregarded, and the
Asiatic Greeks were reduced under the Persian dominion.
THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE.
489
After the conquest of the Ionian cities Harpagus subdued the na-
tions of South-western Asia Minor — the Carians, the Dorian Greeks,
the Caunians and the Lycians. The Carians readily submitted on the
approach of Harpagus, who had impressed the newly-conquered lon-
ians and JEolians into his service. The Dorian cities of Myndus, Hali-
carnassus and Cnidus submitted without resistance; but the Caunians
and Lycians, animated by a love of freedom, and having never before
submitted to any conqueror, made a heroic defense. After being de-
feated in the field they retired within the walls of their chief cities,
Caunus and Xanthus ; and, finding defense impossible, they set fire to
these cities, their women, children, slaves and valuables perishing in the
flames ; after which they sallied forth from the burning cities sword
in hand, attacked the besiegers' lines, and all died fighting.
In the meantime Cyrus was pursuing a career of conquest in the
far East. Herodotus, who is undoubtedly a better authority than
Ctesias for the events of the reign of Cyrus the Great, states that the
conqueror now subdued the Bactrians and the Sacans in that part of
Central Asia now called Turkestan. Bactria enjoyed the reputation
of having been a great and glorious country in primeval times, and is
considered the prehistoric home of the Aryan, or Indo-European,
branch of the Caucasian race — the Bactrians, the Medes and Persians,
the Brahmanic or Sanskritic Hindoos, and the European nations. In
the oldest portion of the Zend-Avesta it was celebrated as " Bakhdi
eredhwo-drafsha," or " Bactria with the lofty banner " ; and certain
traditions point to it as the native country of Zoroaster. There is
good reason for believing that it had maintained its independence until
it was conquered by Cyrus, or that it had been unmolested by the great
monarchies which had swayed the destinies of Western Asia for over
seven centuries. The Bactrians were an Iranic, or Aryan nation, and
retained in their remote and comparatively-savage country the simple
habits of the primitive Aryans. They were among the best soldiers
of the East, though armed with weapons of a different character, and
they always proved themselves to be a dangerous foe. Ctesias tells us
that when Cyrus invaded their country they fought an indecisive
pitched battle with his troops, and that they were not subdued by force
of arms, but that they submitted voluntarily when they learned that Cy-
rus had married a Median princess. Herodotus, however, states that the
Bactrians were among the Central Asian nations conquered by Cyrus.
The account of Herodotus is the more probable, as so warlike a nation
as the Bactrians is not likely to have quietly submitted, and as the mar-
riage of a Median princess, if he had contracted one, would not have
rendered him any more acceptable to the Bactrians, especially as Bac-
tria had not constituted any part of the Median Empire.
Persian
Conquest
of
Asia
Minor.
Con-
quests of
Cyrus
in the
East.
Conquest
of
Bactria.
Accounts
by
Ctesias
and
Herod-
otus.
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Conquest After the conquest of Bactria, Cyrus attacked the Sacae, whose
«f the country is believed to have bordered on Bactria, and who occupied the
region of the modern Kashgar and Yarkand. The Sacae were consid-
ered good soldiers. Their weapons were the bow and arrow, the dagger
and the battle-ax. They were formidable enemies either on foot or on
horseback. They were probably Tartars, or Turanians, in race, and
were in all likelihood the ancestors of the modern inhabitants of those
regions. Ctesias says that their women went to the field in nearly equal
numbers with their men, and that the mixed army which resisted Cyrus
consisted of half a million, comprising both sexes, three hundred thou-
sand men and two hundred thousand women. They were commanded
by a king named Amorges, whose wife was called Sparethra. This
king was taken prisoner in a battle with the Persians, whereupon his
wife took command of the Sacan forces, defeated Cyrus, and took so
many prisoners of rank that the Persian monarch gladly released
Amorges in exchange for them. Herodotus tells us that the Sacse
were, however, finally conquered, and that they became subjects and
tributaries of Persia.
Other Herodotus informs us that Cyrus about this time also subdued a
Con_ number of other countries in this part of Asia, namely, Hyrcania,
quests by Parthia, Chorasmia, Sogdiana, Aria (now Herat), Drangiana, or Sar-
angia, Arachosia, Sattagydia and Gandaria. Arrian, a later Greek
historian, states that Cyrus founded a city named Cyropolis, located
on the Jaxartes, in Sogdiana — a town of great strength defended by
high walls. Pliny tells us that Cyrus destroyed Capisa, the chief city
of Capisene, near the Upper Indus, probably on the site of the modern
Kafshan, a little north of Cabul. Diodorus, Strabo and Arrian say
that the Ariaspae, a people in Drangiana, supplied Cyrus with provi-
sions when he was warring in their vicinity, and that he gave them in
return a new name, which the Greeks translated as " Euergetae," mean-
ing benefactors. The Ariaspae are believed to have had their abode
near the Hamoon, or Lake of Seistan. Thus we find traces of the
presence of the Persian conqueror in the remote North on the Jaxartes,
in the distant East in the modern Afghanistan, and as far South as
Seistan and the Helmend; and there is reason to believe that he re-
duced under his dominion the entire region between the Caspian on
the west and the desert of Tartary and the Indus valley on the east,
and between the Jaxartes on the north and the deserts of Seistan and
Khorassan on the south.
His Tradition states that Cyrus on one occasion penetrated Gedrosia,
Loss in the modern Beloochistan, on an expedition against the Hindoos, or In-
Gedrosia. dians, and that he had lost his whole army in the waterless and trackless
desert of that region; but we have no evidence that he reduced the
THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE.
491
country to subjection. Gedrosia, however, seems to have been a part
of the Medo-Persian Empire in the reign of Darius Hystaspes, but it
is not known whether he, or Cambyses, or the great founder of the
empire conquered it.
The conquest of the immense region between the Caspian and the
Indus, occupied by a numerous, valiant and freedom-loving population,
may very likely have employed Cyrus about thirteen or fourteen years.
Alexander the Great, two centuries later, was occupied five years in
reducing the same region, when the inhabitants had entirely lost their
warlike character.
In the history of the Babylonian Empire we have described the con-
quest of Babylon by Cyrus the Great, and need not repeat our account
of that great event here. The capture of the city of Babylon by the
Persian conqueror was the death-blow to the Babylonian Empire, as the
capture and destruction of Nineveh by the Medes and Babylonians had
been the death-stroke to the Assyrian. Thus the rich and fertile prov-
inces of Babylonia, Susiana, Syria, Phoenicia and Palestine, together
embracing about a quarter of a million square miles, were added to
the immense empire which Cyrus had already built up.
In the conquest of Babylon the last formidable Asiatic rival of Per-
sia was wiped out of existence, and with its extinction perished the old
Semitic civilization of Asia, which, represented in succession by early
Chaldaea, Assyria and later Babylonia, had a history of almost two
thousand years. Thus the fall of Babylon, and with it the old Semitic
civilization, is one of the most important landmarks in the history of
the world, as it at once transferred the supremacy in the civilized world
from the Semitic to the Aryan race ; and ever since that time the Aryan
nations have entirely swayed the destinies of mankind in every sphere
of human activity — in politics, in social life, in science, art and litera-
ture ; and the human race entered upon a new era — a career of activity
and progress which it had never before known.
Says Rawlinson : " So long as Babylon, ' the glory of kingdoms,'
' The praise of the whole earth,' retained her independence, with her
vast buildings, her prestige of antiquity, her wealth, her learning, her
ancient and grand religious system, she could scarcely fail to be, in
the eyes of her neighbors, the first power in the world, if not in mere
strength, yet in honor, dignity, and reputation. Haughty and con-
temptuous herself to the very last, she naturally imposed on men's
minds, alike by her past history and her present pretensions ; nor was
it possible for the Persian monarch to feel that he stood before his
subjects as indisputably the foremost man upon the earth until he
had humbled in the dust the pride and arrogance of Babylon. But,
with the fall of the Great City, the whole fabric of Semitic greatness
Years of
Conquest.
Conquest
of
Babylon
by Cyrus.
Extinc-
tion of
Semitic
Civiliza-
tion.
Rawlin-
son's
State-
ment.
492
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
End of the
Assyro-
Baby-
lonian
Poly-
theism.
Advance
of
Mono-
theism.
Phoenicia
Resumes
Her
Independ-
ence.
was shattered. Babylon became * an astonishment and a hissing ' — all
her prestige vanished — and Persia stepped manifestly into the place,
which Assyria had occupied for so many centuries, of absolute and
unrivaled mistress of Western Asia."
With the fall of Babylon perished " an ancient, widely-spread, and
deeply venerated religious system," as represented in the Assyro-Baby-
lonian polytheism. Although this religion retained its votaries for
some time, it was no longer a prevailing system, supported by the re-
sources of a state and enforced by civil authority over a wide expanse
of territory, but " it became simply one of the many tolerated beliefs,
exposed to frequent rebuffs and insults, and at all times overshadowed
by a new and rival system — the comparatively pure creed of Zoroas-
ter." The Persian conquest of Babylon was a mortal wound to the
sensuous idolatry which for more than twenty centuries had been uni-
versally prevalent in the countries between the Mediterranean and the
Zagros mountain range. This idol-worship only survived in places,
and slightly corrupted pure Zoroastrianism ; but on the whole it rap-
idly declined from the date of the fall of Babylon. Says the prophet
Isaiah : " Bel boweth down ; Nebo stoopeth." Says Jeremiah :
" Merodach is broken in pieces." It was then that judgment was done
upon the Babylonian graven image. The system of which they con-
stituted an essential feature, " having once fallen from its proud pre-
eminence, gradually decayed and vanished."
As the old Semitic idolatrous polytheism declined, pure spiritual
monotheism advanced. " The same blow which laid the Babylonian
religion in the dust struck off the fatters from Judaism." The Jewish
monotheism — purified and refined by the hard discipline of adversity,
and protected, upheld and reinstated in its own home by Cyrus the
Great, who felt towards it a natural sympathy, because of its resemb-
lance to the monotheism of Zoroaster — advanced thenceforth in influ-
ence and importance, " leaving little by little the foul mass of super-
stition and impurity which came in contact with it." Proselytism
became more general, and the Jews spread themselves wider. Their
return to their own land from the Babylonian Captivity, which Cyrus
authorized soon after he had taken Babylon, was the first step in the
gradual enlightenment of heathen nations by the diffusion of Jewish
beliefs and practices, aided and facilitated by the high esteem in which
the Jewish religion was held by the civil power, both under the Medo-
Persians and subsequently under the Macedonian Greeks.
When Babylon fell, all its dependencies submitted to the Persian
conqueror, excepting Phoenicia, which had always sullenly and reluc-
tantly yielded to either the Assyrian or the Babylonian sway, and which
now thought the opportune moment had arrived for recovering its in-
THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE.
493
dependence. Therefore upon the destruction of her Babylonian suze-
rain, Phoenicia quietly resumed her independent position, making no
act of submission to the conquering Cyrus, but establishing friendly
commercial relations with one of the conquering king's vassals, the
Jewish leader, Ezra, who had been sent into Palestine to reestablish
his countrymen in Jerusalem.
Herodotus tells us that Cyrus, in the year B. C. 529, after reigning
twenty-nine years, led an expedition against the Massagetse, a Scyth-
ian tribe whose country lay on the north-eastern border of his empire,
to the north-east of the Caspian Sea. Leading his army across the
Jaxartes, he defeated the Massagetse in a great battle by stratagem,
but was himself afterwards defeated and killed, his body falling into
the enemy's possession. Herodotus further says that Thomyris, the
queen of the Massagetse, in revenge for the death of her son, who had
fallen in the battle, caused the head of the mighty Persian king to be
cut off from the body and to be thrown into a skin filled with the blood
of Persian soldiers, saying, as she thus insulted the corpse : " I live,
and have conquered thee in fight ; and yet by thee am I ruined, for thou
tookest my son with guile; but thus I make good my threat, and give
thee thy fill of blood."
Ctesias tells us that the people against whom he led his last expedi-
tion were the Derbices, a nation on the borders of India. Aided by
their Indian allies, who furnished them with elephants, the Derbices
encountered Cyrus, who was defeated and mortally wounded in the
battle; but reinforced by a body of Sacse, the Persians renewed the
struggle, gaining a decisive victory, which obliged the Derbices to
submit to the Persian dominion. Cyrus, however, died of his wound
the third day after the first battle.
Xenophon tells us that Cyrus the Great died peacefully in his bed.
This conflict of testimony on the part of the three eminent Greek
historians throws a veil of uncertainty over the closing scene of the
life of the great founder of the Medo-Persian Empire. While it is
probable that he lost his life in an expedition against a nation on the
north-eastern frontier of his empire, B. C. 529, after he had reigned
twenty-nine years, it is certain that his body did not fall into the ene-
my's possession from the fact that it was conveyed into Persia proper
and buried at Pasargadae. His tomb may yet be seen at Murgab, on
the site of the early Persian capital.
The last expedition of Cyrus may not have been prompted by mere
ambition and thirst for conquest. The nomadic nations of Central
Asia have at all times been turbulent, and have been with difficulty held
in check by the civilized nations to the south and west of them ; and the
invasion of that region by the Persian monarch may have been for
Defeat
and Death
of Cyrus
the Great
by the
Massa-
getse.
Account
by
Herod-
otus.
Account
by
Ctesias.
Xeno-
phon's
Account.
Object of
the Last
Expedi-
tion of
Cyrus.
494
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Cyrus as
Viewed
by the
Greek
Writers.
His
Treat-
ment
of His
Captives.
His Lack
of
States-
manship.
the purpose of striking terror into the barbarians, and to protect his
own dominions from a possible savage inroad.
The Greek writers give us a more favorable view of Cyrus the Great
than of any other ancient Oriental monarch. Herodotus and Nicolas
of Damascus represent him as brave, active, energetic, a great strate-
gist, and as thus possessing all the characteristics of a successful war-
rior. Herodotus also tells \ us that he conciliated his subjects by
friendly and familiar treatment, but refused to indulge them by yield-
ing to their desires when they conflicted with their own welfare. He
was also credited with having had a ready humor, which displayed itself
in witty sayings and repartees, as illustrated in the case of the Ionian
Greeks, who just before the fall of Sardis had refused his overtures,
but who after the capture of the city came to offer their submission,
when Cyrus replied to them thus : " A fisherman wanted the fish to
dance for him, so he played a tune on his flute, but the fish kept still.
Then he took his net and drew them out on the shore, and they all
began to leap and dance. But the fisherman said, ' A truce to your
dancing now, since you would not dance when I wanted you.' '
Berosus and Herodotus both bear testimony to the fact that Cyrus
treated his captives with mildness, and readily forgave even the hein-
ous crime of rebellion. Herodotus also tells us that he was devoid of
the usual pride of the ordinary Oriental despot, but conversed famil-
iarly with those about him. Such being his virtues, it is not surpris-
ing that the Persians, comparing him with their later sovereigns, cher-
ished his memory with the highest veneration, as attested by Xenophon ;
and that their affection for his person induced them to take his type
of countenance as their standard of physical beauty, of which fact we
are informed by Plutarch.
Cyrus possessed the genius of a conqueror, but lacked that of a
statesman. We have no vestige of any uniform system for the gov-
ernment of the provinces which he had conquered. In Lydia he set
up a Persian governor, but vested some important functions in a native
Lydian; says Herodotus. In Babylonia he entrusted the control of
public affairs to " Darius the Mede," whom he permitted to assume the
title of king ; says Daniel. In Judaea he appointed a native Jew, Ezra,
governor. In Sacia he allowed the king who had resisted his arms to
reign as a tributary monarch. This want of uniformity in the gov-
ernment of the empire, which may have been dictated by policy or
circumstances, was an obstacle to the consolidation of the vast domin-
ion which Cyrus had acquired by conquest ; and the Medo-Persian
Empire at his death had no more cohesion than any of the other pre-
ceding Asiatic empires which had successively flourished in that quar-
ter of the ancient world.
THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE.
495
Though originally a rude mountain chief, Cyrus proved his ability
to appreciate the dignity and value of art, after he had built up an
empire. His edifices at Pasargadae united massiveness with elegance,
and exhibited a simple but refined taste. He ornamented his struc-
tures with reliefs ideal in their nature. If, as seems probable, he con-
structed at Persepolis the Great Central Propylsa, the South-eastern
Palace and the Hall of a Hundred Columns, he originated the entire
system of arrangement subsequently pursued in the erection of all
Persian palaces.
In his domestic life Cyrus seems to have displayed the same modera-
tion and simplicity which marked his conduct in public affairs. Herod-
otus tells us that he had but one wife, Cassandane, the daughter of
Pharnaspes, a member of the royal family. His sons were Cambyses
and Smerdis, on the authority of Herodotus and the Behistun Inscrip-
tion. According to Herodotus, his daughters were Atossa, Artyston6
and a third whose name is not known. The wife of Cyrus died before
her husband, who greatly mourned for her. Xenophon and Ctesias
state that just before his own death he sought to guard against a
disputed succession by leaving the inheritance of his great empire to
his elder son, Cambyses, and entrusting the actual government of sev-
eral large and important provinces to his younger son, Smerdis. But
his plan subjected both his sons to untimely ends, as we shall presently
see.
No sooner was CAMBYSES seated upon the throne, B. C. 529, than he
grew jealous of his brother; and the Behistun Inscription informs us
that he ordered him to be privately put to death, and so secretly was
this done that the manner, and even the fact, of his death was known
to only a few. Smerdis was generally thought to be still living, and
this belief furnished an opportunity for a personation, as will be no-
ticed.
Meanwhile Cambyses set about executing his father's plans for the
conquest of Egypt. Seeking a pretext for a quarrel, he demanded
that a daughter of Amasis, King of Egypt, should be sent him as a
secondary wife. Amasis, fearing to refuse, sent him a damsel named
Nitetes, whom he falsely represented as his daughter, and who informed
Cambyses of the deception soon after her arrival. This, according to
Herodotus, was the ground for a quarrel. Cambyses at once set about
making his preparations for an expedition. Egypt was almost inac-
cessible on account of her situation, being protected on all sides by
seas and deserts. Herodotus states that the Persian monarch made a
treaty with the Arab sheik who had most influence over the desert tribes,
and obtained the aid of a powerful navy by intimidating the Phoe-
nicians into accepting his yoke and by wresting from Egypt the island
1—34
His
Edifices.
His
Domestic
Life.
The
Second
Cam-
byses.
Prepares
to Attack
Egypt.
'496
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Battle of
Pelusium
and
Conquest
of
Egypt by
Cam-
byses.
Designs
of
Cambyses
against
Ethiopia
and
Carthage.
of Cyprus. The Egyptian navy was unable to withstand the united
fleets of Phoenicia, Cyprus, Ionia and JEolis. Being thus deprived of
the supremacy of the seas, Egypt lost one of the chief elements of
her defense.
Cambyses entered Egypt in B. C. 525, after preparing four years
for the invasion, and he at once defeated the Egyptian king Psam-
menitus, who had just succeeded his father Amasis, in the bloody battle
of Pelusium. Psammenitus was aided by a large body of mercenaries,
consisting of Greeks and Carians. The enthusiasm of these allies in
the cause of the Egyptian monarch was fully attested by their treat-
ment of one of their own number who had deserted to the Persians
just before the battle, and was believed to have given important infor-
mation to the invaders. His children, whom he had left behind him
in Egypt, were seized and put to death before their father's eyes by
his former comrades, who mixed their blood in a bowl with water and
wine, and then drank the mixture. Ctesias says that the Egyptians
and their allies lost fifty thousand men in the decisive battle of Pelu-
sium, while the triumphant Persians lost only seven thousand. After
his disastrous defeat Psammenitus threw himself into Memphis, where,
being closely besieged by land, while the Persian fleet cut off all sup-
plies from the sea by occupying the Nile, he was forced to surrender
after a desperate resistance. Herodotus informs us that the captive
Egyptian monarch was at first treated with clemency. The date of
this conquest of Egypt is fixed at B. C. 525 by the concurrent testi-
mony of Diodorus, Eusebius and Manetho.
Herodotus and Diodorus state that the Libyans of the desert border-
ing upon the west side of the Nile, and even the Greeks of Cyrenaica,
offered their submission to the conqueror, sending him presents and
agreeing to become his tributaries. Being lord of Asia, Cambyses now
aspired to become also master of Africa. The only two African pow-
ers which could offer any serious resistance to his arms after the con-
quest of Egypt were Ethiopia and Carthage. Ethiopia — the only
great power of the South — was at least the equal, and perhaps the
superior, of Egypt. Carthage — the great power of the West — was
remote and but little known, but had begun to attract attention on
account of her rapidly-rising maritime supremacy and her increasing
wealth. Cambyses desired to conquer both these powers, and also the
oasis of Siwah. As a good Zoroastrian he desired to show the superi-
ority of Ormazd to all the " gods of the nations " ; and the temple of
Amun on the oasis of Siwah being the most famed of all African
shrines, he designed pillaging and destroying this sanctuary. But he
was forced to forego his designs against Carthage by the peremptory
refusal of the Phoenicians, who furnished his main naval strength, to
</5
3
UJ u
a- -5
u. S
O ~
m *
O ^>
S M
wi .S
< S
u
THE MEDO-PERS1AN EMPIRE.
497
aid in an attack upon their colonists, with whom they had always main-
tained friendly relations.
An army of fifty thousand men sent by Cambyses against the oasis
of Siwah perished to a man in a simoon amid the sands of the Libyan
desert. A larger force led by Cambyses himself against Ethiopia,
after marching across the Nubian desert, was forced to return for want
of supplies, after a large portion of his troops had perished from fam-
ine. The abilities and resources of the Persian king were not equal to
his ambition.
Observing symptoms of a disposition to revolt after his return to
Egypt, Cambyses, who had hitherto treated the captive Psammenitus
with mildness and magnanimity, caused him to be condemned for his
part in a conspiracy to recover his lost crown. The native Egyptian
officers who had been left in charge of the city of Memphis were also
capitally punished for their part in the incipient rebellion. These
harsh measures entirely nipped the threatened revolt in the bud, but
no reconciliation between the conqueror and the conquered followed.
Cambyses being aware that his severity had produced an implacable
hatred of Persian rule in the hearts of the Egyptians, and suspecting
the people, and especially their leaders, the priests, he resolved upon
a departure from his usual policy of clemency and toleration toward
his subjects, and sought to bring the Egyptian priesthood and religion
into contempt. He therefore stabbed the sacred bull, believed to be
the incarnate Apis, ordered the priests to be publicly scourged, put a
stop to the Apis festival by making it a capital offense to participate
in it, opened the tombs and curiously examined the mummies, intruded
himself into the chief sanctuary at Memphis and publicly scoffed at
the image of Phthah, doing the same in the inviolable temple of the
Cabeiri, and capped the climax of his insults by ordering the burning
of the images. These injuries and indignities produced an implacable
hatred of the Persian yoke in the hearts of the Egyptians — a hatred
which did not become extinct with the lapse of time, and which mani-
fested itself frequently in rebellion during the two centuries of Persian
dominion. But for the time the iron policy of Cambyses was success-
ful; and the Egyptians, with their faith in their gods rudely shaken,
their proud spirits humbled and their hopes shattered, then quietly
submitted and remained obsequious and sycophantic for an entire gen-
eration.
Having completed the subjection of Egypt, Cambyses started on his
return to Persia. When he had reached Syria he received the startling
intelligence that a revolution had occurred in Persia. A herald sud-
denly burst into his camp and proclaimed to his entire army that Cam-
byses, son of Cyrus, had ceased to reign and that all Persian subjects
His
Losses in
Libya
and
Ethiopia.
His
Cruelty
in Egypt.
His
Indigni-
ties to the
Egyptian
Religion.
Revolu-
tion in
Persia.
498
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Suicide of
Cam-
byses.
Reasons
for the
Suicide.
Doubtful
Stories.
Character
of
Cam-
by ses.
must thereafter pay their allegiance to Smerdis, son of Cyrus. At
first Cambyses supposed that the person he employed to put Smerdis
to death had deceived him, and that his brother was still living; but
the suspected person, who was a nobleman named Prexaspes, succeeded
in reassuring him of the death of Smerdis. Prexaspes knew that the
pretended Smerdis must be an impostor, and suggested his identity
with a certain Magus, whose brother had been assigned by Cambyses
the management of his household and the care of his palace. This
suggestion was made because of his knowledge of the resemblance which
the pretender bore to the murdered Smerdis. Herodotus says that the
Magus was really named Smerdis, but this is disproved by the Behistun
Inscription, which informs us that his real name was Gomates. Cam-
byses, in his momentary despondency at the unexpected event, com-
mitted suicide, by inflicting upon himself a wound with his own sword,
which caused his death in a few days, B. C. 522. This is the account
from Herodotus. The Behistun Inscription states that the self-in-
flicted wound was intentional. Ctesias says that Cambyses died of a
wound which he accidentally inflicted upon himself while carving wood
for his amusement at Babylon.
Cambyses, although returning from Egypt a substantial conqueror,
was discouraged by the fact that his army had become dispirited by its
losses and its failures, and could not therefore be depended upon to
fight with enthusiasm in his interest against the revolutionists who had
dethroned him. The other reasons for the king's suicide may have been
his unpopularity on account of his haughty and tyrannical temper,
and his disregard for law and custom when they stood in the way of
the gratification of his desires. His incestuous marriage with his sister
Atossa was utterly repugnant to the religious feelings of the Persian
people. Herodotus tells us that Atossa afterwards married the false
Smerdis, and still later Darius Hystaspes. We can not, however, ac-
cept all the stories told of the crimes of Cambyses, as they mainly come
from his enemies, the Egyptians ; nor the accounts given by Herodotus
of the escape of Cyrus, the murder of the son of Prexaspes, and the
execution of twelve noble Persians on a trivial charge in Egypt.
Herodotus says that the Persians themselves called Cambyses a " des-
pot," or " master," and considered him " harsh and reckless," in com-
paring him with Cyrus, whom they considered a " father," because he
was mild and beneficent. Cambyses may have doubted whether the
many Magians in his army would have fought zealously for the Zoroas-
trian cause.
Cambyses was brave, active and energetic, like his illustrious father,
but he did not possess his father's strategic genius, his discretion, or
his fertility in resources. Born to the inheritance of a great empire,
THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE.
499
he was proud and haughty, regardless of the feelings of others, and
impatient of admonition or remonstrance. His pride rendered him
obstinate when he had committed an error ; and his contempt for others
led him at times to harsh and cruel measures, as the execution of his
brother Smerdis, his repressive proceedings after the revolt in Egypt,
and his orders to his troops to enslave the Ammonians of the oasis of
Siwah. Herodotus accuses him of " habitual drunkenness." The
" madness of Cambyses " was reported to Herodotus by the Egyptian
priests, his inveterate enemies, who desired it to be believed that their
gods had thus punished his impiety and sacrilege.
The death of Cambyses, B. C. 522, left the conspirators who had
inaugurated the revolution at the capital at liberty to perfect their
plans, and to secure themselves and perpetuate their power. The Magi
doubtless desired to change the national Persian religion by subvert-
ing pure Zoroastrianism, but prudence dictated that they must move
with caution and be careful not to offend the zealous and sincere Zoroas-
trians. To conciliate the people and acquire popularity for the newly-
proclaimed king, there was a general remission of tribute and military
service for three years — a measure the priests knew would give great
satisfaction to all the tribes and nations in the empire outside of Persia
proper itself. The Persians, being always exempt from tribute, were
not affected by this measure, while military service was popular with
the dominant nation, for whose glory the conquests had been made.
To further strengthen his tenure of royalty, the PSEUDO-SMERDIS
married all the widows of Cambyses — a common practice in the East.
To prevent the detection of his imposture through the free intercourse
of his wives, the usurper isolated them by assigning each wife her own
portion of the palace, and allowed no one of his wives to visit the others,
nor permitted them to be visited by any of their relatives, thus cutting
off all communication between them and the outside world.
The usurping Magus grew bolder with the progress of time, and
then began the religious reformation which he and his fellow Magi so
much desired. The Behistun Inscription states that he destroyed the
Zoroastrian temples in different places and suppressed the Zoroastrian
worship with its hymns in praise of Ahura-Mazda. He replaced the
old ceremonies with the Magian rites, and constituted his fellow Magi
as the priest-caste of Persia. These changes were agreeable to the
Medes and other subject nations of the empire, and also to that por-
tion of the Persian people who desired a more material worship and a
more gorgeous ceremonial than that of the Zoroastrian system.
In Judjea the religious change gave a fresh impetus to a religious
struggle then in progress in that distant province of the empire, and
strengthened the side of intolerance. The Jews had been occupied for
Object of
the
Revolu-
tion.
The
Pseudo-
Smerdis.
Aims
of the
Pro-
tender.
The Jews
and the
Samari-
tan*.
500
Account
by
Herod-
otus.
Over-
throw
and Death
of the
Usurper.
Accounts
by
Herod-
otus,
Ctesias
and the
Behistm.
Inscrip-
tion.
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
fifteen or sixteen years in rebuilding the great Temple at Jerusalem,
in accordance with the permission granted them by Cyrus the Great.
The Samaritans, who disliked their enterprise, had vainly tried to in-
duce Cambyses to stop the work ; but they succeeded with the Pseudo-
Smerdis, who issued an edict reversing the decree of Cyrus and author-
izing the Samaritans to stop the work by force, if necessary. In
accordance with this decree, the Samaritan authorities proceeded to
Jerusalem, and, in the language of Ezra, " made the Jews to cease by
force and power."
Herodotus, whose account of the imposture of the Pseudo-Smerdis
is that thus far given, states as the causes leading to the discovery of
the imposture the religious changes inaugurated by the usurper, and
the seclusion of the king's seraglio and of himself from the rest of man-
kind, the usurping monarch never leaving the palace nor permitting
any of the Persian nobles to enter it. In consequence of this isolation,
the previous suspicion developed into a general national belief that the
king who occupied the throne was not Smerdis, the son of Cyrus, but a
usurper and an impostor. Still there was no outbreak for a time,
and no dissatisfaction except in Persia proper and in the north-
eastern provinces, where the Zoroastrian faith remained pure and
uncorrupted.
Rumors which arose among the chief Persians were sternly repressed
at the beginning, and all discontent was for a time smothered by a
systematic reign of terror. Finally some of the leading nobles, con-
vinced of the imposture, met in secret council and deliberated upon
what action should be taken under the circumstances. The arrival of
Darius, the son of Hystaspes, a prince of the blood royal, at the capi-
tal, was a signal for the rising which was to hurl the pretender from
the throne. Herodotus and the Behistun Inscription both tells us that
at the age of twenty he had been suspected by Cyrus the Great of a
design to seize the throne. He was now twenty-eight years of age.
Upon arriving at the capital, Darius was placed at the head of the plot
against the Pseudo-Smerdis. He at once armed his partisans and be-
gan the attack. Herodotus and Ctesias tell us that Darius and his
adherents entered the palace in a body, and, surprising the Magus in
his private apartments, killed him after a short struggle. The two
Greek writers diifer as to the details of the struggle. Darius himself
in the Behistun Inscription gives a different version of the affair. Ac-
cording to this source of information the Magus was not killed in his
palace at Susa or Ecbatana, but was slain with some of his adherents
in a struggle with Darius and six Persian nobles of high rank at the
small fort of Sictachotes, in " the Nisaean plain," in Media, whither
he had fled with a body of his followers.
THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE.
501
The victorious conspirators hastened to the capital, carrying with
them the head of the dead Magus and displaying it everywhere in evi-
dence of the death of the late impostor, after which they caused a
general massacre of the Magian priests who had abetted the late usur-
pation. The exasperated Persians poniarded every Magus they could
find, and only the approach of night saved the caste from extermina-
tion. The carnage ceased when darkness came on. The day was ap-
pointed to be observed as a solemn festival, under the name of Mago-
phonia ; and a law was made forbidding any Magus to leave his house
on that day.
DARIUS HYSTASPES ascended the Persian throne B. C. 5£1. Herod-
otus tells us that before his accession, the Seven — Darius and the six
nobles — discussed the choice of king and the form of government, but
this statement is utterly unworthy of credit. Darius was supported by
the other six conspirators, his " faithful men," as they are called in the
Behistun Inscription, from the very beginning. While the six ac-
quiesced in Darius's right to the throne, they exacted a guarantee of
certain privileges for themselves. The king bound himself to select
his wives from among the families of the conspirators only, and sanc-
tioned their claim to have free access to his person at all times without
asking his permission. One of them, Otanes, exacted a guaranty that
he and his house were to remain " free," and were to receive an annual
magnificent kaftan, or royal present.
Thus a check was placed upon absolute despotism. A hereditary
nobility was acknowledged. The monarch became somewhat dependent
upon his grandees. He could not consider himself the sole fountain
of honor. The six great nobles stood round the throne as its supports,
but they occupied a position so near the king as to detract to some
extent from his prestige and dignity.
As soon as he was firmly established on the throne Darius Hystaspes
proceeded to restore the old Zoroastrian religion. He rebuilt the
Zoroastrian temples which his usurping predecessor had destroyed, and
perhaps also restored the old sacred chants and the other Zoroastrian
ceremonies. In the Behistun Inscription, Darius exhorts his successors
in the strongest terms to put to death all " liars," by whom are meant
all apostates from the Zoroastrian faith. His zeal for Zoroastrianism
was soon known in the provinces.
The Jews at once resumed the rebuilding of the Temple at Jerusa-
lem ; and when the Samaritans sought to induce Darius to stop the work,
the only result was an edict confirming the old decree of Cyrus the
Great, forbidding the interference of the Samaritans, and granting the
Jews more money, cattle, corn, etc., from the royal stores, for the ac-
complishment of the great enterprise, which was declared to be for the
Massacre
of the
Impos-
tor's
Parti-
sans.
Darius
Hystas-
pes and
the Six
Nobles.
Despot-
ism
Checked.
Restora-
tion of
Pure
Zoroas-
trianism.
Aid to the
Jews in
Rebuild-
ing
Solo-
mon's
Temple.
502
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Numer-
ous
Revolts
Sup-
pressed.
The
Revolt
in
Susiana.
Its Final
Suppres-
sion.
advantage of the king and his house, because when the Temple was
finished sacrifices would be offered in it to " the God of Heaven," and
prayers would be uttered " for the life of the king and of his sons," as
we are told in the Book of Ezra. Thus there was a mutual sympathy
between the Medo-Persian religion of Zoroaster and the Hebrew wor-
ship of Jehovah.
The reign of Darius Hystaspes was soon disturbed by revolts in dif-
ferent portions of the empire. The governors of Lydia and Egypt
rose in rebellion, and insurrection raised its head everywhere, even in
the heart of the empire itself. For six long years was Darius employed
in reducing province after province to obedience. Susiana, Babylonia,
Persia itself, Media, Assyria, Armenia, Hyrcania, Parthia, Margiana,
Sagartia and Sacia, all revolted during this period and were succes-
sively reduced to submission. From the Behistun Inscription it would
appear that religion entered largely as an element into these rebellions,
which were in some cases connected with the overthrow of Magism and
the restoration of the pure Zoroastrian faith which Darius seemed de-
termined upon effecting. In some parts of his inscription Darius pro-
tests against the crime of " lying " — false religion — and not against
that of rebellion. The accounts of these rebellions are from the Behis-
tun Inscription.
In Susiana a certain Atrines assumed the title of king, and the
people revolted in his favor. About the same time a pretender in
Babylon assumed to be the son of the last Babylonian king, Nabona-
dius, and bore the famous name of Nebuchadnezzar. Darius sent a
force to subdue the Susianians, while he himself led an army against
the Babylonian pretender. A Babylonian naval force vainly endeav-
ored to prevent Darius from crossing the Tigris, after which Darius
defeated the pretender's troops, and advanced toward Babylon and
gained a second victory at a small town on the banks of the Euphrates,
many of the rebels being drowned in the river, into which they had
been driven. The pretender, Nebuchadnezzar, escaped with a few
horsemen and took refuge in Babylon, which was soon taken, the pre-
tender himself being made prisoner and executed.
In the meantime Atrines, the original leader of the rebellion in
Susiana, had been taken prisoner by the troops sent against him, and,
being brought before Darius while he was on his march against Baby-
lon, was put to death. But a new leader named Martes, who was a
Persian, appeared in Susiana and assumed a name connecting him with
the old Susianian kings. On the approach of Darius, after he had
suppressed the Babylonian revolt, the revolted Susianians, in great
alarm, submitted and put the pretender to death, hoping thus to pro-
pitiate their sovereign.
THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE.
503
A far more formidable and important rebellion was that of Media,
Armenia and Assyria, which three provinces revolted in concert. A
Median pretender, who called himself Xathrites and claimed descent
from Cyaxares, was acknowledged by the revolted countries as their
king. Darius, settling himself in Babylon, sent his generals against
the rebels to test their strength. Hydarnes, one of the Seven con-
spirators, was sent into Media with an army ; while Dadarses, an Ar-
menian, was dispatched into Armenia ; and Vomises, a Persian, was
ordered to march through Assyria into Armenia also. These three
generals were encountered by the pretender's forces, and several inde-
cisive battles were fought. Hyrcania and Parthia soon revolted and
acknowledged Xathrites as their king. Darius thereupon left Baby-
lon and took the field against the insurgents himself, marched into Me-
dia, defeated the pretender at Kudrus, and entered Ecbatana in tri-
umph. The Median pretender, becoming a fugitive and an outcast,
fled towards the East, but was overtaken in the district of Rhages and
made a prisoner by the troops of Darius. The king cut off the captive
pretender's nose, ears and tongue, and then kept him for some time
chained to the door of his palace, so that his capture would not be
doubted, after which he caused him to be crucified in his capital, Ecbat-
ana, in the presence of those who had beheld his former glory.
The great Median rebellion was thus crushed in its original seat ; but
it remained to be put down in the countries to which it had extended —
Parthia and Hyrcania — which still resisted their former governor,
Hystaspes, the father of Darius. The king marched as far as Rhages
to his father's aid, and thence sent a body of troops to reinforce him.
With this assistance, Hystaspes won so great a victory over the rebels
that they at once submitted, and the rebellion was at an end.
In the meantime a revolt had broken out in Sagartia, where a native
chief claimed to rule as a descendant and heir of Cyaxares, and was
recognized by the Sagartians as their king; but Darius easily sup-
pressed this revolt by means of an army of Medes and Persians, who
were commanded by a Median leader named Tachamaspates. The
pretender was captured, and, like the Median pretender, had his nose
and ears cut off, and, after being chained for a while at the palace
door, was finally crucified at Arbela.
A feeble revolt also occurred in Margiana about this time, the Mar-
gians acknowledging a native named Phraates as their king; but the
satrap of Bactriana, whose jurisdiction extended over Margiana,
quelled this revolt in its incipiency.
Thus far Darius had contended with the rebellions of foreign and
alien nations which had been brought under the Persian dominion by
the great Cyrus. But now, in his absence in the north-eastern prov-
VOL. 2.— 11
Revolt of
Media,
Armenia,
Assyria,
Hyrcania
and
Parthia.
Its Final
Sup-
pression.
Revolt in
Sagartia
Sup-
pressed.
Revolt in
Margiana
Crushed.
Revolt in
Persia
Quelled.
504
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Another
Pseudo-
Smerdis.
Revolt of
Babylon
Sap-
pressed.
Disloyal
Governor
of
Sardis
Executed.
Disloyal
Governor
of
Egypt
Executed.
Sup-
pression
of
Revolts
of
Susiana
and the
Sacse.
inces of his empire, Persia itself rose in revolt against his authority
and acknowledged for their king an impostor, who, unwarned by the
fate of the former impostor, the Pseudo-Smerdis, and relying upon the
obscurity still overhanging the disappearance of the real Smerdis, as-
sumed his name and claimed to be the legitimate heir to the throne.
But Darius, with his army of Medes and Persians, reestablished his
authority, after a struggle of some duration. Artabardes, one of his
generals, defeated the impostor in two engagements; and the force
which he had sent to incite rebellion in Arachosia was routed by the
satrap of that province. The pretended Smerdis himself was captured
and crucified.
In the meantime Babylon had again revolted. An Armenian named
Aracus, settled in Babylonia, headed this insurrection and called him-
self " Nebuchadnezzar, son of Nabonadius." Darius sent a Median
general named Intaphres with an army against the new pretender.
Intaphres soon crushed the revolt, capturing Babylon and taking Ara-
cus prisoner. This rebel pretender was also crucified.
The Medo-Persian Empire now enjoyed a season of tranquillity, and
Darius proceeded to chastise the governors of the more remote provinces
for their acts savoring of rebellion. Orretes, the governor of Sardis,
had not been fully loyal even under Cambyses, as he had endeavored to
entrap and put to death one of that king's allies, Polycrates of Samos,
and had assumed a disloyal attitude from the time of the Magian revo-
lution. He quarreled with Mitrobates, the governor of a neighboring
province, murdered him, and seized his territory. A courier who had
been sent by Darius with a message which Oroetes did not like was way-
laid and murdered by assassins sent by the disloyal governor. Darius
could not overlook such disloyalty; and one of his nobles, armed with
written orders bearing the king's seal, tested the guards kept about the
satrap's person ; and upon finding them ready to obey the king's com-
mands, he presented an order for the governor's execution, which they
carried into effect at once.
Aryandes, the governor of Egypt, had also assumed a disloyal atti-
tude in a different way. When he learned that Darius had issued a gold
coinage of remarkable purity, he issued a silver coinage of similar char-
acter, on his own authority and without consulting the king. It is
believed that he even put his name on these silver coins — an act which
implied a claim to independent sovereignty. Darius had him put to
death on the charge of a design to revolt, although he had excited no
disturbance. According to Herodotus this affair occurred in the latter
part of Darius's reign.
But the empire was not yet fully tranquilized. The Behistun In-
scription records a revolt in Susiana, suppressed by Gobryas, one of
THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE.
505
the Seven; and another among the Sacae of the Tigris, quelled by
Darius himself. The erection of the Behistun Inscription appears to
have occurred about B. C. 516-515 — that is about the fifth or sixth
year of Darius's reign ; and marks the close of the first period of his
reign, or the period of disturbance, and the beginning of the second
period, or the period of tranquillity, internal progress, and patronage
of the fine arts by the king.
Having had so much trouble in restoring tranquillity to his empire
by the reduction of so many revolts, Darius naturally considered plans
for the prevention of similar occurrences in the future. The past
revolts showed him the weakness of the ties hitherto regarded as suffi-
cient to bind the component parts of the empire together, and how
easily any obstacle might tend to the disruption of the greatest empire.
All the great empires which had existed in Western Asia during the
seven centuries previous to the Medo-Persian had more or less been
subject to the inherent weakness of chronic rebellion, and no remedy
had yet been found to avert these frequent perils. Darius Hystaspes
was the first who designed and carried into execution an entirely new
system of government. Thirlwall deservedly styled him " the first true
founder of the Persian state." He found the Medo-Persian Empire a
conglomerate mass of heterogeneous elements, held together loosely by
the solitary tie of subjection to a general head; he left it a compact,
consolidated and well-organized body, bound together by the bonds of
a well-regulated, compact and homogeneous system, permanently estab-
lished in every province. Thus Darius Hystaspes established the first
real empire in all history.
To establish a uniform system of governing his vast dominions, Da-
rius divided his empire into twenty provinces, called satrapies, the gov-
ernors of which were styled satraps. To perfect this uniformity, he
substituted fixed and definite burthens, instead of variable and uncer-
tain calls, and established a variety of checks and counterpoises among
the officials to whom the king delegated his powers ; thus tending vastly
to the security of the monarch and to the stability of this vast ancient
empire.
Uniformity was secured by establishing the same machinery of ad-
ministration in all portions of the empire, and not by abolishing all
national differences, or assimilating all the various nations of the em-
pire to one type. The nations were permitted, and even encouraged,
to retain their respective languages, customs, manners, religion, laws
and modes of local government. Care was only taken to subordinate
all these to the supreme power of the empire, which was one and the
same over all the provinces, which were dependent upon the imperial
government.
Erection
of the
Behistun
Inscrip-
tion.
New
System
of
Govern-
ment.
The First
Real
Empire.
Twenty
Satrapies
and
Satraps.
Uniform
Adminis-
tration.
506
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Powers
and
Duties
of the
Satraps.
Accounts
by
Thucyd-
ides
and
Xeno-
phon.
Uniform
Military
System.
Excep-
tions to
Uni-
formity.
Herodotus tells us that the number of satrapies into which Darius
divided his empire was twenty, but the number may have varied at dif-
ferent times. The satrap, or supreme civil governor, of each of these
political divisions, was entrusted with the collection and transmission
of the revenue, the administration of justice, the preservation of order,
and the general supervision of the affairs of the satrapy. Thucydides
and Xenophon tell us that the satraps were appointed or dismissed by
the king at his pleasure and held their offices for no definite period,
being subject to removal or death at any moment, simply on the presen-
tation of the royal firman, without any other formality. These sat-
raps, as representatives of the Great King, were despotic, being vested
with a portion of his majesty. Xenophon and Herodotus tell us that
they had palaces, courts, body-guards, parks or " paradises," large
numbers of eunuchs and attendants, and seraglios, or harems, well sup-
plied with wives and concubines. Xenophon says that they exercised
the power of life and death over those under their jurisdiction, and
that they assessed the tribute on the towns and villages in their respec-
tive satrapies at their pleasure, and appointed deputies, also sometimes
called satraps, over cities or districts within their respective provinces.
They exacted from the provincials whatever amount they considered
them capable of furnishing above the tribute due to the crown for
the support of royal and satrapial courts. Favors and justice were
purchased from them by gifts. They sometimes committed flagrant
outrages on the persons and honor of those whom they governed. Fear
of removal or execution, if complaint reached the Great King, was
generally the only restraint upon their tyranny.
The empire also had a uniform military system. The services of
the subject nations were declined, except in a few instances, in which,
according to Herodotus and Arrian, a levy en masse of the subject
populations was ordered. Order was maintained by numerous large
garrisons of Median and Persian troops quartered on the inhabitants.
All strong places were thus occupied; and the great capitals, which
were likely to be centers of disaffection, were specially watched. Thus
a large standing army, composed of the conquering and governing
race, guarded the peace of the empire throughout, and rendered a
native revolt hopeless, under ordinary circumstances.
Sometimes exceptions were made to the general uniformity of the
civil administration, and occasionally it was considered wise to permit
a native dynasty to rule in a province, the satrap sharing a divided
authority with the native prince, as Herodotus informs us was
the case in Cilicia, and may have been so in Paphlagonia and
Phoenicia. Sometimes also tribes within the limits of a satrapy
were recognized as independent, and Xenophon tells us that petty wars
THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE.
507
were carried on between these hordes and their neighbors. Bands of
robbers infested the mountains in many places, owning no allegiance
to any one, and defying both the satrap and the standing army.
Persia proper occupied an exceptional position. It paid no tribute
and was not counted as a satrapy ; but the inhabitants were obliged to
bring gifts, according to their means, to the king, whenever he passed
through their country. Nicolas of Damascus says that the king was
bound, whenever he visited Pasargadae, to present to each Persian wo-
man appearing before him a sum equal to twenty Attic drachmas, equal
to about five dollars of our money. This custom was designed to com-
memorate the service rendered by the female sex in the battle in which
Cyrus the Great repulsed the forces of Astyages.
The new arrangement of the revenue inaugurated by Darius Hys-
taspes aimed at the substitution of definite burdens instead of variable
and uncertain charges. The amount of tribute was everywhere fixed
in money and in kind, which each satrap was required to furnish to
the crown. A specified payment in money, varying, in ordinary satra-
pies, from 170 to 1,000 Babylonian silver talents, or from forty-two
thousand pounds to a quarter of a million sterling, and amounting in
the case of the Indian satrapy to over a million sterling, was required
yearly by the sovereign and had to be remitted by the satrap to the
capital. Each satrapy was also required to furnish such commodity,
or commodities, for which it was most noted. Herodotus says that
Assyria and Babylonia paid one-third of this burden. He also says
that Egypt was required to supply grain sufficient for the nourish-
ment of one hundred and twenty thousand Persian troops quartered in
the country. Media had to contribute one hundred thousand sheep,
four thousand mules and three thousand horses. Cappadocia had to
furnish half that number of sheep, mules and horses. Strabo says that
Armenia furnished twenty thousand colts. Herodotus says that Ci-
licia gave three hundred and sixty white horses, and one hundred and
forty talents in money (equal to thirty-five thousand pounds sterling),
in place of further tribute in kind. He also states that Babylonia was
required to furnish five hundred boy eunuchs, besides corn. These
charges were all fixed by the crown, and the chief object of the system
was to tax each province in proportion to its wealth and resources.
The satrap was vested with the power of assessing the taxation of
different portions of his province. The mode of exaction and collec-
tion in some places, according to Herodotus, was by land-tax. Herod-
otus informs us that Persian subjects in many portions of the empire
had to pay a water rate. The rivers of the empire were considered
the king's property ; and when water was needed for irrigation, a gov-
ernment official superintended the opening of the sluices, and regulated
Position
of
Persia
Proper.
New
Revenue
System.
Method
of
Taxation.
508
Satraps'
Powers
of
Taxation.
Satraps,
Military
Com-
mandants
and
Secre-
taries.
Pro-
vincial
Inspec-
tors.
Where
Selected.
Change
in
Satrapial
Govern-
ment.
the quantity of water which might be drawn off by each tribe or dis-
trict. A large sum of money was paid the officer for opening the
sluices, and this sum was transmitted to the imperial treasury. Herod-
otus also says that fisheries, salt-works, mines and quarries were re-
garded as crown property and contributed largely to the revenue.
They were rented to responsible individuals, who paid a certain fixed
rate and made what profit was possible by the transaction.
While the amounts of taxation and tribute exacted by the crown
were fixed and definite, the satraps were allowed to make what exactions
they desired beyond them. Like a Roman proconsul, a Persian satrap
was to pay himself out of the pockets of those under his jurisdiction,
and he was usually careful to pay himself very well. One satrap of
Babylonia drew from his province yearly in money a sum equal to one
hundred thousand pounds sterling.
To check the rapacity or greed of the officials, Darius established in
each province three officers holding their authority directly from the
crown, and responsible to it only. These were the satrap, the military
commandant, and the secretary. The satrap was vested with the civil
administration, and particularly with the finances. The commandant
had charge of the troops. The secretary informed the court, by dis-
patches, of occurrences in the province; and Xenophon tells us that
he was called the " King's Eye " and the " King's Ear." These three
officials acted as checks and counterpoises upon each other, and rebel-
lion was thus made extremely difficult and hazardous.
Xenophon states that, as a further precaution against revolt, an
officer, commissioned by the crown, inspected each province yearly, or
at stated intervals. These inspectors were generally of royal rank,
sons or brothers of the sovereign. They were accompanied by an
armed force, and were authorized to correct anything amiss in the prov-
ince, and, if necessary, to inform the crown of any official insubordina-
tion or incompetency.
Herodotus informs us that to still further secure the fidelity of sat-
raps and commandants, these officials were chosen from among the mon-
arch's blood relations, or were attached to the crown by marriage with
one of the princesses. This policy was extensively pursued by Darius
and yielded excellent results.
The system of checks, while it was a security against revolt, had
the corresponding disadvantage of weakening the hands of authority
in times of danger and difficulty. When internal or external dangers
menaced the empire the powers of government were weakened by divi-
sion, the civil authority being vested in one officer, and the military in
another. Thus the concentration of power necessary for quick and
decisive action, for unity of purpose, and for secrecy of plan and exe-
THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE. 509
cution, was wanting. These considerations led to a modification of
the original plan of satrapial government; and thus the offices of
satrap, or civil administrator, and commandant, or commander of the
troops, were vested in the same individual, who thus had as much power
as have the Turkish pashas and the modern Persian khans, or beys —
an authority virtually unlimited. This system was an advantage in
the defense of the provinces against foreign foes, but it endangered
the stability of the empire, as it naturally led to formidable rebellions.
Herodotus and Xenophon give us full accounts of the system of System
rvf "Pno'f c
posts, instituted by Darius Hystaspes for rapidity of communication.
Darius considered it of the utmost importance that the orders of the
court should be speedily transmitted to the satraps, and that their re-
ports and those of their royal secretaries should be received without
unnecessary delay. He established on the routes already in existence
between the leading cities of the empire a number of post-houses at
regular intervals, in accordance with the distance that it was estimated
that a horse could gallop at his best speed without stopping. A num-
ber of couriers and several relays of horses were maintained at each
post-house at the expense of the government. When a dispatch was
to be sent it was carried to the nearest post-house along the route,
where it was taken by a courier, who immediately mounted on horse-
back and galloped with it to the next station. There it was handed to
a new courier, who at once mounted a fresh horse and took it to the
next station, and thus it was transmitted from hand to hand until it
arrived at its destination. Xenophon states that the messengers trav- Accounts
eled by night as well as by day, and that the conveyance was so rapid Herod-
that it was often compared to the flight of birds. Herodotus says that otus and
at every station were excellent inns or caravanseries, that bridges or vhva~
ferries were established upon all the streams, that guard-houses were
found here and there, and that the whole route was securely protected
against brigands who infested the empire. Ordinary travelers followed
so convenient a route, but they were not allowed the use of post-horses,
even when the government did not need them.
Herodotus also describes the system of coinage adopted by Darius Coinage
Hystaspes. It is believed by some that the term daric is derived from
his name. It is certain that he was the first Persian monarch who
coined on a large scale, and it is likewise certain that his gold coinage
was considered in later times as of extraordinary value because of its
purity. His gold darics seem to have contained, on an average, little
less than one hundred and twenty-four grains of pure metal, which
would be equal to twenty-two shillings of English money. They were
of the type then common in Lycia and Greece, being fluted, flattened
lumps of metal, very thick compared with the size of their surface,
510
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Further
Accounts
by the
Greek
His-
torians.
Art and
Litera-
ture.
The
Chehl
Minar.
Rock
Tomb.
Behistun
Inscrip-
tion.
Per-
sepolis
Inscrip-
tion.
Conquest
of the
Indus
Valley.
irregular and rudely stamped. The silver darics were similar in gen-
eral character, but were larger than the gold, and weighed from two
hundred and twenty-four to two hundred and thirty grains, or little
less than three shillings of English money,
We will now proceed with the events of the second period of the reign
of Darius Hystaspes, for which we are mainly dependent upon Herod-
otus, for which we have also some notices from Xenophon, Thucydides
and Ctesias. The political history of an Oriental monarchy must al-
ways necessarily consist chiefly of a series of biographies, as the sov-
ereign is all in all in those countries, his sayings, doings and character
shaping and constituting the annals of the state.
In the second period of his reign, that of the era of internal tran-
quillity, Darius Hystaspes pursued chiefly the arts of peace, and, as
we have seen, consolidated and secured his empire by inaugurating the
satrapial government in all its provinces, by establishing a system of
posts, by issuing his coinage, by supervising the administration of
justice, and in various other ways in which he displayed a love of order
and method and a genius for systematic arrangement. He also de-
voted some attention to ornamental and architectural works, to sculp-
ture and to literature. He founded the royal library at Susa, the chief
residence of the later Persian monarchs. He erected a very important
edifice at Persepolis ; and he certainly designed, if he did not execute,
the Chehl Minar, the principal one of the splendid structures upon the
great central platform. The great platform itself, with its grand and
stately steps, was erected by him, as his name is inscribed upon it.
The immense blocks of hard material attest the solidity and strength
of his works. He was the first Persian king to ornament the steps
approaching a palace with elaborate bas-reliefs. He designed and
constructed the rock-tomb at Nakhsh-i-Rustam, where his remains were
interred. The great rock-inscription at Behistun was his immortal
work. He surpassed all his predecessors and all his successors in at-
tention to the creation of permanent historical records. The Behistun
Inscription is unparalleled in ancient times for its length, finish and
delicacy of execution, at least outside of Egypt or Assyria. Darius
also set up the only really historical inscription at Persepolis. He
was one of the only two Persian kings who placed inscriptions upon
their tombs. He alone gives the historian interesting geographical and
historical notices.
During this epoch of general peace, extending from B. C. 516 to
B. C. 508 or 507, Darius undertook one important expedition towards
the East, in the region of the Upper Indus, famed for its fertility, its
gold and its ingenious but warlike people. After exploring the course
of the Indus from Attock by means of boats, he led or sent an expedi-
THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE. 51 1
tion into the Punjab, which speedily conquered that rich region and
probably the entire Indus valley, thus adding to the empire a brave
and warlike race, an immense revenue, and a vast gold-producing dis-
trict, which suddenly sent a large influx of the precious metal into
Persia, thus probably leading to the introduction of the gold coinage
and the establishment of commercial relations with the natives, which
inaugurated a regular trade conducted by coasting-vessels between the
mouths of the Indus and the Persian Gulf.
For the history of all these great expeditions of Darius we are also Unsuc-
mainly indebted to Herodotus. The next great expedition was led by
Darius across the Hellespont (now Dardanelles), the narrow strait Invasion
which partly separates Asia Minor from Europe. The story of the European
voyage and escape of Democedes, as related by Herodotus and par- Scythia.
tially confirmed from other sources, was not a mere myth. If a ves-
sel was fitted out at Sidon by order of the Persian king, and placed
under the guidance of Democedes to explore the coasts of Greece, and
if it proceeded as far as Crotona, in Magna Graecia, we may infer that
Darius Hystaspes already meditated the conquest of Greece. But for
the time the king's attention was directed to another quarter; and in
order to secure Western Asia from attack, Darius resolved to strike
terror into the barbarian Scythian hordes of the steppe region of the
present Southern Russia. He therefore ordered Ariaramnes, satrap of
Cappadocia, to cross the Euxine with a small fleet, descend suddenly
upon the Scythian coast, and carry off a number of captives. Ariaram-
nes skillfully executed his commission, and captured a Scythian chief's
brother, from whom the Persian king derived all the information he
wanted. Darius then collected a fleet of six hundred ships, mainly Accounts
from the Greeks of Asia Minor, and an army, consisting of seven hun- ^u^and"
dred thousand men according to Herodotus, and eight hundred thou- Ctesias.
sand according to Ctesias, composed of contingents from all the na-
tions under his dominion. With this army he crossed the Bosphorus
on a bridge of boats constructed by Mandrocles of Samos, and marched
through Thrace along the line of the Little Balkan, receiving the sub-
mission of the tribes along the route ; crossed the Great Balkan ; con-
quered the Getse, who occupied the region between the Balkans and the
Danube; crossed the Danube by means of a bridge, which the Ionian
Greeks had made with their vessels just above the apex of the Delta,
and thus invaded Scythia. The Scythians retired as the Medo-Persian
army advanced, and destroyed the forage, drove off the cattle, and filled
in the wells, so that the invaders would be forced to retire for want of
the means of subsistence. But the admirable condition of the Persian
commissariat enabled Darius to remain in Scythia for two months with-
out incurring much loss. Herodotus tells us that Darius marched east-
1-35
512
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Persian
Conquest
of
Thrace.
Conquest
Mace-
donia.
Conquest
of Greek
Colonies.
ward to the Tanais (now Don) river, and thence north to the country
of the Budini, where he burnt the town of Gelonus, probably near the
present Voronej. He returned with the bulk of his army, leaving the
impress of his name and power upon the Scythian hordes. Ctesias
states that Darius lost eighty thousand men in this inroad. Vain ef-
forts had been made to induce the Greeks guarding the bridge over
the Danube to break it, and thus hinder his return. Darius recrossed
the river after an interval of more than two months, and thenceforth
enumerated "the Scyths beyond the sea" among the subject nations
of his vast empire. He was unopposed on his return march through
Thrace. Before crossing the Bosphorus he commissioned Megabyzus,
one of his generals, to complete the conquest of Thrace, assigning him
eighty thousand men for this purpose. These remained in Europe,
while Darius with the remainder of his army passed over into Asia.
In one campaign, B. C. 506, Megabyzus overran and subjugated the
whole region between the Propontis (now Sea of Marmora) and the
Strymon river, thus extending the Medo-Persian dominion westward to
the frontier of Macedonia. He conquered the Greek colonies in that
section, the Thracians and a number of other tribes. One of these
tribes, the Paeonians, was transported into Asia. The Thracian tribes
who submitted were those of the coast, no effort being made to subdue
those of the interior.
At this time an ancestor of Alexander the Great occupied the throne
of Macedon. With a contempt for the insignificance of this kingdom,
Megabyzus sent an embassy demanding earth and water as tokens of
submission, according to the Persian custom. Amyntas yielded at once
to the Persian demand; but the insolence of the Persian ambassadors
caused them to be assassinated with their entire retinue. When a sec-
ond embassy was sent to inquire into the fate of the first, Alexander,
the son of Amyntas, who had planned the massacre, managed to have
the matter kept silent by bribing one of the envoys with a large sum
of money and with the hand of his sister, Gygaea. Macedonia became
a subject kingdom and accepted the suzerainty of the Medo-Persian
monarch.
After the conquest of Macedonia, Megabyzus proceeded to Sardis,
where Darius had remained for about a year. He was superseded by
Otanes, the son of Sisamnes — not the conspirator of that name — who
reduced the Greek cities of Byzantium (now Constantinople), Chalce-
don, Antandrus and Lamponium, with the two neighboring islands of
iLemnos and Imbrus. The inhabitants of these cities were accused of
having failed to furnish contingents for the expedition into Scythia, or
of molesting it on its return, which were crimes deserving enslavement,
in the estimation of Otanes.
THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE.
Darius then proceeded to Susa, his capital, where he had built the Palace at
great palace whose remains have been recently uncovered by English *ciiief *
enterprise. Susa was thereafter the chief capital of the Medo-Persian Capital.
Empire. It had a softer climate than that of Ecbatana and Persepolis,
and less sultry than that of Babylon. It occupied a central point for
communication with the East and the West. Its people were more
yielding and submissive than either the Medes or the Persians. The
king gladly rested for awhile from the fatigues of his warlike efforts,
and recruited himself at Susa in the quiet life of the court. For some
years he conceived no aggressive projects, until his designs upon
Greece were revived by an extraordinary provocation.
Simultaneously with the expedition into Scythia, Aryandes, the sat- Reduction
rap of Egypt, marched against the Greek town of Barca, in Cyrenaica, Barca.
to avenge the murder of a king who was a tributary of Persia. Barca
was taken and its inhabitants were transported to Asia, but the satrap's
army was attacked on its return by the semi-independent nomad tribes
and suffered considerable loss.
From this time forth the history of the Medo-Persian Empire is Persia
closely connected with that of Greece. We therefore confine ourselves Greece,
to a mere sketch of the remaining portion of Medo-Persian history, and
give a full account of the Graeco-Persian wars and the conquest of the
Medo-Persian Empire by Alexander the Great in that portion of this
work relating to the history of Greece, to which these great events
more properly belong.
The Greeks of Asia Minor, exasperated at the support which Darius Greek
Hystaspes gave their tyrants, and probably made sensible of their i?el0-1
power by the circumstances attending the Scythian campaign, rose in Minor,
rebellion against the Persian power at the instigation of Miletus, the
most important of Asiatic Greek cities, murdered or expelled their
tyrants, and set the power of Persia at defiance. Two states of Euro-
pean Greece — Athens and Eretria — aided the rebels. Bold action was
taken. Sardis, the capital of the satrapy of Western Asia Minor, was
taken and burned. The rebel invaders were driven into retreat, over-
taken and defeated in the battle of Ephesus, whereupon the Athenians
and Eretrians deserted their Asiatic kinsmen. But many Greek states
of Europe and Asia, encouraged by the fall of Sardis, declared their
independence; and the rebellion spread like lightning along the whole
coast of Asia Minor from the Sea of Marmora to the Gulf of Issus.
The Ionian, Dorian and Hellespontine Greeks, the Carians and Cauni-
ans of the south-western corner of Asia Minor, and the Cyprians, Greek
and native, rose simultaneously in revolt ; but after several battles with
various results, Persia triumphed and the insurrection was quelled.
The confederate fleet was defeated in the battle of Lade, and Miletus
514
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Persian
Invasion
of
Greece.
Second
Invasion.
Battle of
Mara-
thon.
Death of
Darius
Hystas-
pes.
His
Character
and
States-
manship.
was taken soon afterwards. The rebellious states were severely pun-
ished, and the authority of the Great King was again firmly established
in all the revolted countries.
The Persian monarch prepared to take vengeance on the European
Greeks for the aid given their revolted Asiatic brethren, his own rebel-
lious subjects. But aside from this a Medo-Persian expedition against
Greece was only a question of time, as Darius had never relinquished
his ambitious designs against the land of the Hellenes. An expedition
was therefore set on foot in B. C. 493, under Mardonius, which followed
the coast-line through Thrace and Macedonia. A storm at Mount
Athos shattered the Medo-Persian fleet, and the land-force was crippled
by a night attack of the Brygi. Mardonius therefore abandoned his
enterprise and returned to Asia. His fleet, however, reduced Thasos;
and his army reduced the Macedonians to complete subjection to
Persia.
Two years after the failure of Mardonius a second great Medo-
Persian expedition was led against Greece. This expedition, conducted
by Datis, proceeded by sea, crossing the JEgean by way of the Cyclades,
and fell upon Eretria, which was besieged and taken by treachery. A
landing was made upon the Greek continent at Marathon, in Attica;
but the decisive defeat of the great Medo-Persian host by the Athenians
under Miltiades in the ever-memorable battle of Marathon, B. C. 490,
compelled the invaders to return to Asia. This was the first great
check received by the Medo-Persians, and showed how completely pow-
erless were the huge masses of an Oriental army against Grecian valor
and discipline. The entire history of the struggle between Greece and
Persia is only a repetition of this early lesson.
Undaunted by his two signal failures against Greece, Darius began
to prepare for a third attack, but his designs were cut short by his
death, B. C. 486. Darius Hystaspes was, next to Cyrus the Great,
the greatest of the Persian kings, and he was far the superior of Cyrus
as a statesman. Cyrus founded the Medo-Persian Empire ; Darius con-
solidated it. Though inferior to Cyrus as a military leader, he dis-
played energy, vigor, foresight and judicious management in his mili-
tary expeditions. He also showed promptness in resolving and ability
in executing, also discrimination in the selection of generals, and a
power of combination rarely seen in Oriental commanders. He was
individually brave, and ready to expose himself to dangers and hard-
ships, though he did not recklessly throw himself into peril. He was
satisfied to employ generals when the object to be achieved appeared
to be beyond his capacity, and he was not envious of their military
successes. He was kind and warm-hearted—strongly attached to his
friends, and magnanimous toward conquered foes. He could be severe
THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE. 515
when occasion required it, but he was disposed to be mild and indulgent.
He surpassed all the other Persian monarchs in the arts of peace. To
him only was the Medo-Persian Empire indebted for its organization.
He was a skillful executive, a good financier, and a wise and far-sighted
ruler. He was the only many-sided one of all the Persian princes. He
was at the same time an organizer, a general, a statesman, an execu-
tive, an architect, a patron of art and literature. Had he never
reigned Persia would have sunk as rapidly as she arose, and would
have had as brief an existence as many of the other short-lived powers
of the East.
Darius Hystaspes was succeeded on the Medo-Persian throne by his Accession
eldest son, XERXES, the son of his favorite wife, Atossa, and therefore x °*
a direct descendant of Cyrus the Great. In the second year of his the Great,
reign, B. C. 485, Xerxes crushed the revolt in Egypt and punished the
Egyptians with increased burdens. Ctesias tells us that he then pro-
voked a rebellion of the Babylonians by acts regarded by them as im-
pious, and which they avenged by killing their satrap, Zopyrus, and
declaring their independence. Megabyzus, the son of Zopyrus, re-
conquered the revolted city, whose famous temple was plundered and
ruined and many of whose shrines were desolated in punishment for the
revolt.
Xerxes next directed his attention to the conquest of Greece. After His
careful preparations for four years, from B. C. 484 to B. C. 481, he Formid-
set out for the invasion of Greece at the head of an immense host, said Invasion
to number two millions of fighting men. A part of the expedition con- of Greece-
sisted of a large and well-equipped fleet. The expedition marched in
three columns along the coast, B. C. 480, and the passage of the Hel-
lespont was made on a double bridge of boats. There was a grand
review at Doriscus, and the advance through Thessaly was unopposed.
The Persian fleet passed through the canal of Athos, and two hundred
ships were lost in a storm off Cape Sepias. The Persian land-forces
were repulsed in attempting to force the narrow pass of Thermopylae, Battles of
but the pass was finally flanked and its handful of heroic defenders, Ther-
• • IHOTDVlSB
under the Spartan king Leonidas, were slain. At the same time there Salamis'
was an indecisive sea-fight off Artemisium. Two hundred Persian ships Platea
were lost off the coast of Euboea. The invaders advanced through Mycale.
Phocis and Boeotia, and failed in an attack on Delphi. They then
advanced into Attica, and took and burned Athens, causing general
alarm throughout Greece. In the great sea-fight of Salamis the Medo-
Persian fleet was destroyed, whereupon Xerxes fled from Greece, B. C.
480. A Medo-Persian army under Mardonius wintered in Thessaly,
and reoccupied Attica the next spring, but was annihilated by the
Greeks in the great battle of Plataea, B. C. 479, while the Medo-Persian
516
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Persian
Disasters.
Battle of
Eurym-
edon.
Disorders
of the
Persian
Court and
Harem.
Assassi-
nation of
Xerxes.
His
Charac-
ter.
fleet was broken up in the sea-fight off Mycale, in Asia Minor, the pro-
tecting land force being defeated and the ships burned. The Persians
then abandoned European Greece and never renewed their projects for
its conquest.
The Greeks now retaliated on their fallen foe. They delivered the
isles of the JSgean sea from the Persian yoke, expelled the Persian
garrisons from Europe, and ravaged the coast of Asia Minor, making
descents upon it at will. For twelve years no Medo-Persian fleet ven-
tured to contest with them for the mastery of the seas, and a Persian
land and naval force collected for the protection of Cilicia and Cyprus
was thoroughly annihilated at the river Eurymedon, in Asia Minor, by
the Greeks commanded by the Athenian Cimon, B. C. 466.
In the year after the battle of Eurymedon, B. C. 465, the reign of
Xerxes came to an abrupt end. With him began those internal dis-
orders of the seraglio which made the court a constant scene of in-
trigues, assassinations, executions and conspiracies for a period of a
century and a half. Xerxes had only one wife, Amestris, whom Herod-
otus calls the daughter, and Ctesias, the granddaughter, of Otanes, one
of the Seven conspirators. He surrendered himself to the free indul-
gence of illicit passion among the princesses of the court, the wives of
his near relations. The most horrible consequences resulted. The
jealous spite of Amestris was vented on such as she blamed for alien-
ating from her her husband's affections. Her barbarities threatened
to drive those whom she provoked into rebellion, and it was found nec-
essary to execute them in order to preserve tranquillity. Among those
executed, Herodotus tells us, were Masistes, a brother of Xerxes, and
some of his sons, nephews of Xerxes. The king's example was fol-
lowed by members of the royal family; and Amytis, a daughter of
Xerxes and also wife of Megabyzus, the grandson of Megabyzus, one
of the Seven conspirators, became notorious for her licentiousness.
Eunuchs advanced to power and incited the disorders which distracted
the court. The king created for himself deadly enemies among his
courtiers and guards. Finally Artabanus, captain of the guard, a
courtier of high rank, and Aspamitres, a eunuch, the king's chamber-
lain, conspired against their sovereign and assassinated him in his sleep-
ing apartment, after he had reigned twenty years (B. C. 486—465).
For the account of this court tragedy we are indebted to Plutarch and
Diodorus Siculus.
The character of Xerxes was below that of any of his predecessors.
Herodotus ascribes him the virtue of a kind of magnanimity, which
induced him to hear patiently such as opposed his views or gave him
disagreeable advice, and which deterred him from wreaking vengeance
under some circumstances. He was devoid of any other commendable
THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE.
517
traits. He was weak and easily controlled, and utterly surrendered
himself to his gusts of passion. He was selfish, fickle, boastful, cruel,
superstitious, licentious. We see in him the Oriental despot in that
contemptible aspect in which the mental and moral qualities are alike
defective, and in which the entire reign is a constant course of vice
and folly. The decline of the Medo-Persian Empire in territorial
greatness and military strength, and its decay of administrative vigor
and national spirit, commenced with the reign of Xerxes. The cor-
ruption of the court — the evil which weakens and destroys almost all
Oriental dynasties — also began in his reign. His expeditions against
Greece exhausted and depopulated the empire, and the losses incurred
in those expeditions were not repaired in his lifetime.
Xerxes displayed grandeur of conception as an architect. His
Propylaea and the sculptured staircase in front of the Chehl Minar are
splendid erections upon the platform of Persepolis, and rank him high
among Oriental builders.
The three sons left by Xerxes were Darius, Hystaspes and Artax-
erxes. His two daughters were Amytis and Rhodogune. Hystaspes
was satrap of Bactria, and Darius and Artaxerxes were only at court
at the time of their father's assassination. Fearing the eldest son most,
Artabanus persuaded Artaxerxes that Xerxes was murdered by his
brother; whereupon Artaxerxes caused Darius to be put to death and
himself seized the throne, B. C. 465, according to Ctesias and Diodorus
Siculus.
ARTAXERXES LONGIMANUS — " the Long-handed " — was no sooner
seated upon the throne than Artabanus aimed at removing the young
monarch and making himself king; but his designs being betrayed to
Artaxerxes by Megabyzus, and his previous crimes being exposed, he
was killed along with his instrument, Aspamitres, seven months after
the assassination of Xerxes. The sons of Artabanus, seeking to avenge
their father's death, were defeated and slain in battle by the royal army
under Megabyzus. Ctesias is our best authority for the events of this
reign, as he was the court physician of Artaxerxes Mnemon.
In the meantime Hystaspes unfurled the standard of rebellion in
Bactria, considering himself the rightful successor of his father. Ar-
taxerxes himself took the field against his rebel brother; and, after an
indecisive engagement, defeated him in a second battle, in which, ac-
cording to Ctesias, the wind blew with violence into the faces of the
Bactrians. So decisive was the victory of Artaxerxes that the Bactrian
revolt was quelled. The fate of Hystaspes is not known.
Soon afterward Egypt suddenly asserted her independence, B. C.
460. Inarus, a Libyan king, headed a revolt against the Persian rule,
and was aided by Amyrtseus, an Egyptian. In the battle of Papremis,
His
Architec-
ture.
His
Domestic
Rela-
tions.
Arta-
xerxes
Longi-
manus.
Rebellion
and
Over-
throw of
Hystas-
pes.
Revolt of
Libya
and
Egypt
Quelled.
518
Egyptian
and
Athenian
Defeat.
Persian
Defeat
by
Athenian
Fleet.
Peace of
Callias.
Success-
ful
Rebellion
of
Megaby-
zus.
in the Delta, the Persians were defeated, and their commander, Achse-
menes, was killed by Inarus himself. The revolt now became general
throughout Egypt, and the remnant of the Persian army was shut up
in Memphis. Athens responded to the request of Inarus for help by
sending a fleet of two hundred ships to his aid. This fleet sailed up
the Nile, defeated a Persian squadron, and assisted in the capture of
Memphis and the siege of its citadel (White Castle). Herodotus, Cte-
sias, Thucydides and Diodorus are our authorities for the events of this
Egyptian revolt. A large Persian army under Megabyzus entered
Egypt, defeated the Egyptians and their Athenian allies in a great
battle, relieved the citadel of Memphis from its siege, and recovered
the city. The defeated Athenians fled to the tract called the Pros-
opitis, in the Delta, where they were besieged for a year and a half,
until Megabyzus turned the water from one of the streams, whereby the
Athenian ships were stranded, when the Persians marched across the
river bed and overwhelmed the Athenians with their superior numbers.
Inarus was betrayed to Megabyzus by his own men, carried a captive
to Persia and there crucified. Amyrtasus escaped to the fens, where
he maintained his independence for some time, but the remainder of
Egypt was reduced to submission to Persian sway (B. C. 455) ; while
Athens was taught a severe lesson for her interference between the
Great King and his revolted subjects.
Six years later, B. C. 449, Athens, bent on recovering her lost pres-
tige, sent a fleet of two hundred ships under Cimon to the Levant.
This fleet sailed to Cyprus and besieged Citium. Cimon died there, but
his fleet attacked and utterly defeated a Persian fleet of three hundred
ships off Salamis, and sent sixty ships to aid Amyrtaeus, who still main-
tained himself in the Delta. The King of Persia, fearing the loss of
Cyprus and Egypt, sued for peace, and agreed to the inglorious
" Peace of Callias," whereby the independence of the Asiatic Greeks
was acknowledged, and Persia stipulated not to send any fleet or army
to the coasts of Western Asia Minor, while Athens promised to relin-
quish Cyprus and recall her squadron from Egypt. The Peace of
Callias ended the first great war between Persia and Greece after last-
ing exactly half a century, from B. C. 499 to B. C. 449.
Soon afterward Megabyzus, the satrap of Syria, offended at the
crucifixion of Inarus, contrary to the pledge he had himself given to
him, rose in revolt against his sovereign, defeated every army sent
against him, and so alarmed Artaxerxes that he was permitted to dic-
tate the conditions on which he would return to his allegiance. This
example of a successful rebellion on the part of a satrap naturally had
the most disastrous consequences for the stability of the empire. The
prestige of the imperial government was shaken, and satraps were per-
THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE.
mitted to defy the authority of their sovereign whenever a fair oppor-
tunity presented itself, because, if successful, they had nothing to fear,
and might expect pardon in any case.
Though Plutarch and Diodorus commended the character of Arta-
xerxes Longimanus, he was on the whole a weak and contemptible
prince. He was mild and possessed several other good qualities, but the
weakness of his character led to a rapid decline of the empire during
his reign. The disorders of the court continued; and Artaxerxes
allowed his mother Amestris and his sister Amytis, who was the wife of
Megabyzus, to indulge without hindrance their cruel and licentious
dispositions.
Like his father, Artaxerxes Longimanus had only one legitimate
wife. All that is known of this woman, whose name was Damas-
pia, is that she died on the same day as her husband, and that she
was the mother of his only legitimate son, Xerxes. Artaxerxes had
seventeen other sons with various concubines, mostly Babylonians. All
these sons survived their father. Ctesias is the authority for the facts
concerning the domestic relations of Artaxerxes Longimanus, who
died B. C. 425.
XERXES II. succeeded his father on the Persian throne, but after a
reign of forty-five days he was murdered by his half-brother, called
Secydianus by Ctesias and Sogdianus by Herodotus, after a festival
in which he had indulged too freely. SOGDIANUS usurped the throne,
but was himself murdered after a reign of six months by another
half-brother named Ochus, who usurped the throne under the name
of Darius, and is known in history as DARIUS NOTHUS, so called by
the Greeks.
Darius Nothus had been satrap of Hyrcania and had married his
aunt Parysatis, a daughter of Xerxes. He had two children before
his accession — a daughter named Amestris and a son named Arsaces,
who succeeded his father on the throne as Artaxerxes. Darius Nothus
reigned nineteen years, and was disturbed by a constant succession of
revolts. The first revolt was that of his full brother, Arsites, who was
aided by a son of Megabyzus. After gaining two victories over the
royal army, Persian gold corrupted the mercenaries, and the rebels were
obliged to surrender on condition that their lives should be spared.
Parysatis caused her husband to violate the pledges given the rebels,
and Arsites and his fellow conspirator were executed; thus showing
the world that perfidy was essential to a proper dealing with such as
defied its authority.
Pissuthnes, satrap of Lydia, the son of Hystaspes, next rebelled.
His immense wealth — accumulated during the twenty years while he
was satrap — gave him the means for hiring the services of Greek mer-
VOL. 2.— 12
Decline
of the
Empire.
Court
Disor-
ders.
Domestic
Relations
and
Death of
Arta-
xerxes
Longi-
manus.
Xerxes II.
Sogdi-
anus.
Darius
Nothus.
His
Domestic
Relations.
Revolt
and Death
of
Arsites.
Revolt
and
Execution
of Pis-
suthnes.
520
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Amorges.
War of
Persia
and
Sparta
against
Athens.
Persian
Intrigues
in Greece.
Persian
Policy
toward
Greece.
cenaries, who were commanded by Lycon, an Athenian. Tissaphernes,
the Persian general sent against him, bribed Lycon and his followers
to desert Pissuthnes and join his enemies; and the unfortunate satrap
was obliged to surrender on conditions and to accompany Tissaphernes
to the court. Darius, in violation of the pledge made by his general,
executed the fallen rebel and bestowed his satrapy on Tissaphernes in
reward for his success. Lycon, the Athenian, was rewarded for his
treachery by being assigned the revenues of several cities and districts
under the dominion of the Great King. Amorges, a bastard son of
Pissuthnes, still maintained himself in Caria, where he held the strong
city of lasus and defied the power of Tissaphernes. By hiring Grecian
mercenaries he maintained himself as an independent sovereign for
some years.
The terrible disaster to the Athenian arms in Sicily in B. C. 414
encouraged the Persian king to treat the Peace of Callias as a dead
letter, and he ordered the satraps of Asia Minor to collect tribute from
the Greek cities, B. C. 413. The satraps, Tissaphernes and Pharna-
bazus, both made tempting offers to Sparta; and in B. C. 412 three
treaties were concluded between Sparta and Persia, by which the two
powers united in a war against Athens. Thenceforth the King of
Persia was always able by means of his gold to secure an ally among
leading Grecian states. At one time he could purchase the alliance
of Sparta, at another time that of Athens, at another time that of
Thebes. The Persian armies were commanded by Greek generals ; the
Persian fleets were conducted by Greek captains ; while, according to
Arrian, the very rank and file of the Persian army was at least half
Greek. By keeping up the dissensions in Greece, Persia prolonged
her tottering empire for eighty years.
The policy of the court of Susa, well executed by the satraps of
Asia Minor, was to preserve the counterpoise among the leading states
of Greece by permitting neither Athens nor Sparta to become too pow-
erful at the expense of its rival, to assist each by turns as occasion
required, and to encourage them to waste each other's strength, but
to change sides whenever it was necessary to strike an effective blow
against either side. The cunning Tissaphernes adroitly pursued this
policy, which was more clumsily executed by the more sincere Pharna-
bazus, until the younger Cyrus came upon the scene. The younger
Cyrus had selfish aims of his own, which conflicted with the true inter-
ests of the empire. As he needed a powerful land-force for the accom-
plishment of his designs he preferred the aid of Sparta to that of
Athens, and gave the former such effectual help that in two years from
the time he appeared on the coast the war was ended. Persian gold
manned and partly built the Spartan fleet which defeated the Athenian
THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE.
521
navy at JEgos-Potami ; and by placing his entire stores at the command
of Lysander, the Spartan leader, Cyrus secured the good will of Sparta
and her allies. Our sources of information concerning these relations
between the Greeks and the Persians are the works of Ctesias, Xeno-
phon, Thucydides and Arrian.
In B. C. 409 or 408, according to Xenophon, the Medes made an
unsuccessful effort to recover their independence. In B. C. 405,
according to Manetho, Egypt again revolted and enjoyed a short
spasm of independence under Nepherites, or Nefaorot, who established
himself on the throne of the Pharaohs, and under his three successors.
The story of Terituchmes, as told us by Ctesias, illustrates the
dreadful corruption, cruelty and dissoluteness of the Persian court at
this period. Terituchmes was the son of Idernes, a Persian noble of
high rank. When his father died, he succeeded to his satrapy as if
it were a hereditary fief; and as he enjoyed the favor of Darius Nothus,
he obtained that king's daughter, Amestris, for a wife. He after-
wards became enamored of his own half-sister, Roxana, and grew tired
of his wife. To rid himself of his wife he entered into a conspiracy
with three hundred others and projected a revolt. The conspirators
were bound to each other by the ties of a common, cruel and detestable
crime. Amestris was to be placed in a sack, and each conspirator was
to stab her body with his sword. To prevent this diabolical plot,
Darius commissioned Udiastes, who served Terituchmes, to save his
daughter by all means. Accordingly Udiastes, at the head of a band,
slew Terituchmes after a desperate struggle. Parysatis, the queen,
afterwards caused Roxana to be hewn in pieces, and the mother,
brothers and sisters of Terituchmes to be buried alive. Arsaces, heir-
apparent, afterwards Artaxerxes Mnemon, had great trouble in saving
his own wife, Statira, the sister of Terituchmes, from the general mas-
sacre, by begging her life with tears and entreaties. The son of Teri-
tuchmes maintained himself in his father's government for some time,
but the wicked Parysatis finally caused him to be poisoned.
Darius Nothus was at once weak and wicked in character. He vio-
lated his own pledges in murdering his brothers, Sogdianus and Arsites.
He likewise disregarded his plighted word with Pissuthnes. He sanc-
tioned the general massacre of the relatives of Terituchmes. During
his reign the eunuchs of the palace became so powerful that one of
them aspired to the throne itself. Darius was controlled by his cruel
and vindictive wife, Parysatis. Although he gained some tracts in
Asia Minor, he lost Egypt and Cyrenaica, the entire Persian territory
in Africa. In his reign checks, which were designed to hold the great
officers of the empire in restraint, were gradually relaxed. Satraps
became virtually uncontrolled in their provinces, their lawless pro-
Revolts
in Media
and
Egypt.
Story of
Teri-
tuchmes
by
Ctesias.
Disorders
and
Murders
at the
Persian
Court.
Wicked-
ness of
Pary-
satis.
Weakness
and
Wicked-
ness of
Darius
Nothus.
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Official
Corrup-
tion and
Rapid
Decline
of the
Empire.
Arta-
xerxes
Mnemon.
Plot,
Arrest
and
Pardon
of Cyrus
the
Younger.
Accounts
by Xeno-
phon,
Ctesias
and
Plutarch.
ceedings being connived at or condoned; and gradually the satrapies
became hereditary fiefs, the sons of satraps being allowed to succeed
their fathers in their governments — a custom dangerous to the peace
and stability of the empire. Another dangerous step was the union of
the offices of satrap and military commander in the same individual, and
the appointment of a single satrap for several satrapies. Bribery,
intrigue and treachery, instead of force, were the means employed to
suppress rebellions, and pledges given to rebel leaders to obtain their
submission were openly violated. Corruption, cunning and treachery
were also the weapons employed against Persia's foreign foes. War-
like habits were cast aside, and the Medo-Persian armies began to be
supplied with mercenaries. Ctesias and Xenophon are the chief sources
of our information concerning the decline of the empire and the
frightful corruption of the court.
Darius Nothus died B. C. 405, after appointing as his successor his
eldest son, Arsaces, who took the name of Artaxerxes, and is known in
history as ARTAXERXES MNEMON — a name given him by the Greeks
because of his excellent memory.
Artaxerxes Mnemon had from the first a rival and competitor for the
throne in his brother, the younger Cyrus. Their mother, Parysatis,
the wife of Darius Nothus, had vainly endeavored to induce her hus-
band to bequeath his crown to Cyrus, the younger son, her favorite.
The Persian monarchs were installed with religious ceremonies in a
temple at Pasargadae, the original capital of Persia, which was yet con-
sidered as having a special sanctity. Just as Artaxerxes Mnemon was
about to engage in the ceremonies attending his royal inauguration,
Tissaphernes informed him that his life was menaced by Cyrus, who
intended to conceal himself in the temple and assassinate him while he
changed his dress. One of the officiating Magi confirmed the charge ;
whereupon Cyrus was arrested, and his life was only spared through the
interference of his mother, who embraced him in her arms and thus
prevented the executioner from performing his task. Her interces-
sions induced Artaxerxes to spare his brother's life and to permit him
to return to his satrapial government in Asia Minor, assuring him that
the accusations made against her favorite son were utterly groundless.
Plutarch is our authority for the account of these circumstances con-
nected with the accession of Artaxerxes Mnemon.
Xenophon, Ctesias and Plutarch are our sources of information con-
cerning the struggle between Artaxerxes and his brother. After
returning to Asia Minor, Cyrus collected an army of Greek merce-
naries, and made open war on Tissaphernes, who had been sent with
him to watch his movements. When Cyrus had raised a force of eleven
thousand heavy-armed and two thousand light-armed Greek mercenaries
THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE.
Tissaphernes hastened to the capital to inform Artaxerxes of the pro-
ceedings and designs of Cyrus, whose purpose of dethroning his brother
and placing the royal diadem of his illustrious namesake upon his own
brow could no longer be mistaken.
Cyrus, placing entire reliance upon his personal following, consisting
of his Greek mercenaries, at once began his rebellion by suddenly
assuming the offensive, and boldly advancing toward the heart of the
empire, with the intention of surprising his brother while he was unpre-
pared. Cyrus started from Sardis in B. C. 401, and marched through
Lydia, Phrygia and Cilicia, with an army consisting of thirteen thou-
sand Greek mercenaries and almost a hundred thousand native troops.
The Greek mercenaries now for the first time learned the true object
of the expedition, and were with the utmost difficulty prevailed upon to
remain with the army of Cyrus in its onward march. The expedition
entered Syria by the mountain passes near Issus, crossed the Euphrates
at Thapsacus, and marched rapidly through Mesopotamia to the plain
of Cunaxa, about fifty-seven miles from Babylon. On this plain of
Cunaxa, Cyrus encountered the vast army of Artaxerxes, numbering
four hundred thousand men according to Ctesias, and nine hundred
thousand according to Plutarch. The Greek allies of Cyrus sustained
their ancient military renown by completely routing the troops of the
Great King opposed to them; and Cyrus dashed with rash impetuosity
into the center of his brother's army, where Artaxerxes commanded in
person, and hurled his javelin at Artaxerxes, striking him upon the
breast with such force as to pierce the cuirass and inflict a slight flesh
wound, causing the king to fall from his horse ; but at the same instant
Cyrus himself received a wound under the eye from a Persian javelin,
and in the struggle which ensued was slain with eight of his followers.
Artaxerxes ordered his traitorous brother's head and right hand to be
cut off. The death of Cyrus virtually decided the victory for Arta-
xerxes, though the conflict was maintained till nightfall. The Persian
troops under Tissaphernes, who attacked the Greek mercenaries under
Clearchus, were utterly routed, and dispersed over the plain in all
directions.
The battle of Cunaxa was a two-fold blow to the power of Persia.
Had Cyrus lived the empire might have been infused with new vigor.
The younger Cyrus was certainly by far the superior of his brother.
He was active, energetic, prompt in deed, ready in speech, faithful
in observing his engagements, brave and liberal. He possessed more
foresight and self-control than most Orientals. He understood how to
deal with most classes of men. He knew how to inspire affection and
retain it. He was devoid of national prejudice, and was able to appre-
ciate the character and institutions of foreigners at their full value.
Rebellion
of Cyrus
the
Younger.
Battle of
Cunaxa.
Defeat
and Death
of Cyrus.
His
Talents
and
Virtues.
524
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
His
Defects
and
Faults.
Revela-
tion of
Persian
Weak-
ness.
Effect of
the Safe
Retreat of
the Ten
Thousand
Greeks.
Possessing more talents of statesmanship than any King of Persia since
Darius Hystaspes, he would have raised the empire to some of its
former vigor and power.
Cyrus had some grievous defects; and his external polish of Gre-
cian manners and habits of thought and action, and his admiration for
the Greek race, did not wholly conceal his native Asiatic barbarism,
as is fully exemplified in his slaying of his cousin for what he regarded
as disrespect ; in his secret and silent execution of Orontes for intended
desertion ; in the fit of j ealous rage with which he rushed recklessly and
wildly upon his brother, disconcerting all his well-arranged plans and
thus ruining his cause. Although the younger Cyrus had more
method, more foresight, more power of combination, more breadth
of mind than other Orientals of his time, or than most Asiatics of any
time, he lacked some of the essentials of a great statesman, or of a great
general. His civil administration of three years in Asia Minor was
mainly distinguished for his barbarous severity towards criminals, and
by a squandering of the resources of his government, so as to reduce
him to actual necessity when he was about to begin his expedition. His
generalship was sadly at fault at Cunaxa, as displayed in the reckless
impetuosity which cost him his life and his cause, and in his failure to
provide against probable and possible contingencies.
A more fatal result of the rebellion of Cyrus the Younger than his
death was its revelation of Persian weakness, and of the ease with which
a Greek army could penetrate to the very heart of the empire, defeat
the largest army which might take the field against it, and remain in
the country or retire, as it might choose. Hitherto Grecian statesmen
regarded Babylon, Susa, Ecbatana and Persepolis as distant places
which it would be sheer recklessness to attempt to reach by force of
arms, and from which it would be the height of folly to think a single
individual would be able to return alive without the Great King's per-
mission. Thenceforth the Greeks considered the occupation of these
great cities as only a question of time. The general belief of Persia's
inaccessibility gave place to a conviction that the heart of the empire
could be penetrated with great ease.
Not only the march to Cunaxa, but the skillful and safe retreat of
the Greek allies of Cyrus from that memorable field — " the Retreat of
the Ten Thousand " — contributed to this wonderful change of opinion
in the Hellenic mind. The safe return to Greece of ten thousand men,
who had routed the hosts of the Great King in the center of his vast
dominions, and fought their way back to the sea for a thousand miles
without any further loss than the ordinary casualties of war, was at
once an evidence of the vulnerability of the Medo-Persian Empire and
of the incalculable superiority of Grecian to Asiatic soldiers. If a
THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE.
625
small Greek army, without maps or guides, might make its way for a
thousand miles through Asia without meeting an enemy whom it could
not vanquish with ease, it was evident that the whole fabric of Persian
power was so rotten that it would topple over if exposed to a formidable
attack. Thus this famous retreat was as important as the battle of
Cunaxa itself. The fact of this safe retreat, and not the manner in
which it was accomplished, had an important bearing on the subse-
quent history of Persia. The retreat was safely conducted, in spite
of the military power of the empire, and notwithstanding the basest
and most cruel treachery. The Greeks, though deprived of their
leaders by a treacherous massacre, deceived, surprised, and hemmed
in by superior numbers, amid terrific mountains, precipices and snows,
under the skillful leadership of Xenophon forced their way to Trap-
ezus (now Trebizond), on the Euxine, losing less than a fourth of their
number during the retreat.
The Greeks made another discovery concerning Persia's weakness.
They now learned that the vast domain extending from the JEgean to
the Indus, instead of being consolidated into one centralized monarchy
with all its resources wielded by a single arm, had within its heart and
center, on the confines of Media and Assyria, independent tribes which
defied the Persian arms; while toward the verge of the old dominion
entire provinces, once held under sway, had recovered their indepen-
dence. In place of the nineteenth satrapy mentioned by Herodotus
there now existed a collection of warlike independent tribes whose ser-
vices the Great King had to purchase if he wanted them, and who
usually were on hostile terms with him. Thus the Greeks saw that the
great empire built up by Cyrus the Great, by Cambyses and Darius
Hystaspes, had fallen from its high estate, and that both its dimen-
sions and its resources had been seriously diminished.
The Grecian aid given to the younger Cyrus in his rebellion against
Artaxerxes Mnemon produced a rupture between Sparta and Persia,
as Sparta would neither apologize nor recede. With the services of
the Ten Thousand, Sparta undertook to protect the Greeks of Asia
Minor against Persia, and waged war for six years in Asia Minor
against the satraps of Lydia and Phrygia (B. C. 399-B. C. 394).
The disorganization of the Medo-Persian Empire was clearly mani-
fested during this war. The two satraps just alluded to were so jealous
of each other that neither hesitated to make a truce with the Spar-
tans provided they attacked the other, and one satrap paid thirty
talents of silver for the transfer of the war from his own government
to that of his rival. The native tribes were also becoming rebellious.
The Mysians and Pisidians had for some time been virtually indepen-
dent. The Bithynians seemed inclined to revolt, while the native kings
Persia's
Resources
and
Dominion
Dimin-
ished.
War *
between
Persia
and
Sparta.
526
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Grecian
Allies of
Persia.
Battle of
Cnidus.
Peace of
Antalci-
das.
Revolt of
Evagoras
in Cyprus
Sup-
pressed.
in Paphlagonia asserted their independence. The Spartan king Age-
silaiis took full advantage of these troubles of the Persians in Asia
Minor; but Persian gold, and jealousy of Sparta among the other Gre-
cian states, soon gave the Spartans sufficient employment at home by
stirring up a league of Athens, Thebes, Corinth and Argos against the
power of Sparta. Agesilaiis was therefore recalled from Asia, and
Conon the Athenian, in alliance with the satrap Pharnabazus, defeated
the Spartan navy in the battle of Cnidus, thus weakening the prestige
of Sparta in Asia Minor (B. C. 394). The victorious allies then
crossed the JEgean Sea, ravaged the coasts of the Peloponnesus, and
seized and occupied the island of Cythera. Persian gold rebuilt the
long walls of Athens and liberally subsidized all the enemies of Sparta.
With the Persian fleet in her waters and the leading states of Greece
leagued against her, Sparta saw that she must succumb if the contest
continued, and therefore proposed a general peace, by the terms of
which all the Greek cities of Asia Minor were relinquished to the Per-
sians and the balance of power among the Greek states in Europe was
maintained. These terms were not accepted until six years later (B. C.
387), when the Spartan Antalcidas had explained them at the court
of the Great King ; whereupon Artaxerxes Mnemon issued an ultimatum
to the belligerents, slightly modifying the terms in regard to Athens,
extending them in regard to himself so as to include the islands of
Clazomenae and Cyprus, and forcing their acceptance by a threat.
Thus the Great King had recovered the territory which Persia had lost
by the " Peace of Callias " more than sixty years before.
Artaxerxes Mnemon needed peace with the Greeks, as all the
resources of his empire were required to suppress the revolt which had
for some years disturbed Cyprus. The precise date of the Cyprian re-
volt under Evagoras, the Greek tyrant of Salamis, is uncertain ; but it is
known that as early as B. C. 391 he was openly at war with Persia and
had then entered into an alliance with the Athenians, who in that year
and in B. C. 388 sent him assistance. Aided likewise by Achoris, inde-
pendent sovereign of Egypt, and Hecatomnus, vassal king of Caria,
Evagoras was enabled to assume the offensive, to reconquer Tyre, and
to extend his revolt into Cilicia and Edom. Autophradates, satrap of
Lydia, undertook an unsuccessful expedition against him. After con-
cluding the " Peace of Antalcidas " with Sparta in B. C. 387, Persia
collected a fleet of three hundred vessels, partly from the Greeks of
Asia Minor, and an army of three hundred thousand men, to crush the
revolt of Evagoras. Evagoras with a fleet of two hundred triremes
attacked the Persian fleet, but was utterly defeated by Tiribazas, who
shut him up in Salamis, and reduced him to submission after a struggle
of six years, B. C. 380 or 379. Our chief authorities for this struggle
THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE.
527
are Diodorus Siculus, Isocrates and Theopompus. The promise of
pardon made to Evagoras was faithfully observed, and he was allowed
to remain in his government with a recognition of his title, but was
required to pay an annual tribute to the Great King.
During the Cyprian revolt Artaxerxes Mnemon was personally em-
ployed in a campaign against the Cadusians, the inhabitants of the low
and fertile district between the Elburz mountain-range and the Caspian
Sea, who had also revolted against the Great King. Artaxerxes led
an army estimated by Plutarch to number three hundred thousand foot
and ten thousand horse. The land was not much cultivated, rugged,
and covered with thick fogs. The Cadusians were brave and warlike.
Having admitted Artaxerxes into their country, they waylaid and inter-
cepted his convoys ; and his army was soon reduced to extreme distress,
being obliged to subsist on the cavalry-horses and the baggage animals.
Cornelius Nepos tells us that many thousands of the royal army were
slain, and that the army was only saved from greater disasters by the
military talent of Datames. The most disastrous consequences were
only averted by Tiribazus, who having been recalled from Cyprus on
charges preferred against him by Orontes, the commander of the land
force, managed by cunning to induce the two Cadusian kings to sub-
mit. This enabled Artaxerxes to retire from the country without seri-
ous disaster.
A period of tranquillity followed the campaign against the Cadu-
sians. Artaxerxes strengthened his power among the Greeks of Asia
Minor by razing some of their cities and garrisoning others with Per-
sian troops. His satraps began to absorb the islands off the coasts;
and, according to Isocrates, Samos was annexed to the empire. Cilicia,
Phoenicia and Edom were recovered after the defeat of Evagoras. But
Egypt had now remained independent under its native kings for over
thirty years, since its revolt during the reign of Darius Nothus. In
B. C. 375 Artaxerxes applied to Athens for the services of her great
general, Iphicrates, to reconquer Egypt. His request was granted;
and in the following year an armament was collected at Acre, the Per-
sian army under Pharnabazus numbering, according to Diodorus
Siculus, two hundred thousand men, and the Greek mercenaries under
Iphicrates numbering twenty thousand men, but according to Cornelius
Nepos twelve thousand. This expedition landed at the Mendesian
mouth of the Nile and stormed the city commanding this branch of the
river; but the inactivity of Pharnabazus, until the Delta had been
flooded by the rising of the Nile, obliged the expedition to return ; and
Egypt remained independent for over a quarter of a century longer.
Artaxerxes Mnemon remained the supreme arbiter of Grecian affairs
from the time of the " Peace of Antalcidas " in B. C. 387. In B. C.
1-30
Dis-
astrous
Campaign
against
the
Cadusian
Rebels.
Recovery
of Lost
Domin-
ions.
Unsuc-
cessful
Effort to
Recon-
quer
Egypt.
Arta-
xerxes
Mnemon,
Arbiter of
Grecian
Affairs.
528 MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Antalcidas was sent by Sparta to Susa a second time to procure
an imperial rescript, prescribing the conditions on which the hostilities
then raging in Greece should cease. In B. C. 367 Pelopidas and Is-
menias were sent by Thebes to the Persian capital on the same errand.
The next year a rescript was obtained by Athens more favorable than
preceding ones. Thus all the leading states of Greece applied in turn
to the Great King for his royal decree, thus mutually recognizing him
as a master of the destinies of Greece, whose decision was to be binding
upon all the Grecian states in every contest that distracted the Hellenic
race.
Threat- Still the progress of internal decay and the tendency to disintegra-
Dissolu- tion was threatening the speedy dissolution of the empire. The long
tion of reign of Artaxerxes Mnemon was now nearing its end. He was ven-
Empire. erable in years, and feeble, mentally and physically. He suspected his
sons and nobles, particularly those who displayed more than ordinary
ability. The empire was now constantly shaken by revolts. The first
of these was that of Ariobarzanes, satrap of Phrygia, whom Auto-
phradates, satrap of Lydia, and Mausolus, the native King of Caria,
under the suzerainty of Persia, failed to reduce to submission. The
Revoltsin next revolt was that of Aspis, satrap of a portion of Cappadocia, and
Minor was a*ded by the Pisidians, but was finally subdued by Datames, the
Quelled, satrap of the remainder of Cappadocia. Then Datames himself re-
belled and made an alliance with Ariobarzanes, the rebellious satrap of
Phrygia, and defended himself so successfully against Autophradates
that Artaxerxes first made a treaty with him and then removed him by
treachery. Finally, in B. C. 362, the flames of revolt spread over the
western provinces of the empire; and in this rebellion the satraps of
Mysia, Phrygia and Lydia, Mausolus, the tributary King of Caria,
and the people of Lycia, Pamphylia, Cilicia, Syria and Phoenicia par-
ticipated. Tachos, King of Egypt, incited these disturbances, and the
Spartans likewise secretly encouraged them. A desperate struggle was
only averted by the usual resources of bribery and treachery. Orontes,
satrap of Phrygia, and Rheomithras, one of the rebel generals, being
bribed, deserted and betrayed their confederates. By this means the
insurrection was quelled in Asia Minor ; but Tachos, the native King of
Egypt, whose army was commanded by the Spartan king Agesilaiis,
and whose fleet was commanded by the Athenian admiral Chabrias, ad-
vanced into Syria, was welcomed by the Phoenicians, and laid siege to
some of the Syrian cities. But Persia was saved considerable loss in
this quarter by the dissensions which broke out among the Egyptians,
and Tachos was obliged to return to Egypt to uphold his throne
against two pretenders who had risen in his absence. Thus the empire
was again saved by the internal division of its enemies. For the ac-
THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE.
529
counts of these revolts we are indebted to Xenophon, Diodorus Siculus
and Cornelius Nepos.
The private life of King Artaxerxes Mnemon throughout was un-
happy, like that of most of the later Persian kings ; though he and his
first wife, Statira, a deserving woman, were fondly attached to each
other. His mother, Parysatis, was the cause of all the trouble. This
cruel woman was the master of Artaxerxes during his long reign, and
acted as if she were the real sovereign of the empire. She encouraged
Cyrus in his rebellion, and was instrumental in bringing those respon-
sible for frustrating it to the most horrible deaths. Hatred and jeal-
ousy induced her to poison Statira, because she exercised some influence
over her husband. She encouraged Artaxerxes to contract an incestu-
ous marriage with his daughter, Atossa — a marriage which led to addi-
tional unfortunate consequences. Artaxerxes had three sons by Statira
— Darius, Ariaspes and Ochus. Darius, the eldest, was formally de-
clared the heir to the throne ; but Ochus intrigued with Atossa to obtain
the succession to the crown for himself. To prevent the success of his
brother's designs, Darius conspired against his father's life ; but, being
detected, was seized and executed. Ariaspes, as the eldest living son,
was then the natural heir. Ochus then persuaded Ariaspes that his
father had become offended at him and was about to put him to a cruel
and ignominious death ; whereupon Ariaspes, in despair, committed sui-
cide. Ochus, now the legitimate heir to the throne, resorted to assas-
sination to get rid of his only remaining rival, Arsames, one of his
half-brothers, a favorite illegitimate son of Artaxerxes — a crime which
caused the death of the aged and unhappy king from grief. Plutarch
has given us the full account of the domestic life of this monarch.
According to all accounts Artaxerxes Mnemon was the weakest of
all the Persian monarchs. He was mild, affable, good-natured, affec-
tionate and well-meaning ; but being so weak, he could not prevent those
about him from committing the most atrocious cruelties. He could
not save his wife and son, whom he fondly loved, against those who
plotted their destruction; and lacked the will or courage to avenge
their fate. Powerless to resist entreaty and importunity, he granted
favors which should have been refused, and condoned offenses which
deserved punishment. Unable to long retain the most just resentment,
he remitted the mildest and most merited punishments. He fairly suc-
ceeded in his foreign relations and in suppressing revolts in his own
dominions, but could not infuse vigor in the tottering empire. His
good fortune and the mistakes of his enemies only enabled him to trans-
mit his entire inheritance to his successor. Artaxerxes Mnemon died,
after a reign of forty-six years, and, according to Plutarch, at the
age of ninety-four, B. C. 359.
Unhappy
Domestic
Life of
Arta-
xerxes.
Mnemon.
Power
and
Wicked-
ness of
Pary-
satis.
Weak
Character
of Arta-
xerxes
Mnemon.
His
Death.
530
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Arta-
xerxes
Ochus.
His Cruel
Acts.
Unsuc-
cessful
Attempt
to Re-
conquer
Egypt.
Revolts of
Phoenicia
and
Cyprus
Sup-
pressed.
Capture
and De-
struction
of Sidon.
Accounts
by
Diodorus
Siculus.
The next king, known as ARTAXERXES OCHUS, was the most cruel
and sanguinary of all the Persian monarchs. Upon his accession, in
B. C. 359, he rid himself of rivals by destroying all the princes of
the blood royal as far as he was able to. Justin tells us that he even
cruelly put to death the most innocent princesses. He attempted to
reconquer Egypt, which had successfully maintained its independence
for almost a half-century under its native kings, against all the at-
tempts of Persia to reduce it to submission. Notwithstanding a seri-
ous rebellion had broken out in Asia Minor, Artaxerxes Ochus led a
vast army into Egypt, against its native king, Nectanebo, whose forces
were commanded by two Greek generals, Diophantus, an Athenian, and
Lamius, a Spartan. Diodorus and Isocrates inform us that Ochus was
defeated and his army utterly repulsed; that Phoenicia rose in revolt
and asserted her independence under the leadership of Sidon, expelled
or massacred the Persian garrisons in her cities, and entered into an
alliance with Egypt; and that Cyprus also rebelled, the kings of its
nine principal towns assuming independent sovereignty. Cyprus was
reduced to submission by Idrieus, prince of Caria, with eight thousand
Greek mercenaries under Phocion, the Athenian, and Evagoras, son
of the former Evagoras, the Cyprian monarch. But Belesys, satrap
of Syria, and Mazseus, satrap of Cilicia, were defeated by Tennes, the
Sidonian king, who was assisted by four thousand Greek mercenaries
sent by Nectanebo, King of Egypt, and commanded by Mentor the
Rhodian. The Persians were driven out of Phoenicia ; but when Ochus
himself approached with three hundred and thirty thousand men, the
Phoenician monarch sought to secure his own safety by delivering a
hundred of the leading citizens of Sidon into the hands of the Persian
king, whom he then admitted into the city. Ochus cruelly caused the
hundred citizens to be speared to death, and the five hundred more who
came to entreat his mercy were consigned to the same horrible fate.
The cowardly king, Tennes, failed to save his own life by his treachery,
as Ochus also put him to death. The Sidonians, in despair, set fire to
their city, perishing with it in the flames, after having previously
burned their own ships to prevent any of their number escaping.
Forty thousand thus perished, each having shut himself up in his own
dwelling, to which he set fire. The city became a heap of ruins, and
these were sold by Ochus for a vast sum. Upon the end of the Phoe-
nician revolt, Mentor the Rhodian, the ablest of the Greek mercenary
leaders, transferred his services to the Persian king. The accounts of
these Phoenician and Egyptian revolts are derived from Didorus Sicu-
lus, the great ancient authority for the events of the reign of Artax-
erxes Ochus.
THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE. 531
After the fall of Sidon, Ochus invaded Egypt with a Persian army Persian
of three hundred and thirty thousand men, assisted by fourteen thou- q^^Qf
sand Greek mercenaries, six thousand of whom were furnished by the Egypt.
Greek cities of Asia Minor, four thousand under Mentor, consisting
of the troops which he had brought from Egypt to assist the Phoe-
nicians, three thousand being sent from Argos, and four thousand from
Thebes. He divided his expedition into three portions, over each of
which he placed a Persian and also a Greek general. The Greek com-
manders were Lacrates of Thebes, Mentor of Rhodes, and Nicostratus
of Argos ; the latter a man of such enormous physical strength that he
regarded himself as a second Hercules, and adopted the traditional cos-
tume of that fabulous hero — a club and a lion's skin. The Persian gen-
erals were Rhoesaces, Aristazanes and Bagoas, the chief of the eunuchs.
The Egyptian king had only one hundred thousand men to oppose to
the vast host of Ochus, and twenty thousand of these were Greek mer-
cenaries. He occupied the Nile and its various branches with a pow-
erful navy. The Greek generals in the Persian service outmaneuvered
Nectanebo, who hastily retreated to Memphis, leaving the fortified
towns to the defense of their garrison. The Persian leaders excited
jealousies and suspicions between the Greek and Egyptian troops com-
posing these garrisons, and thus reduced the secondary cities of Lower
Egypt, after which they advanced on Memphis, Nectanebo fleeing in
despair to Ethiopia. Thereupon all Egypt submitted to Artaxerxes
Ochus, who demolished the walls of the cities, plundered the temples,
and after fully rewarding his mercenaries, returned triumphantly to
his capital with a vast booty.
Grote has truly said that " the reconquest of Egypt by Ochus must Rein-
have been one of the most impressive events of the age," and that it vigoratioa
" exalted the Persian Empire in force and credit to a point nearly as Empire,
high as it had ever occupied before." Ochus thus raised himself to
a degree of prestige and glory above that of any Persian king since
the time of Darius Hystaspes. Revolts or rebellions did not again
disturb the empire. Mentor and Bagoas, the two generals who had
borne the most conspicuous part in the Egyptian campaign, were re-
warded by Ochus with the most important posts. Mentor, as gover- Mentor
nor of the whole sea-coast of Asia Minor, reduced the many chiefs who Bagoas.
had assumed an independent sovereignty to submission within a few
years. Bagoas; as the king's minister at the capital, maintained tran-
quillity throughout the empire. The last six years of the reign of
Ochus formed the most tranquil and prosperous period of the later
Medo-Persian history ; and this happy state of affairs must be ascribed
to the talents of Bagoas and Mentor, and reflect credit upon the king
himself who selected such able officials and retained them in office.
532
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
New
Menace
to Persia
in the
Rise of
Macedon.
sination
of
Arta-
xerxes
Ochus.
Short
Reign and
Assas-
sination
of
Arses.
Darius
Codo-
mannus.
His
Excellent
Charac-
ter.
Invasion
of the
Empire
by
Alexan-
der the
Great.
But while the Medo-Persian Empire seemed to have been thus rein-
vigorated with new life and strength, and when it seemed to have
started on a new career of power and glory, its existence was menaced
by a new power which had suddenly risen into prominence on its north-
western frontier. Artaxerxes Ochus and his counselors perceived the
future danger. A Persian force was sent to aid the Thracian prince,
Cersobleptes, to maintain his independence ; and the city of Perinthus,
with Persian aid, made a successful defense against the besieging army
of Philip of Macedon (B. C. 340). Thus before Philip had subdued
Greece, Persian statesmen saw a formidable rival in the rapidly-rising
Macedonian monarchy.
While the empire was thus threatened from without, conspiracy and
revolution again distracted the court and paralyzed the action of the
government. The violence and cruelty of Artaxerxes Ochus made him
unpopular with his subjects. Bagoas himself grew so suspicious of
his sovereign that he poisoned him in B. C. 338, and placed the king's
youngest son, ARSES, upon the throne, while he likewise assassinated
all the new monarch's brothers. Bagoas was now virtual ruler, but in
the course of a year Arses began to assert himself and uttered threats
against Bagoas, who thereupon caused Arses and his infant children
to be assassinated, and placed Codomannus, the son of Arsanes, upon
the throne, B. C. 336. The new king assumed the name of Darius,
and is known in history as DARIUS CODOMANNUS. The account of
these events has been transmitted to us from ancient times by Diodorus,
Arrian, Strabo and Quintus Curtius. According to Strabo, Darius
Codomannus did not belong to the royal house ; but according to Diod-
orus, he was the grandson of Ostanes, a brother of Artaxerxes Mnemon.
In the very year that Darius became King of Persia (B. C. 336), Alex-
ander the Great became King of Macedon upon the assassination of his
father, Philip, by Pausanius, a Macedonian nobleman.
Darius Codomannus, the last of the Medo-Persian kings, was morally
superior to most of his predecessors, but he was destitute of sufficient
intellectual ability to enable him to wrestle with the difficult circum-
stances of his situation. He was personally brave, tall and handsome,
amiable in disposition, capable of great exertion, and possessed of
some military capacity. The invasion of Asia Minor by Alexander
the Great, which occurred in B. C. 334, did not alarm Darius, who
seemed to have no full comprehension of the peril which thus threat-
ened the existence of his empire. He seems to have despised the youth
and inexperience of Alexander, who was then but twenty years of age ;
and he made no sufficient preparation to resist this formidable attack
upon the Medo-Persian Empire. Since the battle of Marathon the
final struggle between Greece and Persia was only a question of time,
THE MEDG-PERSIAN EMPIRE.
but the liberal employment of Persian gold had delayed the inevitable
contest for more than a century and a half. The Greeks now had a
leader more ambitious than Cyrus and more able than Xerxes.
The satraps and generals of Persia shared the confidence of their
sovereign, and though a large army was collected in Mysia and a pow-
erful fleet was sent to the coast, no effort was made to prevent the pass-
age of the Hellespont by Alexander's army. In the spring of B. C.
334 Alexander with his thirty-five thousand Graeco-Macedonian troops
crossed the strait which Xerxes had passed with his hosts of five mil-
lions less than a century and a half before. The inferiority of the
Greek army in numbers was far overbalanced by its superior efficiency.
It consisted of veteran troops in the highest possible condition of dis-
cipline and equipment, and every Macedonian and Grecian soldier was
animated by the most enthusiastic devotion to his youthful leader and'
confident of victory.
Had the Persian leaders made any serious opposition Alexander's
invasion of Asia Minor might have been prevented. The first earnest
effort to stay the progress of the invader was made in the attempt to
prevent the passage of the Granicus, a little river in Mysia flowing into
the Propontis (now Sea of Marmora). In the battle which ensued
the Persians were defeated, and Alexander succeeded in crossing the
stream. In consequence of this defeat, the Persians were thrown on
the defensive, and Alexander's conquest of Asia Minor was the imme-
diate result. The death of Memnon, the brother of Mentor, deprived
the King of Persia of his ablest general, who had already collected a
large fleet, captured many islands in the JEgean, and prepared to carry
the war into Greece and thus compel Alexander to withdraw from Asia
Minor. After besieging and capturing Miletus and Halicarnassus,
Alexander's triumphant progress through Asia Minor was unopposed,
and by the spring of B. C. 333 the youthful conqueror was at the
gates of Syria.
Darius Codomannus assembled a vast army in the spring of B. C.
333, and, now obliged to act wholly on the defensive, endeavored to
stop the further advance of the invader. With seven hundred thou-
sand men, Darius encountered Alexander on the plain of Issus ; but
hemmed in in a narrow defile between the mountain, the river and the
sea, the immense Persian hosts were routed, and Darius himself was
obliged to flee for his own life. His wife, mother and children were
made prisoners by Alexander, who treated them with the utmost re-
spect, and honored Darius's wife, who died soon afterward, with a most
magnificent burial. The defeat of Darius Codomannus at Issus was
followed by the conquest of Syria, Phoenicia and Egypt by Alexander,
who captured Tyre and Gaza, after vigorous sieges.
Alexan-
der in
Asia
Minor.
Battle of
the
Granicus.
Alexan-
der's
Conquest
of Asia
Minor.
Battle
of the
Issus.
Alexan-
der's
Conquest
of Syria,
Phoenicia
and
Egypt.
534
Battle of
Arbela.
Its
Decisive
Result.
Flightand
Assas-
sination
of Darius
Codo-
mannus.
End
of the
Medo-
Persian
Empire.
In the spring of B. C. 331 Alexander retraced his triumphant march
through Syria, and, directing his course toward the heart of the Medo-
Persian Empire, crossed the Euphrates at Thapsacus, traversed Meso-
potamia and encountered. Darius Codomannus a second time near the
Assyrian city of Arbela, on the plain of Gaugamela, east of the Tigris.
The Persian king, since his defeat in the battle of Issus twenty months
before, had collected the entire force of his vast dominion for the final
struggle, which was to decide the fate of his empire. With only forty-
seven thousand men Alexander totally defeated and routed the immense
hosts of Darius, said to number over a million men, in the great battle
of Arbela, which was the death-blow to the Medo-Persian Empire.
Darius Codomannus fled to the city of Arbela, about twenty miles
distant from the battlefield. Here the unfortunate monarch was seized
by his own officers, headed by the treacherous Bessus, satrap of Bac-
triana, who, seeing their master's fortunes ruined, had contrived a plan
to deliver him to Alexander and thereby advance their own interests.
They loaded him with chains and forced him to accompany them in
their flight toward Hyrcania, on the approach of Alexander to Arbela.
The next day Alexander arrived at Arbela and took possession of the
king's treasures ; after which he went in hot pursuit of Darius and his
fleeing officers. Hemmed in on all sides and finding escape impossible,
the treacherous Bessus and his fellow-conspirators basely turned upon
their king, mortally wounding him and leaving him to die by the road-
side in the mountains. A Macedonian soldier discovered the former
lord of Asia in his dying condition, and, in response to his appeal,
brought him a cup of cold water. Darius sincerely thanked his gen-
erous enemy, expressing sorrow at his inability to reward him for this
kindness to him in his dying moments. He commended the soldier to
the notice of Alexander, saying he had sufficient magnanimity to
grant his dying request, and then expired. Alexander arrived shortly
after his death, and, deeply affected, covered the dead body of the last
Medo-Persian king with his own royal mantle, and directed that a mag-
nificent funeral procession should convey it to Pasargadae, where it was
interred in the tombs of his illustrious ancestors, with royal honors.
The conqueror also provided for the fitting education of the children
of his fallen adversary.
Although the battle of Arbela sealed the fate of the Medo-Persian
Empire, the reduction of its north-eastern and eastern provinces occu-
pied the conqueror several years longer; but their final conquest made
Alexander lord of Asia, and master of the vast empire founded by
Cyrus the Great, which for two centuries had been the great dominat-
ing power of Asia, ruling the vast region from the Indus to the Afri-
can deserts.
MEDO-PERSIAN CIVILIZATION.
535
KINGS OF PERSIA.
THE AcBLffiMQEums:.
B. C.
Achaemenes.
B. C. 425
Xerxes II.
558
529
Six other kings.
Cambyses I.
Cyrus the Great.
Cambyses II.
425
424
405
359
Sogdianus.
Darius Nothus.
Artaxerxes Mnemon.
Artaxerxes Ochus.
522
Smerdis.
338
Arses.
521
486
Darius Hystaspes.
Xerxes the Great.
336
331
Darius Codomannus.
End of the Medo-Persian
465
Artaxerxes Longimanus.
Empire.
SECTION V.— MEDO-PERSIAN CIVILIZATION.
ALREADY we have alluded to the ethnic identity of the Persians with
the Medes ; and we have seen that their primeval home was in Bactria,
and that in prehistoric times they migrated to the south-west. The
Medes and Persians were a kindred branch of the great Iranic, or
Aryan family — the Indo-European division of the Caucasian race.
The name Aryan has been assigned to this portion of the Caucasian
race on grounds of actual tradition and history. In the Zend-Avesta,
" the first best of regions and countries," the original home of Ahura-
Mazda's peculiar people was Aryanem vaejo — " the source of the
Aryans." Herodotus states that in his time the Medes were known
as Aryans by all the surrounding nations. The sculptor employed by
Darius Hystaspes at Behistun explained to the Scythian aborigines of
the Zagros mountain region, in a note of his own, that Ahura-Mazda,
of whom so much was said in the inscription, was " the God of the
Aryans." Darius Hystaspes, in another inscription, boasted that he
was a " Persian, the son of a Persian, an Aryan of Aryan descent."
Eudemus, the disciple of Aristotle, called the people whose priests were
the Magi " the Aryan nation." Strabo introduced the term Ariana
into geography, and assigned it a meaning almost identical with that
of the modern Iran. The Sassanian kings divided the world into
Air an and Aniran, and claimed to be sovereigns of both the Aryan and
non- Aryan nations. The term Iran is the only name by which a mod-
ern Persian knows his country.
Obscure in their early annals, the Medes and Persians became the
most important Aryan tribes towards the eighth or seventh century
before Christ. They were close kindred, united together, each wield-
ing the superiority by turns. They claimed and exercised supremacy
over all the other Aryan tribes, and likewise over certain alien races.
VOL, 2.— 13
Aryan
Origin
of the
Medesand
Persians.
Their
Kinanip.
536
Their
Physi-
ognomy.
Race
Charac-
teristics.
Their distinguishing characteristics gave them the superiority over
other nations, and had developed a civilization of their own. The
character, mode of living, habits, customs, manners, etc., of the Per-
sians were the same as those of the Medes, already described in the his-
tory of Media; but we have more copious information concerning the
Persians, and we can therefore add considerable in this connection to
what has been already said.
The Aryan physiognomy, as revealed to us by the Persian monu-
ments, characterized both the Medes and the Persians. There is a
uniformity in the type of the face and head in all of these monuments,
and this type contrasts remarkably with the Semite type assigned to
themselves by the Assyrians, from whom the Aryans seem to have de-
rived the general idea of bas-reliefs, and likewise their general manner
of dealing with subjects upon them. The peculiarity of the physiog-
nomy bears strong evidence to its truthfulness, which is also attested
by the fact that the Persian artists endeavored to represent the varie-
ties of mankind and were fairly successful in rendering them. Varie-
ties of physiognomy are represented with great care, and often with
wonderful success, upon the bas-reliefs.
Herodotus tells us that the skulls of the Persians were uncommonly
thin and weak, which he ascribed to the national habit of always cover-
ing the head. The Persians were quick and lively, keen-witted, capa-
ble of repartee, ingenious, and especially far-sighted for Orientals.
They possessed fancy and imagination, were fond of poetry and art,
and had a certain power of political combination. The religious ideas
of the Medes and Persians were more elevated than those of other
ancient nations besides the Hebrews ; and these ideas, as entertained by
all Iranic nations, were inherited by the Persians from a remote ances-
try. Persian architecture and sculpture did not display any remark-
able genius. The Persians were distinguished for their courage, en-
ergy and honesty. The valor of the Persian troops at Thermopylae
and Platasa won the admiration of their foes ; and Herodotus expressed
the belief that, " in boldness and warlike spirit, the Persians were not
a whit behind the Greeks," and that the sole reason for their defeat was
the inferiority of their equipment and discipline. Having no proper
shields and little defensive armor, and wielding only short swords and
lances, they dashed upon the serried ranks of the Spartans, whose large
spear-shafts they seized and tried to break. Grote compares their
valor with the brilliant deeds of the Romans and the Swiss. ^Eschylus
very deservedly called the Persians a " valiant-minded people." They
rere bold, dashing, tenacious and stubborn. No nation of Asia or
Africa could withstand them. The Greeks were superior to them be-
cause of the superiority of Grecian arms, equipment and discipline.
MEDO-PERSIAN CIVILIZATION. 537
During the earlier years of their ascendency the Persians were as Warlike
much distinguished for their energy as for their courage. JEschylus
alludes to a strange fate which obliged them to engage constantly in a Activity,
long series of wars, to delight in combats of horse, and in the siege
and capture of cities. Herodotus represents Xerxes as bound by the
examples of his ancestors to engage his people in some great enter-
prise, and not to allow their military spirit to decay on account of lack
of employment. We have already seen that for eighty years, under
the first four monarchs, wars and expeditions did not cease, that the
activity and energy of the king and people carried them on, without
rest or cessation, in a career of conquest almost unparalleled in Oriental
history. In the later period this spirit was less marked, but at all times
the Persians were characterized by a certain vigor and activity, which
has distinguished them particularly from " the dreamy and listless Hin-
doos upon the one hand and the apathetic Turks upon the other."
The Greeks praised the Persians especially for their love of the Truthful-
truth. Herodotus states that the Persian youth were taught three
principal things : " To ride, to draw the bow, and to speak the truth."
In the Zend-Avesta, particularly in the earliest and purest portions of
it, truth is strongly inculcated. Ahura-Mazda himself is " true,"
" the father of truth," and his worshipers must conform themselves to
his image. In the Behistun Inscription, Darius Hystaspes protests
against " lies," which he appears to consider the embodiment of evil.
A love of intrigue is characteristic of Orientals ; and in their later his-
tory the Persians seem to have given way to this natural inclination,
and to have made a free use of cunning and deception in their wars
with the Greeks; but in their earlier period they considered lying as
the most shameful thing of which a person could be guilty. Truth
was then admired and practiced. Persian kings strictly observed their
promises, no matter how inconvenient may have been their fulfillment,
and never gave foreign nations any reason to complain that they had
violated the terms of a treaty. Thus the Persians were an honorable
exception to the usual Asiatic character, and compared favorably with
the Greeks and Romans for general truthfulness and a faithful obser-
vance of their engagements.
Herodotus also tells us that the Persians endeavored to keep out of Honesty,
debt. They had a keen sense of the difficulty which a debtor found
to avoid subterfuge and equivocation — forms of falsehood, slightly dis-
guised. They disliked to buy and sell wares in the market-place, or
to haggle over prices, as they thought that it involved falsity and
unfairness. They were frank and open in speech, bold in act, gener- Various
ous, warm-hearted, hospitable. Their principal faults were an addic- Vhr^es
tion to self-indulgence and luxury, a passionate yielding to the feelings Faults.
538
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Syco-
phancy
and
Servility
to the
King.
Warlike
Customs.
Offensive
Weapons.
of the moment, and a sycophancy and subservience toward their sov-
ereign so great as to destroy their self-respect and manliness. They
were alike immoderate in joy or sorrow, according to Herodotus; and
^Eschylus's tragedy of the " Persae " correctly illustrates the real hab-
its of the Persian people. The Persians were unreserved, and laughed
and wept, shouted and shrieked, in the presence of others without the
least restraint. Lively and excitable, they gave full vent to every
passion, and did not care who witnessed their rejoicings or lamenta-
tions.
In Persia the king was so much the state that patriotism was ab-
sorbed in loyalty to royalty; and an unquestioned submission to the
will and caprice of the monarch was by habit and education implanted
in the very nature of the Persian people. Herodotus states that in
war the concern of all was the personal safety of the sovereign. Such
a value was attached to the royal person that it was thought the pub-
lic safety depended upon his escape from danger and suffering. All
the decisions of the sovereign were received with the most unquestioned
acquiescence; his will, whatever it might be, was cheerfully submitted
to. Their loyalty degenerated into a parasitical passiveness, and be-
came a defect instead of a virtue. No remonstrance, reproof or warn-
ing was ever heard of at court; and tyranny encountered no restraint
in the wildest caprices and extravagances. Herodotus tells us that
the father whose innocent son the king shot in pure wantonness before
his eyes congratulated his majesty upon the excellence of his archery,
instead of protesting with indignation against the crime. Unfortu-
nates, bastinadoed by the king's orders, expressed themselves as de-
lighted because his majesty had condescended to remember them. The
tone of sycophancy and servility thus engendered sapped the self-»
respect of the people, and tended to fatally corrupt their whole char-
acter.
The Persian monuments throw considerable light upon the warlike
customs of the people. The Medes and Persians looked unfavorably
upon the chariots, and their armies consisted almost wholly of foot and
horse. Herodotus says that in the earlier times the footman usually
dressed in a close-fitting leather tunic with long sleeves, reaching from
the neck to the knee. Below this was worn a pair of tight-fitting
leather trousers, reaching to the ankles. The feet were covered by a
high shoe or low boot. The head was protected by a loose, round
felt cap, projecting a little in front, and rising considerably above
the head. A double belt or girdle was worn around the waist, and a
short sword was suspended from it.
The offensive weapons of a Persian footman were a short sword, a
short spear and a bow. The sword was carried in a sheath, suspended
MEDD-PERSIAN CIVILIZATION. 539
from the girdle on the right side. The Persepolitan sculptures repre-
sent it as attached to the right thigh by a thong passing round the
knee. The representations of the guardsmen on the Persepolitan
sculptures would seem to indicate that the Persian spear was about
seven feet long. The Grecian spear was sometimes twenty-two feet
long. Herodotus and Xenophon represented the Persian bow as un-
commonly large, while the sculptures represent it as not more than four
feet long. It appears to have been carried, strung on the left shoul-
der with the arm passing through it, or in a bow-case slung on the
left side. The arrows were made of reed, tipped with metal and feath-
ered, and were carried in a quiver hung at the back near the left shoul-
der. From the sculptures these would appear to have been about two
and a half feet long. The arrow-heads were either of bronze or iron,
and seem to have been of various shapes, the most common closely re-
sembling those of the Assyrians. Other offensive weapons of the Per-
sians were sometimes a battle-ax, a sling and a knife. Xenophon de-
clares the battle-ax to have been the common Persian weapon, but it
only appears in the sculptures in one or two instances. Xenophon,
Straob and Quintus Curtius mention the use of the sling by the Per-
sian light-armed troops. Xenophon witnessed the effect of this
weapon during the Retreat of the Ten Thousand, which he conducted.
Persian slingers only threw stones, and not small lumps of lead, as did
the Rhodians. The Persian footman also carried a knife, worn in a
sheath, and probably suspended from the girdle.
The defensive armor of the Persians were shields of wicker-work, Defensive
which protected them almost from head to foot, and probably closely
resembled the Assyrian wicker shields. The Persian soldier usually
planted his shield on the ground while discharging his arrows at the
foe. Sometimes the Persian footmen also wore coats of mail, consist-
ing of scale armor, or of quilted linen, like the Egyptian corselets.
Scale armor could scarcely be penetrated; as the scales, which were of
iron, bronze or gold, overlapped one another like the scales of a fish.
Herodotus says that in the earlier times the Persian cavalry were Anns of
armed exactly like the infantry, except that the horsemen sometimes Cavalry,
wore bronze or iron helmets. In the time of the younger Cyrus cav-
alry soldiers were fully protected, wearing helmets on their heads, coats
of mail about their bodies, and greaves on their legs. Their principal
offensive arms then seem to have been the short sword, the javelin and
the knife. The sculptures give us no representations of the Persian
cavalry soldiers. The Persian cavalry appear to have sometimes worn
a round shield. Each horseman usually carried two javelins, which
were short spears, or pikes, with shafts of cornel-wood and iron points.
He used one of these weapons as a missile, and retained the other for
540
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Cavalry
Horses.
Light
Cavalry.
War
Chariots.
Chariot
Wheels.
use in a hand-to-hand combat with the foe. Xenophon preferred this
weapon to the weak reed-lance generally carried by cavalry soldiers in
his day, though it was no match for the longer and equally-strong spear
of the Macedonian cavalry.
The later Persians protected the horse, as well as the horseman.
They selected large and powerful animals, principally of the Nisaean
breed, for the cavalry service, and cased them almost entirely in mail.
The head was guarded by a frontlet, and the neck and chest by a
breast-piece; the sides and flanks having their own special covering,
while the thighs were defended by cuirasses. This armor, like that of
the riders, consisted of felt or leather covered with metal scales. The
cavalry had thus to bear considerable weight, and was encumbered in
flight or retreat, the weaker horses often sinking beneath their bur-
dens and being trampled to death by the stronger ones.
Besides the heavy horsemen, the Persians employed a light-cavalry
force, as in the case of the troops which, under Tissaphernes, harassed
the Ten Thousand in their retreat. The Persians were educated in
habits of quickness and agility in mounting and managing horses,
which were very valuable for the light-cavalry service. Besides Herod-
otus and Xenophon, the ancient authorities on the infantry and cav-
alry services of the Persians are Strabo, Arrian and Quintus Curtius.
The Persians did not often use chariots in their armies, as we have
already said. None were employed against the Greeks by Darius or
Xerxes, and none were used at the Granicus nor at Issus ; the only two
occasions in which we are told that they were used by the Persians being
in the battles of Cunaxa and Arbela. The kings and princes, how-
ever, always directed the movements of their armies, when command-
ing in person, from the war-chariot, either in battle or on the march.
Diodorus, Arrian and Quintus Curtius tell us that the Persians had
two hundred war-chariots in the battle of Arbela, but the number at
Cunaxa is not mentioned. The wheels of the Persian war-chariots
were armed with scythes, according to Xenophon, Diodorus Siculus
and Quintus Curtius. Neither at Cunaxa nor Arbela did the scythed
chariots perform any important service.
The Persian war-chariot was perhaps higher than the Assyrian.
The wheels seem to have been from three to four feet in diameter, and
the body rose above them to an elevation of almost five feet from the
ground. The person of the chariot-warrior was thus protected by
the curved board which enclosed the chariot on three sides. The axle-
tree is said to have been broad, and the whole chariot was solid and
strong in its construction. The wheels had twelve spokes radiating
from a nave of more than ordinary size. The felloes, though narrower
than those of the Assyrian war-chariot, were, like them, composed of
MEDO-PERSIAN CIVILIZATION.
541
three distinct layers of wood. The tires were probably of metal, and
were indented like the edge of a saw.
The Persian war-chariot does not seem to have been ornamented.
The body was sometimes patterned with a checker-work, in Assyrian
style, and the spokes were often very elegant, but the workmanship
was massive and plain in its general character. The pole was short
and ended with a simple curve. The sculptures represent the chariots
as drawn by only two horses ; but Xenophon, Diodorus Siculus and
Quintus Curtius inform us that the usual custom was to have four
horses. The harness consisted of a yoke, a belly-band, a narrow col-
lar, a headstall, a bit and reins. When the charioteer left his seat the
reins could be attached to a loop or bar projecting from the front of
the chariot-board.
The Persian chariots usually contained but two persons, the driver,
or charioteer, and the warrior. Sometimes there was also an attendant
whose duty was to open and shut the chariot-doors. The charioteer
wore a visor and a coat of mail, only his eyes being exposed to the foe.
Arrian states that the last Medo-Persian king used fifteen elephants
in the battle of Arbela.
In battle the chariots were placed in front of the cavalry and in-
fantry. The cavalry were usually massed upon the two wings. The
infantry were placed in the middle, drawn up according to nations, in
a number of oblong squares almost touching one another. The bravest
and best-armed troops were placed in front. The ranks were gener-
ally very deep. When the battle commenced the chariots were first
hurled against the foe, it being hoped that they would throw their ranks
into confusion. The main line then advanced to the attack. The
Persian heavy-armed troops planted their shields in front of them and
discharged their arrows at the enemy, while the slingers and other light-
armed troops in the rear hurled missiles over the heads of their com-
rades into the enemy's ranks beyond them. The enemy by pressing
forward brought on a hand-to-hand struggle, and the conflict was then
usually decided in a very few minutes. If the Persian line of battle
was broken, all was at once considered lost, and rout and fight ensued.
The efforts of the Persian cavalry to stay the progress of the advanc-
ing foe by desperately charging on their flanks was generally unavail-
ing. When its line of battle was broken a Persian army became ut-
terly discouraged and demoralized, and the example of flight set by
its commander was followed by the rank and file.
The Persians chiefly relied for success on their numbers, which en-
abled them to renew the attack repeatedly with fresh troops, or to
outflank and surround the enemy. The cavalry were their best troops.
The heavy horse, armed in the early times with the bow, and in the
Plainness
of the
Chariot.
Chariot
Horses
and
Harness.
Chari-
oteers and
Warriors.
Chariots
in
Battle.
Modes of
Fighting.
542
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Methods
in
Besieging.
Com-
manders
and
Officers.
Position
of the
Chief
Comman-
der.
later with the javelin, greatly distinguished themselves on many
famous fields, as related to us by Herodotus, Arrian and others. The
light cavalry was celebrated for quickness and dexterity of maneuver.
It was loosely organized like the modern Bashi-Bazouks and Cossacks.
It fell on an enemy in huge masses ; it assailed, retreated, rallied, again
advanced, and was formidable even in flight and rout, as each rider
discharged his arrows backwards with unerring aim at the pursuing
foe. The Persians thus originated the practice followed so skillfully
by their Parthian successors. The Persians sometimes resorted to
stratagem. At Arbela, Darius Codomannus had spiked balls scattered
over the ground where he expected that the Greek cavalry would make
its attacks; and at Sardis, Cyrus was indebted for his victory to the
frightening of the Lydian horse with his camels.
Xenophon tells us that military engines were used by the Persians ;
but no other ancient writer says anything about them, and we may
conclude that they were rarely employed. According to Herodotus
they relied on the bank or mound in ordinary sieges, and they some-
times drove mines under the walls to effect a breach. Where the place
was strongly fortified they generally resorted to stratagem, or to the
blockade. Sometimes they used fire to reduce towns, and perhaps often
succeeded by escalade. They were usually successful in their sieges,
displaying courage, activity and fertility of resource in conducting
them.
A Persian army was generally under a single commander, who was
the king, if he was present, or, if he was not present, a Persian or a
Mede appointed by him. Under the commander-in-chief were a num-
ber of general officers, leaders of corps and divisions. Next in rank
below these were the chiefs of the various ethnic contingents consti-
tuting the army, who were usually the satraps of the various prov-
inces. The appointments thus far were made directly by the crown;
but the satrapial commanders appointed the officers next below them-
selves, the captains over a thousand, or the captains over ten thousand,
according to the size of the contingent. The officers appointed subor-
dinates, commanders of a hundred and commanders of ten. Thus we
see that a decimal system principally prevailed. The lowest rank of
officers each commanded ten men, the next above them commanded a
hundred, the next above the last a thousand, and the next ten thousand.
The officer commanding ten thousand was a divisional chief, or was
subject to the commander of the ethnic contingent, who was himself
under the orders of the divisional commander. There were thus six
ranks of officers below the commander-in-chief.
The proper place for the commander-in-chief was considered to be
in the center of the line of battle, where he would be safer, and where
— .22
MEDO-PERSIAN CIVILIZATION.
543
his orders could be most rapidly carried to every part of the battle-
field. He was expected to take part in the conflict, and was thus often
exposed to imminent peril of his life. The death or flight of the chief
commander often caused a general panic, stopping the issue of any
further general order, and thus paralyzing the entire army.
Herodotus and Arrian tell us that a Persian army contained some-
times over a million men. These writers, and Xenophon and Quintus
Curtius, state that the troops were drawn from the whole empire, and
were marshaled in the field according to nationalities, each tribe or
nation being accoutered in its own style. Thus might be seen the
gilded breastplates and the scarlet kilts of the Medes and Persians, the
woolen shirt of the Arabs, the leathern jerkin of the Berbers, or the
cotton dress of the Hindoos. Savage Ethiopians from the Upper Nile,
ornamented with a war paint of red and white, and clad scantily with
the skins of leopards or lions, could be seen in one place, with their
large clubs, arrows pointed with stone, and spears ending in the horns
of an antelope. In other places were wild Scyths, with their spangled
trousers and their tall pointed caps, with battle-axes and clubs. Near
them were the Assyrians, with their helmets and quilted linen corselets,
and with their spears and iron maces. Cane bows, arrows without
feathers, and stakes hardened at one end by fire, were seen side by side
with the best steel swords and daggers from the workshops of Phoenicia
and Greece. In one place the bronze helmet was surmounted with the
ears and horns of an ox. In another its place was supplied by a fox-
skin, a leathern or wooden skull-cap, or a head-dress made of a horse's
scalp. The animals belonging to a Persian army were horses, mules,
wild asses, camels and elephants. One large body of cavalry was armed
only with the dagger and a long leathern thong which they used as a
lasso; and the unfortunate caught in its noose had little chance of
escape.
The Persians, like the Assyrians, generally avoided fighting during
the winter and marched their armies against the foe in early spring.
Their vast hosts were moved with a fixed order. In marching through
their own country the baggage and the sumpter-beasts were sent in
advance. About half the troops came next, moving slowly in a con-
tinuous column along the appointed line of the route. At this point
there was a break, in order for the most important portion of the army
to follow next. A guard composed of a thousand horse and a thou-
sand foot, selected specially from among the Persian people, opened
the way for what was most sacred in the estimation of all Persians —
the emblems of their religion and of their sovereign. The sacred em-
blems consisted of the sacred horses and chariots, and probably also
in later times of silver altars bearing the ever-burning and heaven-
1—37
Immense
Persian
Armies.
Their
Arms and
Equip-
ments.
Order of
March-
ing.
544
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Plans of
Invasion.
Encum-
brances
and
Impedi-
ments.
Night
Encamp-
ment.
Camp
Sites.
kindled fire. Behind these emblems followed the Great King, seated
on a chariot drawn by Nisaean steeds, and, according to Quintus Cur-
tius, protected on either side by a chosen number of his relations. Be-
hind the royal chariot was a second guard, which consisted of a thou-
sand foot and horse, like the first guard. After these followed ten
thousand picked infantry, probably the celebrated " Immortals " men-
tioned by Herodotus. Then came a body of ten thousand select Per-
sian horsemen. After a vacant space of almost a quarter of a mile
marched the remainder of the vast army.
Upon entering an enemy's territory, or upon approaching a hostile
force in their own country, the Persians withdrew their baggage-train,
which followed some distance in the rear of the army. Horsemen were
sent out in front to look for the enemy. If the army was large it was
sometimes divided into several corps, which advanced simultaneously by
several different routes, the commander-in-chief accompanying the cen-
tral force.
The Persians marched from sunrise to sunset, according to Xeno-
phon and Quintus Curtius. They seldom marched more than twenty-
five miles a day, and if a faster rate was attempted it was found neces-
sary to allow the men intervals of three days' rest. The baggage-
train, consisting of a great multitude of camels, horses, asses, mules,
oxen, etc., carrying burdens on their backs, impeded the movement of
a Persian army. The wives or female companions of the chief men
were often conveyed in litters, amid a multitude of eunuchs and attend-
ants, and with all the cumbersome paraphernalia of female wardrobes.
There were no roads, and no bridges over rivers, except such as were
sometimes made of boats. They marched by an established route.
The carts and litters sometimes stuck fast in the mud almost to the
axles. Rivers along the line of march had to be forded or crossed by
means of boats or rafts.
In the evening, according to Xenophon, a Persian army would en-
camp in the open plain in the vicinity of water. If an enemy was
believed to be near, a ditch was hastily dug and an embankment thrown
up inside. If the soil was sandy, sacks were filled with it, and the
camp was protected by means of sand-bags. The gerrhophori, or
Persians carrying large wicker shields, were placed just inside the
rampart. The remainder of the army had their proper places, the
commander-in-chief being in the center. All the soldiers had tents,
according to Xenophon, and these were pitched so as to face the east.
The cavalry-horses were tethered and hobbled in front of their owners'
tents.
The Persians did not like to camp nearer an enemy than seven or
eight miles, as a precaution against surprise or a night attack. They
MEDO-PERSIAN CIVILIZATION. 545
had no special corps of pioneers, the work of felling trees or removing
brushwood being assigned to a certain number of regular soldiers when-
ever necessary. The construction of bridges was assigned to skillful
workmen, or to the crews of ships.
A large baggage-train conveyed corn sufficient to supply the army Army
for months. Ships laden with corn accompanied the expedition as SuPP"es-
closely as possible to supply any necessary demand. Sometimes maga-
zines were established at points along the line of march for the stores
of provisions which might be needed. Requisitions for supplies were
likewise made upon the inhabitants of towns and villages along the line
of march. According to Herodotus, whenever a Persian army rested
for the night the inhabitants were required to furnish bread sufficient
for a meal for each man, and to provide a banquet for the king, or
general, and his numerous suite. The provision here included, in addi-
tion to various kinds of meats, poultry and water-fowl, a full service
for the table, including much gold and silver plate, which were all car-
ried off by the guests after the meal. The only instance recorded in
which a Persian army suffered from want of supplies was during the
invasion of Ethiopia by Cambyses, when, according to Herodotus, the
army was reduced to such straits that the soldiers began to eat each
other.
The Persians readily gave quarter when an enemy asked for it, and Kind
usually treated prisoners of war very kindly. Important personages, ^f*"*
such as kings or princes, were allowed to retain either their titles and Prisoners,
their freedom with even a nominal authority, or received appendages
in other portions of the Persian dominions, or were kept about the court
as friends and table-companions of the Great King, as in the case of
Croesus. Prisoners of less rank were usually allowed land and houses
in some provinces far from their own country, and thereafter were in
the condition of subject nations, according to Herodotus, Strabo and
Quintus Curtius. Prisoners were never exchanged. In a few in-
stances only, as in the case of the Thebans taken prisoners at Ther-
mopylae, were prisoners treated with severity; but here they were re- Harsh
garded as rebels, because they had previously given " earth and water " m^Qf
as tokens of submission. The Greek captives who met Alexander after Rebels,
the battle of Arbela, some of them branded and others mutilated, may
have been Greeks of Asia Minor who had been guilty of rebellion.
Rebels were liable to any punishment which the king thought proper
to inflict upon them; and in some cases, after a rebellion, sentences
of extreme severity were passed upon the persons regarded as having
been most in fault. Herodotus tells us that three thousand Babylon-
ians were crucified by order of Darius Hystaspes, in punishment for
their revolt. The Behistun Inscription informs us that, where an ex-
546
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Persian
Navy.
Triremes.
Their
Crews.
ample was needed, the leader of a rebellion and his chief adherents were
crucified. In some cases a rebel was chained to the king's door before
he was executed. Minor punishments for rebellion were branding, and
deportation of the rebels en masse from their own country to some dis-
tant region. In the former case they perhaps became royal slaves
attached to the king's household. In the latter case they were treated
as prisoners of war in general.
The conquest of Phoenicia, Cyprus, Egypt and the Greek islands
gave the Persians the use of skilled seamen, vessels and dockyards,
from which the Great King derived an almost inexhaustible supply of
war-ships and transports. At times Persia held absolute command of
the Mediterranean sea — as from B. C. 525 to B. C. 480, and again
from B. C. 354 to B. C. 332 ; and she bore full sway over the Levant
during the whole period of her empire, except during the short period
of seventeen years from the battle of Eurymedon in B. C. 466 to the
" Peace of Callias " in B. C. 449.
The war-ship most in favor during the period of Persian supremacy
was the trireme, a decked galley impelled by rowers sitting in three
tiers, or banks, one above another. This vessel had been invented by
the Corinthians, according to Thucydides, and had been generally
adopted by the nations bordering on the Mediterranean during the
period from B. C. 700 to B. C. 525, when the Persians got control
of the sea by the reduction of Phoenicia, Cyprus and Egypt. The
Persian fleets principally consisted of triremes during the whole period
of the empire.
The trireme carried a crew of two hundred persons, most of them
rowers, and thirty men-at-arms, or marines. The rowers occupied
small seats attached to the side of the vessel, arranged in three tiers
obliquely, the second above and behind the first, and the third above
and behind the second. Each rower managed an oar, working it
through a hole pierced in the side of the vessel. He prevented his oar
from slipping by a leathern strap, which he twisted around it and
fastened to the thole, perhaps by means of a button. Besides the row-
ers the crew consisted of the captain, the steersman, the petty officers,
and the sailors who trimmed the sails and looked to the rigging. The
Persian trireme had a mast, and at least one square-shaped sail, hung
across the mast by means of a yard or spar, like the square sails of
modern vessels. The rudder was composed of two wide-bladed oars,
one on each side of the stern, united by a cross-bar, and managed by
one steersman. The middle portion of the trireme always had a deck,
which was usually level with the bulwarks, and on which the men-at-
arms stood when they engaged the enemy.
MEDO-PERSIAN CIVILIZATION.
547
The trireme had a beak projecting from its prow, either above or
below the water-line, strongly shod with an iron casting and ending in
one or more sharp points, or in the head of an animal. Like a modern
ram, a trireme used its beak against the side of an enemy's ship, and if
it struck with full force it crushed in the vessel, and thus sunk the ship
and crew. To secure itself against damage, the whole prow of a tri-
reme was made very strong, and was supported at the side with beams
to prevent the timbers from starting.
The description of the trireme is minutely given by Herodotus, who
says that the Persian fleet consisted also of other kinds of vessels, such
as triaconters, penteconters, cercuri and others. Triaconters were long
ships with sharp keels, shaped much like a trireme, rowed by thirty row-
ers sitting upon a level, like the rowers of modern boats, fifteen on each
side of the vessel. Penteconters were much the same, but had more
oars and oarsmen. Triaconters and Penteconters often had no sails.
Cercuri were light boats, very long and swift; and were, according to
Pliny, invented by the Cyprians.
The Persians used transports to convey horses or food. The horse-
transports were large, clumsy vessels. Corn-transports were somewhat
lighter. The ships of war were used to carry troops and to construct
bridges, as well as for naval battles. The Persians constructed bridges
of boats across unfordable streams, and also over the Bosphorus and
the Hellespont during their invasions of Europe when they carried
their arms against Scythia and Greece. Over these floating bridges,
they safely passed their men, horses, camels, chariots and carts from
one continent to the other. The bridge erected across the Hellespont
by Xerxes was broken by the violence of the elements ; and his army,
which had passed into Europe over this bridge, had to return on board
ships to Asia.
The Persian fleets were manned by subject nations — Phoenicians,
Syrians, Egyptians, Cypriots, Cilicians, Lycians, Pamphylians, Cari-
ans, Greeks. These were equipped in their respective national cos-
tumes and served side by side in their several contingents of ships,
thus giving the fleet of the Persians the same motley appearance exhib-
ited by their army. The marines, or fighting force of the navy, were
an almost homogeneous body, composed of only the kindred Medes and
Persians, and the Sacae. Each ship carried thirty of these.
A Persian fleet and army constituting one expedition were generally
placed under one commander, who, however, entrusted the direction of
the fleet in a sea-fight to such officer, or officers, as he named ; while he
conducted the operations on land. The fleet and army were sometimes
assigned to different commanders of coordinate authority, and this ar-
rangement caused misunderstanding and quarrel.
Their
Beaks
and
Beams.
Other
War-
ships.
Trans-
ports and
Floating
Bridges.
Motley
Crews.
Marines.
548
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Mode of
Sea
Fights.
Precau-
tions in
Avoiding
Naval
Fighting.
Ships
Furnished
by
Subject
Nations.
Accounts
by
Greek
His-
torians.
The
Persian
King.
His
Costume.
In battle a Persian fleet endeavored to enclose the enemy in the form
of a crescent, or detached squadrons to cut off their retreat. They
formed their line several ships deep, and advanced directly at their best
possible speed against the foe just before the battle began, seeking to
sink the enemy's ships by main force. If met by a skillful adversary,
who avoided or withstood their first onset, they were likely to be thrown
into confusion because of their vast numbers, and were placed at the
mercy of their antagonist, who was thus able to shatter or sink their
vessels. In such an event the Persians would lose very heavily, as most
of their sailors could not swim.
When the Persian naval commanders desired to avoid an engage-
ment the ships were run upon the shore, a rampart was thrown up
around them and defended by sailors. The crews of Persian vessels
were always armed, so as to act as soldiers on shore behind a rampart
when occasion demanded. Under such circumstances they were also
assisted by such of their army as might happen to be in the vicinity.
The Asiatic Greeks furnished the largest number of ships in the
Persian navy ; the Phoenicians the next largest number ; the Egyptians
third; next the Cypriots; then the Cilicians; then the Carians; then
the Lycians ; and the Pamphylians the least. The best ships and the
best sailors were the Phoenicians, particularly those of Sidon. In latef
times ships were furnished by Phoenicia, and also by Cilicia and Cyprus.
Xenophon and Arrian mention the Phoenicians only. Thucydides men-
tions Phoenicians and Cilicians. Diodorus Siculus mentions Phoeni-
cians, Cilicians and Cypriots. Herodotus states that in the fleet of
Xerxes the combined Greek contingents numbered three hundred and
seven ships ; the Phoenicians and Syrians furnishing three hundred, the
Egyptians two hundred, the Cypriots one hundred and fifty, the Cili-
cians one hundred, the Carians seventy, the Lycians fifty, and the
Pamphylians thirty.
Having considered the warlike usages of the Persians, we now come
to their peaceful habits, manners and customs. The Persian king was
what all other Asiatic monarchs have ever been — an absolute despot.
Says Rawlinson : " The Persian king held the same rank and position
in the eyes of his subjects which the great monarch of Western Asia,
whoever he might be, had always occupied from time immemorial. He
was their lord and master, absolute disposer of their lives, liberties, and
property; the sole fountain of law and right, incapable himself of
doing wrong, irresponsible, irresistible — a sort of God upon earth ; one
whose favor was happiness, at whose frown men trembled, before whom
all bowed themselves down with the lowest and humblest obeisance."
The Persian monarch displayed a state and pomp of the utmost
magnificence. His ordinary dress in time of peace was the long flow-
MEDO-PERSIAN CIVILIZATION.
549
Dress.
ing " Median garment," or candys, mentioned by Xenophon, which was
probably made of the most costly silk, and " which, with its ample
folds, its wide hanging sleeves, and its close fit about the neck and
chest, gave dignity to almost any figure, and excellently set off the
noble presence of an Achsemenian prince." The royal robe was either
altogether of purple or sometimes of purple embroidered with gold.
It extended below the ankles, and was fastened to the waist by a broad
girdle. A tunic or shirt was worn under it, reaching from the neck
to the knee, and its tight-fitting sleeves covered the entire arm as far
as the wrist. This tunic is spoken of by Xenophon, Diodorus Siculus
and Strabo. The tunic was of a purple color, like the candys, or royal
robe, but was also striped or mixed with white. The lower limbs were
covered by trousers of a crimson color. He wore shoes on his feet like
those of the Medes, long and tapering at the toe, buttoned in front,
and reaching far up the instep ; their color being deep yellow or saffron,
according to JEschylus.
So far the Persian king's costume was very much like that of the His Head
higher class of his subjects. His head-dress, called kitaris, or kidaris,
was a tall stiff cap, becoming slightly wider as it ascended to the top,
and ending in a ring or circle projecting beyond the lines of the sides.
A fillet, or band — the diadem proper — which was blue, spotted with
white, was worn around the Jcidaris near the bottom. The Jcidaris, or
tiara, of the Persian monarchs, was made perhaps of cloth or felt, and
was high and stiff. Other Persians wore only soft, rounded fillets and
low caps around their heads.
The Persian king was likewise distinguished by his golden scepter
and his parasol. The scepter was a plain rod, five feet long, orna-
mented with a ball at its upper end, and tapering to nearly a point at
its lower end. The king held it in his right hand near the thick end,
resting the thin end on the ground in front of him. When walking he
planted it upright before him. When sitting he sloped it outwards
with its point on the ground. The parasol was confined to the king
in Persia, as it was in Assyria. The Persian parasol had no tassels or
flaps like the Assyrian, but otherwise resembled it. It was held over
the king's head on state occasions by an attendant who followed next
behind him.
The Persian monarch's throne was an elevated seat with a high back,
but no arms, and was cushioned and adorned with a fringe and with
mouldings or carvings along the back and legs. The legs ended in
lions' feet, resting on half balls which were ribbed or fluted. The sides
of the chair below the seat were paneled, like the Assyrian thrones, but
had no carvings. The seat was so high above the ground that a foot-
His
Scepter
and
Parasol.
His
Throne.
550
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
His
Jewels
and
Sword.
His
Attend-
ants.
His
Food.
His
Banquets,
Feasts
and
Guests.
stool was required for the monarch's feet. The legs of this plain foot-
stool ended in bulls' feet.
The king wore gold ear-rings inlaid with precious stones. He also
wore golden bracelets around his wrists, a golden collar around his
neck, and a golden girdle around his waist. In this girdle he carried
a short sword, and Quintus Curtius says that the sheath was formed
of a single precious stone.
The Persian monarch was attended in war by his charioteer, his stool-
bearer, his bow-bearer, and his quiver-bearer; in peace by his parasol-
bearer and his fan-bearer, who also carried the royal pocket-handker-
chief. Other officers of the court were the steward of the household;
the groom, or master of the horse ; the eunuch, or keeper of the women ;
the " King's Eyes and Ears," who informed the sovereign on all im-
portant matters ; the scribes, or secretaries, who wrote the king's letters
and edicts ; the messengers, who went his errands ; the ushers, who in-
troduced strangers to the king ; the " tasters," who tried the various
dishes set before the monarch to see if they contained poison ; the cup-
bearers, who handed the king his wine and tasted it ; the chamberlains,
who helped him to bed; and the musicians, who entertained him with
song and harp. The court also embraced guards, doorkeepers, hunts-
men, grooms, cooks and many other domestic servants, along with a
great number of visitors and guests, princes, nobles, captives of rank,
foreign refugees, ambassadors, travelers, etc. Ctesias tells us that the
king fed daily within the precincts of his palace no less than fifteen
thousand persons, and that each day's food cost four hundred talents.
A thousand beasts, such as sheep, goats, oxen, stags, horses, asses and
camels, were slaughtered for each repast, in addition to an abundance
of fowl, such as ordinary poultry and ostriches.
The Persian king himself did not often dine with his guests. Some-
times he admitted his queen and several of his children. Sometimes
some of his privileged companions were received at a banquet of wine,
where they drank in the royal presence, but of a different wine and on
different terms. The king reclined on a golden couch, and drank the
red wine of Helbon. The guests drank an inferior wine, seated on
the floor. The guests were divided into two classes at a great ban-
quet. Those of lower rank were entertained in an outer court of the
chamber to which the public were admitted. Those of the higher class
entered the private apartments, and were feasted in a chamber opposite
to the king's chamber, the monarch being concealed from view by a
curtain hung across the door. On a royal birthday or other great
festival the king presided openly at the banquet, drinking and con-
versing with his lords and showing himself to many of the guests.
Gold and silver couches were spread for all, and " royal wine in abund-
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oi §
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a. •?.
u. w
0 -3
9 -i
01 y
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MEDO-PERSIAN CIVILIZATION. 551
ance " was served in goblets of gold. The guests often carried home
such food as was set before them and they did not eat.
The pillared courts and halls of the great palaces of the Achsemenian His
kings at Susa and Persepolis were well furnished and fitted internally.
The floors were paved with stones of different colors, blue, red, white
and black ; and Athenaeus tells us that carpets from the looms of Sardis
were spread in some of the courts for the king to walk upon. The
spaces between the pillars were filled with elegant hangings of several
colors, white, green and violet, which were fastened with fine linen
cords to silver rings and marble pillars, so as to screen the guests from
view, while not excluding the pleasant summer breeze. The walls of
the apartments were covered with plates of gold. The furniture was
rich and elegant. The king's golden throne stood under an embroid-
ered canopy or awning held up by four golden pillars inlaid with
precious stones. Gold and silver couches filled the rooms. The king's
private chamber was adorned with rich and elegant objects. The
golden vine impending over the monarch's bed was the work of Theo-
dore of Samos, and here costly precious stones were used to imitate
grapes. Here perhaps was also the golden plane-tree, and also a bowl
of solid gold, likewise the work of the great Samian metallurgist and
distinguished for its artistic workmanship.
Like other Asiatic monarchs, the Medo-Persian kings had a royal His
harem, or seraglio. The earlier monarchs had only three or four wives Harem,
and a moderate number of concubines. Herodotus says Darius Hys-
taspes had four wives. Three wives of Cambyses are only mentioned.
One of the wives held the highest station and was alone entitled queen,
being considered wife in a different sense from the others. Such was
Atossa to Darius Hystaspes, Amestris to Xerxes, Statira to Artax-
erxes Mnemon. The chief wife, or queen-consort, wore on her head His
a royal crown, or tiara. She was the recognized head of the female consort
apartments, or Gynaeceum, and the concubines acknowledged her dig-
nity by prostrating themselves before her presence. When the king
entertained the male courtiers on great occasions, she feasted all the
females in her own portion of the palace. She had a large revenue
assigned her, mainly by an established law or custom, as Herodotus
informs us. Her dress was magnificent and she displayed great love
of ornament. Herodotus also tells us of the influence and power
wielded by some of the queen-consorts.
The other wives of the monarch — daughters of the chief nobles — _H*S
occupied an inferior status ; having none of the privileges of the chief Wives
wife, and only saw the king when summoned to share his apartment c&nd_
by turns. They occupied that part of the Gynaeceum called " the first bines,
house of the women." The concubines occupied the portion of the
VOL. 2.— 14
552
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
The
Gynae-
ceum.
The
King's
Mother
Eunuch's
of the
Royal
Harem.
Gynaeceum designated " the second house of the women." They were
in the special charge of a eunuch. Fair damsels were constantly
brought from various parts of the empire to supply the harem ; a con-
tinual succession being required, as none shared the royal couch more
than once, unless she won the sovereign's special regard. In the later
period of the empire the concubines became so numerous that they
amounted, according to Quintus Curtius, to three hundred and sixty.
The king took them along in his wars and in his hunting expeditions.
A part of their duty was to sing and play for the king's entertain-
ment, and Athenaeus tells us that they had to perform this task during
all of each night.
The Gynseceum — at least in the palace at Susa — was a building
distinct from the general structure, separated from the " king's house "
by a court ; and comprised at least three sets of apartments — those for
the virgins who had not yet seen the monarch, those for the concubines,
and those for the queen-consort and the other royal wives. Two eu-
nuchs of distinction had charge respectively of the apartment of the
wives and that of the concubines. The queen-consort exercised au-
thority over all the male and female inmates of the apartment for the
wives.
The monarch's mother, if she outlived his father, held a higher posi-
tion at her son's court than that of his chief wife. As queen-mother,
she retained the ensigns of royalty which she had worn during her hus-
band's reign, and exercised far more authority or influence than she
had wielded as queen-consort. The habits of veneration and obedience
to which the monarch had been reared when a boy he retained when
a man; and the sovereign who tyrannized over millions of subjects
yielded in the seraglio to the power of a woman whose influence he was
not strong enough to cast off. The queen-mother sat at the royal
table whenever the king dined with his wife, and occupied a seat above
him, while the wife occupied a seat below. She had a suite of eunuchs
distinct from those of her son, according to Plutarch. She was sup-
plied with ample revenues. She virtually exercised a power of life and
death, though she could not legally claim this power. She screened
offenders from punishment, obtaining for them the royal pardon, or
giving them a refuge in her own apartments; and she poisoned, or
openly executed, such as excited her jealousy or resentment; as Plu-
tarch tells us was the case with Parysatis, the mother of Artaxerxes
Mnemon.
The man-servants about the harem were all eunuchs. Each wife of
the king — as well as the queen-mother — had a number of eunuchs
among her attendants ; while the king employed a certain number of
this class of unfortunates to have charge of the apartment of the con-
MEDO-PERSIAN CIVILIZATION. 553
cubines and that of the virgins. His own attendants appear also to
have been mainly eunuchs. In the later times of the empire eunuchs
seem to have wielded great political power, and to have held the prin-
cipal offices of state. They were the king's counselors in the palace
and his generals in the field. They had control of the education of
the young princes, and had no difficulty in making them their tools.
Their intrigues and ambition led to the plots and conspiracies, the
executions and assassinations, which disgrace the later history of the
Medo-Persian Empire. Little is mentioned of the eunuchs before the
reign of Xerxes. The Persepolitan sculptures give us no representa-
tions of eunuchs. The Persian sculptures give us no representation
of a female, and the inscriptions make no reference to the gentler sex —
a reserve which has always characterized Asiatics with regard to women. Seclusion
Even now it is considered highly improper in Persia to ask a man about Eunuchs
his wife. Plutarch states that in ancient Persia it was a capital crime wand
to address a royal concubine, or even to pass her litter upon the road. of the
The litters conveying women were always curtained. Queen Statira,
consort of Artaxerxes Mnemon, attracted general attention by relax-
ing the ordinary etiquette in riding in her litter with her curtains
drawn, though only females were permitted to approach her. Married
women could not see even their fathers or brothers, according to Herod-
otus. Eunuchs were expected to confine themselves to their proper
place in the seraglio, or to attend its female inmates when they trav-
eled in their litters, or when they took the air ; but were not to be seen
in the throne-room, the ante-chambers, or the outer courts of the pal-
ace. This seclusion of the women and eunuchs of the harem accounts
for their non-representation upon the Persian sculptures.
The six privileged families of ancient Persia ranked next to the royal The Six
family, or clan of the Achaemenidae, and held a rank above that of all F . !?.
the other grandees. Herodotus informs us that these six families de-
rived their special dignity from the circumstance that they had been
the accomplices of Darius Hystaspes in the conspiracy which over-
threw the Pseudo-Smerdis ; and from the time of Darius Hystaspes
there were, besides the royal clan of the Achsemenicbe, six great Persian
families, whose chiefs had the privilege of free access to the king, and
from which he was obliged to select his legitimate wives. The chiefs
were known as " the Seven Princes," or " the Seven Counselors." They Theseven
occupied seats next to the monarch at public festivals. They had the Princes.
privilege of tendering him their advice at any time. They recom-
mended great public measures, and were partially responsible for them.
They could ask admittance to the king's presence whenever they chose,
unless he were in the seraglio. They had precedence in all ceremonies
554
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Costume
of Court
Officers.
Court and
Royal
Eti-
quette.
The
King's
Seclu-
sion.
His
Special
Luxuries.
and had a rank entirely distinct from office. Occasionally they held
office. They wore no special insignia.
Officers of the court always carried wands about three feet long, or
an ornament resembling a lotus blossom, which the king himself some-
times held in his hand. These officers wore the long Median robe and
the fluted cap, or the close-fitting Persian tunic and trowsers. All
wore girdles, in which a dagger was frequently placed; and all wore
gold collars and gold ear-rings. The Median robes were of different
colors — crimson, scarlet, purple, dark gray, etc. A sleeved cloak, or
coat, extending to the feet, was sometimes worn over the Persian tunic ;
and was fastened in front by strings and hung loosely from the shoul-
ders, the sleeves generally hanging empty at the side.
None, excepting the " Seven Princes," could approach the king
without being introduced by the usher. Herodotus, Justin and Plu-
tarch state that all who entered the royal presence were required to
prostrate themselves. The hands of those introduced had to be hidden
in their sleeves during the audience. None were permitted to touch
the carpets laid for the king to walk upon in the palace courts. It
was a capital offense to enter the monarch's presence without being
summoned, the person so offending being put to death by the attend-
ants, unless the king held out his golden scepter towards the offender,
as a sign that he pardoned the intrusion. It was likewise a capital
crime to sit down, even ignorantly, upon the royal throne; and it was
a serious offense to wear any of the monarch's cast-off garments. The
king was bound by an iron-clad etiquette, as well as were his subjects.
He was required to live mainly in seclusion; to eat his meals mostly
alone ; to never go on foot outside the palace walls ; to never revoke
an order once given, although he might intensely regret it; to never
disregard a promise, no matter what evil results he might fear from
its observance. It was essential that he should appear infallible, im-
mutable, entirely free from repentance, to uphold the quasi-divine
character ascribed to him.
The king only was allowed the enjoyment of certain luxuries. The
wheat of Assos was sent to court to furnish him with bread, and the
vines of Helbon were cultivated solely to supply him with wine. Water
was conveyed to Susa, from distant streams considered specially sweet
and pure, for his own use. In his expeditions he was accompanied
by a train of wagons laden with silver flasks filled with water from the
clear stream of the Choaspes. The salt used to season his food was
brought from the oasis of Siwah. Every province showed pride in
supplying him with its best and choicest products.
Hunting and playing at dice were the chief amusements of the Great
King. Darius Hystaspes was represented on his signet-cylinder as
MEDO-PERSIAN CIVILIZATION.
555
engaged in a lion-hunt. This cylinder — which has a trilingual in-
scription reading, " Darius, the Great King " — informs us that the
Persian kings, like the Assyrian, pursued the lions in their chariots
and usually slew them by means of arrows. Seated in a light chariot,
and attended by an unarmed charioteer, they roused the king of beasts
from his lair, and chased him at full speed if he fled, or, if he boldly
faced his pursuers, attacked him with arrows or with the javelin.
Sometimes the king indulged in this sport alone, but usually he was
accompanied by some of his courtiers, who participated in the chase
on condition that they did not shoot off their arrows before he had dis-
charged his. If they disregarded this law they might subject them-
selves to capital punishment, or at least to exile.
The Persian monarchs may also have chased stags, antelopes, bears,
leopards, wild asses, wild boars and wild sheep — animals found in the
vicinity of the royal palaces, and mentioned by Xenophon among the
beasts hunted by Cyrus the Great. In chasing the wild ass the horse-
men scattered themselves over the plain and pursued the animal by
turns. As the wild ass could outrun any horse with a rider on his
back, relays of horses were needed to tire him out, and thus enable the
hunters to bring him within range of their weapons.
Sometimes the kings hunted in their parks, or " paradises," which
were vast walled enclosures, well wooded, and watered with sparkling
streams, in which were kept various kinds of wild beasts, mainly such
harmless ones as stags, antelopes and wild sheep, which the monarchs
pursued and dispatched with their arrows, or with the javelin; but
this sport was regarded as tame in comparison with hunting in the
open field.
Inside the palace the Persian kings amused themselves by playing
at dice, the stakes sometimes running as high as a thousand darics,
equal to almost eleven hundred pounds sterling, on a single throw.
Plutarch tells us that the kings played for the persons of their slaves,
eunuchs, or others, who, when lost, became the absolute property of the
winner in the game.
Carving or planing wood was another favorite royal amusement.
^Elian states that when the Persian monarch went on a journey he
diverted himself in his carriage in this way; and Ctesias says that he
amused himself thus inside the palace.
A Persian king seldom found any pleasure in literature. The let-
ters, edicts, and perhaps also the inscriptions of the king, were the
work of the scribes, who received their orders from the king or his
ministers, and clothed them in their own language. The scribes never
asked their royal master to place his signature on a parchment, his
Lion
Hunting.
Hunting
Other
Wild
Animals.
Royal
Parks, oi
Para-
dises.
Palace
Amuse-
ments.
Wood
Carving.
Royal
Scribes.
556
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Accounts
by
Herod-
otus,
Xenophon
and
Josephus.
The
King's
Official
Occupa-
tions.
Royal
Palaces
and
Tombs.
seal with his name engraved upon it sufficiently authenticating all
edicts and proclamations.
Herodotus, Xenophon and Josephus give us accounts of the serious
occupations of the Persian sovereigns ; such as the holding of councils,
the reviewing of troops, the hearing of complaints, the granting or
refusing of redress, the bestowing of rewards, perhaps the hearing of
causes, and, above all, the direction of the civil administration of the
empire. An enterprising monarch carefully heard all the reports from
the officials of the different satrapies, and those from the persons ap-
pointed occasionally by the crown to inspect the condition of the vari-
ous satrapies. The king's secretaries dispatched his answers to these
reports, after he had duly deliberated upon them and affixed his seal
to them. A Persian sovereign who resolved to govern as well as reign
found ample employment in giving attention to the concerns of his
vast empire ; but few of these monarchs possessed energy and self-denial
sufficient to give their constant attention to the serious duties of their
royal station; the cares of government usually devolving upon some
favorite adviser, either a relative or a eunuch, to whom the king en-
trusted the whole direction of public affairs, in order that he might
abandon himself to sensual pleasures, to the sports of the chase, or to
light and frivolous amusements.
Some of the Persian kings had the same passion for building which
characterized the Assyrian and Babylonian monarchs. Herodotus
says that the Persians had no temples. In architecture the kings
devoted their chief efforts to the construction of palaces and tombs.
The dead body of a Persian monarch was laid in a golden coffin, which
was covered with a close-fitting lid, and placed in a massive structure
built to serve both for a tomb and a monument, as in the case of Cyrus
the Great; or in a chamber cut out of the side of some great mass of
solid rock, as in the case of the later Persian sovereigns. In both cases
the entrances to the tombs were carefully closed after the bodies had
been placed in them. Aristobulus, Arrian and Strabo tell us that a
number of objects, such as rich cloaks and tunics, trowsers, purple
robes, gold collars, gold ear-rings set with gems, daggers, carpets,
goblets and hangings, were placed inside the tomb with the coffin, for
the king's use in the other world. The tombs were generally orna-
mented with sculptures, but out of the eight royal tombs discovered
that of Darius Hystaspes alone is seen to have an inscription. If the
tomb was built, and not cut out of the rock, the ground in its vicinity
was formed into a park or garden, which Aristobolus and Arrian tell
us was planted with all kinds of trees. A dwelling-house for the priests
who watched over the royal sepulcher was in the park near the tomb.
MEDO-PERSIAN CIVILIZATION.
557
We will now notice briefly the manners and customs of the Persian
people. Herodotus tells us that the Persians were divided into ten
tribes, four of which were nomadic and three agricultural. The no-
madic tribes were the Dai, the Mardi, the Dropici and the Sagartii;
the agricultural were the Panthialaei, the Derusiaei, and the Germanii,
or Carmanians. The Pasargadag, one of the three remaining tribes,
were the ruling class in the Medo-Persian Empire.
Strabo and Xenophon carefully described the dress of the Persians.
The poorer classes wore the leather tunic and trowsers, the national
costume of ancient Persia ; a loose felt cap on the head, a strap or belt
around the waist, and high shoes on the feet, in early times ; but a linen
or muslin rag on the head and a longer tunic in later times. The
richer classes generally adopted the Median costume prevailing at the
court, wearing long purple or flowered robes with loose hanging sleeves,
flowered tunics with sleeves extending to the knees, embroidered trow-
sers and elegant shoes. They also wore drawers under the trowsers,
shirts under their tunics, gloves on their hands, and socks or stockings
under their shoes ; all of which were rare luxuries in ancient times.
Like most other Orientals, the ancient Persians were very fond of orna-
ments. Xenophon and Herodotus described these fully. Men of rank
wore gold chains or gold collars around their necks, and gold bracelets
around their wrists. The sheaths and handles of their swords and
daggers were usually of gold. Many of them wore ear-rings. The
trappings of their horses were elegant and costly, the bits of the bridles
being frequently of solid gold. They also wore costly gems, and neck-
laces, bracelets and anklets of pearl. Strabo says that even children
wore ornaments of reddish gold.
Herodotus and Xenophon also described the furniture of the better
class of houses as elegant and costly. The tables were plated or inlaid
with silver and gold. The magnificent couches for the repose of the
inmates had gorgeous coverlets, and the legs of the couches rested on
carpets so elastic as to act as a kind of spring. All wealthy mansions
could make a rich display of gold and silver plate, especially drinking
cups.
In the earlier times all Persians were noted for their temperance and
sobriety. Their ordinary food was wheat bread, barley cakes, and
roasted or broiled meat, seasoned with salt and with bruised cress-seed,
a substitute for mustard. Herodotus, Xenophon and Strabo says that
the earlier Persians drank only water; and Xenophon says that they
ate only one meal each day. The poorer classes subsisted on the nat-
ural products of the soil. Strabo says that they were fed on acorns
and wild pears. ^Elian says that the poorer class lived on milk, cheese,
dates and wild fruits.
Ten
Persian
Tribes.
Strabo's
and
Xeno-
phon's
Accounts.
Popular
Cos-
tumes.
Furni-
ture.
Early
Sobriety.
Accounts
by Greek
His-
torians.
558
MEDIA AND PEHSIA.
Later
Luxury
and
Excesses.
Food.
Etiquette.
Wives
and
Concu-
bines.
Accounts
by Greek
Writers.
But these simple habits of the earlier Persians soon gave way to lux-
ury and self-indulgence when their conquests enabled them to gratify
all their desires and propensities. Xenophon tells us that they then
began their one meal a day early in the morning and made it last till
night. Only on grand occasions were many kinds of meat set upon
the board; but there was a continual succession of the lighter kinds
of food, with intervals between the courses. Wine was now substituted
for water, each man priding himself on the quantity he was able to
drink, and the banquets usually ending in general intoxication.
Drunkenness actually became a kind of institution; as at the yearly
feast of Mithras the King of Persia, according to Duris, was bound
to be drunk; and Herodotus and Strabo say that it became a common
custom to deliberate on all important matters under the influence of
wine, and intoxication was a family duty when a crisis impended in
any household.
Besides the meats we consume, the Persians ate the flesh of goats,
horses, asses and camels. Poultry, such as geese and chickens, formed
a part of the diet of the wealthy ; as did various kinds of game, such
as wild boars, stags, antelopes, bustards and perhaps partridges. The
inhabitants of the coast-region largely used oysters and fish.
The strictest etiquette prevailed among all classes of Persians.
Each man saluted his equal, his superior or his inferior according to
well-known rules, which were universally observed. Inferiors pros-
trated themselves on the ground when they met superiors. Equals
kissed each other on the lips. Persons almost equal kissed each other's
cheeks, according to Herodotus. Wives lived secluded in the Gynse-
ceum, or went out in litters, seeing no males except their husbands,
their sons, and their husband's eunuchs. Concubines sometimes danced,
sang and played at banquets to entertain their master's guests.
According to Herodotus and Strabo, a Persian was permitted to
have several wives and as many concubines as he desired. Most of
the wealthy class had vast numbers of each, as every Persian prided
himself on the number of his sons ; and the king gave an annual prize
to the Persian who was able to show the most sons living. According
to Xenophon, the younger Cyrus took two Greek concubines with him
in his expedition against his brother. In the earlier times Persians
took their concubines with them in military expeditions, but left their
wives at home. Each concubine had a litter at her disposal, and a
number of female attendants to wait upon her and execute her orders.
In the later period of the empire, according to Quintus Curtius, wives
accompanied their husbands with the army.
Herodotus, Xenophon, Plato and Strabo all inform us that the Per-
sians— at least those of the leading clans — carefully educated their
MEDO-PERSIAN CIVILIZATION.
559
sons. During their first five years the boys remained entirely with
the women ; seldom, if ever, seeing their fathers. After that time their
training began. They were expected to rise before daybreak, and to
appear at a certain place where they were exercised with other boys
of their age in running, slinging stones, shooting with the bow and
throwing the javelin. At seven they were taught to ride, and soon
afterwards they were permitted to begin to hunt. They were taught
not only to manage the horse, but to jump on and off his back when
he was at speed, and to shoot with the bow and throw the javelin with
unerring aim while the horse was at full gallop. State-officers con-
ducted the hunting, and they endeavored to thus create in the youths
under their care all the qualities essential in war. The boys were
taught to endure the extremes of heat and cold, to perform long
marches, to cross rivers without wetting their weapons, to sleep at night
in the open air, to be satisfied with one meal in two days, and to subsist
at times on the wild products of the country, such as acorns, wild pears
and the fruit of the terebinth-tree. On such days when they did no
hunting they engaged in athletic exercises and contests with the bow
or the javelin during the morning, after which they dined simply on
the plain food already mentioned as that of the men in the earlier
times, and occupied the afternoon in such employments as agriculture,
planting, digging for roots, etc., or in manufacturing arms and hunt-
ing implements, such as nets and springs. By this kind of training
the Persian youth acquired hardy and temperate habits. In the in-
culcation of morals, their teachers chiefly insisted on the strictest re-
gard for the truth. They received very little intellectual education,
and learning to read was no part of their regular training. They
received religious teaching and moral knowledge in the form of legend-
ary poems, which made them familiar with the deeds of gods and heroes,
which the teachers sung or recited to them, afterwards requiring them
to repeat what they had heard, or, at least, to give some account of it.
This education, commencing when the boy was five years old, continued
fifteen years, and ended when he was twenty.
This training made the Persians excellent soldiers and accomplished
horsemen. Having acquired from early boyhood the habit of passing
the greater portion of each day in the saddle, they felt most at home
when they were on horseback. When thus mounted they pursued the
stag, the wild boar, the antelope, even sometimes the bear or the lion;
and discharged their arrows, or slung stones, or threw their javelins
at these animals with deadly aim. They only sometimes dismounted
from their steeds when the beast angrily turned on its pursuers and
stood at bay or attacked them in its furious despair, in which case they
received the attack or slew the brute on foot with a short but strong
1—38
Physical
and
Moral
Educa-
tion.
Excellent
Soldiers
and
Horse-
men.
560
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Hunting.
Age of
Manhood.
Occupa-
tions.
Soldiers.
Com-
merce
Detested.
Accounts
by Greek
Writers.
Feminine
Ease.
Xeno-
phon's
Account.
hunting-spear. Hunting was the chief pastime of the higher class
of Persians as long as the ancient manners continued in vogue, and
the bolder spirits indulged in this amusement long after the decay of
the empire commenced and the advance of luxury had altered the
character of the people.
A Persian was regarded as having reached manhood at the age of
fifteen, when he was enrolled in the army. He remained subject to
military service thenceforth until he was fifty. Those of the highest
rank became the king's body-guard and constituted the garrison of the
capital. They numbered about fourteen or fifteen thousand men.
Others, though subject to military duty, attached themselves to the
court, and expected civil employment as satraps, secretaries, attend-
ants, ushers, judges, inspectors, messengers. A portion engaged in
those agricultural employments which the Zoroastrian religion regarded
as most honorable. But the greater part of the nation, like the legion-
aries of imperial Rome, engaged in garrison duty in the provinces of
the empire. Persia could not have had a population of more than two
millions. Only one-fourth of these could have been males between the
ages of fifteen and fifty. This half a million men not only supplied
the official class at court and throughout the provinces, and furnished
those who tilled the soil for Persia proper, but also supplied the whole
empire with those many large garrisons which upheld the Medo-Per-
sian dominion in all the conquered provinces. Herodotus states that
in his day Egypt alone contained a standing army of one hundred and
twenty thousand Persians ; and Persia proper furnished the bulk of the
standing army performing garrison duty in all the provinces.
Herodotus informs us that the Persians detested commerce, because
shopping and bargaining involved temptations to deceit and falsehood.
Strabo tells us that the richer classes boasted that they did not buy
or sell, and they were doubtless supplied with all the necessaries of life
from their estates, and by their slaves and dependents. The middle
class would buy, but not sell ; while the lowest and poorest were traders
and artisans. Xenophon says that shops were banished from the pub-
lic portions of the towns.
Quintus Curtius states that the Persian ladies regarded it beneath
their dignity to soil their hands with work, and despised the labors of
the loom, which no Grecian princess considered as unbecoming her
rank.
According to Xenophon, some effeminate and demoralizing customs
were introduced into the Medo-Persia Empire during the general ad-
vance of luxury under Xerxes. The Persians were very careful with
their beards and hair from the very earliest period, curling both, and
making the beard to partly hang straight from the chin. They at
MEDO-PERSIAN CIVILIZATION.
561
length began to wear false hair, used cosmetics to beautify their com-
plexions, and colored the eyelids to make the eyes appear larger and
more beautiful. They had special servants to perform the operations
of the toilet, and these were called " adorners " by the Greeks. Their
furniture became more soft and elegant. Their floors were covered
with beautiful carpets, and their beds with many delicate coverlets. A
cloth was spread upon the ground for them to sit upon. They would
not mount a horse unless he was so richly caparisoned that the seat
of his back was softer than their couches. They also increased the
number and variety of their viands and of their sauces, always seeking
for strange delicacies and offering rewards for the invention of " new
pleasures." An unnecessary number of indolent menials were kept in
all wealthy families, each servant being confined strictly to one duty;
and porters, bread-makers, cooks, cup-bearers, water-bearers, table-
waiters, chamberlains, " awakers," " adorners," were all distinct from
one another, and filled each noble mansion, advancing the general de-
moralization. According to Herodotus, the vice of paederasty was
learned from the Greeks, and the licentious worship of Beltis, with its
religious prostitution, from the Assyrians.
The laws of the Medes and Persians, which the Hebrew Scriptures
tell us were unchangeable, were of the most barbarous cruelty and
severity. Herodotus, Plutarch, Xenophon, Ctesias and Nicolas of
Damascus describe these. Not only were murder, rape, treason and
rebellion punished with death; but also such offenses as deciding a
case wrongfully for a bribe, intruding on the king's privacy without
permission, coming near to one of his concubines, seating one's self
upon the throne, even accidentally, and the like. The modes of execu-
tion were also cruel. Poisoners had their heads placed upon a broad
stone, and had their faces crushed and their brains beaten out by re-
peated blows from another stone. Ravishers and rebels were crucified.
Two legal forms of execution were burying alive, as mentioned by
Herodotus, and the lingering death resulting from placing the vic-
tim's body between two boats in such a way that only the head and
hands projected at one end and the feet at the other, as related by
Plutarch. Xenophon states that the younger Cyrus maintained good
order in his satrapy by cutting off the hands and feet, or putting out
the eyes, of those guilty of theft or rascality; persons thus maimed
being seen along all the most frequented roads. Other writers and the
Behistun Inscription mention similar punishments inflicted on rebels,
and Quintus Curtius states that captives taken in war were also thus
dealt with. According to Nicolas of Damascus, mutilation and scourg-
ing were the ordinary methods of punishment for secondary offenses.
Herodotus states that the Persians imprisoned only accused persons
Demoral-
izing
Customs.
The Laws
of the
Medes
and
Persians.
Cruel
Execu-
tions.
Accounts
by
Ancient
Writers
and the
Behistun
Inscrip-
tion.
562
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Rawlin-
son's
State-
ment.
for safe keeping before the time of arrest and that of execution; and
Ctesias tells us that political offenders were exiled to the small islands
in the Persian Gulf.
Says Professor Rawlinson concerning the uncertain tenure of hap-
piness: " On the whole the Persians may seem to have enjoyed an ex-
istence free from care, and only too prosperous to result in the forma-
tion of a high and noble character. They were the foremost Asiatic
people of their time, and were fully conscious of their preeminency.
A small ruling class in a vast Empire, they enjoyed almost a monopoly
of office, and were able to draw to themselves much of the wealth of
the provinces. Allowed the use of arms, and accustomed to lord it
over the provincials, they themselves maintained their self-respect, and
showed, even towards the close of their Empire, a spirit and an energy
seldom exhibited by any but a free people. But there was nevertheless
a dark side to the picture — a lurking danger which must have thrown
a shadow over the lives of all the nobler and richer of the nation, un-
less they were utterly thoughtless. The irresponsible authority and
cruel dispositions of the kings, joined to the recklessness with which
they delegated the power of life and death to their favorites, made it
impossible for any person of eminence in the whole Empire to feel sure
that he might not any day be seized and accused of a crime, or even
without the form of an accusation be taken and put to death, after
suffering the most excruciating tortures. To produce this result, it
was enough to have failed through any cause whatever in the per-
formance of a set task, or to have offended, even by doing him too
great a service, the monarch or one of his favorites. Nay, it was
enough to have provoked, through a relation or a connection, the anger
or jealousy of one in favor at court; for the caprice of an Oriental
would sometimes pass over the real culprit and exact vengeance from
one quite guiltless — even, it may be, unconscious — of the offense given.
Theoretically, the Persian was never to be put to death for a single
crime ; or at least he was not to suffer until the king had formally con-
sidered the whole tenor of his life, and struck a balance between his
good and evil deeds to see which outweighed the other. Practically,
the monarch slew with his own hand any one whom he chose, or, if he
preferred it, ordered him to instant execution, without trial or inquiry.
His wife and his mother indulged themselves in the same pleasing
liberty of slaughter, sometimes obtaining his tacit consent to their
proceedings, sometimes without consulting him. It may be said that
the sufferers could at no time be very many in number, and that there-
fore no very widespread alarm can have been commonly felt; but the
horrible nature of many of the punishments, and the impossibility of
conjecturing on whom they might next fall, must be set against their
MEDO-PERSIAN CIVILIZATION.
infrequency; and it must be remembered that an awful horror, from
which no precautions can save a man, though it happen to few, is
more terrible than a score of minor perils, against which it is possible
to guard. Noble Persians were liable to be beheaded, to be stoned to
death, to be suffocated with ashes, to have their tongues torn out by
the roots, to be buried alive, to be shot in mere wantonness, to be flayed
and then crucified, to be buried all but the head, and to perish by the
lingering agony of ' the boat.' If they escaped these modes of execu-
tion, they might be secretly poisoned, or they might be exiled, or trans-
ported for life. Their wives and daughters might be seized and hor-
ribly mutilated, or buried alive, or cut into a number of fragments.
With these perils constantly impending over their heads, the happiness
of the nobles can scarcely have been more real than that of Damocles
upon the throne of Dionysius."
In the ancient world the Persians did not possess as great a fame as
architects and artists as did their instructors in art, science and let-
ters, the Assyrians and Babylonians ; because their works, being less
ancient and less original, did not in the same way strike the lively
imagination of the Greeks, who were also jealous of a contemporary
and rival nation, and who could not have the same access to the Persian
masterpieces as they had to the Babylonian, and therefore possessed
less knowledge about the former. Herodotus and Xenophon, who im-
pressed their countrymen with the grandeur and magnificence of the
great structures of Assyria and Babylonia, never visited Persia proper.
Ctesias, who resided at the Persian court for seventeen years, must
have seen Susa, Ecbatana and Persepolis, and must therefore have been
familiar with the character of the palaces, but he seems to have said
little about these edifices. Only after Alexander had led his conquer-
ing army through the vast Medo-Persian Empire was a proper esti-
mate made of the great Persian structures ; and the most magnificent
one of them — that of Persepolis — was burned to the ground through
a barbarous act of the Macedonian conqueror as soon as it was seen,
thus depriving the Greeks of an opportunity to fully recognize the
true greatness of Persian architecture, even after they had occupied
the country. Nevertheless we observe thereafter, as in the works of
Polybius and Strabo, an acknowledgment of the merits of Persian art,
of its grandeur and magnificence.
The moderns, on the other hand, for the last three centuries have
exaggerated the greatness of Persian architecture. Ever since Euro-
peans first began to visit the East, the ruins of Persepolis and those of
other portions of Persia attracted the special attention of travelers ;
while the site of Babylon received but slight notice, and that of Nin-
eveh and the other great Assyrian cities was scarcely known. Eng-
Persian
Architec-
ture.
Modern
Exaggera-
tions.
564
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Palaces
and
Tombs.
Four
Royal
Palaces.
The Great
Palace at
Per-
sepolis.
Its Ruins.
lish, French and German savants measured, described and figured the
Persian ruins with the utmost precision and minuteness. Ker Porter,
Chardin, Le Brun, Ouseley and the elder Niebuhr zealously endeavored
to represent fully and faithfully the wonders of the Chehl Mmar; and
the exhaustive literary descriptions of the remains of Persepolis by
Baron Texier and MM. Flandin and Coste soon appeared.
Persian architecture was displayed in the palace and the tomb.
Temples were insignificant before the time of Artaxerxes Mnemon ; and
therefore did not attract the attention of contemporaries, and were not
of a character to leave traces of themselves to subsequent times. But
the palaces and sepulchers of the Persian monarchs are noticed by
Ctesias, Arrian and Diodorus Siculus as interesting works; and the
remains of these structures are to be identified with the ruins still seen
in Persia.
There are now remaining vestiges of four great Persian palaces —
that of Ecbatana, the Median capital; that of Darius and Xerxes on
the great mound of Susa ; that within the walls of Persepolis ; and the
Great Palace, in the vicinity of the same city. The last of these —
the chief residence of the later Medo-Persian monarchs — was the one
burned by Alexander the Great ; and its remains have been described
by Mr. Fergusson, in his Handbook of Architecture, as " by far the
most remarkable group of buildings now existing in this part of Asia."
This edifice, or group of edifices, constituted the greatest of the
architectural works of the Medo-Persian kings, and these have suffered
less from the ravages of time and barbarism than the other structures
of ancient Persia ; while modern research and excavation have brought
more to light concerning these magnificent Persepolitan buildings than
the other remains of this famous ancient land.
The structures at Persepolis are situated on an immense mound like
the Assyrian and Babylonian palaces. The mound or platform at
Persepolis is raised at the foot of a high range of rocky hills, on which
it abuts toward the east. It consists of solid masses of hewn stone
united by metal clamps, and laid so as to form a smooth perpendicu-
lar wall, the least height of which above the plain below is twenty feet.
The platform is an oblong square, two-thirds as broad as long. The
north side is not parallel to the south side, and forms an angle of about
eighty >. degrees with the western side. On the three sides of the plat-
form are numerous angular projections and indentations. The plat-
form is not uniformly high, but consists of several distinct terraces,
three of which yet remain. The southern terrace is the lowest, extend-
ing about eight hundred feet from east to west and about one hundred
and seventy-five feet from north to south. The northern terrace is
jpore than thrice as wide as the southern one, and is elevated about
MEDO-PERSIAN CIVILIZATION. 555
thirty-five feet above the plain. The central or upper terrace is forty-
five feet above the plain, and is seven hundred and seventy feet long
on the west side of the platform, and about four hundred feet wide.
On this central terrace were located most of the great and important
buildings.
The ascents to these terraces were made by means of broad and solid Its
staircases, which constitute a remarkable feature of the place. The
staircase on the west front of the platform and leading from the plain
to the top of the northern terrace is twenty-two feet wide, and Fer-
gusson calls it " the noblest example of a flight of stairs to be found
in any part of the world." It constitutes the only remaining ascent
to the platform. " It consists of two distinct sets of steps, each com-
posed of two flights, with a broad landing-place between them, the
steps themselves running at right angles to the platform wall, and the
two lower flights diverging, while the two upper ones converge to a
common landing-place on the top. The slope of the stairs is so gentle
that, though each step has a convenient width, the height of a step is
in no case more than from three to four inches. It is thus easy to
ride horses up and down the staircase, and travelers are constantly in
the habit of ascending and descending it in this way."
Another remarkable staircase leads from the level of the northern Its
terrace to that of the central. This staircase fronts to the north, and staircase
consists of four single flights of steps; two being central and facing
each other, and leading to a projecting landing-place about twenty
feet wide; while the other two are on each side of the central flights,
about twenty-one yards from them. This staircase is two hundred and
twelve feet long, its greatest projection being in front of the line of
the terrace on which it abuts, which is thirty-six feet. The steps are
sixteen feet broad, and rise gently like those of the lower or platform
staircase. Each step is less than four inches, and so there are thirty-
one steps in an ascent of ten feet.
This second staircase is elaborately ornamented, while the platform Its
staircase is perfectly plain. The whole face of this second platform tation°
is covered with sculptures. The central projection, divided perpendic-
ularly into three compartments, contains representations in the span-
drels on each side, such as a lion devouring a bull; and in the com-
partment between the spandrels are eight colossal Persian guardsmen,
armed with spears and with a sword or shield. Above the lion and
bull, towards the edge of the spandrel where it slopes, forming a para-
pet to the steps, was a row of cypress trees ; while at the end of the
parapet and along its entire inner face were a set of small figures,
guardsmen like those in the central compartment, but carrying mainly
a bow and quiver instead of a shield. Along the extreme edge of the
566 MEDIA AND PERSIA.
parapet on the outside was a narrow border thickly set with rosettes.
In the long spaces between the central stairs and those on each side
of them, the spandrels contained representations of the lion and bull
similar to that of the first compartment; while between them and the
central stairs the face of the wall is divided horizontally into three
bands, each ornamented with a continuous row of figures. The highest
row is mutilated. The middle row has some artistic merit. The whole
scene represented on the right side illustrates the bringing of tribute
or presents to the Great King by the subject nations. This subject
was continued to some extent on the left side, but most of the space
was occupied by representations of guards and court officers ; the
guards being placed towards the center, keeping the principal stairs,
while the officers were farther away. The three rows of figures were
separated from one another by narrow bands, set thickly with rosettes.
In the front of the middle staircase, the precise center of the entire
work, and the space next to the spandrels to the extreme right and the
extreme left, were marble slabs designed to bear inscriptions to com-
memorate the builder of the work, but only one of these inscriptions
was completed. On the western end of the staircase was the following
inscription in the ancient Persian language : " Xerxes the Great King,
the King of Kings, the son of King Darius, the Achaemenian." The
central and eastern tablets were never inscribed.
Six Other There were six other staircases, most of them consisting of a double
cases. flight of steps, resembling the central part of the staircase just de-
scribed. Two of these belonged to the Palace of Darius, which was
entered by their means from the central terrace, above which it is ele-
vated about fourteen or fifteen feet. Two others belonged to the
Palace of Xerxes, and led up to a wide paved space in front of that
edifice, at an elevation of about ten feet above the general level of
the central terrace. They were located at the two ends of the terrace
opposite each other. The eastern one consisted of two double flights
of steps, and in general arrangement resembled the staircase which led
to the platform from the plain, excepting that it had no recess, but
extended its full width across the line of the terrace. It was the more
elegant of the two, and was adorned with representations of bull and
lion combats, with figures of guardsmen, and with attendants convey-
ing articles for the table or the toilet. The inscriptions upon it de-
scribe it as the work of Xerxes. The western staircase was composed
only of two single flights of steps, facing each other, and having a
narrow landing-place between them. Its ornamentation was similar
to that of the eastern, though not so elaborate.
A staircase resembling the one just described, but still somewhat
peculiar, was erected by Artaxerxes Ochus, at the western side of the
MEDO-PERSIAN CIVILIZATION.
Palace of Darius, so as to give it a second entrance. The spandrels Western
there have the usual figures of the lion and bull, but the space between ^^gSe
is arranged somewhat unusually. It is divided vertically and uorl- Palace of
zontally into eight square compartments, three on each side and two a*108-
in the middle. The upper of these two contains only a winged circle,
the emblem of Divinity. The lower compartment, twice as large as
the upper, had an inscription of Artaxerxes Ochus, religious in tone,
but barbarous in language. The other six compartments had each
four figures, representing tribute-bearers introduced to the Great King
by a court officer.
The other and original staircase to the Palace of Darius was at its its
northern side, and led up to the great portico, which was its only NorO16111
entrance in ancient times. Two flights of steps, facing each other,
led to a paved space of the same extent as the portico and extending
in front of it about five feet. On the base of the staircase were sculp-
tures in one line, the lion and the bull being in each spandrel; and
between the spandrels were eighteen colossal guardsmen, nine facing
each way towards a central inscription, which was repeated in other
languages on slabs set between the guardsmen and the bulls. Above
the spandrels, on the parapet facing the stairs, was a line of figures
representing attendants bringing materials for the banquet into the
palace. A similar line embellished the inside wall of the staircase.
Opposite the staircase just described, and about thirty- two yards Its
distant from it, was another almost similar staircase, leading up to the western
portico of another edifice, seemingly erected by Artaxerxes Ochus, and Staircase,
occupying the south-western corner of the upper terrace. Here were
apparently the usual sculptures, but they are so mutilated as to be
scarcely recognized.
Finally, there was a peculiar staircase, consisting of a flight of Its
steps cut in the solid rock, leading up from the southern terrace to
the central or upper one, at a point intervening between the south-
western structure, or the Palace of Artaxerxes Ochus, and the Palace
of Xerxes, or central southern building. These steps are singular in
facing the terrace to which they lead; and are of rude construction,
without a parapet, and entirely without sculpture or other ornamenta-
tion. They afford the only means of communication between the cen-
tral and southern terraces.
The Persepolitan ruins present the appearance of a number of dis- Other
tinct buildings. The platform or mound contains ten of these struc- Per^o
tures, five being of vast size, the others insignificant. Four of the five Ruins,
large edifices are located upon the central or upper terrace, the fifth
lying east of that terrace, between it and the mountains. The four
structures upon the central terrace consist of three buildings composed
VOL. 2.— 15
568
of several sets of chambers, along with one great open pillared hall.
The three edifices made up of several sets of chambers are known as
palaces and are named after their respective founders — Darius Hys-
taspes, Xerxes and Artaxerxes Ochus. The fourth is called the Chehl
Minar, or " Great Hall of Audience." The building situated between
the central or upper terrace and the mountains is termed the " Great
Eastern Edifice."
Palace of The " Palace of Darius " is located near the western edge of the
Darius. central or upper terrace, midway between the Great Hall of Audience
and the Palace of Artaxerxes Ochus. It is about one hundred and
thirty-five feet long, and almost a hundred feet wide. It occupies the
most lofty position of all the structures on the platform, and is ele-
vated from fourteen to fifteen feet above the general level of the central
terrace, being four or five feet higher than the " Palace of Xerxes."
Its front was toward the south, where it was approached by the usual
kind of double staircase, which conducted to a deep portico of eight
pillars placed in two rows of four each. On each side of the portico
were guard-rooms, opening into it, twenty-three feet long and thirteen
feet wide. The main chamber was behind the portico, and was a
square of fifty feet, with a roof resting on sixteen pillars, placed in
rows of four, in line with the pillars of the portico. Only the bases
of the pillars remain, and it is not known whether the pillars were of
wood or stone. The walls of the hall were from four to five feet thick,
and were pierced by doors, windows and recesses. The hall was en-
tered from the portico by a door exactly in the center of the front
wall, and on each side of the door were two windows, which looked into
the portico. The opposite, or back, wall was pierced by two doors,
facing the intercolumniations of the side rows of pillars, as the front
door faced the intercolumniation of the central rows. A square re-
cess was between the two doors which pierced the back wall, and sim-
ilar recesses adorned the same wall on each side of the doors. A single
doorway originally pierced each of the side walls, and a square recess
was between each doorway and the front wall, while two similar re-
cesses were between the two doorways and the back wall. These side
doorways and recesses fronted the pillars.
Its The doorways were ornamented with sculpture, those in the back
ways" wa^ displaying on their jamb figures of the king followed by two
attendants, one of whom holds a cloth and the other a fly-chaser.
These figures all had their faces turned towards the apartment. The
front doorway exhibited the monarch followed by his parasol-bearer
and the bearer of the fly-chaser, with his back turned to the apartment,
seeming to issue forth from it. On the jambs of the doors of the
side apartments were representations of the king in combat with a lion
PERSEPOLIS
Elevation and Section of the Entrance to the Palace of Darius
MEDO-PERSIAN CIVILIZATION. 559
or a monster; the king in all cases facing outwards and appearing to
guard the entrances to the side chambers.
Moderate-sized chambers were at the back of the hall and at either Its
side. The largest were in the back of the edifice, where there appears bersT"
to have been one about forty feet by twenty-three, and another twenty-
eight feet by twenty. The doorways here had sculptures representing
attendants bearing napkins and perfumes. The five side chambers
were much smaller than those back of the great hall, the largest being
only thirty-four feet by thirteen.
Artaxerxes Ochus cut a doorway in the outer western wall, and an- Western
other opposite to it in the western wall of the great hall. He also Doo^ays
added a second staircase to the edifice, thus giving the palace access Staircase,
from the west as well as from the south.
The two grand palaces erected on the same terrace — one by Xerxes Palace of
and the other by Artaxerxes Ochus — will next be briefly noticed. The Xerxes-
" Palace of Xerxes " resembled that of Darius Hystaspes, but was
larger, having two rows of six pillars each in the portico; while the
great hall behind was a square of eighty feet, with its roof resting
on thirty-six pillars. On each side of the hall and on each side of the
portico were apartments similar to those already described as abutting
on the same parts of the Palace of Darius, but being larger and more
numerous. The largest two were thirty-one feet square, and had roofs
each resting on four pillars. The Palace of Xerxes had no apartments
back of the great hall, as the edifice was so close to the edge of the
upper terrace. The ornamentation of this palace much resembled that
of Darius, only that instead of the combats between the king and lions
or mythological monsters are representations of attendants bringing
articles for the king's table or his toilet, like the figures which adorn
the principal staircase of the Palace of Darius. The same kind of
figures likewise ornament all the windows in the Palace of Xerxes.
Says Rawlinson : " A tone of mere sensual en j oyment is thus given to
the later edifice, which is very far from characterizing the earlier ; and
the decline of morals at the court, which history indicates as rapid
about this period, is seen to have stamped itself, as such changes usu-
ally do, upon the national architecture."
The " Palace of Artaxerxes Ochus " is in so ruined a condition that Palace of
no fair description of it can be given. About twenty yards east of xerxe8
the Palace of Xerxes are the ruins of a small building, consisting of Ochus.
a hall and a portico almost similar to the corresponding portions of the
Palace of Darius, but entirely without a vestige of circumjacent cham-
bers or any inscriptions. The building is low and on the level of the
northern terrace, and is half buried in the rubbish accumulated at its
base. Its fragments display grandeur and massiveness, and its sculp-
570
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Largest
Gateway.
Three
Smaller
Gate-
ways.
Great
Pillared
Halls.
tures are in strong and bold relief. The building faces toward the
north. It may have been originally surrounded on its eastern, south-
ern and western sides by chambers, like the hall and portico of the
Palace of Darius. It is supposed to have been the palace of CyrtiS
the Great or Cambyses. Artaxerxes Ochus made some additions to the
Palace of Darius on its western side, and also added a staircase and
a doorway to the Palace of Xerxes. Thus the Persepolitan palaces
occupied the southern half of the central or upper terrace, and covered
a space five hundred feet long by three hundred and seventy-five feet
wide.
The Persepolitan platform also contains the remains of propylaea,
or gateways, and halls of immense size. There seem to have been four
propylaea on the platform. The largest was directly opposite the cen-
ter of the landing-place at the top of the great stairs which led to
the platform from the plain. This gateway consisted of an apart-
ment eighty-two feet square, with a roof resting on four magnificent
pillars, each sixty feet high. The walls of the apartment were from
sixteen to seventeen feet thick. Two grand portals, each twelve feet
wide by thirty-six feet high, led into this apartment; one facing the
head of the stairs, and the other opposite to it, towards the east. Both
portals were flanked with colossal bulls, those toward the staircase
representing the real animal, while the pair opposite resemble the
famous winged man-headed bulls of the Assyrian palaces. The walls
which enclosed this chamber have almost wholly disappeared, the only
vestiges of them being on the southern side, where there appears to
have been an unornamented doorway. The walls are supposed to have
been brick, either sun-dried or kiln-baked.
A smaller gateway, but very closely resembling the one just noticed,
occupied a position to the east of the Palace of Darius, and a little
to the north of the Palace of Xerxes. There only remain the bases
of two pillars and the jambs of three doorways. A third gateway
of the same description was located in front of the great eastern hall,
about seventy yards from its portico. It is so utterly ruined that little
can be said about it, but the remains of a colossal bull indicate that it
must have been ornamented. The fourth gateway was on the terrace
on which was built the Palace of Xerxes, and directly fronting the
landing-place at the head of its principal stairs, in the same manner
as the propylaea just described, fronted the great stairs leading up
from the plain. This gateway was less than one-fourth as large as
the great propylaea, and about half as large as the propylae standing
nearest to it. The bases of the pillars only remain in good condition.
We will now briefly describe the two other great edifices erected on
the Persepolitan platform, alluded to as " the most magnificent of the
MEDO-PERSIAN CIVILIZATION.
571
of a
Hundred
Columns
Persepolitan buildings — the Great Pillared Halls — which constitute the
glory of Aryan architecture, and which, even in their ruins, provoke
the wonder and admiration of modern Europeans, familiar with all the
triumphs of Western art, with Grecian temples, Roman baths and am-
phi-theaters, Moorish palaces, Turkish mosques and Christian cathe-
drals." Says Fergusson, concerning the Chehl Mmar, or " Great
Hall of Xerxes " : " We have no cathedral in England that at all comes
near it in dimensions; nor indeed in France or Germany is there one
that covers so much ground."
The " Hall of a Hundred Columns " stood midway in the platform The Hall
between its northern and its southern edges, and near the rocky moun-
tain on which the platform abuts towards the east. This immense
edifice was the largest structure on the platform, and consisted of a
single magnificent chamber, with a portico, and perhaps also guard-
rooms, in front. The portico was one hundred and eighty-three feet
long by fifty-two feet deep, and had sixteen pillars, about thirty-five
feet high, arranged in two rows of eight pillars each. The great
chamber behind the portico was a square of two hundred and twenty-
seven feet, and thus had an area of fifty-one thousand five hundred
and twenty-four square feet. Over this immense square were one hun-
dred columns, arranged in rows of ten columns each; each column
being thirty-five feet high, and standing at a distance of almost twenty
feet from any other. Each of the four walls enclosing this vast hall
was ten and a half feet thick, and each was pierced at equal intervals
by two doorways, the doorways of the one wall being exactly opposite
to those of the other, and " each looking down on an avenue of col-
umns." In the spaces of the wall on each side of the doorways, east-
ward, westward and southward, were three square-topped, ornamented
niches. The front, or northern, wall was pierced by windows, looking
upon the portico, excepting towards the corners of the edifice, where
there were niches instead. The portico was forty-four feet narrower
than the structure which it fronted, and its antce projected from the
front wall, about eleven feet from each corner. The portico thus had
only eight pillars in each row instead of ten, and space was left on
each side for a narrow guard-room opening to the porch, which is indi-
cated by the doorways placed at right angles to the front wall, which
are ornamented with figures of soldiers armed with spear and shield.
The doors are ornamented with figures of the king, either in the act
of destroying symbolical monsters or seated upon his throne under
a canopy, with the tiara on his head and the golden scepter in his right
hand. On the jambs of the great doors opening to the porch are
seen, in the top compartment, the king seated under the canopy, ac-
companied by five attendants ; while below him are his guards, arranged
572 MEDIA AND PERSIA.
in five rows of ten each, some armed with spears and shields, others with
spears, short swords, bows and quivers. Both portals together have
figures of two hundred Persian guardsmen, attending on the king's
person. The doors at the back of the edifice display sculptures repre-
senting the throne elevated on a high platform, with three stages up-
held by figures in various costumes, seemingly representing the natives
of the different provinces of the Medo-Persian Empire.
Its The portico of the Hall of a Hundred Columns was flanked on each
0 co> side by a colossal bull, which stood at the inner angle of the antce,
thus somewhat reducing the width of the entrance. Its columns were
fluted, and each had the complex capital seen in the great propylaea and
in the Hall of Xerxes. It was built of the same kind of immense
blocks as the south-eastern edifice, or Ancient Palace — blocks fre-
quently ten feet square by seven feet thick. It is situated somewhat
low, and has no staircase nor any inscription.
TheChehl The most remarkable of all the Persepolitan structures was the
famous Chehl Minar, whose ruins cover a space of almost three hun-
dred and fifty feet in one direction, and almost two hundred and fifty
in another. These ruins consist almost wholly of stone pillars, divided
into four groups, the largest of which was a square of thirty-six pil-
lars, arranged in six rows of six pillars each, all equally distant from
one another and covering an area of over twenty thousand square feet.
On the northern, eastern and western sides of this square were mag-
nificent porches, each having twelve columns, arranged in two rows of
six columns each, in line with the pillars of the central cluster. The
porches were located seventy feet from the main edifice and seem to be
wholly separate from it. They are one hundred and forty-two feet
long by thirty feet wide, each thus covering an area of four thousand
two hundred and sixty feet. All the pillars in the edifice were each
sixty-four feet high. Even in their ruined condition, they tower above
all the other ruins of Persepolis, still retaining a height of over sixty
feet.
Capitals The pillars had three kinds of capitals, those of the colonnades being
Pillars, comparatively simple and consisting each of one member; those of the
eastern colonnade consisting of two half -griffins with their heads look-
ing in opposite directions, and those of the western colonnade being
composed of two half -bulls similarly arranged. The capitals of the
pillars in the northern colonnade, which faced the great sculptured
staircase, and which constituted the real front of the edifice, were ex-
ceedingly complex and consisted of three members; the lower repre-
senting a lotus-bud accompanied by pendent leaves, the middle repre-
senting volutes of the Ionic order placed perpendicularly, and the
upper composed of a figure of two half-bulls resembling that forming
MEDO-PERSIAN CIVILIZATION.
573
the complete capital of the western group of pillars. The pillars of
the great central cluster had capitals similar to those of the northern
colonnade.
The bases of the colonnade pillars are remarkably elegant, being
bell-shaped and ornamented with a double or triple row of pendent
lotus-leaves, some rounded and others pointed. The columns resting
on the bases taper gently as they ascend, and consist of several masses
of stone carefully joined, and secured at the joints by an iron clamp
in the direction of the axis of the column. All the columns are ele-
gantly fluted along their whole length, each pillar having from forty-
eight to fifty -two incisions, or flutings. The flutes are arcs of cir-
cles smaller than semi-circles, thus resembling those of the Doric order,
the cutting of all being very exact and regular.
Having described the ruins of Persepolis, we will next notice those
at Murgab, the ancient Pasargadse, and those at Istakr, which were
carefully examined by the celebrated French explorers, MM. Coste and
Flandin.
The ruins of Pasargadse, considered the most ancient in Persia, in-
clude the well-known " Tomb of Cyrus " and two chief edifices. The
largest of these edifices had an oblong-square shape, about one hundred
and forty-seven feet long by one hundred and sixteen feet wide; and
appears to have been surrounded by a high wall, which had huge por-
tals, consisting of large stone blocks, partly hollowed out, to make
them movable. The jamb of each portal had the following inscrip-
tion : " I am Cyrus, the King, the Achaemenian." Inside the walled
enclosure was evidently a pillared structure much higher than the sur-
rounding walls, as there is still a plain pillar remaining, which is thirty-
six feet long, and three feet four inches thick at the base. On the
paved area around are the bases of seven similar pillars, arranged in
lines and so located as to indicate an oblong hall, having twelve pillars,
in three rows of four pillars each. The intercolumniations measure
twenty-seven feet ten inches in one direction, and but twenty-one feet
in the other.
The smaller edifice, situated near the larger, covers a space of one
hundred and twenty-five feet by fifty, and consists of twelve pillar
bases, arranged in two rows of six pillars each, the pillars being some-
what thicker than those of the larger edifice and placed somewhat nearer
to one another. The base is shaped at the side in the form of a semi-
circular bulge, ornamented with a series of nine flutings, carried en-
tirely around the base in parallel horizontal lines. In front of the
pillar bases, at the distance of about twenty-three feet from the near-
est, is a square column, still upright, which has a strange mythological
Colon-
nade
Pillars.
Other
Ruins.
Ruins
of Pasar-
gadae.
Larger
Edifice.
Smaller
Edifice.
574
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Other
Struc-
tures.
Palace at
Istakr.
Palace at
Susa.
Royal
Tombs.
Tomb of
Cyrus
the Great.
figure sculptured upon it, with the same inscription as that on the
larger edifice : " I am Cyrus, the King, the Achaemenian."
Two other buildings at Murgab are remarkable for their masonry;
one being a square tower with slightly-projected corners, and built of
hewn stone blocks laid very regularly and raised to a height of forty-
two feet; the other being a massive and elegant platform built wholly
of square stone blocks, faced with blocks eight or ten feet long, laid in
horizontal courses and rusticated throughout in an ornamental style,
resembling that of the substructions of the Temple of Jerusalem, and
occasionally occurring in Greece.
The palace at Istakr is better preserved than either of the two pil-
lared structures at Murgab, though not in a condition sufficient to
form an idea of its ground-plan. One pillar remains erect, but the
bases of eight others have been discovered perfect, while the walls can
be partially traced, and the jambs of several doorways and niches yet
remain. These remains show that the Istakr palace resembled the Per-
sepolitan edifices in having fluted pillars with capitals, massive doors
and window- jambs, and thick walls; while its plan was entirely dif-
ferent.
The palace of Susa — exhumed by those diligent and enterprising
Englishmen, Mr. Loftus and General Williams — consisted of a great
hall, or throne-room, closely resembling the Chehl Minar at Persepolis,
and several smaller edifices. It was located at the summit of the great
mound or quadrilateral platform composed of burned bricks, and which
supported the palace of the old Susian kings from a very remote an-
tiquity. It fronted a little west of north, and commanded a splendid
view over the Susianian plains to the mountains of Luristan. Four of
its pillar-bases bore similar inscriptions showing that it was originally
built by Darius Hystaspes and subsequently repaired by Artaxerxes
Longimanus. It bore such an exact resemblance to the Chehl Minar
that it need not be described.
The tombs of the Persian kings were remarkable works, which at-
tracted the attention of the ancients and have been very carefully ex-
amined in modern times. There are eight of these tombs, but only of
two types, so that only two need be described.
The most ancient and remarkable of the Persian royal tombs is that
of Cyrus the Great at Murgab, the ancient Pasargadae. Its design is
unique, and it is entirely different from all the other royal sepulchers.
The Greek historian Arrian called it "a house upon a pedestal" — a
very appropriate description. The entire structure is built of huge
blocks of elegant white marble. The base rises in the form of a pyra-
mid of seven steps differing in height. The small " house " on top
of the base is crowned with a stone roof, formed in front and rear into
• • •---
TOMB OF CYRUS, NEAR PERSEPOLIS
Upper : Restoration Lower : Present Condition
MEDO-PERSIAN CIVILIZATION.
575
a pediment like that of a Greek temple. The " house " is without
any window, but one of the end walls was pierced by a low and narrow
doorway leading into a small chamber or cell, about eleven feet long,
seven feet wide, and seven feet high. Here, we are told by Strabo and
Arrian, the body of Cyrus the Great was laid in a golden coffin. In-
side the chamber is perfectly plain and has no inscription. On the
outside there is an elegant cornice below the pediment and a good
moulding over the doorway, which also has two recesses, while there is
a slight moulding at the base of the " house," and another at the bot-
tom of the second step. Otherwise the entire structure is perfectly
plain. It is at present thirty-six feet high from the ground, the top
of the roof being somewhat worn away. At the base it measures forty-
seven feet by forty-three feet nine inches.
The tomb stands within a rectangular area, marked out by pillars,
the bases or broken shafts of these yet remaining. There appear to
have been about twenty-four of these pillars, all of them circular and
smooth ; and each side of the rectangle had six of them, about fourteen
feet apart.
The seven other Persian royal sepulchers are rock-tombs, executed
in mountain sides, at a considerable height, and placed so as to be
easily seen but almost inaccessible to approach. There are four such
tombs in the side of the mountain bounding the Pulwar valley on the
north-west, and three in the immediate vicinity of the Persepolitan plat-
form, two of these being in the side of the mountain overhanging the
platform, and one in the rocks a little farther south. In general shape
these excavations apparently resemble a Greek cross. This is divided
into three compartments by horizontal lines ; the upper compartment
containing a curious sculptured representation of the king worshiping
Ormazd; the middle compartment, comprising the two side limbs with
the space between them, being so carved as to represent a portico ; and
the lower portion being perfectly plain. In the center of the middle
compartment is a sculptured representation of a doorway resembling
closely those yet standing on the great platform, being doubly recessed
and ornamented with lily- work at the top. The upper part of this
doorway is filled with the solid rock, smoothed to a flat surface and
crossed by three horizontal bars. The lower part is cut away to the
height of four or five feet, so as to give entrance to the tomb itself,
which is hollowed out of the rock behind.
So far the rock-tombs are similar in almost every respect; but the
excavations back of their ornamented fronts exhibit some curious dif-
ferences. In the simplest case there is seen, on entering, an arched
chamber, thirteen feet five inches long by seven feet two inches wide,
out of which a deep horizontal recess opens opposite the door, the
1—39
Its
Seven
Rock-cut
Royal
Tombs.
Their
Recesses
and
Cham-
bers.
576 MEDIA AND PERSIA.
recess being about four feet above the ground and arched like the
chamber. In the tomb of Darius Hystaspes and some other early
royal sepulchers there is no arch, both the internal chamber and the
recess being square at the top. Near the front of the recess is another
perpendicular excavation, six feet ten inches long, three feet three
inches wide, and three feet three inches deep. This second excavation
was the receptacle for the body, and was either covered or designed
to be covered with a stone slab. In the deeper portion of the recess
is place for two similar sarcophagi, but these have not been excavated,
and apparently only one body was interred in this tomb. Other sepul-
chers exhibit similar general features, but contain three, six or nine
sarcophagi. In the tomb of Darius Hystaspes the sepulchral cham-
ber has three distinct recesses, each containing three sarcophagi; the
tomb thus holding nine bodies. It seems to have been originally cut
for a solitary recess, precisely on the plan of the tomb just described,
but has been elongated towards the left. Two of the tombs at Nakhsh-
i-Rustam exhibit a yet more elaborate ground-plan, in which are curved
lines instead of straight ones. The tombs above the Persepolitan plat-
form are more profusely and elegantly ornamented than the others,
the lintels and side-posts of the doorways being covered with rosettes,
and the entablature above the cornice having a row of lions facing on
each side towards the center.
Marble There is a peculiar square tower, built of large marble blocks, cut
a^ very exactly and joined together without any kind of mortar or
Nakhsh-i- cement, just in front of the four royal tombs at Nakhsh-i-Rustam.
im. rpjyg curious structure is thirty-six feet high, and each side measures
about twenty-four feet. The edifice is ornamented with pilasters at
the corners and with six recessed niches, in three rows, one above the
other, on three of its four sides. On the fourth face are only two
niches, one above the other, and below them is a doorway with a cor-
nice. The surface of the walls between the pilasters is ornamented
with rectangular depressions resembling the sunken ends of beams.
The doorway looking north towards the tombs is halfway up the side
of the building, and leads into a chamber twelve feet square by nearly
eighteen feet high, reaching to the top of the building and roofed in
with four large stone slabs, which reach entirely across from one side
to the other, and are more than twenty-four feet long, six feet wide,
and from a foot and a half to three feet thick. These slabs are so cut
on the top that the roof inclines very slightly every way, and at their
edges they are fashioned between the pilasters into a dentated cornice
like that on the tombs. They were clamped together on the outside
as carefully as those at Persepolis and Pasargadffi. The edifice appears
to have been originally closed by two massive stone doors.
MEDOPERSIAN CIVILIZATION.
577
There is a remarkable gateway at Istakr, constructed of vast stone
blocks, and situated in the gorge between the town wall and the oppo-
site mountain, and across the road from Pasargadae to the plain of
Merdasht. On each side of this structure were thick walls, one abut-
ting on the mountain and the other perhaps connecting with the town
wall, while between them were three huge pillars.
We have now described all the more important architectural works
of the ancient Persians, as far as the data at our command have made
it possible. Concerning the characteristics of Persian architecture,
Professor Rawlinson says:
" First, then, simplicity anJ regularity of the style are worthy of
remark. In the ground-plans of buildings the straight line only is
used ; all the angles are right angles ; all the pillars fall into line ; the
intervals between pillar and pillar are regular, and generally equal;
doorways are commonly placed opposite intercolumniations ; where
there is but one doorway it is in the middle of the wall which it pierces ;
where there are two they correspond to one another. Correspondence
is the general law. Nor only does door correspond to door, and pillar
to pillar, but room to room, window to window, and even niche to niche.
Most of the buildings are so contrived that one half is the exact
duplicate of the other; and \vhere this is not the case the irregularity
is generally either slight or the result of an alteration, made probably
for convenience sake. Travelers are impressed with the Grecian char-
acter of what they behold, though there is an almost entire absence of
Greek forms. The regularity is not confined to single buildings, but
extends to the relations of different edifices to one another. The sides
of buildings standing on one platform, at whatever distance they may
be, are parallel. There is, however, less consideration paid than we
should have expected to the exact position, with respect to a main build-
ing, in which a subordinate one shall be placed. Propylaea, for in-
stance, are not opposite the center of the edifice to which they con-
duct, but on one side of the center. And generally, excepting in the
parallelism of their sides, buildings seem placed with but slight regard
to neighboring ones."
Having described their architecture, we will now notice the other
arts of the ancient Persians. There are but few specimens of their
mimetic art remaining, and these consist of reliefs executed on the nat-
ural rock or on large slabs of hewn stone used in building, of impres-
sions on coins, and of intaglios cut upon gems. There remain no
Persian statues, no modeled figures, no metal castings, no carvings in
ivory or wood, no enamelings, no pottery. Modern excavations in Per-
sia have not yielded traces of the furniture, domestic implements, or
wall ornamentation of the ancient inhabitants, as have the excavations
Gateway
at
Istakr.
Conclu-
sion.
Rawlin-
son's
State-
ment.
Persian
Sculp-
ture.
578
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Sculp-
tured
Bulls.
Other
Sculp-
tures.
Persepoli-
tan
Sculp-
tures.
Persian
Gem
Engrav-
ings.
Proces-
sional
Sculp-
tures.
in Mesopotamia concerning the ancient Assyrians and Babylonians.
The only small objects discovered are a few cylinders and some spear
and arrow-heads.
The nearest approach to statuary in Persian ruins are the figures
of colossal bulls guarding portals or porticoes, which are only sculp-
tures in high relief, carved in front as well as at the side. There are
two such specimens, one representing the real animal, the other a
monster in the form of a winged man-headed bull.
The other Persian reliefs may be classed under four heads — 1, my-
thological figures, representing the king in combat with a lion, a bull
or a monster; 2, processional scenes, representing guards, courtiers,
attendants, or tribute-bearers ; 3, representations of the king walking,
sitting on his throne, or engaged in worship ; 4, representations of lions
and bulls, either singly or engaged in combat.
On the jambs of doorways in three of the Persepolitan edifices are
represented a human figure dressed in the Median robe, with the sleeve
thrown back from the right arm, in the act of killing a lion, a bull
or some grotesque monster; the animal in each instance attacking his
assailant with three of his feet, while he stands on the fourth. One
monster has the head of griffins already described as represented on
the capitals of columns, a feathered Iiead and crest, the wings of a
bird, the tail of a scorpion, and legs ending in eagles' claws. The
other monster has the head of an eagle, the ears of an ass, feathers on
the neck, breast and back, with a lion's body, legs and tail. We have
observed similarly grotesque figures in Assyria; but the Persian form
was original, not borrowed from the Assyrian.
Persian gem-engravings represent monstrous forms of greater gro-
tesqueness, symbolizing the powers of Darkness or of various kinds of
evil. The gems and cylinders represent the king in conflict with a
great variety of monsters, some resembling the Persepolitan, while
others have strange forms not seen elsewhere, such as winged lions with
two tails and with the horns of a ram or an antelope, a half dozen
different kinds of sphinxes and griffins, and various other nondescript
creatures.
Persian artists represented three kinds of processional subjects — 1,
lines of royal guards or officers of the court ; 2, royal purveyors arriv-
ing at the palace with a train of attendants and with provisions for
the king's table ; 3, the conquered nations bringing as a present to the
Great King the precious products of their respective countries. The
second kind represented curious varieties of costume and Persian uten-
sils, also animal forms, such as kids. The third kind represented a
remarkable variety of costume and equipment ; also many human and
animal forms; horses, asses, camels, cattle, sheep, being found inter-
MEDO-PERSIAN CIVILIZATION.
spersed among men and chariots and groups of cypress-trees. Pro-
cessional scenes of this class are found on the Persepolitan staircase,
but the fullest and most elaborate is seen on the grand step in front
of the Chehl Minar, or Great Hall of Audience, where there are twenty
such groups of figures.
There are three kinds of representations of the king upon the re-
lief— 1, those in which he is on foot, attended by the parasol-bearer
and the napkin-bearer, or by the latter only; 2, those in the palaces
representing the king on a throne supported by many caryatid figures ;
3, those on tombs representing the king on a platform upheld by the
same kind of figures, worshiping before an altar. The supporting
figures are numerous in both the second and third representations, and
we observe different ethnic types, as that of a negro and those of
Scyths or Tartars.
There are few animal scenes represented on the bas-reliefs, and these
differ but little in type, the most curious being one several times re-
peated at Persepolis, where it constitutes the usual ornamentation of
the triangular spaces on the fa9ades of stairs, such as the combat be-
tween a lion and a bull, or a lion seizing and devouring a bull ; the bull
in his agony rearing up his fore-parts and turning his head towards
his powerful assailant, whose strong limbs and jaws have a firm hold
of his powerless and unhappy victim.
Figures of bulls and lions are seen upon the friezes of some of the
tombs, and upon the representations of canopies over the royal throne,
reproducing well-known Assyrian forms. A figure of a sitting lion
appears on some of the fa£ades of staircases, being found in the central
compartment of the parapet-wall at the top.
The Persian gem-engravings are found on various kinds of hard
stone, such as carnelian, onyx, rock-crystal, sapphirine, sardonyx, chal-
cedony, etc. ; and are generally executed with wonderful skill and
delicacy. The designs which they represent are usually mythological ;
but scenes of real life frequently appear upon them, such as the hunt-
ing-scene in which the king struggles with two lions roused from their
lairs, and the gem-engraving representing a combat of two Persians
with two Scythians. The Persians are represented as fighting with
the bow and the sword ; the Scythians, marked by their peaked cap and
their loose trowsers, use the bow and the battle-ax. One Scyth receives
a death-wound, while the other seems about to discharge an arrow, but
also on the point of flight.
Gem-engravings likewise embrace graceful and elegant vegetable
forms, such as delineations of palm-trees, with their feathery leaves,
their dependent fruit, and the rough bark of their stems. The lion-
hunt represented on the signet-cylinder of Darius Hystaspes occurs in
Royal
Scenes.
Animal
Scenes.
Figures
of Bulls
and
Lions.
Gem
Engrav-
ing
Scenes.
Vegetable
Forms.
580 MEDIA AND PERSIA.
a palm-grove. One gem contains a portrait supposed to represent a
satrap of Salamis, in Cyprus, and is very neatly executed.
Persian There are three principal types of Persian coins. The earliest have
ns. on one side the figure of a king crowned with a diadem and armed with
a bow and javelin, while there is an irregular indentation on the other
side. The later coins have other designs, such as horsemen, the fore
part of a ship, or the king drawing an arrow from his quiver. An-
other style shows on one side the king in combat with a lion ; while the
other side exhibits a galley, or a towered and battlemented city, with
two lions standing below it, back to back. The third style has on one
side the king in his chariot, with his charioteer in front of him, and
usually an attendant carrying a fly-chaser behind ; while the other side
has a trireme or a battlemented city.
Royal The king's throne and footstool are the only articles of furniture
House- represented in the Persian sculptures. There are likewise few utensils
Scenes, represented, the most elaborate being the censer already mentioned, and
with which is usually seen a kind of pail or basket, shaped like a lady's
reticule, in which the aromatic gums for burning were perhaps kept.
A covered dish and goblet, with an inverted saucer over it, are likewise
often seen in the hands of the royal attendants ; while the tribute-bear-
ers frequently carry, with other offerings, bowls or basins.
Personal The Persians had a peculiarly simple taste in regard to personal
merits ornaments. Ear-rings were generally plain rings of gold. Bracelets
were golden bands. Collars were golden circlets twisted in a very
inartificial manner. Sword hilts or sheaths were not artistic, but spear-
shafts were sometimes adorned with the figure of an apple or a pome-
granate. Dresses were not often patterned, but depended on make and
color for their effect. Thus extreme simplicity characterized the
Aryan races, while the Semitic nations affected the most elaborate
ornamentation.
Rawlin- Professor Rawlinson says : " Persia was not celebrated in antiquity
SStat£ ^or *ke Production of any special fabrics. The arts of weaving and
ment, dyeing were undoubtedly practiced in the dominant country, as well
as in most of the subject provinces, and the Persian dyes seem even
to have had a certain reputation ; but none of the productions of their
looms acquired a name among foreign nations. Their skill, indeed,
in the mechanical arts generally was, it is probable, not more than
moderate. It was their boast that they were soldiers, and had won a
position by their good swords which gave them the command of all that
was most exquisite and admirable, whether in the natural world or
among the products of human industry. So long as the carpets of
Babylon and Sardis, the shawls of Kashmir and India, the fine linen
of Borsippa and Egypt, the ornamental metal-work of Greece, the
ZOROASTRIANISM AND MAOISM. 5Q1
coverlets of Damascus, the muslins of Babylonia, the multiform manu-
factures of the Phoenician towns, poured continually into Persia proper
in the way of tribute, gifts, or merchandise, it was needless for the
native population to engage largely in industrial enterprise."
The same authority also says : " To science the ancient Persians His
contributed absolutely nothing. The genius of the nation was averse
to that patient study and those laborious investigations from which
alone scientific progress ensues. Too light and frivolous, too viva-
cious, too sensuous for such pursuits, they left them to the patient
Babylonians, and the thoughtful, many-sided Greeks. The schools of
Orchoe, Borsippa and Miletus flourished under their sway, but without
provoking their emulation, possibly without so much as attracting their
attention. From the first to the last, from the dawn to the final close
of their power, they abstained wholly from scientific studies. It would
seem that they thought it enough to place before the world, as signs
of their intellectual vigor, the fabric of their Empire and the buildings
of Susa and Persepolis."
SECTION VI.— ZOROASTRIANISM AND MAGISM.
THE great Iranic religion — the faith of the Bactrians, and of the Zoroaster
Medes and Persians for many centuries — was founded by the ancient Zend-
Bactrian sage and prophet, Zoroaster, or Zarathustra; and its sacred Avesta.
book was the Zend-Avesta. Zoroaster claimed divine inspiration and
professed to have occasional revelations from the Supreme Being, de-
livering them to his people in a mythical form and securing their
acceptance as divine by the Bactrian people, after which his religion
gradually spread among the other Iranic nations. It was the religion
of the Persians until driven out by the intolerance of Mohammedanism
in the seventh century after Christ. It now exists in Guzerat and
Bombay in Hindoostan, as the creed of the Parsees, descendants of
Persians who sought refuge there after the Mohammedan conquest of
Persia. The Median and Persian kings, as servants of Ormazd, wor-
shiped the fire and the sun — symbols of the god; and resisted the im-
pure griffin — the creature of Ahriman. The Zend-Avesta teaches that
every created being has its Fereuer, or Fravashis, its ideal essence, first Zoroaster
created by the thought of Ormazd. Ormazd himself has this Frava- Mfln~u
shis, and the angelic essences are objects of adoration everywhere to Plato,
the disciples of Zoroaster. ^p^y *'
Plato mentioned Zoroaster about four centuries before Christ. In Plutarch
speaking of the education of a Persian prince, Plato says that " one 3*°^.
teacher instructs him in the magic of Zoroaster, the son (or priest) otus.
582 MEDIA AND PERSIA.
of Ormazd (or Oramazes), in which is comprehended all the worship
of the gods." Zoroaster is also spoken of by Diodorus, Plutarch, the
elder Pliny, and many writers of the first centuries after Christ. The
worship of the Magi, the Median and Persian priesthood, is described
by Herodotus before Plato. Herodotus gives full accounts of the rit-
ual, the priests, the sacrifices, the purifications, and the mode of burial
employed by the Magi in his day, about four and a half centuries
before Christ; and his account closely corresponds with the practices
of the Parsees, or fire-worshipers, yet remaining in a few places in
Persia and India. He says : " The Persians have no altars, no temples
nor images; they worship on the tops of the mountains. They adore
the heavens, and sacrifice to the sun, moon, earth, fire, water and winds."
" They do not erect altars, nor use libations, fillets or cakes. One of
the Magi sings an ode concerning the origin of the gods, over the
sacrifice, which is laid on a bed of tender grass." " They pay great
reverence to all rivers, and must do nothing to defile them ; in burying
they never put the body in the ground till it has been torn by some
bird or dog; they cover the body with wax, and then put it in the
ground." " The Magi think they do a meritorious act when they kill
ants, snakes, reptiles."
Plu- Plutarch gives the following account of Zoroaster and his precepts :
Account " Some believe that there are two Gods — as it were, two rival work-
men ; the one whereof they make to be the maker of good things, and
the other bad. And some call the better of these God, and the other
Daemon; as doth Zoroastres, the Magee, whom they report to be five
thousand years elder than the Trojan times. This Zoroastres there-
fore called the one of these Oromazes, and the other Arimanius ; and
affirmed, moreover, that the one of them did, of anything sensible, the
most resemble light, and the other darkness and ignorance; but that
Mithras was in the middle betwixt them. For which cause, the Per-
sians called Mithras the mediator. And they tell us that he first taught
mankind to make vows and offerings of thanksgiving to the one, and
to offer averting and feral sacrifice to the other. For they beat a
certain plant called homomy in a mortar, and call upon Pluto and the
dark; and then mix it with the blood of a sacrificed wolf, and convey
it to a certain place where the sun never shines, and there cast it away.
For of plants they believe, that some pertain to the good God, and
others again to the evil Dasmon ; and likewise they think that such ani-
mals as dogs, fowls, and urchins belong to the good ; but water animals
to the bad, for which reason they account him happy that kills most
of them. These men, moreover, tell us a great many romantic things
about these gods, whereof these are some: They say that Oromazes,
springing from purest light, and Arimanius, on the other hand, from
ZOROASTRIANISM AND MAOISM. 533
pitchy darkness, these two are therefore at war with one another. And
that Oromazes made six gods, whereof the first was the author of benev-
olence, the second of truth, the third of justice, and the rest, one of
wisdom, one of wealth, and a third of that pleasure which accrues from
good actions ; and that Arimanius likewise made the like number of
contrary operations to confront them. After this, Oromazes, having
first trebled his own magnitude, mounted up aloft, so far above the
sun as the sun itself above the earth, and so bespangled the heavens
with stars. But one star (called Sirius or the Dog) he set as a kind
of sentinel or scout before all the rest. And after he had made four-
and-twenty gods more, he placed them all in an egg-shell. But those
that were made by Arimanius (being themselves also of the like num-
ber) breaking a hole in this beauteous and glazed egg-shell, bad things
came by this means to be intermixed with good. But the fatal time
is now approaching, in which Arimanius, who by means of this brings
plagues and famines upon the earth, must of necessity be himself ut-
terly extinguished and destroyed ; at which time, the earth, being made
plain and level, there will be one life, and one society of mankind,
made all happy, and one speech. But Theopompus saith, that, accord-
ing to the opinion of the Magees, each of these gods subdues, and is
subdued by turns, for the space of three thousand years apiece, and
that for three thousand years more they quarrel and fight and destroy
each other's works ; but that at last Pluto shall fail, and mankind shall
be happy, and neither need food, nor yield a shadow. And that the
god who projects these things doth, for some time, take his repose and
rest; but yet this time is not so much to him although it seems so to
man, whose sleep is but short. Such, then, is the mythology of the
Magees."
This description of the ancient Median and Persian religion, by The
Plutarch, corresponds with the religion of the modern Parsees, as it Parsees.
was developed out of the primitive doctrine taught by Zoroaster.
A little over a century ago an enterprising, energetic and enthusias- Modern
tic young Frenchman, Anquetil du Perron — who had learned the Zend Investi~
language, in which the Zend-Avesta was written, from the Parsees at
Surat, in India — brought one hundred and eighty manuscripts of that
sacred book to Europe and published them in French in 1771, thus
giving us a new and clear idea of the religious system and faith of the
ancient Medes and Persians. For the last half century eminent Ori-
entalists— the Frenchman Burnouf, and the Germans Westergaard,
Brockhaus, Spiegel, Haug, Windischmann, Hiibschmann — have ana-
lyzed the Zend-Avesta, and have found that its different parts belong
to different dates. The Gathas, or rhythmical hymns, are found to
be very ancient.
VOL. 2.— 16
584
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Their
Divergent
Views.
Uncer-
tainty as
to Zoro-
aster's
History.
Views of
Modern
Orient-
alists.
Zoro-
aster's
Beneficent
Religion,
Modern Orientalists and antiquarians differ widely as to the age of
the books of the Zend-Avesta, and as to the period at which Zoroaster
lived. Plato spoke of "the magic (or religious doctrines) of Zoroas-
ter the Ormazdian." Plato spoke of his religion as Magism, or the
Median system, in Western Iran ; while the Zend-Avesta originated in
Bactria, or Eastern Iran, at least no later than the sixth or seventh
century before Christ. When the Zend-Avesta was written Bactria
was an independent kingdom, and Zoroaster is represented as teaching
under King Vista9pa. Bunsen says that " the date of Zoroaster, as
fixed by Aristotle, cannot be said to be very irrational. He and Eu-
doxus, according to Pliny, place him six thousand years before the
death of Plato; Hermippus, five thousand years before the Trojan
war," which would be about B. C. 6300, or B. C. 6350. Bunsen, how-
ever, further says : " At the present stage of the inquiry the question
whether this date is set too high cannot be answered either in the nega-
tive or affirmative." Spiegel regards Zoroaster as a neighbor and con-
temporary of Abraham, and thus living about B. C. 2000. Dollinger
believes that he may have flourished " somewhat later than Moses, per-
haps about B. C. 1300 " ; but says that " it is impossible to fix pre-
cisely " when he did live. Rawlinson alludes only to the fact that
Berosus placed him anterior to B. C. 2234. Haug believes the Gathas,
the oldest songs of the Zend-Avesta, to have been composed as early
as the time of Moses. Duncker and Rapp think Zoroaster lived about
B. C. 1200 or 1300 ; and their view agrees with the period assigned to
him by Xanthus of Sardis, a Greek writer of the sixth century before
Christ, and by Cephalion in the second century after Christ.
The place where Zoroaster lived, and the events of his life, are not
known with certainty. Most writers think that he lived in Bactria.
Haug holds that the language of the Zend-Avesta is Bactrian. A
highly fabulous and mythical life of Zoroaster, translated by Anquetil
du Perron, called the Zartusht-Namah, represents him as going to Iran
in his thirtieth year, passing twenty years in the desert, performing
miracles during ten years, and teaching philosophical lessons in Baby-
lon, Pythagoras being one of his pupils; but this account is proven
to be false. Says Professor Max Miiller : " The language of the
Avesta is so much more primitive than the inscriptions of Darius, that
many centuries must have passed between the two periods represented
by these two strata of language." The Behistun Inscriptions of
Darius are in the Achaemenian dialect, a later linguistic development
of the Zend.
Though nothing is known of the events of his life, Zoroaster, by
his essentially moral religion, influenced various Aryan races over wide
regions for many centuries. His religion was in the interest gf moral-
ZOROASTRIANISM AND MAOISM.
585
ity, human freedom, and the progress of mankind. Zoroaster based
his law on the eternal distinction between right and wrong. His law
was therefore the law of justice, according to which the supreme good
consists in truth, duty and right. Zoroaster taught providence, aimed
at holiness, and emphasized creation. He maintained that salvation
was only wrought out by an eternal battle between good and evil.
The whole religion of the Zend-Avesta revolves around the person of
Zoroaster, or Zarathustra. In the Gathas of the Ya9na, the oldest
of the second books, he is designated " the pure Zarathustra, good in
thought, speech and work." Zarathustra only is said to know the
precepts of Ahura-Mazda (Ormazd), and that he shall be made skill-
ful in speech. In one of the Gathas he asserts his wish to bring knowl-
edge to the pure, in the power of Ormazd, to give them happiness,
as Spiegel translates it. Haug translates the same passage thus : " I
will swear hostility to the liars, but be a strong help to the truthful."
He prays for truth, declaring himself the most faithful servant in the
world of Ormazd the Wise One, and for this reason implores for a
knowledge of what is most desirable to do. Says Zoroaster, according
to Spiegel : " When it came to me through your prayer, I thought that
the spreading abroad of your law through men was something diffi-
cult."
Zoroaster was oppressed with the sight of evil. Spiritual evil — the
evil having its origin in a depraved heart and a will turned from good-
ness— tormented him most. His meditations convinced him that all
the woe of the world had its origin in sin, and that the root of sin was
in the demonic world. He maintained that the principles of good
struggle with the principles of evil, rulers of darkness, spirits of wick-
edness in the supernatural world. Firmly believing that a great con-
flict was perpetually in progress between the powers of Light and
Darkness, he urged all good men to take part in the war, and battle
for Ahura-Mazda (Ormazd), the good God, against Angra-Mainyus
(Ahriman), the dark and evil tempter.
Great natural misfortunes intensified Zoroaster's conviction. In his
time some geological convulsion changed the climate of Northern Asia,
and suddenly caused bitter cold where there had previously been a
tropical heat. Both Spiegel and Haug have in recent years translated
the first Fargard of the Vendidad, which commences by describing
a good country, Aryana-Vaejo, which Ahura-Mazda had created as a
region of delight. Thereupon the " evil being, Angra-Mainyus, full
of death, created a mighty serpent, and winter, the work of the Daevas.
Ten months of winter are there, two months of summer." It is next
stated in the original document : " Seven months of summer are (were)
there; five months of winter were there. The latter are cold as to
The
Gathas of
the
Yacna.
Conflict
between
Good
and Evil.
Battle
between
Ahura-
Mazda
and
Angra-
Mainyus,
586 MEDIA AND PERSIA.
water, cold as to earth, cold as to trees. There is the heart of winter ;
there all around falls deep snow. There is the worst of evils." Spie-
gel and Haug both consider this passage an interpolation, but it doubt-
less referred to a great climatic change, by which the primeval home
of the Aryans, Aryana-Vaejo, became suddenly very much colder than
it had hitherto been. Such a change may have induced the migration
of the Aryans from Aryana-Vaejo (Old Iran) to Media and Persia
(New Iran). Bunsen and Haug believed such a history of migration
to be related in the first Fargard (chapter) of the Vendidad. This
would carry us back to the oldest part of the Veda, and show the move-
ment of the Aryan stream southward from its primitive home in Central
Asia, until it divided into two branches, one spreading over Media and
Persia, and the other over India. The first verse of this old document
represents Ormazd as declaring that he had created new regions, de-
sirable as homes; thus preventing Aryana-Vaejo becoming over-popu-
lated. Thus the very first verse of the Vendidad contains the pleasant
remembrance of the migratory races from their Central Asian father-
land, and the Zoroastrian faith in a creative and protective Providence.
The terrible convulsion which changed their summer climate into the
present Siberian winter of ten months was a portion of the divine ar-
rangement. The previous attractiveness of Old Iran would have over-
crowded that Eden with the whole human race. Thus the evil Ahri-
man was allowed to enter it, as " a new serpent of destruction," chang-
ing its seven months of summer and five of winter into ten of winter
and two of summer. Says the first Fargard of the Vendidad : " There-
fore Angra-Mainyus, the death-dealing, created a mighty serpent and
snow." The serpent entering the Iranic Eden is one of the curious
coincidences of the Iranic and Hebrew traditions. Bunsen and Haug
believe Aryana-Vaejo, or Old Iran — the original seat of the great
Aryan, or Indo-European race — to have been located on the elevated
plains north-east of Samarcand, between the thirty-seventh and for-
tieth parallels of north latitude, and between the eighty-sixth and
ninetieth meridians of east longitude. This region has precisely the
climate described — ten months of winter and two of summer. The
same is the case with Western Thibet and the greater portion of Cen-
tral Siberia. Malte-Brun says : " The winter is nine or ten months
long through almost the whole of Siberia." The only months free
from snow are June and July.
Sir Sir Charles Lyell says that " great oscillations of climate have
Charles occurred in times immediately antecedent to the peopling of the earth
view.8 by man." During the present century frozen elephants, or mammoths,
have been found in Siberia, in vast numbers and in a perfect condition.
For this reason Lyell considers it " reasonable to believe that a large
ZOROASTRIANISM AND MAGISM.
587
region in Central Asia, including perhaps the southern half of Siberia,
enjoyed at no very remote period in the earth's history a temperate
climate, sufficiently mild to afford food for numerous herds of elephants
and rhinoceroses."
In the midst of these awful convulsions of nature — these antagonis-
tic forces of external good and evil — Zoroaster evolved his belief in the
dualism of all things. He believed that the Supreme Being had set all
things in opposition to each other, two and two. He did not believe
that, " whatever is, is right." Some things appeared woefully wrong.
The world was a scene of war and turmoil, not one of peace and quiet.
Life was battle to the good man, not sleep. He believed that the good
God watching over all was constantly opposed by a powerful evil
spirit, with whom we are to battle constantly and to whom we are never
to yield. In the remote future he perceived the triumph of good ; but
that triumph could only be attained by fighting the good fight now,
not, however, with carnal weapons. The whole duty of man was to
have " pure thoughts " entering into " true words " and ending in
" right actions."
The Zend-Avesta is a liturgy — a collection of hymns, prayers, invo-
cations and thanksgivings. It contains prayers to numerous deities,
the supreme one of whom is Ormazd, the others being only his ser-
vants.
Says Zarathustra : " I worship and adore the Creator of all things,
Ahura-Mazda (Ormazd), full of light! I worship the Amesha-Spentas
(Amshaspands, the seven arch-angels, or protecting spirits) ! I wor-
ship the body of the primal Bull, the soul of the Bull ! I invoke thee,
0 Fire, thou son of Ormazd, most rapid of the Immortals ! I invoke
Mithra, the lofty, the immortal, the pure, the sun, the ruler, the quick
Horse, the eye of Ormazd! I invoke the holy Sraosha, gifted with
holiness, and Ra£nu (spirit of justice), and Arstat (spirit of truth)!
1 invoke the Fravashi of good men, the Fravashi of Ormazd, the Fra-
vashi of my own soul ! I praise the good men and women of the whole
world of purity ! I praise the Haoma, health-bringing, golden, with
moist stalks! I praise Sraosha, whom four horses carry, spotless,
bright-shining, swifter than the storms, who, without sleeping, pro-
tects the world in darkness ! "
The Zend-Avesta, as a holy book, was to be read in private by the
laity, or to be recited in public by the priests. This sacred book of
the ancient Medes and Persians consists of the Vendidad, of which
twenty-two Fargards, or chapters, have been preserved; the Vispered,
in twenty-seven; the Ya£na, in seventy; and the Khordah-Avesta, or
Little- Avesta, containing the Yashts, the Patets, and other prayers for
the use of the laity. Spiegel regards the Gathas of the Ya9na as the
Zoro-
aster's
Belief in
Dualism.
Contents
of the
Zend-
Avesta.
Zoro-
aster's In-
vocation.
Books
of the
Zend-
Avesta.
588
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
The
Bunde-
hesch.
The
Parsee
Religion .
The
Monad
behind
the Duad.
Fravashi.
Creation
of
Heaven
and
Earth.
oldest of these, the Vendidad next, and lastly the first part of the
Ya9na and the Khordah-Avesta.
The Bundehesch is a book later than those just mentioned, but, in
its contents, it goes back to primitive times. Windischmann, who, in
1863, made a new translation of this book, says: " In regard to the
Bundehesch, I am confident that closer study of this remarkable book,
and a more exact comparison of it with the original texts, will change
the unfavorable opinion hitherto held concerning it into one of great
confidence. I am justified in believing that its author has given us
mainly only the ancient doctrine, taken by him from original texts,
most of which are now lost. The more thoroughly it is examined the
more trustworthy it will be found to be."
Only the germs of the Parsee system are found in the elder books
of the Zend-Avesta. It has been doubted if the doctrine of Zerana-
Akerana, or the Monad behind the Duad, is to be found in the Zend-
Avesta, though important texts in the Vendidad seem to imply a
Supreme and Infinite Being, who created both Ormazd and Ahriman.
The following is an outline of the Parsee system, as derived from the
Bundehesch and the later Parsee writings :
In the beginning the Eternal or Absolute Being (Zerana-Akerana)
produced two other great divine beings. The first of these, called
Ahura-Mazda, or Ormazd, remained true to him and was the King of
Light. The other, called Angra-Mainyus, or Ahriman, was the King
of Darkness. Ormazd being in a world of light and Ahriman in a
world of darkness, the two became antagonists. The Infinite Being
(Zerana-Akerana) thereupon resolved to create the visible by Ormazd,
for the purpose of exterminating the evil which Ahriman had caused;
fixing its duration at twelve thousand years, which he divided into four
periods of three thousand years each. Ormazd was to rule alone dur-
ing the first period. Ahriman was to begin his operations during the
second period, still, however, occupying a subordinate position. Both
were to rule together during the third period. Ahriman was to have
the ascendency during the fourth period.
Ormazd produced the Fereuers, or Fravashi, thus beginning the crea-
tion. Everything, either already created or to be created, has its Fra-
vashi, containing the reason and basis of its existence. Ormazd him-
self has his Fravashi relating to Zerana-Akerana, the Infinite. A
spiritual, invisible world therefore existed before this visible world of
matter.
In the creation of the material world, which was simply an incor-
poration of the spiritual world of Fravashis, Ormazd first made the
firm vault of heaven and the earth on which that vault rests. On the
earth he created the lofty mountain Albordj, the modern Elburz, which
o s
£
C/l ^
UJ d
UJ
ZOROASTRIANISM AND MAOISM. 539
soared upward through all the spheres of the heaven, till it reached
the primal light, and Ormazd established his abode on this summit.
From this summit the bridge Chinevat extends to the vault of heaven Bridge
and to Gorodman, which is the opening in the vault above Albordj. ^fa
Gorodman is the abode of Fravashis and of the blessed, and the bridge Mount
leading to it is directly above the abyss Duzahk, the awful gulf be-
neath the earth, the dwelling-place of Ahriman.
Ormazd, knowing that his battle with Ahriman would commence Ahura-
after his first period, armed himself, and for his aid created the shining Maz(-|a's
heavenly host — the sun, the moon and the stars — the mighty beings of the
of light which were entirely subservient to him. He first created " the Mo ' a
heroic runner, who never dies, the sun," and made him king and ruler Stars.
of the material world. From Albordj he starts on his course in the
morning, circling the earth in the highest spheres of the heaven, and
returns at evening. Ormazd next created the moon, which " has its
own light," which, leaving Albordj, circles the earth in a lower sphere
and returns. He then created the five planets then known; also the
entire host of fixed stars, in the lowest circle of the heavens. The
space between the earth and the firm vault of the heavens is conse-
quently divided into three spheres — that of the sun, that of the moon,
and that of the stars.
The host of stars were common soldiers in the war with Ahriman, Stars,
Planets
and were divided into four troops, each having its appointed leader. and
Twelve companies were arranged in the twelve signs of the Zodiac. Zodiac.
These were all grouped into four great divisions, in the east, west, north
and south; the planet Tistrya (Jupiter) presiding over the eastern
division and named " Prince of the Stars," Sitavisa (Saturn) watching
over the western division, Vanant (Mercury) over the southern, and
Hapto-iringa (Mars) over the northern. The great star Mesch, or
Meschgah (Venus), is in the middle of the firmament, and leads the
heavenly host of stars in the struggle against Ahriman.
The dog Sirius (Sura) is also a watchman of the heavens, but is Sinus, or
fixed to one place, at the bridge Chinevat, standing guard over the
abyss out of which Ahriman comes.
After these preparations in the heavens had been finished by Ormazd, Angra-
the first of the four periods of three thousand years each reached its creates
end, and Ahriman saw from his gloomy abode what Ormazd had done. Darkness,
To antagonize Ormazd, Ahriman created a world of Darkness, a ter- Qver-
rible host, as numerous and powerful as the beings of Light. Or- come,
mazd, knowing all the misery and woe that Ahriman would produce,
yet knowing that he himself would triumph in the struggle, offered
Ahriman peace; but Ahriman chose war. But, blinded by the majesty
of Ormazd, and terror-stricken at the sight of the pure Fravashis of
590
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Ahura-
Mazda
Com-
pletes His
World
of Light.
Guardian
Spirits.
Animal
Creation.
Evil
Beinga
and
Spirits.
The Great
War
between
Ahura-
Mazda
and
Angra-
Mainyus.
holy men, Ahriman was conquered by the strong word of Ormazd, and
fell back into the abyss of Darkness, lying fettered there during the
three thousand years of the second period.
Ormazd now finished his creation upon the earth. Sapandomad was
guardian spirit of the earth. The earth, as Hethra, was mother of the
living. Khordad was chief of the seasons, years, months and days, as
well as protector of the water, which flowed from the fountain Andu-
isur, from Albordj. The planet Tistrya was appointed to raise the
water in vapor, gather it in clouds, and let it fall in rain, with the aid
of the planet Sitavisa. These " cloud-compellers " were regarded with
the highest reverence. Amerdad was the god of vegetation, but the
great Mithra was the lord of fructification and reproduction in the
entire organic world, his duty being to lead the Fravashis to the bodies
which they were to occupy.
Everything earthly in Ormazd's world of Light had its protecting
divinity, or guardian spirit. These spirits were divided into series
and groups, and had their captains and their associated assistants.
The seven Amshaspands (in Zend, Amesha-Spentas) were the principal
ones of these series, of whom Ormazd was the first. The other six
were Bahman, King of Heaven ; Ardibehescht, King of Fire ; Schariver,
King of the Metals; Sapandomad, Queen of the Earth; Amerdad,
King of the Vegetables ; and Khordad, King of Water.
Thus ended the second period of three thousand years ; during which
Ormazd had likewise produced the great primitive Bull, which, being
the representative of the animal world, contained the seeds of all liv-
ing creatures.
While Ormazd was thus finishing his creation of Light, Ahriman, in
his gloomy abyss, was ending his antagonistic creation of Darkness —
making a corrresponding evil being for every good being that Ormazd
created. These spirits of Darkness stood in their ranks and orders,
with their seven presiding evil spirits, or Daevas, corresponding to the
seven Amshaspands of the world of Light.
The vast preparations for the great war between Ormazd and Ahri-
man being finished, and the end of the second period of three thousand
years now approaching, Ahriman was urged by one of his Daevas to
commence the struggle. Having counted his host, and found nothing
therein to oppose to the Fravashis of good men, he fell back dejected.
When the second period ended, Ahriman sprang aloft fearlessly, know-
ing that his time had arrived. He was followed by his host, but he
only reached the heavens, his troops remaining behind. Seized with a
shudder, he sprang from heaven upon the earth in the form of a ser-
pent, penetrating to the earth's center, and entering into everything
which he found upon the earth. Passing into the primal Bull, and
ZOROASTRIANISM AND MAOISM.
591
even into fire, the visible symbol of Ormazd, he defiled it with smoke
and vapor. He then assailed the heavens; and a portion of the stars
were already in his power, and enveloped in smoke and mist, when he
was attacked by Ormazd, aided by the Fravashis of holy men. After
ninety days and ninety nights he was thoroughly defeated, and driven
back with his troops into the abyss of Duzahk.
He did not, however, stay there. He made a way for himself and
his companions through the middle of the earth, and is now living on
the earth with Ormazd, in accordance with the decree of the Infinite.
He had produced terrible destruction in the world ; but the more evil
he attempted to do, the more he unknowingly fulfilled the counsels of
the Infinite, and hastened the development of good. He thus entered
the Bull, the original animal, and so injured him that he died. But
then Kaiomarts, the first man, came out of his right shoulder, and from
his left shoulder proceeded Goshurun, the soul of the Bull, who now
became the guardian spirit of the animal creation. The entire realm
of clean animals and plants came from the Bull's body. Overwhelmed
with rage and fury, Ahriman now created the unclean animals — for
every clean beast an unclean one. Ormazd having created the dog,
Ahriman produced the wolf. Ormazd having made all useful animals,
Ahriman made all noxious ones ; and likewise of plants.
Having nothing to oppose to Kaiomarts, the original man, Ahriman
resolved to kill him. Kaiomarts was both man and woman, and after
his death a tree grew from his body, bearing ten pair of men and
women, Meschia and Meschiane being the first. They were at first
pure and innocent and made for heaven, worshiping Ormazd as their
creator; but Ahriman tempting them, they drank milk from a goat,
thus injuring themselves; and by eating the fruit which Ahriman
brought them, they lost a hundred parts of their happiness, only one
part remaining. The woman was the first that sacrificed to the Dae-
vas. After fifty years they had two children, Siamak and Veschak.
They died at the age of one hundred years. They remain in hell until
their resurrection, in punishment for their sins.
Thus the human race became mortal by the sin of its first parents.
Man stands between the worlds of Light and Darkness, left to his own
free will. Being a creature of Ormazd he is able to and should honor
him, and aid him in the war with Ahriman; but Ahriman and his
Daevas surround him night and day, trying to mislead so that they
must be able to increase the power of Darkness. He was only able to
resist these temptations, to which his first parents yielded, because
Ormazd had taken pity on him and given him a revelation of his will
in the law of Zoroaster. If he obeys these precepts he is beyond harm
from the Daevas, being directly protected by Ormazd. The essence
1—40
The
Latter's
Defeat.
Present
Abode.
Opposing
Animal
Creations.
Kaiom-
arts and
the First
Men and
Women.
Their
Fall.
Man's
Mortality
and
Tempta-
tion.
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Fate of
the Souls
of the
Good
and the
Bad.
Angra-
Mainyus
Creates
the
Comets to
Oppose
the
Planets.
of the law is the command : " Think purely, speak purely, act purely."
From Ormazd comes all that is pure ; from Ahriman all that is impure.
Bodily purity is no less worthy than moral purity. This is the reason
for the many minute precepts regarding bodily cleanliness. The en-
tire liturgic worship hinges vastly on this point.
The Fravashis of men originally created by Ormazd are preserved
in heaven, in Ormazd's world of Light. But they must come from
heaven, to be joined to a human body, and to enter upon a path of
probation in this world, called the " Way of the Two Destinies."
At death the souls of those who have chosen the good in this
world are received by the good spirits, and guided, under the
protection of the dog Sura, to the bridge of Chinevat, where
the narrow road conducts to heaven, or paradise. The souls of the
wicked are dragged to the bridge by the Daevas. Ormazd here holds
a tribunal and decides the fate of the human souls. The righteous
safely pass the bridge into the abode of the blessed, being there wel-
comed with rejoicing by the Amshaspands. The pious soul is aided
in crossing the bridge by the angel Serosh, " the happy, well-formed,
swift, tall Serosh," who greets the new comer in his happy journey
to the abode of the blessed, where he is greeted by the angel Vohu-
mano, who, rising from his throne, exclaims : " How happy are thou,
who hast come here to us, exchanging mortality for immortality ! "
The good soul then proceeds to the golden throne in paradise. The
wicked fall over the bridge of Chinevat, into the abyss of Duzahk,
where they find themselves in the realm of Angra-Mainyus, the world
of Darkness, where they are forced to remain in misery and woe, tor-
mented by the Daevas. Ormazd fixes the duration of the punishment,
and some are redeemed sooner by means of the prayers and interces-
sions of their friends, but many must stay until the resurrection of
the dead.
Ahriman himself effects this consummation, after having exercised
great power over men during the last period of three thousand years.
He made seven comets to antagonize the seven great luminaries created
by Ormazd — the sun, moon and five planets then known. These com-
ets went on their destructive course through the heavens, filling every-
thing with danger and every human being with terror. But Ormazd
put them under the control of his planets to restrain them. The plan-
ets will exercise this power until, by the decree of the Infinite at the
close of the last period, one of the comets will break away from his
watchman, the moon, and dash upon the earth, causing a general con-
flagration. Before this, however, Ormazd will send his Prophet, Sosi-
09!*, and cause the conversion of mankind, to be followed by the gen-
eral resurrection.
ZOROASTRIANISM AND MAOISM.
598
Ormazd will clothe the bones of men with new flesh, and friends and
relatives will again recognize each other. Then comes the great divi-
sion of the just from the wicked.
When Ahriman causes the comet to fall upon the earth to gratify
his destructive inclinations he will be really serving the Infinite Being
against his own will; as the conflagration caused by this comet will
change the whole earth into a stream like melted iron, which will pour
down with fury into the abode of Ahriman. All beings must now
pass through this stream. It will feel like warm milk to the righteous,
who will pass through to the realm of the just; but the sinners shall be
carried along by the stream into the abyss of Duzahk, where they will
burn three days and nights, after which, being purified, they will in-
voke Ormazd and be received into heaven.
Ahriman himself and all in the abyss of Duzahk shall afterwards be
purified by this fire; all evil will be consumed and all darkness will be
banished. A more beautiful earth, pure and perfect, and destined to
be eternal, will come from the extinct fire.
Ahura-Mazda (Ormazd) was the " all bountiful, the all-wise, living
being " or " spirit " who was at the head of all that was good and
lovely, of all that was beautiful and delightful. Angra-Mainyus
(Ahriman) was the " dark and gloomy intelligence," that had ever
been Ahura-Mazda's enemy, and was resolved on foiling and torment-
ing him. Ahura-Mazda was " the creator of life, the earthly and
the spiritual." He had made " the celestial bodies," " earth, water,
and trees," " all good creatures," and " all good things." He was
" good," " holy," " pure," " true," " the holy god," " the holiest,"
" the essence of truth," " the father of truth," " the best being of all,"
" the master of purity." He was supremely happy and possessed every
blessing — " health, wealth, virtue, wisdom, immortality." From
Ahura-Mazda proceeded all good to mankind. He rewarded the good
by granting them everlasting happiness, and punished the bad.
Angra-Mainyus was the author of all that was evil, and had been
engaged in constant warfare with Ahura-Mazda. He corrupted and
ruined the good things created by Ahura-Mazda. He was the dis-
penser of moral and physical evils. He blasted the earth with barren-
ness, made it produce thorns, thistles and poisonous plants. He sent
the earthquake, the tempest, the hail, the thunder-bolt. He caused
disease and death, famine and pestilence, wars and tumults. He was
the inventor of witchcraft, murder, unbelief, cannibalism, etc. He
created ferocious wild beasts, serpents, toads, mice, hornets, mosquitoes,
etc. He continually incited the bad against the good, and sought by
every device to give vice the victory over virtue. Ahura-Mazda could
not always defeat or baffle him.
Resurrec-
tion and
Judg-
ment.
Destruc-
tion of the
World
and Fate
of the
Good and
Bad.
Angra-
Mainyus
To be
Purified.
Ahura-
Mazda,
Author
of all
Good.
Angra-
Mainyus,
Author
of all
Evil.
594
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
No
Idolatry
Man's
2>uties
Outward
Purity.
Zoroaster's religion was strictly free from idolatry. The only em-
blems were a winged circle with a human figure, robed and wearing a
tiara — a symbol of Ahura-Mazda; and a four-winged figure at Mur-
gab, the ancient Pasargadse, the early capital of Persia, representing
Sraosha, or Serosh — " the good, tall, fair Serosh " — who in the Zoroas-
trian system corresponds with the Archangel Michael in the Christian.
The great Persian king, Darius Hystaspes, placed the emblems of
Ahura-Mazda and Mithra in prominent places on the sculptured tablet
above his tomb, as did all the later monarchs of his race whose sepul-
chers are yet to be seen. Artaxerxes Mnemon put the image of Mithra
in the temple attached to the royal palace at Susa, and in his inscrip-
tions unites Mithra and Ahura-Mazda, praying for their joint pro-
tection. Artaxerxes Ochus does the same a little later. The portions
of the Zend-Avesta composed at this period observed the same practice.
Ahura-Mazda and Mithra are called " the two great ones," " the two
great, imperishable and pure."
Man was in duty bound to implicitly obey his creator, the Good
Being, Ahura-Mazda, and to battle earnestly against Angra-Mainyus
and his evil creatures. He was to be pious, pure, truthful and indus-
trious. He was to acknowledge Ahura-Mazda as the One True God,
and to reverence the Amesha-Spentas and the Izeds, or lower angels.
He was to worship by prayers, praises, thanksgivings, singing of
hymns, sacrifices of animals, and the occasional ceremony of the
Haoma, or Homa. This was the extraction of the juice of the Homa
plant by the priests while reciting prayers, the formal presentation
of the liquid extracted to the sacrificial fire, the consumption of a small
part of it by the officiating priests, and the division of the most of it
among the worshipers. The horse was considered the best sacrificial
victim, but oxen, sheep and goats were also offered. The animal being
brought before an altar on which the sacred fire was burning, believed
to have been originally kindled from heaven, was there killed by a
priest, who showed some of the flesh to the sacrificial fire, after which
the victim was cooked and eaten by the priests and worshipers at a
solemn meal.
Outward purity was enforced by numerous external observances.
All impure acts, impure words and impure thoughts were to be ab-
stained from. Ahura-Mazda, " the pure, the master of purity," would
not tolerate impurity in his votaries. Man was placed on earth to
preserve Ahura-Mazda's " good creation," which could only be done
by carefully tilling the soil, eradicating the thorns and weeds sent by
Angra-Mainyus, and reclaiming the tracts which that Evil Being had
cursed with barrenness. The cultivation of the soil was thus a re-
ligious duty, and all were required to perform agricultural labors;
ZOROASTRIANISM AND MAOISM.
595
and either as proprietor, farmer or laborer, each Zoroastrian was
obliged to " further the works of life " by tillage of the soil.
Truth was another duty inculcated earnestly by the Zoroastrian
creed. Herodotus tells us that " the Persian youth are taught three
things only : to ride the horse, to draw the bow, and to speak the truth."
Ahura-Mazda was the " true spirit," and the chief of the Amesha-
Spentas was Asha-vahista, " the best truth." The Zend-Avesta and
the Persian cuneiform inscriptions hold up Druj, " falsehood," to de-
testation, " as the basest, the most contemptible and the most pernicious
of vices."
After a time the early Iranian religion became corrupted by the
admixture of foreign superstitions. The followers of Zoroaster,
spreading themselves from their primeval seat on the Oxus over the
regions to the south and south-west of the Caspian Sea, came into con-
tact with a religious system vastly different from that which they had
previously professed, yet capable of being easily fused with it. This
was Magism, or the worship of the elements. The primitive inhabit-
ants of Armenia, Cappadocia and the Zagros mountain-range had,
under circumstances to us unknown, developed this system of religion,
associating with its tenets a priest-caste claiming prophetic powers
and a highly sacerdotal character. The essentials of Magism were
the four elements of Fire, Air, Earth and Water, which were regarded
as the only proper objects of human adoration. Personal gods, tem-
ples, shrines and images were rejected. The worshipers reverenced
not the powers presiding over the elements of nature, but the elements
themselves. Fire, the great ethereal principle and the most powerful
agent, was specially regarded ; and on the Magian fire-altars the sacred
flame, usually considered to have been kindled from heaven, was kept
constantly burning year in and year out by bands of priests, whose
special duty it was to see that the sacred spark was never permitted
to die out. It was a capital offense to defile the altar by blowing the
fire with one's breath, and it was just as odious to burn a corpse. Only
a small part of the fat of the victims for sacrifice was consumed in the
flames. Water was reverenced next to fire. Sacrifice was offered to
rivers, lakes and fountains, the victim being brought near to them and
then killed, the greatest care being taken that not a drop of blood
should touch the water and pollute it. No refuse was permitted to be
thrown into a river, nor was it lawful to wash one's hands in one. The
earth was reverenced by means of sacrifice, and by abstaining from the
common manner of burying the dead. Herodotus and Strabo are our
main authorities for this account of Magism.
The Magian priest-caste held a high rank. A priest always medi-
ated between the Deity and the worshiper, and intervened in every rite
Truth.
Zproas-
trianism
Corrupted
by
Magism.
Magian
Priests.
596
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Their
Power.
Early
Intoler-
ance and
Later
Liber-
ality.
Fusion of
Zoroas-
trianism.
and
Magism.
of religion. The Magus prepared the sacrificial victim and slew it,
chanted the mystic strain giving the sacrifice all its force, poured the
propitiatory libation of oil, milk and honey on the ground, and held
the bundle of thin tamarisk twigs, the barsom (baresma) of the later
books of the Zend-Avesta, the use of which was necessary to all sacri-
ficial ceremonies. " Claiming supernatural powers, they explained
omens, expounded dreams, and by means of a certain mysterious ma-
nipulation of the barsom, or bundle of tamarisk twigs, arrived at a
knowledge of future events, which they would sometimes condescend
to communicate to the pious inquirer."
With all these pretensions, it is not surprising that the Magi assumed
a lofty demeanor, a stately dress, and surroundings of ceremonial
splendor. Attired in white robes, and wearing upon their heads tall
felt caps, with long lappets at the sides, which are said to have hid-
den the jaw and the lips, the Magi, with a barsom in their hands,
marched in procession to the fire-altars, around which they performed
their magical incantations for an hour at a time. The credulous
masses, impressed by such scenes and imposed upon by the claims of
the Magi to supernatural powers, paid the priest-caste willing hom-
age. The kings and chiefs consulted them ; and when the Iranians, in
their westward migrations, came into contact with the nations profess-
ing Magism, they found the Magian priesthood all-powerful among
most of the Western Asian races.
The followers of Zoroaster had at first been intolerant and exclu-
sive, and regarded the faith of their Aryan kinsmen, the Sanskritic
Hindoos, with aversion and contempt. They had fiercely opposed
idolatry, and hated with deep animosity every religion but their own.
But in the course of ages these feelings had become lax, and the early
religious fervor gradually died away ; and in its stead " an impressible
and imitative spirit had developed itself."
Thus Zoroastrianism, in its contact with Magism, was impressed
favorably, and the result was the development of a new system by the
fusion of the two. The chief tenets of the two systems harmonized
and were thoroughly compatible. Thus the Iranians, though holding
fast to their original creed, adopted the main points of the Magian
faith and all the more remarkable practices and customs of Magism.
This fusion of Zoroastrianism and Magism occurred in Media. The
Magi became a Median tribe and the priest-caste of the Medes. Wor-
ship of the elements, divination by means of the barsom, expounding
of dreams, incantations at fire-altars, sacrifices at which a Magus offi-
ciated, were made a part of the Zoroastrian creed. Thus a mixed
religious system was developed, which finally triumphed over pure
Zoroastrianism after a long struggle. The Persians, sometime after
ZOROASTRIANISM AND MAOISM.
597
their conquest of the Medes, adopted the new faith, accepted the Ma-
gian priesthood, and attended the ceremonies at the fire-altars.
The introduction of the Magian creed by the Zoroastrians led to a
singular practice regarding the disposition of the dead. It became
unlawful to burn dead bodies, because that would pollute fire; or to
bury them, as that would pollute the earth; or to cast them into a
river, as that would pollute water ; or to place them in a tomb, or in a
sarcophagus, as that would pollute the air. The dead were therefore
removed to a solitary place to be devoured by beasts and birds of prey
— wolves, jackals, foxes, crows, ravens and vultures. This, as the
orthodox practice, was employed by the Magi in the disposal of their
own dead, and was urgently recommended to others. Those who
would not adopt this custom were allowed to coat the dead bodies of
their friends with wax and then bury them, thus avoiding the pollu-
tion of the earth by preventing direct contact between it and the
corpse.
Says Rawlinson, concerning the fusion of Zoroastrianism with
Magism :
" The mixed religion thus constituted, though less elevated and less
pure than the original Zoroastrian creed, must be pronounced to have
possessed a certain loftiness and picturesqueness which suited it to
become the religion of a great and splendid monarchy. The myste-
rious fire-altars upon the mountain-tops, with their prestige of a re-
mote antiquity — the ever-burning flame believed to have been kindled
from on high — the worship in the open air under the blue canopy of
heaven — the long troops of Magians in their white robes, with their
strange caps, and their mystic wands — the frequent prayers, the
abundant sacrifices, the low incantations — the supposed prophetic pow-
ers of the priest-caste — all this together constituted an imposing whole
at once to the eye and to the mind, and was calculated to give addi-
tional grandeur to the civil system that should be allied with it. Pure
Zoroastrianism was too spiritual to coalesce readily with Oriental lux-
ury and magnificence, or to lend strength to a government based on
the principles of Asiatic despotism. Magism furnished a hierarchy to
support the throne and add splendor and dignity to the court, while
it overawed the subject class by its supposed possession of supernat-
ural powers and of the right of mediating between man and God. It
supplied a picturesque worship, which at once gratified the senses and
excited the fancy. It gave scope to man's passion for the marvelous
by its incantations, its divining-rods, its omen-reading, and its dream-
expounding. It gratified the religious scrupulosity which finds a pleas-
ure in making to itself difficulties, by the disallowance of a thousand
natural acts, and the imposition of numberless rules for external purity.
Disposal
of the
Dead.
Rawlin-
son's
State-
ment.
598 MEDIA AND PERSIA.
At the same time it gave no offense to the anti-idolatrous spirit in
which the Iranians had always gloried, but upheld and encouraged the
iconoclasm which they had previously practiced. It thus blended
easily with the previous creed of the Iranian people, and produced an
amalgam that has shown a surprising vitality, having lasted above two
thousand years — from the time of Xerxes, the son of Darius Hys-
taspes (B. C. 485-465) to the present day."
Median The religion of the Persians was identical with that of the Medes
and8™ *n ^s earliest form, consisting chiefly of the worship of Ahura-Mazda,
Persian the belief in Angra-Mainyus as the principle of evil, and complete
trian-tem observance of the teachings of Zoroaster. When the Medes estab-
lished their sway over the nations long professing Magism, their faith
became corrupted by the creed of the subject nations, and they ac-
cepted the Magi as their priests. But the Persians in their wilder
country, not so easily exposed to corrupting influences, adhered zeal-
ously to the original Zoroastrian faith in its primitive purity and re-
mained true to its traditions. Their political dependence on Media
during the period of the Median Empire did not influence them away
from this pure faith; and the Medes, being tolerant, did not attempt
to interfere with the creed of their subjects. The simple Zoroastrian
faith and worship, corrupted by Magism in the then-luxurious Media,
was maintained in its pure state in the rugged uplands of Persia, among
the hardy shepherds and cultivators of that uninviting region, and
was professed by the early Achsemenian princes and accepted by their
subjects.
Worship The principal feature of the Zoroastrian religion during the first
Ah°fr - Peri°d was the acknowledgment and worship of One Supreme God,
Mazda. Ahura-Mazda, or Ormazd, " the Lord of Heaven," " the Giver of
heaven and earth," " He who disposed of thrones and dispensed hap-
piness." The first place in Persian inscriptions and decrees is as-
signed to the " Great God, Ormazd." Every Persian monarch of whom
we have inscriptions, each more than two lines long, mentions Ahura-
Mazda as his upholder; and the early Achaemenian kings did not name
any other god. All rule " by the grace of Ahura-Mazda." From
Ahura-Mazda proceed victory, conquest, safety, prosperity, blessings
of all kinds. The " law of Ahura-Mazda " is the rule of life. The
protection of Ahura-Mazda is the precious blessing for which prayer
is constantly offered.
Inferior Still " other gods," inferior to Ahura-Mazda, are recognized in a
Divini" general way. The usual prayer is to ask the protection of Ahura-
Mazda along with that of the inferior divinities (bada bagiabisTi).
Sometimes a special protection is asked for a particular class of deities
— IDii familiares — or " deities who guard the house."
ZOROASTRIANISM AND MAOISM.
599
The Persian inscriptions do not allude to the worship of Mithra,
or the Sun, until the reign of Artaxerxes Mnemon, the victor of Cu-
naxa. Neither do the inscriptions refer to the Dualism between the
good and evil beings or principles, Ahura-Mazda and Angra-Mainyus
— a belief which was a distinguishing feature of the Zoroastrian re-
ligion long before the rise of the Median Empire. Neither Herodotus
nor Xenophon has transmitted to us any account of this part of the
Persian creed, and Plutarch was the first Greek writer to give it
notice.
Persian worship in the early times was that required by the Zend-
Avesta, consisting of prayer and thanksgiving to Ahura-Mazda and
the good spirits of his creation, the recital of the Gathas, or hymns,
the offering of sacrifice, and the participation in the Soma ceremony.
Worship appears to have occurred in the temples, which most cunei-
form scholars believe are mentioned in the Behistun Inscription.
Darius Hystaspes and other early Persian kings represented them-
selves on their tombs in the act of worship. A few feet before them
is an altar set on three steps and crowned with the sacrificial fire. It
has a cquare shape, and is ornamented only with a sunken square re-
cess and a strongly-projecting cornice at the top. The altar, with the
steps, seems about four and a half feet high. The horse was the Per-
sians' favorite victim for sacrifice, though they also offered cattle, sheep
and goats. Human sacrifices were almost, if not wholly, unknown to
them, and are mentioned by no other authority than Herodotus, who
alludes to two occasions on which human victims were sacrificed by the
Persians. Human sacrifices were certainly not in accordance with the
spirit of pure Zoroastrianism.
Idolatry is entirely repugnant to the spirit of the Zend-Avesta, and
Herodotus says that the Persians knew nothing of images of gods,
Nevertheless they had symbolic representations of their deities, and
they adopted the forms of their religious symbolism from idolatrous
nations. The winged circle, with or without the human figure — used
by the Assyrians as the emblem of their supreme god, Asshur — was
employed by the Persians as the symbol of their Great God, Ahura-
Mazda, and as such was assigned conspicuous places on their rock-
tombs and on their great edifices. All the details of the Assyrian
model were followed, with but a single exception. The human figure
of the Assyrian original wore a close-fitting tunic, with short sleeves,
in accordance with the ordinary Assyrian costume, and was crowned
with the horned cap marking a god or a genius. In the Persian imita-
tion the Median robe and a tiara, sometimes that worn by the king and
sometimes that of the court officers, took the place of the Assyrian
costume.
VOL.
Sun
^j
Dualism.
Early
Early
Sacrifices.
Absenc*
600
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Symbol
of the
Sun.
Ahuras
and
Devas
Winged
Man-
headed
Bulls.
Emblems
of Evil
Powers.
The plain disk or orb represented on the Persian sculptures is the
symbol of Mithra, the Sun. In sculptures in which the emblem of
Mithra occurs with that of Ahura-Mazda, the latter occurs in the cen-
ter and the former to the right. The solar emblem appears on all the
sculptured tombs, but is seldom found elsewhere.
The Persians represented the spirits of good and evil — the Alviras
and the Devas of their mythology — under human, animal and mon-
strous forms. The figure of a good genius, which is seen on one of the
square pillars erected by Cyrus the Great at Pasargadae, is believed
to symbolize " the well-formed, swift, tall Serosh," mentioned in the
nineteenth Fargard of the Vendidad. The figure is that of a colossal
man, with four wings issuing from his shoulders, two of which spread
upwards above his head, while the other two droop downwards, reaching
almost to the feet. The figure stands erect, in profile, having both
arms raised and both hands open. The costume of the figure consists
of a long fringed robe extending from the neck down to the ankles,
and of a very remarkable head-dress. The latter is a striped cap,
fitting the head closely, and overshadowed by an elaborate ornament
of a purely Egyptian character. From the top of the cap are seen
rising two twisted horns, which spread right and left, and which sup-
port two grotesque human-headed figures, one on each side, and a com-
plicated triple ornament between them, unskillfully copied from a very
much more elegant Egyptian model.
The winged man-headed bulls, adopted by the Persians from the
Assyrians, with slight modifications, were perhaps likewise regarded as
emblems of some good genius, as they are represented on Persian cylin-
ders as upholding the symbol of Ahura-Mazda in the same manner that
the man-headed bulls on the Assyrian cylinders appear as upholding
the symbol of Asshur. Their position at Persepolis, where they
guarded the entrance to the palace, coincides with the idea that they
represented guardian spirits, objects specially regarded by the Per-
sians. But the bull is represented in the bas-reliefs of Persepolis
among the evil or hostile powers, which the king fights and destroys,
though the bull here represented is not winged or human-headed ; yet
on some cylinders, seemingly Persian, the king combats bulls of pre-
cisely the same type as that assigned in other cylinders to the uphold-
ers of Ahura-Mazda. Apparently in this case the bull in certain com-
binations and positions symbolized a good spirit, while in others he
was the emblem of a deva, or evil genius.
The usual emblems of the evil powers of mythology were winged
or unwinged lions and various grotesque monsters. At Persepolis the
lions stabbed or strangled are of the natural form, and this type like-
wise occurs upon gems and cylinders, but on these last the king's ad-
ZOROASTRIAN1SM AND MAOISM.
601
versary is frequently a winged lion, while sometimes he is both winged
and horned. The monsters are of two main types, in both of which
the forms of a bird and those of a beast are commingled, the bird pre-
dominating in the one, and the beast in the other.
During the prevalence of the purer and earlier form of the Persian
religion, the Persian kings, animated by a fierce iconoclastic spirit,
seized every opportunity to show their hatred and contempt for the
idolatries of the surrounding nations, burning temples, confiscating or
destroying images, scourging or slaying idolatrous priests, stopping
festivals, disturbing tombs, smiting with the sword such animals as
were believed to be divine incarnations. Fearing to stir up religious
wars, they were somewhat tolerant within their own dominions, except
after a rebellion, when a province was at their mercy. But when they
invaded foreign lands they displayed their hostility toward idolatrous
and materialistic religions in the most forcible manner. During their
invasion of Greece they burned every temple they came near, and in
their first invasion and conquest of Egypt they outraged all the re-
ligious feelings of the people.
This period, when pure Zoroastrianism prevailed, was the time when
a religious sympathy drew together the Persian and Jewish nations.
Cyrus the Great seems to have identified Jehovah with Ahura-Mazda ;
and, accepting the prophecy of Isaiah as a Divine command, under-
took the rebuilding of their Temple for a people, who, like his own,
permitted no image to defile their sanctuary. Darius Hystaspes like-
wise encouraged the completion of the enterprise, after it had been
interrupted by the troubles following the death of Cambyses. Thus
was laid the foundation for that intimate friendship between the two
nations, as shown us so abundantly in the books of Ezra, Nehemiah and
Esther — a friendship which induced the Jews to remain loyal to Persia
to the very last, and to brave the conquering Alexander the Great after
his victory of Issus, rather than desert masters who had treated them
with so much kindness and sympathy.
The first effort made to corrupt the original pure Zoroastrian faith
was during the reign of the Pseudo-Smerdis. Herodotus states that
when Cambyses started on his expedition against Egypt he left a
Magus named Patizeithes at the capital as controller of the royal house-
hold. The appointment of the priest of an alien religion to such an
important office is the first evidence we possess of a decline of zeal on
the part of the Achaemenian kings, and the first historical proof of
the existence of Magism within the limits of Persia proper. It is likely
that Magism was a more ancient creed than that of Zoroaster in the
country in which the Persians had become settled; but now, for the
first time since the Persian conquest of Media, Magism began to make
Hatred
of
Idolatry.
Persian
and
Jewish
Friend-
ship.
First
Effort to
Corrupt
Zoroas-
trianism.
602
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Ultimate
Fusion
with
Magism.
Magian
Rites.
Fire
Worship.
a show of its strength, to force itself into exalted official stations, and
to attract general attention. Originally the religion of the old Scy-
thic tribes conquered by the Persians and held in subjection by them,
it had acquired many votaries among the Persians themselves. The
very causes which had corrupted Zoroastrianism in Media soon after
the rise of her empire were slowly at work in Persia, where Magism
had made many converts before Cambyses started for Egypt. His
long stay in that land hurried on the politico-religious crisis in Persia
under the Pseudo-Smerdis, when the Magi attempted to substitute
Magism for Zoroastrianism as the state religion. The miserable fail-
ure of this attempt was immediately followed by a reaction, and it
appeared as if Zoroastrianism had won a final triumph. But Magism,
defeated in this effort to establish itself by force, began to work more
quietly and insidiously, and by degrees and apparently almost imper-
ceptibly grew into favor, mingling itself with the Zoroastrian creed,
simply adding to it, but not displacing it. The later Persian system
was a union of the Magian elemental worship and the Dualism of Zoro-
aster; the Magi became the national priesthood; the rites and cere-
monies of the two religions were commingled ; and two originally sepa-
rate and distinct, but not wholly antagonistic, creeds were blended into
one system. The name of Zoroaster was still cherished in fond remem-
brance by the Persian nation, while practically Magian rites predomi-
nated, and the later Greeks called the mixed religion " the Magism of
Zoroaster."
We have described the Magian rites in preceding paragraphs, and
repetition is unnecessary. Their predominant feature was the fire-
worship still cherished by those descendants of the ancient Persians
who did not accept the Mohammedan religion. On lofty mountain
peaks in the chains traversing both Media and Persia, fire-altars were
erected, on which burned a perpetual flame constantly watched lest it
be extinguished, and believed to have been kindled from heaven. A
shrine or temple was reared over the altar in most cases, and on these
spots the Magi daily chanted their incantations, exhibited their bar-
soms, or divining-rods, and performed their strange ceremonies. Vic-
tims were offered on these fire-altars. On the occasion of a sacrifice,
fires were kindled near by with logs of dry wood, from which the bark
had been stripped, and which was lighted from a flame which burned
from the fire-altar. A small quantity of the victim's fat was con-
sumed in this sacrificial fire, but the remainder of the victim was cut
into joints, boiled, and then eaten or sold by the worshiper. Accord-
ing to the Magi, the animal's soul was the true offering, which the god
accepted.
ZOROASTRIANISM AND MAOISM.
603
If the Persians ever offered human victims, as Herodotus says they
did on two occasions, this horrid practice must be ascribed to Magian
influence, as it is wholly antagonistic to the entire spirit of Zoroaster's
teaching. The first instance of this practice is said to have occurred
during the reign of Xerxes, when Magism, which had been sternly
repressed by Darius Hystaspes, endeavored again to show its power,
grew into favor at court, and secured a permanent standing. Herod-
otus tells us that the Persians, during their invasion of Greece, sacri-
ficed at Ennea Hodoi, on the Strymon river, nine youths and nine maid-
ens by burying them alive.
Having accepted a fusion of Magism with their original Zoroastrian
creed, the Persians thereafter gradually adopted such portions of other
religious systems as attracted them and with which they had been
brought into close contact. Before the time of Herodotus they had
adopted the Babylonian worship of a Nature-goddess, identified by the
Greeks at one time with their Aphrodite, at another time with Artemis,
at another time with Here ; thus compromising with one of the grossest
of the idolatries which they despised and detested in theory. Thus
the Babylonian goddess Nana — the counterpart of the Grecian Aphro-
dite and the Roman Venus — was accepted by the Persians under the
name of Nanaea, Ansea, Anaitis, or Tanata, and soon became one of the
chief objects of Persian worship. Actual idolatry was at first avoided,
but Artaxerxes Mnemon, the victor of Cunaxa and a zealous devotee
of the goddess, not satisfied with the mutilated worship which then pre-
vailed, sought to introduce images of this goddess into all the chief
cities of the empire — Susa, Persepolis, Babylon, Ecbatana, Damascus,
Sardis, Bactria.
The introduction of this idolatry was soon followed by another.
Mithra, the Sun — so long reverenced, if not actually worshiped by
the Zoroastrians — was likewise honored with a statue and accepted as
a god of the first rank, during the reign of Artaxerxes Mnemon.
Towards the close of the empire two hitherto inferior and obscure
deities — Vohumano, or Bahman, and Amerdad, or Amendad, counselors
of Ahura-Mazda — became the objects of an idolatrous worship; shrines
being erected in their honor, and being often visited by companies of
Magi, who chanted their incantations and performed their rites of
divination in these new edifices as readily as before the old fire-altars.
The image of Vohu-mano was of wood and was carried in procession on
certain occasions.
Thus, in the progress of time, the Persian religion became more and
more assimilated to the systems of belief and worship prevalent among
the neighboring Asiatic nations. Several kinds of idolatry came into
vogue, some borrowed from other nations, others evolved out of the
Story of
Human
Sacrifice
Related
by
Herod-
otus.
Further
Corrup-
tion of
Zoroas-
trianism.
Statue
of the
Sun.
Later
Idola-
trous
Worship.
Several
Kinds of
Idolatry,
604
The Zend
Lan-
guage.
Written
Lan-
guage.
Rock
Tablets,
Inscrip-
tions,
Legends,
Etc.
Persian itself. Magnificent temples were reared to the worship of
various deities ; " and the degenerate descendants of pure Zoroastrian
spiritualists bowed down to images, and entangled themselves in the
meshes of a sensualistic and most debasing Nature- worship." Never-
theless, the Dualistic faith maintained itself amid all the corruptions.
Ahura-Mazda, or Ormazd, was from first to last acknowledged as the
Supreme God. Anpra-Mainyus, or Ahriman, was from first to
last recognized as the great evil principle or spirit, neither becoming
an object of worship, nor a mere personification of evil. Aristotle's
inquiries near the close of the empire still showed Ormazd and Ahri-
man admitted t > be " Principles " of good and evil, " still standing in
the same hostile and antithetical attitude, one towards the other, which
they oct oied when the first Fargard of the Vendidad was written, long
anterior to the rise of the Persian power."
The Zend-Avesta was written in the ancient sacred Zend language.
The language of the Medes and Persians belonged to the form of
speech known to moderns as the Aryan, or Indo-European. The pecu-
liarities of the Indo-European forms of speech are a certain number
of common, or widely-spread, roots. The old roots of the Medo-Per-
sian language are almost universally kindred forms familiar to the
philologist through the Sanskrit or the Zend, or both, while many of
them are forms common to all, or most, of the varieties of the Indo-
European stock. Thus father in the old Persian, as in Sanskrit, is
pitar, and in Zend is pater; in Greek patar; in Latin pater; in Gothic
fader; in German vater; in English father; and in Erse, or native Irish,
athair. Name is in old Persian, Zend and Sanskrit ndna; in Greek
onoma; in Latin nomen; in German nahme, or name; in English name.
The word house in Greek is domos; in Latin domus; in Sanskrit, or
ancient Hindoo, dama; in Zend and Medo-Persian demana; in Irish
dahm; in Slavonic domu, and our English word domestic comes from
the same root.
The ordinary writing of the Medes and Persians — as their race
origin, their language, institutions and religion — was identical ; and its
characters were found in a cuneiform alphabet of thirty-six or thirty-
seven forms, representing twenty-three distinct sounds. The writing
was from left to right, as with the Aryan nations in general. Words
were separated from one another by an oblique wedge, and were di-
vided at any point where the writer reached the end of a line. Enclit-
ics were joined without any break in the words which they accompa-
nied.
The Persian writing has been transmitted to us almost entirely upon
stone. It includes many rock-tablets, inscriptions upon buildings, and
several brief legends upon vases and cylinders. It is incised or cut
ZOROASTRIANISM AND MAOISM.
into the material in every instance. The letters differ in size; some
being two inches long; those of vases about a sixth of an inch. The
inscriptions cover a space of no less than a hundred and eighty years,
beginning with Cyrus the Great, and ending with Artaxerxes Ochus.
It is believed that the Persians also employed a cursive writing for
ordinary literary purposes. Ctesias says that the royal archives were
written on parchment, and there is sufficient evidence that the edu-
cated Persians were thoroughly familiar with the art of writing, as
attested by Herodotus and Thucydides. Says Professor Rawlinson:
" It might have been supposed that the Pehlevi, as the lineal descend-
ant of the Old Persian language, would have furnished valuable assis-
tance towards solving the question of what character the Persians em-
ployed commonly ; but the alphabetic type of the Pehlevi inscriptions
is evidently Semitic ; and it would thus seem that the old national modes
of writing had been completely lost before the establishment by Arde-
shir, son of Babek, of the New Persian Empire."
The following passages are from the oldest part of the Avesta, the Passages
GfltVm<5- from the
Gathas.
" Good is the thought, good the speech, good the work of the pure
Zarathustra."
" I desire by my prayer with uplifted hands this joy — the pure
works of the Holy Spirit, Mazda ... a disposition to perform good
actions . . . and pure gifts for both worlds, the bodily and spir-
itual."
" I have intrusted my soul to Heaven . . . and I will teach what
is pure so long as I can."
" I keep forever purity and good-mindedness. Teach thou me,
Ahura-Mazda, out of thyself; from heaven; by thy mouth, whereby
the world first arose."
" Thee have I thought, O Mazda, as the first, to praise with the
soul . . . active Creator . . . Lord of the worlds . . . Lord of good
things . . . the first fashioner . . . who made the pure creation . . .
who upholds the best soul with his understanding."
" I praise Ahura-Mazda, who has created cattle, created the water
and good trees, the splendor of light, the earth and all good. We
praise the Fravashis of the pure men and women — whatever is fairest,
purest, immortal."
" We honor the good spirit, the good kingdom, the good law — all
that is good."
" Here we praise the soul and body of the Bull, then our own souls,
the souls of the cattle which desire to maintain us in life . . . the
good men and women . . . the abode of the water . . . the meeting
and parting of the ways . . . the mountains which make the waters
606 MEDIA AND PERSIA.
flow . . . the strong wind created by Ahura-Mazda . . . the Haoma,
giver of increase, far from death."
" Now give ear to me, and hear ! the Wise Ones have created all.
Evil doctrine shall not again destroy the world."
" In the beginning, the two heavenly Ones spoke — the Good to the
Evil — thus : * Our souls, doctrines, words, works, do not unite to-
gether.' "
" How shall I satisfy thee, O Mazda, I, who have little wealth, few
men ? How may I exalt thee according to my wish ! . . . I will be
contented with your desires ; this is the decision of my understanding
and of my soul."
From the The following is from the Khordah-Avesta :
Avesta." " ^n *ne name °f God, the giver, forgiver, rich in love, praise be to
the name of Ormazd, the God with the name, ' Who always was, always
is, and always will be ' ; the heavenly amongst the heavenly, with the
name ' From whom alone is derived rule.' Ormazd is the greatest
ruler, mighty, wise, creator, supporter, refuge, defender, completer of
good works, overseer, pure, good, and just.
"With all strength (bring I) thanks; to the great among beings,
who created and destroyed, and through his own determination of time,
strength, wisdom, is higher than the six Amshaspands, the circumfer-
ence of heaven, the shining sun, the brilliant moon, the wind, the water,
the fire, the earth, the trees, the cattle, the metals, mankind.
" Offering and praise to that Lord, the completer of good works,
who made men greater than all earthly beings, and through the gift
of speech created them to rule the creatures as warriors against the
Daevas.
" Praise the omniscience of God, who hath sent through the holy
Zarathustra peace for the creatures, the wisdom of the law — the en-
lightening derived from the heavenly understanding, and heard with
the ears — wisdom and guidance for all beings who are, were, and will
be, (and) the wisdom of wisdoms; which effects freedom from hell for
the soul at the bridge, and leads it over to that Paradise, the brilliant,
sweet-smelling of the pure.
" All good do I accept at thy command, O God, and think, speak,
and do it. I believe in the pure law ; by every good work seek I for-
giveness for all sins. I keep pure for myself the serviceable work and
abstinence from the unprofitable. I keep pure the six powers —
thought, speech, work, memory, mind, and understanding. Accord-
ing to thy will am I able to accomplish, O accomplisher of good, thy
honor, with good thoughts, good words, good works.
" I enter on the shining way to Paradise ; may the fearful terror of
hell not overcome me! May I step over the bridge Chinevat, may I
ZOROASTRIANISM AND MAOISM. (J07
attain Paradise, with much perfume, and all enjoyments, and all bright-
ness.
" Praise to the Overseer, the Lord, who rewards those who accom-
plish good deeds according to his own wish, purifies at last the obedient,
and at last purifies even the wicked one of hell. All praise be to the
creater, Ormazd, the all-wise, mighty, rich in might ; to the seven Am-
shaspands ; to Ized Bahrain, the victorious annihilator of foes."
The following is a Confession or Patet : A Patet,,
" I repent of all sins. All wicked thoughts, words, and works which
I have meditated in the world, corporeal, spiritual, earthly, and heav-
enly, I repent of, in your presence, ye believers. O Lord, pardon
through the three words.
" I confess myself a Mazdaya9nian, a Zarathustrian, an opponent
of the Daevas, devoted to belief in Ahura, for praise, adoration, satis-
faction, and laud. As it is the will of God, let the Zaota say to me,
Thus announces the Lord, the Pure out of Holiness, let the wise speak.
" I praise all good thoughts, words, and works, through thought,
word, and deed. I curse all evil thoughts, words, and works away from
thought, word, and deed. I lay hold on all good thoughts, words, and
works, with thoughts, words, and works, i. e., I perform good actions,
I dismiss all evil thoughts, words, and works, from thoughts, words,
and works, i. e., I commit no sins.
" I give to you, ye who are Amshaspands, offering and praise, with
the heart, with the body, with my own vital powers, body and soul.
The whole powers which I possess, I possess in dependence on the Yaza-
tas. To possess in dependence upon the Yazatas means (as much as)
this : if anything happen so that it behooves to give the body for the
sake of the soul, I give it to them.
" I praise the best purity, I hunt away the Devs, I am thankful for
the good of the Creator Ormazd, with the opposition and unrighteous-
ness which come from Ganamainyo, am I contented and agreed in the
hope of the resurrection. The Zarathustrian law created by Ormazd
I take as a plummet. For the sake of this way I repent of all
sins.
" I repent of the sins which can lay hold of the character of men,
or which have laid hold of my character, small and great which are
committed amongst men, the meanest sins as much as is (and) can be,
yet more than this, namely, all evil thoughts, words, and works which
(I have committed) for the sake of others, or others for my sake, or if
the hard sin has seized the character of an evil-doer on my account —
such sins, thoughts, words, and works, corporeal, mental, earthly, heav-
enly, I repent of with the three words: pardon, O Lord, I repent of
the sins with Patet.
1—41
008 MEDIA AND PERSIA.
" The sins against father, mother, sister, brother, wife, child, against
spouses, against the superiors, against my own relations, against those
living with me, against those who possess equal property, against the
neighbors, against the inhabitants of the same town, against servants,
every unrighteousness through which I have been amongst sinners — of
these sins repent I with thoughts, words, and works, corporeal as spirit-
ual, earthly as heavenly, with the three words: pardon, O Lord, I
repent of sins.
" The defilement with dirt and corpses, the bringing of dirt and
corpses to the water and fire, or the bringing of fire and water to dirt
and corpses; the omission of reciting the Avesta in mind, of strewing
about hair, nails and toothpicks, of not washing the hands, all the rest
which belongs to the category of dirt and corpses, if I have thereby
come among the sinners, so repent I of all these sins with thoughts,
words, and works, corporeal as spiritual, earthly as heavenly, with the
three words: pardon, O Lord, I repent of sin.
" That which was the wish of Ormazd the Creator, and I ought to
have thought, and have not thought, what I ought to have spoken and
have not spoken, what I ought to have done and have not done; of
these sins repent I with thoughts, words, and work?," etc.
" That which was the wish of Ahriman, and I ought not to have
thought and yet have thought, what I ought not to have spoken and
yet have spoken, what I ought not to have done and yet have done;
of these sins I repent," etc.
" Of all and every kind of sin which I committed against the crea-
tures of Ormazd, as stars, moon, sun, and the red burning fire, the dog,
the birds, the five kinds of animals, the other good creatures which are
the property of Ormazd, between earth and heaven, if I have become
a sinner against any of these, I repent," etc.
" Of pride, haughtiness, covetousness, slandering the dead, anger,
envy, the evil eye, shamelessness, looking at with evil intent, looking at
with evil concupiscence, stiff-neckedness, discontent with the godly
arrangements, self-willedness, sloth, despising others, mixing in strange
matters, unbelief, opposing the Divine powers, false witness, false
judgment, idol-worship, running naked, running with one shoe, the
breaking of the low (midday) prayer, the omission of the (midday)
prayer, theft, robbery, whoredom, witchcraft, worshiping with sorcer-
ers, unchastity, tearing the hair, as well as all other kinds of sin which
are enumerated in this Patet, or not enumerated, which I am aware of,
or not aware of, which are appointed or not appointed, which I should
have bewailed with obedience before the Lord, and have not bewailed
— of these sins repent I with thoughts, words, and works, corporeal
ZOROASTRIANISM AND MAOISM.
609
as spiritual, earthly as heavenly. O Lord, pardon, I repent with the
three words, with Patet.
" If I have taken on myself the Patet for any one and have not per-
formed it, and misfortune has thereby come upon his soul or his de-
scendants, I repent of the sin for every one with thoughts," etc.
" With all good deeds am I in agreement, with all sins am I not in
agreement, for the good am I thankful, with iniquity am I contented.
With the punishment at the bridge, with the bonds and tormentings
and chastisements of the mighty of the law, with the punishment of
the three nights (after) the fifty-seven years am I contented and
satisfied."
The following is a hymn to a star:
" The star Tistrya praise we, the shining, majestic, with pleasant
good dwelling, light, shining conspicuous, going around, healthful,
bestowing joy, great, going round about from afar, with shining
beams, the pure, and the water which makes broad seas, good, far-
famed, the name of the bull created by Mazda, the strong kingly
majesty, and the Fravashi of the holy pure, Zarathustra.
" For his brightness, for his majesty, will I praise him, the star
Tistrya, with audible praise. We praise the star Tistrya, the brilliant,
majestic, with offerings, with Haoma bound with flesh, with Maiithra
which gives wisdom to the tongue, with word and deed, with offerings
with right-spoken speech."
" The star Tistrya, the brilliant, majestic, we praise, who glides so
softly to the sea like an arrow, who follows the heavenly will, who is
a terrible pliant arrow, a very pliant arrow, worthy of honor among
those worthy of honor, who comes from the damp mountain to the shin-
ing mountain."
The following is a hymn to Mithra:
" Mithra, whose long arms grasp forwards here with Mithra
strength ; that which is in Eastern India he seizes, and that which [is]
in the western he smites, and what is on the steppes of Rauha, and
what is at the ends of this earth.
" Thou, O Mithra, dost seize these, reaching out thy arms. The
unrighteous destroyed through the just is gloomy in soul. Thus
thinks the unrighteous : Mithra, the artless, does not see all these evil
deeds, all these lies.
" But I think in my soul : No earthly man with a hundred-fold
strength thinks so much evil as Mithra with heavenly strength thinks
good. No earthly man with a hundred-fold strength speaks so much
evil as Mithra with heavenly strength speaks good. No earthly man
with a hundred-fold strength does so much evil as Mithra with heavenly
strength does good.
Hymn
to the
Star
Tistrya.
Hymn to
Mithra,
or the
Sun.
610
MEDIA AND PERSIA.
Persepol-
itan
Inscrip-
tiona.
From the
Gathas.
" With no earthly man is the hundred-fold greater heavenly under-
standing allied as the heavenly understanding allies itself to the heav-
enly Mithra, the heavenly. No earthly man with a hundred-fold
strength hears with the ears as the heavenly Mithra, who possesses a
hundred strengths, sees every liar. Mightily goes forward Mithra,
powerful in rule marches he onwards; fair visual power, shining from
afar, gives he to the eyes."
The following are inscriptions at Persepolis, the Persian capital:
" Darius, the King, King of Kings, son of Hystaspes, successor of
the Ruler of the World, Djemchid."
" Ahura-Mazda (Ormazd) is a mighty God; who has created the
earth, the heaven, and men ; who has given glory to men ; who has made
Xerxes king, the ruler of many. I, Xerxes, King of Kings, king of
the earth near and far, son of Darius, an Achsemenid. What I have
done here, and what I have done elsewhere, I have done by the grace
of Ahura-Mazda."
The following is one of the Gathas, and is by some assigned to
Zoroaster himself:
" Now will I speak and proclaim to all who have come to listen
Thy praise, Ahura-Mazda, and thine, O Vohu-mano.
Asha! I ask that thy grace may appear in the lights of heaven.
" Hear with your ears what is best, perceive with your mind what is purest,
So that each man for himself may, before the great doom cometh,
Choose the creed he prefers. May the wise ones be on our side.
"These two spirits are twins; they made known in times that are bygone
That good and evil, in thought, and word, and action.
Rightly decided between them the good; not so the evil.
"When these Two came together, first of all they created
Life and death, that at last there might be for such as are evil
Wretchedness, but for the good a happy blest existence.
"Of these Two the One who was evil chose what was evil;
He who was kind and good, whose robe was the changeless Heaven,
Chose what was right; those, too, whose works pleased Ahura-Mazda.
"They could not rightly discern who erred and worshipped the Devas;
They the Bad Spirit chose, and, having held counsel together,
Turned to Rapine, that so they might make man's life an affliction.
"But to the good came might; and with might came wisdom and virtue;
Armaiti herself, the Eternal, gave to their bodies
Vigor; e'en thou wert enriched by the gifts that she scattered, O Mazda.
"Mazda, the time will come when the crimes of the bad shall be punished;
Then shall thy power be displayed in fitly rewarding the righteous —
Them that have bound and delivered up falsehood to Asha the Truth-God.
ZOROASTRIANISM AND MAOISM.
"Let us then be of those who advance this world and improve it,
O Ahura-Mazda, O Truth-God bliss conferring!
Let our minds be ever there where wisdom abideth!
" Then indeed shall be seen the fall of pernicious falsehood ;
But in the house where dwell Vohu-mano, Mazda, and Asha —
Beautiful house — shall be gathered forever such as are worthy.
" O men, if you but cling to the precepts Mazda has given,
Precepts, which to the bad are a torment, but joy to the righteous,
Then shall you one day find yourselves victorious through them."
Another specimen is from the " Ya9na," or " Book on Sacrifice," From the
and is probably some centuries later than the great bulk of the Gathas :
" We worship Ahura-Mazda, the pure, the master of purity.
We worship the Amesha-Spentas, possessors and givers of blessings.
" We worship the whole creation of Him who is True, the heavenly,
With the terrestrial, all that supports the good creation,
All that favors the spread of the good Mazd-Ya?na religion.
" We praise whatever is good in thought, in word, or in action,
Past or future; we also keep clean whatever is excellent.
" O Ahura-Mazda, thou true and happy being !
We strive both to think, and to speak, and to do whatever is fittest
Both our lives to preserve, and bring them both to perfection.
" Holy spirit of earth, for our best works' sake, we entreat thee,
Grant us beautiful fertile fields — aye, grant them to all men,
Believers and unbelievers, the wealthy and those that have nothing."
Ahura-Mazda is thus spoken of in the Zend-Avesta : Hvmn of
" Blessed is he, blessed are all men to whom the living wise God of Praise to
his own command should grant those two everlasting powers (immor- "
tality and purity). I believe thee, O Ahura-Mazda, to be the best
thing of all, the source of light for the world. Everyone shall choose
thee as the source of light, thee, thee, holiest Mazda! . . .
" I ask thee, tell me it right, thou living God ! Who was from the
beginning the Father of the pure world? Who has made a path for
the sun and for the stars? Who (but thou) makes the moon to in-
crease and to decrease? This I wish to know, except what I already
know.
" Who holds the earth and the skies above it? Who made the
waters and the trees of the field? Who is in the winds and storms that
they so quickly run? Who is the Creator of the good-minded beings,
thou Wise? Who has made the kindly light and the darkness, the
kindly sleep, and the awaking!
" Who has made the mornings, the noons and the nights, they who
remind the wise of his duty? "
From Stereograph, copyright /goj by Underwood &• Underwood
A BURNING GHAT ON THE GANGES AT BENARES, INDIA
CHAPTER VliL
THE SANSKEITIC HINDOOS.
SECTION I.— GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.
THE peninsula of Hindoostan contains almost a million and a quar- India, or
ter square miles. This great domain of Southern Asia is divided ^Q
physically into three very distinct tracts, one towards the north-west,
consisting of the basin drained by the Indus; one towards the east, or
the basin drained by the Ganges ; and one towards the south, or the
peninsula proper. The north-western division, or the Indus valley, is
the only one connected with ancient history. This region has already
been described in our geographical account of the provinces of the
Medo-Persian Empire. The portion of India north of the Vindya
mountains was anciently called Hindoostan, and the region south of
that range was designated as the Deccan.
Hindoostan is bounded on the north by the Chinese Empire ; on the Location
east by Burmah, Siam and the Bay of Bengal; on the south by the ^.^
Indian Ocean ; and on the west by the Arabian Sea, Beloochistan and
Afghanistan. It is about eighteen hundred miles in extent from north
to south, and in its widest part about fifteen hundred miles from east
to west. Its area is one million four hundred thousand square miles,
and it contains about two hundred and fifty million inhabitants.
The Himalaya mountains, which extend along its northern border, Moun-
divide it from Thibet, and are the highest in the world; one of its
peaks, Mt. Everest, almost six miles high, being the loftiest mountain
peak on the globe. These mountains rise in successive stages from
the plains, forming several parallel ridges, their tops being covered
with perpetual snow. The Western Ghauts are a mountain range
along the western shore of Hindoostan, reaching an elevation of almost
two miles. The Eastern Ghauts are a less lofty mountain chain along
the eastern coast.
The Ganges is the principal river of Hindoostan. It rises in the The
Himalaya mountains ; and, after a winding course of eight hundred GanSes-
miles among these chains, flows through the delightful plains for thir-
613
614
THE SANSKRITIC HINDOOS.
The
Indus.
Valleys
and
Plateaus.
Climate.
teen hundred miles, reaching the sea by many channels. A triangular
island, two hundred miles long, is formed and intersected by several
currents. The western branch, called the Hoogly river, is navigable
by ships. The Ganges is the sacred river of the Hindoos, who believe
that it has the power to cleanse them from all sin if they bathe in its
waters, and therefore it is the object of their highest veneration. The
entire navigable portion of this river, and the magnificent region which
it drains, with its millions of people, are now under the dominion of
Great Britain, which rules the entire peninsula of Hindoostan from
the Himalayas on the north to Cape Comorin on the south, and from
the frontiers of Burmah on the east to the confines of Afghanistan on
the west.
The Ganges receives the waters of eleven considerable rivers. It
has annual inundations in July and August, caused by the rains and
melting snows of the North. The Indus, or river of the Punjab and
Scinde in the extreme west, is the second great river of Hindoostan;
and rises on the northern slope of the Himalaya mountains in Thibet,
and, turning southward, breaks through the mountains and flows south-
west into the Arabian Sea. The Indus and its tributaries drain a fer-
tile region called the Punjab, meaning five rivers. The principal
tributaries of the Indus are the Chenab, the Sutlej and the Jhelum.
The chief rivers of Southern India are the Nerbudda, the Godavery
and the Kistna.
The extreme northern part of Hindoostan is mountainous and
rugged. The valley of the Ganges, embracing the chief part of
India, consists of a plain of unrivaled fertility, twelve hundred miles
long and four hundred miles wide ; over which flow large rivers with a
tranquil and even current. To the westward is the great Indian desert,
six hundred miles long. To the north-west is the extremely-fertile
region of the Punjab. Around the Nerbudda is the plateau of Central
India, twelve hundred feet above the level of the sea. Farther south
is the plateau of the Deccan, still more elevated. Beyond this, on the
east and west, the land sinks into a low, flat region.
The climate of Hindoostan varies greatly in different parts of the
country. The vast plains have an almost continual summer, yielding
double harvests, with the luxuriant foliage and the parching heat of
the torrid zone. The plateaus of Central India exhibit the products
of temperate climates. The elevated mountain region to the extreme
north displays immense forests of fir, and the mountain summits have
the stern features of perpetual winter. The flat region to the south
is hot and unhealthy. The year consists of three seasons — the rainy,
the cold and the hot. The rainy season lasts from June to October,
the cold from November to February, and the hot from March to
GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA.
No country in the world is richer in the variety of its vegetable Products,
products. Among its trees are the teak, almug, cocoa, betel, banian,
jaca, etc. There is an infinite variety of the most delicious fruits, such
as oranges, lemons, citrons, dates, almonds, mangoes, pineapples, mel-
ons, pomegranates, etc. Spices and aromatic plants abound. In some
portions of the country are extensive tracts covered with impenetrable
thickets of prickly shrubs and canes, called jungles, which are the re-
treat of wild beasts.
There are a great variety of animals found in India. There are Animals,
numerous wild and tame elephants, which have been trained to the ser-
vice of man from time immemorial, for war and the chase, as well as
for beasts of burden and travel. The royal Bengal tiger is almost
equal to the lion in strength, and is peculiar to India. The rhinoceros,
the lion, the bear, the leopard, the chetah, or hunting leopard, the
panther, the fox, the antelope, various kinds of deer, the nylghau, the
wild buffalo, the yak, or grunting ox, are among the more important
quadrupeds. The forests abound in monkeys, and huge crocodiles and
venomous serpents of large size are found in the marshes. An infinite
variety of birds of rich plumage are found in the jungles and the
forests.
Hindoostan produces an abundance of minerals, such as iron, copper. Minerals,
and lead. Diamonds are produced by washing in several places on the
Kistna and Godavery. Golconda has long been renowned for its dia-
monds and other precious gems.
Off the southern coast of Hindoostan is the fine island of Ceylon, Ceylon,
about three hundred miles long and about one hundred wide. The
coast is low and flat, and the interior abounds in mountains of moderate
height. The island produces fine fruits, and is celebrated for its cin-
namon. The chief town is Colombo. The natives are the Cingalese
and the Candians. The island belongs to Great Britain. Mission-
aries have been successful in converting the natives, and many English
have settled in the country, and have introduced European improve-
ments. The Hindoos are nearly black, though belonging to the Cau-
casian race, and to the Aryan branch. The Greeks had not heard of
the country until Alexander the Great had invaded it. It was then
and long afterwards called India, the term being applied to the entire
region between China and the Arabian Sea. Afterward geographers
divided it into India beyond the Ganges, and India within the Ganges.
The former is at present termed Farther India, and the latter Hindoo-
stan.
In ancient times Hindoostan was divided into many petty kingdoms
of which we know nothing ; and so it has remained for ages, except that
the Mogul empire several centuries ago comprehended the entire coun-
VOL. 2.— 18
THE SANSKRITIC HINDOOS.
try, as does the British dominion at the present time. Though divided
into many tribes and castes, the Hindoos are one people. Hindoostan
One has been invaded by the world's great conquerors, such as Alexander
People. ^e Great, Mahmoud of Ghiznee, Zingis Khan and Tamerlane; and
was the seat of the great empire of Aurungzebe several centuries ago.
SECTION II.— HINDOO ORIGIN AND CIVILIZATION.
Un- INDIA has been a land of mystery from the most remote antiquity.
change- From the most ancient times it has been known as one of the most
ableness.
populous regions of the globe, " full of barbaric wealth and a strange
wisdom." This celebrated land has attracted many of the great con-
querors of the world's history, and has been overrun and subdued by
the armies of Darius Hystaspes, of Alexander the Great, of Mahmoud
of Ghiznee, of Zingis Khan, of Tamerlane, of Nadir Shah, of Lord
Clive and Sir Arthur Wellesley. These conquerors, from the Persian
king to the British East-India Company, have overrun and plundered
India ; " but have left it the same unintelligible, unchangeable and mar-
velous country as before. It is the same land now which the soldiers
of Alexander described — the land of grotto temples dug out of solid
porphyry; of one of the most ancient pagan religions of the world;
of social distinctions fixed and permanent as the earth itself; of the
sacred Ganges; of the idol of Juggernaut, with its bloody worship;
the land of elephants and tigers ; of fields of rice and groves of palm ;
of treasuries filled with chests of gold, heaps of pearls, diamonds and
incense. But, above all, it is the land of unintelligible systems of
belief, of puzzling incongruities, and irreconcilable contradictions."
Wo The sacred books of the Hindoos are of the greatest antiquity, and
Hindoo their literature is one of the richest that has ever been produced, ex-
Records, tending back twenty or thirty centuries. Yet the Hindoos have no
history, no annals, no authentic chronology, for history belongs to this
world, and chronology belongs to time. But the Hindoos take no in-
terest in this world or in time. The ancient Egyptians considered
events so important that they wrote on stone and upon the imperish-
able records of the land the most trifling occurrences and affairs of
everyday life, inscribing them upon tombs and obelisks. But the Hin-
doos regarded this world and human events of so little account in com-
parison with the infinite world beyond this life that they made no rec-
ord of even the most important events, and were thus the most unhis-
toric people on earth, caring more " for the minutiae of grammar, or
the subtilties of metaphysics, than for the whole of their past." The
only certain date which has escaped ,the general obscurity shrouding
HINDOO ORIGIN AND CIVILIZATION.
617
ancient India is that of the Hindoo prince Chandragupta, a contem-
porary of Alexander the Great, and called Sandracottus by the Greek
historians. He became king B. C. 315, when Gautama the Buddha
had been dead, according to the Hindoo account, one hundred and
sixty years. According to this account Buddha must have died B. C.
477. This is the only date transmitted to us by the ancient Hin-
doos.
But in recent years light has dawned upon us from an unexpected
source. While we can derive no knowledge concerning the history of
India from its literature, or from its inscriptions or carved temples, the
science of language comes to our assistance. " The fugitive sounds,
which seem so fleeting and so changeable, prove to be more durable
monuments than brass or granite." The study of the Sanskrit lan-
guage— the sacred, and now obsolete, language of the ancient Brah-
manic Hindoos — has given us light concerning the ethnic origin of
this people and their migration from their primeval home to the land
of the Indus and the Ganges. " It has rectified the ethnology of
Blumenbach, has taught us who were the ancestors of the nations of
Europe, and has given us the information that one great family, the
Indo-European, has done most of the work of the world." It informs
us that this family, the Aryan, or Indo-European, consists of seven
races — the Hindoos, the Medo-Persians, the Greeks, the Romans, who
all migrated from their prehistoric ancestral home in Central Asia to
the South of Asia and Europe; and the Celts, the Teutons and the
Slavs, who entered Europe to the north of the Caucasus and the Cas-
pian. This light has been furnished us by the new science of com-
parative philology. The comparison of the languages of the seven
races just mentioned has made it clear that all these races were origin-
ally one ; that they migrated from a region of Central Asia east of the
Caspian and north-west of India; that they were originally a pastoral
or nomad people and gradually adopted agricultural habits as they
descended from the plains of the modern Turkestan into the valleys
of the Indus and the Ganges and overspread the plateau of Iran. In
these seven linguistic families the roots of the most common names are
the same, the grammatical constructions are also the same, thus fur-
nishing abundant evidence that the seven languages are descended from
one common mother-tongue.
The original stock of the great Indo-European race in Central Asia
before its dispersion has likewise been conjectured from the linguistic
evidence before us. The original stock has been called Aryan, a des-
ignation whi ch is found in Manu, who says : " As far as the eastern
and western Oceans, between the mountains, lies the land which the wise
have named Arya-vesta, or inhabited by honorable men." The people
Recent
Literary
Dis-
coveries.
The
Aryans.
618
THE SANSKRITIC HINDOOS.
Their
Original
Home.
Pastoral
Charac-
ter.
Pictet's
View.
Aryan
Social
Life.
of Iran are thus named in the Zend-Avesta, with the same meaning of
honorable. Herodotus says that the Medes were originally called
Aryans. Strabo states that in the time of Alexander the Great the
entire region about the Indus was called Ariana. In modern times the
name Iran for Persia and Erm for Ireland are perhaps linguistic ves-
tiges of the original family designation.
Long before the epoch of the Vedas, or the Zend-Avesta, the Aryans
were living as a pastoral people on the great plains east of the Caspian
Sea, in the region of the modern Turkestan. The condition of the
undivided Aryans in Central Asia is deduced from the circumstance
that the name of any fact is the same in two or more of the seven
Indo-European languages, as we have seen in our account of the Zend
and old Persian language. We have seen that the names for father,
for house and boat were almost similar in the seven languages, from
which we must infer that the prehistoric Aryans lived in houses, and
that they had made some progress in navigation, and that they sailed
in boats on the Jaxartes and the Oxus.
That the Aryans were originally a pastoral people is implied in the
very word pastoral, as pa in Sanskrit means to watch, to guard, as men
guard cattle — from which an entire series of words has been derived
in all the Aryan languages.
According to Pictet, the prehistoric Aryans — the ancestors of the
Hindoos, Medo-Persians, Greeks, Latins, Celts, Teutons and Slavs —
were dwelling in Central Asia, in the region of Bactria, some three
thousand years before Christ. They must have dwelt there long
enough to develop a language which became the mother-tongue of all
the Indo-European languages. They were a pastoral people, but not
nomads, as they had fixed habitations. They had oxen, horses, sheep,
goats, hogs and domestic fowls. Herds of cows fed in pastures, each
owned by a community, and each having a cluster of stables in the
center. The daughters of the house were the dairy-maids. The food
was mainly the products of the dairy and the flesh of the cattle. The
cow was the most important animal, and its name was given to many
plants, and even to the clouds and stars, wherein many fancied heavenly
herds to be passing over the firmament.
The Aryans were likewise an agricultural people, as they certainly
had barley, and perhaps other cereals before their separation into the
three branches which spread over India, Media and Persia, and Europe.
They possessed the plow, also mills for grinding grain. They had
hatchets, hammers and augurs. They were acquainted with gold, sil-
ver, copper and tin. They could spin and weave, and were acquainted
with pottery. Their houses had doors, windows and fireplaces. They
had cloaks or mantles. They boiled and roasted meat, and used soup.
HINDOO ORIGIN AND CIVILIZATION.
They had lances, swords, bows and arrows, and shields. They had
family life, some simple laws, games, dances, and wind instruments.
They were acquainted with the decimal notation, and their year had
three hundred and sixty days. They worshiped the heaven, the earth,
the sun, fire, water, wind; but this Nature-worship was developed out
of an earlier monotheism.
It is believed to have been three thousand years before Christ when Aryan
the Aryan ancestors of the Hindoos crossed the Indus and settled in to^ndia
the Hindoo peninsula, which they eventually overspread, conquering
the original dark-skinned races of the peninsula and intermingling with
them. After the Aryan emigrants had settled in the region between
the Punjab and the Ganges, they became transformed from warlike
shepherds into tillers of the soil and builders of cities. India became
one of the most ancient seats of civilization, the Hindoos attaining a
high degree of advancement in art, literature and philosophy ; but their
civilization at length became stationary, and they made no further
progress. Their literature was immense ; and their works were all writ-
ten in the very ancient and sacred Sanskrit language, now obsolete;
and many of these works are about four thousand years old. The old-
est works in the Hindoo literature are the Vedas, the early sacred
writings.
M. Saint-Martin says that the last hymn of the Vedas was written Saint
when the Hindoos had arrived at the Ganges from the Indus, and were view* S
building their oldest city at the confluence of the river with the Jumna.
They then had a white complexion, and called the race whom they
conquered blacks, who subsequently became Sudras, or the lowest caste
of India.
After conquering the original dark-skinned natives of the country, Origin
the Aryan immigrants imposed a system of castes in the severest form
upon the population. The number of castes was four, and the mem-
bers of each were not allowed to intermarry or associate with those of
any other caste. This rule has been strictly adhered to by the Hin-
doos to the present time. The first caste was that of the priests, or
Brahmans, who were a wealthy, honorable and privileged class, possess-
ing the chief political and ecclesiastical power, and were held in greater
respect and veneration than the princes. They were regarded as sacred
and inviolable. They were not subject to corporeal punishment for
any crime, were exempt from all taxation, and constituted the king's
chief council and held all the offices. The next caste was that of the
warriors, who were responsible for the security and defense of the state,
in return for their compensation and certain privileges. But the
peaceful character of the people and the remoteness of the country
from powerful enemies furnished little occasion for military duty ; and
THE SANSKRITIC HINDOOS.
thus the soldiers soon became slothful and degenerate, thus making it
easy for the priests, or Brahmans, to maintain their political ascend-
ency. The kings belonged to the soldier caste. The third caste was
composed of the tillers of the soil, merchants, tradesmen and mechanics,
who were heavily burdened with taxes and held the land only in right
of occupancy, not ownership. The fourth caste was that of the ser-
vants and laborers, called Sudras, who were descended from the dark-
skinned aborigines conquered by the Aryan immigrants. Every man
was obliged to follow his father's occupation; and those who violated
the rules of caste — a crime considered worse than death — became
Pariahs, or outcasts. They were regarded by the other Hindoos as the
refuse of mankind, and were treated with the deepest contempt.
" They do not venture to dwell in the towns, cities or villages, or even
in their neighborhood; everything they touch is looked upon as un-
clean, and it is pollution even to have seen them."
Sanskrit The rigorous division of Hindoo society into castes, laid down by
ture. the Brahmans as a divine ordinance, checked the progress of civiliza-
tion after it had reached a certain point, and caused it to lapse into
a state of repose and stagnation. The sensibility and creative imag-
ination of the Hindoos appears in their copious literature, which re-
lates intimately to their theology and religion. The most important
of their literary productions are the four books of the Vedas, which are
Vedas. held Jn the most profound respect by all classes of Hindoos, as their
religion. They include religious hymns and prayers, directions re-
specting sacrifices, and moral proverbs and maxims. The laws of
Manu are most highly reverenced after the Vedas. The Hindoos pos-
sessed many other poetical works, distinguished for highly figurative
language and for deep sensibility and religious feeling. Many of
these have been brought to Europe by the English since their conquest
of the country, and have been translated by scholars into the modern
European languages. In the first century after Christ — many ages
before Copernicus lived — Aryabhatta, a Hindoo, taught that the earth
is a sphere, and that it revolves on its own axis.
Discovery The vast realm of Sanskrit literature was unknown to Europe until
^7 Sir a century ago, when Sir William Jones, the great English scholar and
Jones. Orientalist, introduced it to the knowledge of the West. " The vast
realm of Hindoo, Chinese and Persian genius was as much a new con-
tinent to Europe, when discovered by Sir William Jones, as America
was when made known by Columbus. Its riches had been accumulating
during thousands of years, waiting till the fortunate man should arrive,
destined to reveal to our age the barbaric pearl and gold of the gor-
geous East — the true wealth of Ormus and of Ind."
From Stereograph, copyright iqojby Underwood &* Undeniuood
DRAVIDIAN TEMPLE CUT IN SOLID ROCK AT ELLORA, INDIA
BRAHMANISM. 621
Sir William Jones translated the laws of Manu, extracts from the Modern
Vedas, and other works, from the Sanskrit into English. Since his gdicrtars
time wonderful progress has been made in the study of Sanskrit litera-
ture, especially within the last half century, since the time when the
Schlegels led the way in this field. Professors of Sanskrit are now
found in all the great European universities, and this country has pro-
duced one eminent Sanskrit scholar in Professor William D. Whitney,
of Yale College. Among the leading modern Sanskrit scholars was
Professor Max Miiller, of the University of Oxford, in England, a
native of Germany. The system of Brahmanism, which until recently
was only known to Western readers through the works of Colebrooke,
Wilkins, Wilson and a few others, has now become accessible through
the writings of Max Miiller, Lassen, Bopp, Weber, Windischmann,
Burnouf, Muir, Vivien de Saint-Martin, and a host of other distin-
guished writers in Germany, France and England.
Hindoo art, as well as literature, was intimately connected with re-
ligion. Especially worthy of attention are the rock-hewn temples and
grottoes, the most renowned of which are those found at Ellora, in the
middle of Lower India; at Salsette, near Bombay, and on the island
of Elephanta, in the bay of Bombay. In these places we see temples,
grottoes, dwellings and passages, covered with images and inscriptions
cut one above another in the solid rock, and extending for miles. These
grottoes contain a vast quantity of works executed artistically and
elaborately, which must have required the labors of many thousands
of men for countless ages, and the greatest diligence and preseverance,
for their completion.
The great abundance of the productions of nature and art in India, India a
such as pearls, precious stones, ivory, spices, frankincense and silks, Foreign
has made that country famous from an early period, as the great cen- Conquest
ter of the maritime and caravan trade, and has likewise made it a con-
stant prey to foreign invasion and conquest. Disunited, and divided
into many petty kingdoms, and weakened by the system of castes and
other institutions, enervated by the lack of individual freedom, the
Hindoos were easily subdued by foreign invaders.
SECTION III.— BRAHMANISM.
THE religion of the Vedas consisted of odes and hymns — a religion Religion
of worship simply by adoration. There were sometimes prayers for Vedai.
temporal blessings, sometimes only for sacrifices and libations. There
are scarcely any traces of human sacrifices.
THE SANSKRITIC HINDOOS.
Four
Vedic
Periods.
Vedic
Gods.
Vedic
Theology.
Max Miiller divides the Vedic age into four periods, thus: Sutra
period, from B. C. 200 to B. C. 600. Brahmana period, from B. C.
600 to B. C. 800. Mantra period, from B. C. 800 to B. C. 1000.
Chandas period, from B. C. 1000 to B. C. 1200. Dr. Haug considers
the Vedic period as extending from B. C. 1200 to B. C. 2000, and the
very oldest hymns to have been composed B. C. 2400.
Indra, the god of the air, is the chief deity in the oldest Vedas. He
becomes Zeus in Greek, and Jupiter in Latin. The hymns to Indra
sound very much like the Psalms of David. Indra is invoked as the
most ancient god whom the fathers worshiped. Next to Indra comes
Agni, the god of fire. Fire is worshiped as the principal motion
on earth, as Indra was the moving power above the earth. The forms
of the flame and all belonging to it are worshiped, as well as the fire
itself. All nature is called Aditi, whose children are named Adityas.
M. Maury quotes from Gautama these words : " Aditi is heaven ; Aditi
is air; Aditi is mother, father and son; Aditi is all the gods and the
five races; Aditi is whatever is born and will be born; in short the
heavens and the earth, the heavens being the father and the earth the
mother of all things." This closely resembles the Greek Zeus-pateer
and Gee-meteer. Varuna is the vault of heaven. Mitra is frequently
associated with Varuna in the Vedic hymns. Mitra is the sun illumin-
ating the day, while Varuna was the sun with an obscure face going
back in the darkness from west to east to again take his luminous disk.
From Mitra the Persian Mithra appears to be derived. In the Veda
there are no invocations to the stars, but the Aurora, or Dawn, is
greatly admired; as are likewise the Aswins, or twin gods, who in
Greece become the Dioscuri. Rudra, the god of storms, is supposed
by some writers to be the same as Siva. But the two antagonistic wor-
ships of Vishnu and Siva do not appear until long after this period.
Vishnu appears frequently in the Veda, and his three steps are often
alluded to. These steps of Vishnu measure the heavens, but his actual
worship appeared at a much later period.
The theology taught by the Vedas embraced such chief gods as In-
dra, god of the air; Varuna, god of light, or heaven; Agni, god of
fire ; Savitri, god of the Sun ; and Soma, god of the moon. Yama was
the god of death. All the powers of Nature were personified in turn,
as earth, food, wine, seasons, months, day, night and dawn. Indra
and Agni were the chief of all the divinities, but an original monothe-
ism lurks behind this incipient polytheism, as each god in turn becomes
the Supreme Being. The Universal Deity appears first in one form
of Nature, then in another. Colebrooke says that " the ancient Hindoo
religion recognizes but one God, not yet sufficiently discriminating the
creature from the Creator." And Professor Max Miiller says : " The
BRAHMANISM.
623
hymns celebrate Varuna, Indra, Agni, etc., and each in turn is called
supreme. The whole mythology is fluent. The powers of nature be-
come moral beings."
Max Miiller adds : " It would be easy to find, in the numerous hymns
of the Veda, passages in which almost every single god is represented
as supreme and absolute. Agni is called ' Ruler of the Universe ' ;
Indra is celebrated as the strongest god, and in one hymn it is said,
' Indra is stronger than all.' It is said of Soma that he ' conquers
every one.' '
But clearer traces of monotheism than these are found in the Vedas.
In one hymn of the Rig- Veda it is said : " They call him Indra, Mitra,
Varuna, Agni ; then he is the well-winged heavenly Garutmat ; that
which is One, the wise call it many ways; they call it Agni, Yama,
Matarisvan."
The following from the Rig- Veda, the oldest of the Vedic hymns,
clearly expresses the unity of God:
" In the beginning there arose the Source of golden light. He was
the only born Lord of all that is. He established the earth, and this
sky. Who is the God to whom we shall offer our sacrifice?
" He who gives life. He who gives strength ; whose blessing all
the bright gods desire; whose shadow is immortality, whose shadow is
death. Who is the God to whom we shall offer our sacrifice?
" He who through his power is the only king of the breathing and
awakening world. He who governs all, man and beast. Who is the
god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice?
" He whose power these snowy mountains, whose power the sea pro-
claims, with the distant river. He whose these regions are, as it were
his two arms. Who is the god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice?
" He through whom the sky is bright and the earth firm. He
through whom heaven was established; nay, the highest heaven. He
who measured out the light in the air. Who is the god to whom we
shall offer our sacrifice?
" He to whom heaven and earth, standing firm by his will, look up,
trembling inwardly. He over whom the rising sun shines forth. Who
is the god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice?
" Wherever the mighty water-clouds went, where they placed the
seed and lit the fire, thence arose he who is the only life of the bright
gods. Who is the god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice?
" He who by his might looked even over the water-clouds, the clouds
which gave strength and lit the sacrifice ; he who is God above all gods.
Who is the god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice?
" May he not destroy us — he the creator of the earth — or he, the
righteous, who created heaven; he who also created the bright and
Traces
Unity of
God.
Vedic
Extracts.
THE SANSKRITIC HINDOOS.
mighty waters. Who is the god to whom we shall offer our sacri-
fices? "
Hymns to This is one of many hymns to Agni :
Agni. H Agni, accept this log which I offer to thee, accept this my ser-
vice; listen well to these my songs.
" With this log, O Agni, may we worship thee, thou son of strength,
conqueror of horses ! and with this hymn, thou high-born !
" May we thy servants serve thee with songs, O granter of riches,
thou who lovest songs and delightest in riches.
" Thou lord of wealth and giver of wealth, be thou wise and power-
ful ; drive away from us the enemies !
" He gives us rain from heaven, he gives us inviolable strength, he
gives us food a thousandfold.
" Youngest of the gods, their messenger, their invoker, most deserv-
ing of worship, come, at our praise, to him who worships thee and longs
for thy help.
" For thou, O sage, goest wisely between these two creations (heaven
and earth, gods and men), like a friendly messenger between two ham-
lets.
" Thou art wise, and thou hast been pleased ; perform thou, intelli-
gent Agni, the sacrifice without interruption, sit down on this sacred
grass ! "
Hymns to Indra is praised thus in the Rig- Veda :
Indra. « jje WJIQ ag soon as born js the first of the deities, who has done
honor to the gods by his deeds; he at whose might heaven and earth
are alarmed and who is known by the greatness of his strength; he,
men, is Indra.
" He who fixed firm the moving earth, who spread the spacious firma-
ment; he, men, is Indra.
" He who having destroyed Vritra, set free the seven rivers ; who
recovered the cows ; who generated fire in the clouds ; who is invincible
in battle ; he, men, is Indra.
" He to whom heaven and earth bow down ; he at whose might the
mountains are appalled; he who is drinker of the Soma juice, the firm
of frame, the adamant armed, the wielder of the thunderbolt ; he, men,
is Indra. May we envelope thee with acceptable praises as husbands
are embraced by their wives."
Hymns to Some of the verses in this hymn bear a strong likeness to one of the
Varuna. gran(jest Psalms in the Bible, the 139th:
" The great lord of these worlds sees as if he were near. If a man
thinks he is walking by stealth the gods know it all.
" If a man stands or walks or hides, if he goes to lie down or to
get up, what two people sitting together whisper, King Varuna knows
it, he is there as the third."
BRAHMANISM.
(So the Psalmist says : " Thou compassest my path and my lying
down and art acquainted with all my ways." Verse 3.)
" This earth, too, belongs to Varuna the king, and this wide sky
with its ends far apart. The two seas (the sky and the ocean) are
Varuna's loins ; he is also contained in this drop of water.
" He who should flee far beyond the sky, even he would not be rid
of Varuna the king. His spies proceed from heaven toward this world ;
with thousand eyes they overlook this earth. (Compare with this verse
7 to 12 of the same Psalm.)
" King Varuna sees all this, what is between heaven and earth, and
what is beyond. He has counted the twinklings of the eyes of men.
As a player throws the dice, he settles all things.
" May all thy fatal nooses, which stand spread out seven by seven
and threefold, catch the man who tells a lie, may they pass by him
who tells the truth."
We must not omit a few verses from prayers in which pardon for sin
is sought:
" However we break thy laws from day to day, men as we are, O
god Varuna,
" Do not deliver us unto death, nor to the glow of the furious, nor
to the wrath of the spiteful ! "
Again :
" Wise and mighty are the works of him who stemmed asunder the
wide firmaments (heaven and earth). He lifted on high the bright
and glorious heaven; he stretched out apart the starry sky and the
earth.
" I ask, O Varuna ! wishing to know this my sin. I go to ask the
wise. The sages all tell me the same: Varuna it is who is angry with
thee. * * *
" Absolve us from the sins of our fathers, and from those which we
committed with our own bodies."
The following contains some of the finest verses in the Veda:
" Let me not yet, O Varuna ! enter into the house of clay ; have mercy,
almighty, have mercy !
" If I go along trembling, like a cloud driven by the wind ; have
mercy, almighty, have mercy !
" Through want of strength, thou strong and bright god, have I
gone wrong ; have mercy, almighty, have mercy !
" Thirst came upon the worshiper, though he stood in the midst of
the waters ; have mercy, almighty, have mercy !
" Whenever we men, O Varuna ! commit an offence before the heav-
enly host, whenever we break the law through thoughtlessness ; punish
us not, O god, for that offence ! "
626
THE SANSKRITIC HINDOOS.
Hymn to
Ushas.
Origin
of all
Things.
Meta-
physical
Explana-
tion.
The following is a fine, simple hymn to Ushas:
" She shines upon us, like a young wife, rousing every living being
to go to his work. When the fire had to be kindled by men she made
the light by striking down darkness.
" She rose up, spreading far and wide, and moving everywhere. She
grew in brightness, wearing her brilliant garment. The mother of
the cows (that is, the mornings), the leader of the days, she shone gold-
colored, lovely to behold.
" She, the fortunate, who brings the eye of the gods, who leads the
white and lovely steed (of the sun), the dawn was seen revealed by
her rays, with brilliant treasures, following every one.
" Thou who art a blessing where thou art near, drive far away the
unfriendly ; make the pasture wide, give us safety ! Scatter the enemy,
bring riches! Raise up wealth to the worshiper, thou mighty Dawn.
" Shine for us with our best rays, thou bright Dawn, thou who
lengthenest our life, thou the love of all, who givest us food, who givest
us wealth in cows, horses and chariots.
" Thou daughter of the sky, thou high-born Dawn, whom the
Vasishthas magnify with songs, give us riches high and wide; all ye
gods protect us always with your blessings."
[Vasishtha was a leading Vedic poet.]
One of the Vedic poets who sought out the origin of all things asks
thus : " Who has seen the primeval being at the time of his being born,
when that which had no essence bore that which had an essence?
Where was the life, the blood, the soul of the world? Who sent to
ask this from the sage that knew it? * * * Immature in understand-
ing, undiscerning in mind, I inquire after those things which are hid-
den even from the gods. * * * Ignorant, I inquire of the sages who
know, who is the Only One who upheld the spheres ere they were
created? * * * They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni — then he
is the beautiful-winged heavenly Garutmat ; that which is one, the wise
give it many names — they call it Agni, Yama, Matarisvan."
A still bolder Vedic poet indulges in the deepest metaphysical specu-
lations, as expressed in the following lines:
" A time there was when nothing that now is
Existed — no, nor that which now is not;
There was no sky, there was no firmament.
What was it that then covered up and hid
Existence? In what refuge did it lie?
Was water then the deep and vast abyss,
The chaos in which all was swallowed up?
There was no Death — and therefore nought immortal.
BRAHMANISM.
There was no difference between night and day.
The one alone breathed breathless by itself;
Nor has aught else existed ever since.
Darkness was spread around ; all things were veiled
In thickest gloom, like ocean without light.
The germ that in a husky shell lay hid,
Burst into life by its own innate heat.
Then first came Love upon it, born of mind,
Which the wise men of old have called the bond
'Twixt uncreated and created things.
Came this bright ray from heaven, or from below?
Female and male appeared, and Nature wrought
Below, above wrought Will. Who truly knows,
Who has proclaimed it to us, whence this world
Came into being? The great gods themselves
Were later born. Who knows then whence it came?
The Overseer, that dwells in highest heaven,
He surely knows it, whether He himself
Was, or was not, the maker of the whole,
Or shall we say that even He knows not? "
The following hymn from the Vedas indicates that the Vedic poets Aspira-
had aspirations after immortality: Immor-
tality.
" Where there is eternal light, in the world where the sun is placed,
In that immortal, imperishable world, place me, O Soma.
.
" Where King Vaivaswata reigns, where the secret place of heaven is,
Where the mighty waters are, there make me immortal.
" Where life is free, in the third heaven of heavens,
Where the worlds are radiant, there make me immortal.
" Where wishes and desires are, where the place of the bright sun is,
Where there is freedom and delight, there make me immortal.
" Where there is happiness and delight, where j oy and pleasure reside,
Where the desires of our heart are attained, there make me immortal."
In the Rig- Veda is a hymn to be sung at burial service, as follows: Hymn to
Mother
" Approach thou now the lap of Earth, thy mother, Earth.
The wide-extending Earth, the ever-kindly;
A maiden soft as wool to him who comes with gifts,
She shall protect thee from destruction's bosom.
"Open thyself, O Earth, and press not heavily;
Be easy of access and of approach to him,
As mother with her robe her child,
So do thou cover him, O earth!
(J28 THE SANSKRITIC HINDOOS.
"May Earth maintain herself thus opened wide for him;
A thousand props shall give support about him;
And may those mansions ever drip with fatness;
May they be there forevermore his refuge.
"Forth from about thee thus I build away the ground;
As I lay down this clod may I receive no harm;
This pillar may the Fathers here maintain for thee;
May Yama there provide for thee a dwelling."
LMan °f Brahmanism began long after the age of the Vedas, and its text-
book is the Laws of Manu. Siva and Vishnu are yet unknown*
Vishnu is named but once, Siva not at all. The writer knows only
three of the Vedas. The Atharva-Veda is later. As Siva is named
in the oldest Buddhist writings, the Laws of Manu must have been more
ancient than these. In the time of Manu the Aryans were dwelling
in the valley of the Ganges. The caste-system was then completely
established, and the Brahmans' authority was supreme. The Indus
and the Punjab were then wholly forgotten. The Laws of Manu
were established somewhere from B. C. 1200 to B. C. 700. Wilson,
Max Miiller, Lassen and Saint-Martin believed them to have been writ-
ten about B. C. 900 or B. C. 1000. Brahma has now become acknowl-
edged as the Supreme Deity, and one still comes into relation with
him through sacrifice. Nothing is said about widow-burning in Manu ;
but it is mentioned in the Mahabharata, one of the great epics, which
appears later.
Transfer- "^n ^e regi°n °^ the Sarasvati, a holy river, formerly emptying into
mation. the Indus, but now lost in the desert, the Aryan race in India was trans-
formed from a people of nomads into a settled community. They
there received their laws, built their first cities, and founded the Solar
and Lunar monarchies.
The First The Manu of the Vedas and the Manu of the Brahmans are very
different personages. In the Vedas the first Manu is called the father
of mankind. He also — like Xisuthrus, Sisit or Noah — escapes de-
struction from a deluge by building a ship, which a fish advised him
to do. He preserved the fish, which grew to a vast size, and when the
flood came it acted as a tow-boat to drag the ship of Manu to a moun-
tain, as we are told in a Brahmana.
Name, The Brahmans appear afterward to have given the name of Manu
to their code of laws. Sir William Jones first translated these.
Extract The following is from the First Book of the Laws of Manu on
on
Creation Creation :
from « TJ^ universe existed in darkness, imperceptible, undefinable, un-
FirstBook j • i »
of Manu. discoverable, and undiscovered; as 11 immersed m sleep.
BRAHMANISM.
" Then the self -existing power, undiscovered himself, but making the
world discernible, with the five elements and other principles, appeared
in undiminished glory, dispelling the gloom."
" He, whom the mind alone can perceive, whose essence eludes the
external organs, who has no visible parts, who exists from eternity,
even he, the soul of all beings, shone forth in person.
" He having willed to produce various beings from his own divine
substance, first with a thought created the waters, and placed in them
a productive seed."
" The seed became an egg bright as gold, blazing like the luminary
with a thousand beams; and in that egg he was born himself, in the
form of Brahma, the great forefather of all spirits.
" The waters are called Nara, because they were the production of
Nara, or the spirit of God; and hence they were his first ayana, or
place of motion; he hence is named Nara yana, or moving on the
waters.
" In that egg the great power sat inactive a whole year of the crea-
tor, at the close of which, by his thought alone, he caused the egg to
divide itself.
" And from its two divisions he framed the heaven above and the
earth beneath; in the midst he placed the subtile ether, the eight re-
gions, and the permanent receptacle of waters.
" From the supreme soul he drew forth mind, existing substantially
though unperceived by sense, immaterial; and before mind, or the
reasoning power, he produced consciousness, the internal monitor, the
ruler.
" And before them both he produced the great principle of the soul,
or first expansion of the divine idea ; and all vital forms endued with
the three qualities of goodness, passion, and darkness, and the five per-
ceptions of sense, and the five organs of sensation.
" Thus, having at once pervaded with emanations from the Supreme
Spirit the minutest portions of fixed principles immensely operative,
consciousness and the five perceptions, he framed all creatures.
" Thence proceed the great elements, endued with peculiar powers,
and mind with operations infinitely subtile, the unperishable cause of
all apparent forms.
" This universe, therefore, is compacted from the minute portions
of those seven divine and active principles, the great soul, or first
emanation, consciousness, and five perceptions ; a mutable universe
from immutable ideas.
" Of created things, the most excellent are those which are animated ;
of the animated, those which subsist by intelligence ; of the intelligent,
mankind ; and of men, the sacerdotal class.
THE SANSKRITIC HINDOOS.
" Of priests, those eminent in learning ; of the learned, those who
know their duty : of those who know it, such as perform it virtuously ;
and of the virtuous, those who seek beatitude from a perfect acquain-
tance with scriptural doctrine.
" The very birth of Brahmans is a constant incarnation of Dharma,
God of justice; for the Brahman is born to promote justice, and to
procure ultimate happiness.
" When a Brahman springs to light, he is born above the world, the
chief of all creatures, assigned to guard the treasury of duties, reli-
gious and civil.
" The Brahman who studies this book, having performed sacred
rites, is perpetually free from offence in thought, in word and in deed.
" He confers purity on his living family, on his ancestors, and on
his descendants as far as the seventh person, and he alone deserves to
possess this whole earth."
Second The Second Book of Manu treats of education and the priesthood.
Book. jj. con(jemns self-love as an unworthy motive, also the performance
of sacrifices and the practice of penances and austerities for the sake
of a reward. It enjoins upon priests to beg their food, first of their
mothers, sisters, or mother's whole sisters, then of some other female
who will not disgrace them. A priest who knows the Veda, and is able
to pronounce to himself, both morning and evening, the syllable 6m,
attains the sanctity conferred by the Veda. The book condemns sen-
suality and declares no man thus contaminated ever able to procure
felicity either from the Vedas or from liberality, sacrifices, strict ob-
servances, or pious austerities. It declares that a student who humbly
follows his teacher will attain knowledge, the means of salvation. Sen-
sual indulgence is to be repented of by fasts, the performance of ablu-
tions, and the reading of texts from the Vedas.
Fourth The Fourth Book treats on private morals, enjoining upon Brah-
Boolc' mans the strict observance of truth as the primal rule, and condemning
falsehood in the severest terms, declarin^ that sacrifice becomes vain
by falsehood. It declares that in one's passage to the next world, no
one, not even of his family or relatives, remains in his company, his
virtue only adhering to him.
Fifth The Fifth Book relates to diet. It requires entire abstinence from
animal flesh of any kind, because it involves the taking of animal life,
which is totally prohibited. It also commands total abstinence from
all intoxicating drink. It enjoins its devotees to subsistence on pure
fruit and roots, and such grains as are eaten by hermits. Sacred
learning, austere devotion, fire, holy aliment, earth, the wind, water,
air, the sun, time, and prescribed acts of religion, are mentioned as
purifiers of embodied spirits. Of all pure things purity in acquiring
BRAHMANISM. 631
wealth is pronounced the most excellent. The learned are declared
purified by forgiving injuries; those who are negligent by liberality;
those with secret faults by pious meditation ; those who best know the
Veda by devout austerity. Bodies are declared cleansed by water;
the mind is pronounced purified by truth ; the vital spirit by theology
and devotion ; the understanding by clear knowledge. Women are al-
lowed no sacrifice separate from their husbands, nor any religious rite,
nor fasting ; " as far only as a wife honors her lord, so far is she ex-
alted in heaven." " A faithful wife, who wishes to attain in heaven
the mission of her husband, must do nothing unkind to him, be he living
or dead." She is enjoined to emaciate her body by living voluntarily
on pure flowers, roots and fruit; and when her lord is deceased she is
not to pronounce the name of another man. She is enjoined to con-
tinue until death forgiving all injuries, performing harsh duties, avoid-
ing all sensual pleasures, and cheerfully practicing the strictest rules
of virtue followed by those women who are devoted to their husbands.
The Sixth Book of the Laws of Manu relates to devotion. It ap-
pears that the Brahmans were accustomed to becoming ascetics, or
entering religion, as the Roman Catholics would say. A Brahman, or
twice-born man, who desires to become an ascetic, must relinquish his
home and family and go to live in the forest. He must subsist on
roots and fruit, and clothe himself in a bark garment or a skin. He
must bathe in the morning and in the evening, and allow his hair to
grow. He must spend his time in reading the Vedas, with his thoughts
intent on the Supreme Being. He must be " a perpetual giver but no
receiver of gifts ; with tender affection for all animated bodies." He
must perform various sacrifices with offerings of fruits and flowers.
He must practice austerities by exposing himself to heat and cold, and
" for the purpose of uniting his soul with the Divine Spirit he must
study the Upanishads."
" A Brahman, having shuffled off his body by these modes, which
great sages practice, and becoming void of sorrow and fear, is exalted
into the Divine essence."
" Let him not wish for death. Let him not wish for life. Let him
expect his appointed time, as the hired servant expects his wages."
" Meditating on the Supreme Spirit, without any earthly desire,
with no companion but his own soul, let him live in this world seeking
the bliss of the next."
The anchorite is to beg his food, but only once a day. If it is
refused him, he must not be sorrowful; and if he receives it, he must
not be glad. He must meditate on the " subtle indivisible essence of
the Supreme Being." He must be careful not to destroy the life of
even the smallest insect. He must make atonement for the death of
VOL, 2.— 19
THE SANSKRITIC HINDOOS.
those which he has unknowingly destroyed, by making six suppres-
sions of his breath, repeating at the same time the triliteral syllable
A U M. In this way he will finally become united with the Eternal
Spirit, " and his good deeds will be inherited by those who love him,
and his evil deeds by those who hate him."
Seventh The Seventh Book relates to the duties of rulers. One of these
0 ' duties is to reward the good and to punish the wicked. " The genius
of punishment is a son of Brahma, and has a body of pure light."
Punishment is considered an active ruler. It governs the human race,
it dispenses laws, it preserves mankind, and it is the perfection of
justice. If it were not inflicted, all classes of mankind would become
corrupt, all barriers would be oast away, and complete confusion would
be the result. Kings must respect the Brahmans, must shun vices, must
choose good counselors and brave soldiers. A king must be a father
to his people. When going to war he must observe the rules of hon-
orable warfare, must not use poisoned arrows, must not strike a fallen
foe, nor one who begs for life, nor one unarmed, nor one who surren-
ders. He must not take too little revenue, and thus " cut up his own
root " ; nor too much, and thus " cut up the root of others." He
must be severe when necessary, and mild when necessary.
Eighth The Eighth Book relates to civil and criminal law. The Raja is
required to hold his court daily, aided by his Brahmans, and to decide
causes respecting debts and loans, sales, wages, contracts, boundaries,
slander, assaults, theft, robbery, and other crimes. The Raja, " un-
derstanding what is expedient or inexpedient, but considering only
what is law or not law," is expected to investigate all disputes. He
must protect unprotected women, restore property to its rightful owner,
must not encourage litigation, and must decide in accordance with rules
of law. The rules correspond almost exactly to our law of evidence.
Witnesses are warned to tell the truth in every case by considering that,
though they may think that no one sees them, the gods clearly see
them and likewise the spirits in their own breasts.
" The soul itself is its own witness, the soul itself is its own refuge ;
offend not thy conscious soul, the supreme internal witness of men."
" The fruit of every virtuous act which thou hast done, O good man,
since thy birth, shall depart from thee to the dogs, if thou deviate from
the truth."
" O friend to virtue, the Supreme Spirit, which is the same with
thyself, resides in thy bosom perpetually, and is an all-knowing in-
spector of thy goodness or wickedness."
The law then describes the punishments which the gods would in-
flict upon false witnesses; but strangely permits false witness to be
given for benevolent reasons, to save an innocent man from a tyrant.
BRAHMANISM.
633
This is styled "the venial sin of benevolent falsehood." The book
then describes weights and measures, also the rate of usury, which is
set down at five per cent. Compound interest is forbidden. The law
of deposits takes considerable space, as in all Asiatic lands, where in-
vestments are not easy. Much is said concerning the wages of ser-
vants, particularly such as are employed to watch cattle, and the re-
sponsibilities devolving upon them. The law of slander is carefully
defined. Crimes of violence are likewise described in detail. If a man
strikes a human or animal creature so as to cause pain, he shall him-
self be struck in the same manner. A man is permitted to chastise
with a small stick his wife, his son or his servant, but not the head or
any noble part of the body. But the Brahmans have the protection
of special laws.
" Never shall the king flay a Brahman, though convicted of all pos-
sible crimes; let him banish the offender from his realm, but with all
his property secure and his body unhurt."
" No greater crime is known on earth than flaying a Brahman ; and
the king, therefore, must not even form in his mind the idea of killing
a priest."
The Ninth Book relates to women, to families, and to the law of
castes. It says that women must be kept in a dependent condition.
" Their fathers protect them in childhood ; their husbands protect
them in youth; their sons protect them in age. A woman is never fit
for independence."
It is said to be men's duty to watch and guard women, and not very
flattering views are expressed regarding the female character.
" Women have no business with the text of the Veda ; this is fully
settled; therefore having no knowledge of expiatory texts, sinful
women must be as foul as falsehood itself. This is a fixed law."
It is said, however, that good women become like goddesses, and
shall be joined to their husbands in heaven, and that a man is only
perfect when he consists of three persons united — himself, his wife and
his son. Manu likewise ascribes to ancient Brahmans a maxim almost
literally like one of the Bible, namely, " The husband is even one per-
son with his wife." Manu says nothing about the burning of widows,
but gives minute directions for the conduct of widows during their
life, and also directions regarding the marriage of sons and daugh-
ters and their inheritance of property. The remainder of the Ninth
Book further describes crimes and punishments.
The Tenth Book of Manu relates to mixed classes and times of dis-
tress; the Eleventh to penance and expiation. In the Eleventh Book
is mentioned the strange rite consisting in drinking the fermented juice
of the moon-plant, or acid asclepias, with religious ceremonies. This
Ninth
Book.
Tenth
and
Eleventh
Books.
THE SANSKRITIC HINDOOS.
Various
Books of
Hindoo sacrament began in the Vedic age, and the Sanhita of the
Sama-Veda consists of hymns to be sung at the moon-plant sacrifices.
This ceremony is yet occasionally practiced in India, and Dr. Haug
has tasted this sacred beverage, which he says is bitter, unpleasant and
intoxicating. Manu says that no one has a right to drink this sacred
juice who does not properly provide for his own family. He encour-
ages sacrifices by asserting that they are highly meritorious and will
expiate sin. Involuntary sins do not require as heavy a penance as
those committed with knowledge. Crimes committed by Brahmans do
not require as heavy a penance as those committed by others ; but those
committed against Brahmans carry a much deeper guilt and require a
much severer penance. The law declares:
" From his high birth alone a Brahman is an object of veneration,
even to deities, and his declarations are decisive evidence."
" A Brahman who has performed an expiation with his whole mind
fixed on God purifies his soul."
The Law of Manu strictly prohibits the drinking of intoxicating
li°iuorj except in the Soma sacrifice, already alluded to, and it declares
that a Brahman who tastes intoxicating liquor sinks to the low caste
of a Sudra. If a Brahman who has tasted the Soma juice even smells
the breath of a man who has been drinking ardent spirits, he must do
penance by repeating the Gayatri, suppressing his breath, and eating
clarified butter. Cows are objects of reverence next to the Brahmans,
perhaps because the Aryan race were originally nomads and depended
on this animal for food. He who kills a cow must perform severe
penances, among which are the following:
" All day he must wait on a herd of cows and stand quaffing the dust
raised by their hoofs ; at night, having servilely attended them, he may
sit near and guard them."
" Free from passion, he must stand while they stand, follow when
they move, and lie down near them when they lie down."
" By this waiting on a herd for three months, he who has killed a
cow atones for his guilt."
Such offenses as cutting down fruit-trees or grasses, or killing in-
sects, or injuring sentient creatures, require as a penance the repeat-
ing of a number of texts from the Vedas, the eating of clarified butter,
or the holding of the breath. A low-born man who treats a Brahman
with disrespect, or who even gets the better of him in an argument,
is required to fast all day and to prostrate himself before him. He who
strikes a Brahman shall remain in hell a thousand years. The power
of sincere devotion is nevertheless very great. Any one is freed from
all guilt by reading the Vedas, open confession, repentance, reforma-
tion and almsgiving. It is said that devotion is equal to the perform-
BRAHMANISM.
635
anee of all duties. Even the souls of worms, insects and vegetables
reach heaven by the power of devotion. But the sanctifying influence
of the Vedas is particularly great. He who is able to repeat all of the
Rig- Veda would be free from guilt, even if he had killed the inhabi-
tants of three worlds.
The last book of Manu relates to the doctrine of the metempsychosis,
or transmigration of the soul and final beatitude. Here it is declared
that every human action, word and thought bears its good or evil
fruit.
From the heart come three 'sins of thought, four of the tongue, and
three of the body, namely, covetous, disobedient and atheistic thoughts ;
scurrilous, false, frivolous and unkind words; and actions of theft,
bodily injury and licentiousness. He who controls his thoughts, words
and actions is called a triple commander. The three qualities of the
soul are giving it a tendency to goodness, to passion and to darkness.
The first leads to knowledge, the second to desire, the third to sensu-
ality. To the first belong the study of the Vedas, devotion, purity,
self-control and obedience. From the second proceed hypocritical ac-
tions, anxiety, disobedience and self-indulgence. The third produces
avarice, atheism, indolence, and all acts for which a man is ashamed.
Virtue is the object of the first quality, worldly success of the second,
and pleasure of the third. The souls in which the first quality pre-
dominates rise after death to the condition of deities. Those controlled
by the second quality pass into the bodies of other men. Those domi-
nated by the third quality become animals and vegetables. Manu ex-
pounds this law of the soul's transmigration very minutely. For great
sins any one is condemned to pass many times into the bodies of dogs,
insects, spiders, snakes or grasses. This change relates to the crime.
One who steals grain shall be born a rat. One who steals meat shall
become a vulture. One who indulges in forbidden pleasures of the
senses shall have his senses rendered acute to endure intense pain.
The highest virtue is doing good because it is right goodness done
from the love of God and based on the knowledge of the Vedas. A
religious act performed simply with the expectation of reward in the
next world will only give one a place in the lowest heaven. But one
doing good deeds without the hope of reward, " perceiving the supreme
soul in all beings, and all beings in the supreme soul, fixing his mind
on God, approaches the Divine Nature."
" Let every Brahman, with fixed attention, consider all nature as
existing in the Divine Spirit; all worlds as seated in him; he alone as
the whole assemblage of gods ; and he the author of all human actions."
" Let him consider the supreme omnipresent intelligence as the sov-
ereign lord of the universe, by whom alone it exists, an incompre-
Metemp-
sychosis.
Account
Thereof.
Good
Deeds.
Panthe-
ism.
636
THE SANSKRITIC HINDOOS.
Three
Systems
of Hindoo
Philos-
ophy.
Philo-
sophic
Books.
Systems
Com-
pared.
hensible spirit ; pervading all beings in five elemental forms, and caus-
ing them to pass through birth, growth and decay, and so to solve
like the wheels of a car."
" Thus the man who perceives in his own soul the supreme soul pres-
ent in all creatures acquires equanimity toward them all, and shall be
absolved at last in the highest essence, even that of the Almighty
Himself."
We now come to the three systems of Hindoo philosophy — Sankhya,
Vedanta and Nyaya. Duncker says that the Hindoo system of phi-
losophy arose in the sixth or seventh century before Christ. As the
Buddhist religion implies the existence of the Sankhya philosophy,
this philosophy must have existed prior to Buddhism. Kapila and
his two principles are likewise mentioned in the Laws of Manu and in
the later Upanishads. This would bring it to the Brahmana period,
according to Max Miiller, from B. C. 800 or B. C. 600, and perhaps
earlier. Colebrooke says that Kapila is mentioned in the Veda. Ka-
pila was even regarded as an incarnation of Vishnu, or of Agni.
Lassen says that the Vedanta philosophy is mentioned in the Laws of
Manu. This philosophy is based on the Upanishads, and would appear
to be later than that of Kapila, as it criticises his philosophy. Never-
theless Duncker regards it as the oldest system, and as already com-
mencing in the Upanishads of the Vedas.
The Sankhya philosophy of Kapila is contained in numerous works,
particularly in the Sankhya-Karika by Iswara-Krishna, which consists
of eighty-two memorial verses with a commentary. The Vedanta phi-
losophy is contained in the Sutras, the Upanishads, and especially in
the Brahma-Sutra ascribed to Nyaya. The Nyaya philosophy is
found in the Sutras of Gautama and Canade.
It is not known when the three systems of Hindoo philosophy arose,
or who were their founders. They agree in some points, but differ in
others. They all three agree in having for their object deliverance
from the evils of time, change, sorrow, into an everlasting rest and
peace. Their aim is practical, not speculative. All agree in regard-
ing existence as an evil, meaning by existence a life in time and space.
All are idealistic, in which the world of matter and time is a delusion
and a snare, and in which ideas are considered the only substance. All
agree in accepting the doctrine of the metempsychosis, or transmigra-
tion of the soul, the end of which transmigration only brings final rest
and deliverance. All agree that the means of this deliverance is to be
found in knowledge, in a perfect knowledge in reality and not in ap-
pearance. All three systems are held by Brahmans who regard them-
selves as orthodox, who esteem the Vedas above all other books, who pay
complete respect to the Brahmanism of the day, who perform the daily
BRAHMANISM.
637
ceremonies and observe the usual rules of caste. The three systems
of philosophy supplement the religious worship, but are not designed
to destroy it. The Vedantists maintain that while there is really only
one God the various forms of worship in the Vedas, of Indra, Agni,
the Maruts, etc., were all designed for those who could not comprehend
this sublime monotheism. Those who believe in the Sankhya hold that
though their system entirely ignores God, and is called " the system*
without a God," it simply ignores, but does not deny the Divine ex-
istence.
Each of the three philosophies has a speculative and a practical
side. The speculative is, How did the Universe come into existence?
The practical is, How is man to be delivered from evil?
The Vedanta, or Mimansa, doctrine reasons from a single eternal and
uncreated principle, and asserts that there is only being in the uni-
verse, God or Brahm, and that everything else is Maya, or illusion.
The Sankhya teaches that there are two eternal and uncreated sub-
stances, Soul and Nature. The Nyaya asserts that there are three
eternal and uncreated substances — Atoms, Souls and God.
The three philosophies agree that only by knowledge can the soul be
freed from the body or matter or nature. Worship is not sufficient,
though it must not be despised. Action is injurious, because it implies
desire. Only knowledge can lead to complete rest and peace.
The three philosophies teach that the soul's transmigration through
different bodies is an evil resulting from desire. So long as the soul
desires anything, it will continue to migrate and suffer in consequence.
When it attains clear insight, it ceases to wander and finds repose.
Duncker supposed the Vedanta, or Mimansa, philosophy to be re-
ferred to in Manu. Mimansa means searching. In its logical forms,
after stating the question, giving the objection and the answer to the
objection, it gives the conclusion. The first portion of the Vedanta
relates to worship and to the ceremonies and the ritual of the Vedas.
The second portion teaches the doctrine of Brahma. Brahma is the
one, eternal, absolute, unchangeable Being. He first becomes ether,
then air, then fire, then water, then earth. All bodily existence pro-
ceeds from these five elements. " Souls are sparks from the central
fire of Brahma, separated for a time, to be absorbed again at last."
" Brahma, in his highest form as Para-Brahm, stands for the Abso-
lute Being." Haug has translated the following from the Sama-Veda :
" The generation of Brahma was before all ages, unfolding himself
evermore in a beautiful glory ; everything which is highest and every-
thing which is deepest belongs to him. Being and Not Being are
unveiled through Brahma."
Specula-
tive and
Practical.
The
Vedanta
Doctrine.
Knowl-
edge.
Soul's
Transmi-
grations.
Duncker's
View.
Haug's
Transla-
tion.
THE SANSKRITIC HINDOOS,
Win-
disch-
mann's
Transla-
tion.
Bis Other
Transla-
tion.
Bunsen's
View.
Spirit-
ualism.
Idealism
Shcshee
Chunder
Butt's
View.
Windischmann has translated the following passage from a Upani-
shad : " How can any one teach concerning Brahma ? He is neither
the known nor the unknown. That which cannot be expressed by
words, but through which all expression comes, this I know to be
Brahma. That which cannot be thought by the mind, but by which
all thinking comes, this I know is Brahma. That which cannot be seen
by the eye, but which the eye sees, is Brahma. If thou thinkest that
thou canst know it, then in truth thou knowest it very little. To whom
it is unknown, he knows it ; but to whom it is known, he knows it not."
Windischmann has also translated the following from the Kathaka-
Upanishad : " One cannot attain to it through the word, through the
mind, or through the eye. It is only reached by him who says, 'It is !
It is ! ' He perceives it in its essence. Its essence appears when one
perceives it as it is."
According to Bunsen, the old German expression Istigkeit corre-
sponds to this. This is also the name of Jehovah given by Moses from
the burning bush, thus : " And God said unto Moses, I AM THE I AM.
Thus shalt thou say unto the children of Israel, I AM hath sent me unto
you." The idea here is that only God really exists, and that He is the
origin of all being. The same is expressed in another Upanishad thus :
" HE WHO EXISTS is the root of all creatures ; HE WHO EXISTS is their
foundation, and in him they rest."
This speculative pantheism is carried still farther in the Vedanta
philosophy. Thus says Sankara, the principal teacher of this philoso-
phy : " I am the great Brahma, eternal, pure, free, one, constant,
happy, existing without end. He who ceases to contemplate other
things, who retires into solitude, annihilates his desires, and subjects
his passions, he understands that Spirit is the One and the Eternal.
The wise man annihilates all sensible things, and contemplates that one
spirit who resembles pure space. Brahma is without size, quality,
character, or division."
According to this philosophy, says Bunsen, the world is the Not-
Being. It is, says Sankara, " appearance without Being ; it is like
the deception of a dream." He says further : " The soul itself has
no actual being."
According to a Hindoo authority, Shoshee Chunder Dutt : " Dis-
satisfied with his own solitude, Brahma feels a desire to create worlds,
and then the volition ceases so far as he is concerned, and he sinks
again into his apathetic happiness, while the desire, thus willed into
existence, assumes an active character. It becomes Maya, and by this
was the universe created, without exertion on the part of Brahma.
This passing wish of Brahma carried, hpwever, no reality with it. And
the creation proceeding from it is only an illusion. There is only one
BRAHMANISM.
absolute Unity really existing, and existing without plurality. But
he is like one asleep. Krishna, in the Gita, says : * These works (the
universe) confine not me, for I am like one who sitteth aloof uninter-
ested in them all.' The universe is therefore all illusion, holding a
position between something and nothing. It is real as an illusion, but
unreal as being. It is not true, because it has no essence; but not
false, because its existence, even as illusion, is from God. The Ve-
danta declares : ' From the highest state of Brahma to the lowest con-
dition of a straw all things are delusion.' '
Shoshee Chunder Dutt, however, contradicts Bunsen's assertion that
the soul also is an illusion according to the Vedanta. He says : " The
soul is not subject to birth or death, but is in its substance from
Brahma himself." The truth appears to be that the Vedanta con-
siders the individuality of the soul as from Maya and illusive, but re-
gards the substance of the soul as from Brahma, and as destined to be
absorbed into him. As the body of man is to be resolved into its
material elements, so the soul of man is to be resolved into Brahma.
This substance of the soul is neither born nor dies, nor is it a thing
of which it can be said : " It was, is, or shall be." In the Gita,
Krishna tells Arjun that he and the other princes of the world " never
were not."
The Vedantist philosopher, nevertheless that he regards all souls as
emanations from God, does not believe that all of them will be absorbed
into God at death. Only such as have obtained a knowledge of God
are rewarded by absorption into Deity, the others continuing to migrate
from one body to another as long as they remain unfit for absorption.
" The knower of God becomes God." This union with Deity is the
complete loss of all personal identity, and is the attainment of the
highest bliss, in which there are no grades, and from which there is no
return. This absorption does not come from good works or penances,
as these confine the soul and do not free it. " The confinement of fet-
ters is the same whether the chain be of gold or iron." " The knowl-
edge which realizes that everything is Brahm alone liberates the soul.
It annuls the effect both of our virtues and vices. We traverse thereby
both merit and demerit, the heart's knot is broken, all doubts are split,
and all our works perish. Only by perfect abstraction, not merely
from the senses, but also from the thinking intellect and by remaining
in the knowing intellect, does the devotee become identified with Brahm.
He then remains as pure glass when the shadow has left. He lives
destitute of passions and affections. He lives sinless ; for as water wets
not the leaf of the lotus, so sin touches not him who knows God." He
needs no more of virtue, for " of what use can be a winnowing fan
when the sweet southern wind is blowing." His meditations are of this
The
Vedanta
Philos-
ophy.
Further
Account.
640
THE SANSKRITIC HINDOOS.
Soul's
Aim.
The
Sankhya
Philos-
ophy.
Its
Atheism.
Soul's
Libera-
tion.
Extinc-
tion.
Bud-
dhism.
Cousin's
View.
kind : " I am Brahm, I am life. I am everlasting, perfect, self -ex-
istent, undivided, joyful."
Virtue, penance, sacrifices, worship, effect a happy transmigration
from lower forms of bodily life to higher ones ; but do not accomplish
the end which is the soul's great aim and desire — absorption into the
Universal Supreme Being. They simply prepare the way for such
absorption by causing one to be born in a higher state of being.
The Sankhya philosophy of Kapila is founded on two principles,
not on simply one, as is the Vedanta. According to the seventy
aphorisms, Nature is one of these principles. Nature is uncreated and
eternal ; being one, active, creating, non-intelligent. Souls are the
other of the two principles, and are likewise uncreated and eternal.
Souls are many, passive, not creative, intelligent, and the opposite of
Nature in everything. But the union of the two is that from which
all nature proceeds, in accordance with the law of cause and effect.
This system is frequently called atheism, as God is not recognized
in it. It thus argues that no one perfect being could create the uni-
verse. Desire implies want, or imperfection. Then if God wished to
create, He would not be able to do so. If He were able, He would have
no desire to do it. Therefore, in neither case, could God have created
the universe. The gods are generally spoken of by the well-known
names of Brahma, Indra, etc. ; but all are finite beings, belonging to
the order of human souls, though of a superior kind.
" Every soul is clothed in two bodies — the interior original body,
the individualizing force, which is eternal as itself and accompanies
it through all its migrations ; and the material, secondary body, made
of the five elements — ether, air, fire, water and earth. The original
body is subtile and spiritual. It is the office of Nature to liberate the
Soul. Nature is not what we perceive by the senses, but an invisible
plastic principle behind, which must be known by the intellect. As the
Soul ascends by goodness, it is freed by knowledge. The final result
of this emancipation is the certainty of non-existence — ' neither I am,
nor is aught mine, nor do I exist,' — which seems to be the same result
as that of Hegel, Being=Not-Being."
The result of knowledge is to put an end to creation, leaving the
Soul freed from desire, from change, from the material body, in a
state which is Being, but not Existence.
The Sankhya philosophy was very important as it was the source
of Buddhism, and the doctrine thus described was the basis of Budd-
hism.
M. Cousin has called it the sensualism of India. But it is as purely
an ideal doctrine as that of the Vedas. Both its eternal principles are
ideal. Kapila asserts that the one which is a plastic force cannot be
BRAHMANISM.
641
perceived by the senses. Soul, the other eternal and uncreated prin-
ciple, who " is witness, solitary, bystander, spectator and passive," is
itself spiritual, and clothed with a spiritual body, within a material
body. The Karika declares the material universe to be the result of
the contact of the Soul with Nature, and consists in chains with which
Nature binds herself, for the purpose of freeing the Soul. When
through knowledge the Soul looks through these, and sees the final
principle beyond, the material universe is at an end; both Soul and
Nature are freed.
Scotus Erigena, the great Irish philosopher of the ninth century of
our era, made a fourfold division of the universe — 1, a Nature which
creates and is not created; 2, a Nature which is created and creates;
3, a Nature which is created and does not create; 4, a Nature which
neither creates nor is created. In the same way Kapila says : " Na-
ture, the root of all things, is productive but not a production. Seven
principles are productions and productive. Sixteen are productions
but not productive. Soul is neither a production nor productive."
The Sankhya philosophy is often likewise noticed in the Mahab-
harata. The Nyaya philosophy differs from that of Kapila in assum-
ing that there is a third eternal and indestructible principle as the basis
of matter, namely, Atoms. It likewise assumes the existence of a
Supreme Soul, Brahma, who is almighty and allwise. It agrees with
Kapila in making all souls eternal, and distinct from the body. It has
the same evil to overcome — transmigration. It has the same method
of release — Buddh'i, or knowledge. It is a more dialectic system than
the others, and is more of a logic than a philosophy.
The Nyaya philosophy has been compared to the Buddhist system.
The Buddhist Nirvana has been regarded as equivalent to the eman-
cipation of the Nyaya philosophy. Apavarga, or emancipation, is
asserted in the Nyaya system to be ultimate deliverance from pain,
birth, activity, fault and death. So the Pali doctrinal books of Buddh-
ism refer to Nirvana as an exemption from old age, disease and death.
" In it desire, anger and ignorance are consumed by the fire of knowl-
edge. Here all selfish distinctions of mine and thine, all evil thoughts,
all slander and jealousy, are cut down by the weapon of knowledge.
Here we have an experience of immortality which is cessation of all
trouble and perfect felicity."
We now come to the origin of the Hindoo Triad. A worship
founded on that of the ancient Vedas had gradually risen among the
Hindoos. In the West of India the god Rudra, mentioned in the
Vedic hymns, had become transformed into Siva. In the Rig-Veda,
Rudra is sometimes the name for Agni. He is described as father of
the winds. He is the same as Maha-deva. He is at the same time
Soul and
Nature.
Compari-
sons.
The
Nyaya
Philos-
ophy.
Origin
of the
Hindoo
Triad.
THE SANSKRITIC HINDOOS.
fierce and benevolent. He presides over medicinal plants. Weber
and Professor Whitney consider him the Storm-god. But his worship
extended by degrees, until under the name of Siva, the Destroyer, he
became one of the chief deities of the Hindoos. In the meantime, in
the Ganges valley, a similar devotion had risen for the Vedic god
Vishnu, who in the same way had been elevated to the front rank in
the Hindoo pantheon. He had been raised to the character of a Friend
and Protector, " gifted with mild attributes and worshiped as the life
of Nature." By accepting the popular worship, the Brahmans were
enabled to successfully oppose Buddhism.
Various It is believed that the Hindoo Triad arose from the efforts of the
Brahmans to unite all the Hindoos under one system of religion, and
it may have succeeded for a time. Images of the Trimurtti, or three-
faced God, are often seen in India, and this is yet the object of Brah-
manical worship. Thought invariably tends toward a triad of law,
force or elemental substance, as the best explanation of the universe.
For this reason there have been triads in so many religions. In Egypt
there was the Triad of Osiris the Creator, Typhon the Destroyer, and
Horus the Preserver. In Persia was the Triad of Ormazd the Creator,
Ahriman the Destroyer, and Mithra the Restorer. In Buddhism is
the Triad of Buddha the Divine Man, Dharmma the Word, and
Sangha the Communion of Saints. Pure monotheism is not long satis-
factory to the speculative mind, because it does not explain the dis-
cords of the universe, though it accounts for its harmonies. A dual-
ism of antagonistic forces does not afford any better satisfaction, be-
cause the world does not seem to be such a scene of complete discord
and warfare as is here assumed. Therefore the mind is ready to accept
a Triad, in which the unities of life and development proceed from one
element, the antagonisms from a second, and the harmonies of recon-
ciled oppositions from a third. In this very manner arose the Brah-
manical Triad.
Brahma, Thus arose from the spiritual pantheism into which all Hindoo re-
gSiv°u' ligion appeared to settle, another system, that of the Trimurtti, or
Divine Triad — the Hindoo Trinity of Brahma the Creator, Vishnu
the Preserver, and Siva the Destroyer. A foundation for the unity
of Creation, Preservation and Destruction already existed in a Vedic
saying, that the highest being exists in three states — creation, preser-
vation and destruction.
This The idea of the Hindoo Trinity — Brahma, Vishnu, Siva, three in
u™" one — is thus alluded to by an ancient Hindoo poet:
" In those Three Persons the One God was shown,
Each First in place, each Last — not one alone;
Of Siva, Vishnu, Brahma, each may be
First, second, third, among the Blessed Three."
BRAHMANISM.
643
None of these three supreme deities of Brahmanism ranked very
highly in the Vedas. Siva is not named once therein. Lassen says
that Brahma is not noticed in any Vedic hymn, but first in a Upanishad.
Vishnu is mentioned in the Rig-Veda as one of the names for the sun.
He is therefore the Sun-god of the Hindoos. Sunrise, noon and sun-
set are his three steps. He is spoken of as one of the sons of Aditi.
He is styled " the wide-stepping," " the strong," " measurer of the
world," " the deliverer," " renewer of life," " who sets in motion the
revolutions of time," " a protector," " preserving the highest heaven."
He seems to begin his career in this mythology as the sun.
Brahma, a word first signifying prayer and devotion, became the
primal God in the Laws of Manu, wherein he was recognized as the
first born of the creation, from the self -existent being, in the form of a
golden egg. He became the creator of all things by the power of
prayer. Brahma very naturally became the god of the priests in their
struggle for ascendency over the warriors. In the meantime the wor-
ship of Vishnu the Preserver had been growing in the Ganges valley,
while at the same time the worship of Siva the Destroyer was making
rapid progress in the Indus valley. Then occurred those mysterious
wars between the kings of the Solar and Lunar races, mentioned in the
great epics. These wars were ended by a compromise, by which Brah-
ma, Vishnu and Siva were united into one Supreme Deity as Creator,
Preserver and Destroyer — three in one.
This Hindoo Triad resulted apparently from an ingenious and suc-
cessful effort, on the part of the Brahmans, to unite all classes of Hin-
doo worshipers against the Buddhists. In this sense the Brahmans
edited afresh the epic of the Mahabharata, into which they inserted
passages praising Vishnu in the form of Krishna. The Greek ac-
counts of India after its invasion by Alexander the Great speak of the
worship of Hercules as prevailing in the East, and Colebrooke and
Lassen think that by Hercules they refer to Krishna. Brahmanism
struggled with Buddhism nine centuries for the mastery in India, from
B. C. 500 to A. D. 400, and the struggle ended in the final triumph
of Brahmanism and the total expulsion of Buddhism from India.
Before this Triad, or Trimurtti, of Brahma, Vishnu and Siva, there
appears to have been another Triad of Agni, Indra and Surya. This
may have furnished the example for the second Triad, which vested
Brahma, Vishnu and Siva respectively with the attributes of Creation,
Preservation and Destruction. Brahma, the Creator, did not long
remain popular, but the worship of Vishnu and Siva as Krishna are to
this day the popular Hindoo religion.
A strange feature of the worship of Vishnu is the doctrine of the
Avatars, or incarnations of the Deity. The number of these Avatars
In the
Vedas.
Trinity
in Unity.
Brahman-
ism and
Bud-
dhism.
Other
Triads.
Avatars.
THE SANSKRITIC HINDOOS.
is ten — nine of whom have passed, while one is to come. The object
of Vishnu each time is to save the gods from destruction threatened
them because of the vast power acquired by some king, giant or demon,
by greater acts of austerity and piety. For here, as elsewhere, ex-
treme spiritualism is separated from morality ; and thus these extremely
pious, spiritual and self-denying giants are the most cruel and tyran-
nical monsters, who must be destroyed at every hazard. By force or
fraud, Vishnu overcomes all of them.
Mythol- His first Avatar is of the Fish, as stated in the Mahabharata, the
ogy* object being to recover the Vedas, which had been stolen by a demon
from Brahma while asleep. Because of this loss mankind became cor-
rupt, and were destroyed by a deluge, except a pious prince and seven
holy men who were saved in a ship. Vishnu, in the form of a large
fish, drew the ship in safety over the water, killed the demon, and
recovered the Vedas. The second Avatar was in a Turtle, to make
him drink of immortality. The third Avatar was in a Boar, the fourth
in a Man-lion, the fifth in the dwarf who deceived Bali, who had become
so powerful by austerities as to conquer the gods and take possession
of Heaven. In the eighth Avatar he appears as Krishna, and in the
ninth as Buddha.
Spirit and This system of Avatars is so strange and so firmly implanted in the
Hindoo system that it apparently indicates some law of Hindoo
thought. Vishnu does not mediate between Brahma and Siva, but be-
tween the deities and the lower races of men or demons. This danger
arises from a certain fate or necessity superior to gods and men.
There are laws enabling a Brahman to get away from the power of
Brahma and Siva. This necessity is the nature of things, the laws
of the external world of active existences. Only when essence becomes
existence does spirit pass into action and become subject to law. The
danger is then from the world of nature. The gods are pure spirit,
and the spirit is everything. But now and then nature appears to be
something, as it will not be ignored or absorbed in Deity. Personality,
activity, or human nature revolt against this ideal pantheism, this
abstract spiritualism of the Hindoo system. To conquer body, Vishnu
or spirit enters into body repeatedly. Spirit must appear as body to
destroy Nature. This shows that spirit cannot be excluded from any-
thing— that it is able to descend into the lowest forms of life, and work
in law no less than above law.
Polythe- But every effort of Brahmanism was not able to arrest the natural
Idolatry, development of the religious system, and it passed into polytheism and
idolatry. For many centuries the worship of the Hindoos has been
divided into numerous sects. Though most of the Brahmans yet pro-
fess to recognize Brahma, Vishnu and Siva as equally divine, the great
BRAHMANISM.
645
mass of the nation worship Krishna, Rama and Lingam, and numerous
other gods and idols. There are Hindoo atheists who revile the Vedas.
There are the Kabirs, a kind of Hindoo Quakers, who oppose all wor-
ship; also Ramanujas, an ancient sect of worshipers of Vishnu; the
Ramavats, who live in monasteries ; the Panthis, who oppose all aus-
terities; the Maharajas, whose religion is very licentious. Most of
these worship Vishnu or Siva, as the worship of Brahma has entirely
disappeared.
We now come to the epics, the Puranas and the modern Hindoo
worship. The two great and popular Hindoo epics are the Mahab-
harata and the Ramayana. The whole ancient life of India appears
in these two remarkable epic poems. According to Lassen, these epics
refer to a period following the Vedic age. But they embrace passages
inserted at a much later epoch, perhaps after the war which drove the
Buddhists from India. Mr. Talboys Wheeler regards the war of
Rama and the Monkeys against Ravana as alluding to this struggle,
making the Ramayana later than the Mahabharata, but most writers
differ with him on this point. The writers of the Mahabharata appear
to have been Brahmans educated under the Laws of Manu; but the
date of neither poem can be accurately established. Lassen has dem-
onstrated that most of the Mahabharata was written before Buddhism
had been the state religion of India. These epics were originally
transmitted from age to age by oral tradition. As their doctrine is
that of the priesthood they must have been brought to their present
forms by the Brahmans. If these poems had been composed after the
reign of King Asoka, when Buddhism became the state religion of
India, it must have been frequently alluded to, but no such allusions
appear in the epics, except a few passages which seem to be modern
additions. The epics must therefore have been composed long anterior
to the time of Buddhism. Lassen's view is accepted by Max Miiller.
The Vedas are now read by very few Hindoos, whose sacred books
are the Puranas and the two great epics. The Ramayana contains
fifty thousand lines, and is regarded with great veneration by the Hin-
doos. It describes the use of Rama, who is an incarnation of Vishnu,
his banishment and residence in Central India, and his war with the
giants and demons of the South, to recover his wife, Sita. It perhaps
is founded on some actual war between the early Aryan invaders and
settlers of Hindoostan with the aborigines of the country.
The Mahabharata, probably of later date, contains about two hun-
dred and twenty thousand lines, embraced in eighteen books, each of
which would constitute a large volume. It is supposed to have been
collected by Vyasa, who likewise collected the Vedas and the Puranas.
These legends are of great antiquity, and apparently allude to the
Hindoo
Sects.
The
Mahab-
harata
and the
Rama-
yana.
Contents
of the
Rama-
yana.
Of the
Mahab-
harata
(J4.6 THE SANSKRITIC HINDOOS.
early history of India. There seem to have been two Aryan dynasties
in ancient India — the Solar and the Lunar. Rama belonged to the
former and Bharata to the latter. Pandu, a descendant of the latter,
has five brave sons, who are the heroes of this book. Arjuna, one of
these sons, is particularly distinguished. One of the episodes is the
celebrated Bhagavat-gita. Another is known as the Brahman's La-
ment. Another describes the deluge, showing the tradition of a great
flood existing in India many centuries before the time of Christ. An-
other relates the story of Savitri and Satyavan. These episodes take
up three-fourths of the poem, and most of the legends of the Puranas
are derived from them. A supplement, itself a longer poem than
Homer's Iliad and Odyssey combined (which contain about thirty thou-
sand lines), is the source of the modern worship of the Krishna. The
entire poem represents the multilateral character of the Hindoo reli-
gious system. It indicates a higher degree of civilization than that
of the Homeric poems, and describes a great variety of fruits and
flowers existing under culture. The characters are likewise nobler and
purer than those of Homer. The pictures of social and domestic life
are very touching. Children are represented as obedient to their
parents, parents as watchful of their children, wives as loyal and obe-
dient to their husbands, but independent in their opinions, and peace as
prevailing in the household.
The The various works of the P.uranas are derived from the same source
Puranas. &s ^e ^WQ epjcs They contain the cosmogony of the poems, and
relate their mythological legends more fully. Vishnu and Siva are
almost the only objects of worship in the Puranas. There is a secta-
rian element in their devotion to these gods, showing their partiality
and preventing them from being authority for Hindoo religious faith
in its entirety.
Their An- According to Mr. Wilson, the Puranas, in their original form, be-
tt " long to a period about a century before Christ. They arose out of
the struggle between Brahmanism and Buddhism. The Brahmanic
system had given the Hindoos no personal deities and no external wor-
ship, and the masses took no interest in the abstract view of Deity as
held by the Brahmans. According to Mr. Wilson, the common class
of Hindoos now read eighteen Puranas. Women read them consider-
ably. Some of the Puranas are very ancient, or contain fragments
of still more ancient Puranas. The very word Purana means antiquity.
Most of them are devoted to the worship of Vishnu. According to the
Bhagavat-Purana, the only true object of life is to meditate on Vishnu.
Brahma, styled in one place " the cause of causes," declares Vishnu to
be the only pure absolute essence, of which the universe is the mani-
festation. In the Vishnu-Purana, Brahma, as the first of the gods,
BRAHMANISM.
647
adores Vishnu as the Supreme Being whom he himself is not able to
understand.
The power of ascetic penances is highly spoken of in the Puranas,
as well as in the jpics. In the Bhagavat-Purana it is stated that
Brahma created the universe by a penitence of sixteen thousand years.
The Ramayana tells us that a sage of a lower caste became a Brahman
by practicing austerities, in spite of the gods, who regarded such a
breach of castes as a breach of Hindoo etiquette. They tried to stop
his devotions by sending a beautiful nymph to tempt him, and the
famous Sakuntala was their daughter. But the resolute ascetic finally
conquered the gods, and as they persisted in their refusal to make a
Brahman of him, he commenced the creation of new heavens and new
gods, but the deities only succumbed after he had made several stars,
and permitted him to become a Brahman. It is likewise stated that
the Ganges, the sacred river, in the course of her wanderings, over-
flowed the sacrificial ground of another powerful ascetic, who drank
up all its Avaters in his anger, but the persuasions of the gods eventu-
ally induced him to discharge the waters of the river through his ears
into its channel.
These theories contain the most complete examples of piety sepa-
rated from morality. By devout asceticism the most wicked demons
obtained power over gods and men. In the epic poems this principle
is seen already fully developed. " The plot of the Ramayana turns
around this idea." A Rajah, Ravana, had acquired such power by
means of sacrifice and devotion that he tyrannized over the gods ; forc-
ing Yama, the Death-god, to retire from his realm, forcing the sun to
shine there the entire year and the moon to be always full above his
Raj. Agni, the Fire-god, is not permitted to burn in his presence.
Maruts, the Wind-god, is to blow just as he desires. Neither gods nor
demons can harm him. Thus Vishnu becomes incarnate as Rama, while
the gods become incarnate as Monkeys, so as to destroy him. Piety
and morality were believed by the Hindoos to confer such wonderful
power.
The Puranas are derived from the same source as the epic poems,
and teach the same ideas more extensively. There are here scarcely
any gods worshiped besides Vishnu and Siva, and these are worshiped
with a sectarian zeal not known to the epics. Most of the Puranas
embrace these five subjects — Creation, Destruction and Preservation,
the Genealogy of the gods, the Reigns of the Manus, and the History
of the Solar and Lunar races. They derive their philosophy of crea-
tion from the Sankhya philosophy. They are invariably character-
ized by pantheism, as they always identify God with Nature; wherein
they differ from Kapila. The Puranas are always in the form of a
VOL. 2.— 20
Ascetic
Penance.
Pious
Asceti-
cism.
Subjects
of the
•Puranas.
648
Modern
Brahman-
ism.
Worship
of
Shusty.
Bath of
Jugger-
naut.
Worship
of the
Ganges.
THE SANSKRITIC HINDOOS.
dialogue. There are eighteen Puranas, and they are said to contain
altogether one million six hundred thousand lines.
The present Hindoo religion is quite different from that of the
Vedas or Manu. Idolatry is now universal throughout India, and
every month has its special worship — the most sacred being April,
October and January. The Hindoo year begins with April. During
this sacred month bands of singers go from house to house, early in
the morning, singing hymns to the gods. On the first of April, Hin-
doos of all castes dedicate pitchers to the shades of their ancestors.
The girls bring flowers with which to worship little ponds of water
dedicated to Siva. Women worship the river Ganges, bathing in it
and offering it flowers. They also walk in procession around the ban-
yan, or sacred tree. They then worship the cow, pouring water over
her feet, and putting oil on her forehead. They sometimes take a vow
to feed some particular Brahman in a luxurious manner during the
entire month. They bathe their idols daily with religious care and
offer them food. This continues during the entire month of April
only.
In May the Hindoos worship a goddess called Shusty, who is friendly
to infants. They bring their babes to be blessed before the image of
the goddess by some aged women. The messenger of the goddess is
a cat. On these occasions social parties are also given, though the
lower castes are kept distinct at four separate tables. The women
have a perfect entertainment by themselves, as they are not permitted
to meet the men at such times.
The month of June is devoted to the bath of Juggernaut, who was
one of the incarnations of Vishnu. The name Juggernaut implies
Lord of the Universe. The worship of this deity is somewhat recent,
and his idols are very repulsive in appearance. But for the time the
worship of this god puts an end to the distinctions of caste. Inside
the temple Hindoos of every caste may eat of the same dish, but as soon
as they leave the sacred edifice this equality ceases. The ceremony
of the bath had its origin in a legend. The idol Juggernaut, wishing
to bathe in the Ganges, appeared in the form of a boy at the river,
and then gave one of his golden ornaments to a confectioner for some-
thing to eat. The following day the ornament was missing, and the
priests were unable to find it anywhere. But during the night the god
revealed to a priest in a dream that he had given it to a certain con-
fectioner in payment for his lunch; and such being found to be the
case, a festival was established on the spot where the idol is bathed
every year.
The other festival of June is the worship of the Ganges, the sacred
river of the Hindoos. The people come to bathe and offer sacrifices,
from Stereograph, copyright IQOJ by Under-wood &> Underwood
THE CAR OF JUGGERNAUT, IN WHICH KRISHNA RIDES
BRAHMANISM.
649
consisting of flowers, incense and clothes. The place where the river
enters the sea is the most sacred spot. Before plunging into the
stream, each one confesses his sins to the goddess. On the surface of
this river all differences of caste likewise cease for the time, the holi-
ness of the river making the low-caste man holy also.
In the month of July the famous ceremony of the car of Jugger-
naut is celebrated. This ceremony was instituted to commemorate the
departure of Krishna from his native land. The car of Juggernaut is
shaped like a pyramid, consisting of several stories, some as high as
fifty feet. These cars, found in all parts of India, are the offerings
of the rich, and some of them have costly statues of the god. They
are drawn by hundreds of men, as it is believed that each one who pulls
the rope will assuredly go to the heaven of Krishna at death. Vast
multitudes accordingly crowd around the rope so as to pull, and in
the general excitement they often fall under the wheels of the car and
are crushed to death. This, however, is simply accidental, as Krishna
does not wish his worshipers to suffer. He is a mild deity, and unlike
the fierce Siva, who delights in self-torture.
In the month of August the Hindoos celebrate the nativity of
Krishna, the account of whose birth resembles that of Christ in one
particular. The tyrant whom he came to destroy endeavored to kill
him, but a voice from heaven told the father to flee with the infant
across the Jumna ; and the tyrant, like Herod, killed the infants in the
village. In August there is also a feast upon which no fire must be
kindled and no food cooked, and on which the cactus-tree and serpents
are worshiped.
In September the great festival of the worship of Doorga, the wife
of Siva, occurs. It begins on the seventh day of the full moon and
continues three days. It commemorates a visit of the goddess to her
parents. The idol has three eyes and ten hands. The ceremony is
very costly, and can therefore only be celebrated by rich people, who
also give presents to the poor on this occasion. The image is placed
in the middle of the hall of the rich man's house. One Brahman sits
before the idol with flowers, holy water and incense. Near the idol
are trays laden with rice, fruit, and other kinds of food, which are
given to the Brahmans. Goats and sheep are then sacrificed to the
image on the altar in the yard of the house. When the victim's head
falls the people shout : " Victory to thee, O mother ! " The bells are
then rung, the trumpets sounded, and the people shout for joy. The
lamps are waved before the idol, and a Brahman reads aloud from the
Vedas. A dinner follows on each of the three days, to which the poor
and the low-caste Hindoos are invited with the others, and are served
by the Brahmans. The people visit house after house, and in the even-
Car of
Jugger-
naut.
Nativity
of
Krishna.
Festival
of Doorga,
650
THE SANSKRITIC HINDOOS.
Other
Festivals.
Ascetic
Acts.
Pious
Acts.
A Denial.
Many
Sides of
Brahman-
ism.
Contra-
dictions.
ing are entertained with music and dancing, and public shows. Thus
the worship of the Hindoos, especially in Bengal, is social and joyful.
In October, November and December there are not so many cere-
monies. January is devoted to religious bathing. In the same month
the religious Hindoos invite Brahmans to read and expound the sacred
books in their houses, which are open to all who wish to hear. In
February there are festivals to Krishna.
The month of March is devoted to ascetic exercises, particularly the
well-known one of swinging suspended by hooks, which is a festival in
honor of Siva. A procession marches through the streets, enlisting
followers by putting a thread around their necks. Every one so en-
listed is required to join the party and go with it until the end of the
ceremony under the penalty of losing caste. On the day before swing-
ing, men are required to thrust iron or bamboo sticks through their
arms or tongues. The day following they go in procession to the
swinging tree, where the men are suspended by hooks and whirled
round the tree four or five times.
The Hindoos regard building temples, digging tanks, or planting
trees by the roadside as pious acts. The wealthy have idols in the
houses, and pay a priest who appears every morning to wake up the
idols, washes and dresses them, and offers them food. He comes again
in the evening to give them their supper and put them to bed.
Mr. Gangooly, in his book on the Hindoos, denies most emphatically
the oft-repeated statement that Hindoo mothers cast their infants into
the Ganges as a religious sacrifice. He says that the motherly instinct
is as strong with them as with others; and also that their religion
teaches them to offer sacrifices for the life and health of their children.
The Hindoo philosophy is as acute, as profound and as spiritual,
as any other that has ever been developed, yet it exists side by side
with the grossest of superstitions. " With a belief so abstract as to
escape the grasp of the most speculative intellect," the people cherish
the idea that they can atone for sin by bathing in the Ganges, or by
reciting a text from the Veda. With an ideal pantheism resembling
that of Hegel, they believe that Brahma and Siva can be driven from
the throne of the universe by any one who will sacrifice a sufficient
number of wild horses.
The true road to felicity is supposed to be abstracting one's self
from matter, the renunciation of all gratification of the senses, the
maceration of the body ; yet luxury, licentiousness and the gratification
of the appetites are carried farther in India than in any other part
of the world. A code of laws and a system of jurisprudence older than
the Christian era, and an object of universal reverence, fixes every right
and privilege of ruler and subject, but the application of these laws
BRAHMANISM.
651
depends upon the arbitrary decisions of the priests, and their execution
upon the will of the sovereign : " The constitution of India is there-
fore like a house without a foundation and without a roof." Not to
kill a worm or to tread on a blade of grass for fear of destroying or
endangering animal life is a principle of the Hindoo religion ; " but
the torments, cruelties and bloodshed inflicted by Indian tyrants would
shock a Nero or a Borgia." About half the best-informed writers on
India call the Brahmanical religion a pure monotheism, while the other
half declare that it is a polytheism of a million gods. Some say that
the Hindoos are spiritualists and pantheists, while others contend that
their idolatry is more gross than that of any other living people.
Thus it will be seen that the prevailing belief which pervades the
whole system of Brahmanism is an ideal pantheism, which conceives of
God as the soul of the universe, or as the universe itself. " In Him
the whole universe is absorbed; from Him it issues; He is intwined
and interwoven with all creation." " All that exists is God ; whatever
we smell, or taste, or see, or hear, or feel, is the Supreme Being." We
have also seen that the Invisible Supreme Being manifests himself un-
der the three forms of Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver, and
Siva the Destroyer. We have likewise seen that the central point of
Hindoo theology is the doctrine of metempsychosis, or transmigration
of souls; according to which the human soul is joined to earthly bodies
for purposes of punishment, and the soul's aim and effort are to reunite
itself with the Divine Spirit of the universe. The Hindoos therefore
take a very pessimistic view of this earthly life, which they regard as
a time of trial and punishment, from which man can only be released
by a holy life, by prayer and sacrifice, by penance and purification.
If a person neglects these duties and sinks deeper into vice and sin, the
soul after death will enter the body of an inferior animal and will have
to commence its wanderings afresh.
Although the Hindoos have sacred books of great antiquity, and a
copious literature reaching back twenty or thirty centuries, they have
no history, no chronology, no annals.
In India the entire tendency of thought is ideal; the whole religion
is a pure spiritualism. An extreme one-sided idealism is the central
tendency of the Hindoo mind. " The God of Brahmanism is an intel-
ligence absorbed in the rest of profound contemplation. The good
man of this religion is the one who retires from an evil world into
abstract thought."
The Hindoos are a very religious people, but their one-sided spirit-
ualism, their extreme idealism, is the cause of all their incongruities,
their irreconcilable inconsistencies. They have no history and no au-
thentic chronology; because history belongs to this world and chron-
Ideal
Panthe*
ism.
No
History.
Idealism
and
Spiritual-
ism.
Incon-
sistencies.
652
THE SANSKBITIC HINDOOS.
Asceti-
cism.
Opposites.
Maya, or
Illusion.
Polythe-
ism.
Panthe-
ism.
ology to time, and this world and time do not interest them, God and
eternity being all in all.
The Hindoos, from religious motives, are extremely given to asceti-
cism. They torture their bodies with self-inflicted torments, because
the body is the soul's great enemy, and they must keep it down by
ascetic mortifications. But in India, as everywhere else, ultra asceti-
cism leads to extreme self-indulgence, as one extreme tends to produce
another. Thus in one portion of India religious devotees swing on
hooks in honor of Siva ; hang themselves by the feet, head downwards,
over a fire ; roll on a bed of prickly thorns ; jump on a couch filled with
sharp knives; bore holes in their tongues, and stick their bodies full
of pins and needles, etc. In the meantime in other places entire re-
gions are given to self-indulgences, and companies of abandoned women
connected with different temples consecrate their gains to the support
of their worship.
A one-sided spiritualism displays itself in morals in the extremes of
austerity and sensuality, and it exhibits itself in religion in the oppo-
sites of an ideal pantheism and a gross idolatry.
The Brahmanic spiritualism fills the world full of God, and, denying
the real existence of this world, degenerates into a false pantheism. It
declares that there is nothing without God, and that there is nothing
but God. This second view was the result of the doctrine of Maya,
or Illusion. Maya signifies the delusive appearance assumed by spirit.
It is maintained that there is nothing but spirit, which neither creates
nor is created, which neither acts nor suffers, which cannot change, and
into which all souls are absorbed when they liberate themselves by
meditation from the belief that they suffer or are happy, that they are
able to experience pleasure or pain.
This spiritualism leads to polytheism. Because if God does not
really create or destroy, but only appears to do so, these appearances
are not combined as the acts of one Being, but are distinct, independent
phenomena. The removal of will and personality from the concep-
tion of God involves the removal of unity. If creation is an illusion
and there is really no creation, the appearance of creation is neverthe-
less a fact. There being no substance, only spirit, this appearance
of creation necessarily has its cause in spirit, being a divine appear-
ance, God. In the same way, destruction is an appearance of God,
and reproduction is an appearance of God, and every other appearance
in nature is a manifestation of God. But as the unity of will and
person is taken away, there is a plurality of gods, not only one God,
and thus we have polytheism.
An ultra spiritualism tends to pantheism, and pantheism degenerates
into polytheism. Thus, in India there exists a spiritualism denying
BUDDHISM. (J53
the existence of everything but motionless spirit, or Brahm, and a
polytheism which believes in and worships Brahma the Creator, Vishnu
the Preserver, Siva the Destroyer, Indra the God of the Sky, the Sactis
or energies of the gods, Krishna the Hindoo Apollo, Doorga, and a
multitude of other deities as countless as the changes and appearances
of things.
This system necessarily tends to idolatry. Men are so constituted Idolatry,
that they must worship something. If they believe in one Being, the
Absolute Spirit, the Supreme and Only God — Para Brahm — they can-
not worship him, because he is literally an unknown God. He pos-
sesses no qualities, no attributes, no activity. He is not the object
of hope, fear, love or aversion. All things in the universe except spirit
are illusive appearances, which are nevertheless divine appearances ;
and which, having some traits, qualities and character, are objects of
hope and fear. They cannot, however, worship them as appearances,
and must therefore worship them as persons. If they possess an out-
ward personality or soul they become real beings, distinct from Brahm,
though they are his appearances. Consequently they must have an
outward personality — a body, a form, symbolical and characteristic —
they become idols.
As a result, idol-worship is universal in India. The most horrible Idolatry
and grotesque images are carved in the stone of the grottoes, stand ^ jnaia.
in rude, black statues in the temples, or are roughly painted on the
walls. Figures of men with heads of elephants or other animals, or
with six or seven human heads — often rising in a pyramid, one out of
the other, frequently with six hands joined to one shoulder — " grisly
and uncouth monsters, like nothing in nature, yet too grotesque for
symbols — such are the objects of the Hindoo worship."
SECTION IV.— BUDDHISM.
A WISE and good king reigned in his capital city, Kapila-vastu, Siddar-
north of Central India and of the Kingdom of Oude, near the borders gakya-
of Nepaul, at the end of the seventh century before Christ. He was muni, or
one of the last of the great Solar race, so celebrated in the ancient aithema'
epics of India. His wife, called Maya on account of her great beauty, Buddha,
became the mother of a prince named Siddartha, Sakya-muni, or Gau-
tama, and afterwards known as the Buddha. Buddha is not a proper
name, but an official title. As we should always say Jesus the Christ,
and not Jesus Christ, so we should always say Siddartha the Buddha,
or Sakya-muni the Buddha, or Gautama the Buddha. The name
Siddartha (contracted from Sarvartha-siddha) was the baptismal
654. THE SANSKRITIC HINDOOS.
name given him by his father, and means " The fulfillment of every
wish." Sakya-muni means " The hermit of the race of Sakya " —
Sakya being the ancestral name of his father's race. Gautama, his
most common name, was the name of his tribe.
His This young prince's mother died seven days after he was born, and
LtfJ ^ne child was brought up by his maternal aunt. He distinguished him-
self by his personal and intellectual qualities, but yet more by his early
piety. The Laws of Manu make it apparent that occasionally in the
earliest periods of Brahmanism those desiring greater piety became
hermits, living alone in the forests, there engaging in acts of prayer,
meditation, abstinence and the study of the Vedas. The Brahmans,
however, were only devoted to this practice. The King therefore
grieved when his son began to cherish thoughts of becoming an anchor-1
ite, in the bloom of his youth and highly accomplished in all kingly
qualities of mind and body. The young Siddartha appears to have
passed through the deep experience out of which the great prophets of
the human race have ever risen. His heart and mind became impressed
with the evils of this world. " The very universe seemed full of mor-
tality ; all things were passing away." Nothing appeared permanent
or stable. Only truth ; only the absolute, eternal law of things seemed
immutable. Said he : " Let me see that, and I can give lasting peace
to mankind. Then shall I become their deliverer." Thus against the
strong entreaties of his father, his wife and his friends, he left the pal-
ace one night, and became a mendicant. Said he : "I will never return
to the palace till I have attained to the sight of the divine law, and so
become Buddha " (meaning " to know," from the Sanskrit root, whence
our English words " bode " and " f orbode " ) .
Nirvana. He first visited the Brahmans and listened to their doctrines, but
found no satisfaction in them. The wisest of the Brahmans were not
able to teach him true peace — the profound inward rest already known
as Nirvana. He was then twenty-nine years of age. He practiced
the Brahmanic austerities for six years to conquer the senses, although
he disapproved of them as an end. He became fully convinced that
therein did not lie the road to perfection. Accordingly he resumed
his former diet and a more comfortable manner of living, and thus lost
many disciples whom he had attracted by his wonderful austerity.
Alone in his hermitage he finally arrived at that solid faith that the
only real basis of a truly free life was to be found in knowledge un-
shaken. The place where he reached this beatific vision, after a week
of constant meditation, is one of the most sacred places of India.
When he attained the knowledge that was to deliver the human race
from its woes, he was -seated under a tree, with his face toward the east,
having remained unmoved for a day and a night. Twelve centuries
GREAT BRONZE STATUE OF BUDDHA IN TEMPLE AT KAMAKURA, JAPAN
BUDDHISM.
655
after his death, a Chinese pilgrim was shown what then passed for the
sacred tree. It was enclosed by high brick walls, with an opening to
the east, and close by were numerous topes and monasteries. Saint-
Hilaire thinks that these ruins and the site of the tree may again be
discovered. On that retired spot began a movement which altogether
has been a source of happiness and improvement to many millions of
mankind for twenty-four centuries.
After himself reaching this inward certainty of vision, Gautama
decided to instruct the human race in this truth. He was very well
aware that he would be subjected to opposition, insult, scorn, neglect.
But he sought three classes of men — those already on the right road
to truth, and who did not need him; those settled in error and whom
he was unable to rescue ; and the poor doubters who were uncertain of
their way. The Buddha went forth to preach to deliver these doubt-
ers. On his way to Benares, the holy city of India, he was confronted
with a serious difficulty — the want of money to pay the boatman for
his passage over the Ganges. At Benares he made his first converts,
for the first time " turning the wheel of the law." The Buddhist
sacred books contain his discourses. Among his numerous converts
was his father. He was fiercely opposed by the leading Brahmans,
" the Hindoo Scribes and Pharisees." After thus living and teaching,
he died at the age of eighty years.
As soon as Gautama was dead he was highly honored by all. His
remains were cremated with great pomp, and his followers contended
for the unconsumed fragments of bone. These were finally divided
into eight parts, and each of these fortunate possessors erected a tope
over the relics which he had obtained. The ancient books of the North
and the South agree in regard to the places where they were built.
Gautama the Buddha, who believed with Jesus the Christ that " the
flesh profiteth nothing," would perhaps have been the very first to con-
demn this idolatry; but fetish-worship remains in the purest systems
of religion.
Like most Oriental dates, the time of Sakya-muni's death is not cer-
tain. The Northern Buddhists, in Nepaul, Thibet, etc., differ much
among themselves. The Chinese Buddhists are just as uncertain.
Lassen and most other scholars regard the date fixed upon by all the
Buddhist authorities of the South, especially those of Ceylon, B. C.
543, as the correct date. Westergaard a few years ago wrote a mono-
graph on the subject, in which he tries to prove that the correct date
was about two centuries later.
A general council of Siddartha's followers was held immediately
after his death to settle upon the doctrine and discipline of the new
religion. According to the legend, three of the disciples were selected
Gautama
Begins
His
Mission.
Honored
after
Death.
Date
Uncer-
tain.
Council
of His
Fol-
lowers.
THE SANSKRITIC HINDOOS.
to recite from memory the teachings of the sage. The first was ap-
pointed to repeat his teaching and discipline ; " for discipline is the
soul of law," they said. Thereupon Upali ascended the pulpit and
repeated all of the precepts relating to morals and the ritual. Next
Ananda was chosen to recite his master's discourses respecting faith
or doctrine. At last Kasyapa announced the philosophy and meta-
physics of the new religious system. The council sat seven months,
and the result of their work was the triple division of the Tripitaka,
the sacred books of the Buddhists. Like Socrates and Jesus, Sakya-
muni himself left nothing in writing. He simply taught by personal
conversation.
Sects The second general council of Buddhism was held about a century
Mission- after Siddartha's death, to correct some abuses which had commenced
to creep into the church. A large brotherhood of monks proposed the
relaxation of conventional discipline, permitting more liberty in regard
to food, intoxicating drinks, and the taking of gold and silver when
offered as alms. Ten thousand schismatic monks were degraded, but
they founded a new sect. The third general council was held during
the reign of Asoka, the great Buddhist king in Northern India, and
degraded and expelled the sixty thousand heretics. Missionaries were
then sent to preach Buddhism in different lands of Eastern and South-
eastern Asia. The Mahawanso, or Sacred History of Buddhism, trans-
lated from the Cingalese by Mr. George Tumour, records the names and
success of these missionaries. The relics of some of them have been
found recently in the Sanchi topes, and in other sacred buildings, con-
tained in caskets, with inscriptions of their names. These inscribed
names correspond with those given to the same missionaries by the his-
torical books of Ceylon. Thus, according to the Mahawanso, two
missionaries, Kassapo, or Kasyapa, and Maj jhima, or Madhyama, pro-
ceeded to preach in the region of the Himalaya mountains. The
ancient account, and a Ceylonese history of the fifth century of the
Christian era, say that these missionaries journeyed, preached, suf-
fered, and toiled, side by side; and in 1851 Major Cunningham found
the relics of these missionaries in the second Sanchi tope, where they
had remained concealed during all these centuries. When Captain
Fell visited the tope in 1819 it was perfect, " not a stone fallen."
And though injured in 1822 by some relic-hunters, its contents were
not touched. The tope is a structure built of rough stones without
mortar, thirty-nine feet in diameter, in the shape of a solid hemisphere,
with a basement six feet high, projecting five feet all around, so as to
make a terrace. It is surrounded by a stone enclosure, with carved
figures. A small enclosure was found in the center of the tope, con-
structed of six stones, containing the relic-box of white sandstone,
BUDDHISM.
657
about ten inches square. Inside this box were four caskets of steatite,
a sacred stone among the Buddhists, each of these caskets containing
small parts of burnt human bone. On the outside of one of these cask-
ets was the following inscription : " Relics of the emancipated Kasyapa
Gotra, missionary to the whole Hemawanta." On the inside of the
same lid was carved this inscription : " Relics of the emancipated Mad-
hyama." These relics and those of eight other leading Buddhists had
reposed in this monumental sepulcher since the time of King Asoka,
and must have been deposited there at least as early as B. C. 220.
Buddhism manifested a missionary spirit which distinguishes it from
all other religions preceding Christianity. The religion of Confucius
never tried to extend itself beyond China. Brahmanism never at-
tempted to go outside of India. The system of Zoroaster confined it-
self to the Medes, Persians, Bactrians, and a few other Aryan races.
The religion of Egypt remained only in the Nile valley. That of
Greece confined itself to the Hellenic race. But Buddhism was in-
spired with a desire to make its teachings known and accepted by the
whole human race. Buddhism spread rapidly throughout India, and
its teachings of love, charity and human equality exerted a wonder-
ful influence. Its ardent missionaries succeeded in converting vast
multitudes in Nepaul, Thibet, Burmah, Ceylon, Farther India and
China ; and although driven from India after wrestling nine centuries
with Brahmanism, Buddhism spread over all Eastern Asia — that is,
among the Mongolian nations ; and is to-day the religion of one-third
of the human race, having more adherents than any other faith. It
is the popular religion of China. It is the state religion of Thibet and
Burmah. It is the religion of Japan, Siam, Anam, Assam, Nepaul,
Ceylon, Mongolia and Manchooria. Like Christianity, Buddhism has
its monkish orders ; and its monasteries in all the countries in which it
prevails are yet the chief sources of knowledge and the centers of in-
struction to the people.
The sovereign head of the Buddhist religion in Thibet is the Grand
Lama, who resides in a magnificent temple at Pootala, near Lassa, the
capital of Thibet. All the priests are called Lamas, and are under the
Grand Lama, who is a sort of pope. He is regarded as the Buddha,
the Deity himself, residing in a human form, and is therefore divine
and human. When the human body of the Grand Lama dies, the
priests, guided by certain signs, and proceeding in accordance with
established forms, name the child into whose body the Grand Lama
must enter, and there the Buddha accordingly becomes installed. The
Buddha thus becomes incarnate in the Grand Lama, and divine emana-
tions fill the priesthood, while the masses of the people practice the
grossest idolatry. Although the Grand Lama has no temporal power,
Mis-
sionary
Spirit
Grand
Lama of
Thibet.
658
THE SANSKRITIC HINDOOS.
he is the head of Thibet's Buddhist church, as the Pope is of the
whole Roman Catholic church. He is so exalted in the eyes of his
more ignorant worshipers that, it is said, a divine odor is exhaled from
his body, flowers spring up from his footsteps, and at his word parched
deserts are refreshed with flowing rivulets, while his very excrements
are considered sacred.
Recent We have had few sources of information concerning Buddhism until
tionabout a recent period ; but within the last half century so many sources have
Bud- been opened that we can now study this great religion in its original
Im' features and its subsequent development. The sacred books of Buddh-
ism have been preserved independently in Ceylon, Nepaul, China and
Thibet. Eminent English scholars, such as G. Tumour, R. Spence
Hardy and Georgely, devoted themselves to the study of the Pitakas,
or the Buddhist sacred books, in the Pali language, preserved in Ceylon.
Mr. Hodgson collected and studied the Sanskrit sacred books found
in Nepaul. In 1825 he transmitted to the Asiatic Society in Bengal
sixty works in Sanskrit, and two hundred and fifty in the language of
Thibet. M. Csoma, an Hungarian physician, discovered in the Buddh-
ist monasteries in Thibet a vast mass of sacred books translated from
the Sanskrit works previously studied by Mr. Hodgson. In 1829 M.
Schmidt found the same works in the Mongolian language. M. Stanis-
las Julien translated Buddhist works from the Chinese language. Still
more recently, inscriptions cut upon rocks, columns and other monu-
ments in the North of India have been transcribed and translated.
These inscriptions were deciphered by Mr. James Prinsep, who dis-
covered them to be in the ancient language of the province of Magadha,
where Buddhism made its first appearance. They contain the decrees
of a king, or rajah, named Pyadasi, shown by Mr. Tumour to be the
same as the renowned Asoka, who seems to have ascended the throne
at some time from B. C. 319 to B. C. 260. Similar inscriptions have
been discovered in other portions of India, demonstrating to the satis-
faction of such eminent scholars as Burnouf, Prinsep, Tumour, Las-
sen, Weber, Max Miiller, Saint-Hilaire and others that Buddhism had
almost become the state religion of India in the fourth century before
Christ.
The power of Buddhism was based on the strength of conviction
inspiring its apostles. We often are told that Buddhism is atheism,
that it denies God and immortality. Sakya-muni was induced to take
his departure from two profound convictions — the evil of constant
change and the possibility of something more settled and permanent.
In the language of the Book of Ecclesiastes he might have exclaimed:
" Vanity of vanities ! all is vanity ! " The gloomy character of that
book is founded on the very same style of reasoning as that of Siddar-
Bud-
dhism's
Power.
BUDDHISM. (559
tha, " that everything goes round and round in a circle ; that nothing
moves forward ; that there is no new thing under the sun ; that the sun
rises and sets, and rises again; that the wind blows north and south,
and east and west, and then returns according to its circuits." Gau-
tama was young, and he desired to know where rest and peace could
be found. He beheld age coming on. He was in good health, but
knew that sickness and death would some day come upon him. He
saw no means of escaping from the sight of this continual round of
origin, development and decay, life and death, joy and sorrow, happi-
ness and misery. He earnestly and intensely yearned for something
real, something stable, something lasting.
He was convinced that all existence is an evil, and that release from Ganta-
this state of change and decay could only be attained through knowl-
edge. He did not, however, mean by knowledge the observation and
remembrance of external facts. He did not mean learning. He did
not mean speculative knowledge, or the faculty of reasoning. He
meant intuitive knowledge, the sight of everlasting truth, the power of
perceiving the immutable laws of the universe. This knowledge could
only be acquired by moral training, by purity of heart and life, and
not by any mental process. For this reason he renounced the world
and became a hermit in the forest.
He thus separated himself from the Brahmans. They likewise be- Departure
lieved in the efficacy of asceticism, of self -mortification, abnegation Brahman-
and penance. They also had hermits in his time. They, however, ism.
believed in the value of penance as an additional merit. They prac-
ticed self-denial for its own sake. Gautama practiced it as a means
to a higher end, namely, release from the miseries of existence, puri-
fication and intuition. He believed that he had finally attained that
end. He ultimately perceived the truth. He grew " wide awake."
Illusions passed away. He saw the reality. He had become the
Buddha — the Enlightened — the Man who knew.
In another point he departed from Brahmanism. He was yet only Another
a man, not a God. In Brahmanism devotion ultimately resulted in DePart'
absorption in the Divine essence, in Deity. The Brahmanic doctrine
is divine absorption. The Buddhistic is human development. Brah-
manism considers God everything, and man nothing. Buddhism re-
gards man as everything, and God as nothing. Thus Buddhism makes
so much of man as to forget God. But while it is " without God in
the world " it does not deny him. It believes in the three worlds — the
eternal world of absolute being ; the celestial world of the gods, Brah-
ma, Vishnu, Siva, Indra, Agni, Varuna, etc. ; and the infinite world
composed of individual souls and the laws of nature. It only says
that we know nothing of the world of absolute being, Nirvana, which
660
THE SANSKRITIC HINDOOS.
Souls and
Laws.
Sublime
Truths.
Fourth
Truth.
Four
Paths.
The
Buddhist
Ten
Com-
mand-
ments.
Buddhist
Litera-
ture.
is our aim and end. But it is directly opposite to all that we know,
and is consequently nothing to us. We know the everlasting laws of
nature, and if we obey these we will rise, but if we disobey we will fall.
By perfect obedience to these eternal and unchangeable laws of nature
we shall finally reach Nirvana and everlasting repose.
The Buddha looked upon the world as consisting of two orders of
existence — souls and laws. He perceived an infinite multitude of souls,
in men, animals and insects. He observed that they were surrounded
by immutable laws — the laws of nature. Knowledge of, and obedience
to, these laws freed one from the miseries of existence, and brought
him into the happy state of Nirvana.
The fundamental doctrine of Buddhism, as taught by its founder
and accepted by all Buddhists, in the North and in the South, in Bur-
mah and Thibet, in Ceylon and China, in Nepaul and Japan, is the.
doctrine of what they regard as the four great " sublime truths."
They say that there is pain; that pain comes through the desire or
passion for things that cannot long be ours ; that both pain and desire
can be ended in Nirvana, the way to which is shown by the fourth
truth of the Buddha.
The four paths to this way are the following: He has entered the
first path who sees the evils arising from separate existence, and who
believes in the Buddha and in the power of his system only to attain
salvation, which is release from the miseries of existence.
He has entered the second path who, in addition to the above, is free
from lust and evil to others.
He has entered the third path who is further free from all kinds of
evil desires, from ignorance, doubt, wrong belief and hatred.
He has arrived at the fourth path who is wholly free from sin and
passions, by which are meant the lust of the flesh, the love of existence
and the defilements of wrong belief and ignorance.
The four paths have also been summed up in eight steps or divisions,
as follows: Right views, right thoughts, right speech, right actions,
right living, right exertion, right recollection, right meditation.
Then follow ten commandments. Five of these apply to all men,
and are as follows : Do not steal ; do not kill ; do not commit adultery ;
do not lie ; do not become intoxicated. The other five are directed to
monks, and are the following : Take no solid food after noon ; do not
visit dances, singing, or theatrical entertainments; use no ornaments
or perfumery in dress ; use no luxurious beds ; accept neither gold nor
silver.
A countless number of commentaries and expositions have been made
upon these doctrines and precepts. Everything has been commented
upon, explained and elucidated. Voluminous works upon the Buddhist
BUDDHISM.
661
system fill the monastic libraries of Thibet and Ceylon. The monks
have their Golden Legends, their Lives of Saints, full of miracles and
wonders. " On this simple basis of a few rules and convictions has
arisen a vast fabric of metaphysics. Much of this literature is in-
structive and entertaining. Some of it is profound. Baur, who had
made a special study of the intricate speculations of the Gnostics, com-
pares them with the vast abstractions of Buddhism."
The Buddhist scriptures are called the Pitakas, or the Tripitaka —
" three baskets " — so called because they are in three parts. The first
Pitaka contains rules of discipline; the second, the discourses of the
Buddha ; while the third deals with philosophy and the subtle doctrines
of the religion. The Buddha's sayings, transmitted from generation
to generation and preserved in men's memories, were finally set down in
writing. They grew as the Christian Scriptures grew, and all the
writings were at last accepted as the sacred records of Gautama's
teachings.
Among the many traditions relating to the Buddha is one telling of
a young mother whose child had died, and who, in her great love and
sorrow, clasped the dead body to her bosom, going about from house
to house and asking if any one could give her medicine for it. The
neighbors considered the woman mad, but a wise man, seeing that she
was unable or unwilling to comprehend the law of death, said to her:
" My good girl, I cannot myself give medicine for it, but I know of a
doctor who can attend to it." She asked who the doctor was, and was
sent by the wise man to the Buddha. After she had done homage to
him, she said : " Lord and master, do you know any medicine that will
be good for my boy ? " The Buddha answered that he did, and told
her to bring a handful of mustard seed which must be taken from a
house where no son, husband, parent or slave had died. The woman
then went to look for such mustard seed, but could find no such house,
for when she inquired if any son, husband, parent or slave had died
there, one would reply, " I have lost a son " ; another would say, " I
have lost both parents " ; while all answered, " Lady, the living are
few, but the dead are many." Finally, unable to find any house which
had not been visited by death, she became impressed with the truth,
whereupon she left her dead boy in the forest, and returned to the
Buddha and told him her story. He said to her : " You thought that
you alone had lost a son ; the law of death is that among all living
creatures there is nothing that abides." When he had finished preach-
ing the law the woman became one of his disciples.
" Once upon a time Buddha lived in a village, and, in the sowing
season, went with his bowl in hand to the place where food was being
given by a Brahman, who, seeing him, spoke thus :
The Tri-
pitaka.
Famous
Tradition
of the
Buddha.
The
Buddha
and the
Brahman.
662
THE SANSKRITIC HINDOOS.
The
Buddha
and
Alavaka.
The
Dis-
course.
" ' O priest, I both plough and sow, and having ploughed and sown,
I! eat ; you also, O priest, should plough and sow, and having ploughed
and sown, you should eat.'
" ' I too, O Brahman, plough and sow, and having ploughed and
sown, I eat,' said Buddha.
" ' But we see neither the yoke, nor plough, nor ploughshare, nor
goad, nor oxen, of the venerable Gautama. * * *
" ' Being questioned by us as to your ploughing, speak in such a
manner as we may know of your ploughing.'
" The Buddha replied : ' For my cultivation, faith is the seed ;
penance the rain ; wisdom my yoke and plough ; modesty the shaft for
the plough; mind the string; presence of mind my ploughshare and
goad.'
" Then the Brahman offered him rice boiled in milk from a golden
vessel.
" In a chapter very popular among the Buddhists of Ceylon, the
demon Alavaka is said to have asked Buddha, ' What is the best wealth
to a man in this world? What thing well done produces happiness?
Of savory things, which is indeed the most savory? The life of one
who lives in what manner, do they say, is the best? '
" Buddha answered : ' Faith is the best wealth to a man here. The
observing well the law produces happiness. Truth is indeed the most
savory of all savory things. The living endowed with wisdom, they
say, is the best of all modes of living.'
" On another occasion, when asked what was the greatest blessing,
Buddha said:
" ' The succoring of mother and father, the cherishing of child and
wife, and the following of a lawful calling, this is the greatest bless-
ing.'
" ' The giving alms, a religious life, aid rendered to relations, blame-
less acts, this is the greatest blessing.'
" ' The abstaining from sins and the avoiding them, the eschewing
of intoxicating drink, diligence in good deeds, reverence and humility,
contentment and gratefulness, this is the greatest blessing.
" * * * ' Those who having done these things, become invincible on
all sides, attain happiness on all sides. This is the greatest blessing.'
" There is a discourse of Buddha's which some have called, from the
place where it was preached, his ' sermon on the mount,' but it lacks
clearness, nor could it be set down in language easy to grasp. The ex-
tracts from Buddhist sacred books just given show how forcefully
Buddha could put much meaning into few words, and of this there is
rich proof in a book called the * Dhammapada,' or ' Path of Virtue,'
which is believed to contain his sayings. For example:
BUDDHISM.
663
" * He who lives looking for pleasures only, his senses uncontrolled,
idle and weak, Mara (the tempter) will certainly overcome him, as the
wind throws down a weak tree.'
" * Let the wise man guard his thoughts ; they are difficult to per-
ceive, very artful, and they rush wherever they list; thoughts well
guarded bring happiness.'
" ' As the bee collects nectar, and departs without injuring the
flower, or its color and scent, so let the sage dwell on earth.'
" * Like a beautiful flower, full of color but without scent, are the
fine but fruitless words of him who does not act accordingly. But like
a beautiful flower, full of color and full of scent, are the fine and fruit-
ful words of him who acts accordingly.'
" ' He who lives a hundred years, vicious and unrestrained, a life of
one day is better if a man is virtuous and reflecting.'
" * Let no man think lightly of evil, saying in his heart, It will not
come near unto me. Even by the falling of water-drops a water-pot is
filled; the fool becomes full of evil even if he gathers it little by
little.'
" ' Not to commit any sin, to do good, and to purify one's mind, that
is the teaching of the Awakened.' (This is one of the most solemn
verses among the Buddhists.)
" ' Let us live happily then, not hating those who hate us ! Let us
dwell free from hatred among men who hate ! '
" ' Let us live happily then, free from greed among the greedy !
Let us dwell free from greed among men who are greedy!'
" ' Let us live happily then, though we call nothing our own ! We
shall be like the bright gods, feeding on happiness ! ' !
The Buddhist God is the Buddha himself, the deified man, who has
become an infinite being by entering Nirvana. Prayer is addressed to
him, as man must pray to something. In Thibet prayer meetings are
held even in the streets. Father Hue says : " There is a very touch-
ing custom at Lassa. In the evening, just before sundown, all the
people leave their work, and meet in groups in the public streets and
squares. All kneel and begin to chant their prayers in a low and
musical tone. The concert of song which rises from all these numer-
ous reunions produces an immense and solemn harmony, which deeply
impresses the mind. We could not help sadly comparing the Pagan
city, where all the people prayed together, with our European cities,
where men would blush to be seen making the sign of the cross."
This confession was early enjoined in Thibet, and public worship in
that country is a solemn confession before the assembled priests. It
confers an absolution from all sin. It consists in a public confession
VOL. 2.— 21
The
Buddhist
God.
Custom
at
Lassa
Confes-
sion and
Absolu-
tion.
664*
THE SANSKRITIC HINDOOS.
Previous
Buddhas.
Buddhist
Nun-
neries.
Karma
and
Nirvana.
Differing
Views.
of sin, and a promise to cease sinning. In the pagodas, or temples,
holy water is used in the service.
The Thirty-five Buddhas who have preceded Gautama are regarded
as the chief powers for taking away all sins. These are styled the
" Thirty-five Buddhas of Confession." Gautama has been included in
the number. In the sacred pictures some lamas are likewise joined
with them, one of these being Tsonkhapa, a lama who was born A. D.
1555, and others. The mendicant priests of Buddha must confess
twice a month, at the new and full moon.
There are Buddhist nunneries for women. It is said that Gautama
agreed to their establishment at the urgent request of his aunt and
nurse, and of his favorite disciple, Ananda. These nuns take the same
vows as the monks. Their rules require them to treat even the young-
est monk with reverence, and utter no angry or harsh words towards
a priest. The nun is required to be willing to be instructed, and must
go to a virtuous teacher for this purpose once in every fortnight. She
must devote only two weeks at a time to spiritual retirement, and must
not go out simply for amusement. She can only be initiated after two
years' preparation, and must attend the closing ceremonies of the rainy
season.
The two chief metaphysical doctrines of Buddhism are Karma and
Nirvana. Karma is the law of consequences, by which every act per-
formed in this life receives its full recompense in the next world, where
the soul is born again, but such recompense is only possible if the soul
passes on. Said the Buddha : " Karma is the most essential property
of all beings ; it is inherited from previous births, it is the cause of all
good and evil, and the reason why some are mean and some exalted when
they come into the world. It is like the shadow which always accom-
panies the body." The Buddha himself reached all his elevation by
means of a Karma obtained in previous states. None can obtain
Karma or merit except such fortunate individuals as hear the Buddha's
discourses.
Eminent scholars have not agreed respecting the meaning of Nir-
vana, the end which all Buddhists desire to attain. Some have sup-
posed it to mean utter annihilation, entire cessation of existence.
Others have believed it to signify absorption into Deity — the same as
the Brahmanical doctrine of the ultimate aim and end of the human
soul. The weight of authority supports the first view. Burnouf says :
" For Buddhist theists, it is the absorption of the individual life in
God; for atheists, absorption of this individual life in the nothing.
But for both, it is the deliverance from all evil, it is supreme
affranchisement." Max Miiller, Tumour, Schmidt and Hardy all
agree that it is annihilation. M. Saint-Hilaire holds the same view.
BUDDHISM.
665
calling it a " hideous faith," but saying that it is the doctrine of one-
third of the human race.
But some of the most distinguished scholars hold the opposite view,
among them Bunsen, who alludes to the fact that in the most ancient
monuments of Buddhism, the earliest Sutras, Nirvana is mentioned as
a state attained in this life, being a condition in which all desires cease,
all passions die. Bunsen maintains that the Buddha never denied or
questioned the existence of God or the doctrine of immortality.
The Pali Sacred Books give the following account of Nirvana :
" Again the King of Sagal said to Nagasena: ' Is the joy of Nir-
vana unmixed, or is it associated with sorrow ? ' The priest replied
that it was unmixed satisfaction, entirely free from sorrow.
" Again the King of Sagal said to Nagasena : ' Is Nirvana in the
east, west, south or north; above or below? Is there such a place as
Nirvana ? If so, where is it ? ' Nagasena replied : ' Neither in the
east, south, west or north; neither in the sky above, nor in the earth
below, nor in any of the infinite sakwalas, is there such a place as Nir-
vana.' Milinda asked : ' Then if Nirvana have no locality, there can
be no such thing ; and when it is said that any one attains Nirvana, the
declaration is false.' Nagasena replied : ' There is no such place as
Nirvana, and yet it exists ; the priest who seeks it in the right manner
will attain it.' Milinda asked : * When Nirvana is attained is there
such a place ? ' Nagasena replied : ' When a priest attains Nirvana
there is such a place.' Milinda asked : ' Where is that place ? '
Nagasena replied : ' Wherever the precepts can be observed ; it may
be anywhere; just as he who has two eyes can see the sky from any
or all places ; or as all places may have an eastern side. '
The Buddhists regarded Nirvana as the object of all their hope, but
if you ask them what it is, they may answer : " Nothing." This would
apparently imply that utter annihilation is the highest good — the most
desirable end. Such a doctrine would be the most extreme pessimism.
When a Buddhist says that Nirvana is nothing, he means that it is
no thing; that it is nothing that we can at present perceive ; that it is
the contrary of all we know, of what we now call life, a condition so
entirely different from what we know or are able to know at present
that it is just the same as nothing to us. All present life is subject to
constant change; that is permanent. All present life goes up and
down ; that is stable. All present life is the life of sense ; that is spirit.
In the same way the Buddhist denies God. He regards Him as
unknowable — as impossible to be conceived of. The Buddhist regards
the element of time and the finite as all, in the same way that the Brah-
man regards the element of eternity as all. It is the most extreme
opposite of Brahmanism.
Bunsen's
View.
Account
from the
Pali
Sacred
Books.
Bud-
dhists'
Aim,
Nirvana.
Meaning
Idea of
God.
0(J6 THE SANSKRITIC HINDOOS.
Finite It seems as though the Oriental mind could not at the same time
Infinite conceive of God and nature, the finite and the infinite, eternity and
time. Brahmanism believes only in the reality of God, the infinite and
the eternal, and ignores the reality of the finite, of nature, history,
time and the world. The Buddhist, on the contrary, accepts the l,ast
and ignores the first.
Rational- Buddhism is a system of rationalism. It appeals to man's reason,
ism. jj. prOpOses to save man by knowledge, from a present hell, and not a'
future one. The Buddha preached numberless sermons, while his mis-
sionaries preached abroad. Buddhism extended itself by peaceful
means — by its rational appeal to the human mind. It never propa-
gated its doctrines by the sword, even when it had the power of rajas
to uphold it. Buddhism has won all triumphs peacefully, not depend-
ing on the sword of the conqueror or the frauds of priestcraft. It has
Tolera- its superstitions and errors, but it has not deceived. It is the most
tolerant of all religions. It has not persecuted, and has no prejudices
against the adherents of other religions. Buddhism has had no In-
quisition. It has not burned alive or imprisoned or excommunicated
heretics. Though extremely zealous in extending their faith, Buddh-
ists have all the time displayed a spirit of toleration truly remarkable.
But one religious war has obscured their peaceful history during
twenty-four centuries. That war occurred in Thibet, but little is
known about it. A Buddhist in Siam told Mr. Crawford that he be-
lieved all the religions of the world to be branches of the true religion.
A Buddhist in Ceylon sent his son to a Christian school, and said to
the missionary : " I respect Christianity as much as Buddhism, for I
regard it a help to Buddhism." The French Roman Catholic mission-
aries, MM. Hue and Gabet, were told by a Buddhist in Thibet that he
considered himself both a good Buddhist and a good Christian.
Bud- Buddhism is also humane in spirit, and therein lay the cause of its
Humane wonderful success. In its origin it was a protest against the power
Side. of the Brahmanic priesthood. It broke down all castes by asserting
the doctrine of human equality, and by allowing any one wishing to
lead a holy life to become a priest. It displays an unbounded charity
for all souls, and considers it a duty to make sacrifices for all. Said
the Buddha: " Not from birth does one become a Vasala (slave), not
from birth does one become a Brahman. By bad conduct does one
become a Vasala, by good conduct does one become a Brahman." One
legend says that the Buddha gave his body for food to a starving
tigress, which was too weak to nurse her young. An incident is on
record concerning the Buddha, who asked a woman of low caste for
water, and who, when she expressed surprise, said : " Give me drink,
and I will give you truth." The commandment, " Thou shalt not
BUDDHISM. 567
kill," which applies directly to all living creatures, has exerted a won-
derful influence in softening the manners of the Mongol nations, whose
history has not been filled with constant wars and bloodshed as has the
history of Christian and other nations.
The commandment not to kill is closely related with the doctrine of Metemp-
the metempsychosis, or transmigration of souls, which is one of the
leading doctrines of Buddhism, as well as of Brahmanism. Buddhism
has abolished all human and animal sacrifices ; and its altars, free from
innocent blood, are crowned only with flowers and leaves. It likewise
teaches a practical humanity consisting of good actions. It made it
the duty of children to obey and honor their parents, and of parents
to care for their children. It also made it a duty of all to forgive
their enemies, to return good for evil, to do unto others as they would
have others do unto them, to be kind to the sick and the poor and the
sorrowing. It diffused a spirit of charity abroad which encompassed
the life of the lowest, as well as that of the highest. All the priests
of Buddhism are supported by daily alms. It is a duty of Buddhists
to be hospitable to strangers, to establish hospitals for the sick and
the poor, and even for sick animals, to plant shade trees and to erect
houses for travelers.
Mr. Malcolm, the Baptist missionary, says that as he sat down to Examples
rest one day in a small village in Burmah a woman brought a nice B S*..
mat for him to lie on. Another brought some cool water for him, while Hospi
a man brought him a half dozen good oranges. None expected or tality.
desired the least reward, but went away, leaving him to his repose. He
says : " None can ascend the river without being struck with the hardi-
hood, skill, energy, and good humor of the Burmese boatmen. In
point of temper and morality, they are infinitely superior to the boat-
men of our Western waters. In my various trips I have seen no
quarrel nor heard a hard word."
Mr. Malcolm says further : " Many of these people have never seen Addi-
a white man before, but I am constantly struck with their politeness. tionalEx-
They desist from anything on the slightest intimation ; never crowd
around to be troublesome; and if on my showing them my watch or
pencil-case, or anything which particularly attracts them, there are
more than can get a sight the outer ones stand aloof and wait till their
turn comes. * * *
*' I saw no intemperance in Burmah, though an intoxicating liquor
is made easily of the juice of a palm. *
" A man may travel from one end of the kingdom to the other with-
out money, feeding and lodging as well as the people."
*'I have seen thousands together, for hours, on public occasions, rejoic-
ing in all ardor, and no act of violence or case of intoxication. * * *
668
THE SANSKEITIC HINDOOS.
Buddhist
Morality.
Buddhist
Priests.
" During my whole residence in the country I never saw an indecent
act or immodest gesture in man or woman. * * * I have seen hun-
dreds of men and women bathing, and no immodest or careless act.
" Children are treated with great kindness, not only by the mother
but by the father, who, when unemployed, takes the young child in his
arms, and seems pleased to attend to it, while the mother cleans the rice
or sits unemployed at his side. I have as often seen fathers caressing
female infants as male. A widow with male and female children is
more likely to be sought in marriage than if she has none. * * *
" Children are almost as reverent to parents as among the Chinese.
The aged are treated with great care and tenderness, and occupy the
best places in all assemblies."
According to Saint-Hilaire, the Buddhist morality is one of endur-
ance, patience, submission and abstinence, instead of one of action,
energy or enterprise. It is based on love for all things, every animal
being possibly our relative. The virtues of Buddhists are to love their
enemies, to offer their lives for animals, to abstain from even defensive
warfare, to govern themselves, to shun vices, to obey superiors, to
reverence age, to provide food and shelter for men and animals, to dig
wells and plant trees, to despise no religion, to show no intolerance, and
not to persecute. Polygamy, though tolerated, is not sanctioned.
Monogamy generally prevails in Ceylon, Siam and Burmah ; but is less
prevalent in Thibet and Mongolia. Buddhism affords women better
treatment than any other Oriental religion.
Buddhism has regular priests but no secular ones ; and all its clergy
are monks, who take the three vows of poverty, chastity and obedience,
as did the Christian monks of the Middle Ages. The vows of the
Buddhists are not irrevocable, and they can be relinquished at any time,
and return into the world if they desire to do so. The first Roman
Catholic missionaries who met the Buddhist priests were struck with
wonder at the many resemblances between the customs of Buddhism
and those of Roman Catholicism, and thought that Satan had been
mocking their sacred rites. Father Bury, a Portuguese missionary,
on beholding Chinese bonzes tonsured, using rosaries, praying in an
unknown language, and kneeling before images, exclaimed in astonish-
ment : " There is not a piece of dress, not a sacerdotal function, not a
ceremony of the court of Rome, which the Devil has not copied in this
country." Mr. Davis, an English authority, alludes to " the celibacy
of the Buddhist clergy, and the monastic life of the societies of both
sexes; to which might be added their strings of beads, their manner
of chanting prayers, their incense, and .their candles." Mr. Medhurst,
another English authority, speaks of the images of a virgin, called the
" queen of heaven," having an infant in her arms, and holding a cross.
BUDDHISM.
669
Confession of sins is practiced regularly. Father Hue, the French
missionary, says of the Buddhists in China, Thibet and Tartary:
" The cross, the miter, the dalmatica, the cope, which the Grand Lamas
wear on their journeys, or when they are performing some ceremony
out of the temple — the service with double choirs, the psalmody, the
exorcisms, the censer suspended from five chains, and which you can
open or close at pleasure — the benedictions given by the lamas by ex-
tending the right hand over the heads of the faithful — the chaplet,
ecclesiastical celibacy, religious retirement, the worship of the saints,
the fasts, the processions, the litanies, the holy water — all these are
analogies between the Buddhists and ourselves." He might have also
said that in Thibet is the Dalai Lama (Grand Lama), Buddhist Pope.
The Roman Catholic missionaries next thought that the Buddhists
had learned these customs from the Nestorian missionaries who visited
China in the early centuries of the Christian era. But Wilson trans-
lated plays from written works before the time of Christ, in which
Buddhist monks appear as mendicants. The worship of relics is no
less ancient. Fergusson describes topes, or shrines of relics, of exceed-
ing antiquity, in India, Ceylon, Burmah and Java; many of them
belonging to the time of King Asoka, the great Buddhist sovereign who
ruled all India about B. C. 250, and in whose reign Buddhism was made
the state religion of India and held its third church council.
The ancient Buddhist architecture, very curious and some of it very
elegant, includes topes, rock-cut temples and monasteries. Some of
the topes are monolithic columns, over forty feet high, and having
ornamented capitals ; while others are enormous domes of brick and
stone, containing sacred relics. The tooth of Buddha was once pre-
served in a magnificent shrine in India, but was taken to Ceylon in
A. D. 311, where it yet remains an object of universal reverence. It
is a piece of ivory or bone two inches long, and is kept in six cases,
the largest being of solid silver, five feet high. The other cases are
inlaid with rubies and precious stones. Ceylon likewise has the " left
collar-bone relic," in a bell-shaped tope, fifty feet high, and the thorax
bone, in a tope erected by a Hindoo rajah, B. C. 250. Besides these
topes there are two others, which were afterwards built, the last being
eighty cubits high. The Sanchi tope is the finest in India, and is a
solid stone dome, one hundred and six feet in diameter and forty-two
feet high, with a basement and terrace having a colonnade, now fallen,
of sixty pillars, with elegantly-carved stone railing and gateway.
The numerous rock-cut temples of the Buddhists in India are of
great antiquity. Fergusson believes that over nine hundred yet re-
main, most of which are within the Presidency of Bombay. Many of
these date back two centuries before Christ. They resemble the earli-
Antiquity
of Bud-
dhist
Customs.
Ancient
Buddhist
Architec-
ture.
Buddhist
Rock-cut
Temples
in India.
THE SANSKRITIC HINDOOS.
est Roman Catholic churches in form. They are excavated out of
solid rock, and have a nave and side aisles, ending in an apse, or semi-
dome, round which the aisle is carried. One of the excavated rock
temples at Karli, built in this style, is one hundred and twenty-six feet
long and forty-five feet wide, having fifteen elegantly-carved columns
on each side, which separate the nave from the aisles. The fa£ade
of this temple is likewise profusely ornamented, and has a large open
window to light the inside, below a beautiful gallery of rood loft.
The The numerous rock-cut monasteries of the Buddhists in India have
Buddhist now been deserted for centuries. Between seven and eight hundred
Monas-
teries, are known to remain, most of which were excavated between B. C. 200
and A. D. 500. Buddhist monks at that early period, as well as at
the present time, took the three vows of celibacy, poverty and obedi-
ence, which are taken by the members of Roman Catholic orders. Be-
sides this, all the Buddhist priests are mendicants. They shave their
heads, wear a friar's robe tied round the waist with a rope, and beg
from house to house, carrying their wooden bowls for boiled rice. The
old monasteries of India have chapels and cells for the monks ; but the
largest could accommodate only thirty or forty; while one monastery
in Thibet visited by MM. Hue and Gabet (the lamasery of Kounboum)
is occupied by four thousand lamas. The structure of these monas-
teries clearly proves that the Buddhist monkish system is far too
ancient to have been adopted from the Christian system.
Buddhism But while Buddhism thus resembles Romanism in its outward forms,
a Protest jj. manifests the spirit of Protestantism. In Asia the human mind pro-
Brahman- tested in the interest of mankind against the oppression of priest-ridden
xsm. Brahmanism, as the European reformers of the sixteenth century re-
volted against the tyranny of the Church of Rome. Brahmanism es-
tablished a system of salvation by sacraments, but Buddhism revolted
and founded a doctrine of personal salvation by teaching. Brahman-
ism was the more spiritual, as it made God everything, this world noth-
ing; Buddhism was the more rationalistic, as it made this world every-
thing and ignored Deity. Brahmanism is a system of fixed castes ;
Buddhism a system wherein the doctrine of individual freedom is as-
serted. Brahmanism considers the body as the soul's enemy; Buddh-
ism accepts the laws of nature and is a religion of humanity as well
as of devotion. Buddhism was a protest of nature against spirit, of
humanity against caste, of personal freedom against priestly despot-
ism, of salvation by faith against salvation by sacraments. But like
other revolts, Buddhism went too far. " In asserting the rights of
nature against the tyranny of spirit, Buddhism has lost God." Buddh-
ism ignores creation and the Creator. Its tracts say : " The rising
of the world is a natural case." " It is natural that the world should
BUDDHISM. 671
rise and perish." Brahmanism recognizes absolute spirit as the only
reality and considers this world an illusion ; while Buddhism recognizes
only this world and ignores the eternal world of spirit. Nevertheless
Buddhism, like Brahmanism, looks upon this life as an evil, and the
aim of both systems to escape the changes of the world and its miseries
and obtain eternal repose, while both systems hold to the doctrine of
the transmigration of the souls of those who do not lead a correct life
into other forms of animal existence until the soul is purified, when
rest is obtained, according to Brahmanism, by absorption into the
Divine Spirit of the universe, and according to Buddhism by entering
Nirvana. Though both systems have the same aim, that of escaping
the miseries and changes of existence into the absolute rest of eternity,
the Brahman thinks this repose can only be obtained by mental submis-
sion and by a passive reception of what is taught by a priest-caste,
while the Buddhist believes that this eternal rest can only come through
a free obedience of the Divine laws. Both systems consider knowledge
essential to salvation.
M. Saint-Hilaire has summed up the good and evil of Buddhism ^,ai.nt
Hilaire's
thus: Its founder proposed himself to save the human race. He did View.
not indulge in the subtle philosophy of the Brahmans; he did not
promise his followers riches, pleasures, conquests or power; but he in-
vited them to accept salvation by means of virtue, knowledge and self-
denial. We do not find such noble appeals in the Vedas or the other
Brahmanic works. The Buddha's greatest glory was the unlimited
charity for man which filled his soul. He devoted his life to teach man
and lead him in the right way. His law was a law of grace for all.
Sakya-muni, the Buddha, therefore aimed at a universal religion. He
viewed man's life, regardless of rank and class, as sorrowful. He con-
sidered all alike poor and needy, and invited to come unto him all that
labor and are heavy laden, offering them rest. He desired to cure the
diseases of the life of the human race.
M. Saint-Hilaire remarks that in thus trying to save man the means Buddha's
of Siddartha the Buddha are as pure as his ends. He sought to per- '
suade and to convince. He did not desire to use force. He permitted
confession, and aided the weak and helpless by explanations and para-
bles. He established habits of chastity, temperance and self-control,
to guard man against evil. He employed the Christian graces of pa-
tience, humility and forgiveness of injuries. He abhorred falsehood,
and reverenced truth. He forbade slander and gossip. He taught
respect for parents, family, life and home.
The teaching of Gautama the Buddha, like that of Jesus the Christ, Corrupted
has been corrupted with doctrines which he never taught ; and the forms
of worship adopted in different countries vary, but principally consist
672
THE SANSKRITIC HINDOOS.
Buddha
and
Christ.
Saint
Hilaire's
Further
View.
Sir Ed win
Arnold's
View.
in adoration of the statues of the Buddha and of his relics, he being
regarded by them as that which any person may become by the four
sublime truths and the ten commandments. Buddhism as a philosophy
does not deny God; it simply ignores Him, says nothing about him.
Buddhism as a religion is a polytheism and an idolatry, whose millions
of votaries believe in a multitude of gods.
We have observed resemblances between the Buddha's teaching of
charity and mercy and that of Christ's, as the fruit of the loving
natures of both. Like Christianity, Buddhism was driven out of its
birth-place.
But M. Saint Hilaire observes that Buddhism never yet founded a
good social state or a solitary good government. It failed in India,
its native land, and never got a permanent hold of any Aryan race.
The gloomy character of Buddhism, which looks upon all existence as
an evil, with the simple motive of doing right for the sake of future
reward by deliverance from a sad existence, has a corrupting influence
upon duty ; the idea disappears, and skepticism follows. " God is
nothing; man is nothing; life is nothing; death is nothing; eternity
is nothing. Hence the profound sadness of Buddhism. To its eye
all existence is an evil, and the only hope is to escape from time into
eternity — or into nothing — as you may choose to interpret Nirvana.
While Buddhism makes God, or the good, and heaven, to be equivalent
to nothing, it intensifies and exaggerates the evil. Though heaven is
a blank, hell is a very solid reality. It is present and future too.
Everything in the thousand hells of Buddhism is painted as vividly
as in the hell of Dante. God has disappeared from the Universe, and
in his place is only the inexorable law, which grinds on forever. It
punishes and rewards, but has no love in it. It is only dead, cold, hard,
cruel, unrelenting law. Yet Buddhists are not atheists, any more than
a child who has never heard of God is an atheist. A child is neither
deist nor atheist; he has no theology. The only emancipation from
self love is in the perception of an infinite love. Buddhism, ignoring
this infinite love, incapable of communion with God, aiming at morality
without religion, at humanity without piety, becomes at last a prey
to the sadness of a selfish isolation. We do not say that this is always
the case, for in all systems the heart often redeems the errors of the
head. But this is the logical drift of the system and its usual out-
come.
Says Edwin Arnold concerning the Buddhist religion : " In point
of age, most other creeds are youthful compared with this venerable
religion, which has in it the eternity of a universal hope, the immor-
tality of a boundless love, an indestructible element of faith in final
good, and the proudest assertion ever made of human freedom."
CHAPTER IX.
ANCIENT CHINA AND JAPAN.
SECTION I.— GEOGRAPHY OF CHINA.
Area and
Popula-
tion.
China
Proper.
THE Chinese Empire contains more than five millions of square miles,
or twice the area of the United States, and has a population of almost
five hundred millions, or about one-third of the number of inhabitants
of the globe. China proper, inhabited by the Chinese, is about half
the size of Europe, and has about four hundred millions of human
beings within its limits. Of the eighteen provinces of China many
contain singly more inhabitants than some of the great European mon-
archies.
China proper contains about one-fourth part of the territory of the
empire, and three-fourths of the population. It is the portion that
comprises that peculiar nation, so different from all others — the Chi-
nese. China proper is bounded on the north by Tartary and the Yel-
low Sea ; on the east by the Pacific Ocean ; on the south by the China
Sea, Anam, Siam and Burmah; on the west by Thibet and Tartary.
It is mainly an uneven plain, though crossed by two ranges of moun-
tains— the Peling range in the North, and the Nan-ling range in the
South. The two chief rivers are the Hoang-Ho and Yang-tse-Kiang,
both of which rise in Thibet ; the first being eighteen hundred and fifty
miles long, and the last two thousand miles.
The island of Hainan lies upon the southern coast, about eight miles Hainan,
from the mainland. It is one hundred and fifty miles long and seventy-
five miles wide, and is very populous. A part of the people are subject
to China, and a part are independent. This island produces gold,
lapis-lazuli, and various curious and valuable woods.
The climate of China is cold in the North, and the winters at Peldn,
the capital of the Chinese Empire, are attended with deep snows and
severe frosts. In the South it is hot. China lies in the same latitude
as the United States, and comprises almost the same extent upon the
Pacific as our country does upon the Atlantic, so that the seasons and
temperature of the two countries are very much alike. The soil of
673
Climate.
674
ANCIENT CHINA AND JAPAN.
Soil.
Products.
Tea.
Rice.
Silk.
Insects,
Animals.
Political
Divisions.
Prov-
inces.
China is mainly fertile, and the whole of it is under industrious and
skillful cultivation, yielding abundant crops. It produces all the
fruits common to tropical and temperate latitudes. Camphor and cin-
namon trees grow in the fields and gardens.
The tea shrub, or tree, grows wild in fields and hedges, but cultiva-
tion greatly improves it. It reaches a height of from four to six feet.
It is usually grown in gardens. The leaves are gathered by families,
and sold to merchants who trade in the article. Tea is a peculiar
product of China, and the great staple of the country. Rice is grown
more extensively in China than in any other country of the world, and
is the main food of the people.
The silk-worm is cultivated in China, and in that country, it is said,
silk was first manufactured. The various insects of China are very
brilliant, and among them are many kinds of beetles and butterflies,
some very large, and others beautiful. Little is known of the wild
animals of China. The cattle are of the same humped species as those
of India, one kind being no larger than a hog. There are not many
horses. The pigs are said to be very small.
The political divisions of the Chinese Empire are China proper, Man-
chooria, Mongolia, Soongaria, Little Bucharia, or Chinese Turkestan,
Thibet and the island of Hainan. Manchooria, Mongolia, Soongaria
and Chinese Turkestan are called Chinese Tartary. Mongolia is re-
garded as the original home of the Mongolian race. Manchooria is
the native country of the present dynasty, which has ruled the Chinese
Empire for almost two and a half centuries, since A. D. 1644.
China proper is divided into eighteen provinces — Pe-chee-lee, Chang-
tung, Kiang-su, Ngan-hoei, Ho-nan, Hoo-pe, Che-kiang, Kiang-si,
Hoo-nan, Fokian, Quang-tung, Quang-si, Kuei-cheou, Yun-nan, Se-
chu-an, Shen-si, Shan-si, Kansi, Leao-tong. The great cities of China
are Pekin, the capital, with about three million inhabitants, in the most
north-eastern province, Pe-chee-lee; Canton, with over two million in-
habitants, in the province of Quang-tung, in the South, bordering on
the China Sea ; and Shanghae, Amoy, Ningpo, Nankin and Foo-choo,
in the East, along the coast.
Chinese
An-
tiquity.
SECTION H.— ANCIENT CHINA.
THE Chinese Empire is the oldest now existing on the face of the
earth, and has until recently formed a separate world, as it were, from
the rest of mankind, with a history distinctly its own and not connected
with that of other nations. While great empires have successively
risen and fallen in other parts of the world, China has remained the
ANCIENT CHINA.
675
same for at least five thousand years, surviving all the great nations
of Western Asia, Northern Africa and Europe. It is the only ancient
empire which has continued to the present time.
While other nations have passed away, while empires have risen and
fallen in other parts of Asia and the world, in accordance with the in-
exorable law of change which seems to govern human affairs, national
as well as individual, China furnishes an example of permanence among
nations. Its civilization appears to have existed without change from
time immemorial, and may have existed before that of the Nile valley ;
and the Egyptian kings who erected the great Pyramids may have lived
after the founders of the Chinese Empire. Porcelain vessels, having
Chinese mottoes upon them, have been discovered in the ancient Egyp-
tian tombs, in shape, material and appearance exactly resembling those
made in China at the present time ; and the great Italian antiquary
of last century, Rosellini, believed them to have been imported into
Egypt from China by kings who reigned in Egypt about the time of
Moses or before.
China and its institutions have outlived everything else in the world.
Ancient Egypt, Chaldaea, Assyria, Babylonia, Media, Persia, Judaea,
Greece and Rome, have all risen, flourished, decayed and died; but
China, probably more ancient than any of them, has remained the same
to our own day. It has had twenty-two successive dynasties ; but its
customs and institutions, all that constitutes the life of the nation, have
continued fixed and permanent. The present European nations, even
the oldest of them, are young in comparison with the great nation of
Eastern Asia. At the time when the Egyptian kings were building
their Pyramids, China had a settled government and a high state of
civilization, from which, if it has not materially advanced, it has not
receded.
The Chinese have an extravagant chronology, making their country
many thousands of years old ; and their early history, like that of other
Asiatic nations, is lost in the dimness of a very remote antiquity.
Their fabulous chronology includes dynasties of sovereigns, each of
whom reigned eighteen thousand years; but subsequently their lives
dwindled to so short a period that the reigns of nine kings are embraced
in forty-five thousand six hundred years. The ten ages from Tan-
kou, or Pan-kwo, whom Confucius mentioned as the first man, are com-
puted by Chinese writers to comprise ninety-six million years. But
the Chinese now regard the fabulous period of their history with con-
tempt. Kung-fu-tsee — whose name has been Latinized into Confu-
cius— gives an account of the Chinese monarchs for a period of two
thousand five hundred and sixty-two years before his time.
Per-
manence
Old
Civiliza-
tion.
Extrava-
gant
Chro-
nology.
676
ANCIENT CHINA AND JAPAN*
Aborigi-
nes.
Primitive
Chinese.
Early
Civiliza-
tion and
Govern-
ment.
Fo-hi.
Chin-
nong.
Hwang-ti.
Ti-ku.
Yau.
Shun.
Yuthe
Great.
Hia
Dynasty.
Chung-
kang.
Civil
War.
Shang-
kang.
Ti-chu.
The Chinese were not the first inhabitants of the country, but had
migrated from their original home in Mongolia to the south and south-
east in the fabulous ages, and subdued or exterminated the barbarous
aborigines of the country. Some remnants of these savage tribes still
inhabit the mountains in Western China, where they are called Miao,
and are perhaps of the same race as the aboriginal Thibetans.
When the Chinese first settled in the province of Shen-si, they are
said to have been almost complete savages, having no knowledge of the
arts of social union, or of anything which raises man above the brute.
But they gradually developed a civilization; and early history speaks
of sovereigns teaching their subjects every science and craft, from
astronomy to agriculture, from preparing machinery for war to mak-
ing musical instruments. It appears that the crown was at first elec-
tive, the people assembling on the death of a sovereign and choosing
the person whom they considered most fitted to be his successor; the
person so chosen being generally the prime minister of the deceased
monarch.
The authentic history of China dates back almost five thousand
years, but the early portion of it is wholly mythical. Chinese writers
tell us that the founder of this old monarchy was FO-HI, who became
Emperor about B. C. 2852. It is said that he taught his subjects how
to raise cattle, instructed them in the art of writing, and introduced
the institution of marriage and the divisions of the year. His suc-
cessor, CHIN-NONG, invented the plow, and taught his people agricul-
ture and medicine. The third Emperor, HWANG-TI, is said to have
invented clocks, weapons, ships, wheeled vehicles and musical instru-
ments, and to have introduced coins and also weights and measures.
TI-KTT, the fourth Emperor, established schools, and introduced the cus-
tom of polygamy. With his son and successor, YAU, who ascended the
throne of the " Celestial Empire " in B. C. 2357, the more authentic
history of China begins. He greatly advanced the civilization and
wealth of his people, and constructed many roads and canals. He was
succeeded at his death in B. C. 2258 by his son SHUN, who was as good
and wise a sovereign as his father. At his death in B. C. 2207, Yu
THE GREAT founded the Hia dynasty, which occupied the throne of the
" Flowery Kingdom " until B. C. 1767. Yu the Great made himself
the head of the national religion, as well as the civil ruler of the empire.
His grandson, the third of the dynasty, was driven from the throne by
a popular revolution, and was succeeded by his brother, CHUNG-KANG,
who ruled with vigor. His death was followed by a period of civil
war, which was ended by placing SHANG-KANG on the throne. He
governed his empire well, and was succeeded by his son TI-CHU, the
last great emperor of the famous Hia dynasty. After the death of
ANCIENT CHINA.
677
Ti-chu the Hia dynasty declined, and it was hurled from the throne
by a revolution in B. C. 1766, when the Shang, or Yin, dynasty as-
cended the Chinese throne, which it held until B. C. 1122. This
dynasty embraced twenty-eight emperors, who were most wicked, cruel
and despicable sovereigns. In B. C. 1122 a great general named Wu-
wang headed a revolt against CHOW-SIN, the last emperor of the Shang
dynasty, and reduced him to so desperate a condition that he collected
his treasures and his women in his palace, and placing himself in
their midst, set fire to the edifice and perished with them in the flames,
as did Saracus, the last Assyrian king.
WIT-WANG then ascended the Chinese throne and was the founder of
the Chow dynasty, who governed China for eight hundred and seventy-
three years, from B. C. 1122 to B. C. 249. Wu-wang was a great
monarch, and inaugurated many wise and useful reforms for the benefit
of his subjects. None of his successors possessed his ability, and their
reigns were constantly disturbed by civil wars, struggles with the Tar-
tars, and the rebellions of princes. The sovereign's power was as weak
under this dynasty as it had been under any other race of Chinese em-
perors. During the reign of LI-WANG (B. C. 571-544), Confucius,
the great Chinese moral philosopher and teacher, was born.
In B. C. 249 the Chow dynasty was succeeded by that of Tsin,
whose monarchs were a far more vigorous race of sovereigns. They
weakened the power of the great vassal princes, and made the em-
peror's power again supreme. The second emperor belonging to this
dynasty was CHING-WANG, who reigned from B. C. 246 to B. C. 210,
and built the " Great Wall of China " to protect his country against
the inroads of the Tartars on the northern frontier of his empire.
The Great Wall (wan-li-chang, the myriad mile wall), on the northern
frontier of China proper, is the most stupendous work of defense ever
erected by human hands. It was completed about B. C. 215, and is
now mostly in ruins. Next to the Great Pyramids of Egypt, the
Great Wall of China is the most ancient monument of human labor
still remaining.
This wall bounds China proper along its entire northern frontier,
along three of its provinces, and extends fifteen hundred miles from
the Yellow Sea to the western province of Shen-si and far into Tar-
tary. To procure a sufficient number of laborers for so great an en-
terprise, the Emperor Ching-wang ordered that every third laboring
man throughout his dominions should be forced to enter his service;
and these were obliged to work like slaves, without any further pay
than a bare supply of food.
The wall was carried over the highest hills and through the deepest
valleys, crossed upon arches over rivers, and was doubled in important
Shang
Dynasty.
Chow-
sin.
Wu-
wang.
Chow
Dynasty.
Li-wang.
Con-
fucius.
Tsin
Dynasty,
Ching-
wang.
Great
Wall.
Its
Extent
How
Built.
Its
Magni-
tude.
678
ANCIENT CHINA AND JAPAN.
Ching-
wang's
Tyranny.
Destruc-
tion of
Books and
Records.
Han
Dynasty.
Wen-ti.
Wu-ti.
Siuen-ti.
Ming-ti.
Bud-
dhism.
St.
Thomas.
Ho-ti.
passes, being supplied with strong brick towers or bastions, about a
thousand yards apart. One of the highest ridges crossed by the wall
is five thousand feet above the level of the sea. It greatly exceeds the
sum-total of all other works of the same kind, and proved a sufficient
defense against the Tartars for fifteen centuries. The body of the
wall consists of an earthen mound defended on each side by a wall of
masonry and brick, of the most solid construction, with a terrace or
platform of square bricks. The entire average height, including the
parapet of five feet, is twenty feet, on a stone foundation projecting
two feet under the brick work, and differing in height from two feet
or more, according to the level of the ground. The wall is twenty-
five feet thick at the base, narrowing to fifteen at the platform. The
towers are forty-five feet at the base, diminishing to thirty feet at the
top, and are about thirty-seven feet high.
The Emperor Ching-wang, the builder of the Great Wall, sup-
pressed the tributary kingdoms and reduced them to their former state
of dependent provinces; thus considering himself the founder of the
Chinese Empire. He was the first to assume the title of Kwang, or
Emperor. He determined that the history of China should begin with
his reign; and to wipe out the memory of past events and reigns he
ordered all the books recording them, including the public records, to
be burned, and, it is said, also caused four hundred learned men to be
buried alive, so that no knowledge of past events might be transmitted
to futurity. Thus a great mass of early Chinese literature perished,
many of the writings of Confucius and Mencius being among them.
A few fragments of their works escaped, and to them moderns are in-
debted for a knowledge of the principles of these great sages and of
the previous history of China.
In B. C. 206 the Tsin dynasty was succeeded by that of Han, which
governed China until A. D. 220. The Han dynasty was a race of
great monarchs. The Emperor WEN-TI, who came to the throne B.
C. 180, is regarded as the restorer of the ancient Chinese literature.
WU-TI, who began to reign B. C. 141, was a liberal patron of science
and art, and many scholars resided at his court. SIUEN-TI, who as-
cended the throne B. C. 73, subdued the Tartars and extended his
dominion over their country westward to the Caspian Sea, thus ruling
a vast dominion, including all of Central Asia. During the reign of
MING-TI (A. D. 58—76), Ho-shung, a Buddhist priest from India,
visited China and introduced the Buddhist religion into that country.
There is a tradition among the Armenian Christians that St. Thomas
also visited China and preached Christianity there during the reign
of Ming-ti. The Emperor HO-TI, who reigned from A. D. 89 to A.
D. 106, introduced the culture of the grape.
679
The famous Han dynasty came to an end in A. D. 220, when China
was divided into three kingdoms. In A. D. 260 the Emperor WU-TI
restored the empire by reuniting the three kingdoms, and founded the
second Tsin dynasty, which held the throne until A. D. 420. The
Han dynasty firmly held the Tartars in check, but these wild people
established themselves in the North of China and set up an independent
kingdom. Thence until A. D. 590 the South of China was governed
by four successive native Chinese dynasties — the Sung, the Tse, the
Ziang and the Chin. This period was marked by continuous civil war
and religious dissension, which lasted until A. D. 590, when the Prince
of Sui, who had conquered the Tartar kingdom in Northern China,
subdued the native empire in the South also and thus reunited China
into one monarchy. He became emperor and proved himself one of
the wisest and best of Chinese monarchs. He devoted himself with
unrelenting zeal to the promotion of literature, science, education, in-
ternal prosperity and commerce.
On the death of the Prince of Sui, in A. D. 619, the Hang dynasty
ascended the throne of China, which it occupied until A. D. 907. In
A. D. 636 the Nestorian monk Olopen visited China and commenced
the preaching of Christianity, and Nestorian inscriptions have been
found in the country. The Emperor KOW-TSTJNG was the most cele-
brated sovereign of the Hang dynasty. He was a great warrior and
extended his conquests westward to the frontiers of Persia. His son
and successor, TAI-TSTJNG, is the great hero of Chinese romance. The
succeeding Hang sovereigns did not possess the vigor of the first two
monarchs of this dynasty, and were the subservient instruments of the
eunuchs of their court. But CHOW-TSUNG, who became emperor in
A. D. 890, was a more vigorous ruler. He destroyed the eunuchs,
but failed in his efforts to restore the power of the emperor. China
became a prey to civil war, and the Tartars embraced the opportunity
to extend their own power.
In A. D. 960 TAI-TSTT restored tranquillity and founded the Sung
dynasty, which occupied the Chinese throne until A. D. 1279, and
liberally patronized the arts and sciences, but could not check the
growing strength of the Tartars, and was obliged to seek aid from one
Tartar tribe against the others. The tribes thus admitted into the
country joined their countrymen, and in A. D. 1215 the Mongol Tar-
tars, under Zingis Khan, overran China and soon subdued the whole
country. The account of this conquest and the subsequent portion of
Chinese history will be related in other volumes of this book. We
have carried our account of China thus far beyond the limits of ancient
history in order to give a connected account up to the great Mongol
conquest in A. D. 1215.
VOL. 2.— 22
Wu-ti.
Second
Tsin
Dynasty.
Tartars.
Four Dy-
nasties.
Civil
War.
Princeof
Sol.
Hang
Dynasty.
Christi-
anity.
Kow-
tsung.
Con-
quests.
Tai-
tsung.
Chow-
tsung.
Civil
War.
Tai-tsu.
Sung
Dynasty.
Zingis
Khan's
Conquest
of
China.
680
ANCIENT CHINA AND JAPAN.
Mon-
golian
Race.
Chinese
Per-
manence.
Great
Canal.
Old Arts.
Inven-
tions.
Libraries.
Customs.
SECTION III.— CHINESE CIVILIZATION.
THE Chinese belong to the great Mongolian race, which comprises
the nations of all Eastern and a great part of Central Asia — the race
to which the Japanese, the Coreans, the Manchoos, the Mongols proper,
the Thibetans, the Burmese, the Siamese and the Anamese belong.
Compared with Christian nations they have been remarkably peaceful.
In the preceding section we have alluded to the permanence of Chinese
civilization — the unchangeable character of its institutions, its laws
and customs. The oral language of China has remained the same for
the last thirty centuries. The Great Wall is now over two thousand
years old. All China was intersected by canals at a very early period,
when none existed in Europe. The Great Canal, like the Great Wall,
is unrivaled by any other remaining work of the kind. It is twice
as long as the Erie Canal, is from two hundred to a thousand feet wide,
and has many solid granite tanks along a great portion of its course.
In China have been found tens of thousands of wells like the celebrated
Artesian wells of Europe and America; and these were sunk in very
ancient times to procure salt water. The manufacture of silk was also
understood in the most remote antiquity, the cocoons of the silk-worm
having been unraveled by a Chinese princess. The Chinese have been
acquainted with the circulation of the blood many ages before Har-
vey's discovery in Europe. They inoculated for the small-pox in the
ninth century, and invented printing about the same time. Their
bronze money has been in use since B. C. 1100, and its form has re-
mained the same for almost nineteen centuries. The mariner's com-
pass, gunpowder and the art of printing, as practiced by the Chinese,
were made known in Europe by Christian missionaries who had re-
turned from China. These missionaries, coasting the shores of the
Celestial Empire in Chinese junks, saw a little box with a magnetic
needle, called Ting-nan-Tchen, or " needle which points to the south."
They likewise observed frightful engines used by the Chinese armies
called Ho-poo, or fire-guns, into which an inflammable powder was put,
producing a noise like thunder and throwing stones and pieces of iron
with resistless force. Father Hue says that the Europeans who en-
tered China were as much surprised at the great libraries of the Chi-
nese as at their artillery, and at the elegant books printed rapidly
under a pliant silky paper by means of wooden blocks.
The customs of this peculiar people are entirely opposite to our own.
They seem our antipodes in everything. Their magnetic needle points
to the south, and they say " west-north " instead of north-west ; " east-
south " instead of south-east. Their soldiers wear quilted petticoats,
satin boots and bead necklaces, carry umbrellas and fans, and make
CHINESE CIVILIZATION.
a night attack with lanterns in their hands, as they stand in greater
dread of the dark than of the enemy. They prefer to have their fire-
works in the daytime. Ladies ride in wheelbarrows, and cows are
driven in carriages. In China the stocks are hung upon the neck,
instead of put on the feet. The family name comes first, and the per~
sonal name afterwards, so that instead of saying John Smith, they
would say Smith John. In this way the Chinese name of Confucius,
Kung-fu-tsee, signifies the Holy Master Kung — Rung being the fam-
ily name. In mounting a horse the Chinese get on on the right side.
Their old men fly kites, while the little boys look on. They use the
left hand instead of the right in greetings and farewells, and keep on
the hat as a sign of respect. Their visiting cards are printed red and
are four feet long. They regard the stomach as the seat of the un-
derstanding. They have villages with a million inhabitants. Their
boats are drawn by men, but their carriages are moved by sails. A
young and pretty married woman is a slave, but an old and withered
one is most highly esteemed and beloved by the entire family. The
emperor is most profoundly reverenced, but the empress-mother is far
more highly esteemed. The most-highly prized article of furniture
is a camphor-wood coffin, which is always kept in the best room in the
house. The legal rate of interest on money is thirty-six per cent.
They warm their wine. They are great epicures, and somewhat gour-
mands, for after dining on thirty dishes they will sometimes finish up
on a duck. They toss their meat into their mouths to a tune, every
man keeping time with his chop-sticks. They devour birds' nests,
snails, and the fins of sharks. Their mourning color is white. They
mourn for their parents three years. The chief room in their houses
is called " the hall of ancestors," of whom there are pictures or tablets
set up against the wall, and these are worshiped.
?•• The most important peculiarity of China is the esteem in which Learning
learning is there held, and distinctions and rewards are bestowed upon
scholarship. All the civil offices in the empire are given as rewards
of literary merit. The government is a despotism, the emperor hav- Despot-
ing absolute power. He is not bound by any written constitution.
Nevertheless he is held to a strict responsibility by public opinion.
He is under the authority of custom, as well as are his subjects. In
China more than in any other country " what is gray with age becomes
religion." The emperor's authority does not extend beyond govern-
ing according to the ancient usages of the country, and any persistent
violation of these will bring on a revolution and result in a change of
dynasty. A revolution in China, however, changes only the person,
who occupies the throne. The unwritten constitution of old usages
continues intact. Says Du Halde : " A principle as old as the mon-
682
ANCIENT CHINA AND JAPAN.
Literary
Class.
Man-
darins.
archy is this, that the state is a large family, and that the emperor
is in the place of both father and mother. He must govern his people
with affection and goodness; he must attend to the smallest matters
which concern their happiness. When he is supposed not to have this
sentiment, he soon loses his hold on the reverence of the people, and
his throne becomes insecure." The emperor consequently tries to pre-
serve this reputation, so as to retain the love and respect of his sub-
jects. When a province suffers from famine, inundation, or any other
calamity, he remains secluded in his palace, fasting and issuing de-
crees to relieve it of taxes and afford it assistance. Andrew Wilson
says that " the Chinese people stand unsurpassed, and probably un-
equalled, in regard to the possession of freedom and self-government."
The real power of the Chinese government is in the literary class.
Though nominally a monarchy, the government is practically an aris-
tocracy of learning, as the humblest and poorest man's son can reach
the highest position in the empire if he has the necessary ability and
merit. It is not an aristocracy of rank or birth, like that of England ;
nor an aristocracy of wealth, like that of the United States ; nor a
military aristocracy, like that of Russia; nor a priestly aristocracy,
like that of ancient Egypt, and of some modern countries, as that of
Paraguay under the Jesuits, or that of the Sandwich Islands under
the Protestant missionaries. The Chinese aristocracy is a literary
aristocracy, and is thus the least objectionable of all aristocracies
which have ever existed.
The civil officers in China are called mandarins. They are selected
from the three degrees of learned men, and all persons are eligible for
the first degree, except the three excluded classes — boatmen, barbers
and actors. The aspirants are examined by the governors of their own
towns. Of those approved a few are selected after a second examina-
tion. These are examined a third time by an officer who makes a cir-
cuit once in three years for that purpose^; They are shut up alone
in small rooms or closets, with pencils, ink and paper, and are assigned
a subject to write upon. Fifteen candidates may be selected out of
some four hundred, and these receive the lowest degree. There is an-
other triennial examination for the second degree, at which a small
number of the highest class of learned men are promoted. The ex-
amination for the highest degree is held at Pekin, the capital, only;
and then some three hundred are selected out of five thousand. These
are eligible to the highest offices. Whenever a vacancy occurs, one
of those who have received a degree is taken by lot from the few senior
names. Several years ago there were five thousand of the highest
rank, and twenty-seven thousand of the second rank, who had not been
appointed to positions under the government.
From Stereograph, copyright 1904 by L'nder-wood & Underwood
EXAMINATION HALL AT CANTON, CHINA
Rows of 12,000 Cells, where the Triennial Examinations are Held.
CHINESE CIVILIZATION.
683
The subjects upon which the candidates are examined, and the
methods of these examinations, are thus described: The subjects for
the degree of Keujin (or licentiate) takes place at the imperial city
of each province once in three years. The average number of bache-
lors in the large province of Keang-Nan (which has a population of
seventy millions) is twenty thousand, out of whom about two hundred
are successful. Sixty-five mandarins are appointed to conduct this
examination and are assisted by subordinate officials. The two chief
examiners are sent from Pekin. When the candidates enter the hall
of examination they are searched for books and manuscripts, from
which they might have gotten aid in preparing their essays. If any
are detected in sly practices they are disgraced for life. Out of one
hundred and forty-four successful candidates in 1851 thirteen were
more than forty years old, and one under fourteen; seven were less
than twenty. In order to succeed they had to know by heart the whole
of the Sacred Books, and were required to be well read in history.
Three sets of subjects are assigned, each requiring two days and a
night, and none is permitted to leave his small apartment until the
expiration of that time. The essays must not have over seven thou-
sand characters, and no erasure or correction is permitted. On the
first day the subjects are selected from the Four Books; on the next,
from the older classics; on the last, miscellaneous questions are as-
signed. These are some of the sub j ects : " Choo-tsze, in commenting
on the Shoo-King, made use of four authors, who sometimes say too
much, at other times too little ; sometimes their explanations are forced,
at other times too ornamental. What have you to observe on them? "
" Chinshow had great abilities for historic writing. In his Three
Kingdoms he has depreciated Choo-ko-lang, and made very light of
E. and E., two other celebrated characters. What is it that he says
of them?"
The utmost impartiality is observed in conducting these public ex-
aminations. The whole system of Chinese government is based upon
them. Education is thus made universally desirable, as the son of the
poorest man may attain the highest position under the government.
Every one of the hundreds of thousands who prepare themselves to
compete are obliged to know the whole system of Confucius, to mem-
orize all his moral teachings, and to acquaint themselves with all the
traditional wisdom of the country. Thus there is a permanent public
sentiment in favor of existing institutions.
The highest civil offices are seats at the great tribunals or boards,
and the positions of governors, or viceroys, of the eighteen provinces
of China proper. The boards are Ly Pou (Board of Appointment of
Mandarins), Hou Pou (Board of Finance), Lee Pou (Board of Cere-
Literary
Examina
tions.
Subjects
and
Essays.
Equality
of
Oppor-
tunity.
Require-
ments.
Boards.
Govern*
ors, or
Viceroys^
684
ANCIENT CHINA AND JAPAN.
Members
of Boards.
Viceroy's
Authority
and
Duties.
Harem.
Literary
Basis of
Institu-
tions.
.gricul-
turu
Arts and
Manu-
factures
monies), Ping Pou (Board of War), Hing Pou (Board of Criminal
Justice), Kong Pou (Board of Works — canals, bridges, etc.).
The members of these boards and their councilors and subordinates
are twelve hundred in number. There is also a Board of Doctors of
the Han Lin College, who have charge of the archives, history of the
empire, etc. There is likewise the Board of Censors, consisting of the
highest mandarins, whose duty is to censure anything they find wrong,
whether committed by the emperor, the mandarins, or the people.
The governor, or viceroy of a province, is vested with great author-
ity. He is likewise chosen from among the mandarins after a series
of examinations. He is required to report every three years concern-
ing the affairs of his province and give an account of his own faults ;
which, if he omits, and they are discovered in any other way, will sub-
ject him to punishment, such as bambooing or death. The humblest
subject has the right to complain to the emperor against any officer,
however high in rank the officer may be, and a large drum is placed at
the palace gates for this purpose. Whoever strikes this drum has his
case investigated under the eye of the emperor himself; and if he has
been wronged, redress is made ; but if he has complained without cause
he is punished with severity. Imperial visitors, sent by the Board of
Censors, may suddenly come to examine the affairs of a province at
any time, and a governor or other mandarin who is detected in any
wrong doing is at once reported and punished.
The Emperor of China, like other Asiatic monarchs, has a number
of concubines and eunuchs about the palace.
Thus the political institutions of China are built on literature.
Knowledge is the way to wealth and power, to civil employment. All
the talent and knowledge of the people have an interest in supporting
institutions which confer upon them power and political distinction,
and which give them the hope of these. These institutions have
worked admirably. The Chinese are industrious, prosperous and con-
tented, while the people in other parts of Asia are oppressed and tax-
ridden by petty despots. Agriculture has been carried to greater per-
fection in China than elsewhere. Every piece of land except such as
is devoted to ancestral monuments yields two or three crops every year,
in consequence of the careful cultivation bestowed upon it. Two thou-
sand years ago originated the ceremony of opening the soil at the
beginning of the year, on which occasion the emperor officiates.
Farms consist of only one or two acres, and each family raises all it
needs on its farm. Each family manufactures silk and cotton, each
man spinning, weaving and dyeing his own web. The division of
labor is carried very far in manufacturing porcelain, the best of which
is made in the village of Kiang-see, containing a population of one
CONFUCIUS AND HIS RELIGION. 685
millipn. Seventy hands are frequently engaged on one cup. The
Chinese display great skill in working horn and ivory. They make
large lanterns of horn, transparent and perfect. Men have failed at
Birmingham, in England, to cut ivory by machinery in the same man-
ner in which the Chinese have so long been expert.
SECTION IV.— CONFUCIUS AND HIS RELIGION.
CONFUCIUS — known in Chinese as Kung-fu-tsee (Holy Master Con-
Kung) — has been the great teacher of the Chinese nation for twenty- jjV1 °B>tii
four centuries. He was born about B. C. 551, and lived contempor- and
aneously with the Tarquins of Rome, with Pythagoras and Cyrus the
Great. About his time the Jews returned from Babylon and Xerxes
invaded Greece. His descendants have always enjoyed the highest Descend-
privileges, and now number some forty thousand in China, more than
seventy generations after their illustrious ancestor. His family is the
oldest in the world, except the Jews, who may be regarded as a single
family descended from Abraham. He has exerted greater influence Influence,
on the minds of many millions of his fellow creatures by means of his
writings than any other man who ever lived, excepting the writers of
the Jewish and Christian Scriptures. The influence of Confucius has
maintained in China that great reverence for parents, that ardent fam-
ily affection, that love of order, that esteem for learning and that re-
spect for literary men, which lie at the foundation of all the institu-
tions of China. His minute and practical code of morals, which is
studied by all the learned, and which embraces the sum of knowledge
and the principle of government in China, has ever since exerted an
incalculable influence on the hundreds of millions of human beings in
the Celestial Empire.
This fact is abundant evidence of the greatness of the renowned Great-
Chinese lawgiver and moral philosopher. Confucius must have been J8S*
one of the great intellects of the human race. He was one of the few
who have devoted themselves to the moral betterment of their fellow-
men. He endeavored to infuse the principles of the purest religion
and the most perfect standard of morals in the character of the whole
Chinese people, and was successful in his laudable efforts.
His ancestors were celebrated statesmen and soldiers in the small His
country of Loo, then an independent kingdom, now a Chinese province.
The year of his birth, B. C. 551, was three years before Cyrus the
Great became King of Persia. His father, one of the highest officers
of the kingdom, and a brave soldier, died when Confucius was three
years old. His mother had trained him with great care, and when he
686
ANCIENT CHINA AND JAPAN.
Offspring.
Mencius.
Early
Work of
Con-
fucius.
His
Disciples.
Chief
Disciples.
Sacred
Books.
was fifteen years old he had studied the five Sacred Books named Kings.
He was married at the age of nineteen, and had but one son, who died
before his father, leaving but one grandson, who was the ancestor of
the forty thousand of descendants of Confucius now living in China.
This grandson was almost as wise as Confucius, and was the teacher
of the celebrated Meng-tse, whose name has been Latinized into Men-
cius.
In the time of Confucius, China was divided into many petty king-
doms, whose rulers were quarreling constantly; and although he held
many public positions of trust, he retired to another part of the coun-
try because of the disorders then prevailing in his own kingdom. He
then continued the life of a public teacher, instructing men in the sim-
ple moral truths by which he endeavored to govern his own conduct.
He afterwards returned to his native kingdom of Loo, and after being
out of office for some years became minister of state at the age of fifty,
and his wise administration was attended with great success, and the
whole people enjoyed prosperity; but finally the wild excesses of the
court and the dissipation of the sovereign uprooted his wise and good
laws, and Confucius resigned his office and again wandered about the
country a poor man, teaching his countrymen the great moral truths
which had been the rule of his life. His disciples went about the
country disseminating his wise precepts. After many wanderings
Confucius returned to Loo, despised and poverty-stricken, and spent
his remaining years in editing the Sacred Books of China, and in
writing some additions to them, and died at the age of seventy-three.
His disciples now numbered three thousand, five hundred of whom
had reached official positions, seventy-two well understood his system,
and ten, who were especially wise and good, constantly attended him.
One of these latter was Hwuy, whom Confucius contended to have
attained superior virtue, and of whom he often said in his conversa-
tions : " I saw him continually advance, but I never saw him stop in
the path of knowledge." At another time he said : " The wisest of
my disciples, having one idea, understands two. Hwuy, having one,
understands ten." One of the chosen ten disciples, Tszee-loo, was as
rash and impetuous as the Apostle Peter. Another, Tszee-Kung, was
as loving and gentle as the Apostle John, and built a house near the
grave of Confucius, wherein he mourned for his master after his death.
During his last years Confucius edited the Sacred Books, or the
Kings, as they have been transmitted to every succeeding generation
since his day. The authentic history of China dates back to B. C.
£357; but Fo-hi, the founder of the Chinese monarchy, was also the
founder of Chinese philosophy. He began to reign about B. C. 2852.
He invented the art of writing with pictured characters as a substitute
CONFUCIUS AND HIS RELIGION.
for the knotty strings which had previously constituted the only means
of record. He was likewise the author of the Eight Diagrams, each
having eight lines, of which half are entire and half separated into
two. These Diagrams, by various combinations, are believed to sym-
bolize the active and passive principles of the universe in every essen-
tial form. Confucius edited the Yih-King, the Shoo-King, the She-
King and the Le-Ke, embracing all of ancient Chinese literature as it
has been transmitted to posterity. The Four Books, containing the
doctrines of Confucius and his disciples, were not written by himself,
but were composed by his followers after his death. One of these
books, called the " Immutable Man," is designed to show that virtue
consists in avoiding extremes. Another, called the Lun-Yu, or Ana-
lects, contains the conversation or table-talk of Confucius, and is very
much like such works as Xenophon's Memorabilia and Boswell's Life
of Johnson.
Confucius devoted his life to instructing the Chinese people in his Confucian
moral and religious principles. His system is more of a moral philoso- ophy!"
phy than a religion in the general sense of the term, yet it teaches
men how they ought to live. The four things which he is said to
have taught were learning, morals, devotion of soul, and reverence.
He counseled all to be truthful, just, loving, dutiful to themselves and
others, and obedient to the ancient laws and rites of their country.
Among his sayings were the following:
" At fifteen years I longed for wisdom. At thirty my mind was Sayings
fixed in the pursuit of it. At forty I saw clearly certain principles,
At fifty I understood the rule given by heaven. At sixty everything
I heard I easily understood. At seventy the desires of my heart no
longer transgressed the law."
He says of himself: " He is a man who through his earnestness in
seeking knowledge forgets his food, and in his joy for having found
it loses all sense of his toil, and thus occupied is unconscious that he
has almost reached old age."
" To rule with equity is like the North Star, which is fixed and all
the rest go round it."
" The essence of knowledge is, having it, to apply it ; not having
it, to confess your ignorance."
" Formerly, in hearing men, I heard their words, and gave them
credit for their conduct; now I hear their words and observe their
conduct."
" A man's life depends on virtue ; if a bad man lives, it is only
by good fortune."
" Some proceed blindly to action, without knowledge ; I hear much,
and select the best course."
688 ANCIENT CHINA AND JAPAN.
He was once found fault with, when in office, for not opposing the
marriage of a ruler with a distant relation, which was an offense against
Chinese propriety. He said : " I am a happy man ; if I have a fault
men observe it."
Confucius was humble. He said : " I cannot bear to hear myself
called equal to the sages and the good. All that can be said of me
is, that I study with delight the conduct of the sages, and instruct men
without weariness therein."
" A good man regards the root; he fixes the root, and all else flows
out of it. The root is filial piety; the fruit brotherly love."
" I daily examine myself ,in a threefold manner : in my transac-
tions with men, if I am upright; in my intercourse with friends, if I
am faithful; and whether I illustrate the teachings of my master in
my conduct."
" Faithfulness and sincerity are the highest things."
" When you transgress, do not fear to return."
" Learn the past and you will know the future."
" The Master said, * Shall I teach you what knowledge is ? When
you know a thing, to hold that you know it, and when you do not
know a thing, to allow that you do not know it ; this is knowledge.' '
" To see what is right and not to do it is want of courage."
" Worship as though the Deity were present."
" He who offends against Heaven has none to whom he can pray."
" If my mind is not engaged in my worship, it is as though I wor-
shiped not."
" Coarse rice for food, water to drink, the bended arm for a pillow
— happiness may be enjoyed even with these; but without virtue, both
riches and honor seem to me like the passing cloud."
"Grieve not that men know not you; grieve that you know not
men."
" A good man is serene ; a bad man always in fear."
" There may be fair words and an humble countenance when there
is little virtue."
" One of his disciples said, ' If you, Master, do not speak, what
shall we, your disciples, have to read? ' The Master said, ' Does
Heaven speak ? The four seasons pursue their courses, and all things
are continually being produced; but does Heaven say anything? '
" In the Book of Poetry are three hundred pieces, but the design
of them all may be embraced in that one sentence, * Have no depraved
thoughts.' " (This reminds us of the saying of the later Jewish Rab-
bis that all the 613 precepts of the Law were summed up in the words,
" The just shall live by his faith.")
CONFUCIUS AND HIS RELIGION.
689
Prin-
ciples
Taught
by Con-
fucius.
" If a man in the morning hear the right way, he may die in the
evening without regret."
" Tsze-kung said, ' What I do not wish men to do to me, I also
wish not to do to men.' The Master said, ' You have not attained to
that.' "
The great principles which he taught were mainly based on family
affection and duty. He advised kings to treat their subjects as fath-
ers should treat their children. He counseled subjects to respect and
obey their kings as children should respect and obey their parents.
These ideas became so impressed upon the national mind that em-
perors are obliged to appear as governing in accordance with them,
even if they do not wish to do so. Confucius taught reverence — re-
spect for parents, respect and reverence for the past and its legacies,
for the great men and the great ideas of past ages. He advisd men
to treat each other as brothers, and to do unto others as they would
have others do unto .them.
He said nothing about a personal God or a future life. He is said Worship,
to have replied to one of his disciples who asked him concerning death :
" While you do not know of life, how can you know about death? "
His worship was directed to antiquity, to ancestors, to posterity, to
propriety and usage, to the state as parents of its subjects, to the
sovereign as the ruler of his people. Absolutely sincere, fully confi-
dent of all that he knew, he said and taught only what he believed.
His influence and power came from the sincerity of his convictions and
the perfect honesty of his soul.
Lao-tse, who was the contemporary of Confucius for twenty-eight
years, and the founder of one of the three religions yet existing in
China — Tao-ism — was perhaps as wise and intelligent as the great
moral philosopher and lawgiver. He was, however, mainly a thinker,
and made no effort to better the people; his purpose being to repress
the passions and to preserve the equanimity of the soul. He taught
a system like that of the Grecian Stoics. He looked upon virtue as
certain of its own reward, upon everything as governed by inexorable
laws. His disciples afterwards added a thaumaturgic element and an
invocation to departed spirits to his system, which thus much resem-
bles our modern Spiritualism. Lao-tse's original doctrine, as he him-
self taught it, was rationalism in philosophy and stoicism in morals.
Confucius is said to have visited him and to have said that he could
not understand him, uttering the following: " I know how birds fly,
how fishes swim, how animals run. The bird may be shot, the fish
hooked, and the beast snared. But there is the dragon. I 'cannot tell
how he mounts in the air and soars to heaven."
Lao-tse
690
ANCIENT CHINA AND JAPAN.
Influence
of Con-
fucius.
His
Energy
and
Persever-
ance.
His
Virtues.
His
Doctrine
the State
Religion.
Buddhism
and
Tao-ism.
Develop-
ment of
Confu-
cianism.
But the great moral philosopher and lawgiver, who labored for the
good of his fellow-countrymen, has exerted a far greater influence than
the founder of Tao-ism; and for twenty-four centuries has Confucius
been the great teacher and the daily guide for about one-third of
mankind.
Confucius was preeminently distinguished for his energy and per-
severance. He continued his noble work until death closed his eyes
forever. Said he : " The general of an army may be defeated, but
you cannot defeat the determined mind of a peasant." He acted in
accordance with his own teachings. The following was another of his
sayings : " If I am building a mountain, and stop before the last
basketful of earth is placed on the summit, I have failed of my work.
But if I have placed but one basketful on the plain, and go on, I am
really building a mountain.5*
Many good things are told concerning Confucius, his courage, his
humility, and other virtues. Chinese thought has received direction
from his writings and his life. Though reviled and persecuted during
his lifetime, he has become the patron-saint of the Celestial Empire.
His doctrine has become the state religion of China, and is maintained
by the whole power of the emperor and the literary aristocracy. His
books are published yearly by societies organized for that purpose, and
are distributed gratuitously. His forty thousand descendants are
treated with the highest consideration. There are sixteen hundred
and sixty temples erected to his memory, and one of these covers ten
acres of ground. On the two festivals in the year sacred to his mem-
ory seventy thousand animals of various kinds are sacrificed, and
twenty-seven thousand pieces of silk are burned on his altars. But his
religion has no priests, no liturgy, no public worship, except on these
two occasions.
The system of Confucius is, as we have said, the established religion
of the state. But there are two other religions in China — Buddhism
and Tao-ism — which give the Chinese the element of religious worship
and teach them the doctrine of a supernatural world, not found in the
Confucian system, and which are simply tolerated as adapted to weak-
minded persons. Confucianism, perpetually taught by the competi-
tive examinations, controls the thought of China. It developed from
the birth of Confucius to the death of Mencius — from B. C. 551 to
B. C. 313. Its second period was from the time of Chow-tsze (A. D.
1034) to that of Choo-tsze (A. D. 1200). The last of these gave the
real direction to Chinese philosophy, and was one of the great men of
the empire. His works are mainly commentaries on the Kings and the
Four Books, and are memorized by millions of Chinese who aspire to
pass the public-service examinations.
CONFUCIUS AND HIS RELIGION.
691
The Chinese philosophy which Choo-tsze established considers the
Tae-keih, or Grand Extreme, as the highest and final principle of all
existence. This principle is altogether immaterial, and the founda-
tion of order in the universe; and all animate and inanimate nature
emanate therefrom. It operates from all eternity by expansion and
contraction, or by constant active and passive pulsation. The active
expansive pulsation is called Yong, the passive contracting pulsation
is Yin, and these are regarded as the positive and negative essences
of all things. When the active expansive pulsation has attained its
farthest extreme, the operation becomes passive and intensive ; and all
material and mortal existences arise from these vibrations. Thus crea-
tion is constantly in progress. Matter and spirit being opposite re-
sults of the same force, the former tending to variety, the latter to
unity. Variety in unity is a permanent and universal law of existence.
Man originates from the highest development of these pulsatory opera-
tions. Man's nature, as the ultimate perfection, is good, embracing
the five elements of charity, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and sin-
cerity. As man comes in contact with the external world evil follows.
The holy man has an instinctive insight into the ultimate principle in
its double operation, and therefore spontaneously and easily obeys his
nature. Consequently all his thoughts are perfectly wise, his actions
perfectly good, and his words perfectly true. Confucius was the last
of these holy men. The fact that these holy men perceived instinc-
tively the working of the ultimate principle has given their writings,
the Sacred Books, infallible authority.
Confucian philosophy regards example as all-powerful, the happi-
ness of the people as the security of the -empire, the attainment of a
knowledge of the essence of things as the result of constant solitary
thought, and the virtue and contentment of the people as the object
of all government.
The philosophy of Confucius teaches that the ultimate principle is
not essentially identical with a living, intelligent and personal God.
When Confucius spoke of Teen, or Heaven, he did not assert any faith
in such a being. He neither asserted nor denied a Supreme Being.
He simply ignored Him, as did the Buddha. The worship and prayer,
according to Confucianism, does not necessarily imply such a belief.
The prayer of Confucius was a prayer of reverence addressed to some
sacred, mysterious, hidden power, above and back of all visible things.
He did not venture to intimate what that unknown power is. In the
She-King, however, a personal God is addressed. The most ancient
books recognize a Divine person. They teach that there is a Supreme
Being, who is present everywhere, who sees everything, and knows
everything ; and that this Being desires all men to live together peace-
2—6
Chinese
Philos-
ophy.
Aim of
Confu-
cianism.
Prayer
and
Teach-
ings.
692
Dedica-
tion of the
Sacred
Books.
ANCIENT CHINA AND JAPAN.
ably and as brothers. He requires right actions, pure desires and
thoughts, a serious demeanor, " which is like a palace where virtue
resides." He requires us to specially guard the tongue. " For a
blemish may be taken out of a diamond by carefully polishing it ; but,
if your words have the least blemish, there is no way to efface that."
" Humility is the solid foundation of all virtues." " To acknowledge
one's incapacity is the way to be soon prepared to teach others; for
from the moment that a man is no longer full of himself, nor puffed
up with empty pride, whatever good he learns in the morning he prac-
tices before night." " Heaven penetrates to the bottom of our hearts,
like into a dark chamber. We must confine ourselves to it, till we
are like two instruments of music tuned to the same pitch. We must
join ourselves with it, like two tablets which appear but one. We
must receive its gifts the very moment its hand is open to bestow.
Our irregular passions shut up the door of our souls against God."
These are the teachings of the Books of Kings, the oldest remain-
ing productions of the human intellect. They appear to have been
almost forgotten in the time of Confucius, when their precepts were
entirely neglected. Confucius revised them, with additions of his own
explanations and comments, and near the end of his life called his dis-
ciples around him and solemnly dedicated these Sacred Books to
Heaven. He built an altar, placed the books upon it, adored God, and
upon his knees humbly returned thanks for the life and health bestowed
upon him to complete his undertaking.
SECTION V.— LAO-TSE AND TAO-ISM.
Tao-ism. TAO-ISM is one of the three religions of China, the other two being
Confucianism and Buddhism. Tao-ism comes under three distinct
forms: 1, as a philosophy of the absolute or unconditioned, in the
great work of its founder Lao-tse; 2, as a system of morals of the
utilitarian kind; 3, as a system of magic, connected with a belief in
spirits. The Tao-te-king gives us the ideas of Lao-tse, which Chinese
commentators themselves regard as very obscure and hard to under-
stand.
The Tao. The Tao, the origin of heaven and earth, cannot be named. As
that which is namable, it is the mother of all things. These two are
necessarily one. Being and not being are born from each other. The
Tao is empty, but cannot be exhausted. It is pure and profound, and
existed before the gods. It cannot be seen. It returns into not-
being. It is vague, confused, obscure. It is small and powerful. It
is present everywhere, and all beings return into it. It has no desires
LAO-TSE AND TAO-ISM.
and is great. All things are born of being. Being is born of not-
being.
Thus it appears that the philosophy of the Tao-te-king is that of Its
absolute being, or the identity of being and not-being, thus corre- Ophy!"
spending with the philosophy of Hegel, twenty -three centuries later.
It teaches that the absolute is the source of being and of not-being.
Being is essence, and not-being is existence.
One attains to all that is not-being by identifying himself with its
being, which is the source of not-being. Therefore the wise man will
avoid knowledge, instead of seeking it. He refuses to act instead
of acting. The wise man is like water, which appears weak but is
strong ; which yields, seeks its lowest level, and which appears the soft-
est thing and breaks the hardest thing. One can only be wise by
renouncing wisdom. He can only be good by renouncing justice and
humanity. He can only be learned by renouncing knowledge. One
must have no desires, must renounce all things, and be like a new-
born babe. From everything comes its opposite, the easy from the
difficult, the difficult from the easy, the long from the short, the short
from the long, the high from the low, the low from the high, ignor-
ance from knowledge, knowledge from ignorance, the first from the
last, the last from the first. These various antagonisms are related
by the principle of Tao. Nothing is independent, or can exist with-
out its opposite. The good man and the bad man are equally neces-
sary to each other. To have a right desire is not to have any desire.
The saint is able to do great things because he does not try to do
them. The unwarlike man conquers. He who yields to others rules
them. By thus denying all things we attain possession of all things.
Not to act is consequently the secret of all power.
The same doctrine of opposites appears in the Phsedo, in the Sank- Parallels,
hya philosophy of the Hindoos, and the doctrine of the Monad behind
the Duad in the Zend-Avesta.
The result so far is to an active passivity. Lao teaches that not Aim.
to act involves the highest energy of being, and produces the greatest
results. By not acting one becomes identified with Tao and receives
all its power. Here the Chinese philosopher reasoned like Gautama
the Buddha. The Tao of Lao-tse is the same as the Nirvana of
Gautama. The different career of each is owing to the different mo-
tive in his mind. Gautama sought Nirvana, or the absolute, the pure
knowledge, to obtain a release from evil and to overcome it. Lao
appears to have sought it to attain power. On this point Buddhism
and Tao-ism disagree. Buddhism is generous, benevolent, humane,
seeking to help others. Tao-ism is selfish, striving for its own. This
is the cause of the selfish moralit}^ pervading the Book of Rewards
694
ANCIENT CHINA AND JAPAN.
Rewards
and
Punish-
ments.
and Punishments. Every good act receives its reward. This is the
cause of the degradation of the system into pure magic and spiritual-
ism.
In the Tao-te-king the element afterwards expands in the system of
utilitarian and eudaemonic ethics in the Book of Rewards and Punish-
ments. The principle that by putting one's self into a wholly passive
state one can enter into communion with the unnamed Tao, and thus
obtain power over nature, leads to magic. The Tao-te-king says that
he who knows the Tao needs not fear the bite of serpents, nor the jaws
of wild beasts, nor the claws of birds of prey. He cannot be reached
by good or evil. He does not need to have any fear of the rhinoceros
or the tiger. In battle he does not need either cuirass or sword. The
tiger is not able to tear him to pieces. The soldier is unable to inflict
any wound upon him. He is absolutely invulnerable and secure
against death.
The
Japanese
Islands.
Extent.
Moun-
tains.
SECTION VI.— GEOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITY OF JAPAN.
JAPAN, the native name of which is Niphon, meaning " Land of the
Rising Sun," consists of the large island of Honshu, or Hondo, often
erroneously called Niphon ; Shikoku, or Kiusiu, also called Kiushu ;
and Hokhaido, or Yezo, also called Jesso, and several dozen adjacent
islands, with the Liukiu, or Loochoo Islands connecting the main group
with Formosa, or Taiwan, which also now forms part of the Japanese
Empire, though until recently under the dominion of China.
Practically, this chain of islands, broken by small extents of sea
between each of them, extends from the island of Formosa to the penin-
sula of Kamchatka, or from twenty-two degrees to fifty-one degrees
north latitude. The Bonin Islands, between the Japanese group
proper and the Ladrone Islands, are likewise under the Japanese domin-
ion.
The eastern shores of the archipelago border on the Northern Pa-
cific, from whose vast depths arise successive ranges of massive moun-
tains, in many instances crowned with volcanic cones. Though not
wholly of volcanic origin, and in many cases of organic structure,
earthquakes and seismic waves are of frequent occurrence and often
extremely severe. A central mountain range extends through the
length of the islands, and smaller ranges often extend in parallel lines,
frequently descending very precipitately to the seacoast. These
mountain chains are in many instances densely wooded, the valleys
between them being highly cultivated. There is an abundance of
thermal and mineral springs. The rivers run largely in torrents, fore-
7rom Stereograph, copyright isol by Under-wood & Undewood
SNOW-CAPPED FUJI (12,365 FEET), MIRRORED IN LAKE SHOJI. LOOKING SOUTHEAST
GEOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITY OF JAPAN.
695
ing their way through rocky gorges and wooded ravines, and few are
navigable except for the most shallow craft. There are many lakes
in the islands.
The island of Formosa lies in the China Sea, sixty miles from the
mainland. It is two hundred and forty miles long and sixty miles
wide. It is traversed by mountains twelve thousand feet high, the tops
of which are covered with snow most of the year. Several peaks are
volcanic. The island has a temperate climate, but the seas around it
are among the most tempestuous in the world; typhoons, whirlwinds
and waterspouts being of frequent occurrence. Violent earthquakes
also often occur. The soil is fertile, and portions of it are highly
cultivated and produce grain and various fruits. The Chinese occupy
only the western part, and first settled there in 1662, reducing the
natives to tribute. The aborigines, who occupy the eastern part of
the island, are of a slender physical frame, resembling both the Ma-
lays and the Chinese. This island was ceded to Japan by China as a
result of the Chino- Japanese War of 1894.
The Loo Choo Islands, about thirty-six in number, lie to the north-
east of Formosa, about four hundred miles from the mainland. The
soil and climate are fine, and the people are noted for their kind, gentle
and hospitable manners. Their language is a dialect of the Japa-
nese. Japan acquired these islands from China as a result of the
Chino-Japanese War of 1894.
The chief minerals of Japan are gold, silver, lead, copper, iron, coal
and antimony, but the precious metals are scarce and the ore is of
poor quality. Copper is the most abundant metal and is of good
quality. Valuable building stone is found, but is not much utilized.
As a result of its variety of climate, Japan has a wide range of vegeta-
ble and animal life. In the south the bamboo and sago palm are
found ; while in the north the beech flourishes ; and the pine, elm, chest-
nut and oak are general throughout the islands. Japan cedar, cam-
phor-laurel, wax-tree, paper-mulberry, lacquer-tree, orange, persim-
mon, cherry, plum, apple, pear and fig trees both grow wild and are
cultivated.
Bears are found in the wilds of Yezo ; and boars, wild deer, monkeys,
foxes, badgers and smaller animals are found in the islands. Birds,
fishes and reptiles are found. Among insects are mosquitoes and
fleas.
The climate of the Japanese Empire consists of every variety, ac-
cording to location and altitude, the southern islands having a trop-
ical heat, the northern an arctic cold, and the various altitudes also
modifying the heat or cold. Snow falls generally, and perpetually
covers some mountain summits. The island of Yezo is snowbound
VOL. 2.— 23
Rivers
and
Lakes.
Formosa.
Loo Choo
Islands.
Minerals.
Trees.
Animals.
Climate.
696
ANCIENT CHINA AND JAPAN.
Popula-
tion and
Area.
Govern-
ment.
Religion.
An-
tiquity.
A
Hermit
Nation.
Ainos.
Primitive
Japanese.
The
Mika-
does.
Jimmn
Tenno.
for months. The summer heat is oppressive and the rainfall is abund-
ant.
As Great Britain and Ireland is the great island kingdom of Eu-
rope, Japan is the great island empire of Asia. The population of
the Japanese Empire is almost forty-seven millions, about a tenth of
that of the Chinese Empire, and its area is about a fiftieth part of that
of the Celestial Empire, or over one hundred and sixty-one thousand
square miles.
The government of Japan, formerly an absolute and a dual mon-
archy, is now a limited, or constitutional monarchy, based on the Euro-
pean model, the sovereign, or monarch, being the Mikado, or Emperor,
with a Cabinet, or Ministry, responsible to the national legislature, or
Parliament, consisting of two branches, one representing the nobility,
and the other consisting of representatives of the people, elected by
the qualified voters of the Empire, suffrage being general and based
on a limited property qualification.
Japan has no state religion, and all creeds are now tolerated. Be-
sides the two old national religions — Shintoism and Buddhism — Greek,
Roman Catholic and Protestant Christianity now seem to have effected
permanent lodgments in the Empire.
Besides China, Japan is the only ancient empire which has existed
from ancient to modern times, though it is not, like China, one of the
oldest nations of the world, being only about half as old, as its history
goes back only almost two thousand six hundred years, or almost seven
hundred years before Christ.
Like China, Japan played no part in the international history of
the world until quite recently, or only since the opening of the second
half of the nineteenth century; and as it was wholly unknown to the
ancient Greek and Roman writers, or to any of the ancient nations
of Western Asia or Northern Africa, we will confine ourselves to a
mere outline sketch of its ancient history in this section, and reserve
a full general account of the whole history of the Japanese Empire
for the closing part of this work, especially as the first eleven hundred
years of its history is largely mythical and generally untrustworthy.
Until lately Japan was a hermit nation.
In this connection we will merely allude to the Ainos, or aboriginal
inhabitants of the islands, and to the subsequent Mongolian immi-
grants from the Asian mainland who subdued the Ainos and became
their rulers. The Japanese themselves have always regarded the an-
cestors of their imperial family as divine. The one hundred and
twenty-two Mikadoes, or Emperors, who have reigned over Japan dur-
ing the last twenty-six hundred years have all belonged to one dynasty,
or one imperial race, the first Mikado being JIMMU TENNO, who
GEOGRAPHY AND ANTIQUITY OF JAPAN.
697
founded the Japanese monarchy about 660 years before Christ. Thus
Japan has had but one imperial dynasty, being in this respect also
unlike China, which has had twenty-two dynasties during the five
thousand years of its national existence, or since the founding of its
monarchy by Fohi, about fifty centuries ago, an antiquity twice as
great as that of Japan.
The unreliability of the Japanese annals of the first eleven hundred
years of the Japanese monarchy is shown in the alleged extraordinary
lengths of the reigns of a dozen of the earliest Mikadoes, who are
said to have each ruled more than a century. The most noted among
the ancient Mikadoes was SUJIN THE CIVILIZER, who reigned in the
first century before the Christian era.
The most important event in the closing period of ancient Japanese
history was the Japanese conquest of Corea in A. D. 203, and the
subsequent Corean immigration into Japan and the introduction of
Buddhism, which soon became one of the two great national religions
of the country and changed the whole history and character of Japan
and closed its ancient period; the oldest national religion being Shin-
toism, of which little is known by the outside world.
Until the last half of the nineteenth century Japan was very little
known by the outside world, and was apparently as exclusive in its
treatment of foreigners and its intercourse with foreign nations as
China had been until recent times. The first knowledge which the out-
side world had of Japan was conveyed by Marco Polo, the cele-
brated Venetian traveler and geographer in the thirteenth century, and
by the Portuguese and Dutch traders and the Jesuit missionaries dur-
ing the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. During the last half of
the nineteenth century this old far-Eastern empire had undergone a
thorough transformation, having cast off its Chinse exclusiveness and
become thoroughly Europeanized through the introduction of Euro-
pean and American customs, manners, dress and habits of thought, so
that it has now become one of the most progressive nations of the
world.
In the closing part of this work we will give a connected sketch of
the whole history of Japan to the present time, giving an account of
the rivalries and struggles of the Mikadoes and the Shoguns in its later
dual government, and the final overthrow of the Shogun, the introduc-
tion of European and American commerce, intercourse and civilization
and the Christian religion, and the Europeanization and transforma-
tion of this old far-Eastern empire.
Only one
Dynasty.
Alleged
Long
Reigns.
Sujin the
Civilizer.
Corean
Immigra-
tion.
Bud-
dhism.
Former
Japanese
Exclu-
siveness.
First
Outside
Knowl-
edge of
Japan.
Recent
Transfor-
mation.
Later
Sketch.
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