fj* '■'..My •
1
The Jiterarr Digest
ATLAS
OF THE
NEW EUROPE
and THE FARj) EAST
1
THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES
UCLA MAP LIBRARY
Rec'd 3 0 OCT 1970
No.: File--
The Jiterar^ Digest
ATLAS
of the
NEW EUROPE
and
THE FAR EAST
Showing the new Countries and new Boundaries
resulting from the Great War and
from the Treaties of Peace
\
WITH EXPLANATORY HISTORICAL,
POLITICAL and ECONOMIC ARTICLES
Prepared, from the most Recent and Authoritative
Sources in Europe and America,
By
Allan Updegraff
Of The Literary Digest
Editorial Staff
FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY
NEW YORK AND LONDON
1922
3U424
Copyright, 1921, by
FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY
[Printed in the United States of America)
Published in December, 1921
Copyright Under the Articles of the Copyright Convention
of the Pan-American Republics and the
United States. August 11, 1910.
Map
Library
CONTENTS
France, with the Lost Provinces Regained 4
The New German RepubHc 6
Shrunken Russia of the Soviets 8
Greater Britain 1^
^ The New Republic of Austria • 12
f^ The New Kingdom of Hungary 14
„ The New Czecho-Slovakian RepubHc 16
The New Kingdom of Jugo-Slavia 18
The New Bulgaria 20
The New Kingdom of Greece 22
The New Italy 24
The New and Greater Roumania 26
The Waning Turkish Crescent 28
The New Transcaucasian RepubHcs 30
The New Republic of Finland 32
The New Republics of Poland and Lithuania 34
The Island Nations of the Pacific 36
The New "Land of Promise" in Palestine 38
The European Advance in Asia ' 40
The New Partition of Africa 42
France, with the Lost Provinces Regained
BACK IN ITS OLD BOUNDARIES of 1870, with added
advantages from the war in economic concessions, the
\-irtual ownership of the rich German coal mines of the
Saar Basin, and an increase of nearly 200,003 square miles in
its overseas domain, modern France is once more admittedly "the
dominant power of Continental Europe." The return of the lost
provinces, Alsace and Lorraine.added a total area of 5,605 square
miles, with a population of approximately 1,900,000. The
total present area and population of the Republic, 212,6.59
square mUes inhabited by 41,500,000 people, represent the
nation's greatest expanse since the time of the Napoleonic wars.
The power of Germany, so long potentially, if not actually,
dominant on the continent, remains only a threatening shadow
on the other side of the Rhine.
The present situation in Alsace-Lorraine, as may be gathered
from the reports of several recent investigators, somewhat re-
sembles that which existed in 1789, shortly after France first
gained the provinces as a result of European wars and treaties, in
which Germany was then, as now, her chief opponent. "Both
in Lorraine and Alsace there existed at this time" (1789), record
the writers of "An Historical Atlas of Modern Europe" (by
C. Grant Robertson and J. G. Bartholomew, Oxford University
Press, London), "a network of imperial feudal rights and jurisdic-
tions, connected with the organization of Germany. A series of
maps would be required to Ulustrate the diversity, lack of
unification and symmetry, that underlay the deceptive uni-
formity of the political map. The revolutionary "and the
Napoleonic epoch swept all these obstacles to a real unification
away, and embarked Revolutionary France on a series of wars
of conquest, the results of which reached their climax in 1810."
A modern American investigator, Laurence Hills, of the Paris
Bureau of the New York Herald, writing on the occasion of the
third anniversary of France's recovery of her provinces (Novem-
ber 25, 1921), lost to Germany in 1870 and returned by the Great
War, speaks of the present Alsace-Lorraine as"topsy turvj'land."
He writes, in a way whicli suggests history repeating itself:
" In their fifty years of administration (since 1870), the Ger-
mans had made Alsace-Lorraine face the fatherland, never
patriotically, but economically and by force politically. They
had Germanized the schools, Germanized all the system of law
and pretty well Germanized all of the business practise.
"The people who believed that Alsace-Lorraine after these
fifty years coidd be turned completely around over night and
made to face France had not counted upon all this. The fact
that it is only half turned around after three years of desperate
struggling with the problem by the French administration is to
them the cause to-daj' of much disappointment and complaint.
The real Alsatians who want to be French are complaining
bitterly that they are yet neither one thing nor the other. French
pf)liticians are complaining that this is because the people of
Alsace-Lorraine do not seem to want to be either one thing or the
other.
"As one French official in Strasbourg exprest it to the cor-
respondent: 'We tried to put on a ready-made French suit here
and found that they had to have one made to order.'
"That the country is only half turned around is evident the
moment one crosses the Vosges. Fifty per ctrnt. of the laws under
which the people are living and trying to do business are still
German laws. A man does busin(!ss under the Froncdi commercial
law, but goes to jail under the German penal code. F'rench
teachers in the schools arc trying to teach the tlu-ee Us in French
to children whose language many of them do not speak. The
universities are without their full comi)Iement of professors be-
cause there have not b<-en found enough l''reiiclimen or enough
intellectuals among the Alsacc-Lorraiiie j)oj)ulatii)n to take the
places of the German intellectuals, all of whom cleared out of
the country after the armistice and have been forbidden to
reenter it."
Out of this situation, "with its resultant confusion and com-
plaint," reports Mr. Ilills, "German proi)agandisls inside and
outside of Alsace-Lorraine are now trying to nuik<; all the capital
they can." If a plebiscite had been taken immediately after the
armistice, Ije admits, it would have shown a higher percentage
in favor of French citizenship than to-day, for "no pot of gold
has been found and the rainbow has faded before hard realities."
It is estimated by this authority that, out of 400,000 immigrant
Germans in Alsace before the war, more than 300,000 pure
Germans remain intermingled with the French population
"because of the clause of the peace treaty permitting those
married to Alsatian women to take the citizenship of their
wives." On the economic side, the long haul required for French
goods, and the failure to secure orders from France has' resulted
in putting the cost of living 16 per cent, higher than elsewhere
in the Republic. "Alsace-Lorraine is, economically, perhaps the
best example, on a large scale, of the enormous dislocation pro-
duced by the peace treaty," Mr. HiUs reports. "For the
moment, it is almost as bad as if one of the New England Spates
suddenly found itself annexed to Canada, with wages and pro-
duction costs in the United States about one-third those across
the line."
The regained provinces, however, find themselves in scarcely /
harder circumstances than does all France. Norman Angell,
known as the author of "The Great Illusion" and the more
recent anti-militaristic volume, "The Fruits of Victory" (1921),
presents the case of the Republic as an outstanding example
of the cost of victory in modern warfare. "A courageous ex-
penditure of her energies and resources," throughout the war,
agrees Isaiah Bowman, President of the American Geographical
Society of New York, in his study of after- war problems, "The
New World: Problems in Political Geography," have brought
her "a crop of after-war troubles of the gravest import." Also,
as the author points out:
"Every Frencimian took for granted what Lloyd George
felt obliged to promise the British people in December, 1918 —
that Germany could be made to pay the cost of the war; it was
in that expectation that many men had toiled and fought during
four years of war^ It was like\vise expected that the bill to
Germany should include compensation for all the damage done
to civalian property. When the war ended and a settlement came
to be made, it was discovered that Germany had destroyed so
much that she could never pay the damage in addition to the
costs of war. This was a terrible blow to France. The effect
on the French spirit was not unlike that of a great military
defeat."
In addition to the difficulties within her own borders, which
many economists consider so serious as to tlu-eaten her with actual
bankruptcy, her publicists dwell on the fact that she is faced by a
constant threat from Germany. England, it is felt, is no longer
sympathetic. "We are accused of merciless aiming to crush
Germany, or constantly brandishing the saber and disturbing
the peace of Europe," complains Raymond Recouly, in Le Revue
de France, as translated for The Living Age (Boston):
"We should say to England: 'The guarantee which you and
Amerii^a promised us in the form of an alliance has vanished
into thin air. When, in three years, or in ten, the question of
the evacuation of th(^ Rhine arises, our immediate interest, wliich
is the protection of our country, will oblige us to seek a new
guaranty. .iVll we ask is that we attempt to look for one togel lier.
Help us to find it. But we .shall insist without llinching on the
need of some guaranty.' "
"From every point of view," concludes this French apologist:
"It is advisable for Franco to adopt a frank, loyal, and open
policy toward (iormany, bo it in matters of security or of r(«para^
tions. We should like nothing better than to come to an under-
standing with the ( iernuin Democrats. But we are, nevertheless,
ol)lige(l to keui) a sharp eye on affairs bejond the Rhine. The
position of the (ierman Democracy is none too stable — far
from it. A return to power of the military roiictionarios is quite
l)ossihle, not to say probable. And we well know what such a
restoration would bode for us!"
DECISIONS BY TREATY
1 Alsace-Lorraine returned to
France as in ItiTl.
O Sarre Basin coal mines ceded
to France, territory under
League of Nations, wilh plebiscite
after 15 yearaaa betwoen Ciermany,
France and the League of Nations.
q Circles Eupen and Malmedy
ceded lo Belgium.
4 Morcsnet under full sover-
eignty of Belgium.
pr Luxemburg neutral without
any German control.
^'-i Start Point
* lorro:
ISLANDS
(B,
ALOE,
St.A
CHANNEL
St. Valcry -su r -y umm e^^ll>*rfl" '■ai.,.--'^'"''"'"^
fkn\>atnvx^l/ Spa!
Liiru^hf;,
j?,,","' fs >iHH^ Vp-aiA^ ^^Sr,''*!/ /"rj;'^ jMl-«^S>S^^^n \AfJOL--W:^]:r^,,k,,r<'
0^'
I Rouea
^W^i^JSy.v-
iCrei]
I
Carlla.,, ^„.„ ^ ,,, „ „> n ,, .,>-^
■^i
?N orten t/ Ohartre g.
^■Etamp^
'fdil
Bi
I^HeVinJ
r^'aleatrqft
teaufrUntie
FunUln^y
rate ,^^^'!'''J-^'t'"V-"7iBS^^
Bl.a™-»-S„«.^^^^
.^
,, >i'in PO'^teaiibriaTit )
leaUi ency*
(Uoe'
lu o.,1S'jS'''sJ rVAT' ^^^sj^^^H,
tea sabisa ti'ojiK"'"^^ . /;;fi';^■nay.
St.Mart^l^tfiajWbelltvCl
,5oolj
t.Joan
■Mai-enn^ tl7W)Kel
St.^ra
lort^
,pntiViorillon_
Sens PV^ >^ IJ J?^n,l{-lot .r^ ^ilV /-^ ?>), ,-.,./■„ >.
JiBoufy/ .
^Bourg^^euf _) ^ I ^]\ K'>arii»-ytViMe^lr.
;t.LL-onarJ ft A / li"Jfnv/ Jp^J^ (Tararl
:outri
(_^'[J^ Ambyrl %yjijiJ^ //Vicnno
^^^ tMauriac ^ R.feii(tn\ J— r vCTSr-^V.— ^^ j^
icauf-Cero/ ■^jVLanB^qr M\TY33iifyeauj5^]V--/^RDman3 (^ vizine
MojraSc />^Bort
-.J o- St}Flour \ Le^Puy
,/AurilIac^>v-./ — ^
'feneval'^i'^f^.on , , ,
'ClK<i^^>C=Loca„a
Moutierj ».
'"":',C,„,, .);
iLa^igognei ] Aubi
Valence Ik B riancpn -^ •«£
Sailtans '
'Dccazti^illip-
RodezV,
Koquefoftj
,-!?K '« V.Aa^t,
Sebastian/,« /> V!
j St.G\i;ldcq4;
arbes y^ .1^?^ Carcassonne,'^- -''^ v-it^^ v^
AnduzCj,'
Lc_Vigan_
n/AuP^ Gra^^Kj
FRANCE
BELGIUM and LUXEMBURG
CnpenduS
Siee
**"[( Tuchand
Territory before the War in light
color
Territory added according totreaty
of Versailles in darker color . .
"t"
tlAuljagne ,
Frejos
iSl.Tropez
Co/Jl?"
Gulfof^Liqns
erpignau j^^jyiJERRANEAN SEA
Scale of Milek
20 40 60 80 1 100 1:
ArgeloB
|Port-Vendrca -
Kilometers
60 io6
160
COPYRIGHT. 1921, eV fUNK A W*ONAI.Ls COMPANY. NEW V0««
TwE liATTMEWS-NORTMHuP W0*"i6. BuFF«Li3, ^. ».
Longitude East 3 from Greenwicb
The New German Republic
REVOLUTION WITHIN and territorial losses along its
borders have produced a modern Germany vastly dif-
ferent from the nation which "stood forth in shining
armor" only three or four years ago. On the 18th of January,
1921, occurred the semicentenary of the founding of the German
Empire, an event that stirred publicists all over the world to com-
pare the Germany that was with the Germany of the present time.
"If seven years ago one had been asked to look ahead to this
fiftieth anniversary," observed the New York Times, "it would
have been predicted that it would be celebrated with such
triumph and jubilations as the world has rarely seen. The
German dynastj% Government, and people could have been
counted on to do something colossal on an anniversary which
could so truly be called golden. . . . But last Tuesday saw no ex-
pressions of friendship coming in from foreign peoples. It found
a Germany universally regarded with suspicion and resentment,
and so weak that its ill-will to the world, tho everywhere taken
for granted, aroused no particular apprehension. The dynasty
glorified in 1871 was in exUe, the military caste which had
glorified it was in at least temporary eclipse. Such commemora-
tion of the day as openly took place in Germany was regarded by
large factions of the German people as little better than a trea-
sonable demonstration against the existing Government, and the
memory of 1871 was equally bitter among those who saw in that
great day a splendor such as Germany might never attain again,
and in circles where it was regarded as the beginning of the march
to destruction. In all history there can hardly be found so
complete a peripety as the story of the rise and fall of the German
Empire."
In several basic respects, however, it appears that the
world at large has been inclined to overestimate the "fall"
of the nation from its previous high state. The present
population of Germany, according to official government
statistics recently made public, is placed at 60,900,197. This
is some 5,000,000 more than the most reliable previous
estimates, notably that in "The Statesman's Year-Book" for
1920, which placed the "probable population" at 55,086,000.
Since the total population in 1914 was 64,925,993, the new
government figures show that Germany has lost only four and
a half million net population by war and annexation, or less
than half the estimated number. Figures taken from the recent
German census throw light, also, on the reported sufferings
of German children through shortage of the mUk supply. The
number of cows at present in the country is placed at 16,500,000.
The ratio of cows to population, even tho comparing unfavorably
with the American total of 68,232,000 in a population of about
105,.")(l0,000, is seen to be not hopelessly small. In 1914, with a
population about 4,500,000 larger than at present, Germany
owned 22,000,000 cattle; in 1916, 21,000,000.
Territorially, Germany proper has not suffered anything like
the immense losses which have been borne by her partners in
the war. The European area, as shown on tho accompanying
map, is reduced from a total of 208,780 square miles in 1914 to a
present total of 183,381. These figures, which represent a eom-
liination of statistics compiled by "The Statesman's Year-Book"
for 1921, The Geof/raphical Review (Now York), and the Matthews-
Northrup Map Works of Buffalo, may be subject to slight re-
vision. In Africa, where the country's huge territorial losses
occurred, the Government has been forced to give up an empire
almost four times as large as the present republic. Gorman
East Africa, conquered by the British in 1918 and now called
"Tanganyika Territory," was .384,180 square miles in extent and
supported a population, according to tho "World Almanac" for
1921, of 7,6.50,000. German Southwest Africa, with an area of
322,4.'J0 square miles and a population of about l.lO.fKJO, was con-
quered by tho British in 1915, and madc> a protectorato under the
Union of South Africa. These great tracts were chiefly valuable
to Germany, in the view of most British authorities, as stepping-
stones on the way to India. Of the territorial losses of Germany
in Europe, it is noticeable that more than three times as much
territory goes to Poland as Prance received in the much-diseust
annexation of Alsace-Lorraine. The following table, compiled
from ' The Statesman's Year-Book" and The Geographical Renew,
gives the disposition and extent of the lost German lands:
Square
Ionics
German territory lost to France 5,604
German territory lo.st to Denmark 1.53.3
German territory lost to Poland 17,756
G.erman territory lost to Belgium 386
German territory lost to ^lemel 1,057
German territory lost to Danzig 794
The Sarre Basin which will be placed under the Govern-
ment of the League of Nations 751
Total 27,881
Further territoi-y may be lost in plebiscites still to be held.
The population lost to Germany with the alienated territory, as
shown above, is estimated at about 6,000,000, not including the
inhabitants of the Sarre Basin.
This reduced and fallen Germany, as it may appear from cer-
tain view-points, does not seem either greatly, reduced, or per-
manently fallen, to French statesmen on the other side of the
Rhine. There is a motto formed in letters of bronze on the colos-
sal monument of the Emperor William I. at Coblenz which fits
the situation, remarks Paul Le Faivre, writing in La Revue Uni-
verselle (Paris). It is the refrain of one of the most popular songs
sung by passengers on the Rhine steamers. An English transla-
tion of the French translation of the German original might run:
Close up your faithful ranks —
The good old days will come again.
"The old Rhine, they feel it running in their veins . . . with
its majesty and its attributes," says this observer, who sees
everywhere a "reaction against the vision of defeat presented
on all sides."
The division which the League of Nations made of the dis-
puted Silesian territory, as shown on the accompanying map,
roused loud German protests. Germany, as a Berlin eorre^
spondent of the New York Times understands it, loses 64
per cent, of the Upper Silesian anthracite production, that is,
67 anthracite coal mines which last year produced about 32,000,-
000 tons. She loses all her Upper Silesian zinc, or about 60 per
cent, of her former total zinc production. It is believed that
Germany loses about 63 per cent, of the Upper Silesian iron in-
dustries production, about 1,500,000 tons of iron and stoel prod-
ucts. In coal deposits German experts declare they are losing
86 per cent, of ITppor Silesian anthracite, or 42 per cent, of all tho
former Gorman anthracite deposits. "The turnips for tho Ger-
mans, tho mines for the Poles," is one German editor's bitter
commentary upon this loss of formerly German mining area.
A number of British economists have published a letter to the
press assorting that the Upper Silesian decision is "perhaps the
severest blow to the prospects of peace in Europe and its economic
recovery." They feel that it brings the day of German default
measurably nearer, since Germany's ability to pay is so much
diminished by the loss of the largest Silesian mineral deposits.
Tho pro-League Now York Evening Post answers that —
"A league decision, arrived at after due judicial d(4ib('ration
and after a solution by violence and diijlonuicy had failcil, spoils
loss trouble for tho future than a decision that would have loft
Poland with the sense that it had been cheated. As against
German discoiitont W(> must weigh the gain for tlio priiicipl«
underlying the League of Nations and its authority."
6
Shrunken Russia of the Soviets
A" VAST IRREPARABLE BREAKDOWN," as a
leading British publicist exprest his "dominant im-
pression" of Russia in its first throes of revolution, has
continued to be the dominant impression of most observers
throughout the years that have followed. In the very persis-
tence of this "irreparable breakdoT^Ti," however, several inves-
tigators discover hope for the future. The "final eoUapse ot
all that remains of modem ci\-ilization in what was formerly the
Russian Empire" has been anticipated for so long that, it is
argued, the matter may have been indefinitely postponed.
E\en so careful a critic as Isaiah Bowman, Director of the
American Geographical Society of New York, suggests that
Russia may soon be in process of "gathering itself together"
rather than going to pieces. The Bolshevik rulers of the state, it
is pointed out, have modified many of their doctrines which
stood in the way of conventional bourgeois development of the
countrj', and contact with the outside world is increasing.
Imports from Russia into Great Britain, which were valued at
only £6,500,000 in 1918 had risen to more than £34,000,000 in
1920. Exports to Russia from the United Kingdom had risen in
the same time from £298,000 to almost £12,000,000.
"By far the most serious politico-economic problem of the
present is the reconstruction of Russia," writes Mr. Bowman in
his recent volume "The New World: Problems in Political
Geography" (World Book Company). Reorganization, he be-
lieves, may be "most soundly based upon the traditional and dis-
tinctive Russian institutions kno^vn as the zemstvos and eoopera^
tive societies." He continues, going back to the conditions pre-
cedent to the present disorganization:
"The break-up of the Russian Empire now seems a rather
natural event, seeing how diverse were its various parts in cus-
toms, ideals, ethnography, history, and mode of life. The ap-
parent harmony of the political map was merely the expression
of centralized imperial power exercised upon an ignorant peasan-
try. Just as soon as industries developed trained men and edu-
cational f.icilities, the old system failed, not so much because it
was ill adapted to modern needs, as because it ceased to function,
particularly in the world war."
When revolution took hold upon the war-shaken and disordered
Empire, in the spring of 1917, the territory controlled by Russia
comprised one-seventh of the land surface of the globe, an area
of some 8,.500,000 square mUes. The present area actually under
the Soviet Government, consisting of the greater portion of what
was formerly Eluropean Russia, is less than one-fourth as large.
In addition to Finland and Poland, which have been definitely
set up as independent governments, the Soviets have recognized
the practical independence of the "Far Eastern Democratic Re-
public of Siberia," and Esthonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kuban,
North Caucasia, Azerbaijan, (ieorgia, and Russian Armenia,
with total areas of nearly 300,000 square miles, have become
either independent or practically so. The Soviet Government
asserts its control in most of these terri;torios, with the assis-
tance of a "Red" army of more than half a million men, the
largest standing army in Europe. The total population of the
Republic is given as 130,000,000 in the official census of 1920,
as against a population of some 180,000,000 for the whole Empire
at the beginning of the war.
The th<H)ry of the present Russian Govomnumt is thus sum-
marized by "The Statesman's Year-Book," from official Soviet
sources:
"According to the Constitution, which has been d(\clarod a
'fundamental law' of the Republic, Russia is a Republic of So-
viets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' D(^lcgates; and all
central and local authority is vested in these Soviets. Private
property in land is at)oli.shed, all land being the common property
of the people; all forests, mines, waters having a national impor-
tance, and all live stock and fixtures, model estates and agricul-
tural concerns are all national property. The state owns all
factories, mines, railways, and other means of production and
transport.
"The Russian Republic is a free Socialist community of all the
laboring masses of Russia. Freedom of conscience, of opinion, of
the press, and of meeting are guaranteed by the Constitution.
In order to protect the conquests of the Revolution, universal
military ser\dce is incumbent on all citizens. The privilege of
defending the Revolution with arms is, however, reserved for the
laboring classes only; the non-laboring sections of the population
will discharge other military duties. The political rights of
Russian citizenship will be granted without any formalities to
foreigners residing in the territory of the Russian Republic for
purposes of labor.
"The franchise is enjoyed irrespective of religion, nationality,
residence, sex, etc., liy all citizens over eighteen years of age who
earn their livelihood b_\' productive labor, and soldiers and sailors
in the Red Army and Navy.
"Provision is also made in the Constitution for Local Govern-
ment by means of Local Soviets in \illages and towns, with dis-
trict, provincial and territorial Congresses."
This political arrangement has been criticized on the ground
that, while "the American citizen speaks pretty directly through
his congressman,
"The Russian citizen proceeds through his soviet to pro-v-incial
and regional congresses, which in turn lead up to the AU-Russian
Congress of 1500 members, a central committee of 250, and
thence through 17 commissars to the leaders, such as Lenin and
Trotzky. So tortuous a channel of approach to authority would
try the spirit of an educated people: to the Russian masses it
presents impossible conditions of political navigation."
In practise, even the most thorough believers in the So\-iet
system admit, Bolshevism in Russia has produced a dictatorship
greatly resembling the bureaucratic rule of the czars. This "dic-
tatorship of the proletariat" includes the regulation of the
workers through militarist practises. Leon Trotzkyi Bolshevist
IVIinister of War, quotes with approval in "The Task and part of
the trade union" (Petrogi-ad, 1921) the following pronouncement:
"The industrial front is the most important front of the
Russian Revolution and every citizen must become a labor con-
script. Deserters will find no quarter. That is what labor con-
scription, what the militarization of labor means! Who will deny
the proletarian State this right during the period when private
ownership of the means and instruments of production and
exchange is lieing abolished? Who will deny it the duty to de-
mand from every one a certain amount of labor in the interests
of the community? No one except miserable Philistines, absolute
fools or dishonest demagogs!"
"Why has state enslavement in Russia been carried to a limit,
which even Russians never knew before?" asks Professor Peter
Struve of the University of Edinburgh in the Edinburgh Renew.
He replies, presenting the case of orthodox individualism against
the sort of communism that has been tried, under difficulties,
in Russia:
"Precisely because the Soviet regime not only abolished the
liberties of public life, but also abolished individual projjerty
and privati^ trade, and thus cut at the very roots of the tree of
I)ersonal liberty and personal dignity. In communist Russia
not only is there no free press — freedom of the press was only
cstablislied in Russia in 190."> — there is no private press at all.
The railways built liy the capitalist society continue to exist,
but freedom of communication — one of the expressions of
economic freedom — has been abolished more completely than
over before in the history of Russia.
"Th(! Ru.ssian experiment has in fact demonstrated a (ruth —
which to most minds is sufficituitly iiulicaled by elementary
reasoning — namely that the abolition of private jiroiierty and the
ecinse(|uential prevention of trade involves the destruction not
only of economic freedom and economic prosperity but also ot
individual freedom iu all its manifestations."
\^<7 ^,TJ^ .1 J! c T
.4^
ii.,j,,„.
1^ ''^ji^''''''''''Z'''^^
^^
^•'^.r>e°"°^°
^''"'•'Si^^lS'ffa'* ^j^uJ.J/^'"''!?/ ■''"'rfii/,
/*''o;iJ^
>;i4.
If':
LofWJ":-; ^Bryansk , ,
i»x, .,„ ™ 1 J-'-j •} ,„,„?j»»T , ' .
ourll'*"'
bvalynsk^'.o \ _ ->
0IS»^»'%A^
'■""7;l.;>,„„i,„,,
Kalftch
'^ai^i*
saritzyn <V • • Vv.
t^
^ s
Ust
RUSSIA
Soviet Russia in Europe
Soviet Russian control in Asfai
I .i Territori«s lost.'by Russia f —• '^^....liy'i,
Finland. Esthonia. Latvia. Lithu-
ania, Poland and Bessarabia.
Urt P'a*^""
^1^';
Sa>J>P''
-^^fc.l'.'r.V 5vi..X, ^ \_ , S
p E '" ^
■y^ Copyrighl. 1921 by Funk i Wagnalls Co.. New > or.:
.MESOl?pTAMIA *\
The Matlheivs-Norlhrup Works. Buffalo, N. Y.
L-jngitude East 10" from Gtocnwicli
Greater Britain
THE COAST LINES OF THE WORLD, which are said
to have been "the frontiers of Britain" ever since the
fall of Napoleon, include nearly 900,000 more square
miles of British territory, as one result of the World War.
The British Lion, the world's publicists agree with varjing de-
grees of admiration, rancor, or philosophical resignation, has
absorbed the greater part of the territories and other emoluments
removed from the Triple Entente. British apologists reply by
mentioning "England's manifest destiny," and arguing that,
considering the respective parts played in the conflict b\ those
whi have profited by it, England has been not only fail but
liberal. The actual gain in square miles of the earth's area which
has c^me under British control since 1914, computed on the basis
of figures coUeeted by the Matthews-Nortlirup Map Works and
"The Statesman's Year-Book," is 882,22,5, which represents an in-
crease of approximately 7 per cent, in the area of the Empire on
which the sun never sets. The population of the newly acquired
territories is placed at 11,938,132. The little island kingdom off
the northwest shoulder of Europe, containing 121,033 square
mi'es of area all told, is now the head of an Empire more than
four times as large as the United States, with a total present
po-i'ation of about 442,000,000.
Along with this increase, however, has gone a loosening of the
bonds of empire which such students of international affairs as
Gene'-al Jan Christian Smuts of South Africa and H. G. Wells
consider among the most significant developments of English
history. Ireland presents a particularly violent example of a
wide-spread state of mind. The dominions are taking to heart
Kipling's description, more picturesque than literal when it was
made, of the Canadian attitude: "Daughter in my mother's
house, but mistress in my own." General Smuts, objects one
cri*ic. H. Dean Bamford, LL.D., writing in The National Review
(London), has gone so far as to declare the practical autonomy of
the dominions, not only in their internal affairs, but in their for-
eign relations also. His statement that "if war is to affect them,
they must declare it; if peace is made in respect to them, they
have to sign it," protests this critic, means that —
"The various Dominions and the Mother Country are now no
more united than were England and Hanover under George I.
They have become a mere congeries of separate and independent
States which happen to have the same person as their constitu-
tional sovereign, and are bound together only by a feeling of
kinship, by community of interests and by a more or less effective
liaison which makes cohesion in the larger matters of foreign
affairs likely for some time to come. The unity of the Empire
has ceased, and its place has been taken by a probability of
unanimity, the result of a kind of entente cordiale between the
former component parts."
This view is put in a slightly different light by H. G. WeUs,
who joins Premier Smuts in advocating more prerogatives for the
dominions. "A very fine feat of statecraft," he calls "the con-
version of Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa
from mere administered dependencies into quasi-independent
allies." Looking back to 1914, he gives the following summary of
that "unique p'llitical combination," the British Empire, which
endures little changed, except, perhaps, in spirit and intention:
"First and central to the whole systtan was the 'crowned
republic' of the United British Kingdoms, including (againsi the
will of a considerable part of the Irish people) Ireland. The ma-
jority of the British Parliament, made up of the three united
parliaments of England, Scot land and Iniaiid del criiiinea the head-
ship, the quality, and the policy of the ministry, and determines it
largely on considerations arising out of British domestic politics.
It is this ministry which is the effective supreme government,
with powers of peace and war, over all the rest of tlie enii)ire;
"Next in order of polilienl importance to the Brilish States
were the 'crowned rcpul)lies' of Australia, Canada, Newfound-
land (the oldest British possession, l.")H3), New Zealand, and
South Africa, all practically iiidependeni and self-governing
states in alliance with Great Britain, hut each vn\h a representa-
tive of the Crown appointed by the Government m office:
"iNext the Indian Empire, an extension of the empire of the
Great Mogul, with its dependent and 'protected' states reaching
now from Baluchistan to Burmah, in all of which empire the
British Crown and the Indian Office (under Parliamentary con-
trol) played the role of the original Turkoman dj-nasty;
"Then the ambiguous possession of Egypt, still nominally a
part of the Turkish Empire and still retaining its own monarch.
The Khedive, but under almost despotic British official rule;
"Then still more ambiguous ' Anglo-Egj-ptian' Sudan prov-
ince, occupied and administered jointly by the British and by
the (British controlled) Egyptian Government;
"Then a number of partially self-governing communities,
some British in origin and some not, with elected legislatures and
an appointed executive, such as Malta, Jamaica and Bermuda;
"Then the Crown colonies, in which the rule of the British
Home Government (through the Colonial Office), verged on
autocracy, as in Ceylon, Trinidad and Fiji (where there was an
appointed councO), and Gibraltar and St. Helena (where there
was a governor);
"Then great areas of (chiefly) tropical lands, raw-product
areas, with politically weak and under-civilized native commu-
nities, which were nominally protectorates, and administered
either by a High Commissioner set over native chiefs (as in Basu-
toland) or over a chartered company (as in Rhodesia). . . .
"No single office and no single brain had ever comprehended
the British Empire as a whole. It was a mixture of growths and
accumulations entirely different from anything that has ever been
oaded an empire before. It guaranteed a wide peace and security;
that is why it was endured and sustained by many men of the
'subject' races — in spite of official tyrannies and insufficiencies,
and of much negligence on the part of the 'home' public."
Mr. Wells traces a "deterioration in the quality of British
Imperialism in relation to 'subject peoples,'" in the last few
decades, and argues for an impartial world-court of appeal,
to do away with the wrong that must follow when "any civilized
country is ruled by the legislature of another." He thus takes a
sort of middle ground in the present ivade-spread discussion of
England's imperialism. A small group of English publicists
opposes the retention of the colonies in any form, while a con-
siderably larger bloc agrees with the general position of Com-
mander Lord Teignmouth, who writes on "Our Manifest Destiny
— Egypt," in The Nineteenth Century and After (London, Novem-
ber, 1921). The writer quotes Professor Ernst Haeckel and
Admiral Dewey, among others, in praise of "the British genius
for founding and governing colonies," and concludes:
"The continuous effort, the mental strain essential to the
maintenance of our position as a World Power, may cause
despondency amongst dilettante politicians; but effort is the very
Salt of life to young and \'igorous Britons. There is no standing
still in this world; stagnation, ca'canny, means retrogression.
And to recede from the position which has been attained with
such infinite labor would be an unparalleled act of cowardice.
Better to die fighting than to incur the contumely of posterity
as 'slackers.' "
The new British colonial possessions, which bring the total
aroa of the Empire up to .some 13,.')00,00() square miles, are thus
catalogued by the Matthews-Northrup Map Works:
* Area m
Sq. Miles
Palestine (British Mandate) 9,000
Mesopotamia (British Mandate). . . . 54,540
Tanganayika Ter. (British >landate) 365,180
Southwest Africa (Un. of S. Af. Man-
date) 322,400
Togoland (British Mandate) . ... 12,.500
CJameroon (British Mandate) 30,000
New Guinea, etc. (Australian Man-
date) 87,300
Western Samoa (New Zealand Man-
date) 1,300
Nauru Island (British Mandate) ... 5
882.225
Estimated
Population
()47,850
2,S49,'282
7,000,000
200,000
30(),(KX)
400,000
600,000
41,000
?
11,938,132
in
SHETLAND
ISLANDS
f)uN8T
■l" WEeTRHV-fl" « N.BONALOSHAY
"T '■J ./piANDAV
B0W6AV fl*^ I
BRITISH ISLES
ENGLAND, WALES,
SCOTLAND and IRELAND
Comparative territorial.extent of*the British Empire
and its Colonial Possessions, (including mandates.)
a '
1. Extent of the British,lsle=, taken as a unit, 121,633.sq. jrii,
2. Extent of British Enfpire before the war, 12.786.472 sq. mi
3. Extent of territory gained through the war, 882.225 sq. mi,
'V's. A T L A N T
O C E A
Longitude
0 Longitude East
11
The New Republic of Austria
y 'T'NE CAPITALS et une banlieue paysanne" (a capital
# / and a countrified subizrb) — these only remain, in
K^ the words of a \\Titer in Le Figaro (Paris), of that
proud and warlike Austria which was once the center of the
great Austro-Hungarian Empire. The present Republic of Aus-
tria is slightly smaller in territorial extent than our own State of
Maine, and contains a total population somewhat larger than
New York city's. Out of a population of approximately fifty
million at the beginning of the war, of which twenty-eight
million belonged to Austria proper, only 6,139,197 fall to the
new Austria. Of its territorv. comprising 115,903 square miles
in 1914, it has now 32,066. By t,Le terms of the constitution,
which was adopted October 1, 1920, and came into force on
November 10 of the same year, Austria, says "The Statesman's
Year-Book," "is declared to be a Democratic republic com-
posed of seven provinces and the City of Vienna."
No other country of the new Europe, victor or vanquished,
finds itself in such an unfortunate situation as the result of the
changed boundaries created by the war as does the new Austrian
Republic. The five vowels. A, E, I, O, U, so often associated
with the colors and the insignia of the old Empire, and said to
signifj' AustritB Est Imperare Orbi Universo — "It is Austria's
part to rule the world" — have fulfilled the interpretation put
upon them by a French wit, Austria Erit In Orbe Ultima —
"Austria shall be hindmost in the world." The real tragedy in
the country's present situation, according to a wTiter in "Harms-
worth's New Atlas" (London), appears in the fact that nearly
two million of the country's population are concentrated in the
city of Vienna, while most of the agricultural lands from which
this great urban population used to draw have been assigned to
the new countries to north and south. Austria has been shorn
of its granaries, Bohemia and Moravia. In the old days of the
Empire the two million concentrated in the capital city did not
seem very disproportionate; but the proportion that now exists,
amounting to more than a quarter, is making necessary much
economic and social readjustment. The advantageous geogi-aph-
ical situation of Vienna, at the crossroads of the great European
routes from west to east and from Baltic to Mediterranean, with
the Moravian Gate to the north, the Pressburg Gate to the east,
the splendid waterway afforded by the Danube — all these factors
are unchanged. Consequently the present crisis through which
the city is passing provides an illustration of the effect of purely
political changes. The interesting problem, according to the
writer, is this: Will Vienna escape the fate of Rome? Has the
world changed as a consequence of modern capitalistic develop-
ment so that the greatness of a city depends on jts own advan-
tages rather than on the political power of the state in which
it lies?
An attempt was made at the recent partitioning of the coun-
try, says the same authority, to include all the essentially German
localities in the little Austrian Republic which contains the heart
and head of the old Empire. Physically, the country may be
divided into two main areas: The Alpine lands which stretch
from Vorarlberg to Styria, and that section of the Danube Valley
between the German frontier at Passau and a point where three
countries meet at a town with three names — Bratislava (the
present official Czech narne), Pozsony (the former official Magyar
name), and Pressburg (the commonly used German name).
These two sections include the old provinces of Upper and Lower
Austria, Salzburg, and Vorarlberg, parts of Styria, Carinthia,
and Tyrol, and a strip of former Hungarian territory along tlio
old boundary between Au.stria and Hungary. In the south of
Carinthia, where lie the two sections whose fate is to bo decided
Ijy a plebiscite, it has been arranged that, if the voting in the
larger and more southerly area goes in favor of Austria, both
areas are to remain Austrian. There are a number of Slovene in-
habitants in this section, and the result is doubtful. If
the vote goes against Austria, then a second ])lebiscite will
decide the fate of the smaller district, which includes the city of
Klagenfurt.
As far back as history carries any record of the country now
known as the Austrian Republic, notes a writer in the latest
edition of the "Encyclopedia Britannica," the region around the
present city of Vienna has been known as a great meeting-place
of east and west, of north and south. Like Venice, it drew
from "the gorgeous East," and its civilization long since began
to be colored by the luxury and fondness for sensuous beauty
and pleasure which distinguish the capital even in the misfor-
tunes that have befallen it to-day. Strange merchandise and
strange peoples and customs gathered there from east and west
by way of the Danube, and from north and south between the
Baltic and the shores of the Mediterranean. The southern part
of the country was inhabited, before the opening of the Chris-
tian era, by a Celtic tribe, called the Taiirisci, who were con-
quered by the Romans about 14 b. o., and under Roman rule,
Vindobona, the modern Vienna, became a place of importance.
In late Roman times the country was an easy prey for the bar-
barians. During the period of the great migrations it was
ravished in quick succession by a number of these tribes, promi-
nent among whom were the Huns. The valley of the Danube
became a melting-pot for all tribes and races, including a large
admixture of Slavic peoples from the northeast.
At the end of the Middle Ages, during which Vienna was a
bone of contention among many leaders and factions — "Haps-
burgs and Guelfs," as Lowell wrote, "whose thin bloods crawl
do'mi from some A-ietor in a border brawl" — the kingdom emerged
with an area of some fifty thousand square miles, eighteen thou-
sand more than it has to-day. It was not untU after the battle
of Leipzig led up to the great international Congress of Vienna,
however, that Austria fully realized her ambitions of conquest,
which held scores of hostUe races in subjection until the recent
war set them free. Prince Metternieh, whose name is synony-
mous with all that is skilful and unscrupulous in "secret diplo-
macy," so played upon racial rivalries, both during the Con-
gress and afterward, that the great ramshackle Empire was not
only held together, but increased in size. "Hungarian regiments
garrisoned Italy, Italian regiments guarded Galicia, Poles occu-
pied Austria, and Austrians, Hungary." Bosnia and Herzego-
vina, were annexed, contrary to promises and treaties, in 1909,
and the way opened for the Serajevo murder that was the imme-
diate cause of the World War, five years later. "Divide and
rule," the famous motto in which Metternieh summed up his
policy, to-day carries all the bitterly ironical implications of that
once popular German toast, "Der Tag."
Against the movement that has arisen in both Germany and
Austria to unite the two countries, on the ground that the genius
of both is essentially German, the Allies, and especially the
French, have opposed both force and argument. Vienna, in
despair of assistance from Allied sources, is turning again toward
Berlin, report two Froneh now.si)apor correspondents who re-
cently investigated conditions there for a Paris journal. The
citizen of Vienna will say, willingly enough, that he is really a
German, they report, and they sum up the anti-German position
in the following reply which, they say, the Allies should make and
are making:
" 'Your language is German, but your blood is not, and the
spirit of your city is even less. France and Italy have stamped,
in the course of time, an ineffaccalile iiiii)rint both upon your
fine buildings and your souls. In comparing your city with an-
other ontsicie your boundaries, certainly no one W'ould choose a
German city, but much more probably a city of the north of
Italy, Milan, for e.xaniple.' . . . Vienna is not, and should not
become, a (iernian city; it slioiild lie inhrn.-ilionai."
19
CO " - ° - "
I— c 2" n."
■j; I: .2 n S
i s "^ =
s Sis-Si s-i.2g;.£o|i.| «'i=^
•^ ^ta^SM SCO ''^ lA tDtr- rtga
13
The New Kingdom of Hungary
THE REDUCED AND HUMBLED HUNGARY left
by tlie war was the last of the major partners of the
Teutonic Alliance to submit to the will of the victorious
western nations; and if she has anything to say in the matter
she will be the first, at least in the opinion of several leading
American and British publicists, to rebel against the Peace
Treaty, which she finally signed on the fourth of June, 1920. Less
harshly dealt with by the terms of the Treaty than was Austria,
her old partner in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, she is said to be
far less ready to accept the consequences. The Hungary of to-
day, as Eugene S. Bagger sums up Anglo-American opinion in The
Current Hislorij Magazine (New York), is inspired by "the three
R's of Magyar jingoism: Restoration, Revenge, Reconquest."
The recent history of the country, leading up to the second
attempt of former Emperor Charles of Austria-Hungary to seize
the power, and resulting in his exile, is considered especially il-
luminating by critics who hold this \iew. On October 31, 1918,
to quote the historical summary of "The Statesman's Year
Book," a revolution broke out in Hungary with the object of
establishing a republic and making the country independent of
Austria. On November 13 King Charles issued a letter of abdi-
cation, and on November 16, 1918, Hungary was proclaimed an
independent republic. "The Hungarian People's Republic," to
give it its official name, and the lilierally inclined Count Michael
Karolyi became Pro\'isional President. The two Houses of the
Legislature were abolished, and their place taken by a Provisional
National Assembly. The Karolyi regime continued until March
22, 1919, when the Count resigned in consequence of the inter-
ference by the Allies in the matter of the disputed boundary be-
tween Hungary and Roumania. Count Karolyi's Cabinet was
succeeded by a Soviet Government, under the leadership of Bela
Kun, which proclaimed the dictatorship of the proletariat. An
opposition government was soon set up at Arad and Szeged,
which, with the assistance of the Roumanian army, swept away
the Soviet rulers. Bela Kun's "Red Terror" was succeeded by a
"White Terror" of reaction, which neutral observers found
equally tyrannical and bloody. Elections, held under the author-
ity of the new government, resulted in a strongly conservative
parliament. A Regent, officially styled "Protector of the
Magyar Republic," was elected in the person of Admiral Nicholas
von Horthy. Shortly after his induction into office, a government
order was promulgated to the effect that "Hungary was a Mon-
archy, that the official style of the Ministry was 'Royal Hunga-
rian Ministry,' that the nation should be described as a Monarchy
in all official documents, and that the Royal Arms were to be
adopted again." A general impr. .^sion tha^ F^^iiiy was merely
"keeping the throne warm for ex-Lmperor Charles " was dissipated
when Charles made his attempt to come back. Admiral Horthy 's
hand may have been forced, as the Philadelphia Record believes,
by the Allies, and more particularly by Roumania, Jugo-Slavia,
and Czecho-Slovakia, "all of which acquired large blocks of Hun-
garian territory in its partial dismemberment, and which now
constitute the Little Entente."
Nevertheless, observed the Pittsburgh Dispatch, "The suspi-
cion that the restoration of Charles to the throne is only a ques-
tion of time, in view of Pjuropean diplomatic dickering and mili-
tary strategy, will not down," and the Troy Record thus reaches
the same general conclusion :
"The life figuratively went out of Austria atid Hungary with
the fall of the proud and historic House: of Hapslmrg- Charles is
the legitimate representative of that House, and there unciues-
tionably is very inten.se and wide-spread sentiments in his favor
in both Hungary and Austria. Such sentiment only awaits the
opportunity for expressing itself. That is why a sudden move
as that made by Charles is always apt to meet with success."
As soon as the Magyar nation gets over its political troubles,
in the opinion of Dr. J. Poltera, a Swiss economist, who lately
visited the country and whose report is translated by The Lining
Age (Boston), the country has an excellent chance to become
prosperous. Orographically, the Republic consists of high
mountain ranges surrounding an immense fertile plain. The
cultivation of the soil is the chief industry, but the land is also
rich in minerals. Manufactures have not been largely developed,
except those which produce malt and spirituous liquors.
The development of its resources will not be retarded by any
such unequal division of the population between city and country
as is noticeable in the neighboring country of Austria. The new
state is roughly about one-third the size of the old Kingdom of
Hungary. In the years shortly preceding the war, the "Realm
of the Crown of St. Stephen," as Hungarian Monarchists have
dubbed their fatherland in deference to one of its earliest and
greatest heroes, included 125,402 square miles of territory, some
4,000 more than the Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Its
population, according to the census of 1910, was 20,886,487.
The new boundaries cut its territorial extent practically in half.
Le Correspondent, a Liberal Catholic bimonthly of Paris, pre-
sumably sympathetic with the present Government, presents
this pessimistic view:
"The Peace Treaty has deprived Hungary of more than 70
per cent, of its territory, and 60 per cent, of its former inhabitants.
Among the latter are three and a half million Magyars, or about
one-fourth of the nation. It has given Hungary almost impossi-
ble frontiers from either the strategic or the economic point of
\'iew. They follow the foot of the mountains, leaving in the
hands of the neighboring governments the natural market-places,
transverse railway lines, and military approaches. The country
has lost 46 per cent, of its factories, 60 per cent, of its coal-fields,
and 65 per cent, of its wheat^lands. It has lost 85 per cent, of its
forests, and 95 per cent, of its water-power.
"This may seem a dark picture. However, in spite of its losses
the country still possesses important resources with wliich it can
build up a thriving foreign trade. But such trade presupposes
friendly relations with its neighbors. Such relations do not e.'dst
in Central Europe.
"It would be impossible to And a single Hungarian to-day
who accepts the present dismemberment of his country as final.
The nation believes with absolute unanimity that its gcogi'aphical
and economic unity will eventually be restored. Hungarians still
fancy that they excel their neighbors in morale, patriotism, and
race-spirit. This is a sentiment fostered by centuries of over-
lordship over neighboring peoples.
"Consequently the Peace Treaty has left in Central Europe an
unreconciled nation, which refuses to accept its terms, and which
considers it not only a right, but a duty, to overthrow that treaty
at the first opportunity.
"However, the country will not be strong enough to do this
without a powerful army and sound economic recovery. But
these two tilings are incompatible, tt Hungary tries to maintain
a strong military cstabhshment, it will stifle the possibility of
economic recovery. The nation can recover its health only by
forgetting the past. But it will not forget."
The mixture of races that went to form the old Kingdom
(Magyarorszfig) has been somewhat "unscrambled" by the new
division of the land. In 1900, according to figures collected for
the last edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica, the population
consisted of approximately 8,500,000 Magyars, 3,000,000 Rou-
manians, 2,000,000 Slovaks, 2,0(X),f)00 Germans, and a scattering
of a dozen other nationalities. The attempt to "Magyarizo"
these foreign elements resulted in a large emigration to America.
Rtaurning emigrants, carrying with them American ideas and
American money, are said to have played a large part in iho
break-up of the old despotism.
Hungary still is "a question mark," admits Isaiah Bowman,
Director of the American Geographical Society of New York,
reaching much the same conclusions in his chapter on "The
New Hungary" in his book, "The New World: Problems in
Political Geography" (World Book Company).
14
16
The New Czecho-Slovakian Republic
A FEW MONTHS before that fateful August of 1914
brought the most world-unsettling war of all times,
two English geographers completed a map of Europe
in which the boundaries were laid out according to racial affini-
ties, not on the political lines then accepted. Their map was
prophetic of a change which was coming sooner than they
dreamed. In the new geography of Europe, now almost com-
pleted, national boundaries follow this ethnographical chart
much more closely than they do the maps of yesterday. The
new Czecho-Slovakian Republic, in particular, almost exactly
coincides T^dth the territory allotted racially to the Czechs and
Slovaks. The new nation that has arisen out of the former
pro-\Tnce is larger than either the new Austria or the new Hungary
left from the disintegrated Austro-Hungarian Empire. Indeed,
this new republic is now almost as large as Austria and Hungary
together.
The term Czecho-Slovak, as the two English geographers and
ethnologists mentioned above point out ("A Historical Atlas
of Modem Europe from 1789 to 1914," by C. Grant Robertson
and J. G. Bartholomew, published by the Oxford University
Press), covers two branches of the same West Slav nation:
the 7,000,000 Czechs of Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia, and the
3,000.000 Slovaks of Slovakia, who speak a dialect of Czech.
Racially close together tho the two peoples are, time and the
unlucky chance which made the Czechs vassals of Austria, while
the Slovaks were turned over to Hungary, have brought con-
siderable differences. By the terms of a recent law, Czech is
made the official language for Bohemia and Mora\-ia, and
Slovak for Slovakia. Behind these differences is the significant
fact that they both have the same Bible. Intermixt with
Czechs and Slovaks is a large German and Magyar element,
estimated at 35 per cent, of the total before the war. At last
year's national elections, says The Current History Magazine
(New York), the German parties polled a total of 1,422,036 votes
as against 3,096,391 polled by the Czechs. These proportions
indicate a Czecho-German problem, comments this authority,
which only time and statesmanship can solve.
The area and population of the Czecho-Slovak RepubUe,
together with its natural advantages, give it a foremost place
among the new nations of Europe. Territorially, as a wricer in
■'The Statesman's Year-Book" observes, it consists of Bohemia,
Mora^-ia, Slovakia, Silesia and Autonomous Ruthenia. Its
complete area is given as 56,316 square miles, and its popula-
tion, according to estimates by the experts of the Mattliews-
Northrup Works is at present approximately 14,000,000. Slo-
vakia and Ruthenia supply most of the territory to the new
Republic, or 25,309 square miles, as against 20,065 for Bohemia,
but Bohemia's population is set at 6,769,548 according to the
census of 1910, as against 3,654,435 for tho two other territories,
The country has been listed as predominantly Roman Catholic,
the census of 1910 crediting 11,836,933 to that religion as against
976,.567 to Protestant faiths. However, in January, 1920, says
"The Statesman's Year-Book, " "the reformed clergy of Czecho-
slovakia decided to withdraw from the jurisdiction of the Pope
and to found a National Church." Appro.ximately 30 per cent.
of the clergy of tho country, on the authority of the Czecho-
slovak Consul-General in Nov/ York City, are included in this
movement. Tho chief differences between this n(;w church and
the Roman Catholic body from which it has seceded lie in the
facts that the National Church permits its clergy to marry, and
stipulates that all services must bo conducted, not in Latin, but
in the national tongue.
Historians will find in this situation a suggestion tlwit (lie Iimd
of John Has is true to its traditions, for in the history of Bohemia
similar religious disagreemonts with Rome have playerl a large
part. Hus, who criticized tho Roman Catholic clergy some-
what in Martin Luther's way, even while remaining a Catholic,
was biu-ned as a heretic in July, 1415. His followers, said to
have comprised the great majority of the population of tho
Kingdom of Bohemia, did not allow the movement to die with
its leader. During a demonstration of Husites in Prague, Umr
years later, stones were thrown from the windows of the To«ti
HaU, with the result that the paraders rushed the hall, threw
the magistrates out of the windows, and started the long and
bloody series of so-called Husite wars. Bohemia, or Czechy,
as the inhabitants called it, became thoroughly Roman Catholic
again under the Hapsburgs.
The Hapsburg claim to the territory, which has played so large
a part in recent history, had a woman at the bottom of it, it
appears. Ferdinand I., afterwards Emperor of Austria, married
a daughter of the ruling line of Bohemia, and on that basis urged
his selection as the Bohemian King. The Bohemian Diet, at a
special election on October 23, 1526, accepted his alaim as
valid. "Soon after the Hapsburgs' accession to the throne,"
to quote again from "The Statesman's Year-Book," "they
began to violate Bohemia's religious and national liberties, and
this action eventually led to the Czech Revolution of 1618 and
the beginning of the Thirty Years' War." The revolution was
completely crusht in 1620. Bohemia's struggle to reclaim its
ancient rights as an independent nation, never wholly subdued,
has been especially strong since 1848. The present national
feeling is traced back by one authority to the literary revival of
the Czech language, a movement which started shortly after the
French Revolution.
The Slovaks, during most of the period of the oppression of the
Bohemians liy the Austrians, were very much under the domina-
tion of the Magyars of Hungary, who conquered their country
in 907, displaced or assimilated the southern Slovaks, and have
practically ever since been lords of a:U the rest. "The Magyars
have always treated the Slovaks as an inferior race," says a writer
in the last edition of "The Encyclopedia Britamiica." "Tho
result is a large emigration to America. . . . The Slovaks are a
peaceful, rather slow, race of peasants (their aristocracy is Mag-
yarized), living almost exclusively upon the land, which they till
after the most primiiivs methods. When this does not yield
sufficient, they wandsr as laborers, and especially as tinkers, all
ov3r Austria, Hungary, and even into South Russia. They are
fond of music, and their songs have been collected." It is this
peasant territory which affords agricultural resources more than
sufficient to support the new Republic. Bohemia, Mora\'ia and
Silesia complement these agricultural resources with industrial
developments, soon to be increased by certain rights which the
Peace Treaty gives to Czecho-Slovakia in the German ports of
Hamburg and Stettin.
On November 14, 1918, the National Assembly met in Prague
and formerly declared the Czechc-Slovak state to be a Republic,
with Prof. T. G. Masaryk as its first President. Czecho-Slovakia,
according to figures supplied by the New York Consulate, has
the distinction of being less burdened by debt than any other
nation in Europe. By contrast with her immediate neighbors,
Austria and Hungary, her condition is especially enviable.
At the 1920 elections, the Socialists, both in the Senate and in
the Chamber of Deputies, gained a substantial plurality, their
. representation in the Chamber of Deputies being recorded at 141
as against 137 for tho other parties, and in the Senate at 68 as
against 75 for tho rest. Tho Socialistic program, which was ex-
jiected to follow, has not developed to any great extent, however,
and the tendency is, in the words of the Nebra.ska Jniiriial:
"Not toward the Cojnmuiiism of Soviet Russia, but a nalion-
alization of industries and i)ublie utililies by political mclliods
and iiiiilcr |)(>litical control, after the manner of orthoclox
Socialism."
Ifi
17
The New Kingdom of Jugo-Slavia
A
PRODUCT OF INTELLECTUAL FORCES" is
the descriptive phrase applied by one of the most
competent of British publicists to the newly formed
state of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes; and, therefore, he says,
it "offers peculiar difficulties to the Anglo-Saxon imagination."
The binding element of the new amalgamation is called "the
sentiment of a racial unity transcending political and religious
di^^sions." This conception of Jugo-Slavia is summed up in the
reply of a deputation of Serbs to the question, "What do you un-
derstand by a nation?" The question was put in 1848, when the
Serbs were petitioning for recognition of their national language
in the Magyar state, and thej- replied: "A nation is a race which
possesses its own language, customs, culture, and enough self-
consciousness to preserve them." According to this ^^ew, a single
nation could exist divided among several political rulers, and in
this sense, we are told, the Kingdom of the Jugo-Slavs has
existed for many years. Political organization came in those
dark daj-s of 1917, when the present Kingdom's territory was
altogether in the hands of the enemy, and the government had
fled, with the remnants of the army, to the Greek island of
Corfu. There on July 20, 1917, the so-called "Declaration of
Corfu" was signed by "the President of the Council, Minister
of Foreign Affairs of the Kingdom of Serbia, Nikola Pashitch,
and the President of the Jugo-Slav Committee, Dr. Anton
Trumbic." This declaration, practically all of whose terms have
since been put iuto effect, runs, in its most essential parts, as
follows;
1. The state of the Serbs. Croats and Slovenes, who are also
known by the name of Southern Slavs or Jugo-Slavs, will be a
free and independent Kingdom, 'svith an indivisible territory
and unity of power. This state will be a constitutional, demo-
cratic and parliamentary monarchy, with the Karageorgevitch
dynasty, which has always shared the ideals and feelings of the
nation in placing above everything else the national liberty and
will, at its head.
2. The name of this state will be the Kingdom of the Serbs,
Croats and Slovenes, and the title of the sovereign will be
King of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. . . .
9. The territory of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes will com-
prise all the territory where our nation lives in compact masses
and without discontinuity, and where it could not be mutilated
without injuring the vital interests of the community.
10. The Adriatic Sea, in the interests of liberty and equal
rights of all nations, is to bo free and open to all and each.
11. All citizens throughout the territory of the Kingdom are
equal and enjoy the same rights in regard to the state and the law.
The present Kingdom, whose largest recent difficulty van-
ished with the suppression of d'Annunzio and the creation of the
"Free State of Fiume," is credited, by the current issue of "The
Statesman's Year-Book" with a total area of 101,246 square
miles, and a population of 14,318,89.3. Basically, there is little
difference between the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes making up
the population. The sole difference between the Serbs and
Croats, writes Vladislav R. Savic, former head of the Serbian
Foreign Oflico's Press Bureau, in a recent volume entitled
"Southeastern Europe" (Revell), was, as recently as medieval
times, one of religion. "Western tribes fell under the influonco
of Rome and became Roman Catholics; the eastern tribes came
under the influence of Byzantium and embraced Greek Ortho-
doxy." Religious antagonism, however, "appears on the whole
to have been conspicuous by its absence," according to a hand-
book, "The Jugo-Slav Movement," prepared by the British
Foreign Office (London, 1920). "There is a Jugo-Slav proverb,
'A brother is dear, whatever his faith'; and, in fact, the tie of
blood and language seems to have counted for more than religious
differences." In spite of the political barriers which have im-
peded mtercourse, their language, says this authority, is at the
present day unifonn to such a degree that its extreme varieties.
as spoken by the Croats of the Save Valley and by the Herze-
govinian Serbs of the Narenta, differ less than do the dialects
spoken in different counties in England.
The Slovenes, tho belonging to the same great South-Slav
family, received a special impress from their long domination
by the Austrian Duchies and the Hapsburg dynasty. Their
speech, says the British handbook quoted above, is a distinct
variety, but inteUigible to their Serbo-Croatian neighbors. For
some time, we are told, an educational literary movement has
been at work among them, tending toward linguistic assimila-
tion with the Serbo-Croats. "From close contact with German
and Italian elements in the towns," this authority continues,
"the Slovenes have been able to obtain a relatively high educa^
tiorial standard. They alone among the Jugo-Slavs were affected
by the Reformation: and, tho the movement was finally stamped
out by the Counter-Reformation, it maj' be said that something
of its spirit siu^vives in the temper of the Slovene people."
Napoleon may be considered one of the founders of the present
Kingdom, for the literary and linguistic movement which devel-
oped in the first half of the nineteenth century and is asso-
ciated with the name of Vuk Karadzic, was greatly stimulated
bjf the French conqueror's creation, in 1809, of the lUj-rian
Pro\dnces. The British Foreign Office historian presents this
resume of the subsequent history of the nation:
"The new provinces, which included the greater part of the
Slovene lands, the Croatian littoral, and Dalmatia, were designed
to be a French outpost on the high road to the East and a
fortress on the flank of Austria,; hence Napoleon deliberately
aimed at uniting in them considerable Slav populations under
a government sympathetic to their national spirit. The aboli-
tion of the frontiers which had hitherto di\aded them and the
material and intellectual progress which resulted from the able
and enhghtened government of the French made on the subjects
of the new state an impression which was never effaced. 'I11\t-
ism' became the watchword of the next generation of political
thinkers; but in their definition of Ill>Tia they included, besides
Napoleon's provinces, all lands inhabited by Jugo-Slavs, to
whose ultimate union in some yet undefined form they now began
to aspire. The revolt of Serbia and her emancipation from
Turkish rule, after a heroic struggle, promoted this ideal at a
time when political and religious considerations alone wouid have
favored the narrower Napoleonic conception.
"The labors of Vuk Karadzic, the founder of modern Jugo-
Slav culture, gave a solid basis to the ideas of the lUjTists.
One great obstacle to the spread of IlljTist ideas was the fact
that, while one vernacular was spoken by the whole race, there
was no standard literary language. Vuk, strongly interested
from the first in the speech and traditions of his people, had
already begun to write in the vernacular. His great dictionary,
whose second edition (1852) satisfied the most exacting
standards of western scholarship, fixt the forms of the htorary
language at the time, and remains a linguistic authority of the
first importance.
"In the second half of the nineteenth century, and especially
after tho union of Croatia-Slavonia with Hungary, the Jugo-
slav idea was most actively promoted in Croatia, where its most
notable champion was Bishop Strossmayer (1815-190.^)."
Montenegro, included in the new state in spite of the ob-
jections on the part of its former rulers, and of many of its
citizens, inspired a resolution of protest signed by some fifty
prominent members of the British Parliament, including
Viscounts Bryoo and Curzon. This protest, as reported by
Current History (New York), is oxprest in the following
terms:
"Having regard to the most gallant services rendered by
Montenegro, the snuiUost of our Allies, and to the heavy cost
she lias sustained, her people have tho clear right to determine
their future form of governnu^nt; it is, therefore, noces.sary that
a Parliament should be elected under the Montenegrin (Con-
stitution to decide this question, free voting being secured by
the withdrawal of all llu^ Serbian troops and ollicials at present
occupying the country."
la
!S *
it «
m
|!
w
£ E
!■«
7,
-■2
a .2
M
S to
H
c .S
C 3
e
.2 E
= ?
19
The New Bulgaria
THE KINGDOM OF BULGARIA comes out of the
recent European melee somewhat less disfigured than
the other members of the Germanic alliance. It has lost
a small amount of territory on the south, including its jEgean
Sea littoral, but the Council of the Peace Conference, as an
editorial WTiter m Current History (New York) observes, "is
expected to assign a port on the ^Egean." That southwestern
vermiform appendix containing the fortress of Strumitsa (marked
"2" on the map), which was a veritable thorn in the side of
the Allies during the war, has also been lopped off. "Un-
der the guise of frontier rectification, a large strip of territory
containing no Serbians and 1)2,000 Bulgarians, who had formed
an integral part of Bulgaria, has been annexed to Serbia," com-
plains a Bulgarian apologist. Theodore Vladimiroff, who pre-
sents, in Current History, a bitter protest against the injustices
of the Peace Treaty. Dobrudja, with a Roumanian popula-
tion of less than 7,000 out of a total of 275,000, has been left
in the possession of Roumania, further objects Mr. Vladi-
miroff. According to the current issue of "The Statesman's
Year-Book," however, nearly all of the remaining 268,000 are
Turks and Tartars. The indemnity laid upon the country,
about .$450,000,000 at the normal rate of exchange, is responsible
for much bitterness in Bulgarian governmental circles, but per-
haps the worst blow is the fact that, by the Treaty of Versailles,
Bulgaria's old rival, Roumania, is practically tripled in area and
population. In the days before the war the countries were of
approximately equal strength.
The population of Bulgaria in 1918, according to a compila-
tion made for the Matthews-Northrup Map Works was 4,467,-
000, and the total area 43,305 square miles. "The Statesman's
Year-Book" presents figures, admittedly estimates, for 1920,
which give the area as 42,000 square miles, with a total popula-
tion of 5,000,000. Mr. Vladimiroff. mentioned above, credits
the present kingdom with "about 35,000 square miles and 4,-
500,000 people." It is a farming population to a great extent,
with the unusually high proportion of 82 per cent, of the people
owning their own land and homesteads. About a year after
the conclusion of the armistice, the Farmer party came into
power and the present head of the government. Premier Stam-
bolisky, "a farmer himself," is said to be more interested in
agrarian reforms than international politics. The population
includes as diversified a mixture of nationalities as is found in
any of the heterogeneous Balkan States. In 1910, according
to "The Stateman's Yfear-Book," there were 3,203,810 Bul-
garians, 488,010 Turks, 98,004 Gipsies, 75,773 Roumanians,
63,487 Greeks, 37,663 Jews, 3,863 Germans, 3,275 Russians,
and 61,690 of other nationalities. Figures representing the
proportion of nationalities in the various disputed provinces
vary according to the national aspirations of the government
which presents them.
The present boundaries of Bulgaria are practically the same as
those the kingdom had obtained lialf a century ago, as is shown
by an Oxford University publication, "An Historical Atlas of
Modern Europe," which follows the recent development of
Eur.opean nations. In 1885, notes a writer in this work, eastern
Roumelia revolted and united with the Bulgaria of I87S, a union
reluctantly recognized by Turkey, whose suzerainty over the
state continued. In 1908, following the annexation of Bosnia
and Herzegovina by Austria, Bulgaria renounced Turkish con-
trol, changed the title of her ruler from "Prince" to "Czar," and
assisted in the formation of the Balkan League, including
Mont(!negro, Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece. The League prompt-
ly challenged "a weakened Turkey, just freed from the war with
Italy and the loss of the Tripolitana" (October 18, 1912). The
complete defeat of the Porte was followed by a failure of the
victors to agree over the divisions of the spoil, which led up to
the second Balkan war. Serbia, Montenegro and Greece took
the field against Bulgaria, whose defeat, made decisive by the
intervention of Roumania, left national feuds that worked them-
selves out in the recent war. The Dobrudja, which Roumania
forced from beaten Bulgaria in 1913, was one of the prizes for
which Bulgaria took up arms in 1915, and to whose loss the
recent statements of her Premier prove her still unreconciled.
While waiting for her port on the ^gean, Bulgaria has been
obliged to use her Danubian ports. Thus handicapped, observes
an editorial writer in Current History, "she is said to have per-
formed wonders, particularly in the production and export of
cereals":
"The official statistics show that the yield of cereals in 1919
for the whole of Bulgaria was 2, .327, 614 tons, of which 1,800,000
tons were required for consuniijtion and for sowing, leaving
727,614 tons free for export. Of the total yield wheat pro\ided
926,112 tons, rye 164,860, barley 228,809, oats 107,226, and maize
985,296. Information furnished by the Director-General of the
Bulgarian statistics and by the Ministry of Agriculture indicates
an increase of at least 20 per cent, on the above figures for the
1920 yield."
One of the outstanding measures elaborated for the recon
struction of the country is the so-called Labor Conscription Law,
which has been put into effect in combination with a law for
"expropriating the surplus land of individuals who can not
cultivate it themselves." To quote from Mr. Vladimiroff's
exposition of this experiment in State Socialism, in Current
History:
"The law provides that all Bulgarian citizens of both sexes,
who have completed, the men twenty, the women eighteen years
of age, are subject to obligatory labor. Men will work sixteen
and women ten months. No substitutes are allowed, but every-
body who is not physically or mentally incapable must do his bit
of work. For religious reasons, which prescribe the seclusion of
Mohammedan women, the latter are exempt from this oliliga-
tory labor. The conscripted persons will be put to work upon
tasks for which they are fit, and part of their time of service
will be de\oted to mental and manual training. For this pur-
pose, schools, workshops, etc., will be provided.
"As stated in the preamble of the law, the aim of this obligatory
labor is:
"1. To organize and utilize the social forces in order to
increase production and general welfare;
"2. To stimulate in all citizens, irrespective of their social
and material condition, devotion to public things and love for
physical labor;
"3. To elevate the people morally and economically by cul-
tivating among the citizens the sentiment of duty to themselves
and society, and by teachmg them rational methods of work
in all the domains of national economy.
"This labor conscription, as well as the project of expropriating
the surplus land of individuals who can not cultivate it them-
selves, is dictated not only by the necessity of increasing pro-
duction, but also by that of pi'oviding (he many thousands of
refugees with homesteads and land. Owing to the cession of
eastern and western Thrace to Greece, of Macedonia (o Serbia
aiul Greece, and of Dobrudja to Roumania, thousands of Bul-
garians have been forced to abandon their homes and seek refuge
in Bulgaria. The number of (licse unforlunafe exiles may be
safely ostinuited at b('tween 2.")(),000 and 300,000. The Bul-
garian Government has done and is doing what it can for their
scUlemenl, and the above-mentioned measures aim (o effect
this setllement wilh as little dislurbance of the economic life
of the country as possible."
In spile of these economic innovations, which have been
o|)i)osed both inside and outside of the nation as "pure Bol-
shevism," Bulgaria .shares with Turkey the distinction of being
one of the two nations of the defeated alliance which retain their
monarchical system practically unaltered by the war. The pro-
Gorman Czar, Ferdiiumd, resigned when it became apparent that
lie had l)acked the losing faction, and his s(m, Boris, the present
Czar, is said to be somewhat more democratically inclined.
20
21
The New Kingdom of Greece
A GREECE GREATER than any the world has known
since the long-past days of its great glory, shortly
Iiefore the birth of Christ, emerges from the war of
191-1. The kingdom's recent increase, in territory and prestige,
is somewhat contingent, however, upon the future attitude
of ex-King Constautine, just returned to his country from exile.
The national election, which repudiated Venizelos and favored
the return of the ex-King, came as a great shock to most of the
AUied friends of the kingdom, who look upon Constantine and
his supporters as pro-German, and as he returns to power, pro-
testing his desire to show himself a good friend to the Allies,
the Allies, and especially England, raise a chorus of regret over
the departure of the ex-Premier, Eleutherios Venizelos. "There
was once a great sculptor," says The Outlook (London), "whom
the whim of a tjTant condemned to model a statue in snow."
The comparison continues, with several side-lights on the recent
history of the kingdom:
"Something of that tragic contrast between the skill of the
artificer and the rottenness of the material is felt when we
contemplate the life-work of Venizelos. Twice he has been
rewarded with the foulest ingratitude for great services rendered.
Eight years ago he raised Greece from the position of a petty
and insecure Power to that of a considerable kingdom. As his
guerdon he was first thwarted and then dismissed by his king;
his policy was reversed, his adherents were persecuted and
murdered, and even his own life was in danger. Toward the
close of the war a turn of fortune placed him again in power;
and his skilful diplomacj', taking the fullest advantage for his
country of the confidence he personally inspired in the Allies,
contrived to ^-in for Greece, which had acted against us during
the war, accessions of territory and influence which would
have been a more than sufficient payment for great ser\'ices
and sacrifices. Greece, at the time Venizelos first took charge
of its government, was almost on the point of dissolution;
he has given it all the potentialities, and some of the actuality,
of a Great Power. And now this great Minister has fallen
as the result of a popular vote. History, rich as it is in in-
stances of national ingratitude, hardly affords so flagrant an
example."
The history of Greece, however, presents several such ex-
amples, as most high-school students know. Miltiades, the
famous \-ictor at Marathon, was banished shortly after his
great achievement. Themistocles, who saved his country at
Salamis by "wooden walls," as he called the great fleet which
he forced his reluctant countrymen to build, was not only
banished, but declared a traitor. They were perhaps the two
most notable leaders of Greece's ancient period of glory and
power, and their fate naturally suggests comparison with that of
Venizelos, recently repudiated after an attempt at assassination
which was almost successful. It may be mentioned, however,
that most historians agree there was excellent reason for Greek
rescmtment in the ease of both of her two great ancient leaders
who fell upon evil times. It was said of them, as it has been
said of Venizelos, that they were great men, but ambitious and
unscrupulous.
According to the terms of the Near-Eastern settlement which
forms the basis of the accompanying map, the postwar Greece
includes a considerable amount of Thracian territory gained at
the expense of Bulgaria and Turkey, a large collection of islands
formerly Turkish property, practical sovereignty over a con-
siderable district of Asia Minor, and a claim to a section of the
Epiriis. This claim seems in a fair way to bo allowed, through
arrangement with the Italian Government and Albania. The
present population of the kingdom, allowing for all increases, is,
according to the editor of the New York Atlantis, a Greek <laiiy,
approximately 7,fK)0,rX)(). The fitatesmen's Year-Hook, basing its
computation on later figures, estimates that "Greater Greece
will 1)0 inhabited by 6,000,000 Greeks and about 2,000,000
non-Greek people, 1,000,000 of whom live in SmjTna and its
hinterland."
Both population and area had been greatly increased just
before the launching of the Great War of 1914. The area in
1910, as presented in figures collected by the Matthews-Northrup
Map Works, was 2.5,014 square mUeS, the population 2,76.5,000.
In 1913, with the new territories gained by the Balkan wars,
the country had a territorial extent of 41,9.33 square miles and
a population of 4,821,300. With regard to racial distribution,
says a recent handbook entitled "Greece, with the Cyelades and
Northern Sporades," issued by the Historical Section of the
British Foreign Office, there were only 250,000 Greeks in the
1,140,000 population taken over in Macedonia. The other
new territories, however, show a substantial preponderance of
Greek nationals. "In the case of the Greeks, even more than
that of any other Balkan nation, it is impossible to understand
modern claims and inspirations except in relation to ancient
and medieval history," says this British handbook, and thus
invokes the nation's splendid past:
"There is no doubt that the traditions of ancient and medieval
glory have been the chief inspiration not only of the Greeks
themselves, but also of the foreign Philhellenes who have been
willing in more than one crisis to give their lives for Greece.
Such devotion must be regarded as an acknowledgment of the
incalculable debt of the civilized world to the art and literature,
the thought and polities of ancient Greece.
During the period of their highest and most characteristic
development, from the sixth to the fourth centiu-y, b. c, the
Greek people occupied not only the present kingdoms of Greece
and the JSgean Islands, but also the whole western coast of Asia
Minor; their colonies were placed on aU the most important
sites in Sicily and South Italy, the south of France, in the
Khalkidike, the Dardanelles and Bosporus, and the Black Sea;
while in Cyprus and the north of Africa they held their own
against Phenieian rivals
"The conquests of Alexander the Great made Greek language
and ideas the common heritage of the ci^-ilized world. But
under his successors, and also under the Roman Empire, the
political independence of Greece disappeared, to be replaced by
a general respect for Greece, and above all for Athens, as the
origin and center of intellectual activity and progress. The
Byzantine Empire, of which Greece naturally formed a part,
showed a curious blend of Oriental, Greek, and Roman in-
fluences. Byzantium itself was a colony of the Greek city of
Megara; its change of name to Constantinople has never been
more than partially accepted.
"The claim sometimes made for the present Greek kingdom
to be the successor of the Byzantine Empire depends almost
entirely on language and sentiment; but its existence as a
factor in modern politics is shown by the fact that the now
exiled King claims the title of Constantine XII; and an element
in his popularity was the traditional prophecy that as a Con-
stantine had lost Constantinople for the Greeks, another Con-
stantine should win it back."
King Constantine's war with the Turks, conducted through
the greater part of the year 1921, resulted in the establishment
of a Greek lino far to the eastward of the territory allotted to the
kingdom by the Sevres Treaty. The Greeks, however, failed
in their attempt to take Angora, capital of the "Young Turks"
party, and predominant neutral opinion called the struggle
a draw. As for the future, says the London Daily Telegraph:
It may have many things in reserve, and we need not suppose
that the Greeks have definitely abandoned the idea of one day
restoring the Byzantine Empire in the city of Constantine the
Cireat. The Hellenic monarch and his subjects may be justly
proud of having faced and defeated their hereditary enemies in
the cradle of their race, and driven them in retreat from the
Mediterranean littoral to the Anatolian strongholds. However,
Constantinoph- and the Straits must remain under international
guarantee and guardianship, and cannot bo subject to the for-
tune of war.
22
^^ bH »< t/j kH
e©@© 0
23
The New Italy
ITALY HAS BEEN RAISED by the various peace treaties,
as has her ancient rival and neighbor, Greece, nearer to
the power and prestige of classical times than she has been
since the early years of the Christian era. The poet-Captain
d'Annunzio, before he was ousted from Fiume, dreamed for the
nation a complete return to the old glory, "when to be a simple
Roman was greater than to be a northern king," but the major-
ity of Italian statesmen agree with the world at large that
Italy's recent expansion has been as considerable as she could
reasonabl.v have expected. As for d'Annunzio's attempt to
hold Fiume against both the wills of his own government and
of the other Allies, "it actually had some effect in revising the
terms of the Peace Treaty," says the San Francisco Bulletin,
speaking for a consideralile portion of the press who find the
romantic captain's adventure not altogether a farce. "His
apparent defeat may well be construed as a ^dctory."
The population of the kingdom, according to figures collected
by the ISIatthews-Xorthrup Map Works, has been increased
by about 1,500,000 through the addition of the recently acquired
territories shown on the accompanj-ing map. "The Statesman's
Year-Book" for 1921 places the 1920 population of the old
Kingdom of Italy at 36,099,657, an increase from 34,671,377
in 1911, so that the recent additions bring the present total up
to more than 37,500,000. Of the total increase brought by
recent annexations, according to a handbook prepared under the
direction of the Historical Section of the British Foreign Office,
"Trentino and Alto Adige" (London), the section numbered
"1" on the accompanying map contributed the larger part.
In 1910, says the British authority, the total population of this
district was 616,856. "The population of Italy is in general
perfectly homogeneous," notes "The Statesman's Year-Book,"
but the British handbook referred to asserts that this is not the
case in the territory known as Trentino and Alto Adige. Thus,
altho the Trentino "may be regarded as wholly Italian or at
least Romance, the Alto Adige is, with certain exceptions, almost
solidly German. The Austrian census of 1910 shows the popu-
lation of this region as consisting of 215,796 Germans, 22,500
Italians and Ladins, and 1,643 persons of other nationality.
This gives a proportion of Italians of under 8 per cent., or, if we
except the Enneberg district, where Ladins are in an over-
whelming majority, only 5 per cent. This is certainly an under-
estimate, tho the Italian estimate of 25 per cent, is also an
exaggeration." The Ladins mentioned above as sharing this
district with the Italians are a related race of mixed Latin
descent "speaking the Romansch dialect," says the International
Encyclopedia.
Tho annexation of this northern territory by Italy is defended
on the grcnind that Austrian rule brought economic ruin to th«
country. The situation under Austria, and the possibilities in
case customs barriers and other difficulties are removed, are
treated in those paragraphs in "Trentino and Alto Adige":
"The Austrian Government undoubttsdiy decided to regard
the Trentino as a military zone, and has displayed indift'crcncc
and even active hostility to its development. Tho aulhorilit.s
have consistently opposi^d the development of communications
■with Italy and eonsint(,'d with tho greatest reluctance to the
maintenance of those that exist. They have stopt (he convenient
and long-cstal)lished practise of sending ilalian cattle to the
Trentino pastures during the summer months; they have re-
fused to consent to the supply of electric power to Italy; and
in cases too numerous to specify they have placed ol)s(acles
in the way of the d('Velopment of trade. There can l)e little
doubt that if the Trentino were freed from Austrian control its
prosperity would greatly increase. The economic future of tho
region must principally depend on tho utilization of its water-
power."
This "wliite coal," as several Kalian economists speak of
their water-power, i^counted upon as the one groat factor certain
to raise Italy to high rank among the manufacturing nations.
The other annexed territories, the Gorizia Carso, Istria, and
Dalmatia, offer two other "wide spheres of activity — the sea
and stone-quarrying," a writer points out in The Anglo-Italian
Renew (London). The Romans worked the quarries of Xa-
bresina, Pola, and the Island of Brazza, near Spalato. As for the
maritime advantages gained with the new littoral. Current
History (New York) recalls that "before the war Trieste was
the great trading center of the Adriatic and the main artery
through which the markets of Vienna, Budapest, and Prague
received the bulk of their imports. In 1913 more than 14,000
vessels and nearly 5,000,000 tons of freight used its harbor."
It was after mention of these economic advantages that the
government leader in the Italian Chamber recently declared:
"Signor Giolitti has the merit of concluding ... a peace . . .
which has obtained for Italy all that belongs to it."
On the historical grounds so eloquently invoked by d'An-
nunzio, however, the present kingdom might lay claim to most
of Europe, including England and Wales. "In ancient times,"
to translate from "L'ltalia," by Ernest Hatch Wilkins and
Antonio Mermarioni, a volume recentlj^ issued by the University
of Chicago Press, "the city of Rome, center of an extraordinary
force bent on conquest and organization, extended its dominion
first over the neighboring populations, then throughout the
peninsula, and later through almost all the rest of the known
world." Roman history, with its record of Roman martial
grandeur, of Roman laws which are now the basis of all the legal
systems governing the civilized world, of Roman art, literature,
and architecture, is as much the heritage of every European and
American schoolboy as is the history of his own land. The
waves of "barbarians" from the north and east, which suc-
cessively overran the country, were slowly absorbed by the native
population, still notable for many of the old Latin characteris-
tics. "Most genealogists trace the origin of the reigning house
to a German Count Berthold," notes "The Statesman's Year-
Book," "who, in the eleventh century, established himself on the
western slope of the Alps between Mont Blanc and Lake Leman."
The slow amalgamation of the various semi-independent
principalities, kingdoms, duchies, and Papal States since that
time reached a climax in February, 1861, when the first Italian
Parliament assembled and declared (on March 17), Vittorio
Emmanuel King of Italy. The remaining part of the Papal
States, which had been occupied by an Italian army in
1870, after the withdrawal of the French garrison, was annexed
to the kingdom by a plebiscite on October 7 of the same year.
Since this loss of his temporal power the Pope has remained a
self-sentenced prisoner in tho Vatican.
In all the long history of Italy, which has been for the most
part a history of wars of conquest or defense, Ouglielmo Ferrero,
the Italian historian, finds few episodes more dramatic than the
breaking of the Italian lines around Caporetto late in 1917. To
translate from his account in La Revue dc Gcnhve (Geneva):
"Caporetto remains a huge legtmd. Tho treason of tho
soldiers, of which so much has been said, never existed. The
disintegration of the army by defeatist jiropaganda is a fantastic
invention. ... It was a battle lost by certain errors of geuci-nl-
ship which might have been avoid(^d, but which were niithir
more grave nor more unusual than many other errors committed
by many other generals in the course of the World War."
Nevertheless, "Caporetto saved us," ho says and continues:
"All history, since the Cimbri and Teutons, i)rovis that it is
V(yry easy for an army to enter tho Valley of tlu; ]'o, l)ut very
dinicult to K(!t out of it. The Valley of the Po is a sort of mous(--
traj); unfortunate is the army which I'niers there, guided liy
victory, and finds a serious resistance. Tl ends by being thrown
against the mountains and cnisht. . . . Tlie foresight of the
historian was verified to the letter: The Austrian army whicli
entered Ilal\' in 1917 never succeeded in getting out."
24
ITALY
Territory before the war
Additions according to
peace terms . . . ,
DcdBions by Peace Treaty
(V) Trentino to Italy from Austria.
(D Gorizia and Istria, to Italy
from Austria.
(3) Fiume, independent state.
0 Parlor the Islands off Dalmatia
to Italy from Austria-Hun-
gary.
(5) Zara, to Italy from Austria.
(fi) Saseno Island, to Italy.
(7) Rhodes, occupied by Italy,
plebiscite after 15 years.
^, OO^VRIGHT 1921, BY FUNK & WA0NALL8 COMPANy , NEW YORK
THE MATTMEwa-HORTMRUP WORKB, euFfALO, M. Y.
Longitude East from Greenwich 16"
25
The New and Greater Roumania
ROUIMANIA WENT INTO THE WAR shaped very
much like an old boot, with a remarkably thin ankle sec-
tion, and emerged a rounded-out, compact, roughly circu-
lar nation of nearly three times its former size. Its area, in 1914,
was 53,489 square mUes. With the recent additions of Transyl-
vania, Buko\'ina and Bessarabia, it now includes, according to
estimates made by the map experts of the Matthews-Northrup
Works, 122,282 square miles of territory. Its population has
been increased, by the same recent treaties which enlarged its
geographical domain, from 7,771,341 to 17,393,149. Roumania
is one country, at least, which seems to be pretty well satisfied
by the outcome of the war. "We have achieved what was our
dream for more than a thousand years," said the Roumanian
Foreign Minister, Take Joneseu, in a recent speech in London,
as quoted by the London Telegraph. "We are now in a position
to show whether we are worthy or not of the sacrifices that have
been made for us."
The present kingdom of Roumania, as may be seen by compar-
ing the latest map, printed on the opposite page, with the his-
torical records cited by a writer in the current edition of the
Encyclopedia Britannica, includes practically the same territory
which once constituted the old Roman pro-\ ince of Daeia, con-
quered by Trajan's legions early in the Christian era. The land
was thoroughly Romanized in the following centuries, and the
Roumanian of to-day is considered by many authorities to be a
direct descendant of the old Roman conquerors and colonizers.
The language of the peasants, notes a philological expert writing
in the Encyclopedia Britannica, "represents the original rustic
Latin of the Roman provincials in Moesia and Dacia, as modi-
fied by centuries of alien rule. . . . Some words retain unaltered
the forms under which they were used by VergO and Cicero."
The state of Roumania as it existed prior to the war, Prof.
Basil Stoica, a Commissioner of the Roumanian Government in
New York, recalled in a recent article in the New York Tribune,
was formed in 1859, by the union of Moldavia and Wallachia,
which had both existed as consolidated states since the early
twelfth centurj', and were from the beginning of the sixteenth
down to their union autonomous principalities under Turkish
suzerainty. The pressure of the Magyars on the west, of the
Muscovites on the northeast, and of the Turks on the south, prest
the kingdom into the peculiar shape which it presented at the
beginning of the war. Of the large territories which it has an-
nexed, Transylvania is generally admitted to be preponderantly
Roumanian in nationality. The annexation of Bessarabia, which
formerly belonged to Russia, has been attacked by e.x-Premier
Kerensky and others as a plain theft of Russian territory. Pro-
fessor Stoica, answering this contention in a booklet called
"Bessarabia" (George H. Doran Company), says that Bessara-
bia was ceded to Russia by the Turks in 1812, when, "save for tho
southeastern corner of tho province, the population was every-
where purely Roumanian," and only tho fringe along the sea
was in reality a Turkish province. The two Turkish commission-
ers were afterward beheaded for giving up this territory, which
was not theirs to give, says Profes.sor Stoica, and Russia has held
it by force ever since. Answering the objection that " the present
population of Bessarabia is about 2,500,000 and the Moldavian
part of it constitutes less than .50 per cent.," the Professor writes
in a letter to the New York Tribune:
"Indeed, according to the official Russian statistics of 1897,
the Roumanians form 48 per cent, of the Bossarabian population;
the Russians and Ulcrainians together, 19 per ecwit.; Jews, 11
per cent.; Bulgarians, 5 per cent.; Germans, 3 per cent.; the
remainder being small groups of Moslem colonists. Even accept,-
ing these data as correct, wliicli they are not, by what right
would 19 per ctmt. Russians and Ulvrainians (by the way, two
distinct nationalities, who hate one anothiT cordially) overrule
the will of 48 per cent.? But the Russian Minister of P^ducation,
Casso, says in his book, ' Russia on the Danube ' : ' The informa-
tion received by the central departments on Bessaraljia is not
correct. . . . The Russian Year-Book of 1910, published by
the Central Committee on Statistics of the Department of the
Interior, in enumerating the nationalities of Bessarabia, does
not even mention the Molda\dan nation, altho this nation forms
more than half of the province's population.' "
Ukrainia, to the northward, which at first objected to the
Roumanian annexation of Bessarabia, on July 31, 1920, formally
accepted the new arrangement and sent a consul to Klishinef .
The present government of Roumania is headed by King
Ferdinand I., nephew of the late King Carol, whom he succeeded
on October 11, 1914. A Constituent Assembly, elected early
last summer, has had its hands fuU unifying the different con-
stitutions of the Old Kingdom, Bessarabia, Bukovina, and
Transylvania. The ethnographical map included in Professor
Stoica's booklet on Bessarabia shows a considerable colony of
Hungarians in the southeastern corner of Transylvania, now the
geographical center of the new kingdom, and colonies of Germans,
Bulgars,,and Turks along the eastern Black Sea littoral. The
mixture is further complicated by strains which are not recorded
in official reports but which, nevertheless, play an important
part in the life of the nation. According to a writer on this phase
of Roumania in "The Statesman's Year Book":
"Among Roumanians there are racial differences of which the
census returns take no account. In Central Moldavia and
East Transylvania there are thousands of inhabitants of ISIagj'ar
descent (Changer and Szeklers); in South Transylvania and in
the Banat there are thousands of Saxons and Swabes. In Buko-
vina and Bessarabia there are some German and Ruthenian
colonies. The communes along the Danube have some inhabi-
tants of Bulgarian and Serbian origin; in the Dobrudja there
are many foreign elements — Bulgars, Russians, Germans, but
the greatest part of them are Turks and Tartars."
There are some three hundred thousand Jews in the country,
according to figures collected by the Encyclopedia Britamiica.
They constitute about one-twentieth of the entire population,
said to be "a larger proportion than in any other country."
Nearly 80 per cent, of the entire Roumanian population are
engaged in agriculture. In 1900 the country was third, after the
United States and Russia, in the production of grain. Here, as in
the neighboring agricultural country of Bulgaria, agrarian prob-
lems are receiving the attention of the Government. Recently, we
are told by a writer in Current History (New York), a Committee
on Agrarian Reforms has been making progress with "a com-
prehensive scheme for distributing land to the peasantry."
Dealing with the measure in detail, tho writer thus explains its
salient provisions:
"The budget for the fiscal year 1920-21 carried an appropria/-
tion of 90,900,000 lei for this purpose. The land law, the foun-
datioTis of which were laid in 1917, provides for the (^xpropria-
tion of all landed property over 500 hectares of indi\i(lual hold-
ing in the Old Kingdom and over 100 hectares in Bessarabia,
Bukovina, and TraTisylvania. There is, however, an influential
p:i'()U[) headed by Professor lorga and tho former Ministers, Dr.
Vaida, Lupu and MUialaclie, to reduce the maximuni in Rou-
mania proi)er also to 100 hectares.
"The expropriation m(>asures apply in the first place to estates
held in mortmain, and the rich holdings of tho Orthodox (^hurch
have already been largel.v broken up. Aj^plieation of tlie law
meets with determined oi)i)osition on tho part of some of the
Magyar churches in Transylvania, whose syiniiathizors exert
themselves abroad to represent the expropriation proceedings
being directed specifically against tho Magyars — -notwithstand-
ing the fact that all land taken is paid for in full on tho basis
of pre-war \ahu^s, and that tho law is ajipliod to tlu^ Roumanian
Church with equal vigor. The i)easaTitry pays ()5 per cent, of
the <^\propriati(m price, tho remaining 35 per cent, being borne
by the state. A period of forty-five y('ars is allowed for pay-
ment. A sjiecial 'law of jjastures' encourages cattlo-raising on
expropriated areas, an industry much needed."
26
27
The Waning Turkish Crescent
««fT-^HE LAST CRUSADE," as a British author char-
I acterizes that part of the world-war which centered
M around the Turkish Empire, has made real one of the
most ancient dreams of Christian Europe. The Turk has finally
been driven out of the holy places of the East. His power is
broken, also, in that "cradle of civilization" which many
anthropologists place between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers,
in Christian Armenia, where he massacred and opprest, in
Bagdad of the "Thousand and One Nights," even in Mekka,
shrine of the Mohammedan world. The present Turkish nation
is confined to the peninsula of Asia Minor, with a few square
miles of European territory around Constantinople. Even the
control of the Straits is taken away, to be placed in the hands of a
neutral commission representing the League of Nations. Inside
its present ethnographic boundary, the realm of the Sublime
Porte, no longer literally worthy of the name "Turkish Empire,"
is suffering from such modem disturbances as Feminism, Bol-
shevism, and a particularly violent form of new democracy.
This last great dismemberment of an empire once comparable
in wealth, in lu.vury, and in power to the Roman Empire of the
earlj- Christian era, means the loss to Turkey of nearly three-
fourths of its territory and more than half its population.
Before the war, according to figures presented in "The
Statesman's Year-Book," the population was 20,973,000, dis-
tributed over an empire of 613,724 square miles. The area of
the new Turkey, according to the same authority, is 174,900
square miles, and the population about 8,000,000. England,
France, Italy and Greece profit by this "economic partition,"
as the New York Times calls it. America refused the job of
reorganizing the Near East, remarks The Times, speaking for
several champions of self-determination who see little good in
the "partition of the spoils of war" among Britain, France,
Italy and Greece. "But citizens of a nation which had the
opportunity to reorganize the country pretty much as it pleased
can hardly avert the moral eye if others take up the work after
our refusal. We might have done it better, but we would not
do it at all. British, French and Italian diplomats are going
about it in the only way they know." An answer to these and
harsher criticisms is supplied by Sirdar Ikbal Ali Shah, in The
Contemporary Review (London). To turn these countries over
on a basis of strict self-determination, he objects, "would not
only give rise to local anarchy, liut would constitute a direct
challenge to a Bolshevik overflow from Persia. . . . To one who
knows the East the chaos and disaster that would spread from
British withdrawal would be all too plain." The passing of the
Turk has not, in the view of most English, French and Italian
authorities, made the dismembered portions of Turkey safe for
democracy.
" 'Turkey' is, in a way, a misnomer," says a contemporary
historian, discussing the former empire in one of the series of
handbooks prepared under the direction of the British Foreign
Office:
"Tlic old Turkey was not a coun(ry inhaliited mainly by
Turks, as Italy is inhabited by Italians, England by Englishmen,
Spain by Spaniards, etc. As -Austria' used to connote a
congeries of non-Austrian races held together l)y a dynastic
system, so Turkey, or tlie Ottoman Ijiiii)ire, stood for a number
of non-Turkish races held togetlur by the militarist and theo-
cratic dynastic system of the Ottoman Sultanate. The Turkish
language ha,s no word for 'Turkey,' which would properly hv
Turkestan, as Arabistan stands for Arabia. The Young Turks
have endeavored to po[)ulari/.e the Le\aiitim' form, i. e., 'Turkia.'
"The Turks, or Turanians, coming originally from Mongolia,
spread westward through Turk<stan and Nortli Persia, until,
in the tenth century, the Seljuk Turks entered Asia Minor,
already largely Mohammedan, as an organized military force
such as had been unknown for centuries in thos«^ regions, and
rapidly absorbed iind moldiil Phrygians, Cappadocians, Cili-
cians, and other indigenous elements into a Turki and Islamic
state. In tne early part of the thirteenth century the Mongol
invasion, under Genghis Khan, destroyed the vitality of the
Seljuk Turks, who, later on in the same century, welcomed the
assistance of the new Turanian arrivals, the Ottoman Turks
of some 4(30 tents."
Conquest followed conquest. Constantinople feU to Moham-
med II. in 14.53. Hungary was conquered in 1.526, Vienna was
besieged in 1529, and a Turkish admiral laid siege to Malta in
1565. Failure in these two latter enterprises indicated the high-
water mark of Turkish progress westward. In Asia Sultan
Murad III. conquered a part of Persia in 1.586, and in 1638
Murad IV. effected the conquest of Bagdad and Lower Mesopo-
tamia. "The kernel of the military system which enabled
Turkey to effect the rapid conquest," says the writer, was —
"The Corps of Janissaries, composed of forcibly Islamized
Christians, and raised by 'the human tribute' levied by press
gangs every five years from the newly acquired Christian
territories. They gradually acquired the position of a privileged
and all-powerful military caste, who were constantly clamoring
for more pay and favors, or to be led on fresh expeditions likely
to satisfy their cravings for booty. While they thus extended
the limits of Turkey's dominions, their intrigues and revolts at
Constantinople, where they constituted a pretorian guard
weakened the Empire at its heart's center. They were mixed
up in the seraglio intrigues and factions, which brought about
frequent changes of Sultan in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries."
The huge empire crumbled under attacks from without and
lu.xury and corruption within. In modern times it became
little more than a pawn in the diplomacy of Europe, specifically
in the struggle of Russia, Germany, and Great Britain for the
economic resources of the East. The underlying ideas which
drove the Young Turks to side with Germany against England
Russia and France are set forth in a circular sent out by them
on the day following the declaration of war between Turkey and
the Triple Entente. It referred to Russia's exprest resolve to
destroy Turkey, and pointed out the "grabbing policy" of
England and France in India, Egypt, Tunis, Algeria and
Morocco. The old religious fervor of the time of the Crusades
appears in the conclusion of this manifesto: "Our religious
principles urge us to free the Mohammedan world from the
power of the unbelievers and to gi\'e independence to the fol-
lowers of Mohammed."
Donald Maxwell, in "The Last Crusade" (John Lane), recalls
the old saying, "wherever the Turk rides nothing will grow."
The ^vriter sums up, in this way, a very general criticism of
Turkish rule:
"You may travel up and down the country and look in vain
for one good thing that the Turk has done, one trace of art,
one piece of architecture, one contribution in any way to science
or knowledge. . . . The Turk cuts down, but never plants.
The great irrigation works which made Mesopotamia the
granar.\' of the ancient world were not allowed to decay until
the Turk came. The blight of Turkish rule d(\scended like a
destroying plague. If a man by j)riva(e enterprise did something
to irrigate his lunil and improve his crops, the Turk came down
on him like a wolf on the fold as a collector of taxes, so that the
last state of that man was worse than the first and nobody
dared to follow his example."
A Nationalist, anti-Allied revolt, centering at Angora, Ana-
tolia, under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal, followed the
Turkish Government's signature of the Peace Treaty. Shortly
afterward the Arabs rose against the British and the French, the
Greeks attacked the Turk Nationalists, and the Nationalists
attacked the British. These various difficulties, most of which
have either been settled or bid fair to be settled by compromises,
are overshadowed, in (he o]iinion of most observers, by the
menace of the Russian Bolsheviki, who control Armenia and
are in alliance with the Turkish Nationalists.
28
29
The New Transcaucasian Republics
THREE NATIONS liave arisen out of that "Federal
Democratic Republic of Transcaucasia" which was
formed with such high hopes ir. November, 1917, and
their recent history is the historj', in miniature, of Russia.
Armenia is a little Russia, with Turkish complications. Azer-
baijan consists of a large population of Tartar peasants controlled
by a few Russian and Ai-menian Bolsheviki, much after the
manner made familiar in Moscow. Georgia, the last of the
three to turn Bolshevik, upbraids the Allies for their perfidy
in a way that echoes Trotzky and LenLne. Paxton Hibben,
F.R.G.S., late captain in the United States Military Commission
to Armenia, now connected -with the Near East Relief, agrees
to the extent of blaming "the intrigues and exploitation of the
Great Powers" for the disappearance of "the last hold of the
anti-Bolshe^dki between India and the Mediterranean and be-
tween the White Sea and the Persian Gulf." "The present
weakness of Armenia is due very largely to the British. They
stript her fortresses of artillery in order to strengthen
Denikin — who, by the way, always asserted the Russian
claim to its old Caucasian provinces," he writes, in. The World
To-morrow (New York).
As neither the League of Nations nor any of the Entente gov-
ernments can undertake a mandate for Turkish Armenia, notes
"The Statesman's Year-Book," "the country is left to its own
resources." By the end of 1921, the territory was practically
di\'ided between the Turks and the Russians, excepting only the
Zangezur district, which had not been occupied. According to
Russian official statistics published at the beginning of 1917, the
population of the Republic amounted to 2,159,000, of whom 66
per cent, were Christians and about 31 per cent. Mohammedans.
Since 1917, owing to the war, part of the Mohammedan popular
tion has left and some 300,000 Armenians have returned. The
total present population of united Armenia "in the widest extent
claimed," has been estimated by "The Statesman's Year-Book"
at about 8,000,000. The area, as constituted by the Treaty of
Se\Tes and as delimited by ex-President Wilson of the United States,
is estimated by the same authority at about 80,000 square miles.
Since 1914, according to a memorandum presented to Secretary
of State Hughes by The American Committee for the Indepen-
dence of Armenia, "the Turks have wiped out some 1,000,000
men, women and children ■nath brutality unexampled in history."
Documents produced in Berlin at the trial of a young Armenian,
who was accused and acquitted of the murder of Talaat Pasha, a
former leader of the Young Turks, are held to prove that "The
heads of the Turkish Government at Constantinople were directly
responsible for converting the so-called 'deportations' into a
shambles." So writes George R. ^Montgomery, director of the
Armenian-America Society in The Current History Magazine, New
York. He presents signed orders for the massacre of men, women
and children, and comments:
"Heretofore there have been defenders of the Ottomans who
held that the massacres were not a plan of the Government, but
were due to the lirutality of those who carried out the deportation
instructions. At the trial of Teilirian th(!ro weroj)laeed in evi-
dence fac-similcs and translations of signed orders from Talaat —
letters and ciplier telegrams which prove that the instructions to
massacre origiTiated in Constantinople. As Aleppo was the head-
quarters of the "Deportation Cornraittce," the capture of Aleppo
by the British made possible the securing of these official docu-
ments from the archives. This evidence directly linking the mur-
dered Talaat with tlie inhuman deeds that were covered by the
general term "deportation" was irrefutable and overwhelming.
The documents cstal)lislK)(l once and for all the fact that the pur-
pose of the Turkish authorities was not deportation but amii-
nilation."
The Soviet Republic of Azerbaijan has a population, "based
on defective Russian statistics," says "The Statesman's Year-
Book." estimated at 4,615,000. of whom 3,482,000 arc Tartars,
795,000 Armenians, and 26,580 Georgians, and the area is stated
to be about 40,000 square miles. The oil-wells around Baku
form the "economic motive" back of most of the new country's
internal and external struggles. Georgia is credited with an area
of 35,500 square miles, and a population, according to statistics
for 1915, of 3,176,156. About 90 per cent, of the population is
engaged in agriculture, but methods are said to be primitive.
The principal crop is corn. The land of the great landowners,
following the elevation to power of the Social Democratic party,
has been distributed among the peasants.
"The Georgians claim that they first appear in authentic
history in the time of Alexander the Great," says a writer in
"The Statesman's Year-Book, "epitomizing the present repub-
lic's long and eventful history:
"But on Alexander's death (323 B.C.), the Georgians regained
their independence. In 1801 the Russian Emperor Alexander I.
annexed the Kingdom of Georgia. When the Bolshevist regime
was set up in Russia the Georgians, together ■with the Tartars
and Armenians, formed the Transcaucasian Republic. Georgia
was eventually forced to form a separate State, and on May 26,
1918, its independence was proclaimed in Tifhs by the represen-
tative organ, the National Council, elected by the National
Assembly of Georgia on November 22, 1917. The Act of Inde-
pendence of Georgia was approved, confirmed and ratified on
March 12, 1919, by the Constituent Assembly, elected according
to the electoral system of direct, equal, uni^'ersal, secret and
proportional voting of citizens of both sexes. The Government
received ie jure recognition by the Allies on January 27, 1921."
"The Caucasus range is one of the most remarkable of all
geological phenomena," writes William Eleroy Curtis in "Around
the Black Sea" (Hodder & Stoughton), taking up some of the
backgrounds of the new nations:
"It is the- boundary between Europe and Asia, and an almost
Impenetrable wall wliich can be crossed by vehicles or hoi semen
in only two places, known as the Dariel and the Manisson passes.
From the beginning of history untU the Middle Ages it was the
boundary of the world. Beyond, all was mystery and fable, and
for that reason the ancients made the Caucasus the scene of much
mythological activity and the home of many marvels. They
called the country Colchis, and it was there that Jason and
the Argonauts found the Golden Fleece. Prometheus was
chained to one of the peaks by the gods to punish him for giving
fire to the mortals. . . . The first Europeans to find their way
through the rocky labyrinths were Greek and Genoese traders,
who crawled through the canons on foot in the Middle Ages in
search of customers."
"Armenia is perhaps the oldest of all the Christian countries
in the world," says the writer, in a chapter headed "The Arme-
nians and Their Persecution." "It was a powerful nation at the
advent of Christ, altho at different periods in its history it was
occupied by the Persians under Cyrus, the Macedonians under
Alexander the Great, and the Romans under the Ciesars."
Trebizond was founded some years before the founding of Rome.
There is a legend that —
"One of the early kings of Armenia, having heard of the
teacliings of Jesus and his persecution by the Jews, sent him a
letter by a distinguished envoy offering him the hospitality of
Armenia and the \videst freedom in carrying on his work. The
Armenians have had a stormy time in defense of their religion
ever since. Theological controversies began early among them,
and persecution has been relentless."
In spite of their persecution, the Armenians, as did the almost
equally persecuted Jews, prospered. At least, says the writer,
who visited the country a few years before the Great War:
"The Armenians are the big dealers, the bankers, the money-
lenders, and, like most prosperous people, are the object of
jealousy and resentment. I was told that when an Armenian
loans money ho expects to have it rei)aid. His business roputar-
tion is fine, but the people who owe him money hate him. All
the Armenians are thrifty, industrious, and temperate, and do
not waste their substance in riotous living."
30
31
The New Republic of Finland
THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES have been pre-
sented by the fortunes of war with a new neighbor of
allied culture, almost as large as Sweden and considera-
bly larger than the smaUer partner, Norway. The new Republic,
Finland, lately detached with some difficulty from northwestern
Russia, is credited with 145,686 square miles of area and a
population of about 3,400,000. These figures, which are pre-
sented by The Finland Review (New York), and practically
confirmed by "The Statesman's Year-Book." represent an area
about the size of Montana and a population approximately equal
to that of Massachusetts. Some 17,000 square miles of the new
republic (10.83 per cent, of the whole area) consist !of numerous
little lakes and ponds, which suggested the ancient name of
"Fenland," modified into the "Finland" of to-day.
Sweden, the central as well as the largest and most powerful
member of the trinity of northern countries, has been especially
active in spreading its culture throughout Finland. "In America
the Finns are often called Scandinavians," observes J. J. Seder-
holm, in a pamphlet entitled "The Aland Question from a
Swedi-sh-Finlander's Point of View," issued at Helsingfors by
the Uovernment Printing-Office. "Professor Ripley, in his great
anthropological handbook, refers Scandinavians and Finns alike
to the same 'Nordic' race." Both Swedish and Finnish are
official languages throughout the Republic. Of the total popula-
tion, 87.73 per cent, speak Finni.sh, according to government
figures, as against 11.79 per cent, who speak Swedish.
A recent monograph, "The Republic of Finland," issued by the
Central Statistical Bureau of Helsingfors, traces the Swedish
colonization of the country back to the first centuries a.d. The
Finns, who amalgamated with the Swedes to form the present
population, came from the eastward. Ethnologists class them
with the Hungarians. They are "a strong, hardy race of low
stature, with almost round heads, low foreheads, flat features,
and somewhat brownish complexions," according to an ethnolo-
gist writing in the "Encyclopedia Britannica." "Many of their
physical and moral characteristics they have in common with the
so-called Mongolian race, to which they are no doubt ethnically,
if not also linguistically, related." Whatever their original char-
acteristics, recent statistics .show that, in both stature and color-
ing, it is hard to distinguish between modern Finlanders of pure
Finnish, Swedish-Finnish, and pure Swedish descent. About 78
per cent, of the inhabitants of Finland, according to the mono-
graph on "The Republic of Finland" quoted above, are blue-
eyed, and about .57 per cent. ar<^ light-haired. " In the latter part
of the thirteenth century," this authority proceeds, "when the
Finns were united politically to Sweden, the Finns had attained
almost the same degree of culture as the Swedes, and the union
with Sweden in no way implied thi! subjugation of an inferior
nation."
In the eighteenth century the troojjs of the Czar l'et(.'r the
Great penetrated the country again and again, devastating,
plundering, and burning in a reign of terror called by the people
of Finland "the Time of (Ircat Hate." Finally, in 1809, Finland
was forcibly annexed to Russia in a bondage which was ended
by the Russian Revolution of 1917. The bloody warfare which
followed between the so-called "White" and "Red" elements in
Finland was finally won by the "Whites," with (he assistance
of German troops.
Finland has been particularl.y fortunate in the outcome of her
border disputes with her neighbors. She inherited two disputes,
neither of which developed the bitterness such matters aroused
with most of the other ni^w nations, and both of the disijutes have
been decido^d in her favor. The Aland Island question, resulting
from th(! claims of both Sweden and Finland ou (In- group of
islands lying between the two countries at the <'iilraiice to llie
Gulf of Bothnia, is cited as an example of the definite accomplish-
ments of the League of Nations. A Commission, appointed by
the League and approved by the two powers concerned, went into
the matter, and the award was accepted by Sweden as well as
by Finland. An authoritative handbook on the Islands ("The
Aland Islands," Prepared under the Direction of the Historical
Section of the British Foreign Office, London), reaches the con-
clusion that, arguing from racial or economic ties, or "self-deter-
mination" bj' the islanders, there is no doubt that the archipelago
should have gone to Sweden. However, adds the writer:
" It appears that the Svecomen population in Finland, number-
ing some 400,000, objected to the separation. This is not sur-
prizing, for, tho the islanders form but an inconsiderable
accession to the Swedish hloc in the diet of Finland, the Swedish
vote would lose by their secession. It was also argued on the
Finnish side that to apply the doctrine of self-determination to
so small a district and to so minute a fraction (one-seventeenth)
of the Swedo-Finn population would be to reduce the doctrine to
absurdity; and that, if applied on behalf of the Alanders, it
should also be granted to the Svecomans. Such an application
would be impossible."
The other border question, called Finland's "chief territorial
problem," is thus dealt with by Isaiah Bowman in his recent
volume, "The New World: Problems in Political Geography":
"The main points in contention were the question of an outlet
for Finland on the Arctic Ocean (Pechenga region) and the dis-
position of eastern Karelia, a province occupied by a people ra-
cially aUied to the Finns. An agreement was finally reached in a
treaty signed October 14, 1920, and ratified December 29, 1920.
The boundary articles of the treaty of Dorpat assign to Finland
a strip of the Arctic coast and connecting territory; and other arti-
cles provide for the neutralization of the frontier. The treaty
also guarantees autonomy to eastern Karelia and to the Karelian
popidation of Archangel and Olonetz (northeast of Lake Ladoga),
which is Cireek Orthodo.x in religion and Russian in civilization
and has no marked political preference. Transportation and
rafting of timber on waters crossing the boundary line is to be
permitted to both countries. Commercial freedom of wide scope
is guaranteed in articles on the use of ports, railways, telegraph
lines, freight and customs rates, on fishing rights, harbor fees,
and the like.
"The Pechenga region which Finland gained is a small,
barren strip on the Arctic shore. Its significance arises out of the
temjiering effect exercised by a branch of the warmer waters of
the north Atlantic drift (usually called the Gulf Stream), whereby
the ports of Pechenga and Alexandrovsk, 250 miles north of the
Arctic Circle remain open tlu-oughout tht winter months, when
aU the ports of the eastern Baltic and the White Sea are closed
by ice. Archangel is icebound for nine months each year. It
was to seciu-e an open port that Russia built the Murman rail-
way to C'atherine Harbor (Alexandrovsk). The northern ports
would be of far less importance if it were not that Russia has
already lost all her Baltic ports except Petrograd, and may lose
others on the Black Sea and in eastern Siberia."
Finland and Sweden having had the friendly assistance of the
League of Nations in the settlement of the Aland Island dispute,
concludes Mr. Bowman:
"The bond between these two states ought to become as strong
as will be, ill time, that with the Esths and Letts. In short, the
external political problems of Finland are relatively simple; her
chief danger lies in the radical elements within her borders and
the dilTlculties that naturally attend development of a strong
democratic government The conservative part of the popu-
lation fears Red disturbances, and the Reds fear that the Whites
will set up a reactionary government. The jirogress of the settle-
ment ami unification of the political life of the country is made
more dillicull by proximity with Soviet Russia."
Finnish culture, bolli of liiid.\- and niiiul. ranks witii the most
thorough and progressi\e in IIk! world. The "Kalavala," the
great Finnish epic, is givt^n a place by many critics but littler lowei*
tliiiri the "Iliad." Tin' new Republic led the other nations,
notably America, in granting full legal and suffrage equality
to women, and in enacting a law of national prohibition.
32
33
The New Republics of Poland and Lithuania
POLAND'S LONG TRAGEDY, the partition of its lands
and peoples among its three powerful neighbors, was
brought to an end by the Great War. With regard to
regained and added territorj^, at least, the Poland of to-day has
been even more fortunate than many of its best friends hoped.
The terms which it was able to impose upon the vanquished
Russians included territory on the eastern frontier beyond the
ethnographical map of Poland as prepared by E. F. Benson, the
British novelist, in his plea for Polish freedom and unity, issued
under the title of "The White Eagle of Poland" (Doran) in the
last year of the war. Poland now presents "an imposing appear-
ance upon the map of Europe," comments the London Sphere,
and, in fact, with its present expanded boundaries, the new
republic takes rank with the gi-eat nations. Its area, appro.xi-
mately 150,000 square mDes, is but little less than that of Ger-
many and considerably greater than Italy's. None of the other
new countries produced by the war compares with it either in
size or population. Its ambitions, however, have been said to be
even larger than its territories, and it has been severely criticized
by its neighbors, especially by Lithuania on the north, for ap-
plying to them the same methods from which it suffered itself
until rescued by the Allies. Vilna, the ancient Lithuanian capi-
tal, held by PoHsh irregulars, is compared by the Lithuanians to
Warsaw, the old capital of Poland, so long held by Russia.
In the days of its greatest power, before the partition of 1772,
Poland was almost twice as large as the present nation. During
the latter part of the seventeenth century, as "The Statesman's
Year-Book" sketches the siibsequent fall of the elective kingdom,
"the country rapidly shrank" under outside pressure and inner
demoralization. "Eventually," to quote this authority, "by the
three partitions of 1772, 1793, and 1795, the Polish Common-
wealth, as it was then called, was divided between Prussia, Russia
and Austria. Successive rebellions were crusht out with iron
severity. In 1807 Napoleon formed a part of the Old Common-
wealth into a semi-independent state under the title of the Duchy
of Warsaw and endowed it with a very liberal constitution, but
in 1815, at the Congress of Vienna, this was undone, and Poland
was rcpartitioned among Prussia, Austria and Russia, except the
small district of Kjakow, which was constituted an independent
republic and remained such until 1835, when it was anne.xed by
Austria, despite a g:uaranty of neutrality by Prussia, Austria and
Russia."
To-day the population of Poland, according to a statement by
W. .1. Kelly, head of the Polish Bureau of Information in New
York City, is in the neighborhood of 30,000,000. Exact figures,
of course, are not obtainable, and other estimates range from
24,000,000 to 35,000,000. "The Statesman's Year-Book"
estimates the population in 1921 at 24,272,349. The complete
area is estimated at 149,042 square miles. Both of tlie.se esti-
mates are exclusive of the portion of Upper Silesia awarded to
I'oland by the League of Nations.
The old Duchy of Warsaw, otherwise called Congress Poland
or the Duchy of Poland and marked "I" on the accomijanying
map, is the radiating center from which Polish arms and the
favor of the Allies have extended the power of the new republic
to its present large boundaries. The section marked "4" on the
map, east of the lino marked "Polish Civil Administration ap-
proved by Allies in 1919," has aroused much discussion. This
territory, conquered from the Bolsheviki, includes the valuable
Russian railway between Rovno and Vilna. In this region, says
a fiispatch from Washington to the Now York Time.i, it is claimed
that one-quarter of the population of 1 ,.">()(), 0(K) are Poli.sh, one-
quarter Jews, and the remaining half white Ruthenians. A Polish
apologist, Joseph Freilich, Ph.D., in a pamphlet on the "Funda^
mental Conditions of the Economic Independence of Poland,"
issued by the Polish National Defense Committee of (^hi<!ago,
defends this crossing of the ethnographical boundary by pleading
for an "economic boundary" in its place. The "economic-
boundary" theory, in general, seems to imply that territory
should belong to the nation which does the most business in it.
An even more unsettled condition e.xists in the territory marked
"6," centering about VUna, the old capital of Lithuania. The
Polish Army, under General Zelgouski, which seized Vilna for
Poland in some such unofficial way as d'Annunzio seized Fiume
for Italy, refuses to evacuate, and the Lithuanians oppose the
plebiscite by which the League of Nations proposes to settle
the diflieulty. According to a cablegram from the Lithuanian
Foreign Office at Kovno to the representative of Lithuania at
Washington :
"The Lithuanian Government and people are distrustful of the
efficacy of the League of Nations in securing impartial conditions
for the plebiscite. They fear that the troops of Zelgouski,
numbering 200,000 or more, now occupying the region around
VUna, may manage to participate in the plebiscite."
The Lithuanian claims to the territory, as presented in a
pamphlet entitled "Expose du Conflil Lithuano-Polotiais,"
(Geneva, 1921), include the claims that throughout the region
Lithuanians constitute the native population; that the city of
VUna was founded by a Lithuanian Grand Duke at the com-
mencement of tlie 19th century, "upon territory inhabited from
time immemorial by a Lithuanian population", that Lithuania
can hardly exist as an economic unit with. a foreign power in
possession of this central city, the former capital, that the public
edifices of Vilna, the churches and the homes of the Lithuanian
aristocracy, have "a high historic and national significance "for all
Lithuanians; that Vilna has long been the intellectual, artistic, and
religious center of Lithuania; that, to translate from the protest;
"During the whole duration of its existence as a sovereign
state and later, in the epoch of the fight for liberation, Lithuania,
with VUna at its head, has continually affirmed and defended
its iiidi\idual nationality and its right to absolute independence.
Moreover, the union vdth Poland has never been an expression of
the free-\vill of Lithuania, but was imposed on the country by
Poland, which profited by the difficulties of the Grand Duchy. . . .
It was at Vilna that Lithuania endured, during the epoch of
Russian domination, the most cruel ordeals in its struggle for
liberty, and it is that city which is the center of the political and
intellectual renaissance of the Lithuania of to-day."
A case of similarly disputed ownership exists in the territory
marked "7." StOl another boundary dispute, lately settled by
the League of Nations in the territory marked "5," gives Poland
a valuable coal area in former German territory, tho some-
what less in extent than she claimed. Her attempt to take this
territory by force, in defiance both of Germany and of the League
of Nations, delayed tho settlement for some time.
"Poland is the gateway to Central and Southern Russia,"
begins a brief description of the new Republic, accompanying an
economic map of its territory recently issued by the Falls
National Bank, of Niagara Falls, N. Y. During the past and
present year various steamshij) lines have established service to
Danzig, which is rapidly becoming "a great world seaport"
Galicia produces about 5 per cent, of the total petroleum outpuc
of tho world, according to this authority, and coal and iron ore
which, together with petroleum, constitute the basis of national in-
dustrial jirosperity, have boon produced in recent years at the rate
of approximately 63,0(X),000 tons of coal to 206,000 tons of Ton.
Tho present President of the Republic, Gen(?ral Pilsudslci. is
considered rather more radical and democratic than tho party
headed by the ex-Premier PadiTewski, the great i)ianist now in
the United States in the interest of the League of Nations.
Premier Witos, of tho Peasant party, is working in conjunction
with tho Socialists to improve agricultural and industrial
conditions."
34
^ \ r^
POLAND AND LITHUANIA
Old Lithuania I
Territory claimed by Poland j.
— (6) and (7) shown thus L
Congress Poland
Acquired territory up to 1921
Division Line botwec-n Polanti anr]
Germany, da determined by Council of
tile Lea«ue of Nations, and accepted
by file Supreme Council of the Allies
shown thus.
International Territory . .
r^TTT-1
COPYRIGHT, 1921, DY FUNK A WAGNALLS COMPANY, NEW YORK
THE MATTHEW6-N0RTHRUP W0RK6, BUFFALO, N. Y,
Scale of Miles
_!3?
Kilometers
y 10 20 ^ 40 , 60 ^ 8p , 100
Ji ^ L T I c\ Fi r: A
■ip, ,
K^i^riy
, ^Stolp
'siur.4V
^ ay of
•O " >i ^ , „
vBraunsberii'
■^i
(Klbi/ig^
— / \ ! \
JP R U S^
Mtiz^irian
C^IIenstein ^'
<3irudLi^d^
^1
y"^
^ypin^-•^
///Chd,l2ipJ
^arnkoiv
PoscS.
(1 nznan i^
f-'Cro.lzisIt
I_
^totirfy""
'^nowroclaV
^J? uSzezuczyn^
Miawa l^^^izw^^^r"! -iJ^Sxi/lT' />
. 0stlot^ES5<t!i?;;3-^^ ■
rzVnysz° Arf' '/I V MazowieJlT
Vrsl Vitna^
(6)|<Wilno.
In iir pute between Poland V
ind Lithuania, to hi 'l
zkowicK
;Bakow,'_\ y(r)-zi^ '-•*
SokottuiV
settled by Ubitratia
RuHJezewiszCrt
Nowogrouek
WgtKowskyS
1
nysz'^ v/, V
G o Makowf i
VOstrow/
"''V^
^
Ka>vjtzA'^^
/S" ) Odo(anaW7-,
.^>-~i*SS?za'lkow
onin'^-5'OCoro Kutri'
'zorkowo
Lask
yltusk
r.Ra.
(Warsz '^
. miir
WttTow'
Siedlc^
/NowominskX
LSokWo
Skierniewicz --^^■^. I -L'ukowji^
liny 1 Grojoco (l) V^>\°GarwpUn>
Kawa
I Sieradz
<^ /Urie^
\
r><J^5,eu2bu!^ jL
' „o«^",
■ ^
'il^^O-iii'/stadt
"Sbit LcoteehuTz"
Va.1
^Zwittau
OTomou?^
^0
ipava^
*Bpau) I ^eT.'
Ostrow
Kielce
OpatoM^
'ojcrirzejow v/
LPiriczdw /\\S*'^
Stoniiiea^
Radzyii
(Krasnystaw
H rubies zow"
^an^Iomierz
Zamosc,
'Janow t , I i-
4.'''fr'°'""^°rnasz J xf'^Sol^aJ
PWL-
Wfodzimicrz J
Wdyhski
V— o
Rowng]
Dubnop
ilikow
arnofl
/JawiccTil
\Bielsb
Przeworsk
ZoTkieiS
'wifUczka°KochiT^
VKrzeraienieCi
INE
(T) Congress Poland or old Duchy
of Poland, formerly Russian
^
j6pa
^^r
eu Sandez&
^owyS.i-,:7i/r
^tiuniarkt^
'Gr:
1|V6GorliceN
■ybpw 1
Przemysl>
P^bromil )
,Krd.n4 ...n- rrs)^ffjf^~^
^ Zloczow ^anowi(S»\ U K R
(D Poznania part of West Prussia, ' ^^-rw^^ " fe -Jj
East I'russia, and part of Sil- (?) Vilna and vicitiity in dispute
esia, ceded by Germany to Poland, between Poland and Lithuania.
(?) Galiria from Austria-Hunearv Plebiscite abandoned, to besettled
to Poland. by arbitration.
(4) Part of Russia acquired by ©Part of Suwalkl, proposed to^ ^
Poland through the Polish- Eo to Lithuania. '-yl
Russian Soviet agreement, Oct. (3) Memel, with part of East
20, 1920. Prussia north of the Niemen.
(6)Upper Sifesia. Division "Line ceded by Germany to Allied and
^ determined by Council of the Associated Powers. -^ X Tv»'
J.eague of Nations.and accepted ® Free City of Danzig, interna-, - '
I by the Supreme Council of the tional urder guarantee of the xi TT M /-•
'Allies shown thus:"*--b-+— t*— League of Nations. 11 U W Ijr
Sambi
D,fohobycz,
yslaw
urka
, , C
iUszi/k
UTohobj
I ( LVi'6w )^S— sZborow- — — ^/
^Bobrka^l TaVjiopolT ^ , , ,
,.,..^^ohatyn ^^—^--^t ^ o ^iSb&at proskur^w^
,'da':;zo\>*;^j— — l>-^-<'"^=^^r2ezany\Wrembowft£
>oahajc^S^ I (f
Bu^zacz
DolinaT3
Uzhorod '^
: Stanislay^
riumaozi
. Horodenka 5
-^
"^^
ARY'
, ,"\Czorikow f o
Lon^tude East
R O 1^^/M A N
35
The Island Nations of the Pacific
BALANCES OF POWER, national interests, and the
ownership of some hundreds of ishmds in the Far-Eastern
regions of the Pacific, badly upset by that world cata-
clysm which centered in northern France, have settled back to
times of peace under very much changed conditions. Australia
and New Zealand have recei^'ed such a large measure of self-
government that they may be considered practicaUy independent
nations. The former German possessions have been divided
between them and the Empire of Japan. In this case, as it has
been observed elsewhere in the break-up of old empires into small
nations, "every little nation has a problem of its own," and Aus-
tralia and New Zealand find themselves somewhat at odds with
Great Britain and Japan over the arrangement of the Oceanic
mandates. When Great Britain and Japan notified the League
of Nations that they had prolonged their Treaty of Alliance for
one year, "considerable opposition was exprest by the Austra-
lian press," observes Current History (New York). Australia's
feeling against the Japanese is said to resemble the feeling aroused
on our own California coast, and "racial discrimination" is being
as strongly opposed by the Japanese Government there as here.
A further complication is added by our Government's refusal to
recognize the Japanese mandates in the North Pacific. China,
also, is reported to be far from resigned to the terms of the Treaty
which give to Japan considerable slices of Chinese territory and
■\'aluable rights in much larger areas.
Japan, presented with all the former German islands north of
the equator in addition to the Chinese territory referred to, has
profited notably by the war. The total area of the empire in
1914, according to "The Statesman's Year Book" for that year,
was about 175,.540 square miles, with a total population of about
53,000,000. The present area, according to the 1921 edition of
the same book, is 260,738 square miles. Four hundred and
eighty-nine small islands are included in this estimate. The
population in 1918, exclusive of the dependencies of Korea,
Taiwan, and Karafuto, was placed at 57,070,936. The total,
including these provinces, is given as 77,005,510, which may
be compared to an American population of approximately one-
third larger in an area more than ten times as large.
It was in 1853, Isaiah Bowman, the geogi-aphical expert, re-
minds us in his new volume, "The New World: Problems in
Political Geography," that Commodore Perry, with an American
fleet, demanded protection for American sailors and property
wrecked on the coast, and permission for American ships to use
Japanese ports as a base for food or for trade, thus forcing Japan
"into the current of modern international life." He continues,
taking up the remarkable development of the Empire since that
time:
"After 1808 Japan modified her political and social institu-
tions in what is probably the most complete and radical change
of its kind that has ever occurred in the world's hi.story. The
basis of Japanese social and military organization had been feu-
dalism, hi 1868 the system was abolished by revolution, and a
national spirit sprang up th'at was to be used as a powerful instru-
ment in emjjire-building. The first railroad was begun in 1870;
to-day there are nearly eight thousand miles of rail. In 1872,
military service became univer.sal and obligatory. A constitution
was granted in 1889, and Parliament met for the first time in
1890."
In the midst of this process 'of modernization, Japan con.soli-
dated her island possessions. In 1875 she got the Kurile Islands,
thus rounding out her domain on the north. In e.vchango she
relinquished her claim to the island of Sakhalin, the .southern
half of which was again recovered in 1905; the northern half is
occupied at the present time. In 1876 she seized the Liukiu
Islands, which extend southward almost to Formosa. In 1895
as a result of her war with China she won Formosa, the richest of
her island prizes, with a population of 3,6."i0,000. Iler island
empire fringes the coast of Asia for 3,000 miles. As per popula-
tion increased, we read :
"The merchants of Japan turned to overseas trade and her
business men began to manufacture articles of commerce. At
the present time the Japanese trader can be found everywhere
through the East from Sumatra and Singapore up through the
Philijipines and in all the open ports of the coast of China. Jap-
anese banks and warehouses sprang up in India during the World
War, and Japanese merchants went in numbers into the Ivlalay
States, buj-ing u]5 rich concessions. Japan's commerce with Siam
doubled during the war and in the same period she increased her
trade wth the Dutch East Indies fivefold. In New Zealand the
Japanese have won over the former trade of Germany and have
taken away much of British trade also. A fleet of Japanese
steamers makes regular runs to Seattle and San Francisco and
another fleet plies between Japan and the west coast of South
America. Japanese trade expansion on a huge scale in southern
Asia, in Far East, and the Pacific, is one of the really marvel-
ous economic consequences of the World War."
Australia, tho so predominantly the greatest land mass in
this region, is habitable by white races only on its borders and
in a few interior districts of the South and West. Its total esti-
mated population, in 1919, was 6,247,019. Recently, however,
reports Current History (New York) :
"Sir James Connelly, agent in London for Western Australia,
announces that for the next two years a thousand emigrants
from the British Isles will be sent to Australia each month.
The first large party, comprising 1,100 emigrants, left Great
Britain early in January."
The continent is of practically the same area as the United
States, containing 2,974,.581 square miles. Up to the year 1918,
says "The Statesman's Year Book," only 5.63 per cent, of the
land had passed into private ownership. Sheep raising and
agriculture are the chief industries. "In Australia, the chief
problem is to keep out the Malays, the natives of India, the
Chinese, and the Japanese," says Mr. Bowman, in his chapter
on "The Pacific Realm and Australia." As for the physical
problem confronting the continent, he writes:
"The eastern portion is mountainous, and receives rainfall
from the southeastern trade winds. All the rest of the country
is desert, save for a small district in the southwestern corner
which has winter rains sufficient to give it better resources, and a
strip on the north coast which falls within the limits of the equa-
torial rains during the southern summer.
"The population is disposed in a manner to correspond with
the rain belts. Nearly half is uninhabited. Only one per cent,
of the total area is under cultivation."
The Australian commonwealth, which came into existence in
1901 , permits the separate states much larger rights, as con-
trasted with the rights of the central government, than is the case
in the United States. The Labor Party is, and has been for some
time, in practical control of the government. Immigration by
Chinese, Japanese and Indian groups is especially opposed by the
labor unions. The new Australian mandate covers all the for-
merly German islands south of the equator, with the exception of
the Samoan group, allotted to New Zealand. Tho two largest
islands of the group, formerly known as the Bismarck Archipel-
ago, have recently been renamed New Britain and New Ireland.
New Zealand, founded in great parts by the younger sons of the
British aristocracy, has in recent years gained a reputation as one
of the most carefully governed territories in tho world. Tho pop-
ulation is estimated by "The Statesman's Year Book" at 1,139,-
014, e.xchisive of some .')(),()00 natives Maoris. The total area is
103,.581 square miles. This docs not include the Dominion's new
mandate over the former German Samoan Islands, now tho
Territory of Western Samoa, which adds an anui of 1,200 square
miles.
86
37
The New-Old ''Land of Promise" in Palestine
A MODERN HEBRAIC EXODUS has taken place into
"what has become once more the Land of Promise," in
the phrase of The American Israelite, and the result of
the fij'st tliree years of the changed regime, reports PatrieJi
Geddes in The Contemporary Review (London), has been the
beginning of a real "renewal " of the country. The publication of
the Palestine mandate, under which the British Government wOI
administer the country, was followed by an official declaration
that England "views with favor the establishment in Palestine
of a national home for the Jewish people." Jews all over the
world are organizing and collecting funds, with the immediate
object of caring for the Jewish immigrants already in the
country. As an ultimate goal, many of them look forward to
a return of national power and
unity in a free nation controlled
by the descendants of its ancient
inhabitants. Whether this "dream
empire" is realized or not, the
New York Times sums up the
present situation correctly, says
The American Israelite, and quotes
with approval:
"The mandatary will control the
foreign relations of Palestine and
protect diplomatically Palestinians
abroad. The mandatary also will
impose taxes and customs and will
report annually to the League of
Nations. The phrase 'a national
home for the Jewish people' is fre-
quently employed. The League, it
is e\ ident, has not set up a Jewish
state or nation in Palestine. The
effect of the mandate is to create a
national home or refuge for Jews
who, because of oppression or perse-
cution in any other land, may desire
to seek shelter there."
A multitude of small differences
have appeared among the individ-
uals and associations charged
with rebuilding Palestine, much in
the manner of the difficulties that
arose as soon as the world had
been "made safe for democracy,"
but the essential fact, announces
The American Hebrew, is that
"Palestine will be rebuilt." The
rebuilding will be accomplished, be-
lieves this authority, "by plans
and methods of the American-
Palestine Company, of New York."
To carry out the work of reconstruction, the editor continues:
"In every great city throughout the country Jews wiU or-
ganize such companies, each to pursue the do\'elopnient of
particularized constructive work in Palestine. In time, a super-
organization compo.sed of all these individual companies, and
governed by a hoard of directors t-hat will represent all of them,
for the coordination and the systematic development of the
undertaking of each without overlapping, will eventually create
that Jewisli organization in which all Jews will be enrolled and
which will rebuild Palestine."
The new mandate, according to estimates presented by "The
Statesman's Year-Book, " is 13,724 square miles in area, with a
total population of 67.5,000. In Biblical times the population
rose to between five and si.x millions. By a strange turn of
events the Philistines, those ancient enemies of the C'liildrcn of
Israel, have succeeded in giving their name to the whole of the
THE B1I3L.CAL "KINGDOM OF D.WID."
The liounfiaricj^ of the Hebrew nation at its greatest ex-
lent are thus dc dned by MacCoim's Bible Atlas (Poates,
New York). The now British mandate of Palestine is
shown by tlie liea\y dotted line.
country, for "Palestine," as a historical geographer observes,
is directly derived from "Philistine." The territory "has never
belonged to one nation, and probably never will," this wrier,
G. A. .Smith, continued in his "Historical Geography of the
Holy Land" (London), wTitten shortly before the war came to
upset a number of preconceived notions along with territorial
boundaries. Near the beginning of historical times, it "lay at
the gate of Arabia and Egypt and at the tad-end of a number of
small states stretching up into Asia Minor." A period of Greek
influence was followed by Roman conquest. After the success
of the First Crusade, it was ruled for almost a hundred years by
European princes. In spite of these various waves of immi-
grants and conquerors, "the essential characteristics of the
Jewish people persisted," as a
writer in the Encyclopedia Bri-
lannica points out, together with
the idealism and high moraMty of
their religion.
One of the difficulties faced by
the modern state is the fact that
only a small percentage of the
present population is Jewish.
Thus, in the 9,000 square miles
included in that part of Palestine
west of the Jordan, "The States-
man's Year-Book" states that there
were in 1919, 515,000 Moslems,
65,300 Jews, 62,.500 Christians, 1-50
Samaritans, and 4,900 others.
"The feeling between Mos'.em,
Christian and Jew is perhaps more
intense," adds Dr. Albert E. Clay,
professor of AssjTiology and Baby-
lonian History in Yale University,
writing in The Atlantic Monthly,
"than in any other land."
Fighting has occurred between
Jews and Arabs, notably at Jaffa,
"where recently many persons were
killed or wounded," according to a
dispatch received in this country
in May, 1921. Bedouins have at-
tacked Israelite colonists, say later
dispatches, and British troops have
been called in to preserve order.
The present British High Commis-
sioner, Sir Herbert Samuel, lately
made a tour of the towns east of
the Jordan in an attempt to pacify
the Bedouins.
Winston Churchill, the British Secretary of State for the
Colonies, said, in a recent address in Jerusalem:
"Examine Mr. Balfour's careful words: Palestine to be
'a national home,' not 'the national home,' a great differ-
ence in meaning. The est.ablislimeut of a national home does
not mean a Jewish Go\'erninent to dominato the Arabs. Great
Britain is the greatest Mo.selin .Slate in the world, and is well-
disposed to the Arabs, and chorisiies their friendship. 1 found
since my arrival that the ministrations of the officials make no
distinction between Jew and Arab.
"Above all; there will be respect for the different religions.
Tho the Arabs are in a largo majority in I'alestine, tho the
British lOmpire has accepted the mandate in tlie wider sense,
Palestine belongs to the whole world, and this city of Jerustilern
is almost equally sacred to Moslems, Christians and Jews, and
not only to tlie dwellers in Palestine, but everywhere. Instead
of sliaring miseries tliroiigh quarreling, tho Palostimaus should
sliaro blessings thi'ough cool>oration."
PREbENT BOUNDARY
GENERAL DffAFTING CO. INC .
3S
34^
MAP OF
PALESTINE
(BRITISH MANDATE)
Railr-oads ... ,Mt-iw»^
Principal Highways mostly lat Class IIoaHH — —
2nd Class Roads - - -
Trails
Limits of Palestine. ^^^ ■ ■ • ■■KOBa
Limits of Palestine, tentative IB 1M H
Lands below Sea Level ^^^^^^
Scale of Miles
0 m 20 80 40 60
1'^iiomei.erd
9 10 ^0 ap 40 60
COPYRIGHT. 1921, BY FUNK & WAGNALL8 CO. NEW VOBK
THE MATTHE A'i-MORTHRUP WORKS, BUFFALO, N> Y»
Beirari
c~=^'TE1 Atcibe
lEl Hidjane
Zimmarv
Kaisariyafi
MI:DI TEHRAN BAN
S EA
\^.
Kai>r ^iiweiP4
EI Audi>aN T!-''- ^ \ , , f ,-' ^ ■!.,•- ^-'"^ ■'' fe.
EI AudjU
,>\
-[ \ v^ \ El Kossaima?
eV^
^^4
Bir el Hassana''
^i^J.Maghara
—~y
/<^^x
7 ' " - ■■■/- rs V
\ I '"'..'A' -\ \ ) ,!
Bosra^^ski sham »vo'Orman !
" '^•,'''»?S*.^Siilkha<l ,i*"
:^"j'' M HethiiiiiuuyJ'eriisalern f 'zizaj
, El Kcrak
Khanz ra
f.-.^ i
T~ \\ElKuntmaf' V;
^VEth^Thcmed
P E \ N h^ N S U; t- A
\ <
...■»/f\
mr
f Li r--^ .
--; / v; jEidji
?r' X*« Is
Kasret Tuba
'■'/•
w
\\ Kasr Azrak
'^K^ ^'
^"
«
-^-'^<lAi
,7 ■"-> °":^"'%
I* Gueira *"■•*& * -■,
^ pAkaba ^
itlf o!^kab'a\ Longitude East from Greenwich 3(
\> l§ y , sos^-
/
Megalla
37°
39
The European Advance in Asia
HUGE ASIA'S SUBSERVIENCE to smaller but more
aggressive Europe has been increased, territorially at
least, by the settlements following the war. Mesopo-
tamia, SjTia and Palestine have been added to the vast extent
of Asiatic territory already under the control of Western Powers.
This gain is slightly counterbalanced by the German Asiatic
territory taken ever by .lapan, the first Asiatic Power in cen-
turies to take rank with the nations of the Atlantic and Medi-
terranean. Europe now controls Asiatic territory somewhat
greater in population, and far greater in extent, than the whole
of Europe, but many observers find a loosening of political and
military bonds which ultimately, they argue, will result in the
rise of sovereign autochthonous nationalities.
Of Asia's total area, given as 17,206,000 square miles in the
World Almanac for 1921, or 16,819,000 in the latest edition of
the "Encyclopedia Britannica," approximately 10,000,000
square miles are under the control of Russia, Great Britain,
Holland, France and the United States. The following table,
prepared in 1910 for the "Encyclopedia Britannica," shows the
distribution of Asiatic territory at that time:
Territory Square Miles
Russian 6,49.5,970
British 1,998,220
Dutch 586,980
French 247,580
U. S. A 114,370
German 1 93
Turkish 681,980
Chinese 4,299,600
Japanese 161,110
Other independent territories 2,232,270
The changes shown on the accompanying map include an in-
crease of rather more than 100,000 square miles in the holdings
of both England and France, small mandates to Italy and Greece,
the increase of the Japanese area to 260,738 square miles, the
wiping out of the small German possessions, and the decrease of
the Turkish total to 438,750 square miles. Of the total Asiatic
population, estimated in 1920 at 872,.522.000, approximately
345,000,000 inhabit Chinese territory, 325;000,000 British, and
25,000,000 Russian.
"The purely arbitrary borderline, which is supposed to sep-
arate the Continent of Europe from the Continent of Asia,"
writes H. M. Hyndman, the British publicist, in his recent ex-
tended study of Asia as ailected by the war ("The Awakening
of Asia," by H. M. Hyndman, Boni & Liveright), "at times
leads to the misapprehension that there really is such a break in
territorial continuity." There is, of course, no recognized divi-
sion between the two continents, either in the matter of geog-
raphy or of race, he points out. Europe, in fact, he writes, is
"a great conterminous colony of Asia, which, in the course of
thousands of years, has set up for itself." As for the mutual
reaction between the two countries, he finds that:
"We arc inclined nowadays to take more account of tlio
European invasion of Asia than of the Asian invasion of Europe.
Yet the influence of the East upon the West and the far less
powerful influence of the West upon the East have been going
on for many, many centuries. The successive waves of invasion
and counter-invasion from Europe to Asia and from Asia to
Kuriipe are not easy to record accurately and intelligibly. Some
of the Asiatic attacks upon Europe were no better than mere tem-
porary raids givuig no permanent results, and the same may bo
said of the greater portion of the European advances upon Asia.
At some periods botli attacks wore going on simultaneously, and
the direct military influence of Asia upon Europe has been nuich
more recent and more pov.erful than we generally recognize.
Even in the Great War, wiiile tens of thousands of Asiatic Turks
wer(^ fighting on the side of German.v, Japan threw in her lot with
the Allies and has been fighti'ng on their side against Germans in
the East, while largo forci^s from India have been engaged with the
enemy in the West. -But, \n any survey of the inutunl aggressions
from one side or other, there is nothing in the European attempts
upon Asia, ur t.il the period from the six teenth to the nineteenth cen-
tury, which can be compared for vigor, continuity, and effect to the
pressm-e exerted for a far longer period by Asiatics upon Europe."
- There have been four great European invasions of Asia within
historic times. As classified by Mr. Hyndman, the first is that
famous campaign of Alexander of Macedon and his Greek armies.
Then came the Roman invasion, which lasted for many cen-
turies. The Middle Ages brought the invasion by the Crusaders,
whom Mr. Hyndman calls "freebooters of Christianity and
marauders of feudalism." The fourth European invasion of Asia
has taken place in modern times, he observes, and comments:
" It is a much wider, more continuous and far more formidable
assault than any of its predecessors. This great movement is still
in progress, and we are by no means as yet in a position to judge
of its final effect. French, English and Russians, following upon
the early religious and commerical efforts of the Portuguese and
Dutch, have carried on for three centuries a steady pressure of
first, religious propaganda, then mercantile persuasion, and
lastly armed conquest at the expense of the inhabitants. The
result is that Europeans have now seized and dominate more than
half of the area and little less than half of the population of the
great Eastern Continent, with its adjacent islands. The fact that
the country we speak of as Russia in Europe, which suffered most
in old times from the inroads of barbarous hordes from Central
Asia, to-day holds sway over the territories whence these tribes
swept in succession to the West on their missions of massacre, is a
strange instance of historic revenge for the horrors of the past."
The immense conquest of Siberia, started near the close of the
seventeenth century through Russian support of freebooters and
traders, was completed by 1860. England in India extended her
rule through the Bast India Company. The United States, with
its present control of 114,370 square miles of Asiatic territory,
fell heir to the ancient Spanish conquests. Most of Asia that is
worth exploiting has come under control of most of Europe.
In spite of widening spheres of European influence in the East,
howe^•er, Europe's hold on Asia is loosening, maintains Mr.
Hyndman. Asia, he declares, "is already far from being the
Asia which was fau- game for adventurous European experi-
ments," and he predicts that the time will soon come when, un-
less the Allied nations apply to Asiatics, "the principles for
which they justly claim they fought Germany," history may
record a return of the predominating pressure of Asia on Europe.
H. G. Wells, the novelist, historian, and publicist, strongly
agreeing in this view with Mr. Hyndman. inveighs in his "Out-
line of History," against persons who believe that " the vast popu-
lations of eastern Asia can be permanently subordinated to
Europe." He writes:
"They do not realize that in Asia the average brain is not
one whit inferior in quality to the average European brain; that
history shows Asiatics to bo as bold, as vigorous, as generous,
as self-sacrificing, and as capable of strong collective action as
Europeans, and that there are and must continue to bo a great
many more Asiatics than Europeans in the world. Undej
modern conditions world-wide economic and educatioual equali-
zation is in the long run inevitable."
Air transport may already be opening the way to a still more
extensive and universal "Pax," suggests Mr. Wells, in which the
British system "may of its own accord merge," and he adds that
"it is impossible to say whether this unprecedented imperialism
will obstruct or help forward that final unification of the world's
affairs towards which all history is pointed." He feels that "it
is open to question whether the British rule in India does not
compare favorably with any other domination of one entirely
remote and alien civilization by anollu'r," and he concludes:
"What is wrong is not so much that Britain rules India and
Egypt, but that any ci\'ilized counlr.v should bo ruled by the
legislature of another, and that tlu^ro should be no impartial
court of app(\al in the world yet to readjust this arrangement."
40
2
i
Jf
1
•a
41
The New Partition of Africa
GERISIANY'S VAST HOLDINGS IN AFRICA have
fallen, under mandates, to the two strongest nations of
the ^^cto^ious Allies. Southwest Africa, formerly Ger-
man Southwest Africa, a huge, thinly populated district of
322,250 square miles, goes to the British dependency, the Union
of South Africa, and the other territories, a total of some 608,000
square miles, with an estimated population of 13,335,000 in
1913, according to "The Statesman's Year-Book" for that year,
are allocated directly to England and France. Germany, the
last of the European Powers to acquire African territory when it
was being parceled out among the nations of Europe, is the fh-st
to be forced out of the continent, with England as her chief
inheritor. Numerous British authorities have alleged, in the
last twenty years of Germany's penetration in Africa, that her
interest lay not so much in obtaining comnieroial and colonial
advantages as in establishing military "stepping-stones" on the
way to India. According to figures collected in 1911, the total
imports from the German colonies into Germany amounted to
only about §10,000,000 in that year, with exports of a few mil-
lions more, a decrease of a million and a half dollars in imports
from the preceding year. "One of the little-known results of
the World War," a writer in Current History points out, is the
American commercial penetration in Africa. Even tho this
country controls no territory, our commercial hold is shown by
the growth of trade, amounting to .$47,000,000 in 1914 and to
S325,000,000 in 1920. The WTiter explains:
"With the opening of the war, German trade was absolutely
cut off and British and French manufacturers were too busily
occupied with supplying government needs to give close attention
to African markets. In South Africa alone American imports,
which in 1914 were .§25,000,000, reached S.54,000,000 in 1916,
$98,000,000 by 1919, and $165,000,000 in 1920."
A comparison of the map of Africa in 1800 with that of 1914
"contains both the history of its extended exploration and the
elaborate process, comprest mainly into the period from 1800
to 1914, by which the vast continent has been parceled out"
between European states. "A map of Africa of 1800," the
authority quoted ("An Historical Atlas of Modern Europe from
1789 to 1914," by C. Grant Robertson and J. G. Bartholomew,
0,xford University Press, London), goes on —
"represents a fringe of Eiiropean settlements and trading sta-
tions: French, Dutch, and British at Senegal and on the Gold
Coast, Portuguese from Calabar to Cape Negro, Dutch and
Briti.sh at the Cape of Good Hope and in Natal, Portuguese
along the Mozambique channel and from Cape Delgado to the
Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, unoccupied liy any European power
even on tlie coast fringes, wliile the remaining nine-tenths of the
interior form a vast area, unlcnown, unexplored, and represented
by a significanl blank or dotted with hypothetical names."
The discovery of the source and character of the four great
rivers, the Nile, the Niger, the Kongo and the Zambesi, "made
the continent ripe for distribution under tho competitive pressure
of an expanding Europe, the major states of which were seeking
for areas of commercial iniijortanco or for strategical positions
to strengthen dominions or territories acquired elsewhere."
The authorities quoted justify the partition of the wild and un-
developed country on the general_ ground that —
"Between 'commercial penetration' and political control there
is no Batisfatftory half-way stage, and indirect political control
by an irresi)onsibIe financial or commercial sjaidicatc or com-
pany is far more dangerous and harmful than the direct political
control of a slate, responsible for its actions, whoso contracts can
bo made a part of the public law, in tho maintenance of which
all civili/.ed communities have an interest. . . . Tho i)erfectibili(y
of mankind may be an iwademic siijM'r.stition or a philo.sophic
chimera, but experience has shown that as a working hyi)othesis
of government, particulai'ly in the relations of the white to sub-
ject riKu.s, it can a<fhiove remarkable results both for tho govern-
ors and the govcrngd."
"We gain some idea of the pos.sible benefits of colonial develop-
ment by looking at what France has already accomplished in
Northern Africa," writes Isaiah Bowman, Ph.D., Director of the
American Geographical Society of New York, in a recent volume,
"The New World: Problems in Political Geography" (World
Book Company). The farms that the Romans made with such
care in a long-passed historical era had vanished into waste
land, he observes, but the French engineers were not discouraged:
"They immediately set to work to reclaim them bj' making
hunch'eds of artesian wells, by damming up the streams that had
been allowed to waste their precious waters in the sand, by fight-
ing the swarms of locusts. Lion, hyena, and leopard had ravaged
the flocks and herds; the French set to work to exterminate them
in the neighborhood of settlements. They built several thousands
of miles of roads and constructed hundreds of miles of railways.
The fine cedars of the Atlas Mountains were in the way of extinc-
tion, and the French forest ser\'iee came just in time to save them.
By many different means France has placed under cultivation
at least 100,000 square miles of land (or about twice the area of
Colorado or Alabama) that was formerly desert waste."
Best of all, says this writer, France has done these things with
little disturbance to native political and social organizations; she
has taken no land away from native holders; she has put money
and effort into the improvement of the life of the people. Her
work, we are told, "has extended into Madagascar, where the
Hovas, a tyrannical Malayo-Polynesian people who settled in
the island in the sixteenth century, had long practised slavery,
thus depopulating large tracts in the south and southwest."
England's far more extensive colonization includes the pictur-
esque career of Cecil Rhodes, "the man who thought in conti-
nents," in South Africa. By some regarded as a man of money,
"actuated entu-ely by selfish motives," says a writer in the New
International Encyclopedia, "his will, by which he left almost his
entire fortune for the purpose of educating Anglo-Saxon youth to
the idea of Empire, radically modified previous estimates of his
character."
The Negro Republic of Liberia, situated on the west coast of
Africa between Sierra Leone (British) and the Ivory Coast
(French), we are reminded, is of especial interest to Americans.
To quote IMr. Bow^nan's brief description of it, and its connection
with the United States:
"Its total area is about 40,000 square miles (a little less than
that of Pennsylvania) and the population has been variously
estimated, the figures ranging from 700,000 to about 2,000,000, of
whom all but about 50,000 on the coast are quite uncivilized.
Liberians of American origin number some 12,000.
"The foundation of the republic was the result of efforts made
by the American Colonization Society, founded in 1816 to settle
free American negroes on African .soil. In 1820 actual settlement
began, and in 1847 the colonists promtdgated a declaration of
independence and drew up a constitution. Even to-day the
government does not effectively control the interior regions, and
tills has led to the progressive diminution of Liberia's territory by
Fn^nch encroachment. Should this or similixr absorption by
Europeans thi-eaten Liberia with real danger of extinction, tho
United States would doubtless play a giuu'dian's j)art.
"The poUtical inlluence of tho United States has been carried
directly into Africa by treaty with Liberia, so that the United
States has now assumed obligations tluit cover a stretch of 15,000
miles, or tlire(i-fifths of tho circumference of tho earth from
Liberia to the Pliili])pines. The United States loaned Liberia
.1i;5,0(W,0(XJ in 1918 for the construction of roads, etc., and has as-
sumed the position of chief financial adviser to the republic, a
position which was previousfy lield by a joint commission of
representatives of tJreat Britain, the United States and (iermanj'.
"The development of the resoui-ces of the region is hindered
somewhat by the constitutional i)rovision that none but Liberian
citizens may hold i-eal estate, except for colonization, missionary,
educational, or other benevolent, puri)oses. The present head of
the government of Lilieria holds broader views of the country's
future than his ))redecessors held, ahd is se(diing to provule bolter
commercial oi]porlniiities for whites, upon whom the economic
progress of the country must depend."
42
43
r=FREE YOUR
Give it that determining and controlling force joyous readers have reaped a bounteous harvest of
which is so vital to self-culture, health, greater the good things of life from the seeds of self realiza-
achievement, and success. Take fullest advantage tion which these volumes hereafter described have
of the great truths which eminent modern prac- given to them. Who can foretell the extent ol the
tical psychologists and inspirational writers have so beneficial effects on your lile that even one of these
clearly expounded for your benefit. Thousands of volumes may have?
THE EDUCATION OF THE WILL
by JULES PAYOT. Rector of the Academy of Aix
France. The authorizeu. translation of this classic,
by Smith Ely JellifTe, M.O., shows you the immense
possibilities of proper -vill- training in overcoming
your faults and developing your (^ood qualities.
Teaches you how to b-iiild success and happiness on
a foundation of sane thinking right living, and
careful diet. A book that will delight you.
44S pages, izmo. (loth, $1.75: by mail, $i.ST-
WILL POWER AND WORK
by JULES PAYOT, Litt.D.. Ph.D. Authorized
Translation from the French by Richard Duffy.
(FIRST AMERICAN EDITION.) More than
thirty editions of this author's previous work,
"Education of the Will," have passed into the
hands of forward-looking Americans, to their ever-
lasting benefit. In this NEW volume, "Will Power
and Work." M. Payot shows you how to increase
your mental efficiency, how to intensify your power
of accomplishment, how to link your will to your
work. In a manner irresistibly helpful, you are
given the theory and practise of self -culture.
You are shown how to read systematically and
intelligently , how to build up a dependable memory,
how to obtain control of that strangely uncertain
instrument, the will, and how to supplement the
lack or rightly assimilate the surplus of education
that fate has decreed for you. A clear, sympathetic,
and authoritative guide to true wisdom, strength
of character, and the development of that practical
energy which makes for real success in life.
Cloth, i2mo. 462 pages. $1.73; by mail, $1.87.
SELF-DEVELOPMENT
by H. ADDINGTON BRUCE. A wonderfully
clear-cut analysis in plain, conversational English,
of certain mental actions and reactions, every page
radiating encouragement and helpfulness for ambi-
tious men and women. It explains how you may
develop will power, memory, poise, and personality;
elaborates on the simple methods all must adopt — ■
and which are easy to adopt— to achieve marked
success in social and business life; visualizes the in-
sidious pitfalls that must be avoided — and which
are easy to avoid after he points them out. All that
Mr. Bruce advnses will appeal to you- You'll know
he's right! And everyone who takes his advice will
be better able to win friends, fame, and fortune.
j2mo. Cloth. J42 pages. $1.50 net, postpaid. $1.62.
NERVE CONTROL AND HOW TO GAIN IT
This most interesting and helpful book, by
H. ADDINGTON BRUCE, covers the whole sub-
ject of nervous troubles, their causes, care and cure.
. n a sympathetic and convincing manner the author
points the way to the correction of all the common
nervous faults. The information m the book is
based on absolute authority. There are fifty-eight
chapters, some of their titles being. Signs of N'erve
Stram, Worry and Its Cure; Exercise for Nerve
Control; Brain Fag; Insomnia; Nervous Dyspepsia;
Habits that Hurt; Self -Analysis, etc.
Z2mo. Cloth. $1.25: by mail, $1 37.
THE RIDDLE OF PERSONALITY
by H. ADDINGTON BRUCE. Can we communi-
cate with these aery visitors and learn the secrets
of life beyond the grave? In view of the positive
statements of such learned and prominent men as Sir
Oliver Lodge and Dr. Conan Doyle, that they are
able to talk with denizens of the spirit world thou-
sands of aching hearts the world over are yearning
for knowledge on this vital subject. If you would
know the latest facts as to survival of the intelli-
gence and the views of science on this and allied
topics, read this clearly written, sanely exprcst
book that discusses all the occult topics of recent
years in a most illuminating way and gives much
valuable information about: Apparitions, Crystal
Gazing. Dissociation, Slate Writinp, Telepathy,
Subconscious Mind, Suggestion, Mediums, Dreams,
Clairvoyance. Spirit Rapping, Hypnoti.sm, Psycho-
analysis, Levitation.
j2mo. Cloth, $r.3o; by 7nail, $1.62.
THE MEASURE OF A MAN
The Philosophy of Mental Healing by CHARLES
BRODIE PATTERSON. The author has a mes-
sage of greater life and light, and his doctrine seeks
to prove that the very mistakes and sins of men tend
to bring them to the fuller and TnnvQ complete life.
Svo. Cloth, ,126 pages. $1.75: by mail, $1.85.
HOW FAR DOES THE MIND
INFLUENCE THE BODY?
The answer to this absorbingly interesting ques-
tion wall be found in the books of PAUL DUBOIS.
M.D., Professor of Neuropathology at the Univer-
sity of Berne, Switzeriand. who has made a lifelong
study of the subject. This eminent authority ap-
proaches the problem both as a psychologist and a
physician, yet in a style so clear that it presents no
difficulties to the layman. All six books are sane,
well-balanced, and instinct with an optimism that
will be found contagious.
THE PSYCHIC TREATMENT OF NERV-
OUS DISORDERS. Translated by Smith Ely
Jelliffe. M.D., and William A. White. M.D. In
this strong, optimistic book Dr. Dubois discusses
the philosophy underlying the position he holds and
describes clearly and charmingly the exact methods
by which he has achieved such notable success.
Svo. Cloth, 471 pages. Copious Index. $3.50: half
leather, $4.30. By mail, 23 cents extra
NERVOUS STATES— THEIR NATURE AND
CAUSES. Authorized translation by Edward G.
Richards. Points out that neurasthenia is not a
new disease created by the conditions of modem life,
but is due to fatigue brought on by psychic debilities
and can be cured by the education of the mind and
strengthening of the will. i2mo. Cloth. 75 cents; by
mail. So cents.
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL ORIGIN OF MEN-
TAL DISORDERS. Authorized translation by
Edward G. Richards. A sympathetic and intensely
human book, showing how mental disorders are
caused by commonplace factors of ever>'-day life,
which precipitate the individual into an abnormal
state, and how just as these conditions are formed,
they can be reformed and normal health regained.
i2mo. Cloth, 75 cents; by mail, i^3 cents.
THE EDUCATION OF SELF. Translated
from the latest French edition by Edward G. Rich-
ards. Charming essays that shed new light on the
question of self-control and show that the only
trje road to happiness lies in moral development.
i2mo. Cloth, $1.73; by mail, $1.83.
REASON AND SENTIMENT. Authorized
translation by Edward G. Richards. A delightful
and charmingly written essay, setting forth when
sentiment and when reason should determine our
line of conduct. Will be found specially helpful in
directing the minds of parents toward the proper
molding of their children's intellectual life. i2mo.
Cloth, 73 cents; by mail. Si cents.
THE INFLUENCE OF THE MIND ON THE
BODY. Translatcdby L.B.Gallatin. An intimate
and clearly exprest talk on this much discussed
subject that every physician, nurse, or layman who
is interested in the mutual reactions of mind and
matter, should read with care. It contains a wealth
of inspiration and help, and points the way to a
healthier and happier life. i2mo. Cloth, 73 cents; by
mail. Si cents.
IN THE SUNLIGHT OF HEALTH
A wonderfully optimistic book by CHARLES
BRODIE PATTERSON, for all who are sick, suf-
fering or despondent. It is filled with cheerful
common sense and contagious optimism and proves
conclusively that health and happiness come only
through rightly directed thought and effort, and
that help and healing are ours for the asking if we
seek them aright A book that will make the world
a better place for all who read it.
J2?no. Cloth. 450 pages, $i.75< by mail, $1.85-
THE WILL TO BE WELL
An exposition of the relation between health and
the mind, by CHARLES BRODIE PATTERSON.
The authority of law, claims the author, is resident
in man's life. It is the attitude of his will that
decides his physical, mental, and moral health.
Here are given the principles of controlling life and
maintaining health in its broader sense. The wide
interest aroused by this gripping book has carried
it into a fifth edition.
Cloth bound. $1.75; by mail, $i.85-
HOW TO BUILD MENTAL POWER
By GRENVILLE KLEISER. is a new and different
book, explaining thts vital subject in a new and bet-
ter way. Not only does it tell you what are the
characteristics of the trained rnmd — it also shows
you by specific instructions and exercises just how
Sou may develop these characteristics in yourself,
•ozens of such all-important subjects as these are
covered: Crystallizing Desire Into Will. Seven
Cardinal Rules for Clear Thinking. How to Con
centrate on a Chosen Thought. How to Prevent
Mind Wandering. How to Get Ideals and Inspira-
tion. How to Distinguish Between Truth and
Error. Gaining Accurate, Infallible Judgment.
Cultivating Power of Observation. Developing
Imagination — Intuition — Breadth of Mind. How
to Cultivate Persistence. How to Systematize
your Mind. How to Reason Directly and Logically.
How to Analyze a Proposition and Test Its Value.
Cultivating a Commanding Personality. Building a
Strong Memory. Gaining Forceful Expression.
Etc.. Etc., Etc.
This great work is highly recommended by many
famous men. including— GOVERNOR CAPPER.
Kansas. BISHOP FALLOWS. RUSSELL H.
CONWELL, HON. CHAUNCEY M. DEPEW.
Cloth. Svo. 607 pages. Price $4.00 postpaid.
THE UNCONSCIOUS MIND
A brilliant study of this tremendously important
factor in your Hfeby Alfred T. Schofield, M.D..
showing how it is the real seat of character and
source of conduct and makes you what you are. how
it may be educated, its wonderful influence in the
cure of disease, the correcting of harmful habits,
etc A book of profound importance. Svo. Cloth,
$3-oo; by mail, ^jMJ.
THE FORCE OF MIND
or The Mental Factor in Medicine, by DR. AL-
FRED T. SCHOFIELD. An able exposition of
the action of the mind in causing disease and in
curing disease. It shows how vitally powerful is
the mind for physical good or evil, giving principles
with suggestions for their application and describing
many actual cases which prove the practicability
upon which the book is based. This is a work for
both physician and layman. Cloth bound, $2.00;
by mail, $2.12.
THE SPRINGS OF CHARACTER
A study of the sources and qualities that go to the
makingof character, by A. T. SCHOFIELD, M.D. ,
in which you are shown the transcendent impor-
tance of the formation of the right habits and of a
constructive attitude towards life and its problems,
and taught what are the scientific foundations of
character and the best way in which the^ may be
developed and made permanent. One special merit
of the book is that while the moral side of character
is not minimized, the physical is given its fair share
in the process.
It is a personal message of tremendous impor-
tance to every man, woman, and child All that
concerns the training of the young and the perfect-
ing of out own hves. in every-day professional or
business life, is treated by a master mind. Svo-
Cloth. $2.00; by mail, $2.12.
PERSONAL POWER
A straight-from-thc-shouUlcr. practical, thor-
ough-going book by KEITH J. THOMAS, that
gives you simple directions for acquiring a knowl-
edge of the basic impulses that move men to action
and shows you how to employ this knowledge to
advance yourself in any profession or business.
The author is an experienced man of affairs and he
writes with a direct inspimtional force that will
make you over mentally and morally and give you a
gripon life that means victory. He stirs your latent
energies to action, tells you how to direct them to
produce results, and meets your needs fairly and
squarely.
Andrew Carnegie said of this book: "It has been
written by one who knows. Every young man
should read and study it. because it points the way
to success and honor in life.'.' $i-75 net; by mail,
$i.S7.
FUNK &
354-360 Fourth Avenue
WAGNALLS COMPANY,
Publishers
New York, N.
44
11 inches
wide by 15
inches deep
Strong,
handsome half-
leather bindine,
beautifully em-
bossed and dec
orated in gold.
Some of the
Painters Included
Famous Paintings
Reproduced in Colors
In Two Large,
Handsome Volumes
HIS magnificent work contains actual color
reproductions of the world famous "Old Masters"
which thousands upon thousands of Americans
yearly travel all over Europe to see and study. You
no longer need leave your own home to see these
famous masterpieces. We bring them to your
very doorstep.
Just think of possessing in actual colors a beau-
tiful reproduction of the Mona Lisa — the most
famous picture in the world — -"The Angelus"
by Francois Alillet, "The Judgment of Paris"
by Rubens, "Venus and Adonis" by the great
Titian, Turner's wonderful Marine Pictures,
the famous portrait of King Philip of Spain
by the immortal Velasquez, and nearly lOO
others almost equally famous — the choice
of the entire art loving world!
It's just as though you visited the Louvre
and Luxembourg Galleries in Paris — the
National, Tate and Guildhall in London, the
Wallace Collection, and many others — yet you don't
even have to stir from your chair. And instead of seeing
the pictures once and then hurriedly, as you do in visiting the
galleries, you can have them to own and live with year in and year out.
Over $5,000,000 Worth of Paintings
Archer
Bompard
Botticelli
Bouveret
Brett
Brown
Cazin
Chaplin
Clark
Constable
Coiot
Correggio
Crome
Da Vinci
Detaille
Duverger
Fragonard
Furse
Gainsborough
Gore
Greuze
Guthrie
Hals
Henner
Holbein
Holiday
Hook
Hunt
Israels
Landseer
Latour
Le Brun
Legros
Leighton
Lawrence
Lucas
Mauve
Meissonier
Millet
Morland
Murillo
Peacock
Rembrandt
Reni
Reynolds
Riviere
Romney
Rossetti
Rubens
Sadler
Sargent
Stanley
Steen
Stone
SwcUl
Titian
Troyon
Tuke
Turner
Velasquez
Walker
Waller
Watts
Webster
Whistler
Zorn
The paintings in this great collection are those
which are talked of and discussed by intellectual people
everywhere — paintings with which every well-educated
person should be familiar. They represent canvases
valued at over Five Million Dollars.
There could be no more elevating, pleasurable way
to spend leisure hours than in studying the works of
these masters — like fine books, they become dear old
friends in whose companionship you will find untold
inspiration and happiness.
This is true whether you have ever seen the originals
or not. If you have, these volumes will enable you to
live over and over again your visits to the great galleries
— if you have not seen the originals, they will open up
an entirely new field of almost ecstatic pleasure.
And the children — don't let them grow up without the
refining influence of these great painters — give them
an opportunity to learn and appreciate the real and the
beautiful. Art is as much of a requisite to a liberal
education as music — nay more so, for everyone with
eyesight can find a wonderful satisfaction in art, and
not everyone has an ear for music.
A Real Library of Art
"Famous Paintings" is more than a mere collection
of pictures. It is published in co-operation with Cassell
& Company, the famous London publishers. The paint-
ings are reproduced on a specially prepared canvas
paper which perfectly conveys the color values of the
original. Each one is mounted by hand on lieavy white
art board, which can easily be detached for framing,
and the whole is handsomely bound in two large
volumes — 11x15 inches. The introduction is by
G. K. Chesterton, and each picture is accompanied by a
lucid explanation of the motif of the painting itself and
a brief sketch of the life of the artist.
Vou not only become thoroughly acquainted with the char-
acter of each man's work, but you learn the chief points about
the artist's life and habits, so that you'll be able to talk about
them with authority. It is a comprehensive reference library
ever at your elbow. You'll be proud to possess such beauti-
ful volumes, and proud to show them to your friends.
Enthusiastic Comments From Ownei'M
"'Famous Paintings' have been the source of much
pleasure co the members of our family and a num-
ber of our friends. Am very proud of them."
Hugh Parks, FrankUnsville, N, C.
" My family and I have had much pleasure in view-
ing the splendid paintings represented in the volumes.
I consider the set of great educational value in the
right appreciation of the beautiful in art."
H. H. Price. D.D., Aurora, Nebraska.
"These volumes have brought to me, as they will to
anyone , many happy moments. Their educational value
in the highest and best sense, is immense."
S. G. Heiskell, Former Mayor of Knoxville. Tenn.
"Surely these volumes are e.xceptional, as well for the
beauty and artistic merit of subjects selected as perfec-
tion in reproduction. To be in possession of such a
collection of rare and distinguished paintmgs so faith-
fully copied in beautiful coloring and effects is a
privilege." (Mrs.) Clara B. Whinnery, Findlay. O.
Sent For Free Inspection
The two splendid volumes of "Famous Paintings" will be
shippod to you on api roval. Merely tnclose J2.00 with the
coupon. Your set will be forwarded, ai' charges prepaid, at
once. Examine it at your leisure in youi own home. Then
if you feel you can afford noi o own this treat work, send it
back within five days and your money %viu r.e instantly re-
funded without question or red tape, otherwise pay $2.00
montlily until 525.00 — the price of the set — is paid. If you
wish to pay cash, send only 524.00. But you must act at
once. Our present supply of tnese sets is limited and to
insure your receiving your set you must act promptly —
copy the coupon or write it on a post-card NOW.
FREE EXAMINATION COUPON
SIGN AND MAIL TO-DAY t
I FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY.
j Dept. 543 354-360 Fourth Ave., New York, N. Y.
■ Send me, on approval, carriage charges paid, the two vol-
I umcfi ot Famous PiirUings. I enclose S2. 00. If satisfactory.
, I will retain the work and send you S2. 00 per month thcre-
I after until *S2.oJ).» in all have been paid, completinL: the
purchase. If I do not want the books. \ will return ihem
within five days at your expense, you will refund the money
I I have paid, and I will owe you nothing.
I
1
I
NAME
ADDRESS
CITV
•If you prefer t'.
STATE . - . .
. send only $:i4.(X).
45
How to Make Yourself
WORTH MORE
Through y4pplied Psychology
ANOTHER MAN started even with you in life, no richer, no more talented, no more ambitious. But in the
_/jL years that have passed he has somehow managed to move far ahead. What is the secret of it? Why
should he, apparently, have the power to get so easily the things he wants while you must work so hard for all
that comes to you t
Another woman, madam, no more able than yourself, has the good gifts of life fairly thrust into her hands. You
have compared yourself to her and questioned what there is in her character and talents that you somehow lack.
Learn the Reason from
Science
Scientists have found the secret. They can show you how you, too,
can obtain the better things of life. How you can arouse the hidden
powers of your mind and make them bring you more influence, a
larger income, greater happiness.
Human intelligence acts and reacts according to certain laws known
as the Laws of Psychology — "organized common sense." Either by
instinct or by study some individuals master these laws. To them
the minds of their associates become like fine instruments on which
they can play at will. They have but to set the train of circumstances
moving and await results. In other words — they apply Psychology.
No Longer the Dream
of Theorists
To-day we see Psychology studied by the business man and its
principles applied to the management of factory and office. We see
men in every profession, as well as those in many lines of industry
and business, applying Psychology to their personal occupations, and
from the benefits derived from it, greatly increasing their incomes, en-
larging the scope of their activities, rising to higher positions of
responsibility, influence, and power.
Applied Psychology—
The Direct Method
to Attain Success
Recognizing the need for a popular understanding of its priceless
truths, an organization was founded by Mr. Warren Hilton some
years ago to coordinate the principles of Psychology and apply them
to every-day life — thus the Society of Applied Psychology came into
being. Among the members of the Advisory Board, who also con-
tributed to the Society's literature, are such well-known men as
Henry A. Buchtel, D.D., LL.D., Chancellor, University of Denver,
former Governor of Colorado; Hadsqn Maxim, D.Sc, Inventor ana
Mechanical Engineer; George Van Ness Dearborn, M.D.; Ph.D.,
Psychologist and Author; Harry S. Tipper, Chairman, National
Educational Committee, Associated Advertising Clubs of the World,
and others.
Because of the very great value of the Society's Basic Course of
Reading to the average man and woman. The Literary Digest is
cooperating to bring it within the means of every earnest seeker for
self-betterment.
fFhat Others Say:
Hudson Maxim, Inventor,
The Society's books on Applied Psychology I consider the most valuable of any
books on the subject that I have seen. I have read Spencer's Psychology, Munster-
burg's Psychology, William James' Psychology, and many others, but from the view-
point of usefulness these books, to my mind, are much more valuable. They are
especially adapted to the puri)ose for \phich they are intended — the application of
psychology to the affairs of every-day life.
Ron. George TV. P. Hunt. Governor of Arizona.
I am glad to express my approval of the work which is being done by this organiza-
tion. I believe it to be a fact that the business world has but recently discovered the
application of psychological principles as a distinct and valuable asset, worthy of
study and greater utilization.
R. H. Aishioti. Vice-President . Chicago &* Northwestern Railway Company.
The educational work which your Society has undertaken on lines tending to
tcich men and women how their individual efficiency may be increased by more
piofilable use of energies now wasted, is a most commendable one and can not but
result in a better understanding of these matters. •
£. O. McCormtck, Vice-President. Soulherti Pacific Company.
I think your Society is proceeding along i he right lines and believe that the practical
application of psychologicjl principles such as you teach will in time show results that
will be worthy of the effort put forth.
Francis A. Hancock. Mechanical Mining Engineer, Cook, Park County, Montana.
I have been a student of pyschology for the most part of my life, and have studied
many of the standard books on the subject, but know that I have gained more in the
short time that it has taken to read your works, than all my previous study of the
subject,
I urge all men and women who are struggling to improve and better themselves and
their positions in life, to read and study thoroughly the Basic Course of Reading in
Applied Psychology, knowing that it will bring success, and that they will look upon
life and their fellow men in a new and better light. Surely there is no easier road to
self improvement.
Dr. Gunning Butler. Santa Ana.. Calif.
I consider this set of books on psychology the most terse, clear-cut, understandable,
and interest-compelling text on this vital subject I have ever read. For eighteen
years I have been a student of psychology and I can enthusiastically recommend this
set of books to any one at all interested."
Coleman DuPont, President, E. I.Du Pont de Nemours Powder Company.
The undertaking of your Society is one of great importance to this country alid the
question of mind training for our young men is one that should be given much more
consideration than it is given to-day.
W. W. Clarke. Sec'y &* Treas. Smith &- Clarke Co., Owensboro, Ky.
For some years I have been interested in the science of psychology, and have read
works on that subject by McCosh. James, Munsterburg. Prince, Jastrow, and others;
and fascinating reading it was. too. I have also read and am now studying the " Basic
Course of Reading," It is, in my opinion, the only time that the problem, as a
practical, workable proposition, has been approached from the right direction.
F. P. Schiffley, Assistant Cashier, Peoples National Bank, Orangeburg. .S. C.
If a man makes a real study of your course 1 can not see why he should fail to reach
the to[i rung of the ladder if he wants to. It is uo to him.
FRKE I
'HOW TO DEVELOP YOUR
OWER OF ACHIEVEMENT"
A compelling booklet packed with information on such topics as:_ Psychology
Reduced to Easy, Simple Language; How to Apply Psycholo^ in Salesman-
ship; in Pubhc Speaking; in Retail Selling — Psychology Applied by the Pro-
fessional Man — Your Undiscovered Resources— Source of Will Power — How
to Avoid Worry — How Ideas are Created — The Ability to Read Men, etc.
Sign and mail coupon and you will also receive full particulars of the Society of
Applied Psychology, and what membership in it will mean to you. Copy the
coupon or write it on a postal card NOW.
I
I
I Name .
Street Address.
Oily.
THE LITERARY DIGEST
Dopt. S41 354-360 Fourth Avenue, New York City
Please send mo by m.nil the free booklet, "HOW TO DEVELOP YOUR I
POWER OF ACHIEVEMENT." i
_l
Slate.
J
4r.
Do YOU Know the
English Language of To-day ?
Are you familiar with the wealth of new words with
which our already wonderfully expressive tongue has
been enriched since the Great War — eve7i during the
past fezv months? Have you amplified your vocabulary
with all of them? Can you, on the instant, use them
correctly in your conversation and writings? Do you
fully comprehend their true meaning when you see
them in the current newspapers, periodicals, and books,
and in your daily mail — when you hear them from the
pulpit, on the stage, and in the conversation of your
friends? Can you define and pronounce them accu-
rately for your children ?
Packed in the pages of this wonderful volume — -the
greatest of abridged dictionaries — you have instantly
available the definitions of over 83,000 terms, more
than in any other dictionary of its size, including
the very latest words that have come into our language!
And in addition, a veritable treasure trove of val-
uable, authentic information is yours in the new
Funk & Wagnalls
Desk Standard Dictionary
A Marvel of Up-to-Dateness, Comprehensiveness, Definitive
Clearness, and Accuracy
Think of a dictionary containing all the newest words in our language! With
over 83,000 words and phrases defined, explained, pronounced, and traced to their
original sources for you! With answers to nearly 400,000 questions in all branches
of human knowledge! With the most common meaning %\\en first, and all defini-
tions expressed with incomparable clearness! With 1,200 up-to-date, clear pictorial
illustrations! With information concerning'persons, places, countries, cities, states,
battles, treaties, mountains, rivers, etc., such as Lloyd George, Dardanelles, Foch,
Chatcau-Thierr)', Bolsheviki, Venizelos, Senlis, Piave, Argonne! With all the
authority and accuracy of the great Unabridged Standard Dictionary from which
it is derived! Think of such a Dictionary containing this and more information of
vital importance, all compressed into 900 pages in a volume less than one and one-
half inches in thickness — think of such a source of facts which it behooves everyone
to know, and you have pictured Funk & Wagnalls Desk Standard Dictionary!
Supplies Information on Practically Everything That Can Be
Expressed in English
It is difficult to estimate the immense cultural value and the great every-day
practical utility of the information given in the Desk Standard Dictionary on
many thousands of terms in such subjects as politics, business, music, art, litera-
ture, law, medicine, agriculture, philosophy, history, science, religion, etc. It
includes facts of broad interest upon practically every topic that can be discussed,
or that can be expressed in the English language!
This remarkable volume also gives you a thorough, practical, and instructive
treatment of synonyms, giving not mere lists of synonymous words but examples
of use in actual sentences, clearly showing their varying shades of meaning. With
these are many lists of antonyms — an exclusive and most helpful feature. It gives
you the leading events of American and English history. In it you will find a
number of lists, phrases, and tables — coins, astronomy, weights and measures, metric
system, chemical elements, presidents, sovereigns of England, laws, prefixes and
suffixes, foreign words and phrases, etc.
QnlAntfli^lir llliicf vof Ail ^" addition to its other features, many of them exclusive. Funk
jpienaiaiy lllUSiraiea & Wagnalls Desk standard Dictionary contains numerous fuU-
page illustrations, scientifically correct and unusually attractive, which visuahze for you the
information sought for, such as the page plates of Agricultural Implements — Bark of Trees —
Examples of Architecture — Types of Land and Water Birds — Types of Cattle — Types of Dogs —
Food and Game Fishes — Types of Flowers — Types of Horses — Types of Fowls — Common
American Leaves, etc.
In the Office
In the Home
It will be a constant fount
of information for the growing
boy or girl — of dependable,
easily understood explanations
of those things which are most
often the cause of query and
doubt in the mind of youngsters
In school. It will also serve as
an arbiter and information
bureau for the grown-ups. It
includes all words in ordinary
use and in deiining them gives
authoritative information in all
branches of human knowledge.
Its presence in the home is an
evidence of care in the rearing
of children.
Whether You Want to Know
Jugo-Slav
Rainbow Division
Soviet
C zee ho-Slovak
Cantigny
jazz-band
slacker
Pershing
Saint-Mihiel
Maximalist
gob
pussyfoot
nose dive
nnassif
Aviatik
Blighty
dud
Anzac
In the School
It has now established itself
as the most easily understand-
able classroom dictionary pub*
lished . It will answer more
classroom questions with au-
thority than any other dic-
tionary. It indicates pronuncia-
tion by the text-book key and
the revised scientific alphabet.
AH information in the book is
in one simple alphabetical
order. Principal events in
American and English history
are recorded in alphabetical
place. Recent advances of
science covered. Thorough
synonym treatment, etc.
how to pronounce, divide, spell, understand, or define thou-
sands of word?, phrases, terms, proper names, etc.. such as
questionnaire gas-helmet
shock troops proration
baby bond pragmatic
Hooverize Hiwer
> anti-aircraft etc., etc.
You're Sure to Find It in The
Volume This Coupon Brings You
It should be in the hands' of
every stenographer and cor-
respondent. It should be in
evidence at the conference
table and on the desk of every
executive. Big business houses
are equipping their employees
with it, an order for 125 copies
being received recently from a
large insurance company. Pro-
tect your business documents
from error by having this abso-
lutely dependable guide-book
at your stenographer's right
hand. An error in spelling or
punctuation may change the
entire meaning of a contract or
letter. Supply your employees
with Desk Standard Dic-
tionaries NOW.
Ideal For Personal Use
Authors. Writ'T- of Advertisements. Lawyers, Students, and
others, when traveling, will find the Desk Standard Dictionary
their most helpful companion. Slips easily into a suitcase,
bag. or brief case, and is most convenient to handle. Women in-
terested in club work, politics, etc.. and who have exttnsive
social correspondence, will find it the most complete and most
conveniently prop<»rtioned dictionary for dtsk use.
f'tAXUlvtS Spells, pronounces, defines over 83,000 terms.
Answers nearly 400.000 questions in all branches of
human knowledge. Contains 1.200 up-to-date and accurate pictorial
illustrations, induiliny numerous full-page plates. Has 11,700 linesof
synonym treatment, (.'ontains over goo pages. Has Patent Thumb-
Notch Quick Reference Index.
Beautiful Half-Leather Binding
Size: 6H Inches \vide. Sli inciies high, and less than iH Indies
thick, printed on special thin paper.
Only $2. 75
Postage 16c extra
Sold al all Booi^-slores, or Order Direct from this Coupon hy A^m
copying it. or writing it on a post-car J. NOIV. M^^
\
' FCXK d- WAGXALLS COMPAXY. Dept.54^
354-300 Fourth Avenue, Xtiv York CUy
I enclose $^.T5''plits 16 cents for carriage charges i$z.oi in all), for
which please send me THE NEW DESK STAXDARD DIC-
TlUXAKY, bound in half-leather, indexed.
Xame . .
A ddress .
City. . . .
State . . .
*If \ou wish this dictionary, richly bound in full limp leather, in-
dexed, enclose $6.00: or exquisitely bound in full crushed English
Morocco, dark' brown, polishtd:
I b-'xed. em.lose fi^.oo-
gilt edges, hand tooled, raised bands.
47
© HARRIS A EWINQ
Pershing
Haig
Mercier
Foch
Hin de nbur^
Old World Intrigue Laid Bare !
How the murder of a prince and his wife in a little Bosnian town in iqi4
gave a pretext for declaring war — -almost overnight. And then — -how
"diplomacy" was like a joke in Europe. Treaties between sovereign
states became "scraps of paper." Constitutional rights of countries were vio-
lated. Nation after nation was dra^vn into the vortex — England, Fra.nce,
Russia — thirty in all. The greatest— and the worst — -war of modern times
was fought.
Now that correspondence of the intrigues and secret diplomacy that
brought on this war has been revealed, it has been carefully collated and
printed for your information in the opening pages of
TheJiterarxD^st
History of the World War
THIS GREAT \\'ORK, in TEN big vol-
umes, is the result of four vears' labor.
It teUs the \MIOLE STORY as never
told before, of that terrible struggle, which,
despite twentieth centurv' civilization, lasted
five years, kOled or injured nearly thirty mil-
lion human beings, destroyed six thousand
ships, brought about "meatless" days and
suffering throughout the United States, laid
waste vast parts of Belgium, Poland, and
Serbia, completely changed the face of
Europe, and imposed a tax on every one of
us that we are still paying to-day. You ask
how such a conflict would rage so long among
nations professing to be religious and most of
them worshiping the same God? For answer
read this remarkable Histor>'. It will give you
a clearer insight into the causes underlying the
war — "way back of that royal couple's murder
in Bosnia — than you can possibly get from
any other .source.
Genf^^als as Historians
The Literary Digest History of the World War is
flot a mere one-man history. It is a careful compila-
tion by F'rancis Whiting Halsey of official reports
and thrilling personal experiences supplied by dis-
tinguished officers and enlisted men in the fight; by
war correspondents, strategists, statesmen and other
authorities.
You will read what was said by General Pershing,
Marshal I'och, .Admiral Hugh Rodman. Field Mar-
shal Haig, Major-Genera! von Bernhardi, Field
Marshal von Hindenburg, Major-General Maurice,
and other noted officers on both sides.
You will find elaborate reports, official and other-
wise, of blood-stirring happenings, deeds of daring.
suffering, sacrifice, cruelty, torture, massacre. One
tells you of works of kindness and charity. Another
tells of acts of wholesale miurder and destruction.
Full Accounts of Battles
You will read thrilling reports of battles in France,
Belgium, Italy, Russia, Japan, China, Egypt, the
Holy Land, everywhere — on land, on and under the
water, in the air. You will read — perhaps for the
first time — carefully guarded information about
the transportation of two million American soldiers
to Europe, notwithstanding German submarine
activity.
You will discover the remarkably quick turn in
the tide of the war when the *' Yanks" finally
landed on the firing line.
You will devour the memorable campaigns of
"Our Boys" — maybe of YOUR boy — thru every
glorious engagement, including the memorable
moment at Chateau Thierry, where the French had
been fighting almost hopelessly for days, when the
American officers hurried up, saluted and spoke
eight words to the French: "Vous etes fatigues.
Vous allez partir. Notre job." ("You are tired.
You get away. Our job.")
From that point you will follow the triumphant
course of our armies thru the Marne saUent, in the
Argonne, at the St. Quentin Tunnel and on to the
overwhelming victory under General Pershing at
the St. Mihiel salient.
Was Your Boy There?
These battles, with the names of troops taking
part, have gone down into history and taken their
rightful places with the battles of Bunker Hill in
1775, New Orleans in 1815, Gettysburg in 1S63,
Manila Bay in 1898. The Literary Digest History
of the World War in your home tells of these glorious
deeds and will lead your children and generations
to come to revere the memories of their ancestors
10 Beautiful Volumes— 4000 Pages
Bound in Dark
Blue Ribbed
Cloth.
Printed on High
Class Paper
From Large
Clear Type.
1000
Illustrations
and Maps in
Black and
White and in
Colors.
as we now do homage to the valorous achievements
of Washington, Lafayette, Andrew Jackson, Grant,
Lee, Dewey, and others who gave us our heritage
of freedom and made possible the United States
as it is to-day.
EVERY American home should have this
History — for study and reference. Especially
should it be in homes from which a father or son or
husband or brother went into the war. Perhaps
you never have heard the whole story of what HE
did! .\nd so you should have this History. You
should have a complete, authentic record of HIS
achievements as shown in accounts of when and
where HIS company or regiment or division went
"over the top, " and how HE helped to strangle
German imperial autocracy. This History links
HIS life and HIS heroism with the greatest
miUtary victory of civilization.
More Than a War History
The Literary Digest History of the World War
does not end with the signing of the armistice in
191S. It vividly describes all the events of re-
construction days, including the surrender of
Germany's ships. It tells of the abdication of
Wilhelm, the German Kaiser; his flight into
Holland; his life at .-\merongen. It gives long-
suppressed facts about the abdication, imprison-
ment and cold-blooded murder of Nicholas II, Czar
of Russia.
You have all the facts about President Wilson's
activities in the war, from his proclamation of
neutrality in 1914 to and including trips to the
Paris Peace Conference, and his veto of the Knox
Peace resolution in 1920. The story has never
been published before in such readable form.
Nothing But Praise
General Pershing said he was "very pleased to
have this valuable History in his library."
Ex- Secretary of the Na\'y Josephus Daniels said:
"It is remarkable how full and clear and informing
this narrative is. It will be of lasting value and
its pages will be drawn upon by future historians
to emphasize this or that phase of the great
struggle."
Major-General Leonard Wood said: "Your work will
give the general public a very satisfactory and inter-
esting story of the war and furnish information which
the reading pubUc is anxious to obtain and will enable
it to follow the progress of the war from the beginning
to end. It will also furnish a useful reference for the
militar\ :>tudent."
Send *2- You Get the Books
On receipt of $2 and a copy 01 the coupon
below we will forward to your address, ALL
CARRIAGE CHARGES PREPAID, the ten
volumes of The Literary Digest History of the
World War. The remaining $23 of the purchase
price you can send in instalments of $2 a month.
Remember we DELIVER the books without
expense to you. Our guarantee of satisfaction is
backed by nearly HALF A CENTURY of great
publishing achievements. Copy this coupon on
a post-card or letter — NOW.
FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY Dept. S45
354-360 Fourth Avenue, New York, N, V.
I enclose $2 for which send mc, carriaKC charees
PREPAID, for ten days' examination. THE LIT-
ERARY DIGEST HISTORY OF THE WORLD
WAR.. If satisfactory I am to send yu monthly
payments of $2 each to pay S25 in all. If the Hi.s-
tory is not satisfactory, I will return the books to
you within 10 days at YCTUR expense, you are to
refund the J2 I have paid, and I shall owe you
nothing.
Name
Street
Cily SiaU.
48
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY
Los Angeles
This book is DUE on the last date stamped below.
Form L9-Series 4939
nils,?." "ff^'MW LIBRARy F,r„ ,r,,
mim
D 000 680 68
1 4