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LIVE STOCK
A CYCLOPEDIA
FOR THE FARMER AND STOCK OWNER
INCLUDING
THE BREEDING, CARE. FEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF
Horses, Cattle, Swine, Sheep and Poultry
WITH
A Special Department on Dairying
BEING ALSO
A COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR
SPECIAL EDITION
VOLUMES I, II, III, IV, V, VI, and VII COMBINED
BY
A. H. BAKER, M. D., V. S.
Fouuder and for 27 years Dean and Professor of Theory and Practice of Veterinary Medicine,
Cfiicago Veterinary College.
Associate Authors
HON. JONATHAN PERIAM, HON. W. I>. HOARD.
Author Cyclopedia of Agriculture, Etc. Editor and Publisher Hoard's Dairyman
With special contributions from the following professors of the Ontario Agricultural College
of Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
G. K. I>AY. B. S. A. J. HrOO REED, B. S. A.
Professor of Agriculture and Farm Superintendent. Professor of Veterinary Science
H. H. DEAN. B. N. A. W. R. GRAHAM, B. N. A.
Professor of Dairy Husbandry. Manager and Lecturer Poultry Department
WITH ONE THOUSAND EXPI.ANATORY ENGRAVINGS
PUliLISHED BY
INTER-COLLEGIATE PRESS
KANS.\S CITY, .\I().
1914
Copyright, 1914, by The Thompson Publishing Co
Copyright, 1913, by THE THOMPSON PUBLISHING CO.
Copyright. 1911, by THE THOMPSON PUBLISHING CO.
Copyright, 1909. bj THE THOMPSON PUBLISHING CO.
AUTHOR'S INTRODUCTION
THAT knowledge is power is an oft repeated maxim. It is a truism,
and that knowledge is safety is quite as great a truth. With these
thoughts as an impelling motive this book is written for the farmer
and stock owner. It is the purpose to tell them what they should know
concerning the details of a great interest — one which pertains to every
farm and to every one owning a horse, cow% or other domestic animal. It
is time that such book is written. Its facts are given in language such as
the unprofessional stock OAvner can understand, and its remedies are such
as he can procure and apply. Its teachings concerning breeds, breeding,
training and the general care of live stock — its instructions in the charac-
teristics of the various breeds of all domestic animals — their points of
excellence and strength — have both educational and financial value which
it is believed should be wdthin the reach of every stock owner.
Since my previous book on the same general subjects was written, many
diseases have developed and important advances made in popular vet-
erinary practice. The general demand for all this information has been
most manifest and the meeting of that demand would seem to be in the
line of imperative duty.
In the veterinary departments special effort has been made to give the
causes producing disease, so that knowing the cause the disease may be
obviated. Prevention is better than cure, and this fact is emphasized
throughout the volume. Equal care has been observed in describing and
giving symptoms, so that the reader may, with as unerring certainty as
possible, know the nature of the disease, and hence, what to do — and
when to call for professional treatment. When the services of a skilled
veterinary surgeon are required it has been imperatively advised, and care
has been taken to distinguish between popular treatment and that requir-
ing scientific and skillful management. In prescribing remedies the
effort has been to give those within the reach of the farmer — such as he
can procure, prepare, and easily administer.
In like manner unfamiliar words and technical phrases have been
avoided as far as possible, consistent with scientific accuracy of statement.
Clearness and conciseness of expression have been carefully consulted,
and, to further conduce to a correct understanding, elaborate glossaries
V
VI AUTHOR'S INTRODUCTION
are appended explanatory of the meaning of words in the book not famil-
iar to everyday life.
We have reached a period of progressive farming — a period of the
application of the best and most approved methods with the view to the
largest and most profitable results. It is a period of sharp competition
when every industry to be successful must be directed with the detailed
knowledge of facts and conditions that determine success or failure. In
the general material progress, live stock interest has more than kept pace.
It has widened in scope and method and extended in its markets till it
has compassed the earth. In its highest development it is demanding the
application of scientific and practical up-to-date information. At no pe-
riod in history has the farmer and his product occupied positions so
commanding. The political economists have discovered the importance
and the dignity of the farmer's position as the producer of the world's
wealth as contrasted with the mere trafficker in what the farm produces.
In that product live stock stands as one prime essential, in all pervading
extent, in quick conversion to money, in vast volume and in profit. In
the evolution of quality its progress has been marvelous. In the care-
taking and in improved breeding is this progress and profit largely due.
But it is a fact that in this book-making age there is no well authenti-
cated, systematic, up-to-date work in compact, convenient form accessible
to the farmer in which the known facts and principles of the art of im-
proving and breeding domestic animals, and of the causes, symptoms,
prevention and cure of diseases, are presented for popular study and easy
reference. Yet, such is the fact, notwithstanding the paramount imports
ance of live stock to the farmer, and the wonderful progress that has been
made in its improvement. The present effort is to supply this want. The
importance of the subject cannot well be overestimated. When we con-
sult statistics giving the millions of dollars invested in live stock in this
great country, when we consider that the bulk of this immense value is
distributed among those of minor wealth, as the farmer and small stock
owner, who have inadequate access to educated veterinary practitioners,
and who are not fully informed as to the practical principles applicable to
the most successful and profitable breeding, training and general care of
domestic animals, its importance is most apparent. Long experience and
observation lead to the belief that a carefully arranged and classified work
giving the facts in the art of breeding and general care of live stock, de-
AUTHOR'S INTRODUCTION VII
rived from the experience of the practical and most successful stock men,
will be of incalculable benefit to every owner of domestic animals.
In the following pages the value of kind treatment has been urged
with marked frequency, and the fact is mentioned with no apologetic in-
tent. It is urged as a policy both humane and profitable. What can be
done to improve the condition and advance the comfort of these true
friends of humanity is in the interest of economy. There is a much needed
reform in the breeding, care and treatment of domestic animals, and the
endeavor is here made to direct the way and point out its advantages.
In treating of the various breeds of live stock, it has been the purpose
to give the special characteristics, with the excellencies and defects in
each, so that the reader may know exactly which will serve best his profit-
able success. In this, partiality for any one breed has. been avoided and
an honest effort made to point out the adaptability of each to special pur-
poses. This much needed information will enable the reader to select
for special objects with unerring judgment. There has been an undevi-
ating purpose to avoid the too common custom of advocating the claims
of any one breed or class of breeders, at the expense of another, or in con-
tradiction to correct statement. The methods of advertising specialties,
too common in such books, have been scrupulously avoided.
To judge accurately the value of a horse, cow, or other animal of the
farm, as also its particular features of excellence, from general appearance,
manner and physical form, has been given special attention. This is sus-
ceptible to almost exact knowledge. Intelligent study of the facts here
given ought to enable any one to determine the characteristics of a horse,
or cow, or other animal, and whether it is best adapted to the purpose for
which it is wanted. Not only can the matter of physical constitution and
adaptability to a specific purpose be determined, but it is also within the
power of the intelligent observer to detect vicious habits, disease and
unsoundness by the same analytic observation. A special feature of this
work has been to give this information in such clear, specific and analytic
form, both by written word and illustration, as to make any intelligent
reader a good judge of the value and qualifications, so to speak, of any
horse, cow, or other domestic animal.
The age of an animal has an important bearing in estimating both
value and use. To cover this point of vital interest we have, in the Horse
VIII AUTHOR S INTRODUCTION
and Cattle department, introduced illustrated Charts giving the formation
of the teeth at the various ages, accompanied by such explanation and in-
struction as will enable any one, by a little s'udy and observation, to ascer-
tain with almost perfect accuracy the ages of tlicco animals at any period.
The great value of this knowledge is readily seen and cannot well be over-
estimated. "With this information, and the ability to understand special
characteristics and defects, instruction in which .: ~"?ip given and illus-
trated in such careful detail, the arts of the joc!::^/ '.vi.. jz oltectually pro-
vided against.
The subject of training has received elaborate consideration, and as the
value of an animal depends greatly on the care and success with which it
has been trained, it is believed that the atl ition given to it will be pro-
ductive of valuable results.
In this, as in other departments, gentle and humane methods are advo-
cated as the most satisfactory as well as the most profitable. Allied to this,
the directions and facts given concerning proper shelter, convenience and
economy in building, are deemed of interest and value.
In the attainment of clearness, the generous and prodigal liberality of
the Publishers in illustrating, by accurate, well executed and striking en-
gravings, every department and chapter of the work, desen^es special
attention. As aiding and strengthening the enforcement of fact, this
feature, made at enormous outlay, is of a practical value impossible to
exaggerate.
In conclusion, the hope is indulged that the farmer and stock raiser who
will attentively read these pages, and reduce to practice the suggestions
here given, will find such increase of success, profit and pleasure in his
noble calling as to justify his good opinion and the endorsement of this
volume. If so, the author's purpose in writing it will have been accom-
plished.
Chicago, III.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS.
BOOK I— PART I,
THE HORSE.— HISTORY, MANAGEMENT, AND CHARACTERIS-
TICS OF THE VARIOUS BREEDS.
CHAPTER I.
HIS ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY.
PAGE
Connected with Man from the Earliest Historical Period. — I. The Horse in
Ancient History. — II. The Horse in Civilization. — III. Preserving Breeds
in Purity.— IV. The Wild Horse of To-Day.— V. Fossil Horses.— VI.
Horses of Asia. — VII. European Horses. — VIII. Artificial Breeding and
Diseases. — IX. Opinions Relating to Breeding. — X. In-Breeding of Hor-
ses.— XI. Value of Hereditary Characteristics. — XII. A Careful Study
Necessary. — XIII. About Object Lessons 41
CHAPTER II.
ILLUSTRATING THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.
Frame-work the Index of Value. — II, Master the Details of the Skeleton.
— III. Division of the Several Parts. — IV. Comparative Anatomy of Man
and the Horse. — V. Analyzing the Skeleton. — VI. The Foot. — VII. The
Head and Neck. — ^VIII. Bones and Muscles of the Front Limbs. — IX. The
Hind Limbs 53
CHAPTER in.
THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM AND INTERNAL FUNCTIONS OF THE HORSE.
The Economy of the Muscular Covering. — II. Muscles of the Head and
Neck. — in. Muscles of the Shoulder and Back. — IV. Muscles of the Hind-
er Parts. — V. Muscles of the Fore Limbs. — VI. Muscles of the Leg and
Foot. — VII. Studying the Structure. — VIII. Internal Economy of the
Horse.— IX. External Parts of the Horse 68
CHAPTER IV.
OUTWARD APPEARANCE OF THE HORSE AS INDICATING VALUE.
Action the First Requisite of a Grood Horse. — ^11. Fast Walking Horses. — III.
Horses for Different Kinds of Work.— IV. The Head Illustrated Outwardly.
—V. The Body and Limbs.— VI. Bad Fore Quarters.— VII. The Body
as Seen From the Front.— VIII. Wha.t a Critical Horseman Said. — IX.
Front View, Showing Bad Fore Quarters. — X. The Hinder Parts Illus-
trated.—KI. The Propelling Power.- XII. What the Ancients Knew of
Horses. — XIII. What One Need not Expect 88
IX
X TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER V.
THE HORSE'S TEETH, AND HOW TO TELL HIS AGE.
PAGE
I, The Dental Formula.— II. The Teeth are the True Index of Age.— III.
The Foal's Teeth. — IV. Differences Between the Teeth of Foal and Horse.
— V. Allowances to be Made. — VI. Illustrating by the Chart 113
CHAPTER VI.
BREEDS OF HORSES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS.
Influences of Country and Climate.— II. The Farm Horse.— III. The
Clydesdale Horse. — IV. The Norman-Percheron. — V. The Percheron of
To-day. — VI. The Conestoga Horse. — VII. Road Horses. — VIII. Trot-
ting Horses. — IX. Hunting Horses. — X. Light Driving Horses. — ^XI.
Coach Horses.— XII. The Cleveland Bay.— XIII. The French Coach
Horse.— XrV. The Hackney.— XV. Ponies.— XVI. The Vermont Draft '
Horse.— XVII. The Narragansett Pacer.— XVIII. The Shire.— XIX. The
Belgian Horse. — XX. Characteristics of the Belgian Horse 120
CHAPTER Vn.
THOROUGHBRED HORSES.
English Thoroughbreds. — 11. Herbert's History of the English Horse. —
m. The First London Race Course. — IV. Horses Taken to England by
Crusaders. — V. Bone and Bulk Imparted to the English Horse. — VI. The
Horse in th'e Times of Henry VIII and James I. — ^VII. American Thorough-
breds.—VIII. The Arabian 152
CHAPTER VIII.
ABOUT TROTTING HORSES.
I. The Breeding of Trotters. — 11. Progenitors of Fast Trotters — 'Messenger.
— III. Imported Bellfounder. — IV. The Modern Trotter. — V. What Gold-
smith Maid Was Like.— VI. The Movement in Trotting.— VII. Disuse of
the Trotting Faculty.— VIII. Highly Bred Horses. — EX. Strains of Trot-
ting Blood IG'J
CHAPTER IX.
THE BREEDING AND REARING OP COLTS.
Importance of Accurate Knowledge.— IL Breed From Mature Animals.—
III. No Profit in Inferior Horses. — IV. Heredity in Animals. — V. Pe-
culiar Organic Structure.— VI. Heredity of Disease.— VII. Atavism or
Breeding Back— Breed to None but the Best.— VIIL Variation and De-
velopment.—IX. Transmission of Qualities.— X. The Impress of Color
and Form.— XI. Relation of Size in Sire and Dam.— XII. Breed Only
From Pure Sires.— XIII. The Best are Cheapest in the End.— XIV. Se-
lection of Stallion and Mare.— XV. Service of the Stallion.— XVL The
Period of Gestation-Treatment.— XVII. Treatment After Foaling.—
XVIII. How to Know if a Mare is in Foal.— XIX. How to Know the Foal-
ing Time.— XX. The Foaling Stall.— XXI. Abortion, or Slinking the
Foetus.— XXII. How to Raise a Colt 183
TABLE OF CONTENTS. XI
CHAPTER X.
ASSES AND MULES.
The Mule and Hinny Defined.— II. The Ass.— III. Antiquity of the Mule.— ^^^
IV. Breeding-Jacks.— V. Longevity of the Mule.— VL The Value of
Mules for Labor.— VII. Mules are not Vicious.— VIII. The Breeding of
^"^^^ 199
CHAPTER XI.
HOW TO TRAIN A HORSE.
The Old System and the New.— II. Th^ American Way Better than the Eng-
lish.—III. Difference Between Breaking and Training.— IV. First Lessons
—V. Learning to Lead.— VI. To Make a Colt Come to You. VII.— Lessons
in Sound Signals.— VIII. Flexions.— IX. The Proper Age for Work.— X.
Harnessing and Driving.— XI. The Age for Real Work.— XIL How to Sub-
due a Wild Colt.— XIII. Handling a Vicious Colt.— XIV. Subduing a Vi-
cious or Tricky Horse.— XV. Training a Stallion for Service.— XVL
Training for Draft.— XVII. How to Have a Good Plow Team.— .XVIII. *
Forming a Good Saddle Horse.— XIX. The Different Gaits.— XX. Train-
ing to Trot in Harness.— XXI. Forming a Trotter.— XXII. To Train a
Racer.— XXIII. Saddling.— XXIV. Harnessing 208
CHAPTER XII.
STABLES AND OTHER SHELTER.
The Economy of Comfort.— II. How to Build Stables.— Ill Where to Keep
Harness.— IV. Temperature and Ventilation.— V. The Arrangement of
Stalls.— VI. Construction of Mangers and Racks.— VII. The Hay and Straw
Loft.— VIII. An Economical Granary.— IX. The Wagon and Carriage Floor.
X.— The Harness Room.— XI. The Stable-Yard and Out-Sheds.— XIL Grass
Lots near the Stable.— XIIL A Good Supply of Water.— XIV. Cleaning
the Stable 224
CHAPTER XIII.
FEEDING, WATERING AND GROOMING.
The Good that a Sieve Will Do.— II. How to Feed.— in. When to Feed.—
IV. What to Feed.— V. Condiments.— VI. How to Make Mashes.— VII
How to Make Gruel.— VIIL The Quantity of Grain to Feed.— IX. Hay and
Straw.— X. Grooming.— XI. When to Groom.— XIL General Stable Care
—XIII. Blankets and Other Clothing 232
CHAPTER XIV.
HUMANITY AND COMMON SENSE.
The Economy of Humane Treatment.— IL Common Sense in all Things —
III. Thrift and Unthrift Contrasted.— IV. Cruelty and Improvidence vs
Thrift and Kindness.— V. Why the Horse Requires Intelligent Management
—VI. How to Know an Intelligent Master.— VII. Pictures from Real Life
—VIIL The Kind Man Will Have a Willing Team.— IX. The "Good Fel-
low's" Cruelty.— X. How to Use One's Means 24P
XII TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XV.
HOW TO BUY AND SELL A HORSE.
PAGE
I. Accurate Knowledge Necessary.— II. Buying Cheap Horses.— III. A Guar-
antee of Soundness. — IV. Know What you Buy for. — V. The Proportions
of the Horse. — VI. Description of Eclipse. — VII. What Constitutes a Grood
Horse. — \JU. Models for Buying. — IX. The Racing and the Trotting Form.
—X. The Roadster.— XI. Saddle Horses.— XII. A Horse of High Form.—
XIII. Buying for Blood. — XIV. Choosing the Brood Mare. — XV. Selecting the
Stallion.— XVI. How to Detect Vices and Defects.— XVII. Some Faults
and Imperfections.— XVIII. What is Unsoundness? 249
BOOK I— PART II.
DISEASES OF THE HORSE.— HOW TO KNOW THEM, THEIR
CAUSES. PREVENTION AND CURE.
CHAPTER I.
SYMPTOMS AND GENERAL TREATMENT.
Introduction. — IT. Outward Manifestations of Disease. — III. Symptoms of
Internal Diseases. — IV. Importance of Prompt Treatment. — V. Know What
You are Treating. — VI. Nursing and Feeding Sick Animals. — VII. Ex-
planation of Terms Used. — VIII. Graduation of Doses. — IX. How Often
to Give Medicines. — X. Forms of M'edicines, and How to Administer 273
CHAPTER n.
FEET OF THE HORSE AND THEIR DISEASES.
Corns. — ^11. Quittor. — ^III. Quarter and Sand Cracks. — IV. Seedy Toe. —
V. Pricking from Nails. — VI. Acute Founder or Laminitis. — VII. Chronic
Founder or Laminitis. — VIII. Pumiced Feet 281
CHAPTER III.
FEET OP THE HORSE AND THEIR DISEASES, CONTINUED.
I. Thrush. — II. Navicular Disease. — III. Contraction of the Foot. — TV. Grav-
el.— V. Canker. — 'VI. Calks. — VII. Fracture of the Bone of the Foot. —
VIII. Stone Bruises.— IX. Side Bone 299
CHAPTER IV.
SHOEING AND CARE OF THE FEET.
What a Shoer can do. — 11. How to Prepare the Foot for the Shoe. — III.
Where the Bearing Should Rest. — IV. Weight of Shoes and How to Fit
Them —V. Care of the Feet in the Stable.— VI. The Floor of the Stall 310
TABLE OF CONTENTS. XIII
CHAPTER V.
LEGS OF THE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES.
PAGE
I. Bone Spavin. — II. Bog Spavin. — III. Occult Spavin. — IV. Blood Spavin. —
V. Thoroughpin.— VI. Curb.— VII. Ring Bone.— VIII. Splint.— IX. Sprain
of Back Tendons of the Fore Legs. — X. Broken Down 314
CHAPTER VI.
LEGS OF THE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES, CONTINUED.
I, Capulet or Capped Hock and Elbow.— II. Fractures.— III. Open Joint.— IV.
Broken Knees.— V. Knee Sprung.— VI. Cocked Ankles.— VII. Windgalls.
— VIII. Shoulder Lameness and Sweeny. — IX. Cramp of the Muscles of
the Thighs 334
CHAPTER VII.
LEGS OF THE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES, CONTINUED
L Stifled.— II. Hip Lameness and Hipped.— III. Stocking.— IV. Elephan-
tiasis or Lymphangitis. — V. Scratches or Cracked Heel. — VI. Grease. —
VII. Mud Fever. — VIII. Furunculus or Carbuncle. — IX. Dislocations. —
X. Wounds. — XI. Sore Shins. — ^XII. Osteophytes, Following Sore Shins.
—XIII. Porcelaneous Deposit— XIV. String Halt.— XV. Interfering.—
XVI. Overreaching.— XVII. Forging.— XVIII. Rupture of Muscles. —
XIX. Atrophy of the Muscles 350
CHAPTER VIII.
BODY OF THE HORSE, ITS EXTERNAL ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES.
1. Caries. — II. Necrosis. — III. Osteo Porosis. — V. Exostosis of the Jaw. —
VI. Broken Back.— VII. Sprain of the Back.— VIII. Broken Ribs.— IX.
Broken Tail.— X. Fracture of the Skull.— XI. Tumors.— XII. Goitre.—
XIII. Inflamed Parotid Gland.— XIV. Fistula of the Parotid Duct.— XV.
Fistulous Withers.— XVI. Poll Evil.— XVII. Inflamed Jugular Vein.—
XVIII. Saddle Galls.— XIX. Sit Fasts.— XX. Surfeit— XXI. Dropsy.—
XXII. Chordes.— XXIII. Rupture or Hernia.— XXIV. Warts.— XXV.
Rat-Tail.— XXVI. Itchy Tail.— XXVII. Itchy Skin.— XXVIH. Melanosis.
—XXIX. Hide Bound.— XXX. Eczema 371
CHAPTER IX.
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS.
I. Tumor in the False Nostril.— II. Polypus.— III. Catarrh.— IV. Nasal Gleet.
— V. Laryngitis, Roaring and Whistling. — VI. Quinsy. — VII. Bronchitis. —
VIII. Pneumonia. — IX. Heaves. — X. Congestion of the Lungs. — XI.
Pleurisy. — XII. Hydrothorax. — XIII. Chronic Cough 392
CHAPTER X.
DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL.
I. Teeth— Ache, Decay, Filing— Wolf Teeth.— II. Tongue Laceration.— III.
Sore Mouth. — IV. Lampas. — V. Pharyngitis. — VI. Choking. — VII. Gas-
tritis.— VIII. Stomach Staggers. — IX. Dyspepsia. — ^X. Spasmodic Colic.
— XI. Flatulent Colic. — XII. Rupture of the Stomach, Intestines or Dia-
phragm.— XIII. Constipation. — XIV. Diarrhoea and S'upergation. — XV.
Dysentery.— XVI. Enteritis.— XVII. Peritonitis.— XVIII. Calculi.—
XIX. Intussusception and Gut Tie 408
XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XI.
DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM.
PAGE
I. Phrenitis, or Inflammation of the Brain. — II. Cerebro-Spinal Meningitis. —
III. Apoplexy. — IV. Megrims. — V. Tetanus or Lockjaw. — VI. Paralysis.
—VII. Sunstroke 429
CHAPTER Xn.
DISEASES OF THE HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS.
I. Inflammation of the Endocardium. — II. Enlargement of the Heart. — III. At-
rophy of the Heart. — IV. Induration of the Heart. — V. Fatty Degeneration
of the Heart. — VI. Obesity of the Heart. — VII. Cyanosis or Blue Disease.
— VIII. Rupture of the Heart. — IX. Rupture of a Blood Vessel. — X. Aneur-
ism.— XI. Phlebitis, or Inflammation of a Vein. — XII. Thumps 437
CHAPTER XIII.
GENERAL DISEASES OF THE BLOOD.
I. Influenza — ^Epizooty — "Pink Eye." — II. Purpura Hemorrhagica. — III. Rheu-
matism.— IV. Abscesses. — V. Erysipelas 441
CHAPTER XIV.
CONTAGIOUS BLOOD DISEASES.
I. Glanders and Farcy. — II. Strangles. — III. Rabies or Hydrophobia. — IV.
Horse Pox or Equine Variola. — V. Surra. — VI. Mycotic Lymphangitis, or
Japanese Farcy 448
CHAPTER XV.
DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS.
I. Nephritis, or Inflammation of the Kidneys. — II. Congestion of the Kidneys.
— in. Cystitis, or Inflammation of the Bladder. — IV. Paralysis of the Blad-
der.— ^V. Eversion of the Bladder. — VI. Spasm of the Neck of the Bladder.
— VII. Rupture of the Bladder. — VIII. Diabetes Insipidus or Profuse Stal-
ing.— IX. Haematuria, or Bloody Urine. — X. Suppression of the Urine, or
Dysuria. — XI. Dribbling of the Urine, or Enuresis. — ^XII, Stricture of the
Urethra.— XIII. Gonorrhoea.— XIV. Foul Sheath.— XV. Urinary Calculi.
—XVI. Millet Disease of Horses 459
CHAPTER XVL
MALARIAL FEVER IN HORSES OR PERNICIOUS ANEMIA, SWAMP FEVER, OR SURRA.
I. Definition. — II. Etiology. — III. Symptoms. — ^IV. Diagnosis. — V. Field
Work. — VI. Treatment. — VII. Conclusions 470
CHAPTER XVII.
DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS.
I. Symptoms. — II. Treatment. — III. Sarcocele. — ^IV. Varicocele. — ^V. Degen-
eration of the Testicles. — VI. W^arts on the Penis. — VII. Degeneration of
Penis. — ^VIII. Extravasation of Blood in the Penis. — IX. Paralysis of the
Penis.— X. Maladie Du Coit, or Dourine 477
TABLE OP CONTENTS. XV
CHAPTER XVin.
PARTURITION.
PAGE
Natural Parturition. — ^11. Different Presentations. — III. Attention to the
Mother.— IV. Attention to the Foal.— V. Difficult Parturition in the
Mare and Cow Compared. — VI. Difficulties Due to the Mother. — VII. Dif-
ficulties Due to the Foal. — VIII. Obstetric Instruments. — IX. When the
Foa! !S Born Dead, or the After-Birth Retained. — X. The Umbilical Cord
of Foal. — XI. Various Presentations Illustrated. — XII. Various Positions
of the Foal. — XIII. Dorso-Lumbar Presentation. — ^XIV. Sterno-Abdom-
inal Presentation. — XV. Mechanism of Parturition. — XVT. Mechanism of
Parturition in the Anterior Vertebro-Sacral Position. — XVII. Mechanism
of Parturition in the Anterior Vertebro-Pubic Position. — XVIII.
Mechanism of Parturition in the Anterior Vertebro-Ilial Positions. — XIX.
Mechanism of Parturition in the Posterior Lumbo-Sacral Position. — ^XX.
Necessary Aid in Normal Parturition. — XXI. Spaying, or Castration of
the Mare 483
CHAPTER XIX.
DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF GENERATION.
Of the Male: — I. Inflammation of the Testicles. — II. Hydrocele, or Dropsy
of the Scrotum. — III. Evil Results of Castration. — IV. Wounds of the
Penis. — V. Gonorrhoea. — VI. Phimosis and Paraphimosis. — VII. Mastur-
bation.
Of the Female: — ^VIII. Parturition. — IX. Metritis, or Inflammation of the
Womb. — X. Inflammation of the Ovaries. — XI. Leucorrhoea. — XII. Puer-
peral Fever. — XIII. Mammitis. — XIV. Hysteria. — XV. Abortion 507
CHAPTER XX.
DISEASES OF THE LIVER.
Congestion of the Liver. — II. Hepatitis, or Inflammation of the Liver
(Acute or Chronic). — III. Ceroma, or Fatty Degeneration. — IV. Cirrhosis,
or Fibrous Degeneration. — V. Jaundice, Icterus, or Yellows. — VI. Biliary
Calculi, or Gall Stones. — VII. Hypertrophy. — ^VIII. Atrophy. — IX. Soften-
ing, or Ramollissement, with Rupture 514
CHAPTER XXL
DISEASES OF THE EYE.
Specific Ophthalmia, or Moon Blindness. — II. Simple Ophthalmia, or Con-
junctivitis.— in. Amaurosis, Gutta Serena, or Glass Eye. — IV. Glaucoma.
—V. Iritis. — VI. Lcucoma. — VII. Cataract. — VIII. Filaria Oculi, or
Worm in the Eye. — IX. Entropium. — ^X. Ectropium. — XI. Torn Eyelids.
XII. Cancerous Tumor in the Eye.— XIII. Obstruction of the Lachrymal
Duct 518
CHAPTER XXII.
I. Intestinal Worms. — II. Bots. — III. Lice. — IV. Mange. — V. Ringworm 526
PARASITIC DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
XVI TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XXIII.
VICES IN THE STABLE.
PAGE
I. Cribbing.— 11. Wind Suclting.— III. Gnawing the Manger, Clothing, etc.—
IV. Kicliing while Eating Grain. — ^V. Wasting the Grain. — VI. Pulling
Back, and Brealdng the Halter.— VII. Balking 533
CHAPTER XXIV.
CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT OF STABLES, AS RELATED TO HYGIENE.
I. Necessity for Stables. — II. Construction of Stables. — III. Feeding and
Watering Stock. — IV. The Care of Stock when in Stable. — V. Additional
Directions for Giving Medicines. — VI. Detection of Disease 537
CHAPTER XXV.
OPERATIONS.
I. Anaesthetics, and How to Use Them.— II. Bandages.-^III. Bleeding.— IV.
Blistering. — ^V. Casting. — VI. Castration. — VII. Extirpation of the Eye.
—VIII. Firing.— IX. Lithotomy.— X. Lithotrity.— XI. Neurotomy.— XII.
Nicking and Docking. — XIIL Opening an Abscess. — XIV. Tapping the
Chest, and Tapping the Abdomen. — ^XV. Pricking. — XVI. Probing and
Opening a Fistula.— XVII. Spaying.— XVIII. Sutures.— XIX. Tapping
Belly for Flatulence.— XX, Tenotomy.— XXI. Tracheotomy 547
CHAPTER XXVI.
CONCERNING THE VETERINARIAN'S CERTIFICATE OF SOUNDNESS.
I. Examinations in this Country and in Europe.— IL What th'e Veterinarian
Should See to, for His Client.— III. Conditions Modifying the Certificate.
— IV. The Seller's Guarantee Should Cover Vices 559
CHAPTER XXVII.
POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES.
I. General Rules. — II. Poisoning from Drugs, Minerals, etc. — ^III. Poisoning
while Grazing. — IV. Poisoning of the Skin. — V. Poisoning from Stings. —
VT. The Loco-Weed Disease 561
CHAPTER XXVIII.
INSTRUMENTS, APPARATUS, AND MEDICINES.
I. What Instruments to Keep, and How to Use Tttem. — II. Surgical Apparatus
and Appliances. — III. A Cheap and Serviceable Surgical Outfit. — IV. Vet-
erinary Medicines and Doses. — V. When and How Often may the Dose be
Repeated? — VI. Simple Directions for Preparing and Using Medicines.
Vn. Weights and Measures. — VIII. Standard Remedies and Their
Application 572
CHAPTER XXIX.
RECIPES FOR THE HORSE.
Recapitulation of Recipes in Part II 589
TABLE OF CONTENTS. XVII
BOOK II— PART I.
CATTLE— HISTORY, MANAGEMENT, AND CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE VARIOUS BREEDS.
CHAPTER I.
E\RLY HISTORY AND TYPICAL BREEDS OF CATTLE.
PAGE
Wild and Semi-wild Herds.— II. The First Chroniclers and Breeders of
Cattle.— III. The Original Type.— IV. Undomesticated Herds of Europe
and Asia.— V. Spanish-American Breeds.— VI. The Devons.— VII. The
Herefords.— \ail. The Durham or Teeswater Breed.— IX. Irish Cattle.
—X. Scotch and Highland Cattle.— XI. Swiss Cattle.— XII. Dutch Cattle.
— XIII. Fossil Cattle.— XIV. The Wild Cattle of England.— XV. Native
Districts of some Breeds
599
CHAPTER II.
STRUCTURE OF THE OX.
I. Comparative Description.— II. A Good Cow Described in Verse.— III.
SIceleton of the Ox.— IV. Analysing the Head.— V. External Parts of a
Fat Ox.— VI. Teeth of the Ox.— VII. Age of Cattle Told by the Chart 620
CHAPTER III.
DEVELOPMENT AND IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS.
Ancient and Modern Breeding.— II. Cattle of the Campagnas. — III. Pioneers
of Improved Stock.— IV. Illustrations of Noted English Breeds.— V. Do
Not Attempt to Form a Breed.— VI. How a Breed is Formed.— VII.
Breeding for Certain Uses.— VIII. Variation in Type.— IX. In-and-in
Breeding and Breeding in Line. — X. Altering the Character by Crossing.
-^I. Influence of Shelter and Feeding.— XII. Heredity in Cattle.— XIII.
Hereditary Influence of Parents.— XIV. Atavism.— XV. Peculiarities of
Ancestors Perpetuated.— XVI. How the Short-Horns were Bred up.— XVII.
Shorthorns During the Last Fifty Years.— XVIII. Three Short-Horn
Strains.— XIX. The Three Principal Types of Cattle.
CHAPTER IV.
THE BREEDING OF CATTLE.
Early Systems of Breeding.— II. Bakewell's Ten Rules.— III. What the
Breeder Must Know.— IV. Compare Results.— V. The Assimilation of
Pood.— VI. The Breeder Must be a Good Farmer.— VII. Breeding for
Beef.— VIII. Breeding for Milk.— IX. Breeding for Labor.— X. The
Breeds for Beef and Milk.— XI Some Facts About Beef.— XII. Value of
Sires in Different Herds.— XHI. Know What You Breed for.— XIV. Defini-
tion of Terms.— XV. How to Start a Herd.— XVL How the Herd will
Grade— XVII. Taking a Line Cross.— XVIII. Some Specimens of Close
Breeding.— XIX. The Gestation of Cows 643
XVIII TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER V.
SHORT-HORN CATTLE.
PAGE
I. Short-Horn Breeds.— H. The Old Teeswaters. — HI. Origin of Modern
Short-Horns.— IV. WTiat Made Them Famous.— V. The Bull Hubback.—
VI. Beef From the Old Teeswaters. — VII. Short-Horns in America. — VIII.
The Great Ohio Importation. — IX. Kentucky and Other Importations. — ^X.
Importation of Bates Cattle. — XI. Canadian Short-Horns. — XII. West-
ward March of the Short-Horn. — XIII. Short-Horns as Beef Makers. —
—XIV. The Patton Family of Short-Horns.— XV. Grade Cows and Steers.
—XVI. Short-Horns Critically Described.— XVII. The Head.— XVIII.
The Neck.— XIX. The Body.— XX. The Legs Short and Straight.— XXI.
The Loin Broad.— XXII. Wide in the Crops.— XXIII. The Back Straight
and Broad.— XXIV. The Ribs Barrel-Shaped.— XXV. The Touch.—
XXVI. The Hide.— XXVIL The Hair. — XXVIII. The Color.— XXIX.
Beef Points Illustrated.— XXX. Scale of Points for Short-Horn Bulls.—
XXXI. Scale of Points for Short-Horn Cows 654
CHAPTER VI.
THE JERSEYS, ALDERNEYS AND GUERNSEYS.
A Fashionable Breed.— II. The Guernseys.— IIL The Alderney in Youatt's
Time.— IV. The Jersey of To-Day.— V. Crossing the Jerseys.— VI. The
Jersey Described. — VII. Milk 'Mirrors. — VIII. Guenon's Theory of Milk
Mirrors.— IX. Their Practical Utility.— X. The Escutcheon Marks.— XI.
Good Milkers in all Breeds.— XII. Value of Heredity.— XIII. Influence of
Good Digestion and Assimilation. — XIV. The Milk Veins. — XV. The
Udder and Twist Veins. — ^XVI. Mr. Sharpless' Opinion. — ^XVIL Symmetry
Essential Whatever th'e Breed.— XVIII. The Jersey not a Dairy Cow.—
XIX. Scale of Points for Jersey Cows and Heifers.— XX. Rules in Award-
ing Prizes.— XXI. Scale of Points for Jersey Bulls.— XXII. Estimating the
Value of I'oints.— XXIII. Color and Size.— XXIV. From a Practical
Stand-point 679
CHAPTER vn.
MIDDLE HORNED CATTLE — THE HEREFORDS.
The Valuable Breeds of Middle-Horns— II. The Hereford Color.— III. The
Herefords Fifty Years Ago.— IV. Youatt's Testimony.— V. The Herefords
in America.— VI. The Importation of 1840.— VII. Hereford Grades Forty
Years Ago.— VIII. The Ohio Importation.— EX. Herefords in Canada.— X.
Early Imported Herefords not Fairly Tried.— XL The Herefords West.—
XIL The Hereford as a Work Ox.— XIII. The Hereford Cow.— XIV. Points
of the Hereford.— XV. The Hereford of To-Day in England.— XVI, High
and Authoritative Praise.— XVII. Distribution in the Southwest and Far
West 700
CHAPTER VIIL
MIDDLE HORNED CATTLE— THE DEVON AND THE SUSSEX.
Antiquity of the Devons.— II. The Devons Comparatively Small Cattle.— IIL
Natural Grazing Grounds of the Devons. — TV. Working Qualities of the
Devons.— V. Their Deceiving Appearance. — ^VI. Points of the Devon.—
TABLE OF CONTENTS. XIX
PAGE
VII. Notable Characteristics.— VIII. The Legs of the Devon.— IX. The
Body and Tail.— X. The Devon Cow.— XI. Mr. Allen's Testimony.— XII.
They are Active and Handy. — XIIL In the First Class for Beef. — ^Xllla.
Polled Durham Cattle.— XIV. Weight of the Devons.— XV. Sussex Cattle.
— XVI. The Sussex Color. — XVII. Distinguishing Marks of the Sussex
—XVIII. The Sussex Cow.— XIX. Glamorgan Cattle.— XX. Dutch Belted
Cattle.— XXL Holstein-Friesans.— XXIL Characteristics.— XXIII. Milk
and Butter Records.— XXIV. Types 708
CHAPTER IX.
POLLED CATTLE.
I. Polled Cattle in General.— II. The Galloways,— III. Points of the Gallo-
way.— IV. The Limbs and Head. — V. The Skin. — VI. The Color. — VIL
The Galloways in America. — VIIL Polled Angus Cattle. — IX. Color of the
Polled Angus. — X. Angus Cows as Milkers. — XL The Angus Compared
with the Galloway 731
CHAPTER X.
DAIRY CATTLE — THE AYRSHIRES.
The Antiquity of Ayrshire Cattle. — II. Ayrshire Ancestry. — III. The Ayr-
shire as Milker. — IV. Quality of the Milk. — V. Mr. Youatt's Opinion. — VI.
Quality of the Flesh. — VII. The Ayrshires in America. — VIII. Ayrshire
Points Eighty Years Ago. — IX. The Ayrshire of To-Day. — X. Points of
Ayrshire Cattle. — XL Escutcheon or Milk Mirror. — XII. The Points
Summed Up.— XIIL The Body.— XIV. The Skin.— XV. Milk Points.—
XVI. The Head.— XVII. The Neck, Body and Limbs.— XVIII. Importance
of Good Teats.— XIX. Color, Style and Condition 737
CHAPTER XL
DAIRY CATTLE — THE DUTCH BREEDS.
L Antiquity of Dutch Cattle as a Distinct Race. — II. Friesian and Batavian
Cattle.— IIL Dutch Cattle Older than those of Holstein.— IV. Establish-
ment of Regular Cattle Markets. — V. Importation of Danish Cattle into
F^iesland. — VI. Facts about Dutch Cattle. — VIL Varieties Described. —
VIII. Races of Dutch Cattle.— IX. Dr. George May's Testimony.— X.
Breeds of North and South Holland and West Friesland. — XL Their Color
and Form.— XII. Yields of Milk.— XIIL Feeding Qualities.— XIV. Dutch
Cattle an Artificial Breed.— XV. The Earliest Importations.— XVI. The Le-
roy Importation. — XVII. The Chenery Importation. — ^XVIII. What Prof.
Roberts Says. — XIX. Measurements Adopted for Dutch Friesian Cattle.
—XX. How to Select Dairy Cows 747
CHAPTER XII.
DAIRY CATTLE AND DAIRYING.
A Proper Foundation for the Industry. — IL Care, Housing and Feeding.—
III. The Soil.— IV. Organization.— V. The Growing of Crops.— VI. The
Man behind the Cow. Missouri Chief Josephine — Hegelund Method of
Milking 763
XX TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XIII.
THE RAISING AND ECONOMICAL. FEEDING OP CATTLE
PAGE
I. Importance of Proper Care while Young. — II. Difference between Good
and Bad Care.— III. The Starved Calves at Grass.— IV. The Other Side.—
V. Good Winter Keeping for Calves. — VI. When and How to Castrate. —
VII. General Classes of Cattle.— VIII. Special Classes.— IX. Full Feed-
ing and Early Maturity. — X. Economy in Feeding. — XL The True Policy
with Young Stock. — ^XII. Feeding the Young Calves. — XIII. Feed Grass
and Oats Early. — XIV. Where the Profit Comes In. — ^XV. Feeding for Beef
and for Labor. — XVI. Reaching Results. — ^XVII. When and How to Feed.
—XVIII. Out-Door Feeding Where Corn is Cheap.— XIX. A Good Condi-
ment.—XX. So-Called Perfect Foods 776
CHAPTER XIV.
PASTURAGE AND FEEDING FOR PROFIT.
I. Study the Conditions. — II. Provide against Droughts. — III. Kinds of Feed
to Raise. — IV. Pasture the Poor Man's Wealth. — V. The Valuable Clovers.
—VI. Alfalfa or Luzerne.— VII. Clovers Not Generally Valuable:— VIIL
Forage and Feeding Plants. — IX. Grass is the Most Valuable. — ^X. Grasses
of Special Value. — ^XI. The Coming Grasses for the W^est. — ^XII. The Time
to Pasture.— XIII. Feeding in Winter.— XIV. W^atering.— XV. Feeding
in Summer. — XVI. Economy of Full Summer and W'inter Feeding. — ^XVII.
Summing Up.— XVIII. Finishing a Steer.— XIX. Wien to Sell 786
CHAPTER XV.
DAIRYING AND DAIRY BUILDINGS.
L A. Profitable Industry. — IL Our Dairy Products. — III. The Dairy Buildings. —
IV. How the Factory is Built. — V. The Management of Milk. — VI. Patent
Crcarr-cries. — 'VII. Driving off Animal Odors. — VIII. Temperature of the
Dairy Room. — IX. Butter Making in Europe. — X. Dairy Butter in the
West.— XI. How to Color Butter.— XII. Salting.— XIII. How to Pack
Butter. — ^XIV. Preparing a Package for Use. — ^XV. Cheese Making —
Cheddar Chees'e. — ^XVI. Cheshire Cheese. — ^XVII, How to Prepare Ren-
nets..— XVIII. Dairy vs. Creamery and Factory 795
BOOK II— PART II.
DISEASES OF CATTLE.— HOW TO KNOW TIIEM; THEIR
CAUSES, PREVENTION AND CURE.
CHAPTER L
GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
I. Importance of this Department of Practice. — II. Pathology of Cattle and
of the Horse Compared. — III. Action of Remedies in Cattle. — ^IV. The Only
Safe Principles for Most Cattle Owners. — V. Familiarize Yourself with the
Phenomena of Health. — VI. The Pulse, Respiration and Temperature. —
VII. Other Special Signs of Disease
TABLE OP CONTENTS. XXI
CHAPTER II.
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES.
PAGE
I. Contagious Pleuro-Pneumonia. — II. Rinderpest or Cattle Plague. — HI.
Texas Fever, Spanish or Splenic Fever. — IV. Contagious Eczema, Foot and
Moutli Disease, or Epizootic Aphtha. — ^V. Anthrax. — VI. Variola Vaccinae
or Cow-Pox.— 'VII. Tuberculosis and Phthisis Pulmonalis. — VIII. Can-
cerous Ulcers or Osteo Sarcoma. — IX. Lumpy Jaw. — X. Contagious Abor-
tion of Cattle 813
CHAPTER III.
NON-CONTAGIOUS BLOOD DISEASES.
I. Plethora. — II. Anaemia. — III. Rheumatism. — IV. Uraemia. — V. Septi-
caemia and Pyaemia.— VI. Purpura Hemorrhagica. — VII. Haematuria, or
Red Water in Cattle. — VIII. Malignant Catarrh. — IX. Malignant Sore
Throat 834
CHAPTER IV.
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS.
I. Simple Catarrh or Cold. — II. Laryngitis, or Common Sore Throat. — III.
Bronchitis. — IV. Pneumonia. — V. Plurisy. — VI. Hydrothorax. — VII. Em-
physema of the Lungs 841
CHAPTER V.
TUBERCULOSIS, CONSUMPTION OR WHITE PLAGUE.
I. Animals Susceptible to Tuberculosis. — II. Animals exempt except by inoc-
ulation.— III. Predisposing cause of Tuberculosis. — IV. Tuberculosis in
Cattle. — V. Tuberculosis in advanced stage. — VI. Signs of Generalization
of the Tubercle. — ^VII. Generative Tuberculosis 849
CHAPTER VI.
THE TUBERCULIN TEST OF CATTLE FOR TUBERCULOSIS.
I. The Diagnosis of Tuberculosis. — II. The Origin of the Tuberculin Test. —
III. The Nature and Application of Tuberculin. — IV. The Value and Re-
liability of the Tuberculin Test. — V. The Harmlessness of Tuberculin. —
VI. Conclusions regarding the Tuberculin Test. — VII. Summary of Direc-
tions for Making the Tuberculin Test 853
CHAPTER VII.
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.
r. Glossitis, or Inflammation of the Tongue; and Paralysis of the Tongue. — IL
Hoven, or Tympanitis. — III. Impaction of the Rumen, or Maw-Bound. — IV.
Impaction of the Omasum, or Fardle-Bound. — ^V. Dyspepsia. — VI. Con-
stipation.— VII. Diarrhoea, or Scours. — VIII. Dysentery. — IX. Enteritis. —
X. Peritonitis. — XI. Rupture, or Hernia. — XIL Strangulation, or Gut-Tie. 859
CHAPTER VIIL
DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS.
I. Nephritis, or Inflammation of the Kidneys. — II. Retention of the Urine, or
Dysuria. — III. Incontinence of Urine, or Enuresis. — IV. Albuminuria, or
Albuminous Urine. — V. Haematuria, or Bloody Urine. — ^VI. Cystitis, or In-
flammation of the Bladder.— VIL Llthiasis, or Gravel.— VlIL Calculi 871
XXII TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER IX.
DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF GENERATION.
PAGE
I. Malpresentations, etc., in Parturition.— II. Prolonged After-pains.— III.
Retention of the After-birth.- IV. Abortion and Miscarriage.— V. Uterine
Hemorrhage, or Flooding. — VI. Inversion of the Womb. — VII. Metritis,
or Inflammation of the Womb. — VIII. Puerperal Fever, or Metro-Peritonitis.
— IX. Parturient Apoplexy. — X. Leucorrhoea, or Whites. — XI. Gonor-
rhoea.—XII. Mammitis, or Inflammation of the the Udder.— XIII. Sore
Teats. — XIV. Nymphomania and Sterility 876
CHAPTER X.
MILK FEVER — ITS SIMPLE AND SUCCESSFUL TREATMENT.
I. Preliminary Statement. — 11. Name and Synonyms. — III. Description of
Disease.— IV. Causes.— V. How to Know it.— VI. What to do.— VII.
Prevention 897
CHAPTER XI.
DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.
I. Phrenitis, or Inflammation of the Brain. — II. Apoplexy. — III. Epilepsy. —
IV. Paralysis. — V. Tetanus. — VI. Rabies or Hydrophobia. — VII. Nervous
Debility at Parturition 903
CHAPTER XII.
DISEASES OF THE SKIN.
I. Simple Eczema. — II. Chronic Eczema, or Psoriasis. — III. Erysipelas 90G
CHAPTER XIII.
PARASITIC DISEASES OF CATTLE.
I. Hoose or Husk (Verminous Bronchitis). — II. The Gadfly and Grub (Oestrus
Bovis). — III. Lice. — IV. Tapeworm. — V. Mange. — VI. Ringworm. — Vll.
Hookworm Disease of Cattle 908
CHAPTER XIV.
SCABIES OF CATTLE, OR MANGE.
I. Its Cause. — II. Form and Life History of the Scab Parasite. — III. Trans-
missibility of Mange. — IV. Disinfection. — V. Treatment. — VI. General Di-
rections 914
CHAPTER XV.
DISEASES OF THE EYE. '
I. Ophthalmia or Conjunctivitis. — IL Fungus Haematodes, or Bleeding Cancer.
— III. Torn Eyelids. — IV. Inversion and Eversion of the Eyelids. — V. For-
eign Substances in the Eye 921
CHAPTER XVI.
ACCIDENTS, ETC.
I. Choking. — II. Fractures. — ^IIL Wounds. — IV. Dislocations. — V. Sprains. —
VI. Wens.— VII. Bloat in Cattle 923
TABLE OF CONTENTS. XXIII
CHAPTER XVII.
OPERATIONS.
PAGE
1. Tapping the Chest, and Tapping the Belly. — II. Tracheotomy. — III. Tap-
ping the Rumen (Paunch) for Hoven. — IV. Rumenotomy. — V. Castration.
—VI. Spaying.— VII. Tapping the Bladder of the Ox or Bull.— VIII.
Sutures and Bandages. — IX. Caesarian Operation. — ^X. Bleeding 927
CHAPTER XVIII.
RECIPES FOR CATTLE.
Recapitulation of Recipes in Book II. — Part II 931
BOOK III— PART I.
SWINE.— HISTORY. MANAGEMENT, AND CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE VARIOUS BREEDS.
CHAPTER I.
HISTORY AND STATISTICS OF SWINE.
I. Origin and Antiquity of the Hbg. — II. The Native American Species. — III.
Swine of Europe, Asia, and Africa. — IV. The Wild Hogs of Europe. — ^V.
Teeth of the Hog. — VI. Brought to America by Columbus. — VII. Location
of Principal Markets 939
CHAPTER IL
BREEDS OF SWINE.
I, Sires of Improved Breeds. — II. Chinese Swine. — III. Neapolitan Swine. —
IV. The Hog of India.— V. English Breeds— the Berkshire.— VL The
Essex.— VII. The Black Dorset— VIIL The Suffolk.— IX. The Yorkshire.
— X. Lancashire Breeds. — XI. American Breeds. — XII. The Chester White.
XIII. The Poland-China.— XIV. The Cheshires.— XV. Jersey Red Swine.
XVI. Duroc Swine.— XVII. Thin Rind, or Hampshire Hog.— XVIII.
Summary of Breeds 945
CHAPTER III.
THE BREEDING AND CARE OP HOGS.
I. Practical Value of Improved Breeds. — 11. Care in Selection. — III. Age of
Breeding Swine. — IV. How to Select Breeding Animals. — V. Form and
Feeding Qualities. — VI. The Care of Breeding Stock. — VII. Farrowing. —
VIII. Weaning the Pigs.— IX. Castration.— X. Gestation of Sows.— XI.
Necessity of Good Care.— XII. Ringing a Hog 964
CHAPTER IV.
THE FEEDING AND SHELTERING OF SWINE.
I. Feed the Breeders for Health.— 11. The Proper Food for Swine.— III. Sum-
mer Feeding for Pork.— IV. Grasses and Clovers.— V. Roots.— VI. Grain
the Main Reliance.— VII. Feeding in the Fields.— VIII. Gleaning in the
XXJV TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
Fields and After Cattle.— IX. Value of Mast for Hogs.— X. Hog-feeding in
tlie South.— XI. Feeding in Close Pens.— XII. Hog Barns.- XIII. The
Best Form of Hog Barn. — XIV. Comparative Value of Light and Heavy
Hogs. — XV. Economy of Full Feeding from Birth. — XVI. Mixed Rations
for Hogs. — ^XVII. Grain should be Ground. — XVIII. Wet Feed Better than
Dry.— XIX. Cooking Food.— XX. Feeding Potatoes.— XXI. Pumpkins for
Hogs. — XXII. Conclusions 971
BOOK III— PART II.
DISEASES OF SWINE.— HOW TO KNOW THEM, THEIR CAUSES,
PREVENTION AND CURE.
CHAPTER I
MALIGNANT AND EPIDEMIC DISEASES.
The Prevention of Diseases. — II. Malignant Epizootic Catarrh. — III. Con-
tagious Fever of Swine. — IV. Contagious Pneumo-Enteritis. — V. Splenic
Fever, or Malignant Anthrax. — VI. Summary of Treatment for Malignant
Diseases. — VIl. Rules for Disinfection. — VIII. Difficulty in Giving Medi-
cine to Swine. — IX. W^atch Symptoms Early, and Use Preventives 983
CHAPTER II.
THE COMMON DISEASES OF SWINE.
Inflammatory Diseases. — II. Pneumonia, or Inflammation of the Lungs. —
III. Quinsy, or Inflammation of the Tonsils. — IV. Apoplexy, Staggers, or
Congestion of the Brain. — V. Colds, or Rising of the Lights. — VI. Catarrh
or Snuffles. — VII. Measles and Trichina. — VIII. Trichina Spiralis. — IX.
Other Intestinal Parasites. — X. Parasites of the Skin. — Mange or Scab. —
XI. Lice.— XII. Diarrhoea.— XIII. Leprosy.— XIV. Skeleton of the Hog. . 991
BOOK IV— PART I.
SHEEP AND SHEEP HUSBANDRY.— EMBRACING ORIGIN,
BREEDS, BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT; WITH
FACTS CONCERNING GOATS.
CHAPTER I.
ORIGIN, ANATOMY AND POINTS.
Native Country of Sheep. — II. Their Diversified Character. — III. Anatomy
of the Sheep.— IV. Top and Vertical Views of Skull.— V. Dentition of
Sheep.— VI. Points of Sheep Explained.— VII. Divisions of Fine Wool.—
VIII. Comparative Value of Fine and Coarse Wool. — ^IX. Ranging and
Flocking of Different Breeds. — X. Regions Adapted to Sheep. — XI. Points
of Excellence of the Principal Breeds. — XIL Standard for American
Merinos.— XIII. Standard for Middle-Wooled Sheep.— XIV. Standard for
Cotswold Sheep 1001
TABLE OF CONTENTS. XXV
CHAPTER II.
VARIETIES OP SHEEP AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS.
PAGE
Long-Wooled English Sheep. — II. Lincoln Sheep. — IIL Romney Marsh
Sheep. — ^IV. Leicester Sheep. — V. The Cotswolds. — VI. New Oxfordshire
Sheep. — VII. The Oxford-Downs. — VEIL Middle and Short-Wooled British
Breeds. — IX. White-faced Mountain Sheep. — X. Black-faced Highland, or
Scotch Sheep. — XI. Hampshire-Downs. — XII. Shropshire-Downs. — XIII.
South-Downs. — ^XIV. Other Breeds of Great Britain. — XV. Dorset Sheep.
— XVL Fine-Wooled Sheep. — XVII. American Merinos. — XVIII. The
Atwood and Hammond Merinos. — XIX. The Rich Merinos. — XX. About
Sheep in General.— XXI. The Average Wool per Sheep.— XXII. Summary
of British Breeds.— XXIII. The Sheep in Australia.— XXIV. The Wool
Harvest.— XXV. Where the W^orld's Sheep are Located.— XXVL The
World's Greatest Wool Supply • 1014
CHAPTER III.
BREEDING AND CARE OF SHEEP.
Constant Watchfulness Necessary. — II. The Breeding Age of Sheep. — HI.
Crossing. — IV. Coupling. — V. The Proper Time for Coupling. — VI. Gesta-
tion.— VII. Keep a Record of the Breeding. — VIII. Management and Train-
ing of Rams. — IX. Pasturage for Sheep. — X. Water. — XI. Protection from
Insects. — XII. Early and Late Pasture and Feeding. — XIII. Winter Feed-
ing.—XIV. Sheep Barns.— XV. Grading the Sheep.— XVI. Feeding
Troughs and Racks. — ^XVII. Castration and Docking. — XVIII. Weaning the
Lambs.— XIX. Lambing Time.— XX. The Nursery.— XXI. Tagging Sheep.
—XXII. Washing and Shearing.— XXIII. Tying theWool.— XXIV. Dipping
and Anointing Sheep.— XXV. A Word About Goats.— XXVI. A Profitable
Industry.— XXVII. Habits of the Angora.— XXVIII. An Assistant to the
Farmer. — XXIX. Angoras in the United States. — XXX. Capabilities of the
Milch Goat 1041
BOOK IV— PART II.
DISEASES OF SHEEP.— HOW TO KNOW THEM, THEIR
CAUSES. PREVENTION AND CURE.
CHAPTER I.
GENERAL DISEASES.
Referring to Scientific Terms. — II. Inflammatory Diseases. — III. Distemper,
or Epizootic Catarrh. — IV. Grubs in the Head. — V. Hydatids on the Brain.
— VI. Apoplexy. — ^VII. Inflammation of the Brain. — VIII. Inflammation of
the Eyes. — IX. Swelled Head. — X. Vegetable Poisoning. — ^XL Tetanus or
Lockjaw. — XII. Paralysis or Palsy. — XIII. Rabies or Canine Madness 1069
CHAPTER n.
PARASITIC AND OTHER DISEASES.
Scab, Ticks and Lice.— II. Foot Rot.— III. Foul in the Foot. — IV. Swollen
Foot and Gravel. — ^\''. Maggots from Blow Flies. — VI. Intestinal Worms. —
VII. The Rot or Liver Fluke.— VIII. Lung Worms.— IX. Sheep Worried
by Dogs. — ^X. Sprains, Strains and Bruises. — ^XI. Care When Lambing. —
XII. Navel 111.— XIIL Bare-Lot Method of Raising Lambs to avoid Nodule
Disease IO74
XXVI TABLE OF CONTENTS.
BOOK V— PART I.
POULTRY.— HISTORY, MANAGEMENT, AND CHARACTERIS-
TICS OF THE VARIOUS BREEDS.
CHAPTER I.
ORIGIN AND VARIETIES OP FARM BIRDS.
PAGE
T. Origin of the Word Poultry. — II. Types and Native Country of Barn-Yard
Fowls.— III. Changes Due to Breeding. — IV. Division of Fowls. — V. The
Wild Turkey.— VI. Ducks.— VII. Geese.— VIII. The Swan.— IX. Pheas-
ants.—X. Guinea Fowls.— XI. Peafowls.— XII. Anatomy of the Hen 1085
CHAPTER II.
BARN-YARD FOWLS.
I. English Breeds — Dorking Fowls. — II. Silver Gray Dorkings. — III. Gray
Dorkings. — IV. Fawn-Colored Dorkings. — V. Black Dorkings. — VI. Bolton
Grays, or Creoles. — VII. French Fowls— tHoudans. — VIII. La Fleche Fowls.
—IX. Creve Coeurs. — ^X. Breda or Gueldre Fowls. — XI. Spanish Fowls. —
XII. Hamburg Fowls — Black Hamburg. — XIII. Penciled Hamburgs. — ^XIV.
Leghorn Fowls. — XV. White Leghorns. — XVI. American Breeds. — XVIL
Dominique Fowls. — XVIII. Ostrich Fowls. — XIX. Plymouth Rock Fowls. .1096
CHAPTER III.
GAME FOWLS, AND OTHER RARE BREEDS.
I. Game Fowls and their Varieties. — II. Earl Derby Games. — III. Brown-
Breasted Red Games. — IV. Duck-Winged Games. — V. White Georgian
Games. — VI. Game Bantams. — VII. Other Bantams. — VIII. The Seabright
Bantam. — IX. Japanese Bantams. — X. Frizzled Fowls. — XI. Rumpless
Fowls.— XII. Silky Fowls 1119
CHAPTER IV.
ASIATIC FOWLS.
I. The Various Asiatic Breeds. — II. Dark Brahmas. — III. Light Brahmas. — IV.
Cochin Fowls. — V. General Characteristics of Cochins. — VI. White
Cochins.— VII. Buff Cochins.— VIII. Partridge Cochins 1131
CHAPTER V.
NEW. POPULAR BREEDS OF POULTRY.
L Wyandottes. — II. White Wyandottes. — III. Wyandotte Bantams. — IV.
Langshans. — V. American Javas. — VI. The Orpingtons 1143
CHAPTER VL
INCUBATORS AND BROODERS. — ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION.
I. The Antiquity of Artificial Incubation. — II. Incubators vs. Hens. — ^IIL When
Chicks Bring Money. — IV. Keep Up With the Times. — V. Care While in
the Brooder. — VI. Feeding Young Chicks. — VII. How to Make an Incubator.
VIII. How to Operate the Incubator. — IX. A Cheap Home-Made Incubator.
—X. How to Make the Brooder 1148
TABLE OF CONTENTS. XXVIl
CHAPTER VII
BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.
PAGE
I. A Study of Points Necessary. — II. Explanation of Points. — III. Points of the
Head. — IV. Ttie Plumage Illustrated and Explained. — V. Ideal Shape of
Fowls.— VI. Breed to a Fixed Type.— VII. Number of Hens to Each Cock.
— ^VIII. How to Mate. — IX. Breeding Upon a Mixed Flock. — X. Incuba-
tion of Various Fowls. — ^XI. General Management of Fowls. — XII. Proper
Food for Fowls. — XIII. Poultry Houses and Coops. — XIV. Feed Boxes and
Drinking Fountains. — XV. Breeds for Market. — XVI. Breeds for Eggs. —
XVII. How to Fatten.— XVIII. Killing and Dressing Fowls.— XIX. Pack-
ing and Shipping to Market. — XX. Glossary of Terms Used by Poultry
Fanciers 1157
CHAPTER VIII.
THE TURKEY, AND ITS VARIETIES.
I. Varieties of the Domestic Turkey. — II. The Bronzed-Black Turkey. — III. The
Common Turkey,— IV. The Ocellated Turkey.— V. English Turkeys.— VI.
Rare Varieties.— VII. The Care of Turkeys 1173
CHAPTER IX.
GEESE AND THEIR VARIETIES.
I. The Management of Geese. — II. Embden or Bremen Geese. — III. Toulouse
Geese. — IV. White Chinese Geese. — V. Hong Kong Geese, — VI. The
African Goose.— VII. The Canada or Wild Goose.— VIII. Egyptian Geese. .1186
CHAPTER X.
VARIETIES OF DOMESTIC DUCKS.
I. Ducks on the Farm. — II. Varieties Best Adapted to the Farm. — III. Alyes-
bury Ducks. — ^IV. Rouen Ducks. — V. The Common White Duck. — VI.
Cayuga Black Ducks. — VII. Muscovy Ducks. — VIII. Black East India Ducks.
—IX, Call Ducks.— X. Pekin Ducks.— XI. Other and Rare Ducks 1193
BOOK V— PART II.
DISEASES OF POULTRY.— HOW TO KNOW THEM, THEIR
CAUSES, PREVENTION AND CURE.
CHAPTER I.
THE CARE AND TREATMENT OF SICK FOWLS.
I. Division of Diseases into Groups. — II. Apoplexy. — III. Vertigo. — IV. Paraly-
sis.—V. Crop-Bound.— VI. Diarrhoea,- VII, Catarrh.— VIII, Bronchitis.
—IX. Roup.— X. Gapes.— XI. Pip.— XII. Consumption.— XIII. Inflam-
mation of the Egg Passage. — ^XIV. Leg Weakness. — ^XV. Rheumatism. —
XVI. Poultry Lousiness.— XVII. Chicken Cholera 1205
XXVIII TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER II.
A StJMMART OF DISEASES OF POULTRY AND THEIR REMEDIES.
PAGE
I. Diseases, Bad Habits and Insect Pests. — II. Importance of Cleanliness. —
III. Diseases.— IV. Bad Habits.— V. Insect Pests 1211
CHAPTER III.
DISEASES OF THE TURKEY, CAUSES, PREVENTION AND CURE.
I. Parasites and Diseases. — II. Insect Parasites. — III. Gapes. — IV. Black-
head.— V. Tapeworm. — VI. Diarrhosa. — VII. Cholera 1219
BOOK VI.
BEES.— HISTORY AND CHARACTERISTICS, WITH DIRECTIONS
FOR THEIR SUCCESSFUL MANAGEMENT.
CHAPTER I.
VARIETIES AND PECULIARITIES OF BEES.
I. Natural History of Bees. — II. The Three Genders of the Honey Bee. — III.
Varieties of the Honey Bee. — IV. The So-Called Queen, or Mother Bee. —
V. The Number of Eggs Laid. — VI. Drones or Male Bees. — VII. Neuter
or Worker Bees. — VIII. Varieties of Honey. — IX. Wax and How it is
Formed. — X. Plants Adapted to Production of Honey 1227
CHAPTER II.
THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF BEES.
I. Hives. — II. Number of Swarms Profitably Kept on a Farm. — III. Swarming. —
IV. Hiving New Swarms. — V. Taking the Honey. — VI. Wintering Bees.
— VII. Implements of Use. — ^VIIL A Motherless Swarm. — IX. Fastening
Empty Combs in Frames. — X. Feeding Bees. — XI. Enemies of Bees. — XII.
Foul Brood.— XIII. Conclusion 1235
Glossary of Scientific Terms, in General Use 1243
BOOK VII— SUPPLEMENTARY.
CANADIAN AUSTRALIAN AFRICAN
AND OTHER MATTER.
HOG CHOLERA.
The Various Forms Assumed. — U. Investigations in Swine Plague. — III.
Contagious, or Infectious Principle, etc. — IV. FYost and the Virus. — V.
Measures of Preventive. — VI. The Disease as Observed in Swine. — VII.
Glossary of the Preceding Scientific Terms. — VIII. Conclusions 12T3
TABLE OF CONTENTS. XXIX
SWINE.
PAGE
I. Judging Hogs of Bacon Type. — II. The Fat Hog. — ^III. Large Yorkshires.
— IV. Tamworths. — V. Berkshires 1281
HORSE BREEDING.
I. The Law of Heredity.— II. The Law of Variation.— III. The Law of Habit.—
IV. The Law of Atavism or Striking Back, — V. The Law of Correlation. —
VI. The Law of Fecundity or Power to Reproduce. — VII. In-Breeding and
In-and-in-Breeding. — VIII. Cross Breeding. — IX. The Relative Influence
of Parents. — X. Influence of a Previous Impregnation. — XI. Intra-Uterine
Influence.— Xn. Sex at Will.— XIIL Carriage Horse.— XIV. Saddle
Horses and Hunters.— XV. Cobs.— XVI. Roadsters.— XVII. Points of the
Horse.— XVIII. The External Conformation of the Horse.— XIX. Con-
formation of the Heavy Draft Stallion. — ^XX. Conformation of Mare or Geld-
ing.— XXI. Conformation of Coach Stallion. — XXII. Conformation of Car-
riage Mare or Gelding. — XXIII. Conformation of the Hackney Stallion. —
XXIV. Conformation of the Standard-Bred Stallion.— XXV.- Conformation
of the Thoroughbred Stallion. — XXVI. Conformation of the Thoroughbred
Gelding or Mare 1297
DAIRYING AND DAIRY BUILDINGS.
I. The Dairy Cow. — II. Feed. — III. Butter Making. — IV. Special Points on
Butter Making. — V. Creameries. — VI. Cheddar Cheese. — VII. Salting the
Curd. — VIII. Curing the Cheese. — IX. Farm Cheese. — X. Dairy Buildings.
—XI. Town and City Milk and Cream Trade.— XII. Condensed Milk.— XIII.
Imitation Butter.— XIV. The Testing of Milk.— XV. Marketing Dairy
Produce 1335
TEXAS CATTLE FEVER.
THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK AND METHODS OF EXTERMINATING IT.
I. Life History of the Tick. — II. Development on the Ground. — III. How to
Free Cattle of Ticks.— IV. Picking or Brushing Ticks off Cattle.— V.
Smearing or Spraying Cattle with a Disinfecting Solution 1351
THE DEHORNING OF CATTLE.
I. Dehorning by Snubbing Head to Stanchion Rail. — II. Treatment After De-
horning.— III. To Prevent Horns Growing on Young Calves. — IV. Apply-
ing the Caustic. — V. Age When Caustics are not Effective 135&
POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES.
L The Purple Loco Weed. — II. The White Loco Weed. — III. Poisoning By
Loco Plants. — IV. Symptoms of Loco Poisoning in Horses.— -V. Symptoms
of Loco Poisoning in Cattle. — VI. Symptoms of Loco Poisoning in Sheep.
— Vn. Treatment of Locoed Animals. — VIII. Summary 1361
POULTRY.
The Selection of Breeding Stock 1367
Diseases Peculiar to South Africa 1371
Alphabetical Index 1379
ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE
Abdominal injury, position assumed
by horse suffering from 425
Abdominal injury, unnatural attitude
indicative of 421
Aberdeen-Angus cattle, Heatherton
herd of 672
Aberdeen-Angus bull Delamere 629
Aberdeen-Angus heifer, "Scottish
Queen" 749
Aberdeen-Angus bull, Kyma's Heir... 735
Actinomycosis of the lower jaw 829
Actinomycosis of the upper jaw 830
Adult bronze turkey — male 1176
African ewes, Tunis or 1055
African rams, Tunis or 1054
Africander breed, best group 761
Africander cow, best 761
Allowed to shift for itself 1048
Anatomy of foot 282
Anatomy of foot 295
Anatomy of the hen. (Fig. 1) 1095
Anatomy of the hen. (Fig. 2) 1095
Angora buck, imported 1056
Angora kid 1058
Ankle boots in common use 366
Anterior presentation, hind-limb de-
viation 499
Anterior presentation, extreme down-
ward deviation of the head 501
Apoplexy, parturient 893
Application of an ammoniacal blister 426
Application of steam to the nostrils
with the jet 841
Aphtha 545
Australian merino ewe of 1911, a
champion 1038
Australian merino ram of 1911, "Don-
ald Dinnie," a champion 1039
Ayrshires, group of 612
Ayrshire cattle 617
Ayrshire cows 653
Ayrshire cow. Flora 3d, a typical cow.
Imported 662
Ayrshire Heifer, Lola of Rosemont,
17895 662
Ayrshire cow, high grade 722
Ayrshire cow, model 738
Ayrshire Patti 1339
Azoturia 441
Badly formed back and shoulder, etc.
(Fig. F) 1328
Baker, A. H. 2
Balling iron 861
Bandage for large lacerated and open
wounds, many-tailed 924
PAGE
Bandage, many-tailed 548
Barred Plymouth Rock, male 1116
Barred Plymouth Rock, female 1116
Barred Plymouth Rock, female and
feathers 1136
Barred Plymouth Rock, male, head
of 1223
Barred Plymouth Rock, female, head
of 1223
Barred rock cockerel, (No. 1) 1367
Barred rock cockerel, (No. 2) 1368
Barred rock hen, (No. 3) 1368
Barred rock hen, (No. 4) 1369
Bee moth 1241
Bee veil 1237
Bellows and smoking tube 1238
Berkshire boar, famous 967
Berkshire hogs 944
Berkshire sow, a prize winning 954
Bim of Dentonia 1349
Bird-louse of the horse, trichodectes
or 530
Black breasted red games 1101
Black Cayuga ducks, pair of 1202
Black Cochins, trio of 1091
Black Dorset sow 952
Black-faced ram 1049
Black Hamburg hen 1108
Black Javas 1099
Black Langshans, pair of 1104
Black Minorca cockerel 1111
Black Spanish 1113
Black tongue, gloss-anthrax or 823
Bleeding, raising the vein before.... 548
Bloody urine, horse suffering from.. 465
Blue Andalusian hen 1100
Blunt Hook 489
Board and feeder. Cook's division. . . .1240
Bones of the foot, sectional view of
the (Cut 4) 59
Bone of the foot, front and back view
of the (Cut 6) 60
Bones of head and neck, showing
(Cut 7) 61
Bones and muscles of the fore legs,
(Cut 8) 63
Bones of the knee, showing, (Cut 9) 64
Bones and articulation of the foot,
(Cut 10) 65
Bones of the hock, (Cut 11) 67
Bone spavin 317
Bone spavin, cured 317
Bone tumor of the lower jaw 377
Bony tumor 373
Bots fastened to the stomach, unable
to let go 529
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
XXXI
PAGE
Bots in the stomach — 1 532
Bots in the duodenum, or intestines
—2 532
Bot, a 528
Bots 532
Bottom of foot, showing a stone
caught between the sole and shoe 307
Brace for spavin 325
Brazilian cow of the old native breed 601
Breast and limbs, front view, show-
ing good 99
Broken knee, when tlie joint is
opened, Baker's brace for 340
Broken knee, manner of probing dirt
sac 342
Broken knee, manner of opening the
dirt sac 342
Bronchitis, a horse dressed for 399
Bronchitis, a painful cough or 398
Bronze turkey, male, young 1175
Bronze turkeys, a pair of 1179
Brooder in position, the 1155
Brown-breasted red game 1121
Brown Leghorn cock, head of a
single comb 1146
Brown Leghorn hen, head of a
single comb 1146
Brown Swiss bull 611
Buff Cochin cock, back view of 1100
Buff Cochins, pair of 1091
Buff Cochins, pair of 1091
Buff Leghorn cockerel 1088
Buff Leghorns, a pair of 1097
Buff Orpingtons 1174
Buff Turkeys 1175
Buff Wyandottes, a pair of 1106
Burning for lampas 411
Champion Berkshire sow 949
Calks or treads on the coronet 305
Canker of the sole 304
Canker of the frog 304
Capped elbow, or shoe boil 334
Capped hock 346
Caries 371
Carmon at twelve years of age 223
Catching the blood 550
Cavalry horses selected for the U. S.
army, two choice 180
Centrifugal extractor 1239
Cephalo-sacral position of the foetus 497
Chester whites 938
Chester white sow 947
Chester whites, group of 940
Chester white hogs, old style 956
Chester white boar 970
Chester white boars, a group of 966
Cheviot wether sheep 1008
Cheviot 1022
Cheviot lambs, bunch of yearling 1035
Choking 412
Circulatory apparatus (Plate II) ... . 84
Cleaning the legs, the lazy man's way
of 540
i^eveland bay stallion Royalty 239
Clydesdale stallion, highbred 89
PAGE
Coach or brougham horse, choice... 91
Coach horse, first prize winner To-
ronto horse show 40
Coach horse, French 119
Coach mare, imported German 134
Cobs, choice 92
Coffin bone, exostosis of the 543
Colored Rouen ducks, trio of 1194
Colored Egyptian geese, pair of 1196
Columbian Wyandottes, a pair of. . . .1115
Common scab, a comparatively early
case of 1075
Concealed knife 879
Constipation, a sufferer from 424
Congestion, a case of 400
Congestion of lungs 405
Cornish Indian game hen 1108
Coughing, the act of 406
Cow, affected with lice, appearance
of a 909
Curb, misuse of 410
Cracked heel 355
Crampon, the. To prevent horses
slipping in frosty weather 311
Creamery and cheese factory, ground
plan of combined 797
Crested white ducks, pair of 1196
Cribbing ; . . . 533
Cross-bred wether sheep . . , 1042
Crow-bait, effect of dropsy 385
Dairy cows, four 671
Danish bull, "Faurholm" 756
Danish cow 756
Dark Brahmas, a pair of 1224
Deformed hoof, a 298
Dehorning with saw, cow's head
snubbed to stanchion rail 1356
Denrodex 1074
Dentonia's Island Queen 1346
Dermal mycocis, mare showing char-
acteristic lesions of 525
Dermatocoptes equi 530
Dermatophagus equi 530
Device for casting cattle (2 illus-
trations) 848
Devon bull, Moxhem 7564 661
Devon heifer, "Fashion 5th" 709
Diagram of foot, showing the posi-
tion of the coffin bone 307
Diagram of a foot, showing position
of wing of cofiln bone 308
Digestive apparatus (Plate III) 86
Dipping lambs for sh'eep scab, trough
for 1082
Diseased hocks, three. Illustrating
bone spavin, bog spavin and
blood spavin 316
Diseased hock joint 539
Diseases of the uriuary organ, symp-
toms attending 459
Dishing on the trot 330
Dislocation of the patella, simple
method of preventing a recur-
rence of 925
Distonum Lanceolatus 1079
XXXII
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS,
PAGE
Dominique fowl 1112
Dominique, male, American 1129
Dominique, female, American 1130
Dominique, male, American 1142
Dorking coclv, silver gray 1145
Dorset ram, American 1052
Dorset sheep 1000
Dorsets 1032
Dorset horn sheep, group of 1020
Draft horses, imported 121
Drastic poisoning 563
Drone 1228
Dropsy of the belly, ascites or 886
Dry and clean the legs in cold
weather, the proper way. How to 541
Durham cattle, pair of 659
Duroc-Jersey boar 945
Duroc Jersey sow 958
Duroc Jersey sow, one year old 970
Duroc sow 960
Dutch cow, a 936
Dysentery, chronic 865
Earl derby game 1120
Eczema, or "rat tails," chronic 906
Egg drawer 1152
Elephant leg 352
Elephant leg, discovering the 354
Embden and African cross 1189
Embden Toulouse cross 1191
Embden geese, a trio of 1090
Enlarged knee, from speedy cut.... 365
Enteritis, a test 425
Enteritis, another test for 426
Epizootic aphtha 821
Erysipelas, carbuncular, black leg or
quarter ill 823
Essex boar and pig 951
Essex sow 947
Essex sow 952
Eustrongylus gigas 995
Ewe-necked vicious brute (Fig. G)..1328
Excessive use of caustics, bad effects
of 830
Express delivery horse, a choice 257
External parts of the horse, showing
(Cut 8) 81
Eye affected by serena 520
Eye, extirpation of the 552
False quarter, or deficiency of the
outer wall 286
False quarter, relieved of bearing on
the shoe 290
Famous ones, one of the 150
Farm chunk, a good 280
Fasciola hepatica 1079
Feeding hopper, a perfect 1167
Feeding hopper, a stool 1167
Feeling the pulse, a proper method of 434
Fistulous withers, slight enlarge-
ment which may end in 380
Fistulous withers, worst stage 380
Flatulence, the low choke with 413
Flatulent colic, ruptured or last stage 419
PACE
Flatulent colic or tympanites, an ad-
vanced stage of 430
Flemish cow 642
Flexor tendons of fore legs 331
Fluid flowing from the chest through
the cannula, the 927
Foot, view of, showing toe pared to
avoid seedy toe 291
Foot with a weak sole 293
Foot and mouth disease, epizootic
aphtha or 820
Foot and mouth disease, head of cow
with 837
Foot, the sole of a, showing nail
wound and how to pare it out.. 292
Foraging for themselves : . . . .1165
Forceps 393
Fore quarters, showing a good shoul-
der, side view of 97
Fore quarters, showing different bad
conformations, front view of.... 98
Fore quarters, showing bad confor-
mation, side view of 102
Forrest squirrel 112
Forward deviation of posterior limbs
in anterior presentation 502
Foundered feet, various stages of. . . 296
Foundered horse 294
Founder or bronchitis, a fit subject
for 397
Fountain, a good form of 1166
Fractures of bone, transverse and ob-
lique (2 illustrations) 924
French coach stallion, imported 242
French coach stallion, Perfection. . . . 270
Friesian calf "Rascal" 678
Friesian cow "Palenstein IV" 678
Friesland bull, "Paul" III, best im-
ported 726
Fungus haematodes 922
Gadfly, at various stages of develop-
ment, the 528
Gadfly, grub of 908
Gadfly, ox 908
Gadfly, the 528
Gadfly, grub of 1070
Gadfly, sheep 1070
Gaited saddle stallion, Highland
Chief, champion 50
Gaited saddle mare. Lady Glenn,
champion 144
Galloway bull, a 785
Galloway heifer, one-year-old 760
Galloway prize winner at Smithfield,
England, a 1347
Galloway steers, group of young 618
Gallus Sonneratii 1087
Gape worm 1208
Gastritis, chronic 414
Gastro-enteritis 562
Genders of bees, the. Bee-keeper and
swarm 1226
Georgian games, white 1123
German coach stallion, imported.... 45
Girton ensign 153
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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H
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^^^^^^^A
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
xxxra
PAGE
Giving a ball, the old way 542
Giving a ball, the proper way of 544
Glanders, bad case of 449
Glanders, in the last stage 450
Glanders, when the discharge has be-
come purulent 450
Gnawing of the manger 534
Goitre or bronchocele 379
Golden penciled Hamburgs 1107
Golden Wyandottes, a pair of 1139
Goniodes stylifer of the turkey 529
Good form, a. Rear view of the horse,
showing full thighs, etc 366
Good and bad back (3 illustrations) 1329
Good and bad hindquarters (4 illus-
trations) 1329
Good and bad points, rear of horse
(9 illustrations) 1331
Good and bad points, legs and front
of horse (18 ills.) 1332
Good head, but deficient neck of
horse (Fig. D) 1327
Grapes 357
Gray African geese, pair of 1187
Gray Toulouse geese, pair of 1189
Grease cracks, second stage of con-
firmed 357
Grease exudation, first stage of con-
firmed 356
Grease, first symptom of 356
Grimson robe 659
Group Berkshire swine 948
Guernsey cow, Cassiopeia 691
Guernsey bull, Dolly's Duke 711
Guineas, a trio of 1093
Hackney ponies, registered 142
Hackney stallion, Ely Assurance.... 139
Hackney stallion, Ely Wise Lad 139
Hackney stallion, "Squire Rickel".. 52
Haematopinus 996
Halter, a good form for a 211
Hampshire down sheep 1023
Hampshire ewes 1027
Hampshire or thin rind barrows.... 958
Head and neck of horse, ill-formed
(Fig. C) 1327
Head carried naturally 220
Head carried in unnatural position.. 220
Head of American Dominique, male. .1366
Head of Breda, or Gueldre 1088
Head of single wattled Brahma fowl 1088
Head of steer, showing result of prop-
er dehorning 1358
Head of redcap cock 1366
Head of steer, showing bad appear-
ance caused by improper dehorn-
ing 1358
Head of taenia solium 993
Head of sheep, vertical section 1003
Head presentation 485
Heads, side and front view of — ^bad. . 95
Heads, side and front viev of — good 94
Heaves, bad position — for head of
horse affected with 403
PAGE
Heavy drafter of the show ring order.
A choice 260
Hegelund method of milking, first
manipulation in the (2 illustra-
tions) 773
Hegelund method of milking, second
manipulation in the (2 illustra-
tions) 773
Hegelund method of milking, third
manipulation in the 774
Hemorrhage from the liver, test for. . 517
Hen-louse, or dermanyssus of the
horse 529
Hereford bull, Mark Hanna 755
Hereford bull. Prime Lad 605
Hereford heifer, "Bean Real's Maid" 704
Herefords, a group of 1341
Highland bull, "Laoich" 750
Hinder parts, bones of (Cut 2) 56
Hindquarters, good 103
Hindquarters, back view of bad 108
Hindquarters, side view of bad 106
Hindquarters, back view of good. ... 107
Hock when blistered, a 550
Hock joint, showing the enlargement
of bog spavin 319
Hog house 980
Hog sick of hog cholera, chronic
type 1272
Holland cow 677
Holstein cows, four champion 602
Hblstein cow, "Margaret Cornelius". 1336
Holstein-Friesian cattle, group high
grade, etc 741
Holstein-Friesian cow, Segis Inka. . . 627
Holstein-Friesian cow 710
Honey knife 1-238
Hoof crack, closing a — by the use of
thin wire 289
Horns showing proper and improper
cutting (2 illustrations) 1357
Horse, points of the 1315
Horse's head, open to view (Cut 1). . 68
Horse's head with cold, a 393
Houdans, Pair of 1163
Hoven, ox suffering from 860
Ideal shape of fowl 1162
Impaction of large bowel 424
Incubator complete 1153
Incubator, how to make an (inner
box) 1150
Incubator, interior of 1151
Incubator ready for the egg drawer. .1153
Incubator, sectional view of 1153
Infections anemia, horse in last stage
of 526
Inflammation of the brain, mad from 378
Inflammation of the brain 429
Inflammation of the bowels, move-
ments in 413
Inflammation of the kidneys, ox suf-
fering from 871
Influenza, a horse with 443
Injured tendons 538
Injury by the bit 410
XXXIV
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE
Intestines of a hog 1272
Inversion of the vagina, to prevent. . 890
Japanese bantam cock, black-tailed 1145
Japanese game cock, long-tailed 1128
Jersey bull, "Golden Hero" 680
Jersey bull, Pedro's Pretty Pogis... 707
Jersey cow, Henbury Gentle 661
Jersey cow. Imp. "Jersey Venture,"
champion 596
Jersey cows at National Dairy Show,
Chicago, four champion 762
Jersey cows, six owned by the Uni-
versity of Missouri 598
Jersey cow, Financial Countess 633
Jersey cow, Gail Rivers 629
Jersey cow, Laska 692
Jersey cow 682
Jerseys, group of 683
Jersey Lily 1338
Jointed hooks 879
Judging dairy cattle, points observed
in 767
Jugular vein, inflamed 382
Jumping horses. Wonderland and
Roseberry, American 231
Kerry cattle 663
Kicking, a device to cure the habit of 229
Kidneys, inflammation of the 460
Lady Stirling 3d, No. 6230 725
Laminitis, acute (Foundered) 297
Lampas iron 411
Langshans, black and white 1084
Lard worm, Stephanurus Dentatus or
(3 illustrations) 995
Laryngitis, effect of 396
Laryngitis or sore throat 843
Leghorn cockerel, rose-comb white.. 1145
Leicesters, group of Berdes 1016
Leicester lambs 1026
Leicester sheep, group 1030
Lessons in bandages tor various dis-
eases, some (4 illustrations) 370
Light Brahma 1124
Light Brahma male and feathers 1133
Light Brahma female and feathers. .1134
Light Brahmas, a pair of 1224
Light jowl and good neck; shoulders
well proportioned, etc 1282
Limburger cow of Germany, the.... 936
Limousine beef cattle (French) 785
Lincoln ewe, Gibson's 162 1024
Lincoln ram, Gibson's 155 1025
Linden tree 254
Longhorn bull 619
Longhorn cow, head of 619
Longhorn cow, English 806
Lord of Dentonia 1349
Louse, bird 909
Louse, calf 909
Louse, ox 909
Louse of the horse or ass, hoemato-
pinus, or blood-sucking 530
Low heeled, flat foot, a 303
PAGE
Lower leg and foot, vertical section
of the (Cut 5) 59
Lower part under ground 1156
Lump jaw 829
Lungs, emphysema of the 848
Lung of a glandered horse, section of
a 450
Lymphatic gland of throat swollen.. 394
Lymphangitis, mycotic 457
Making the incision with the knife.. 927
Malarial fever, an acute case, first
stage 470
Malarial fever, a second attack, sec-
ond stage 471
Malarial fever, a chronic case, third
stage 472
Malignant catarrh, last stage 839
Malignant sore throat 840
Malpresentation, first 880
Malpresentation, second 881
Malpresentation, third 881
Malpresentation, fourth 882
Malpresentation, fifth 883
Malpresentation, sixth 884
Malpresentation, seventh 884
Malpresentation, eighth 884
Malpresentation, ninth 885
Malpresentation, hydrocephalus with 886
Mange mite 531
Matchless of Londesboro', at rest. . . . 256
Megrims, expression characteristic of 432
Melanosis, predisposed to 389
Melanosis 390
Merinos, group of 1013
Mexican oxen 601
Milk fever, apparatus for treatment
of, etc 897
Milk fever, first stage 898
Milk fever, second stage 898
Milk fever, final stage, comatose con-
dition 900
Milk goats, American 1060
Milk goat, American 1061
Milk goat, American 1063
Milk goat, American 1065
Milk goat, young 1062
Milk mirror of Holstein cow, great. . . 688
Milk mirrors of Jersey cows, great
(4 illustrations) 690
Missouri Chief Josephine 770
Missouri mules 198
Moon blindness 518
Morgan colts, one and two-year-old
herd 51
Morgan colts, pure bred 179
Morgan filly, two-year-old 132
Morgan filly, yearling 266
Mother, the 1156
Movable frame hive 1235
Movable frame filled with comb 1236
Mule and typical of the class, a choice 205
Mule, 19 hands high, an 8-year-old,
western 202
Mule, prize winning 203
Muscles in walking, the (Cut 2) 69
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
XXXV
PAGE
Muscles of the head and neek (Cut 3) 71
Muscles of shoulder and adjacent
parts, showing (Cut 4) 74
Muscular covering, rear side view of
the (Cut 5) 76
Muscles of the hindquarters, showing
(Cut 6) 77
Musty fodder, gamasus of 910
Narragansett turkey, male, the 1172
Nasal gleet 395
Nervous system (Plate I) 82
Neurotomy, diagi'am, showing the
course of the nerve that is sev-
ered in 301
Norman cow, the 715
Nose bag, for steaming horse with
cold 394
Nose bag for steaming 842
Object lessons on feet (4 illus.) 326
Obstruction of lachrymal duct 525
Ocellated turkey hen, young 1178
Opening the eye when searching for
foreign bodies, manner of 520
Ophthalmia, simple 520
Osteophytes on the pastern bone 539
Ostrich fowls 1115
Oxford downs, group of 1021
Ox prepared for bleeding 930
Outer and inner wing plumage (2
illustrations) 1159
Outline of fat bullocks (4 illustra-
tions) 622
Pacing stallion, Joe Patchen 171
Pacing stallion, John R. Gentry 174
Paralysis of hind legs, horse suffer-
ing from partial 374
Paralysis of lower lip and tongue,
right sided 377
Paralysis of the tongue from an in-
jury 860
Park horse, a choice 248
Partridge Cochins 1102
Partridge Cochins, a pair of 1137
Partridge Cochin Hen 1140
Partridge Wyandottes, a pair of.... 1106
Parturition, instruments used in dis-
eases following (9 illustrations) . 877
Patella, dislocation of the 925
Peacock 1094
Percheron mare, six years old, prize
winning 127
Percherons, front view prize winning 197
Percheron stallion Casino 201
Percheron stallion. Fronton 166
Persian shsep, group 1046
Peutastoma Toenoides 528
Place to tap the rumen 862
Plant of the purple loco weed, a.... 1361
Plant of the white loco weed in
flower 1362
Playing with the grain 535
Pleurisy, acute 846
Pleuro-pneumonia 814
PAGE
Plymouth Rock, short-legged (No. 5). 1370
Pneumonia, horse with 401
Pneumonia, the position assumed by
the horse during an attack of 401
Points in Jersey scor-card, illustrated 694
Points in Jersey scor-card illustrated 696
Points of the fowl 1160
Points of the head of cock 1158
Points of the leg 538
Points of poultry, illustrated 1157
Points of sheep, exterior 1004
Poitou-Ass 196
Poland China boar 959
Poland China hogs, prize winning 943
Poland China sow 949
Polish cow, the 907
Polish hen, bearded silver 1086
Polled Durham herd 607
Poll-evil during the first stage 381
Poll-evil in its second stage 382
Polypus 393
Pony stallion. Sir Horace 184
Position of the organs of mare, the. . 506
Presentations, abnormal 482
Presentation, anterior 494
Presentation, anterior, fore limb
crossed over the neck 495
Presentation, dorsal (or back) 491
Presentation, ventral (or belly) 492
Pricking from nails 291
Prize winning Percherons, rear view. 237
Probang, two forms of 412
Prolapsed uterus, support No. 1 for 878
Prolapsed uterus, support No. 2 for. . 878
Prurigo, showing signs of 389
Purpura 444
Quarter crack 286
Quarter crack and remedies 287
Quarter crack, cut across the top 289
Quarter crack, showing the hoof
broken only part way up;
dressed, pared and shod 289
Queen Bee 1228
Queen cell, furnishing a 1239
Quidding, a horse 409
Quittor, after it has broken out at the
top, a 284
Quittor in active suppuration, a 284
Rabies, countenance of a horse with. 453
Racks with troughs for feeding
sheep 1051
Ram, best imported (German) 1019
Rambouillet rams, group of 1007
Ram, first prize best bred O. R. C...1018
Recumbent position 484
Red Polled Angus bull 721
Red Polled cattle, English group of
(3 illustrations) 736
Red polled heifer and bull 733
Red Pyle Game cock 1128
Removing urine from the ox, opera-
tion for 930
Respiratory organs in the head of a
horse, diagram showing 39?
XXXVI
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE
Result of imperfect vision, a frequent 523
Rhode Island Reds, a pair of rose
comb 1097
Right transverse position 487
Rinderpest 818
Ring bone 322
Ring bone and navicular disease 324
Ring bone, diagram showing pastern
and pedal bone of a horse af-
fected with severa 328
Ring bone, foot of horse affected with 328
Roadster and many times a cham-
pion, a choice 191
Roaring, one test for 560
Rot, the 1081
Rumen exposed for mechanical re-
moval of its contents 863
Rumpless fowls 1127
Ruptured pig 998
Saddle-bred stallion, Copeland 182
Saddle-bred stallion, undefeated year-
ling 247
Saddler, a choice Sve-gaited 140
Saddler, a choice three-gaited 255
St. Valentine, 121,014 636
Sand crack, dressed, shod and ban-
daged 290
Sand crack, pared away at the sides
and bottom 290
Sarcoptes Equi 531
Scab, common, advanced case 1068
Scab, common 1068
Scalded mouth 411
Scale of measurements 251
Scratches, as seen in the hollow of
the pastern 543
Section of horse, showing internal
economy, longitudinal (Cut 7)... 80
Seedy toe 290
Seabright bantam 1125
Sectional view 1155
Section of head of ox 623
Sensation of Dentonia 1346
Seton in the throat of a horse, a 407
Shading a horse's eyes when suffer-
ing from inflammation, manner
of 522
Shapely, muscular neck of draft
horse (Fig. E) 1328
Sharp hook 489
Sheep of eleven countries, the 1040
Sheep tick with eggs 1076
Shetland ponies 151
Shire filly, "Miss Constance" 125
Shire mares 156
Shire mare, "Queen of the Shires".. 163
Shire stallion, "Blaisdon Pluto" 159
Shire stallion, Draymaster 155
Shire stallion, "Holland Major," im-
ported English 245
Shoe, a plain 312
Shoe, diagram of, showing clip 291
Shoe left on too long 302
Shoes, right and wrong fitting 309
Short-Horn bull, "Gypsy King" 630
PAGE
Short-Horn bull, "Master Recorder". 794
Short-Horn bull, "Matoppo," best im-
ported 667
Short- Horn bull, points of 674
Short-Horn cow in outline 632
Short-Horn cow. Ruber ta 657
Short-Horn heifer, "Bapton Daisy".. 668
Short-Horn heifer, Constance XV., a.. 1343
Short-Horn ox in prime condition 624
Shoulder and elbow, dislocation of
(6 illustrations) 369
Showing cuts and quality of beef,
Fig. 1 808
Showing cuts and quality of beef.
Fig. 2 808
Showing points 1161
Shropshire rams, group of 1015
Shropshire yearling ewes 1031
Shuck's bee feeder 1240
Sick horse, a 545
Side view of a fore hoof shod so as
to quicken the action 313
Side view of hoof and shoe 313
Side view of a short-toed hind hoof
of a forger 313
Silky fowls, pair of 1126
Silver duckwing game cockerel 1128
Silver-laced Wyandottes, a pair of. . .1090
Silver-laced Wyandotte, female 1141
Silver-laced Wyandotte, male 1141
Silver-laced Wyandotte pullet, a 1174
Silver Prince, No. 7939 725
Silver-spangled Hamburgs, pair of.. 1105
Silver-spangled Hamburgs 1114
Single-comb Brown Leghorns, a pair
of 1089
Single-comb Brown Leghorn cock... 1110
Single-comb Rhode Island Reds 1089
Single-comb White Leghorn cock.... 1135
Skeleton shown against outline of liv-
ing horse (Cut 1) 54
Skeleton, the (Cut 3) 58
Slteleton of the hog 997
Skeleton of Leicester sheep 1002
Skeleton of the ox 621
Skin, opening of the 556
Skull of a Polled sheep 1003
Slate turkey hen 1177
Sleepy staggers, stomach of a horse
with 415
Sling in use 338
Small frame 1236
Soaking the feet in hot water in case
of founder 294
Sole of foot 283
Sore mouth, with the angles and
cheeks swollen 410
Sore mouth, with the angles excori-
ated by the bit 410
Sound and contracted feet 288
Sound foot 322
Southdown lambs, group 1029
Southdown sheep 1045
Southern chunk, a choice 259
Spanish" Merino ewe imported to Aus-
tralia in 1828, type of 1036
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
xxxvii
PAGE
Spanish Merino ram, imported to
Australia in 1823, type of 1037
Spasmodic colic, tlie first stage of.. 416
Spasmodic colic, second stage of 417
Spasmodic colic, third stage of 418
Spavin, bone 314
Spavin, bone, hocks, with skin re-
moved 315
Spavin, two stages of, cured spavin
and sound hock 321
Splints, diagram showing the differ-
ent locations of 329
Splints of a serious kind 329
Stallions Carnot and Trappiste, im-
ported Belgian 129
Stallion, first prize two-year old Mor-
gan 136
Stallion, Hannibal, imported German
coach 137
Stallion. His Grace, Suffolk 122
Stallions, imported Belgian 123
Stallion, prize winning saddle 133
Sterno-abdominal position of the
foetus 498
Stifled horse, device for a 351
Stitching with a fixed Seton needle. . 361
Stomach pump, using the 892
Stomach of ruminants, compartments
of the 859
Straight hook 880
Strangles, a bad case of 452
Strangles, irregular 453
Strangles, opening the abscess of. . 555
Strangles, simple form of 383
String halt, a bad case of 364
Strong, muscular neck and head, etc.
(Fig. H) 1328
Strong, upright, high heeled foot, a. . 303
Strongylus Filaria, male enlarged 1079
Suffolk horse, Cloot V 160
Suffolk sheep 1047
Suffolk stallion, Epatant 160
Sultan cock 1145
Sunstroke, effects of 434
Supporting the udder, method of 895
Surfeit, a horse afflicted with 384
Sussex cow, outline of a 720
Sussex steer, "Young Daisy" 718
Suture, quilled 557
Suture, uninterrupted 556
Swelling of the jaws, cheeks and
muzzle, etc 838
Swiss contrivance for slaughtering
cattle 805
Tail presentation 486
Tamworth boar 950
Tamworth sow 965
Tamworth sow, improved 1287
Tandem team 1298
Tank 1152
Tank, showing how to construct it.. 1156
Tape-worm got by eating beef, head of 910
Teat Syphon, the 826
Test for mange 531
Test for sprain on the back 375
PAGE
Tetanus, feeding a horse with 545
Tetanus, showing how far an animal..
with is capable of motion 433
Tetanus, the test for 432
Texas fever Protozoe, and the ticks
which transmit them (10 illustra-
tions) 1352
Texas tick 909
Thoroughbred horse, good head of a
(Fig. A) 1327
Thoroughpin, enlargement, forming.. 323
Thoroughpin and bog spavin, diagram
showing dissection of 323
Throat blistered, a horse with the.. 394
Toggenburg goats, imported (Figs. 1,
2, 4.) Schwarzwald goat (Fig 3). 1064
Toothache, a horse with 408
Toulouse geese, a group of gray 1185
Toulouse geese and feathers 1204
■ Toulouse goose, standard 1192
Tracheotomy, performing 558
Tracheotomy, the structures met
with in the operation of 558
Treatment, helping him to stand for. . 435
Trichina Encysted magnified, muscle 994
Trichina Spiralis, adult intestinal 994
Trichodectes of the sheep 1076
Trochar and Cannula (2 illustrations) 860
Trotting or road horse, good head and
neck of (Fig. B) 1327
Trotting stallion, Allerton 169
Trotting stallion, Joe Young 173
Trough, combination 1050
Tuberculosis, a cow affected with ad-
vanced 853
Tuberculous dairy cow, a visibly 857
Tumor in false nostril, face of horse 392
Tunis sheep, American 1028
Twisted rope 890
Tying an artery 270
Umbilical hernia, trut.. for 870
Umbilic cord of foal 490
Umbilicus in charbon, swelling of
the (navel ill) 1080
Urethral canal, etc., of the ox 872
Uterine hemorrhage, exaggerated
illustration of 889
Utilizing pieces of comb 1240
Various cuts of a side of bacon, etc.,
diagram showing 1283
Veins of the foot, showing the 543
Veins of the horse's foot 312
Vertical section of the head 622
Victoria boar 979
Wagon horse, a choice 91
Warts, head covered with 388
Well proportioned shoulder, good
top line, etc 1283
Welsh cow 758
Welsh ox 699
West Highland cow of Ireland 642
West Highland feeding ox 609
XXXVIII
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE
Where to tap the rumen for hoven,
diagram showing 861
Where joint oil is 340
White Aylesbury ducks, group of.. 1200
White call ducks, pair of 1199
White-crested Black Polish Fowls,
pair of 1103
White Embden geese, pair of 1187
White-faced black Spanish fowls,
pair of 1122
White Guinea fowl 1093
White Indian games, pair of 1098
White Holland turkeys, a pair of.. 1181
White Leghorns, a pair of single
comb 1117
White Muscovy ducks, pair of 1197
White Orpingtons, a pair of singte
comb 1139
White Pekin duck 1195
White Pekin ducks, group of 1190 «
White Plymouth Rock, female 1118
T\niite Plymouth Rock, male 1118
White turkeys 1176
White Wyandottes, a pair of 1174
Wild and African cross 1202
Wild goose, gray 1202
Windgalls, as they appear upon dis-
section 346
Windgalls, showing situation and
forms of 346
PAGE
Wintered, badly 776
Wintered, well 776
Wintered with good shelter and feed.1048
Womb, inversion of the 890
Wooden gag 861
Wool, division of 1005
Worker 1228
Worms, appearance of colt suffering
from 527
Work of the larvae in comb 1241
Worms, horse rubbing his nose
against a wall — a symptom of. . 527
Wyandottes, a pair of silver-laced. .1132
Wyandottes 1144
Yorkshire boar 946
Yorkshire boar 1292
Yorkshire sow, improved 1288
Yorkshires 982
Young Brown Chinese geese, pair of.ll88
Young goose crosses — Embden and
African 1199
Young goose crosses — Embden and
Toulouse 1198
Young Light Brahma, half breeds,
group of 1142
Zebrulas as exhibited at the St.
Louis World's Fair, the 206
Zebrula mares 207
BOOK I
PART I
THE HORSE
HISTORY, MANAGEMENT AND CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE VARIOUS BREEDS
THE HORSE.
CHAPTER I.
HIS ANCIENT AND MODEnN HISTORY.
CONNECTED WITH MAN FROM THE EARLIEST HISTORICAL PERIOD. 1. THE HORSE
IN ANCIENT HISTORY. II. THK HORSE IN CIVILIZATION. III. PRESERVING
BREEDS IN PURITY. IV. THE WILD HORSES OF TO-DAY V. FOSSIL HORSES
VI. HOUSES OF ASIA. VII. EUROPEAN HORSES. VIII. ARTIFICIAL BREEDING
AND DISEASES, IX. OPINIONS RELATING TO BREEDING. X. IN-BREEDING OF
HORSES. XI. VALUE OF HEREDITARY CHARACTERISTICS. XII. A CAREFUL
STUDY NECESSARY. XIII. ABOUT OBJECT LESSONS.
The period when the horse was first subjected to the use of man
extends so far back beyond the origin of written history, that no mention
is made by Avriters of the native country of this noble animal. That his
native territory was the hill and plain regions of tropical or sub-tropical
Asia, there is, however, little doubt, since it is in such regions, the world
over, that this animal, upon regaining his freedom and becoming semi-
wild, soonest multiplies into vast herds.
In none of the most ancient inscriptions is the horse found represented
in a wild state, but always in connection with man. The fabulous stories
of the centaur, a creature half human and half horse, arose from the
imagination of those savage tribes who were conquered by more enterpris-
ing and partly civilized foes, who had acquired the art of subjecting the
horse to use. It is stated that a Thessalian tribe, the Lapithge, first
subjected the horse, and hence acquired the name. But the horse was
known in a civilization far anterior to that of this Thessalian tribe, though
no record is made of the horse in a wild state even by his earliest masters.
Hence we infer that the horse was not a native of Egypt, but was intro-
duced from some other country into the civilization of that land, the
earliest on record except that of China.
I. The Horse in Ancient History.
The first record made of the horse in sacred writings, is in the time of
Joseph in Egypt, at which period the horse had been subjected to harness.
At the time of the Exodus under Moses, the horse was extensively used
m war. The Grecian mythological stories give accounts of the use of
horses in war, particularly at the siege of Troy, but they aeeiii to have
been confined only to the use of heroes.
Coming down to the true historical perioa, we be^n to find the use of
horses quite universal, for pleasure as well as for war ; and as civilization
began to colonize the earth, the hoise closely followed. Wliere thecriginal
43 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
country of the horse really was matters little, except as an interesting
fact, whether in Asia, or on the soil of Africa, to which his near relations,
the Zebra and Quagga, are certainly indigenous. It is certain, howovorj
that in Media and Persia, and the fertile plains of Thessaly and Thrace,
on the great meadows of the Danube, in the Ukraine, on the banks of
the Dnieper and the Don , and other of the great grazing grounds of Europe
and Asia, the horse found congenial soil and early became semi-wild.
So, after the conquest of America, transplanted here, he became semi-
wild, and soon occupied vast tracts on both sides of the tropics, in count-
less herds.
IL The Horse in Civilization.
In extending civilization the horse has always occupied a place next to
man, carrying him quickly and safely on long journeys, aiding him to
explore new regions, or bearing him beyond the reach of savage foes.
In the earlier stages of civilization, oxen tilled the fields, tvhile sheep
furnished clothing and food, until latterly the labors of tillage have been
almost entirely transferred to the quicker and more intelligent horse.
Among the nations which flourished between ancient and modem times,
the Arabs seem to have regarded the horse with the greatest esteem and
kindliness. Among no people were more care and attention bestowed in
his breeding, and nowhere else was the horse so made the companion of
man. Hence in no other country, from the seventh to the seventeenth
century after Christ were horses found combining such high intelligence,
with great speed and lasting endumnce in travel. The Arabs were thus
enabled to furnish the infusion of blood that has resulted in the English
and American thoroughbred, that has stamped its measure of value upon
nearly all the more highly prized of the modem sub-families if Jiorses.
Yet neither the English horse, nor the American horse, nor indeed the
so-called wild horses of America, retain any characteristic of an al)ori-
pnal breed. They are, all of them, purely artificial \a their breeding,
)r the descendants of horses artificially bred.
m. Preserving Breeds in Purity.
As among the Arabs, so among all the civilized nations of the earth,
the great care is to preserve breeds in their purity. Hence pedigrees
were established, first among the Arabs, and later for the English
thoroughbred, while within the last thirty years stud-books are becoming
common for the various valuable breeds of horses that have originated
from time to time. Breeders are also beginning to understand the value
of kind and careful treatment, as well as of careful training, in their influ-
ence upon hereditary traits. These things seem to be far better appre-
ciated in America than in England. To the early and careful handling
THE HORSE, HIS ORIGIN, ETC. 43
of colts in this country, making them companion-servants, rather than
machine-slaves, subjecting them to the rule of kindness, rather than the
law of brute force, in short to training rather tiian to breaking, is due
the docility of American horses, in contrast to the temper and stubborn
acquiescence of English horses ; and this we believe is coming more and
more to be generally acknowledged.
IV. The Wild Horses of To-day.
Of the so-called wild horses of the various countries of the earth, we
have the authoiity of Mungo Park for the fact that wild horses exist in
great herds, in the country of Sudamar, far to the southward of the
great desert of Sahara, and in all that district extending to Nubia and
Upper Abyssinia, where there are fertile, well-watered, grassy plains,
and partially wooded countries.
In northern Asia, and especially in southern Siberia, vast droves of wild
horses are known to exist ; and in all that great pasturable region inhabited
by the Tartars, both in Russian Europe and Asia there are countless
herds semi-wild. These Tartar horses are said to owe their origin to the
cavalry steeds turned loose in 1657, at the siege of Azof. In Canada,
and in the Falkland Islands horses released from control become wild and
sustain themselves in that condition. It is stated that horses released
from the dominion of Man, and gone wild, have been found in Hayt'
and Jamaica. The great pampas and other grassy plains of Centra'
America, North and South of the equator, including the Empire of Bra.
zil, and also in Mexico, Texas, California, and elsewhere in the southerly
portion of the great plains of the United States, once contained immense
droves of wild horses, the progenitors of which, escaping from the
Spanish conquerors of these countries, at length multiplied into countless
numbers. At the present day however there are but few that are not
claimed by proprietors except perhaps in some isolated regions near the
Equator.
v. Fossil Horses.
The fossil remains of horses are not rare in America. These fossil
remains, have also been found in Great Britain, in the oldest formation,
and of such extreme antiquity as to have been contemporaneous with
the elephant, rhinoceros, tiger and hyena, in Great Britain, and with the
mammoth and other similar fossils in America. These classes of animals
were entirely different from the animals of to-day, and the only means
of marking the lapse of ages intervening since they lived, is the succes-
sion of geological formations, and changes that have since taken place,
carrying to total extinction the series of animals that then, and subse-
quently, up to the advent of man, successively occupied the earth.
44 C3YOLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
VI. Horses of Asia.
Aside from th- modern breeds of Euro[)e which will be treated of separ*
ately, the Arabian is the most cclcl^ratcd and undoubtedly combines
more good qualities than any other Asiatic l)reed.
In India there are many horses of more or less repute, the most valu-
able of which is said to be the Turco, a cross between the Turcoman, a
breed of South Tartar}^ and the Persian horse. It seems to be a fine
animal, as it is said to be stately in movement as it is beautiful in form,
and tractable in disposition. With the exception of the Turcoman, or
horse of Soath Tartary, the Tartar and Calmuck horses are small, and
jil shaped. They have the reputation, like our Indian ponies, of being
able to perform long journeys under heavy burdens, while subsisting on
the most indifferent food.
The horses of China are also small with but little excellence in any
point. Ill shaped and spiritless, they seem effete like their masters,
who possessing the most ancient civilization of the earth, were slowly
Init surely retrograding, until they came into contact with the civilization
of Europe.
In Turkestan there appear to be two distinct races of horses. One is
described as being heavy-headed, ewe-necked, with long legs and weak
bodies ; while the other has high crests and long bodies with limbs of
good bone and substance. In Bokhara, is a small, stout, shaggy breed
of horses, with very long manes and tails ; they are called Kussaks, and
are considered excellent little animals.
Vn. European Horses.
In the chapters devoted to special breeds, the more important will be
treated of separately. We shall only notice here such as have no promi-
nence among the celebrated sub-families of the horse.
The German States have horses noted chiefly as being large, well-
formed and well-adapted to the purposes of heavy draft. Belgium and
Holland also have breeds of horses large, strong and well-formed. The
Flemish horses were at one time much valued in England for draft and
heavy coach hor.ses, and they undoubtedly form one of the principal ele-
ments in the pedigree of some of the more celebrated of the English
horses.
The Hungarian horses are supposed to have the same general origin
with the German horses. They are, however, lighter, more active, show
more spirit and better action, which is probably due to a more recent
infusion of oriental blood.
Italy has not as good horses now as formerly. Some of them however,
are large, handsome, spirited animals, which do good service in carriage
THE HORSE, HIS ORIGIN, ETC.
46 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
harness. The same may be said of the horses of Spain, The commoa
use of mules, both under the saddle and in harness, is not conducive to
careful breeding in horses, still in Spain there are many fine horses espe-
cially for saddle use ; the pure blooded Spanish barb being elegant,
sprightly and docile.
Norway, Sweden and Finland, have a hardy race of little horses,
which run half wild in the woods. They have fairly good forms, an^^
are active and spirited. The people, however, give themselves but little
troul)le in breeding them.
In Iceland the horses are still smaller, active, hardy fellows, who pick
up a scanty living for themselves, when not at work. Their origin is
attributed both to the Swedish horse and those of the Shetland Islands,
and they have points of resemblance to both.
Thus it is seen that each country has its own peculiar breed of horses,
the result of local peculiarities. The further we go North the more
dwarfed they become until some of them are found but little, if any,
larger than the best of the larger breeds of long wooled sheep. As we
go Soutii to the tropics the horses increase in size until we reach the
middle region of the temperate zone, where the largest and heaviest, as
well as the fleetest and most valuable are found. Continuing still fur-
ther southward the horses begin again gradually to decrease in size until
as we reach the tropics we find them but little larger than the animak
v/e call pony-horses. They are moderately swift, and of the most
enduring bottom.
The horses of Arabia have been celebrated in all modem times, and
justly so, for the reason that owing to careful breeding and the kindest
treatment, in connection with the most excellent training, they came to
possess the pei-fection of form, united with great speed and en-
durance, and almost human intelligence. That careful and scientific
breeding was understood and appreciated by the ancients is evidenced by
the lines of the first lyric poet of the time of Augustus Caesar, which
we find translated freely, but pointedly as follows ;
" The brave begotten are by the brave and good.
There is in steers, there is in horses' blood
The vu-tne of their sires. No timid dove
Springs from the coupled eagle's furious blood."
VHI. Artificial Breeding, and Diseases.
It is well known that wild animals like savage tribes are little subject
to disease It is the ai'tificial surroundings, and artificial living which
produce diseases unknown in a state of nature. Hence, on the farm,
animals are less susceptible to disease than in city stal^les, where the lite
of the horse is purely an artificial one, and where he must be depenaeru
THE HORSE, HIS ORIGIN, ETC.
47
48 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOClUii.
upon man, even for the water he drinks. Unfortunately he is too often
dependent upon ignorant and brutal "helpers" who, the moment the
eye of the master is turned, shirk their duty and the animal suffers.
Hence the absolute necessity that all large stables should possess in the
person of the foreman a competent head, and one whose sympathies are
with the helpless an-Mials under his charge. Such a person will not only
earn his wages fully, l)ut will save largely to the owner every year by his
constant watchfulness and '-are. Artificial breeding also gives rise to a num-
ber of diseases, peculiar in themselves, and which may only be guarded
against by intelligent care. Among the most serious of these are abortion,
and all that class of diseases incident, to animals kept in confinement in large
numbers, and which, with other diseases of domestic animals, will be
treated of separately in appropriate departments of this work.
IX. Opinions Belating to Breeding.
In tracing the history of horses, and all that relates to their care and
treatment, we shall find various opinions relating to breeding. The sys-
tems of in-and-in-breeding, and cross-breeding, each have intelligent and
successful advocates. In-and-in-breeding may be defined as being the
breeding together for generations, of closely related members of a fam-
ily of animals. For fixing a breed and for perpetuating the special ex-
cellences sought, there is no doubt of the soundness of the practice. It
is in this way and l)y careful selection of parents that all new breeds are
established and fixed. What distinguishes the successful from the un-
successful breeder, is the knowing, or not knowing, just how to select,
how long to breed in, and in departing from the rule, so to select the
new sire, that there may be no violent change of characteristics. For it
is a well established fact that long-continued in-breeding reduces the
constitutional vigor of the animal while it is fixing excellencies for per-
petuation. Bakewell, Collins, Bates, Webb, and many other emi-
nent breeders of modern times, have been most successful in this direc-
tion, with cattle and sheep. The modern breeds of swine, also, owe
their chief excellencies to this system, though in them it is modified by
more frequent infusions of far related blood, since swine are peculiarly
liable to degeneration of the vital forces, scrofula, and other diseases,
supposed to be due to too close inter-breeding of near relations.
X. In-Breoding of Horses.
In horses, in-and-in-breeding has never been practiced to the same ex-
tent as with cattle. The horse is bred chiefly for his muscular p'jwers
and endurance. To this is required to be added, beauty of form, and
as supplementary to speed and endurance, great lung po^\ 3r and constitu-
tional vigor. Hence, when a sire poesesses t>>«ae merits in an eminei^
THE HORSE, HIS ORIGIN, ETC. 49
degree, he is eagerly sought far and wide. In the selection of mares,
this vigor of constitution, combined with ample room for tli3 develop-
ment of the foal is sought. Hence the breeder seeks to breed to such
sires as shall endow their foals with their own special characteristics, be-
ing careful only that the cross shall not be a violent one, such as might
produce decided alterations of form from that previously had.
XI. Value of Hereditary Characteristics.
Intelligence, stamina, great muscular power, constitutional vigor, and
absence of congenital or hereditary disability, must all be taken into ac-
count in selecting sires. If the blood of an animal has been sul)-
ject to any hereditary disability, as consumption or other disease arising
from weak lungs, or has shown a lial)ility to form curbs, spavin or other
bone disease, such an animal should be Q'scardcd. Intelligence is a he-
reditary characteristic of special families which should be carefullj^
looked to. Here again we find that this quality may be steadily increased
by careful training. This is especially noticable in dogs bred for a sin-
gle jjurpose, as shepherd dogs, pointers, setters, retrievers, etc. The he-
reditary instinct becomes at length so strongly marked in them, that the
young animal takes to its special task of its own volition, and before
the age for regular training is reached. In like manner certain breeds of
horses are nole^' for their wonderful intelligence, as are the Arab horses,
owing to hundreds of years of careful breeding, and to the training im-
parted by the maste ', who is the friend and companion of his horse.
XII. A Careful Study Necessary.
To most surely and successful 1}^ compass all this, the breeder must
carefully study the horse from various standpoints. He must be familiar
with the anatomy, or hony structure, the muscular development, the vital
organs, the organs of digestion, and the other viscera of the animal.
Again, the outward conformation is of the utmost importance, since
from this a fair indication of all the rest may be arrived at. The girth
and the barrel will give a good indication of the heart, lungs and digestive
apparatus. From the head, the intelligence and docility of the animal
may be clearly established. The shoulders, the loin and the haunch will'
be the index to the muscular power, and the bone and sinew may be accu-
rately estimated from a proper examination of the limbs by one who will
carefully study the succeeding chapters.
XIII. About Object Lessons.
Object lessons, the delineation of a subject by charts, plates and
figures, have come to be regarded as one of the most important factors
in modern education. They bring to the eye exactly what a thing is, and
50
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR
its precise location. Hence, there has been prepared for this work the
most accurate illustrations of ever}' subject u[)on which it treats. In
connection with this, the plainest descriptions and explanations are given,
avoiding, as much as po.ssible, technical scientific terms. These, when
used, are exj^lained, so far as possible, and should be learned by refer-
ence to the glossary since now-a-days, they are coming to be more and
more used in every-day life, and in all languages, where used, mean ex-
actly one and the same thing.
11 the latter part of this chapter has been somewhat discursive, it
seemed necessary to a fair understanding of what is to be said in the
succeeding ones. In the next chapter we take up the horse in the rela-
tion of the bones to the body. Its scientific name is Anatomy^ — short
enough and comprehensive.
THE HORSE . HIS ORIGI^T, ETC.
51
52 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
' f^flf'
CHAPTER n.
ILLUSTRATING THE ANATOMY OP THE HORSE.
I. FRAMR WORK THE INDEX OP VALUE. II. MASTER THE DETAILS OF THE
SKELETON. IIL DIVISION OF THE SEVERAL PARTS. IV. COMPAR-
ATIVE ANATOMY OF MAN AND THE HORSE.-^-V. ANALYZING THE
SKELETON. VL THE FOOT. VII. THE HEAD AND NECK. VIIT.
BONES AND MUSCLES OF THE FRONT LIMBS. IX. THE HIND LIMBS.
I. Frame Work the Index of Value.
A close and cc»mprehensive study of the anatomy and physiology of
the animals of the farm, is of the first importance to every person who
breeds, rears, or buys them, with a view to profit from their sale. In
the case of the horse it is especially necessary that this study be care-
fully made, since, in the perfection of the several parts, constituting
solidity and fineness of bone, a firm and complete muscular development,
large, healthy lungs, and the highest state of normal activity of the
digestive organs, lies the real value of this most useful of the servants
of man. The owner or purchaser must also know distinctly what an ani-
mal is intended for, and should select him with special reference to the ser-
vice required, whether it be for special work, for trotting, racing,
road-driving, light or heavy draft, or for what is termed general utility.
With reference to these several uses the bony structure of the animal is
of the first importance, since it is the skeleton upon which all else is built.
Without a knowledge of the bones, the situation of the muscles cannot
be accurately determined, or their actions, in connection with the several
parts, to which they are attached, and especially their action on the liralDS
be definitely understood.
II. Master the Details of the Skeleton.
Hence we must first master the details of the bony structure. Next
the muscles may be studied, and from this we may easily understand the
minute but important action of the several parts as a whole. While the
ordinary observer will be altogether misled, in estimating the value of an
animal from his outward appearance and movements, he who has
carefully studied the physical proportions with the eye of a care-
ful anatomist will quickly and accurately understand the true value
of the animal from the relation of the several parts one with another.
For these habits of accurate observation will readily detect, in the
i'iving horse, the true character of the bony structure, and especially
of the muscular system, which covers and envelops it. In ordei
to make the bony structure plain to the reader it is here shown by
63
u
CTCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK 420) COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
diagrams or object lessons, since this is the most graphic, and at
the same time the most accurate, metliod of presenting information
of tm& kind. To make our object lesson still more easy we give
m the engraving, not only the fi-arae-work. but this resting on or shown
against a back ground illustrating the outer form and contour of the
horse.
THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE. 55
The skeleton, as shown in the engraving, may be divided as follows :
1 — Cranium, or Head. 2 — Cervical vertebrae, or bones of the neck.
3 — Dorsal vertebroe, or bones of the withers and back. 4 — Lumbal
vertebrae, or those of the loin between the false ribs and the upper edge
of the Haunch "Bone. 5 — Sacral vertebrae, or those of the rump, or
lying between the haunch bone and tail. 6 — Caudal vertebrae, or bones
of the tail. An observation of the dotted lines will show these correctly.
7 — The Ribs, showing their coiTect position. 8 — Sternum, or the breast
bone. 9 — Scapula, or shoulder bone. 10 — The front limbs. 11 — The
Pelvis, the cavity of the body formed by the union of the haunch bones
with those of the back and hip, and formed by the Sacrum at the top,
the Ilium at the sides, the Ischium and the Pubis at the bottom. 12
— The hind limbs.
m. Divisions of the Several Parts.
Thus we have given the entire skeleton of the horse, showing the bones
as they appear in their natural positions and relations to each other. We
next proceed to a more detailed study of the several parts.
The Head and Back Bones. — The head may be divided into two parts,
the skull and the face, each having its jDarticular bones, the variation of
which may affect the proper grinding of the food and thereby influence
the general condition of the animal, to say nothing of the relation be-
tween the shape of these bones and the horse's intelligence. The verte-
brae are divided into five groups, of which the Cervical or neck, contains
seven bones ; the back, or Dorsal, eighteen ; and the Lumbar, six. The
Lumbar vertebrae really belong to the back, and added to the eighteen
Dorsals, make a total of twenty-four. The Sacral vertebrae are five in
number, and the Caudal fifteen, making a grand total of fifty-one verte-
brae in the animal.
The Ribs. — The ribs are eighteen in number and are jointed to the
transverse processes of the vertebrae, and curve, with some variations in
their outline and direction, down to the sternum. Seven or eight of them
are true ribs, and are composed of cartilage and attached to the breast
bone and to the vertebrae, to allow full expansion of the lungs in breath-
ing. Thus the spring of the ribs, as it is called, is most important to
the horseman. The remaining ribs are called false ribs. They are not
attached to the breast bone, but are united by cartilages, each on its own
side, the union terminating in the sternum. Thus, all the ribs act in con-
cert, giving play not only to the lungs, but also to other viscera.
The Sternum. — The Stermum, or breast bone, in the young horse, is
composed of six bones, but in the fu!l grown animal these become uni-
ted into a single piece. The front of this bone is convex and sharply
56
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND CO^n'LETE STOCK DOCTOR.
keeled and its upper part projects so as to be plainly outlined in what
Is called the point of the breast, that part wliich the lower portion of the
collar just covers.
The Hinder Limbs. — The Hinder
Limbs are the ^jropelling power of
all animals, and especially so in the
horse. Hence the haunches are
strong and the upper portion is pow-
erfully developed in muscle, and the
lower correspondingly so in ten-
dons. The illustration will give a
perfect view, and the exj^lanation the
proper names of the parts.
The names and reference to the
letters and figures are as follows :
a, Sacrum ; b, Ilium ; c. Ischium.
These bones constitute the Pelvis, as
seen at a, d, c, and b, b. The other
bones are : e, Femur ; f , Patella ;
g. Tibia; h, Fibula; i, Tarsus; j,
Metatarsus ; k, Digit. The figures
1, 2, 3, refer to the Phalanges of
the foot, corresponding to the toes
in man.
The Haunch or Pelvis.— The Pel-
vis is made up of six bones, three
on each side, all firmly united into
one. The Ilium is strongly attached
to the Sacral vertebrae, and may be
called the keystone of the pelvic arch,
while the lateral prolongations of the Ilium produce the prominences just
above and in front of the hind-quarters. The Ischium or hip-bone is a
backward continuation of the Ilium, and bears an enlargement which
projects on each side a little below the tail. The pubis is a single bone
and is connected with the others, forming an inverted arch with them,
and composing the upper surface of the lower part of the pelvis.
rv. Comparative Anatomy of Man and the Horse.
The anatomy or bony structure of the horse is not so widely different
from that of man as at first sight it would seem to be. Indeed, it was
discovered by Aristotle in the days of the ancient Greeks that the horse,
though a hoof ed, and apparently a siugle-toed animal, actually has the
r.ONK8 OF UINUER I'AKTS.
THE ANATOMT OF THE HORSE. 57
rudiments of toes enveloped in the flinty hoof which has developed around
the foot and protects it from the rough soil over which the animal travels.
And when a parallel is once found to exist even between the toes of the
horse and those of man, there is nothing strange in the fact that other
parts of the skeleton closely correspond. The names of the different
portions of the limbs of the horse and of man are given below, in par-
allel lines, so the reader may see at a glance, those exactly correspond-
ing, though called by different names. A reference to the skeleton
proper, as given in the cut, page 54, will show the precise location of each
of the bones mentioned in the horse.
Front Limbs.
MAN. .fORSK.
Ai'iu (Humerus) coiTesj)onds to the - - Lower Ijouc of shoulder.
Fore arm " " - - Arm.
Wrist (Carpus) '• '' - - Knee.
Hand (Metacarpus) " " - - Leg, cannon and sphiit hones.
Knuckles " " - - Fetlock.
Finger " " - - Pasterns.
HiBd Limbs.
MAN. HORSE.
Thigh (Femur) corresponds to the - - - Upper hone of thigh.
Knee " " _ - _ stifle joint.
Leg " •' _ - - Thigh.
Ankle (Tarsus) *' '* _ _ _ Hock.
Heel " "... Point of hock.
Foot (Metatarsus) " "... Leg.
Ball of Foot " " _ . . Fetlock.
Toe " " _ - _ Pastern and foot.
This is quite different from the generally received idea of the compar-
ative anatomy of man and the horse, and yet it is strictly true. This
the skeleton will show, the proper names of each bone being given. The
•study is interesting, and the exijlanations will enable any one to fully
understand the names and location of the parts.
V. Analyzing the Skeleton.
The bones of the spine, (vertebrae) have already been mentioned.
The parts of the skeleton as shown in the next figure, are : A, Cervical
Vertebrae ; BB, Dorsal Vertebrae ; C, Lumbar Vertebrae ; D, Sacrum,
the bone which forms the bac^'v part of the pelvis ; E, Coccygeal bones,
or those forming the tail ; FF, Ribs ; G, Costal cartilages, or the carti-
lages joining the ends of the ribs ; H, the Scapula or shoulder blade ; I,
the Humerus, or the upper part of the fore leg ; KK, the Radii, or outer
bones of the fore legs, below the humerus and knee ; L, the Ulva.
This is the larger of the two bones of the upper part of the fore leg,
lying behind the radius and extending from the knee to the lower part of
the chest; M, the Knee, (Carpus). This is composed of 8 bones, viz:
58
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
1, Scaphoid, or boat shaped bone ; 2, Semilunar, or bone resembling a
half moon ; 3, the Cuneiform, or wedge-shaped bone ; 4, the Trapezium,
resembling the geometrical figure of that name ; 5, the Trapezoid, re-
CuT 8.— The Skeleton.
sembling a trapezoid ; 6, the great bone of the knee, (Os Magimm) ; 7.
the Hook-shaped bone, (Unciform bone) ; 8, the pea-shaped bone, (pis-
iform bone) ; NN, the big bone of the fore leg, the cannon bone or
large metacarpal ; O, Splint bone, or small metacarpal ; PP, Sessamoid
bones — two small bones in the substance of the tendons, where the fore
leg is joined to the ankle ; QQ, Phalanges. These are : 1, the upper
pastern bone ; 2, lower pastern bone; 3, the first bone in the leg, (os
pedis), inside the hoof, the coffin bone, and the navicular or ship-shaped
bone, not marked here.
The Hinder Parts. — Coming to the hinder parts, R shows the pelvis.
This is formed by : 1, the Ilium or flank bone ; 2, the Pubis, or fore part
of one of the bones of the pelvis ; 3, the Ischium, or hinder and lower
part of the hip bone. S, the Femur or thigh bone ; T, the Patella or
small bone covering the stifle joint ; U, the Tibia or the large, long bone
between the hock and the stifle joint ; V, the small, long bone ►behind
THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.
59
and attached to the Tibia ; W, the Hock, which is composed of the follow-
ing small bones : 1, buck point of the hock, Os Calcis ; 2, the Astraga^
'.us or upper bone of the hock, supporting the Tibia ; 3, Cuneiform Mag-
num, the largest wedge-shaped bone ; 4, Cuneiform Medium, or middle-
sized wedge-shaped bone ; 5, Cuneiform Parvum, or smallest wedge-
shaped bone ; 6, the small or cubical-formed bone. X, Large Metatarsal
or front bone of the hind leg, between the hock and pastern joint; I,
Small Metatarsal or small bone of the hind leg, in rear of Large Meta-
tarsal .
The Head. — 1, the lower jaw, (Inferior Maxilla); 2, the upper
jaw, (Superior Maxilla); 3, outer part of the jaw, (Anterior Max-
illa) ; 4, bone in front of the nostrils, (Nasal bone) ; 5, the prominent
cheek, (Malar bone); 6, the forehead, (Frontal bone); 7, Parietal
bones or sides and ipper part of the skull, (wall) ; 8, Occipital, or bone
of the hinder part of the head ; 9, Lachrymal bone, inclosing the lach-
rymal gland and duct ; 10, Squamous or scaly portion of the temporal
bones; 11, Petrous or hard part of the Temporal bones, inclosing the
organs of hearing.
VI. The Foot.
Cut 4.
We will now enter upon a more critical examination fi
of the foot, one of the most important parts in the
anatomy of the horse. We give a cut showing the
bones, as they lie, plainly named, and also a vertical
^UT 5. section of the lower
leg and foot. The
several parts here ill-
ustrated are: oj, can-
non or large Metacar-
pal bone ; 6, large Pas-
tern bone (Os Suffra-
ginis,) c, one of the
Sessamoid bones; J,
Os coronas, small pastern bone ;e, navicu-
lar bone ; /, Pedis or coffin bone ; <7, g,
g. Flexor Perforans or penetrating tendon ;
h,h, Flexor Perforatus or penetrated ten-
don ; ^ , extensor tendon ; /, suspensory
ligament ; X', k. Capsular ligament or
membraneous elastic bag surrounding the
joint ; Z, fetlock jomt ; m^ pastern joint ,
Sectional view of
the bones op the
FOOT.
Vertical Section of the Lower
Lecj and Foot.
n, coffin joint ; o, horny crust of hoof ; p*
60 cyclopedia of live stock. ak» complete stock doctok.
Cut 6.
p^ tiomy sole ; g, the frog ; r, sensible
laminse ; ^, the sensible frog ; m, the cush-
ion ; V, the navicular joint. The next fig-
ures show front and rear views of the
bones of the foot, c, c, Coffin bone ;
rf, Sessamoid bone ; 6, 6, Small pastern
a, The large pastern, ^
' *= ^ Fkont and back view of the
bone of the foot.
Vn. The Heaa and Neck.
Coming again to the head and neck we are prepared readily to under-
stand their atanomy. The names given to the several parts are as fol-
lows : a, frontal bone ; h, parietal ; c, occipital ; c?, temporal ; e, malar ;/,
lachrymal ; g^ nasal ; 7i, superior maxillary ; «, pre-maxillary ; A;, inferior
maxillaries (lower jaw) ; Z, orbit. The bones of the neck, (cervical ver-
tabrse) are named ; i, atlas ; 2, dentata ; 3, third ; 4, fourth ; 5, fifth ; 6,
sixth; 7, seventh. Of the bones of the neck, the atlas is a ring-shaped
bone with broad lateral projections. It articulates with the skull, and
has great freedom of motion on the next bone (dentata). On the artic-
ulation of these two vertebrae, principally depends the power of turning
the head. The remaining bones of the neck resemble each other closely,
and have various small processes for insertion of the ligaments and nuis-
cles, and upon their flexibility depends the power of flexing and arch-
ing the neck.
The Head. — The bones of the head may be divided into two groups ; the
cranial and facial. The cranial bones include all those which cover or
inclose the brain, and are mostly in pairs, or are on what is called the
mesial line of the skull, but may, for convenience, be spoken of as single
bones.
The bone of the forehead (frontal bone) «, forms the space between
the eyes and ex^tends to the top of the head with a narrowing outline. It
therefore occupies the most central part of the head and is important as
from its shape and surface it gives space for the brains. In succeeding
cuts the facial expression of horses will be given, showing the different
grades of intelligence in horses ; the broad and ample forehead indicat-
ing intelligence and high breeding.
The parietal bone, 6, extends back from the frontal to tne poll, and
has a ridge or crest of great strength and firmness along its upper sur«
face, sloping down like a roof on each side, covering and protecting the
brain.
THE ANATOMY Or THE HORSE.
61
TiiO c capitals J, covers the entire back part of the head and lies imme-
diately behind the parietal. It has to support the whole v/eight of the
ix-'ad, and from its position is exposed to greater strain than any other
part of the skull. It is articulated by two rounded protuberances (con-
dyles) at the base to the first vertebra (atlas) of the neck. On the
b
1 n
SHOWING BONES OF HEAD AND NECK.
t-uter side of che occipital and beyond the condyles, are two pointed
projections (styliforni pr cesses) to which some of the mur.cles of tho
neck are attached, and which assist in supporting the head.
The temporal bone^ cZ, unites with the pi.rietal above, and with the
occipital beliirc. It contains the int:nial parts of t!ie ear, and is provi-
ded with a hollow for the articilation of the lower I'av^, and in fri>nt
jclikethi ejrk^EkiJv o- Ui© fronti.i Cotiuuing^ fc:rward,it trnites with
02 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
tht cheek-bcno (malar), e, ncaking up the zygomatic arch and forming
tiie greatsst part oi the orbit, composed of a smzM bone in th? inner
corner of the eye (lachrymal),/. Just before the frontal is the nasal
bene, g, one of the principal bones of Ihe face and covering the mem-
brane of the nose. The large bone, (superior maxillary), h, occupies
the side of the face and holds all the grinding teeth (molars) and the
tusk of the upper jaw. The pre-maxillary, i, unites with the two last
named bones, holds the nippers (incisor teeth) and completes the frame-
work of the nose. The lower jaw consists of only two bones, the
inferior maxillaries, k. They terminate in two processes, directed
upward. The terminal . projection (condyloid process) articulates with
the temporal bone, at the base of the zygomatic arch, forming the hinge,
upon which the whole lower jaw moves. The second process (cpronoid)
passes under the arch, receiving the lower end of the large temporal
muscle arising from the parietal bone, and moves the jaw in the act of
chewing.
There are two small bones in the lower part of the cranium, under the
parietal, 6, called the Sphenoid, and the Ethmoid, which connect the
principal bones of the skull, but are not visible externally.
viJLi. Bones and Musclea of t;ht» Fro^t Limbs.
Coming again to the limbs, we represent in cut 8 on the next page, for
the sake of comparison, both the bones and muscles of the front limbs side
by side, since it will serve as a -convenient object lesson at one view.
Bones. — A — Radius. B — Point of Ulna. C — Knee (Carpus). F — Ses-
amoids, behind the fetlocks. G — Upper and Lower Pasterns. H — Coffin
Bons. T — Navicular.
tVcUScies. — ^ — Extensor carpi radialis, i — Extensor digitarum Ion-
gior. j — Extensor digitarum brevior. k — Abductor pallicis longus. ef
— External flexor, mf — Middle flexor, if — Internal flexor.
Bonesof the Arm, — The upper portion of the fore leg.in the horse is
called the arm, and in man the corresponding bone is the fore arm. In the
horse it consists of two bones, the radius A and the ulna B, and extends
from the elbow to the knee. The ulna is situated behind, and, to some
extent, above the radius, there being a considerable projection received
between the heads of the lower bone of the shoulder (elbow), forming
a powerful lever, into which are inserted the muscles for extending the
arm. The ulna continuing downwards^ terminy,tes in a point behind the
middle of the radius.
Bo^ligS of the Knee. — Cut 9 on page 70 shows in detail the various bones
5f tbft Imce : Fig. 1. the left leg, outer side ; Fig. 5?, a front view. The
leosiiioa wjd action of the knee, render it especially liable to shocks ap4
THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.
6.S
iars, or strains. Hence it is protected by being formed of a number of
bones, strongly united by ligaments, each bone being protected by car-
tilao-e, and resting on a semi-fluid cushion, so that any shock may be dis-
tributed over the whole number of distinct bones. The names of the
bones are as follows : a, Radius ; h. Pisiform ; c, Cuneiform ; (?,Lanare ;
e, Scaphoides ; /, Magnum ; ^, Unciform ; i. Cannon ; j. Splint. These
two latter are called Metacarpals.
Fig 1
Cut 8.— Bones amu Muscles op the Fore Legs.
By reference to cut 9 on page 64. the arraugemeut and shape of the
several bones will be readily understood. A large, flat knee is essential in
the horse, since it not only carries plenty of integument, but allows free
play to this portion of the leg. Fig. 1 shows the knee flexed and Fig. 2
iae knee at rest.
84
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
The true carpal bones are seven in number. Six of these are placed
in two rows, each containhig three bones in front of the joint, while the
seventh, the pisiform, (Trapezium), is placed behind them, forming the
point of insertion for some of the muscles of the arm. It also aids iu
protecting the tendons running down behind the leg.
Fig. 1.
Pig. 2.
CUT 9.— SHOWINC} BONKS OK TlIK KNEE.
Bones of the Leg. — Between the knee and the fetlock are three
bones, the shank (cannon) and two splint bones, as shown in cut 8, page
03, Fig. 1. D. These form the leg, the corresponding part in man
being the metacarpus. The cannon bone articulates at its upper extremi-
ty with the lower row of the bones of the knee and below with the
upper pastern of the fetlock joint. It has scarcely any muscle, those
parts not covered by tendons, as well as the parts so covered being envel-
oped directly by the skin. The legbone is nearly straight, rounded in front
and flattened or slightly concave behind. The splint bones, slender bones
attached to the camiou to strengthen it, diminich to a point before they reach
2 ^
TTIE ANATOMY OF THE H(»{8E.
65
the fetlock joint. Behind this are two supplementary bones, called ses-
amoids, 6, in cut 10, and page 65. These serve to protect the back of
the joint and some important ligaments passing over it. More fully to
illustrate the lower part of the front limbs, we give four figures, show-
ing the bones and articulations of the joints of the foot.
CUT 10.— BONES AND ARTICULATIONS OK THE FOOT.
The names of these bones are as follows : a, cannon, or shank ; 6,
sesamoids ; c, fetlock joint ; d, upper pastern ; e, lower pastern ; /, cof-
fin bone J g, navicular bone. The upper and lower pasterns, d, e, have
considerable motion one on the other to allow the fjoot to be bent back.
The toe is formed by the coffin bone. This is surrounded and covered
in by the horny hoof. Hence, its form is never seen unless dissected for.
Another small bone, the navicular, g, lies behind and partly within the
junction of the coffin and lower pastern. Like the coffin bone, it is
inclosed by the hoof.
GO CYCLOPEDIA OF MVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
IX. The Hind Limbs.
The bones of the limbs terminating and inclosed within the body of
the horse, as well as the whole of the front limbs have been carefully
illustrated and described. Many persons suppose, if they understand
something of the anatomy of one limb, that they understand them all.
This is a mistake, for while th,ere are points in common, there are many
differences. -Hence the necessity of illustrating every part fully in order
that the reader may get a full comprehension of every part. Further
on we give a cut showing the bones of the hock joint and portions of the
bones above and below. In the illustration, page 50, the anatomy of
the entire limb may be studied.
Anatomy of the Hind Limbs. — The great bone of the thigh (femur)
which articulates with the upper bone (ilium), which in turn is joined to
the back, is very strong, stout and short for its bulk. It is also further
strengthened by large projections (trochanters), placed in the direction
of the length, or longitudinally, for the attachment of important mus-
cles. The upper extremity of the femur has a rounded head on the
inner side, fitting into, and articulating with, a homy cup (acetabulum)
formed at the junction of the three pelvic bones. At the lower end are
two prominences fitting into depressions in the true bone of the thigh
(the lower part of which is shown in the preceding illustration) and in
front of which is placed the knee cap (patella), making what is called
the stifle joint, which, anatomically, corresponds to the knee in man.
The thigh bone is made up of two parts, the tibia, or bone proper and a
small bono at the top (fibula), which reaches' down the bone for about
one-third its length. It is attached to the large bone by cartilage, and
corresponds to the small bone (ulna) in the shoulder of the horse.
The next illustration shows the bones of the hock. Figure 1, back view,
inner side ; figure 2, front view, outer side.
Bones of the Hoclc. — ^The names of the bones of the Hock (Tarsus)
as shown in cut 11 are: a, Tibia; b, Os Calcis ; c, Astragalus; d, Cu-
noides ; e, Naviculare ;/, Outer Cuneiform ; h, Splint ; i, Cannon, (shank
bone.)
The hock is as important as it is complicated. It corresponds to the
ankle and heel in man, and is a prime factor in the means of progression.
Like the knee of the horse, it consists of small bones, interposed between
the upper bone. Tibia, and the Cannon bone below. These are six in
number, ^ given above. The projecting bone at the back, the heel bone,
(Os Calcis), is moved by tendons arising from muscles in the lower
part of the limb.
One of the Main Springs. — ^The principal one of these is the tendo*
Achillis. In all fast anixuals it is much developed, since an increase m
THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.
67
the length of this lever adds force to the spring ; for it must be remembered
that progression is simply a succession of springs. Hence in all four-
footed animals, the chief motive power lies in the hinder limbs and hence,
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
CUT 11. -BONES OF THE HOCK.
again, the reason why these are so much developed. Whether the animal
be required for draft or saddle, the propelling power requires t6 be espe-
cially studied. The skeleton is the frame-work upon which all this is
developed.
CHAPTER m.
THE MUSCUTx^R SYSTEM AJSTD INTERNAI, PUKCTIONS OF THB
HORSE.
TSE ECONOMY OP THE MDSCULA.K COVERING. 11. MUSCLES OF THEJaEAD AWD
TJECK. III. MUSCLES OP THE SHOULDER AND BACK. IV. MUSCLES OF THE
HINDER PARTS. Y. MUSCLES OP THE FORE LIMBS. VT. MUSCLES OF THE LEO
AND FOOT. VII. STUDYING THE STRUCTURE. VIII. INTERNAL ECONOMY OF THE
:10RSE. IX. EXTERNAL PARTS OF THE HORSE.
I. The Economy of the Miiscular Covering.
While, as already stated, the bones are the frame-work of the animal,
the covering of the bones, viz : the sinews, muscles, nerves, membranes r
etc., are really what constitute the motive power of the animal. With the
nerves and membranes we shall have little to do ; their study will not be
necessary to a correct understanding of the value of a horse to the
farmer, breeder, or buyer. The bony and muscular development being
perfect, and the digestive apparatus, the viscera, and all that pertains there-
to., being healthy , the nerves and membranes may be taken for granted £is
being in good order. We therefore proceed at once to a consideration of the
more important organs which constitute the working parts of the horse.
This we have most carefully illustrated on the next page by a cut, show-
ing the entire figure of the horse with the principal muscles laid bare.
They need not be referred to here, since they will be named further on in
considering the illustrations of the several parts. The engraving is
considered necessary, as showing the connection of the parts, one with
another, as the animal appears in walking.
A Vertical Section of the Head. — A section of the head may here bc^
studied to advantage, as showing not only the bony and muscular struc-
ture, but the brain and ganglia as
well. In the study of this figure we find
at a, the frontal bone, showing the
cavity or channel, (sinus) beneath;
6, the wall bone (parietal) covering
the brain; c, the nose (nasal) bone;
(?, the bone (occipital) at the back of
the head ; e, e, the first bone of the
neck, (atlas) showing the spinal mar-
„ , „ . „ _ , row in the center ; /*, the sieve-like
Cut 1. Horse's Head, Open TO View. . , .,x i. J, ^ i . ,. xi.
(ethmoia) bone through which the
nerve, (olfactory) giving the sense of smell passes ; g, the wedge-like
hone, (spJienoid). This, with the ethmoid bone, supports the base of
th'^ brain. At A, between C and D is shown part of the lower, (max-
68
THE ECONOMY OF THE MUSCULAR COVERING.
69
illary) jaw bone, Avith the lower nipper {incisor) teeth. Coming to the
numerals: 1, is the large portion of the brain, (cerebrum) ; 2, the small
brain ( cerebellum) ; 3, the upper portion of the spinal marrow {me-
dulla oblongata), where it leaves the small brain; 4, the spinal marrow
itself. The capitals show, at .4. the thin bony plates, (turbinated bones) in
the form of a scroll, which serve to distribute the lining membrane of the
nose; B, the cartilaginous division, {septum nasi) between the nostrils;
C, C, the lips; D, the tongue; E, the valve of the larynx {epiglottis) ; F,
the wind pipe, {trachea) ; G, the gullet {aesophagus) .
70 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Economy of the Head. — We have heretofore spoken of the l)ones of
the iicad hciiiiz; in ])airs. So also are the various organs of the hody as
a rule, namely : the ears, eyes, nostrils, lips, the lobes of the lungs, the
va'ives of the heart,, the kidneys, etc. Thus the two frontal bones (a)
make up the forward part of the head. The wall bones (b) cover the
outer lobes of the large portion of the brain. The occipital bone (d) is
strong and solid, and at its back contains the spinal marrow, and some
nerves and arteries which pass from the brain ; at the point where it is
jointed to the lirst.bone of the nock it is rounded and smoothed to make
the articulation perfect. The sphenoid bone (^) forms the hiferior and
central part of the skull (cranium). Near the bones of the face (facial
6o?ies), are sinuses or channels, that are named from the bones which
they pierce or channel. The bones of the head are of two kinds, the
soft and scaly, (squamous), and the hard, (petrous), hones. The temporal
bones are likewise of both kinds ; the hard portion contains the organ
of hearing, and on its inside surface are openings for the passage of the
auditory nerve, and on its outside larger openings for the passage of sound.
n. Muscles of the Head and Neek.
The muscles of the head are not many. Those of the mouth, nostrils,
ears and neck, are the most important from the standpoint of the breeder.
Cut 3 on the next page we give shows, at two views, the various muscles of
the head and neck.
The Muscles of the Head. — n, the cheek, {Massctcr) muscle ; b, tem-
poral muscle, ( tetnporalis) ; c, circular nuiscle, (oi-bicular is), surrounding
the eye ; d, the raising muscle, (levator) ; e, orbicularis ovis ; f, the di-
lator naris lateralis ; y, Zygomaticus; h, nasalislabii superioris; i, de-
pressor labii inferioris.
Muscles of the Neck. — j, complexus major ; k, splenius; I, levator an-
gull scapulae ; m, Hyoideus; n, sterno-maxillaris ; o, levator humeri oi
deltoides. The massetcr (a), forms the cheek of the horse, extending
along a ridge by the side of the head, below the eye to the rounded angle
at the rear of the lower jaw ; its function is to close the jaw. The tem-
poral muscle, (b), also assists in the action, and the dimpling seen above
the eye in the process of chewing, arises from the action of tliis nuiscl©
while opening and closing the jaw.
The action of the muscle orbicularis is to close the eye-lids. Above
the eye, passing inward and upward, over this muscle is the levator nmscle
(d). Its office is to raise the upper lid.
The nxuscles of the ear are not conspicuous. Oi>e of them proceeds
from the base of the ear, extends forward and turns the ear forward.
The second, situated l)eliind the car, turns it inward and backward, while
the third muscle, a narrow st«-ip, descends at the back of the chee»i, and
turns the ear outward.
THE ECONOMY OF THE MUSCULAR COVERING.
71
The muscular covering of the frontal and nasal bones is not promi-
nent and docs not require mention here.
Muscles of the Nose and Lips. — The muscles of the nose and lips are
important, since on them depend the act of gathering food, and also the
expansion and contraction of the nostrils in breathing. They are also
^ Tig. 1.
Cut 3. — Muscles ok the Head and Neck
an index, together with those of the ears, in discovering much of the
temper of the horse. Orhiciilansoris (e) is one of the most important
of these. It entirely surrounds the mouth, and by its action closes or
opens the lips. A pyramidal muscle (dilator naris lateralis) (/) covers
the whole of the nostril, and also raises the upper lip.
The muscle sho^vn at h (7iasalis lahii superioris) extends from a de-
pression in front of the eye towards the angle of the mouth and divides
72 CTCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR,
into two parts to permit the passage of the side dihitor of the nostril (/),
one branch passing straight to the corners of the mouth : its use being
to raise it. The other branch expanding under the side dilator, not only
assists in dilating the nostril, but also in lifting the upper lip.
The under lip is drawn back by the narrow muscle (/), which is inserted
into the lip below the angle of the mouth. Passing along the side of the
jaw, it disappears under the masseter or cheek muscle (a).
Muscles of the Neck. — One of the principal muscles of the neck rises
from the transverse processes of the first four or five dorsal vertebne,
page 54 (3), and also from the five lower bones of the neck (2), same
page. The fibers from these two points, uniting form one large muscle,
which, in fact, makes up the principal lower part of the neck, and which,
diminishing in size as it passes towards the head, terminates in a tendon
inserted in the {occipital) bone covering the back of the head. See page
61 (c). Immediately above is the muscle splenius (k,) page 71 . It is
used for raising the head. This muscle arises from the entire length of
a strong and elastic ligament {ligamentum nuchce), having its origin
from the back of the occipital l)one, to which it is attached immediately
below the crest. At first cord-like, it passes over the first joint of the
neck and adheres strongly to the second bone of the neck, on which the
principal weight of the head is thrown ; it thence proceeds backward un
to its termination on the elevated spinous processes of the bones of the
Avithcrs. Thus the withers have to support the entire weight of the head
and neck, when held in their usual position.
To return to the fiplenius. It is inserted directly into all the bones of
the neck except the first, but having with this and the temporal bone, a sep-
arate and distinct connection. To its form and development, the muscu-
larity and beauty of the neck are chiefly due. The tiiick crest and mas-
sive neck of the stallion, is princij^ally due to its great development. If
overloaded with cellular tissue or fat, the neck mil be clumsy. These
facts cannot be too carefully borne in mind, for whatever the condition or
breed of the horse it is this muscle which gives character to the neck.
Behind the splenius, and extending along the upper margin of the neck,
is a muscle (levator angidi scapulae') (I). Inserted in the back of the
head, and attached to the first four bones of the neck and to
the great ligament, it descends to the shoulder, out of sight. It.s
action is reciprocal on the neck and shoulder, according as one or the
other may be fixed at the time.
Muscles of the Front of the Neck. — On page 71(fig. 2, m.) immediately
below the head at its junction with the neck, its upper extremity, con-
spicuous, is the muscle hyoideus. It is attached to the hyoid bone of
THE ECONOMY OF THE MUSCULAR COVERING. 73
the tongue, which it retracts ; descending along the front of the neck to
the shoulder, it is for the greater part of its length, covered by other
muscles. The principal depressor muscle of the head, called sterno-max-
illaris, (n,) partly covers the last named. It rises from the upper part of
the point of the breast, (sternum) ^ covers the lower front of the neck,
proceeds upward by the side of the retracting muscle of the tongue, and
is inserted by a flat tendon into the rear angle of the lower jaw. It is
not a large muscle, since it requires but little force to depress the head.
Extending from the back of the head and upper part of the neck,
along the front of the shoulder, to the top of the fore leg, and beyond
the sterno-maxillaris^ is a long and important muscle (levator humeri,
or deltoides) page 69 (o) having a double function to perform. The head
being held up by its own proper muscles, it then becomes the fixed point
from which the levator humeri raises the shoulder. But its action can be
reversed. With the shoulder as a fixed point, the head can be depressed
l)y means of a small slip of the muscle being carried forward to the
point of the breast bone to bear the head in that direction. In conclu-
sion, it may be stated that the muscles are all arranged in pairs, some-
times, but rarely, in contact ; so that in speaking of them in the singular,
their i)ositi()u and function is to be understood as applying to each side
of the animal.
III. Muscles of the Shoulder and Back.
In every science the use of Latin has generally been adopted in nam-
ing the several parts and objects. The reason of this is that the true and
exact meaning of the names is thus preserved with scientific accuracy,
which could not always be the case if these terms were loosely translated
from and into the various languages of the earth. In English and in
other languages there are several names for one and the same oljject
Once named in scientific nomenclature the object remains fixed and clearly
defined by its scientific name as long as the science lasts. Sometimes
it would take many words to express the same meaning, and when neces-
sary the meaning of the scientific term is explained. Sometimes thers
is no common name, and hence we are obliged to depend upon the Latin
name. For instance the trapezius is the muscle whose office it is to raise
and support the shoulders, assisted by another important nmscle, (serratus
major) (g,) a muscle that is hardly visible externally, since it is situated
between the ribs and shoulder blades, and forms the main connection
between them. Hence in explaining the illustrations we use these terms,
explaining them, so far as may be necessary, in the body of the text.
74 CYCLOrEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
The muscle, trapezius, previously noticed rises from the ligaments oi
the neck, and the principal ])oncs of the withers, terminating in a pomled
shape on a prominent part of the shoulder blade, and is at x.
CUT 4.
MUSCLKS OK .snOUr.DEll AND AD.TACKNT I'ARTS
The muscle occupying the outer surface of the shoulder blade (scap
ula,) on the front side of the spine or ridge of that bone is termed
antea spinatus, and is shown at ft, on pages 69, 74 and 76. It proceeds
to the lower bone of the shoulder, and dividing into two parts, is inserted
into the two prominences in front of it. Its use is to extend the bone
forward.
Situated on the other side of the shoulder blade and inserted into the
upper and outer head of the bone, draAving it outward and raising it, is
Uie nmscic called postea fijnnatus. Behind it is a small muscle (^teres
"Elinor) ((Z,) or little pectoral. Its office is to draw the shoulder forward
towards the breast.
Inside the arm, at its junction with the body, is an important and
:jonspicuous nmscle, the large pectoral nmscle (pectoralis major) shown
THE ECONOMY OF THE MUSCULAR COVERING. 75
at pm, page 76. This muscle pulls the whole fore leg inwards keep-
ing it in a line with the body, so as to induce an even and regular action
of the limb.
On the outside of the shoulder, and easily seen when a horse is in
motion, are two muscles, («") (anconfieus longus) and (/) anr.onmus
externum) whose office is to straighten and extend the arm. That is, to
bring the front limb down i)erp(Midicularly, and in a line with the lower
bone of the shoulder {humn-ns). Arising from the lower bone of the
shoulder, they arc inserted into the point of the elbows. The nmscles
which bend the arm ui)wards are not visible in the living animal, being
almost entii'cly coveied l)y those of the shoulder.
The principal muscle of the back is the latissimus dor.n, shown on
page 74 as extending from the shoulder to the haunch, and on pages
09 and 76 at the * ; it is strongly attached to the processes of the back
bones and ribs, and is employed in raising the fore and hind quarters,
and in rearing and kicking. The portion Avhich comes nearest the surface
is that part which is covered by the saddle. No portion of it, however,
is distinctly apparent without dissection.
IV. Muscles of the Hinder Parts.
The muscles shown in cut 4, arc : x. Trapezius ; «, PectoraliR minor ;
b y Antea apinatns ; c, Postea ffpinatus; d. Teres minor -, e, Anconcmis
longrifi; y, AncoiuEUfi externum; g, S err ahis major •* , Latissinms dorsi ;
pm, Pectoralis inajor. These two latter are figured in the illustration
on page 76
The Muscles of the Hind Quarters. — The illustration on page 77
shows all the prominent muscles of the hind quarters laid bare. Their
names and references are as follows: /, Glutoeus externus; m, Glutceus
medius; w, Triceps fem,oris -, o. Biceps; p, semi 3Ie7nbranosus, (shown
on page 69) ; q, Muscidus facice latce ; r. Pectus; s, Vastus externus; u,
Gracilis; v, Extensor pedis ; iv, Peronoeus ;x, Flexor pedis ; y, Gastroc-
nemii ; z, Flexor metatarsi.
The Muscles Described. — The muscles of the hind parts are mostly
strongly marked, and the situation of the principal ones will be easily
recognized. With them will be included those concerned in or connected
with the motion of the hinder limbs. Among the most prominent of the
muscles on the front and outer parts of the haunch is that one (the Glu-
tceus medius) arising from the processes of several of the vertebroe of
the loins and from the prominent parts of the ilium, (the side bone of
the pelvis heretofore described) and terminating at its insertion in the
greyt trochanter or projection on the upper bone of the thigh (femur).
'JO CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
It is an important and powerful muscle and is used in raising and bring-
ing forward the upper bone of the thigh. It has been not inaptly called
the kicking muscle, and is shown at m, on pages 69 and 76 and 77.
The glutceus exfernus, I, is a slender muscle attached to the kicking mus-
cle and has a siiiiilMi- orii^in and function. It may be calknl the assistant
kickinir muscle.
CUT ij.— KEAl: SIDE VIEW OF THE MUSCULAU COVERING
The Three Headed Muscle. — When the horse is in motion a conspic-
uous muscle of the hind-ciuarter is the three headed muscle of the thigh
{triceps femoris) , shown at n. This is really three muscles in one, each
having a common origin and united together. It comes from several of
the bones of the spine, including some at the root of the tail, and from
various parts of the haunch bone. It curves downwards and forwards,
dividing into three heads. These are inserted broadly into the upper
part of the lower bone of the thigh behind the knee {stifle joint). Its
action straightens the leg, and it has great power in carrying the animal
forward, for while the glutei muscles bend the leg before it takes the
spring, the triceps, acting in opposition, forces the leg straight and lifts
the body forward. The hinder margin of this muscle may be seen in all
horses, parallel to the outline of the buttock, but it i« prominent in racing
THE ECONOlVrY OF THE MUSCULAR COVERING.
77
and trotting horses, when proper exercise has l)rou<>ht them into condi-
tion.
Parallel with the triceps and immediately behind it is the biceps, shown
on pages 69, 70 and 77, at o. Springing from the sacrum and the first
bones of the tail, it descends to the inner side of the lower bone of the
thigh, forms the outer rear border of the haunch and assists in straight'
ening the leg.
Another flexor of the leg, forming the inner rear border of the
haunch, and uniting on the mesial line with its fellow muscle of the other
quarter is the semi membranosus, shown on page 76, at p, and also od
page 69, at pp.
! /
CUT 0.— SIIOWINU MUSCLES OK THE HIM> (^CARTERS.
At the outer front part of the haunch, is a peculiar muscle which binds
down and secures the other nuiscles in front of the haunch. It is the
mtisculus fascice latce, shown at q, pages 69 and 77. It arises from
the forward portion of the crest of the ilium and is enclosed betweea
two layers of tendinous substance which disappear below the stifle.
78 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
The Rectus, r, forms tlie front edge of the thigh, and proceeds
from the ilium, in front of the hip joints, and is inserted into the knee
cap, (^patella) at the stifle joint. This muscle forms the front edge of
the thigh.
The vastus exturnu^, s, is a large muscle behind the rectus and is also
inserted into the patella. Only a part of it can be seen externally, and
both this and the rectus are powerful extensors of the thigh.
The sartorius, or tailor's muscle, is a narrow strip descending inside
the thigh, and terminating just below the stifle joint. It bends the leg,
{tibia), and turns it inward. It is h:udly visible. The gracilis, u, lies
by the side of this muscle, and at the rear of it, occupying the i)rincipal
surface of the insid6 of the thigh, (femur). It is inserted into the uppei
part of the lower bone of the thigh, (tihia).
V. Muscles of the Pore Limbs.
These have been delineated on page 63 in. comicct ion with the corres-
ponding bones ; their names are there given. The elbow is the lever into
which the muscles for extending the arm are inserted. They are of great
power, and they extend up to the muscles of the shoulder, with which
they are connected in reciprocal action.
VI. Muscles of the Leg and Foot.
The most important of the muscles wiiich move the lower portion of
the leg and foot, is the extensor pedis, seen on pages 69 and 77, at v.
It comes from behind the stifle, from the extremity of the two bones of
the thigh, (femur and tibia). Descending to the hock, its tendons pass
under a sheath, confining it to its place in front of the joint. Thence it
continues to the foot, and, widely expanding, is inserted in front of the
coffin bone.
The peronoeus, seen at page 69 and 77 at w, comes from iha fibula^
and taking much the same course as the last-named muscle, but in a more
lateral direction, the tendon passes on the outside of the hock and de-
scends to tlie foot with the extensor pedis. These two muscles act to lift
the foot forward. Between them is another naiTow muscle, which acts
with them, and the tendon of which is seen just above the hock.
One of tl>e jirincipal muscles for bending the foot is the flexor pedis,
shown at pages 69 and 76 and 77 at x. Rising from the upper part of the
tibia, it becomes tendinous before reaching the hock, and as a round, large
cord i)asses through a groove at the back of that joint. Then descending
behind the shank bone, it is inserted in the two pasterns.
At the liack of the thigh (tibia) may be seen the extremities of the
gastrocnemiij pages 69 and 76 and 77aty. The united tendons (tendon
THE EC!ONOMY OF THE ^roSCULAR COVERING. 7^
AcMUes) puss to tne point of the hock where they are inscrte*]. In the
horse the gastrocnemii are important muscles, and are aided by the
plantaris.
The flexor metatarsis is the muscle which bends the leg. It is on the
inside of the thigh {tibia), and is shown on pages 69 and 76 and 77 at z.
Originating above the stifle on the upper bone of the thigh {femur), it is
inserted into the shank and inner splint bone.
VII. Studying the Structure.
Thus we nave carefully gone over the l)ony and muscular structure of
the horse, giving only such information as is indispensable for every
hoiseman to have. The artist, from careful study of the anatomy
and physiology of an animal, is able to draw and paint it correctly. The
horseman should study it from the same standpoint. Thus both will l)e
enal)led to carry in the mind the appearance of a well-developed horse.
The surgeon studies anatomy from a somewhat different standpoint. He
wants to understand the various articulations, muscles, arteries, tendons,
nerves, ganglia and viscera, with a view to surgery and the cure of dis'
cases. The horseman and breeder studies anatomy and physiology to
arrive at a better understanding of what goes to make up a good animal,
endowed ^^^th speed, style, or d(n'elopnient for draft.
VIII. Internal Economy of the Horse.
We next discuss the internal economy of the horse. For a better un-
derstanding of the subject, we give a longitudinal section of the horse,
showing Thorax (cavity of the chest, windpipe, etc.). Abdomen, Pelvis^
etc. — See next page.
POSITION OF THE INTERNAL ORGANS OF A HORSE (hALf).
(1) External Massetcr Muscles, cut off. (2) Parotid Gland. (2')
Parotid Duct. (3) Buccal Glands. (4) Oesophagus. (5) Trachea. (6)
Lungs. (7) Heart. (8) Sternum or Breastbone. (9) Diaphragm divid-
ing the hollow of the chest from the stomach. (10) Stomach. (11) Liver.
(12) Spleen. (13) Pancreas. (14) Kidney. (15) Ovary. (15') Oviduct
(16) Ureter. (16') Position where the Oviduct enters the Uterus. (17)
Rectum. (18) Vagina. (19) Bladder. (20) Colon.' (21) Caecum.
^22) Small Intestines. (23) Abdominal Wall.
80
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
3 "^
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11
THE ECONOMY OF THE MUSCULAR COVERING.
81
THE EXTERNAL MUSCLES OF THE HORSE.
— Levator Labii. 2. — Nasalis Longus. 3. — Dilator Naris. 4. — Alae Narls. 5. — Insertion
Levator Labii. 6. — Commissure. 7. — Orbicularis Oris. 8.— Depressor Labii. 9. — Buccin-
ator. 10.— Zygomaticus. 11. — Masseter. 12. — .\ttollens. 13. — Tendon of Sterno-M axill-
aris. 14. — Sterno-Maxillaris. 15. — Subscapulo-H.voideus. 16. — Splcnius. 17. — Com-
ple.xus Major. 18. — Levator Humeri. 1<). — Trapezius. 20. — Latissimus Dorsi 21 —
Cervical Serratus Magnus. 22.— Dorsal Serratus Magnus. 23 and 24.— Pectoralis. 25. —
Antea Spinatus. 26. — Postea Spinatus. 27. — Teres Externus. 28. — Caput Magnum
29. — Caput Medium. 30.— Humeralis Obliquus. 31.— Extensor Metacarpi Externus.
32.— Extensor Metacarpi Obliqutis. 33.— Flexor Metacarpi Externus. 34.— Flexor Metac-
arpi Internus. 35.— E.xtensor Pedis. 36.— Flexor Metacarpi Medius. 37. — Extensor
SuiTraginis. 37a.— Flexor Pedis Externus. 38— Flexor Pedis Internus. 39.— Abdominal
Wall. 40. — Obhquus Abdominis. 41.— Obliquus Abdominis. 42. — Intercostales. 43. —
Superflcialis Costarum Anterior. 44.— Superficialis Costarum Posterior. 45. — Transver-
salis Costarum. 46.— Gluteus Magnus. 47.— Gluteus Externus. 48.— Triceps Temoris.
49 and 50. — Biceps. 51. 52 and 53— Vastus Externus. 54.— Gastrocnemius. 54a. —
Gastroonemius Tendon or Hamstring. 55.— Extensor P-'d's. 56. — Peroneus. 57. — Peroneus
Tendon. 58.— Flexor Pedis. 58a.— Flexor Pedis Externus. 59.— Flexor Pedis Internus.
82
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
THE ECONOMY OF THE MUSCULAR COVERING. 83
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CYCLOPEnTA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOE.
THE ECONOM. OF THE MUSCULAR COVERING. 85
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THE ECONOMY OF THE MUSCULAR COVERING. 87
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CHAPTER rV.
OUTWARD APPEARAITCE OP THE HORSE AS INDICATING VALUE.
X. ACTION THE FIRST REQUISITE OF A GOOD HORSE. II. FAST WALKING HORSES.
HI. HORSES FOR DIFFERENT KINDS OF WORK. IV. THE HEAD ILLUSTRA-
TED OUTWARDLY. V. THE BODY AND LIMBS. VI. BAD FOREQUARTERS.
VII. THE BODY AS SEEN FROM THE FRONT. VIII. WHAT A CRITICAL HORSE-
MAN SAID. IX. FRONT VIEW, SHOWING BAD FOREQUARTERS. X. THE HIN-
DER PARTS ILLUSTRATED. XI. THE PROPELLING POWER. XII. WHAT THE
ANCIENTS KNEW OF HORSES. XIII. WHAT ONE NEED NOT EXPECT.
I. Action the First Requisite of a Good Horse.
A horse, like every other farm animal, is to be bought with a view to
the use for which he is intended. The buyer must therefore know what
he wants the animal for ; if for slow draft a very different frame will be
required from that needed when fast work is to be done ; and yet the
general symmetry of the animal must be looked to in every case. Fur-
ther on the various breeds will be illustrated. The present chapter will
deal simply with the outward conformations, showing good and bad
forms, just as the preceding chapters have illustrated the bony structure
and the muscular development Action is of course the first requisite
whatever use the horse is intec ued for, and fast walking is the ground-
work upon which to build all other action. We give on the next page an
illustration of a horse, as seen in a fast^valking gait.
Action in General. — Good action can never be gotten out of a lazy,
lubberly horse. The animal must have spirit and ambition, whatever the
breed. Action is of only two forms: smooth, safe, low action, and
high, showy, or parade action. The latter is never admissible, except
when the horse is intended only for show and parade, or for a certain
class of carriage horses, or for slow driving or riding in parks or other
places of public resort. It is unsafe, unless the animal be intelligent and
naturally sure-footed ; for a high stepping dolt is generally bad-tempered,
and as unsafe as he is ungainly. When slow-and-safe and fast-and-safc
action are combined in the same animal, he is invaluable and should not be
lightly parted with.
Good action is attained when all the limbs are moved evenly and in
accord one with the other, the hind limbs being kept well under the
animal, ready for any emergency. The action should be square in walk-
ing or trotting and without paddling -with the fore legs, or straddling
behind. It is true that paddlers are staunch and sure footed, and horses
that straddle behind are sometimes fast, but thio is in spite of such
action, and not on account of it. They are never admissible, either in fine
harness or under the saddle.
88
OUTWARD APPEARANCE OF THE HORSE.
89
II. Past "Walking Horses.
It IS seldom one sees a hOrse that will walk four and a half or five
miles an hour in regular 1-2-3-4 time, nodding his head in cadence. Yet
unv horse that conforms to the configuration shown in the cuts hereafter
criven^inTthis chapter may easily be taught to do it, either under the sad-
die or in harness. Some horses may be taught to walk six miles an hour,
but they are rare. As a rule, fast-^walking horses may be taught to trot
fast, thouo-h some fast-walking horses are too broad-chested, to trot fast,
90 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVp STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOC FOR.
and they will roll in galloping. It is for this reason that we give the'
illustrations, showing the perfect conformation for perfect action. A
horse that is good at all gaits, is a horse perfect in his conformation.
Ilcncc, a perfectly-formed horse will well repay careful training, for such
a one will bring a large price for the time and labor spent upon his edu-
cation ; or if it be a mare that is to be kept for show, and later for breed-
ing, the labor of training will not have been thrown away
III. Horses for Diffarent Kinds of "Work.
Speed and bottom, which indicate the superior bone and muscle of
good breeding, combined witlj great lung and heart power, whatever the
breed, are whatns desired in a horse. The nearer the animal comes to the
llasl rations given, the better will he be for general utility, and measurably
so whatever the labor desired. The horse for heavy draft will be coarser,
more stocky, heavier in the bone, not so flexible in the limbs, more
upright m the shoulder, longer-haired, and perhaps with less courage.
Occasionally, however, a thoroughbred makes a first-class work horse, if
trained to get down steadily to-the work. This very" flexibility enables
him to take a hard and long-continued pull without injury, and it brings
the oblique shoulder of the blooded horse straight in the collar. Yet
thoroughbred horses are not draft horses, and were never intended to be,
though they have imbued nearly every valuable breed existing to-day with
some of their best characteristics.
rv. The Head Illustrated Outwardly.
The head is the seat of intelligence in all animals, and without intelli-
gence we cannot have a good servant. The illustrations on pages 98
and 99 show the formation of heads from good to bad. Those on
page 98 show the perfectly-formed head of a well-bred horse, present-
ing a side and front view, that may be taken as a type constituting perfec-
tion, as near as may be. The side view exhibits the head fine and taper-
ing to the muzzle, and the chin handsomely developed. The brow is
smooth, distinct, and yet not heavily prominent. The eye is large, full,
clear, and has a placid, intelligent expression. The ears are fine and flex-
ible, rather large, but well pointed, and alive with intelligent motion.
The jaw is strong but fine. Observe the musculaiity of the neck, and at
the same time, its lines of swelling and delicate grace. Observe especi-
ally the manner in which the head is set upon the neck. Again, it will be
seen that the face is dished slightly, showing spirit, tempered to intelli-
gent tractability
N(Sw take the front view of the same head. Observe the great smooth
swelling forehead looking really broader between the eyes than it is.
Why? It will be seen that the eyes are apparently at the sidd of tUs
OUTAVARD APPEARANCE OF THE HORSE.
A CHOICK WAGON HOHSE.
Note the conformation of great physical endurance indicated by his ob-
liquely set shoulder, depth and compactness of body, shortness of back, closeness
of coupling, unusual leiii;ih of croup, well set pasterns, and sood shaped feet.
His height is 16 liands and his weight 1450 pounds.
CHOICE COACH OR BROUGHAM HORSE.
Note the compactness and smoothness of form with rotundity of body.
Height, 15-2 hands; weight, 1175 pounds. This horse meets the principal re-
quirement of high action combined with beauty of form. The whole outline of
the horse is carried out in easy, graceful curves pleasing to the eye.
92
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
CHOICE COBS.
Note the com-pactness and smoothness of form with rotundity of body.
Cobs are small coach horses that are driven singly, in pairs, or tandem fash-
ion (one in front of the other) usually by ladies, though they may be used by
gentlemen as well. They are small horses of a stocky build, plenty of quality,
good length of neck, a neat head, and high action. They stand 14-1 to 15-1
hands high and weigh from 900 to 1150 pounds.
The action of the Cob should be mu^h the same as that of the coach horse, or
a little higher both above and behind. As horsemen say, "They must be able
to gpt away smart" — they should be quick on their feet and able to move off at a
''good, clip," carrying their knees high and bringing their hocks well under the
body.
OUTWARD APPEARANCE OP THE HORSE. 93
head, and yet look straight forward. The temporal bones at the side o(
the eyes, and the occipital bone at the top of the head between the eais,
are prominent. The nostrils and lips are large and flexible, and if one
could turn back the folds of the nostrils at the ends, we might see a moist
and healthy inside surface. In the living head corresponding to the fig-
ure, all this would be apparent.
If we examine the side and front views of the heads shown on the
opposite page, the side view at the top indicates a head somewhat heavy,
with the nose and lower jaw too thick. The nose swells out above the
nostrils. The face is not dished, but is depressed. The eyes ure bright,
but with a somewhat wild expression. The eyebrows are prominent; and
the head broad. The ears are thrown back, and the muzzle is cruel in its
expression. Tlie head is set on the neck at too great an angle. The
expression, as a whole, is indeed that of anintellig^'nt and spirited horse,
but it is the intelligence of malice, and th. spirit of self-will.
In the front view, it will be seen that the eyes are too close together,
and are in the front of the head rather than the sides. The ars are
pointed close together and backward, as though the animal only ^\ anted the
chance to do mischief. The face is full of strong lines, but not smooth
ones. They are those of a stubborn animal that may do as you wish, if
he cannot or dare not do otherwise.
The next figure to the right shows not only a cruel, but a stupid
expression. There is alack of intelligence, A/hich, in the horse, means
spirit, courageous docility, and a generous desire to do the will of a kind
master. While this head does not show particularly bad form, yet the
general expression, drooping ears, and the dull eye, show less character
than the average horse should possess.
There is yet another form, and a worse one. It is shown at the bottom
of the page. Here we have self-willed obstinacy, and a wild, sulky dis-
position. The profile is curved, giving a Roman nose, and the eyebrows
are raised, indicating self-will and wildness. The firm jaw and lower face
are cruel. It is a face that never goes with a horse safe to drivi single,
or to ride, except in the hands of one who is perfectly master of himself,
and at the same time, always watchful and firm. Thus we might go on
describing all the peculiarities of temper down through nervous timidity,
as shown by the thin, clean face, the cowardly head, the idiotic, and even
the head showing evidences of insanity ; for that there are horses subject to
hallucinations, aberrations of mind, and even actual insanity, there is no
doubt. The cowardly, the vicious, and the idiotic horse is never safc:
The aberrant and the insane horse is always dangerous, even to the
most practiced horseman, since neither caresses nor punishment avail.
They will run their "muck" at any hazard.
91 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
SIDE ANT> FRONT VIEW OP HEADS— GOOD. (See Explanation.^
OUTWARD APPEARANCE OF THE HORSE
SIDE AND FRONT VIEW OF HEADS— BAD. (See Explanation.)
96 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
V. Body and Limbs.
The figure given on page 97 shows a side view of the head, neck,
shoulder, and fore limbs, as they should be seen in a perfectly formed
animal. On pagel02are side views of the fore quarters of horses, even
down to those which easily tecome distorted from labor or use. In the
perfectly formed horse, the neck is muscular and fine at the top, where
it joins the head. There is no useless flesh, though where it joins the
shoulder it is full and yet fine in proportion. The shoulder is deep, ob-
lique or slanting. The shoulder-blade is high, giving stability to, and at
the same time fully supporting, th' withers. The breast is prominent,
but narrowing to the point where the legs leave the body. The arm is
long, muscular, and tapering to the knee. The joints are large, but firm
and compact. The fetlocks are long but flexible. The hoofs are rather
large, and are round, deep, tough, and sound. It iij the shoulder of a (^ad-
dle horse, of speed, bottom and endurance, that is seen in. the cut. Few
horses, even of the highest class, possess this perfect ideal conforma-
tion. For the harness, the shoulder may be less oblique. The horse of
all work, is more rigid and upright in limb and shoulder than the more
speedy one ; yet the illustrations we give may be taken as the standard in
judging a horse intended for every kind of work. The general appear-
ance of the best animals of the various breeds is shown by cuts in their
appropriate places in this volume. A comparison will show that while
there are differences, yet the rules here laid down will apply generally to
all horses, modified only by the differences required to enable a particu-
lar breed to perform special labor. The trotting gait, as exhibited in a
high-caste roadster, combining style Anth high ac^tion and great and long
continued speed, w ould be execrable in a saddle horse The spr ngy,
nervous action, and the long s'ride of the elegant saddle horse, would
not go far towards pulling a dead weight, however honest and courageous
the attempt might be — and Ave have seen thoroughbreds as honest and
courageous at a dead pull as could be desired in a draft horse. "While
the highly-bred horse, especially the road horse, will fill more places than
uny other, yet the horseman must seek the animal best suited to his
purpose. A study of the various models we present will enable any intelli-
gent person to judge for himself, as well as an exjDert whom he would
have to pay for his services. It should certainly prevent the palming off
of any "sorry brute," as is often done upon those who, while scorning
intelligent study, imagine they "know all about horses."
VI. Bad Pore-Quarters.
In the illustrations on page 102, the upper left hand figure shows a
straight ehoulaer, the chest heavy, and the limbs placed too far under;.
OUTWARD APPEAHANCE OF THE HORSE.
97
The arm seems long, but this is because it lacks muscular development.
The shanks lack strength near the knee and pasterns, and there is a
lack of strength generally.
In the upper right hand figure, the shoulder is not only bad, but the
legs and pasterns are weak. There is too much length from the hoof
to the joint above. To the uneducated eye the pasterns might seem
Hexible. It is, however, the flexibility arising from weakness. The
SIDE VIEW OF FORE QUARTEUS, SHOWING A GOOD SHOULDER. (See Explanation).
muscles which carry the tendons lack strength, and with age the
power of holding them in position will decrease. If the reader will turn
again to the chapter illustrating the muscular development of the horse
he will understand these points better.
98 CYCLOPEDIA or LIVE "^TOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
I "J u
FRONT VIEW OV rUivi:--QUAUTi:ilS, SIIOWIXO 1>IPFE1;ENT BAD CONFOIIMATIONS.
OUTWARD APPEARANCE OF THE HORSE.
99
FRONT VIEW, SHOWING GOOD BREAST AND LIMBS. (See Rxplanatlon.)
100 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
The left hand lower figure exhibits a shoulder tolerably well placed, but
the limbs are set too far under, and the pasterns are too straight, so that
the animal appears to stand on his toes, and there is a general lack of
muscle and sinew.
The lower right hand figure will convey a good idea of what old age,
abuse, hard work and want of care will bring to either of the three pairs
of shoulders and limbs just noticed. Abuse and ill-usage might ruin the
living representative of the perfect figure on page 97 but the linib.s
would remain comparatively sound to the last.
VII. The Body as Seen from the Front.
In the illustration on page 99 the neck and shoulders are oval or egg-
shaped. The chest seems narrow rather than broad, but this is because
the muscular development about the breast bone is ample and full.
Observe how grandly the muscle above the arm swells out, and what mag-
nificent muscularity the arm presents with the two great thews running
down to the knee. The joints are large and ample, as they should be,
but also firm. The hoofs are tough and hard. Look carefully at the
white space between the limbs rurining from the hoofs upwards. See
how the neck, gradually rising from the chest, shows strength and a
perfect proportion of one part to the other. The joints are compact and
rounded, to meet the articulating shank and fetlock bones. The staunch
strong hoofs are rather open behind, but show no indication of a flat foot.
Set this and the preceding illustrations against the wall, retire until you
get a perfect view, study them as an artist would a subject, compare
them with the living animal, and, if you buy a horse for breeding or other
use, buy as near to the model as possible.
VIII. What a Critical Horseman said.
One of the best authorities of all wi-iters on the horse, a highly edu-
cated Englishman, whose estimate of an animal Avas always made from
the standpoint of general excellence, the late Henry William Herbert, in
his exhaustive work, "The Horse of America," sa^^s :
"The points of the physical structure of a horse on which the most,
indeed the whole of his utility depends, are his legs. Without his loco-
motors all the rest, however beautiful it may be, is nothing worth.
Therefore, to these we look first. The fore-shoulder should be long,
obliquely set, with a considerable slope, high in the withers and thin
above. The upper arm should be very long and muscular, the knee
broad, flat and bony, the shank, or cannon bone, as short as may be, flat,
not round, with clean, firm sinews ; the pastern joints moderately long
and oblique, but nor too much so, as the excess produces springiness and
weakness ; the hoois firm, erect or deep, as opposed to flat, and the feet
OUTWARD APPEARANCE OF THE HORSE. 101
generally large and round. In the hind-legs the quarters should be
iaro-e, powerful, broad when looked at in profile, and square and solid
from behind.
Avoid Straight Hams. — "The hams should be sickle-shapea, not straight,
and well let down, so as to bring the hocks well toward the gi'ound. The
hocks should be large and bony, straight, not angular and convexly cur-
ved in their posterior outlines ; the shanks, corresponding to che cannon
bones, short and flat, and the hind feet similar in form to the front. The
back should be short above, from the point of the withers and shoulder-
blade, which ought to run well back to the croup. The barrel should be
round, and for a horse in which strength and quickness are looked to,
more than great speed and stride, closely ribbed up. A horse can
scarcely be too deep from the tip of his shoulder to the intersection of
his fore-leg — which is called the heart place — or too wide in the chest, as
room in these parts gives free play to the most important vitals. The
form of the neck and setting on of the head are essential not only to
the beauty of the animal, but to the facility and pleasure of riding or
driving him ; hence, with an ill-shaped, short, stubborn neck, or ill set on
head, the animal cannot by any possibility be a pleasant-mouthed horse,
or an easy one to manage.
A Clean, Strong Necl<. — " The neck should be moderately long, con-
vexly arched al)ove from the shoulders to the crest, thin w^here it joins
the head, and so set on that when yielding to the bit it forms a semi-circle,
like a bended bow, and brings the chin downward and inward until it
nearly touches the chest. Horses so made are always manageable to the
hand. The converse of this neck, which is concave above and stuck out
at the wind-pipe like a cock's wattle, is the worst possible form ; and
horses so made almost invariably throw up their heads at a pull, and the
most exceptionable of brutes, regular star-gazers. The head should be
rather small, bony, not beefy, in the jowl ; broad between the eyes, and
rather concave, or what is called basin-faced, than Eoman-nosed, between
the eyes and nostrils. The ears should be fine, small and pointed ; the
eyes large, clear and prominent, and the nostrils wide and well opened.
A horse so framed cannot fail, if free from physical defect, constitutional
disease and vice, to be a good one for any purpose — degree of strength,
lightness and speed, being weighed in accordance with the purpose for
which he is desired."
IX. Front View Showing Bad Pore-Quarters.
On page 98 are four figures. The upper left hand one shows a fair
leg down to the knee ; from that point down it is bad. The toes are turned
102 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
SIDE VIEW OF FORE-QUARTERS, SHOWING BAD CONFORMATION.
( See Explanation. )
OUTWARD APPEARANCE OF THE HORSE.
103
very much out; such a horse has not due strength, and the action will be
increasingly bad with age.
The figure to the right shows the reverse of the preceding. The knees
are turned out, and the toes are turned in— a horse unsightly, weak and
dangerous either to drive or ride.
GOOD HiND QUARTEKS. (See Explanation. )
The lower left hand figure is unsightly enough. The legs sprawlirg,
weak, straddling, with timed out toes. Some might think that such u
104 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
horse had a sure foundation to stand on ; perhaps so, if he always stood
at the manger. Such horses might be tolerably sure-footed, if not hard
driven, and carefully managed. They are often seen in the hands of
persons who ^ill not pay for accurate information. The good judge of
horseflesh lets them severely alone.
The lower right hand figure is as bad as possible all over, — a weak-
legged, knock-kneed, splay-footed brute that is unserviceable, dangerous
and costly to the owner. This conformation often goes with what some
call style. Horsemen term them "weeds."
Thus we have carried the reader through a careful study of the front
half of the horse. If carefully studied and the information kept fully in
mind, the reader may reasonably expect to be able to buy a horse with
good fore parts, from an outside view, upon his own judgment.
X. The Hinder Parts Illustrated.
The adage that if the fore-quarters of a horse are strong enough ( o
hold him up, the hind-quarters will carry him forward, is true in a sense,
since if ahorse is perfect in his fore-quarters, the hind-quarters are pretty
sure to be good. Yet the majority of horses if they break down at all
do so first in their forward lim]:>s, spavin being one of the principal disa-
bilities of the hind limbs. The real facts are that the proportions of
the whole animal must be harmonious, each part assisting the others
while at the same time it is doing its own appropriate work. This will be
more fully understood by referring to what has been said in the chapters
on Anatomy, on the muscular conformation. As already stated, the hind
quarters are the real propelling power of the animal. The forward motion
is given by successive springs or leaps, very clearly shown when the horse
is galloping. Then the fore parts act more in the nature of a balance
than either . miking or trotting, or in that artificial movement, the
amble or pace. In the last named the change of the center of gravity is
from side to side in connection with a slight one front and rear. In
walking and in trotting the change of the center of gravity is more equally
distributed between the sides and forward center. In running, the change
of gravity is almost entirely from front to rear.
XI. The Propelling Power.
If it is to do its work effectively, the propelling power must be provi-
ded with a large loin, strong, muscular quarters, great lenglh of hip;
strong, dense and necessarily fine bones ; strong joints, and flat, wide
legs, with sinews steel-like in their strength, and standing out like great
cords. It is this great tendinous develoiiment that gives the lower limbs
the flat appearance, seen in all horses of great power. The bones them-
selves are not flat ; the bones and tendons however combine to form a flat
OUTWARD APPEABANCE OF THE HORSE. 105
leg. On page 103 is an illustration of a perfect hind-quarter, seen from
the side. On page 106 are four figures showing fair to bad hind-quar-
ters. The horseman, m studying his animal, should observe whether if,
when viewed from the side, the horse stands perpendicularly on each fool
alike. There should be no straddling-out, or gathering together of the
limbs, but he should stand straight, square and distinctly alike on each
limb. If he does not stand in this way, move him forward on level ground
and observe if, in coming to rest, he assumes the position we have describ-
ed ; if not, something is Avi'ong. Examine him for defects, injured back
or sinews, ring-bones and splints in front ; and for bone spavin, blood or
bog spavin, curb or thorough-pin behind. If he stands as in the figure,
page 103, showing good hind-quarters, the horse is right, if free from
other blemishes. If the fore-quarters are as shown on pages 97 and 99
?ide and front view ; and, if on looking at the horse from behind, he
present the appearance as shown on page 107 you will have to hunt a
long time to find his mate.
Look Well to the Limbs. — Study carefully whether the pasterns or
outline of the hock joints are nearly perpendicular or angular. Exam-
ine to find if they show a convex, curved projection or protuberance just
above the point of union with the shank bone. If not, there will be
little danger of curb, or of a tendency thereto. Avoid a cow-hocked
horse, viz: ahorse with the hocks drawn in. It is an ungainly and
serious malformation, for such an animal vriW be weak. Do not buy a
straddling horse. He may be strong and perhaps fast, but never elegant
in his movements. We repeat that no horse is fast because he goes wide
apart, though sometimes a horse is fast in spite of this defect. There-
fore! do not buy a straddling colt in hopes of getting a trotter.
Medium Good to Bad Quarters. — On page 106 are four figures, side
views of hind-quarters. Many persons would call the one on the upper
left hand side, fine. It is not bad. The buttocks are round, for fat may
give a round buttock. But they lack character, real muscular develop-
ment, and the legs are too straight and far behind.
The left hand lower figure is fair in its general outline, but the animal
stands too straight on the pasterns, and the legs are thrown too far for-
ward. Never buy a horse which, to use a horseman's phrase, "can stand
in a half -bushel." They are like a horse which, to use a similar phrase,
"can travel all day in a half-bushel."
The right lower figure has not a bad quarter. The limbs, however,
are badly placed, and the position is cramped.
The upper right hand figure is bad in every way — "goose-rumped,"
"cat-hammed," weak in the hock and ankle, while the legs are thrown
to equalize thestram.
100 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE S'lOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
silJE viKW OF liiNi>-QUARTEKS— BAD. (See Explanation.)
OUT^VAUD ArPEARANCK OF THE HOKSE.
107
The Quarter from Behind.— Looking at the horse from behind, the
quarters should be full and s(iuare. This will be the case if the gracilis
'M-i- Morfectly shaped. The gracilis
iro the nnisclos which give the pecu-
"^^V^
BACK VIEW OF uiNU-QUAKTEKS— GOOD. (See Explanation.-)
liar swell to the inside of the thigh, and are described in tho chai^iei on
muscular formation. The outside muscle of the great bone of the leg,
and the tendons, connecting with the
{tihia) cannot well he too large,
108 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
BACK VIEW OF BAD UIND-QUAUTEBS. (Seo KxphuiuUoU.)
OUTWARD APPEARANCE OF THE HORSE. 109
hock, should be large and plainly visible. The hocks should be large,
strong, firm, well knit, smooth and free from blemish. The fetlocks
should also be large but round and firm, and the hoofs strong. If the
horse is flat-footed he is weak hoofed, and this defect should never go
with ahorse of strong bone and muscle.
If, in moving forward, the animal lift the feet squarely, and carry them
straight forward, without turning or straddling, and if they are set down
as squarely and promptly as they were picked up ; if the conformation is
as illustrated in the several good figures, it is a horse to buy, if you want to
pay for a good one, or to keep, if you already possess him. If it be a
mare do not fear to breed her to the best sires in the land. She will not
disappoint you in her colts, if the sire be as perfect.
As the converse of this we refer the reader to the figures on page
108, showing the gradations, from inferior to bad. The study of these
figures should enable one to avoid cow-hocked, pigeon-toed, bow-legged,
straddling, or splay-footed brutes.
XII. What the Ancients Knew of Horses.
That the ancients were critical judges of horses, there is no doubt;
and that their standard was not far below that of to-day, the following
extract from a translation from Xenophon, who wrote more than two
thousand years ago, will show. It is also interesting by reason of the
accurate advice it gives for judging a horse. The perfect horse of this
ancient Greek writer was not a thoroughbred, as we understand the term,
but he was a good, strong, well-muscled, enduring horse, and one of fair
size. Here is what Xenophon says ;
<' We will write how one may be the least deceived in the purchase of
horses. It is evident, then, that of the unbroken colt one must judge
by the construction, since, if he have never been backed he Tsall afford
no very clear evidences of his spirit. Of his body, then, we say it is
necessary first to examine the feet, for, as in a house, it matters not how
fine may be the superstructure, if there be not suflicient foundations, so
in a war horse there is no utility, no, not if he have all other points per-
fect but be badly footed. But in examining the feet, it is befitting first
^o look to the horny portion of the hoofs, for those horses which have
the horn thick are far superior in their feet to those which have it thin.
Nor will it be well if one fail next to observe wlVether the hoofs be up-
right, both before and behind, or low and flat to the ground ; for high
noofs keep the frog at a distance from the earth, while the flat tread with
equal pressure on the soft and hard parts of the foot, as is the case with
bandy-legged men. And Simon justly observes that well-footed horses
can be known by their tramp, for the hollow hoof nngs like a cymbal
110 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
when it strikes the solid earth. But having begun from below, let us
ascend to the other parts of the body. It is needful, then, that the parts
above tlie hoofs and below the fetlocks (pasterns) be not too erect, like
those of the goat; for legs of this kind, being stiff and inflexible, are
apt to jar the rider, and are more liable to inflammation. The bones
must not, however, be too low and springy, for in that case the fetlocks
are liable to be abraded and wounded if the horse be galloped over clods
or stones. The bones of the shank (cannon bones) should be thick, for
these are the columns which support the body ; but they should not
have the veins and flesh thick likewise. For if they have, when the
horse shall be galloped over difficult ground they will necessarily be
filled vnih blood, and will become varicose, so that the shanks will be
thickened, and the skin be distended and relaxed from the bone ; and,
when this is the case, it often follows that the back sinew gives way and
renders the horse lame. But if the horse, when in action, bends his
knees flexibly at a walk, you may judge that he will have his legs flexible
when in full career ; for all horses as they increase in years increase in
the flexibility of the knee. And flexible goers are esteemed highly, and
with justice, for such horses are much less liable to blunder or stumble
than those which have rigid, unbending joints. But if the arms, below
the shoulder-blades, be thick and muscular they appear stronger and
handsomer, as is the case also with a man. The breast also should be
broad, as well for beauty as strength, and because it causes a handsomer
action of the fore legs, which do not then interfere, but are carried well
apart.
" Again, the neck ought not to be set on like that of a boar, horizon-
tally from the chest; but, Yi^e that of a game cock, should be upright
toward the chest and slack toward the flexure ; and the head being long
should have a small and narrow jaw-bone, so that the neck shall be in
front of the rider, and that the eye shall look down at what is before the
feet. A horse thus made will be the least likely to run violently away,
even if he be very high-s[)irited, for horses do not attempt to run away
by bringing in, but by throwing out their heads and necks. It is also
very necessary to observe whether the mouth be fine and hard on both
sides, or on one or the other. For horses which have not both jaws
equally sensitive are likely to be too hard-mouthed on one side or the
other. And it is better that a horse should have prominent than hollow
eyes, for such an one will see to a greater distance. And widely opened
nostrils are far better for respiration than narrow, and they give the
horse a fiercer aspect ; for when one stallion is enraged against another,
01 if he become angry while being ridden, he expands his nostrils to
their full width. And the loftier the crest, and the smaller the ears, the
OUTWARD APPEARANCE OF THE HORSE. HI
more horse-like and hand 'ome is the head rendered ; while loftj withers
give the rider a surer seat, and pioduce a firmer adhesion bet\A een the
body and shoulders.
"A double loin is also softer to sit upon and pleasanter to look upon
than if it be single ; and a deep side, rounded toward the belly, renders
the horse easier to sit, and stronger and more easy to keep in condition ;
and the shorter and l)roader the loin, the more easily will the horse raise
his fore-quarters and collect his hind-quarters under him in going. These
points, moreover, cause the belly to appear the smaller ; which, if it be
large, at once injures the appearance of the animal and renders him
weaker and less manageable. The quarters should be broad and fleshy in
order to correspond with the sides and chest, and, should the}^ be entirely
firm and solid, they would be the lighter in the gallop, and the horse
would be the speedier. But if he should have his buttocks separated
under the tail by a broad line, with a wider space between them, by so
doing he will have a prouder and stronger gait and action, and will, in all
respects, be the better on them. A jjroof of which is to be had in men,
who, when they desire to raise anything from the ground, attempt it by
straddling their legs, not by bringing them close together."
XIII. What One Need Not Expect.
We have, in the foregoing chapters and in this, illustrated and explained
the several parts of the horse and his excellences so fully that none need
go astray in studying the points of an animal. If these illustrations and
explanations are borne in mind, a horse may be accurately judged by his
actual bone and muscle, whether fat or lean. The intelligence of an
animal may also, by the same study, be accurately estimated. A fat
horse is generally smooth and round, and many a sorry brute has been
fattened for the purpose of palming him off on the unwar3\
We need not expect a fat horse to go right to work, and keep fat.
The horse for hard work must first be brought into condition, and this
means working off the mere fat, and getting down to bone and muscle.
We must not expect a horse to be useful because he is big, unless he is
wanted for heavy draft. If the draft is heavy it should be slow, and thus
the horse may be big and also keep fat. For general work, the medium-
sized horse is the best. A pair of horses, each 16 hands high and weigh-
ing 1,200 pounds are well suited for city teaming and other ordinary
draft, except the hauling of heavy trucks. A fifteen-and-a-half hand,
1,100-pound horse is suitable for the road, and if one-half hand less in
height and correspondingly light in weight, say 1,000 jjounds, he will do
quite as well in single or double harness. Sixteen-hand horses are also
suitable for coaches and heavy carriages, while the lighter animals will
112
ClDJOVES>lA Ot LJVB STOCK ANV OOMFLBIS STOCK OOCXOE.
<erve as double teams for road driving. If they are good ones, free from
-ice, weU-matched, and perfectly trained, do not be afraid to ask a good
rouna price for them. But do not exi^ect to get a large price for a cheap
*iorse, nor need you expect to buy a perfect horse for a low price. He
may, nowever, be cheap at any price yotu- purse may afford, lu buyin<>-.
keep 'constantly in vie\^ what you want the animal for, but do not buy any
horse because lio happens to strike your uneducated fancy. You ce*-
tainly will not do so, if you have carefully studied the preceding chap-
ters.
CHAPTER V.
THE HORSE'S TEETH ; AND HOW TO TELL HIS AGE.
I. THE DENTAL FORMULA. II. THE TEETH ARE THE TRUE INT>EX OF AGE. III.
THE FOAL*S TEETH. IV. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE TEETH OF FOAL AND HORSIt
Iv. ALLOWANCES TO BE MADE. VI. ILLUSTRATING BY THE CHART.
I. The Dental Formula.
The names and numbers of the teeth of the horse are as follows : In-
cisors (front teeth or nippers) | ; canine, oi tushes or hook teeth, in the
male only, { ^ : molars, or grinding teeth f f, making forty in all. This
is for tlie male. The mare has but thirty-six, since she lacks the tush-
es, or canine teeth. These sometimes also fail to develop in the geld-
ing.
II. The Teeth are the True Index of Age.
Almost every horseman is supposed to be able pretty accurately to de-
termine the age of his horse. Amon.Gj old horses, the eyes, the sharpness
of tlie jaw bones, and the bones of the tail, are, by many, claimed to
o-ive a clear indication of the animal's age. But these are all fallacious.
They may be, and in fact are, helps, but the only true indication is given
by the teeth; and to the educated eye, these are sufficient to tell
the age accurately up to eight years, and thereafter with sufficient accuracy
for all practical parpua^o. From the time the colt is foaled until death,
the teeth are constantly undeigoing change. Hence, if a person carefully
studies the changing conditions of the teeth, he may accurately determin^i
the a"-e either of the colt or horse. The incisors furnish the chief indica^
tion,butto some extent the tushes or hook teeth, and the grinders give
valuable assistance, since they may correct, or corroborate, what is seenin
die incisors. To assist in this study we give in this chapter, a chart show-
ino-, from accurate drawings, the precise appearance of the teeth from
colt-hood up to the age of twenty-nine years. This chart, with the ac-
companying explanations, will enable any person of intelligence to judge
the age of a horse, even thouuh ne have been »*Bishoped,*' as the making
of false marks on the teeth in called, troiu the name of the rascal who in
vented the practioeo
m. The Foal's Teeth.
When just foaled, the colt has no front teeth, but in most cases twelve
back teeth appear just above the gums. At from two to three months
of age four central nippers appear, two in each jaw ; in six weeks another
looth comes out on each side of these, or four more nil together; and
113
114 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
at the age of eight or nine months the four corner nippers are seen. At
this age the colt has all his teeth, upper and lower. They are the foal's
teeth and are changed by the fifth or sixth year for the permanent or
horse's teeth. As before stated, the three front double pairs of grinders
are seen at birth, and are aftenvards changed. The fourth double pair,
those seen from the eighth to the ninth month, are the first that remain
stationary, and are found in the mouth of every year-old colt. The fifth
double pair (fifth four), appear in the second year, while the sixth doul)lc
pair generally come in the fourth or early in the fifth year. These three
double pairs of back teeth remain unchanged, as also do the tushes oi
hook teeth. The tushes do not appear at a fixed age ; sometimes they
are seen in the stallion at the end of the third year, and sometimes uot
i; Qtil the middle or the end of the fourth year ; sometimes they do not come
t.ntil the fifth 3'ear, and occasionally not until the sixth j^ear. The mare
ttever has them, and in the gelding they occasionally fail to develop.
TV. Differences Between the Teeth of Foal and Horse.
The difference between the nippers of the foal and those of th«p
horse should be carefully studied. They differ, ( 1 ) by their regular con •
ical formation; (2) by a narrow contraction called the neck, visibh;
almost in the center of the body of each tooth, while nothing of the
kind is seen in horse-teeth; (3) by their smaller size, even when full
grown. The milk teeth (those teeth which are shed), taken from the
jaws of dead foals and comf)ared with horse-teeth similarly obtained, are
found to be only about half as long as the latter. The breadth is not to
be depended on, since the milk teeth of large foals appear almost as
broad as those of small horses. When the nippers become horse-teeth
they form a great contrast to the middle and corner teeth. The size of
these last will at once show them to be milk teeth. (4) The outer sur-
face of the foal-teeth is smooth and striped with brown, while on horse-
teeth the same surface is divided by a dirty yellow indentation inclining
toward the center, which is sometimes double upon the upper teeth.
A study of the nippers of the hoi^se taken at different ages will mater-
ially assist the beginner. . The incisor and all other teeth, consist, first of
the enamel or hiting or grinding surface ; then of a bony substance, and
lastly of the root imbedded in the jaw. The teeth of the foal as well
as of the horse, are constantly but slowly worn away in the act of feed-
ing. If the animal feed on sandy or gintty, and especially on shon
pasture, the teeth are worn faster ; if he feed on longer grass, and on
the prairies the teeth wear slowly. Horses kept in the stable, have less
wear on the nippers than those which have to forage for themselves.
Thus in old age the teeth, ODce two and a half or three inches long, will
THE HORSE S TEETH, AND HOW TO TEI,L HIS AGE. 115
finally be not more than halt an inch in length, and the breadth
decreases in about the same proportion. There is this difference, how-
ever, between the teeth of the foal and those of the horse. The thick-
ness and breadth of the foal's teeth are constantly decreasing from the
grinding surface or enameled part ^jward the root, while the teeth of the
horse decrease by contraction. The grinding surface of a nipper, which
has not been used, is three times as broad as it is thick, and is hollowed
from the top downward, the hollow having two sharp edges inclosing it.
This hollow is called the mark. In the center of this mark the kernel is
seen. This is a tube commencing at the end of the root, and contains
the nerve, which must not be confounded with the mark. The mark is
the outer depression, lying next to the sharp edges. The inner cavity is
a funnel shaped socket of enamel, a hard shell. Around this, and in-
side the outer shell, is a thick fluid, which remains as long as the tooth
retains sensibility, but becomes by degrees a gray matter. Figure y, ou
the chart, will illustrate this.
Again, the outer edge of an incisor (nipper) always risen a line or two
- -a line is the twelfth part of an inch — above the inner edge. Ttius, at
first, only the outer edges of the upper and lower nippers meet, and the
inner edges do not touch until the outer edges are sufficiently worn to al-
low them to meet, or until they are of an e(|ual height. Horse-teeth
reach this condition in about a year. When the colt is two-and-a-half
years old, the teeth begin to shed, and the permanent or horse-teeth be-
gin to appear. The chart. Fig. 7, A, will explain this gro^vth, and Fig.
7, B, will show still further development and Avear.
The grinders have but little to do in determniing the age of a horse,
but still they assist thereto. The crowns of the grinders are entirely
covered with enamel on the top and sides, but the grinding of the food
wears it away from the top and there remains a compound surface of al-
ternate layers of crusted enamel and ivory, which serve, in grinding the
food, to fit it for the stomach. Nature has therefore made an additional
[)rovision to render them strong and enduring.
To illustrate this we represent a grinder sawed
across. The fine dark spots show bony matter. The
shaded portions show the enamel, while the white
spaces represent a strong bony cement uniting the
other parts of the teeth. In the dental formula at the
beginning of this chapter we have given 40 as the
number of teeth for the stallion, and 36 for the mare,
the stallion having 4 hook teeth, or tushes {canines),
which the mare lacks. Sometimes, however, the mare has imperfect
teeth in the portion of the mouth corresponding to that of the tushes in
116 OYOIiOFEDlA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCb. DOCTOK.
the stallion. JVenty-four of the teeth in both horses and mares are sit-
uated in the upper part of the mouth, that is back of the tushes, or
above the lips. These are the true teeth or grinders {inolars). They
are divided into six double pairs, counting from below upwards. Those
situated next the nippers of a mare, or the tushes of ahorse, and in all
the four rows, are called, first ; those next, second, and so on until the
last doul)lo pair arc reached, which are called back teeth. There are also
sometimes in young horses imperfect teeth, just before the grinders, ig-
norantly denominated wolf-teeth, and are supposed to cause blindness.
They sometimes do produce irritation of the eyes, from inflamation by
sympathy, and should be removed with the forceps.
In the lower portion of the mouth, or that portion surrounded by the
lips, there are twelve teeth, six in the upper jaw and six in the lower j:.w.
These are the nippers (^incisors). They occupy the entrance to the
mouth, and each six are in the form of an arch. These teeth are divided
into three pairs in each jaw. The four central ones, two in each jaw, are
called "nipping teeth," or nippers. The two outside teeth in each jaw
are "corner teeth," and those between the corner teeth and the nippers
are called middle teeth. It is the attrition of the upper surface of these
teeth on each other in eating that causes wear, and thus enables us to
judge with tolerable accuracy of the age of the horse, — usually to a cer-
tainty up to eight or nine years ; quite closely up to fourteen or fifteen
years, and approximately up to the age of twenty-five or thirty years -
The nippers (incisors) of the upper jaw are broader and thicker than
those of the lower jaw.
The tushes (canines) are placed singly, one in each side of the upper
and lower jaws, between the corner teeth and the grinders, but nearer the
corner teeth of the upper than of the lower jaw, so that they never come
in contact with each other. The age at which a horse attains the full
number of teeth is from four-and-a-half to five years. He is then, in
horseman's phrase, said to have a "full mouth." From this time onward
the more a permanent incisor loses in length by wear, the more it loses
in width, and the nearer the worn surface approaches the root,
becoming narrower and thicker in appearance. Another fact is Avorth
remembering; as the horse advances in age the gums recede, so that a
smaller portion of the teeth is covered. Hence the reason that the teeth
become narrower and thicker with age. It is from being uncovered ; and
hence again, aged teeth are longer in their visible portions than those of
younger horses.
V. AUowances to be Made.
Large horses have larger teeth than small ones. The rules given are
for horses of medium size. Some horses have harder bones than others,
THE horse's teeth, AND HOW TO TELL HIS AGE. 117
and harder teeth. The difference in food and in pastures has already
been spoken of. Some breeds of horses develop more slowly than others.
Spanish horses develop slowly. Again, a false system of feeding will
mature an animal sooner than if he were fed in the ordinary way. But
animals which develop slowly generally live longer than those which
develop quickly, so that in the end, the years of service, judging from
the teeth, are about the same. The slowly-developed horse is, however,
olJer by perhaps one or two years than would appear from his teeth.
In like manner, the age of a mule is difficult to determine with exacthess,
though it may be determined closely enough ; and a mule of twelve or
fifteen years of age, if he has not been injured, has many years of ser-
vice yet in him.
VI. Study The Chart.
Nine men in ten, in examining the teeth to ascertain the age, will look
at the upper jaw. The lower jaw is really that which should be exam-
ined, and for this reason, the dealer or person who wishes to deceive
usually confines his operations to tampering with the incisors of the
lower jaw. Again, the teeth of the lower jaw show wear, and change
their appearance more surely than those of the upper jaw. Hence in
studying the teeth for age, both jaws should be looked at, and thus a
careful study of the chart will be of the first importance. In relation to
this matter, Youatt says: "Stabled horses have the mark sooner worn
out than those at grass, and a crib-biter may deceive the best judge by
one or two years." While it is true, that a horse kept on dry hay and
dry grain, will do so, it is a fact well known that horses feeding on
gritty pastures, or sandy pastures, where they are obliged to bite close to
the ground, will wear their teeth very much faster than others. It should
not be difficult, either, to detect a confirmed crib-biter. The teeth will
not only be worn from grasping the object in the act, but the edges a!so
are apt to be broken or scaled, from the slipping off of the teeth in the
act of letting go.
In relation to tampering with the teeth, by filing, burning, etc., it
ought not to deceive any one. Upon this subject, Youatt says : "Dis-
honest dealers have been said to resort to a method of prolonging the
mark in the lower nippers. It is called bishoping, from the name of the
scoundrel who invented it The horse of eight or ninej'ears old is thrown,
and with an engraver's tool, a hole is dug in the now almost plain sur-
face of the corner teeth, and in shape and depth resembling the mark in
a seven year old horse. The mark is then burned with a heated iron,
and a permanent black stain is left ; the next pair of nippers are some-
times lightly touched. An ignorant man would very easily be imposed
118 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOU
on by this trick ; but the irregular appearance of the cavity, the diffusioD
of the bhick stain around the tushes, the sharpened edges or concave
inner surface of which, can never be given again, and the marks on the
upper nippers, together with the general conformation of the horse, can
never deceive the careful examiner."
Thus we bce how necessary it is that more than a superticial examina-
tion be given, and for this reason, we advise a careful study of the chart.
As the horse becomes aged, or after eight years of age, the lower jaw is
the sure index, since the marks there naturally wear faster than in the
upper nippers. The lower jaw is the one that is moved in gathering food
and in grinding it, and hence the greater wear; besides this, cavities in
teeth of the upper jaw are greater than in those of the lower jaw ; hence
the wear must be greater to obliterate the mark. In fact, tue person who
aspires to be a critical judge, must examine the teeth of horses kept on
hay and hard grain, those fed on cut feed, and those from various pas-
tui-es. Yet, except this critical knowledge is required, a study of the
chart will answer for all purposes.
In the horse, the incisors are divided into three pairs in each jaw,
being the twelve front teeth. The first pair, above and below are the
two central front teeth. The next two teeth on each side in each jaw are
called the middle teeth, and the two outside teeth in each jaw, are the
corner teeth.
The canines are called hooked teeth, from their form, and sometimttf.
tushes. They are two in each jaw, lying between the incisors and
grinders. The grinders are the double or back teeth of the jaw, but:
the term grinder is used to denote the rough surface of the cutting teeth,
and the mark is the depression in the surface of the teeth.
Another thing that should be noticed, is, that the teeth are regular, for
irregular teeth, that is teeth some of which are longer than others, will
wear unevenly. Thus allowances must be made here, when it is
necessary to determine the age exactly. Again, the general rule is
to estimate the age from May 1st of each year. Thus, a colt born
on the first day of January would be called only one year old on
May 1st of the next year, when, in reality, he would be sixteen
months old. This is taken advantage of in racing, and hence foals are
desired to be born as near to the first of January as possible. But if
born in December, the racing colt would count as one year old the suc-
ceeding May. Yet practically, this makes no difference to the farmer,
but only to those who rear horses for the turf.
THE horse's teeth, AND HOW TO TELL HIS AGE.
119
CHAPTER VI.
BREEDS OF HORSES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS.
.. INFLUENCE OF COUNTRY AND CLIMATE. II. THE FARM HORSE. III.
THE CLYDESDALE HORSE. IV. THE NORMAN-PERCHERON.-^V. THE
PERCHERON OF TO-DAY. VI. THE CONESTOGA HORSE. VII. ROAD
HORSES. VIII. TROTTING HORSES. IX. HUNTING HORSES. X.
LIGHT DRIVING HORSES. XL COACH HORSES. XII. THE CLEVELAND
BAY. XIII. THE FRENCH COACH HORSE. XIV. THE HACKNEY HORSE.
XV. PONIES. XVI. VERMONT DRAFT HORSE. XVII. NARAGANSETT
PACER. XVIII. THE SHIRE. XIX. THE BELGIAN HORSE. XX. CHAR-
ACTERISTICS OP THE BELGIAN HORSE.
I. Influences of Country and Climate.
Every country of the earth has a breed or breeds of horses, each with
its peculiar characteristics; and the horses of Asia, Africa, Europe and
America have their points of difference as strongly marked as do the hu-
man inhabitants of these grand divisions of the globe. Besides the pe-
culiarities resulting from local influences of climate, topography, etc.,
the horse has others which are due to the treatment and training received
at the hands of his masters, since from a long course of artificial breed-
ing and feeding, he has become a purely artificial animal, except among
barbarians or savage tribes. Among savages, his hard environment has
made him degenerate — has in fact reduced him to a condition inferior to
that of the horses found running wild where they have increased and
multiplied on pasturable lands, after having escaped from domestication.
The horse in the latter condition has already been sufficiently mentioned
in the fii*st chapter. In the present chapter we purpose to notice only the
more important breeds of civilization, or those that have acquired celebrity
for their valuable qualities.
II. The Farm Horse.
The farm horse is the most important member of the equine family,
for the reason that he is used by the largest number of people, and
is employed in the production of that which sustains life in man.
The farm horse cannot lay claim to the dignity of a distinct breed, as he
is composed of mixed blood, and is dependent for whatever valuable quali-
ties he possesses, upon the intelligence of the people by whom he is bred.
The majority of farm horses are inferior to the more respectable of the
fixed breeds, though of late years they have steadily increased in valuable
qualities, through the introduction of superior blood; and in many
districts they are, as they should l)e, bred with reference to their sale for
particular uses, after they have partially paid for their care by their labor
on the fai-uL
The Horse of All Work. — The farm horse should essentially be a hoi-se
of all work, of good style and action, and of about 1200 pounds weight.
120
BREEDS OF HORSES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTIC
122 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Such hoi-yes will be able to do anything that may be necessary to be done
about the farm, plowing, reaping, hauling, or drawing the family car-
riage to church. When of suitable age they will bring good prices, the
best of them for use as carriage horses, and others for anything except
heavy draft in cities, for express work, drawing omnibuses and other
labor, requiring style and action, combined with strength. The figure
BREEDS OF HORSES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS.
12^
page 99 front view, and page 103 side view, and page 107 back view of
hind quarters "will illustrate our meannig.
Light Farm Horses. — There is another horse that may well tind a
place on all large farms, a horse al)out tifteen hands high and weighing
i»oU to lOr'A) pounds. Sucli
trom
coh, a square-built, active animal, good for the saddle and all light work.
Such a horse is represented on the preceding page. The tail, however,
'ihould never be docked : for docking is a barbarous ])ractice, and one now
124 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
happily gone out of fashion The Morgans, or rather their crosses,
when bred up to the weight last mentioned, make admirable horses oi
this claGS.
The Gold Dust Hopses of Kentucky.— The Gold Dus^ Horses, which
were originated by breeding from Morgan stallions on good thorough -
bred niaros, and carefully selecting for generations, make admirable light
farm horses. High-strung, elegant, fast-going, staunch, and able for
all light work on the fann, either for the saddle or harness, as light
driving buggy horses in single harness, or for the light caiTiage iu double
harness, they are most excellent animals.
m. The Clydesdale Horse.
Another class of horses that may be made profitable on the breeding
farm are what are known as draft horses proper. In the United SUites,
the best representatives of this class are the Clydesdales and the Norman-
Percherons. The Clydesdales are an English-Scotch breed of great
power, bone and substance, and are capable of drawing immense loads.
In Canada there are many excellent representatives of this breed, and
in the West they are attractmg more and more attention every 3'ear.
The West of Scotland has long been famous for its excellent draft hor-
ses. Their origin is probably due m part to the blood of Flemish mares,
thouirh but little is authentically kno^vn of their ancestry. Whatever
their origin maybe, it is certain that they have made Scotland famous for
its draft-horse stock, and much of the excellence of the draft horses cf
the North of England, where the Clydesdale originated, is due to an infu-
sion of this Scottish blood. In England these heavy horses are useful to
farmers in working their tough clay soils. In the United States, especi-
ally in the AVest and South, the alluvial nature of the soil does not re-
quire such strength of team in plowing ; l)ut the vast amount of hauliiif
to be done in and near cities, where the railroad and steamer traffic of the
country centres, will always cause a demand for large, ablc-l)odied draft
horses.
The Shire horse seems to have taken the place of the Suffolk horse in
England, so we have seen them in the United States. They are a larger
horse than the Clydesdale, more upstanding with, perhaps, better hoofs.
The hairy lower limbs, like the Clydesdale, is against them, in the eyes cf
the American farmer. Like the Clydesdale, they are magnificent draft
animals, strong, true and honest, but we do not think they stand hard city
pavements much better than the Clydes. The back and body is more
eymmetrical, in our view, than that of the Clyde. Like the Clyde, their
BREEDS OF HORSES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTIC&
125
126 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTCa.
walk and trot is majestic but slow, and they are not better suited to West-
ern agricultural soils. When lirst introduced into Canada and the United
States, both the Clydes and Shires attracted great attention until the
Percherons and heavy Normans were introduced. The style, endurance,
quicker action and muscular effort was superior, in the eye of the Western
man; hence, the Norman and Percheron became the favorites, and they
have gained, rather than lost, ever since. This the show rings at our great
fairs continue to si ow. Nevertheless, the Clyde and Shire continue the
favorites among many breeders and farmers. For export to Great Britain,
they are in request.
rv. The Norman-Percheron Horse.
Norman-Percheron horses are now generally divided into two classes :
the Norman, a heavy, muscular, closely-built animal of great bone and
muscle, weighing sometimes 2,200 to 2,300 pounds, and the Percheron,
a liirhter, cleaner built and more active animal, attaining a weight up to
1,800 pounds. Both these strains of Norman blood are among the best
of draft stock ever introduced into America. They are superior in
some respects to the famous Conestoga horse of Pennsylvania, now prac-
ticallv extinct. Much has been written about these excellent animals,
both by partisans and by those who have investigated their history with
a view to arrive at the real facts in relation to their ancestry. On the
one hand it is contended that they arose from a cross of the Arabian
upon the heavy native horses of Normandy ; and the defeat of the Sara-
cens by Charles Martel, in which great numbers of their adrairal)le cav-
alry horses fell into the hands of the French, is cited in support of this
view. Many of these Saracen horses, it is said, were brought to Nor-
mandy and to La Perche, and hence the commingling of blood which
resulted in the present admirable breed. The old Norman war horses
were heavy, bony, slow, but strong, and capable of enduring much hard-
ship. They were admirably adapted for their day, since they were capa-
ble of carrying a knight in his heavy armor.
Ao-aln, it is asserted that the Norman horse is descended from a race
then peculiar to Brittainy , and used for draft, rather than for war. Another
writer asserts that the Percheron is descended from a remote cross
between the Andalusian, mixed ^vith the Morocco barb, and again crossed
upon the Norman, because, it is said, the Norman was too slow, and the
Andalusian too light, for a knight in full armor. The old Norman horses
are said to have transmitted to the race their great bone and muscle,
while the Arab, or Andalusian, or whatever the cross may have been,
BREEDS OF HORSES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 127
added spirit, action, speed and bottom. Whatever may be the facts as
to their origin, both the sub-famihes of the Norman-Percheron combine
•j:izi: wiNxixc i'i;):ci ii-;i;i:)M make — six years old.
Spttjially phuloaiaplied for this work.
the strength of the old Norman barb with something of the speed of the
Arabian, and are capable of carrying great weights and of drawing heavy
128 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
loads at a fair rate of speed. A pair of the lighter Perche horses (ciMled
in France Diligence horses, from their use in drawing the coaches of this
name) are capable of going at a speed of seven or eight miles an hour.
These horses may now by regarded as having become a fixed race, cap-
able of reproducing itself perfectly, unchanged, and without deterioration
through generations, when pure sires are bred to pure dams. Bred to
inferior mares, the stallion marks his impress wond^ifully upon the )iro-
o-eny, and the pure mares also transmit their characteristics in the same
vvouderful manner.
V. The Percheron of To-Day.
The Percheron makes a capital cross upon any of the large, roomy
mares of this country. When the Percheron is bred to this kind of dams,
the progeny will possess gi-eat size, and will partake essentially of the
qualities of the sire. If this progeny is again bred to a pure sire, the
result is a three-quarters-bred horse that is but little inferior to tlie Per-
cheron in all that constitutes power and capability for w^ork.
The Percheron is not w^hat would be called a fast horse. He is r^ot
suited for pleasure driving, and yet he is capable of making long jour-
neys at a speed fully equal to that of horses of more pretentions to
speed. An instance is given where 58 miles out and 58 miles back w^as
accomplished ])y a Percheron horse, in two days, the traveling time out
beino- four hours and two miimtes, while m returning the time was four
hours, one minute and a half ; and this ^dthout being urged wath the
whip. Again, a horse of this breed was driven 55 3-5 miles over a hilly
and difiicult road in four hours and twenty-four minutes, without distress
to the animal.
In outward appearance the Percheron presents a head that is not long,
with broad brow and slightly dished face, showing intelligence, in which
respect he resembles the Arabian. The neck is of fair length, strong,
muscular and well-arched, but, like the head, well proportioned to the
close-ribbed, lound-barreled , short-backed body. The hind-quarters and
shoulders a.*e muscular, the lower part of the leg short, hairy and pos-
sessing immense tendons. The hoofs are hard, sound, free from disease ;
but the Percheron is somewhat inclined to be tlat-footed. The height is
from fifteen to sixteen hands, though many excellent specimens of the
breed are somewhat under fifteen hands, especially the lighter Percheron
proper. The same description will apply to the Norman proper, except
that he is larger and somcNvhat coarser. Their general color is gray,
running from iron-gray to the handsomest dappled gray.
So difficult is it to draw the dividing line between the Norman and the
Percheron, that the editor of the Percheron-Norman stud book seemed
undecided just what, and what not, to admit into the stud book. Hence
BREEDS OF HORSES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS.
129
the plan was adopted of giving a full account of the breeding, and crosses,
so far as obtainable, and admitting to registry all stallions and mares im-
ported from France as Percheron, Norman, Percheron-Norman, or Nor-
man-Percheron.
130 CYCLOPEDIA OF lAV^ STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
VI. The Conestoga Horse.
It is unfortunute that the Conestoga, one of the very best of Ameri-
can horses for draft, for all Avork in fact on the road or on the farm,
should have been allowed to become extinct. Strong and able in every
respect, a handsome, quick-stepping animal, and as honest as an ox at a
dead pull, the Conestoga horse possessed qualities which entitled his
breed to perpetuation. His original home was the Conestoga Valley, of
Pennsylvania, and hence the name. This valley was originally settled by
Germans, who undoubtedly brought with them the heavy German and
Danish horses of their native land. Under the ample feed and genial
climate of the Conestoga Valley , these foreign horses were, by careful
selection, and an occasional dash of the staunch thorough blood of those
days, developed into a race of horses ranging from sixteen to seventeen
hands in height, weighing from 1250 to 1500 pounds, and proving to be
among the most valuable horses ever known for drawhig great loads over
hill and mountain. A cross of the Cleveland Bay upon large, round -
barrelled, roomy mares might again result in something like this horse.
The experiment would be well worth the trial by breeders, who have thcf
will and the years before them to originate a breed of horses, that would
be capable of doing any work, from deep plowing, to wagoning and heavy
carriage work. Though the Conestoga is no longer bred in purity, there
are yet many mares in Pennsylvania descended from this stock, which if
crossed with the Cleveland Bay, as we have known him, would, the breed
being carefully perserved in, produce a stock of horses possessing most
of the valuable (|ualities of the Conestoga. There are many such horses,
in the pastures of Ohio and Pennsylvania. They are high headed, rather
long in the limbs, not quite good in the barrel ; but, if bred as we have
described the outcome would be most satisfactory. The Cleveland Bay
is not really a draft animal, but is most excellent as a horse of all work,
and will he described further on.
VII. Road Horses.
Many persons get their ideas of what a can-iage horse, and especially
a driving horse, should be, from English books, and from travelers who
have visited that country. So far as action for show, in harness and the
saddle, are concerned, they are admirable models, omitting their docked
tails, which, are happily going out of fashion there : and which, in this
country of generally dry roads and stinging insects, are not to be toler-
ated at all. The model English roadster is a horse in high condition for
service, not overloaded with fat, but in a condition of nmscular strength
and ability that would be difficult to better. A horse for similar road
service should be 15 to 15 1-2 hands high, of good style, and well-mus-
cled throughout. If he be half to three-quarters bred from accepted
BREEDS OF HORSES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 131
trotting families, so much the better. In fact, in the United States, as
has for many years been the rule in England, the road horses of the bet-
ter class, a:re strongly imbued with thorough blood. Such were the
Morgans, and such are the Gold Dusts, while many gentlemen's driving
horses now-a-days are closely bred to the blood of Hambletonian, Bell-
founder, Abdallah and other famous getters of horses for the trotting
course. In another part of this work will be found portraits of the
American type of trotting horses, among them Goldsmith's Maid, and
the highly-bred roadsters. The road horse should not only be a horse of
good substance in l)one and muscle, but he should also be an animal of
fine style, a quality which is not always found in the trotting horse of the
race course. If he can go fast and safely ^^^th high action, it is better ;
but style he should have, and his temper must be without fault. His
head must be light and held well up, the limbs strong and clean, the
shoulders and pasterns oblique, and having that springy, nervous action
characteristic only of high breeding.
VIII. Trotting Horses.
"The trotting horse" of the turf has appropriated the name because he
is par excellence the fleetest and most highly- valued of trotters. The
road horse, though having the samG gait, falls short of l)eing a "trotting
iiorse," only in that he cannot make speed with the wheel-and-harness
kings of the turf. If a trotter have great speed the lack of style in him
is overlooked. If he is stylish and fast enough for line driving he will
bring a good price as a roadster, even though he do not possess great
speed. A trotter which lacks both style and speed degenerates into a
mere hack.
IX. Hunting Horses.
Another valuable class of horses, especially in the South, are what
would be denominated in England, light hunting horses. The light hunt-
ing horse must be well-bred, able to gallop at speed, and to leap ordinary
obstacles, as hedges, ditches and fences ; in this country he should be
taught to swim easily and take to the water promptly, especially when
deer is the game hunted. Thoroughbreds, that are not fast enough for
the turf, make capital hunting horses, for foxes, and, in open, smooth
country, for deer and prairie wolves ; but they are not capable of carry-
ing heavy weights in a rough country, or over serious obstacles, and
under such conditions necessarily soon come to grief. No matter what may
be the blood of a horse, if he do not take kindly to the water and to
leaping, he would be dangerous in the extreme to ride to hounds, or at
least would soon fall behind the chase, which is but little less mortifying
to the true huntsman than to he landed in a ditch. The hunter of to-dav
132
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AXD COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
is far better-bred and lighter than those which men now in middle age
rode in youth, though a three-quarters-ljred horse, of the jMonmouth-
Eclipse blood, upon which as a boy we followed the chase in Illinois, up
to thirty years ago, was well-enough bred for to-day. He was a large,
slashing horse, that never refused a Virginia fence, ditch or water, —
there were no hedges in the West in those days — and never brought the
rider to grief, though sometimes disaster seemed near enough as we went
BKEKDS OF HOKSES AJMD THKIK CHARACTERISTICS.
floundering in and out of deep, muddy streams. The horse, the deer-
hound, the mastiff and the boy were all good friends, a ventable happy
family who were in at the death of many a deer and prah-ie wolf, before
fences obstructed the chase m Northern llUnois.
\t^^
k
A Heavier Hunting Horse. — ^The next illustration shows a heavier
hunting horse for the saddle, when speed and bottom are desired. He is
a horse of good style and action, capable of long and high speed under
134 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
the weight of a man of 180 pounds — and heavier men should never
hunt. Such a horse should be capable of great speed when called on,
able, and wiUing to take any leap a sensible man would put him at, and
sure-footed to a high degree. To this end, every hunting horse should
have large lungs and heart, the best possible form, hard, firm bones,
BREEDS OF HORSES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 135
strong 1 3ndons, and great muscular power. He should be cleanly formed,
oblique shouldered and fetlocked, with high withers. If, in addition, he
have what is called a double loin, he will cany his rider safely and easily,
and combine in his form all the requisites of a good saddle horse, that
will leave any cold-blooded horse blown in a very short trial of bottom ;
for the horses we have been describing are not found outside the range
of highly bred animals. Nevertheless, it must be remembered that the
hunting horse is not to be put to the labor of draft ; in fact, he should
never be harnessed. He is a saddle horse, and the form required to
move easily in harness, and especially under a load, would soon unfit him
for the saddle, and for the hunting field.
X. Light Driving Horses.
The light driving horse is not required to have high speed ; eight to
twelve miles an hour is sufficient ; but he must be of unimpeachable style
and action. Such horses are much sought, for driving on smooth roads,
in parks and pleasure-grounds, where style and luxurious surroundings
are the rule. They are also valuable for any service when only one per-
son, or, at most, two light ones, are to be carried, since they will often
go rapidly over roads with one person where heavier horses would labor.
Here, again, we present an English type which shows a horse, the per-
fection of style and action, in movement. Sometimes they are fast, but
not when going in the form shown in the illustration. The head is out
of position for fast work, but is right for style and dainty movement.
It will be observed that there is no check' reit. The horse has been
trained under a curb, and requires nearly as light a hand to manage as
though under the saddle.
XI. Coach Horses.
The carriage horse bears to the coach horse the same relation that the
light driving horse bears to the roadster. Horses, for the light or medi-
um-weight carriage, should be handsome in appearance, and of better
speed than those used for the coach or boxed-in vehicle. Any road-
horse of 1050 to 1100 pounds will be suitable for the light or medium
carriage. For the coach, a more stately animal is sought. He may have
rather long limbs, if he is otherwise of suitable form and of good style ;
but he must not be deficient in muscular power, since a fair speed
is required, and without muscle no liorse can drag a coach over muddy,
difficult roads. The illustration we give of an English coach horse
shows a long-limbed, rangey horse, stylish and muscular. He should be
from 16 to 17 hands high, with clean-cut head and neck, since only this
class of horses can acquire the high stepping action, so much sought by
136
CTCLOFtDlA Oh LIVE 8TOCH AND COMPLETE 8TOCB DOCTOF
those able to own, and have driven for them, in the functions usual in city
\ie by the wealthy. In the United States, for the heavy coach, the Grer-
jian Coacn horse is preferred by many. The better class are admirably
atted therefor. The horse, however, that most closely fills the bill, both
rj: the family carriage, ttie close coach, and the Ira^, to our mmd. Is the
French Coach horse,
having great style, ele-
gant proportions, up-
right carriage, high
speed when necessary,
andundaunted courage,
and the proof is that in
these last years of the
last decade of the cen-
tury, they aretaking the
bulk of the prizes at the
horse shows. East and
West. The flash action
of Indra fully shows
pure trotting style. Is
there better hock and
knee action than that of
Palestine, shown on
page 260, or more grace,
dignity and majesty
than in Perfection,
^hown on page 270?
These won, over all
breeds of any age or
size, and with Palestine,
the Challenge Cup, at
Chicago in 1897.
FIKST PUlZlL) TWO-YEAR-OLD MORGAN STALLION.
Specially photographed for this work.
XII. The Cleveland Bay.
We come next to a class of horses always held in the highest esteem
for their many valuable qualities. It is a horse that is now bred to a de-
gree of perfection that leaves little to be desired in all that goes to con-
stitute si^e, style and ability to perform any labor that may be requir-
ed - except the heaviest drudgery. The Cleveland Bays are good carriage
BKKKI)!S OF HORSES AJND TllKlH OHARACTKKISTICS,
1.S7
horses, good and stout wagon or plow horses, and they match together
about as easily as Devon cattle, combining, as they do, plenty of staunch
ihorough blood, with tair size and constitutional vigor. WTien lirst intro-
duced into the W est, they speediJy grew into favor, but later the Percheron
and especially the French Coach horse and the German Coach horse, as
'X)mbhiing full size, speed and greater strenp^th, have superseded them in 9
138 OTCLOPEDIA OF LIVE 8TOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
great measure. The Cleveland Bay is remarkable for color, a pure bay,
dashed only at the fetlocks and in the forehead with white.
XIII. The French Coach Horse.
The French Coach horse is as near perfection as a speedy, showy horse,
of great courage and endurance, of ample height and contour can be, and
of weight sufficient to carry a good weight at a fast pace when called on.
Their colors, too, are solid, as to the body, being, as a rule, when well
bred, bay, brown or black, relieved often with a white star in the fore-
head, with dashes of white on the fetlocks. Their breeding has been most
careful and scientific, having been entirely under the control of the Govern-
ment of France. This consists, first, of stallions owned by the Government
itself; second, stallions belonging to private individuals inspected and
approved by the Government, such approved stallions receiving from the
Government, as long as they are so kept, from 300 to 3,000 francs per
annum, according to their breeding and superior excellence; third, author-
ized stallions — animals that by Government inspection are pronounced of
good quality and worthy of public patronage; therefore, the fixity of type
is fully perfected. The French Coach breed, instead of being the product
of a multiplicity of ideas, has been developed under the exclusive guidance
of the Director-General of the National Studs of France, and as these offi-
cials are educated in the same school from generation to generation, are
taught to value the same form, seek for the same qualities, and pursue the
same system, we can understand how it has been possible for them to attain
such high perfection and great uniformity in the horses of the country.
The power exercised by the Inspector-General is extraordinary, controlling
as he does the selection of the 2,500 stallions owned exclusively by the
Government and the thousands of others annually inspected, which must
obtain his approval before receiving their permits and subsidy; and further,
all breeders are confined exclusively to the use of animals inspected and
licensed by this department. This places horse-breeding entirely under
Government control as far as the stallions, which greatly control results,
can do. Hence, we do not hesitate to state, as an individual opinion, that,
as now constituted, they are the peer of any other coach horse in the world.
XIV. The Hackney Horse.
As a well-bred harness horse, high stepping, active, swift and elegant,
the English Hackney now stands in the first class, both East and West.
Some men, who ought to know better, imagine that they have Mongrel
blood in them. Far from it. An English authority of note, in 1894, says
that it is to the Darley Arabian (imported into England in 1706), that all
the noted Hackney sires of to-day are to be traced without a flaw. The
Darley Arabian begat Flying Childers, which was the sire of Blaze, which
cKtfcDS OF HORSES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS.
139
X
>
a
-, ^
o f
p O
- ^
140
•VCL01'i:i)I A OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOH
A CHOICE FIVE-GAITED SADDLER.
This horse is pronounced by expert judges to be almost perfection in type.
Note his length of neck, height of withers, shortness of back, strength of loin
and long, level croup. Such a conformation is well suited for carrying weight.
The picture shows him to be a little too straight in the front pasterns. Height,
16 hands; weight, 1175 pounds.
Five-gaited saddle horses, sometimes spoken of as gaited saddle horses or
American saddle horses, are distinctly an American product. A recognized type
has been brought about by skillful selection and breeding for more than half
a century. The principal requirements are that they possess at least five ol
the recognized distinct gaits under the saddle, to-wit: walk, single foot or rack,
running walk or fox trot, trot, and canter.
The five-gaited saddler should stand from 15 to 16 hands high and weigh
from 900 to 1200 pounds, the most desirable height being 15-2 to 15-3 hands and
weigh around 1050 to 1150 pounds. He should be of a kind disposition, have a
good mouth, possess courage and ambition, and the conformation of a weight
carrier. His head should be fine, clean cut, and breedy looking; his neck long,
arched, and set on an oblique shoulder with muscles extending well into the
back, the withers high and well finished. An oblique shoulder is Imperative or
he will not be able to go the required gaits with ease to liimself and rider. In
order to carry weight well he should possess a strong, level, short back and be
closely coupled. His legs and quarters should be well muscled, croup not droop-
ing, and he should carry a long, flowing tail.
BREEDS OF HORSES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 141
begat Shales, and from this latter sire are descended, in a direct line, such
well-known Hackney sires as Driver, foaled in 1765; Fireaway^ foaled in
1780; Fireaway, foaled in 1815; Wildfire, foaled in 1827; Phenomenon,
foaled in 1835; Performer, foaled in 1846, and Denmark, foaled in 1862.
The progeny of Denmark is known all over the world through his son
Danegelt, who is the sire of Matchless of Londesboro, Ganymede, Lord
Wilton, Saxon, Gen. Gordon, Astonishment, and others too numerous to
mention Although many Arabian stallions found their way into England
in the course of the fifty years prior to 1800, the infinite superiority of
those old Eastern sires, the Darley Arabian, imported in 1706, and the
Godolphin Arabian, about 1730, has never been surpassed and it is remark-
able, but nevertheless true, that these two animals not only founded the
English race horse, or Thoroughbred, but also the Hackney breed. They
have continually increased in value of late years, and bring high prices
when bred by horsemen of intelligence and aptitude in their art.
The Gaited Saddler.
The "combined" horse or Gaited Saddler is a product of Kentucky. It
is a horse combining fine action, docility and intelligence to acipiire gaits,
and, as now bred, has the heredity that makes the several gaits come natural
Hence, when acquired, they are not lost from disuse. It is an animal that
is as good in the light carriage as under the saddle. Now is it the fact
that light driving injures the horse for saddle purposes, as some
suppose? It is true that combined horses are not plentiful, but they are
becoming more and more so year by year. But do not acquire the belief
that any harness horse may become a saddler. The walk, trot and canter
does not constitute the saddle horse of to-day. The gaited saddle horse
must have saddle horse breeding, saddle horse action, saddle horse instinct,
and saddle horse education.
XV. Ponies.
Ponies are much sought, of late years, for children's riding, and for pony
carriages. Indian ponies, Canadian ponies, and Shetlands have all been
called into requisition, while in the West and South the smaller Mustangs of
Texas are used. Unless taken young, the Mustangs are wild, intractable,
and often vicious. The Indian pony is fast becoming extinct, and Canadian
ponies are also growing scarce. These latter, many of them^ are really hand-
some, small horses, of thirteen to fourteen hands high, hardy, docile and of
tne most steadfast nerve, courage and bottom. They are self-willed, but
perfectly tractable if not abused. Shetland ponies are stili smaller, and
rougher; but they are ambitious little fellows, and scamper along easily at
a good pace, with a twelve year old boy or girl on their backs. The illus-
cratioD show.s a grpnp gf these hardy little animals. It is claimed that
142 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR,
no true Shetland can be more than eleven hands high, and some of those
in the extreme northern isles of Toll and Unst do not exceed seven and
W'-lMm
a half hands. The average is from nine to ten hands. Although the
eroallest of ponies, they are the most perfect in form, rounc? mi closed
BREBDS OF HORSES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 143
ribbed-up, with lean bony heads, wide between the eyes, and otherwiso
well shaped, very muscular, with coarse bushy manes and tails. They are
gentle and easily trained ; and it is said that some of them are capable of
canying a light man forty miles between sunrise and sunset.
The Mustang. — The Mustangs are undersized and not handsome ; de-
scended from horses gone wild after escaping from the early Spanish ad-
venturers, they have degenerated owing to the scanty fare and hard usage
received at the hands of their Indian masters. They are of various colors, as
are all the semi-wild horses of Texas and Mexico. The Indian ponies found
in the West are undoubtedly of the same origin as the Canadian pony.
They are pure, but modified, Norman, escaped from domestication and
bred in a half wild state by the Indians of the Northwestern States and
Territories. They arelarger and heavier than the Indian horse or Mustang
of the Southwestern plains and are in every way superior animals. Some-
times they are fom-teen hands high, but the average is about thirteen
hands. They are compact, closely ribbed, stout, muscular, couragous
little fellows, docile and sagacious in the extreme, with wavy tails, and
shaggy manes falling on both sides of the neck. If carefully bred in high
northern latitudes, and well-trained, they would make admirable chil-
dren's ponies and would readily sell for large prices to the wealthy.
XVI. The Vermont Draft Horse.
TWs is another breed of horses of most admirable qualities, specimens
of which are now very rare, probably because their use in cities has been
superseded by the introduction of the Percheron, Clydesdale and other
heavier animals. The Vermont draft horses would weigh from 1,150 to
1,200 pounds ; of fine breeding, clean-limbed, handsome, muscular, with
fine crests, capable of drawing heavy loads at a good pace, they were
in the days preceding the advent of the locomotive, the crack horses of
the stage companies of the Northern New England States. As cavalry
horses, they were said to have no superior, since they moved with speed,
alertness, and with great force and power by reason of their weight. It
is to be hoped that we may find, in the Cleveland Bay and his crosses,
as good an animal of all work, both for saddle and harness.
XVII. The Narragansett Pacer.
Here is another of the extinct races of American horses, one that is
said to have originated in Rhode Island, from an Andalusian stallion
brought from Spain at an early day. They were largely raised, during
the last century and the first part of the present century, for exportation
to the West India Islands for the use of the families of the planters.
Their only gait was a pace of the most perfect and easy-going descrip-
tion. They are reputed to have been so easy-going that ladies could ride
CYCLOPEDIA or LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
them forty miles a day for many days in succession without experiencing
excessive fatigue. Tliat they were horses of great ])ottom, and some-
times of extraordinary speed, is undoubtedly true. The Colonial divine,
Dr. McSparren, in his "America Dissected," speaking of the horses of
Virginia, says: "There were plenty of a small sort of horses — the l)est
in the world, like the little Scotch Galloways ; and 'tis no extraordinary
journey to ride from sixty to seventy miles in a day. I have often, but
on larger pacing liorses, rode fifty, nay, sixty, miles a day, even here in
CHAMPION GAITED SADDLE MARE LADY GLENN.
New England, where the roads are rough, stony and uneven." Again,
speaking of the Narragansett pacer particularly, as an animal for export,
he says : " They are remarkable for swift pacing , and I have seen some
of them pace a mile in a little moie than two minutes, and a good deal
less than three." The good doctor probably did not hold a timing-watch
on them The stoiy, however, is fully as credible as that oth sr story of
Flying Childers having ruu a mile in a minute.
WJMMWl)»f"l'-!|'<
r-"'
Ft
^
BREEDS OF HORSES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS, 145
XVIII. The Shire.
The Shire horse traces his history to the days of the Roman conquest
— one of the oldest of the well defined breeds of unbroken lineage. He
was used in the early periods as a war horse because of his size and ability
to bear heavy burdens when armor was worn. He was in general use
for this purpose in the 16th century. Paintings dating back to the 15th
century represent him in the perfection of form.
The special home of the Shire horse is in England, especially in the
east central part in the counties of Norwich, Derby, Leicester, Notting-
ham, Northampton, Huntington, Lincoln and Cambridge. He is found,
of course, in other sections of England, including the low-lying lands.
He is mentioned in English history as the Great Horse, the War Horse,
the Cart Horse, the old English Black Horse, the Lincolnshire Giant,
as well as the Shire. Some of these names were current at the period
of Oliver Cromwell.
Like every other standard breed he has improved by the infusion of
blood, notably the north German and Flanders blood, which is represented
in the best samples of the English horse. Like the other standard
animals, he is today in his perfection the result of more or less mixed
breeding.
In the latter part of the 18th century Robert Bakewell greatly im-
proved the Shire under the name of the Leicestershire Cart Horse. This
improvement was made by systematic crossing with English stallions.
He pursued a careful course of selection and added greatly to the value
of the breed. It was during the 18th century that this horse came into
special use for draft and farming puiposes, as the coat of armor had
become obsolete and, hence, the demand for Roman war less imperative.
As a draft horse he came into special demand with the improvements
of roads and the use of coaches. In a most interesting historical work
Gilbey gives illustrations of Shire horses which are copies of paintings
by distinguished artists of a period dating as far back as 1792. There
are many of these well known paintings which established the existence
and the popularity of the Shire horse at that period. The old-fashioned
type of Shire horse was, however, coarse and slow, with big heads, coarse
ears, thick lips with long hairs on them. The pasterns were straight,
the legs hairy and the shoulders heavy. They were mild of tempera-
ment but sluggish in action. The pictures would indicate great excess
of hair, which does not exist. The modern English Shire, while retain-
ing these characteristics, they are modified, but, as at present, his body
was massive, compact and round, his limbs strong, his chest notably
broad and his neck and back short. The present characteristics of thick
mane, hairy legs below the knee and down to the heels have always per-
tained to him. As a draft horse for heavy weight, h<? is admirable and
146 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
useful. For quick action and mettle his bulky body, conformation and
temperament unfit him. In a Standard Stud-book the different varie-
ties of the Shire that formerly existed in England are classified as three,
as follows:
(1) Those having the upper lip garnished ^vith a long, thick mous-
tache, considered at one time a distinguishing characteristic of the Lin-
colnshire horse.
(2) Horses having the lips, muzzle, and eyelids destitute of the hair.
The skin in these places is either entirely bald or covered with exceed-
ingly fine down, is almost invariably flesh colored, and is sometimes
marl: 3d with small dark spots and blotches. These are termed bald
horses or bald faced.
(3) Those having a long tuft of hair growing from the front of each
knee, and rarer examples having also a similar growth from the hind
part of the hock, just below its point. This is quite different from the
ordinary hair on the back of the cannons.
The Shire of today is a marked improvement over the horse of fifty
and one hundred years ago. The features of large size, hairy legs, and
draft type have been maintained, but he has in his improved condition
more action, spirit and life, has more grace of form and quality of finish
and more uniformity of type. The standard breeders recognized the
need of an immediate improvement of their draft horse for emphasizing
quality, action, flat bone and uniformity. This improvement has been
greatly aided by the Shire Horse Societies.
He is the largest of the British draft breeds and is excelled in weight
only by the Belgian. Stallions weigh from 1,800 to 2,000 pounds and
are comparatively common, massiveness having long been sought by
Shire breeders. In height the Shire stallion should stand close to
seventeen hands, although the average is about two inches less. The
color of this breed is somewhat variable, though of recent years bays and
browns have been most common, white markings on the face or forehead
and on the legs below the knee or hock being likewise characteristic. In
a minor degree there are shades of roan, gray, black, sorrel and chestnut.
The barrel of the Shire is larger and deeper than that of the Clydesdale,
thus giving more weight. The legs are large, powerful and the bone
fairly flat. British critics in the past have objected to round cannons,
and flatter, stronger legs have become more common in recent years.
The back of the cannon bones, knees and hocks have long, flowing, fine
hair in the best specimens of the breed. Excessive leg hair is objected
to as indicating too much sluggishness and lack of quality. Less hair
and finer bone is preferred. The pasterns have been subject to criticism
as being too short and not sloping enough, though modern types show
improvement here. The feet are large and inclined to be flat at the
BREEDS OF HORSES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 147
heel. The head is somewhat Roman in profile and there is a lack of
breadth between the eyes which is noticablc and not to be desired. The
croup is long and broad but not so level as that of the Clydesdale, though
the difference is not great. The action is greatly improved over early
days notwithstanding the Shire is more deficient in this feature than the
other draft breeds as it still preserves more or less of its early inherited
sluggishness.
There are American critics who charge the breed with lack of action,
with too hairy a leg, which will probably never he popular in this
country, and with too fiat a foot. This objection has had the effect to
limit the number of Shires imported to this country in recent years.
We have no absolutely definite data as to the period of the first impor-
tation of the Shires to America. It began many years ago. We have
record of an importation to Canada in 1836 from England. Another
noted horse named King Alfred was imported in 1847. A noted im-
portation was that of the horse John Bull, which was brought from Eng-
land to Illinois in 1853. Others followed to an extent that made
northern Illinois somewhat famous for its Shire horses.
The first advertisements of Shire stallions in this country were as late
as 1875. They were then popularized to the extent that many were im-
ported but in later years the importations have decreased.
The objectionable features of the Shire horse are greatly relieved by
crossing w4th large mares and at the same time the typical Shire con-
formation is preserved. The typical hairy legs, which is a chief objec-
tion, is preserved in the crossing. The Shire breed is confined almost
wholly to English speaking countries, having, however, his greatest
popularity in England where he is recognized as the really great draft
breed. In America the breed is confined largely to the states of Illinois,
Indiana, Ohio, and the states of the upper Mississippi valley. The de-
mand for the Shire horse is especially marked in cities. His heavy
weight makes him of special value for draft purposes in large cities. In
such he commands high prices ranging from $400 to $900, the latter
being the highest record. As a show horse he has not excited great
attention or become especially popular in America. The conditions in
England being different, the Shire exhibitions there are very notable
events. A recent annual show of the Shire Society in England brought
together an entry of 700 stallions and mares. This, however, has no
parallel in America. There are a half dozen prominent importers of
the Shire horse, especially in Ohio and Illinois, whose business has been
well sustained by a profitable demand. The rapid growth of our cities
of the first, second and third class will increase this demand and sustain
the improvements of the breed.
148 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR. ^
XIX. The Belgian Horse.
The Belgian horse takes his name from the country of his nativity —
Belgium. That country was famous for producing horses at the begin-
ning of the Christian era. The man and the horse seem to have had
close relationship in that country in pre-historic times. They have bred
and raised horses not only for their own use but for export to all civilized
countries. Their inability to meet demand is a matter of record and
accounts for good prices always maintained. It was one of the leading
industries in that country at every period of its history. The industry
of that country' has received special recognition from the government
w^hich established a stud for stallions by way of encouragement and
assistance in that industry. Much attention has been given to the im-
provement of the draft horse. That is the only horse receiving special
recognition and assistance from the government.
The methods employed by the Belgium government to encourage
horse breeding are interesting. State regulations concerning the breed-
ing of draft horses are subject to constant supervision. The government
expends annually 350,000 francs, equal to $70,000, in behalf of that
work. The money is used to meet the expenses of shows, of foals and
mares, which are fixed by provincial regulations and which occur in
some 44 different places. Stallions are submitted for examination at
these times and places. At these shows large monetary prizes are offered
for first and second prizes for the best specimens of the horse of different
ages. Careful records are kept of the horse winning premiums and two
or three successive premiums entitle the winner to compete for a bounty
of about $1,200 payable annually as long as the horse remains approved
by a commission of examination and retains its value. At the end of
five years the owner of such a stallion, if it remains approved, may con-
tinue to enjoy an annual maintenance of from 600 to 800 francs. In
case a stallion that has received the 600 francs bounty is sold to leave
Belgium the premiums received must be returned to the treasury of the
state. There is an annual competition in each province for stallions
four years old or over that have won the above special prizes at which
they may compete for a first prize of 900 francs and a second prize of
700 francs. The government encouragement and government aid have
been great factors in the development and in the world supply of this
noted horse.
The history of the Belgian draft horse in America is comprised within
fifty years. The breed was especially promoted in this country in 1888
by a citizen of that country, by name Mr. E. Lefebure, who settled in
Iowa. From 1888 until his death in 1905 he was active in promoting
the breed of the Belgian horse in this country.
BREEDS OF HORSES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 149
XX. Characteristics of the Belgian Horse.
The general conformation is of the most compact form, this breed
having a maximum of weight within a given space. The body is very
full in the breast and unusually broad and deep in the back, no breed
in proportion to its size showing so much body girth. Symmetry of
form is not os frequent as in some other breeds, or as should be wished,
owing to a rather characteristic steepness and shortness of rump ex-
tremely common with Belgians, with the tail set rather low. The head
shows considerable refinement and is carried with spirit on a short,
symmetrical neck. The head, neck and rump rather suggest the
French breeds in style and carriage. The legs of the Belgians are devoid
of long hair and are notably short. Compared with an ordinary draft
horse one is impressed by the closeness ^dth which the body comes to the
ground. While the legs may not be open to objection, frequently there
is a tendency to too much lightness of bone and lack of substance to
support the body weight and withstand the most severe labor. The
hocks do not show great depth and strength as frequently as might be
desirable. The feet has been an important criticism of the breed h^
Americans. These tend to be small and lack in circumference at the
crown besides being high and narrow at the heel. Probably no class of
draft hoi*se brought to America has had the feet so severely criticised
as does the Belgian. There is reason in this objection if the specimens
exhibited in America are a fair basis of judgment. The Belgian is
somewhat slow in action though some remarkable actors have been seen
in our shows. In a recent International Live Stock Show there was one
exhibit of a Belgian with stride and style most unusual in a draft horse
of any breed.
The chestnut is the most popular in color though they are frequently
found in bays, bay-browns and roans. The gray Belgian is not in favor
either here or in his native country. Height and weight vary.
At the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis, there was a special
commission from Belgium in charge of the exhibit of Belgian draft
horses. The exhibit was especially representative of which three types
were distinct and noted. These three types represented three different
sections of the country from which they came. Those from Flanders
ranged in height from 16% to 17 hands or more and the weight of the
stallion about 2,000 pounds. Those from Brabant, another section,
stand 15% to 16% hands and the stallions weigh about 1,600 pounds,
while those of the Ardenais stand from 15 to ISYo hands in height and
weigh about 1,200 pounds.
The Belgian draft horse stands without a superior in temperament.
This is due, no doubt, to the fact of being raised in a country having
150
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
small farms where he is in close, every-day contact with the life of the
people. They are docile of temper and have great draft power.
There is a cross bred Belgian horse but he has been little seen in the
United States. He is popular where he is known. The horse, on the
whole, has an attractive individuality. They seem to be sound of limb
OME OF THE FAMOUS ONES
and possessed of blocky form and weight, so much in demand for heavy
hauling. There is a widespread distribution of the Belgian draft horse
to Germany, England, Plolland, Sweden, France, Denmark, Austria
and the United States. In this country he is best known in Iowa, Illi-
nois and Indiana. They are, however, rapidly becoming distributed
over the Mississippi valley states north of Ohio, where the heavy draft
horse is most needed.
BREEDS OF HORSES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS
CHAPTER Vn.
THOROUGHBRED HORSES.
I. ENGLISH THOROUGHBREDS. II. HERBERT'S HISTORVOF THE ENGLISH HORSE.
III. THE FlUST LONDON RACE COURSE. IV. HORSES TAKEN TO ENGLAND BY
CRUSADERS. V. BONE AND BULK IMPARTED TO THE ENGLISH HORSE. VL THE
HORSE IN THE TIMES OF HENRY VIII AND JAMES I. VIK AMERICAN THOROUGH-
BREDS. VIII. THE ARABIAN.
I. English Thoroughbreds.
The English thoroughbreds are horses of mixed lineage. They are
not a pure race, bred for hundreds of 3''ears without admixture of foreign
blood ; but they rather OAve their great excellence to the crossing of
Arabian, Barb, and other Oriental blood, upon the best racing stock of
the last and the preceding century. The English have been famous, dur
ing the last thousand 3'ears, for their horses, especially for horses of
speed and endurance. They have always had a passionate foi;dness fov
the chase and for racing ; and their kings and nobles have done much to
keep alive this feeling, by securing, from time to time, the best foreign
blood that could be secured to impart fresh stamina and vigor to their
stock of horses. Many persons are prejudiced against thoroughbred
horses, because they have been used for gambling purpose^ on the turf,
but this fact should not be allowed to create hostility against valuable
animals. As well might wheat and corn be placed under a ban because
these indispensable cereals are used for purposes of gambling specula-
tion. It is this passion for trying the speed of horses, which has pre-
vailed during the lastten centuries, thathasledto the selection of the best
breeds and given an impetus during the past 100 years to really scientific
breeding. And it is to these latter causes that we owe all that is of val-
ue in any of the improved breeds of horses existing to-day, not even ex-
cepting our draft horses. Let us look at the history of the blooded
horse of England, and view its gradual rise and progress, even from be-
yond the Christian era.
n. Herbert's History of the English Horse.
Henry William Herbert, in his admirable and voluminous work on the
Horse of America, now unfortunately out of print, has traced the Eng-
lish horse so carefully, and at the same time so concisely, that one cannot
do better than extract therefrom matter that otherwise the mass of the
readers of to-day could not come at. He says, upon the authority of
Youatt: "That horses were introduced into Britain long before the
Christian era, we have abundant evidence, and that the inhabitants h&d
152
THOTJOUGHBRED HORSES.
154 CTCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
acquired great exiDcrieiice in their use is equally certain. In the ancient
British language Rhediad is the word for a race — rheder, to run — and
rhedecfa^ a race. All these spring from the Gaulish rheda, a chariot.
Here, then, is a' direct evidence that horses were introduced from Gaul,
and that chariot-races were established at a very early period.'
"This evidence" says Mr. Herbert "is not to my mind direct or con-
clusive, as to the fact of the introduction of the horse from Gaul ; al-
though it is so, as to the antiquity of chariot-racing in both countries,
and to the non-Roman descent or introduction of the British or Gaulish
animal. As the blood, the religion and the language of the Britons were
cognate, if not identical, with those of some, at least, of the Gallic tribes,
it is no more certain that the Gallic Rheda is the theme of the British
rheder, than that it is derived therefrom. It does, however, in a great
degree prove that the Gallic and British horses were identical, and de-
scended not from any breed transmitted through Greece and Italy, but
from one brought inland to the northward of the Alps ; perhajjs by those
Gauls, who ravaged Upper Greece and Northern Italy, almost before the
existence of authentic historj^ ; perhaps by their original ancestors ; at all
events, of antique Thracian or Thessalic descent, and, therefore, of re-
mote but direct oriental race, in all probability again improved by a later
desert cross, derived from the Numidian cavalry of the Carthaginian
Barcas, long previous to the Caesarian campaigns in Gaul or the invasions
of the sacred island of the Druids. This, however, is of small imme-
diate moment, and is more curious and interesting to the scholar and the
antiquary, than to the horseman or horsebreeder.
"From the different kinds of vehicles, noticed by the Latin writers,
it would appear that the ancient Britons had horses trained to different
purposes, as Avell domestic as warlike.
"It is well observed by Youatt, in his larger work on the horse, that
from the cumbrous structure of the car, and the fury with which it was
driven, and from the badness or non-existence of roads, they must have
been both active and powerful in an extraordinary degree. 'Caesar,' he
adds, though without stating his authority, 'thought them so valuable,
that he carried many of them to Eome ; and the British horses -were, for
a considerable period afterwards, in great request in various parts of the
Roman empire.'
" 'During the occupation of England by the Romans, the British horse
was crossed to a considerable extent by the Roman horse,' continues the
author in the volume first quoted ; for which I would myself, for reasons
above stated, prefer to substitue by the foreign horftes of the Roman
mercenary or allied cavalry, 'and yet, strange to say, no opinion is given
by any historian, Roman or British, as to the effect of this. After tb<»
THOROUGHBRED HORSES.
iF;n
1 P)^ f'YCLOPEDlA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPT K'I'K STOrK DOCTOR.
THOROUGHBRED HORSES.
157
evacuation of England by the Romans, and its conquest by the Saxons,
considerable attention was paid to the English breed of horses, and we
know that after the reign of Alfred, running horses were imported from
Germany ;' this being the first historical intimation we have of running
horses in England. It is scarcely to be doubted that this importation
produced a marked effect on the character of the native breed, but here,
as before, no historian has thought it worth his while to record the fact
of either improvement or deterioration.
" 'English horses, after this, appear to have been highly prized on the
continent, so that the German horses which were presented by Hugh
Capet to Athelstan had ])een turned to good account. Tlie English them-
selves were, however, anxious to preserve the monopoly of the breed, for
in 930, A. D., a law prohibited the exportation of horses. In Athelstan's
reign many Spanish horses were imported, which shows the desire of the
Flnglish, even at that early period, to improve the breed. It is no won
iler that their descendants should have produced the finest horses in the
world. Shortly before the Norman conquest a horse was valued at thirty
shillings, a mare or colt at twenty shillings, an ox at'thirty pence, a cow
:it twenty-four pence — these prices in case of their being destroyed or
negligently lost — and a man at a pound.' Money, it should be noted,
then being equivalent to at ledst fifteen times its present value. William
the Conqueror took great pains to improve the English breed, introducing
many fine animals from Normandy, Flanders and Spain. This monarch
owed his success at Hastings chiefly to his cavalry ; his own horse was a
Spanish one. In this reign we have the first notice of horses being
employed in agriculture. They had been used for the saddle for many
centuries, Bede informing us that the English began to use horses as early
as 681 A. D., and that people of rank distinguished themselves by appear-
ing frequently on horseback. During the Conqueror's reign the then
Earl of Shrewsbury, Roger de Belesme, brought a number of Spanish
horses to his estate of Powisland. The breed issuing from these is highly
eulogized by Giraldus Cambrcnsis and Dayton. In the reign of Henry
I. we have an account of the first Aral) horse imported into the country.
It was presented by Alexander I., King of Scotland, to the church of St.
Andrew's, with many valuable accoutrements and a considerable estate.
History, however, is silent as to the purposes to wh'ch this animal was
devoted, or as to wdiat ultimately became of him.
" It has been well jDointed out, in this connection, that the ancient histo-
rians, being exclusively monks and churchmen, naturally paid little atten-
tion to the breeding of horses, which were held to belong to w^ar rathei
than to agriculture, and were forbidden to their order ; and farther, it
may be observed that, until, comparatively speaking, very recent times,
158 CYCLOPEDIA OP LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
no heed has been given to the statistics of agriculture or animal improve-
raent, and little mention made of such matters, beyond a casual and pass-
mg notice, even hy the best historians.
III. The First London Race-Course.
'* ' The English,' proceeds the work from which I quote, 'had now,'
— ^that is to say in the reign of Henry I. — 'become sensible of the value
and breed of their horses ; and in the twelfth century a regular race-course
had been established in London, this being no other than Smithfield,
which was at once horse-market and race-coarse. Fitz Stephen, who
lived at that period, gives the following account of the contests between
the palfi-eys of the day. 'When a race is to be run by horses, which in
their kind are strong and fleet, a shout is raised, and common horses are
ordered to withdraw from out the way. Two jockeys then, or sometimes
three, as the match may be made, prepare themselves for the contest,
such as are used to ride, and know how to manage their horses MMth judg-
ment, the grand point being to prevent a competitor from getting before
Ihem. The horses on their part are not without emulation. They
tremble, and are impatient and continually in motion. At last the signal
once given, they hurry along with unremitting velocity; the jockeys
inspired with the thoughts of applause and the hopes of victory, clapping
spurs to their willing steeds, brandishing their whips and cheering them
with their cries.'
IV. Horses taken to England by Crusaders.
" It IS stated by Mr. Youatt, although, singularly enough, he main
tains that the crusaders did not introduce eastern horses, that Richard I,
did import two from Cyprus, which he observes were of eastern origin.
The statement is made on the faith of an old metrical Re. nance, which
is that entitled by the name of the monarch whose feats it celebrated,
usually supposed to be of the time of Edward I., and contained in Ellis's
Metrical Romances. The lines are curious, as they indicate a full ac-
quaintance with various animals, natives of the East, and more particu-
larly with the especial qualities of the oriental horse, his speed and sure-
footed n ess,
" These horses were named Favell and Lyard —
' In the world was not their peer,
xjromedary, not destrere.
Steed 'rabyte, ne camayl,
That ran so swift sans fail,
For a thousand pounds of gold,
Should not that one be sold.'
Destrere, is the old spelling of the word Destrier, in Norman French,
derived from the barbarous. Middle Age Latin, Dextrarius signifying a
THOROUGHBRED HORSES.
160 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
SUFFOLK STALLION, EPATANT— 58100.
SUFFOLK HORSE — CLOQT V.— 21279.
THOROUGHBRED HORSES. \Ql
war-horse. Edward I. also is known to have introduced horses from the
East ; and that accurate and inquiring antiquary, Sir Walter Scott, de-
scribes his spirit, or the demon of the haunted camp under his form, in
the nocturnal tourney with Alexander of Scotland, as being recognized by
the horse he bestrode.
' Alike his Syrian courser's frame,
The rider's length of limb the same.'
V. Bone and Btilk Imparted to the English Horse.
" Spanish horses, had come to be renowned, as chargers, so early as
the Norman conquest, but it is more than questionable whether their su-
periority was as yet known to arise from their being traceable, in nearly
two thirds, to the blood of the Desert. At this time, it would seem to
have been considered desirable to stengthen the English horse, and gain
bone and bulk, rather than blood — not, I imagine, as Mr . Youatt sug-
gests in the following sentence, for agricultural, but rather for military
purposes ; in order to endure the ponderous burden of the mail-clad men-
at-arms.
" King John, he says, 'paid great attention to the improvement of
horses for agricultural purposes, and to him we are indebted for the ori-
gin of our draught-horses. He chiefly imported Flemish horses' — one
hundred chosen stallions on a single occasion ; the Flanders horse being
— as it was even in the time of Marlborough and Prince Eugene — the
most approved cavalry trooper — ' and such was his anxiety to possess the
finest stock from these, that he would accept strong horses as rent for
crown-lands, and as fines for the renewal of leases. His personal stud
was both numerous and excellent.' One hundred years afterward, Ed-
ward II. purchased thirty war-horses and twelve heavy draught-horses.
"Edward the III. devoted one thousand marks to the purchase of fifty
Spanish horses ; and of such importance did he conceive this addition to
the English, or rather mingled blood, then existing, that formal applica-
tion was made to the kings of France and Spain to grant safe-conduct to
the troop. When they had safely arrived at the royal stud, it was com-
puted that they had cost the monarch no less than thirteen pounds six
shillings and eight pence per horse, equal in value to one hundred and
sixty pounds of our money. This monarch had many running horses.
The precise meaning of the term is not, however, clear. It might be
light and speedy horses in opposition to the war-horses, or those that
were literally used for the purposes of racing."
VI. The Horse in the Times of Henry VIII. and James I.
Our authority follows the history of the horse in England up to the
rei«-n of Hemy VHI., who compelled the destruction of under-sized
1Q2 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
horses, and rendered compulsory the maintenance of so great a urmber
of full sized mares and stallions, in every deer park, and in every rural
parish of the realm, that the reign of this monarch was marked by a
decided increase in the breeding of powerful, well formed animals. It
appears tbat the King even rode a race himself, for it is stated, by Miss
Strickland, that the King rode a-Maying, with Katheriue and the royal
bride, Mary, widow of Louis XII., of France, and the bride of Charles
Brandon. The amusements of the day, says Miss Strickland, were
brought to a close by the King and his brother-in-law, the Duke of Suf-
folk, riding races on great coursers, which were like the Flemish breed
of dray horses. During the reign of Henry VIII., an annual race was
run at Chester, the prize being a wooden ball, handsomely embellished,
for which, in 1540, a silver bell, called St. George's bell, was substituted.
Hence the phrase, " Bear the bell," in allusion to one who has come off
victorious in a contest.
In the reign of James I. races were merely matches against time,
trials of speed and bottom for long and " cruel distances." From the
time of James I. the history of the English race-horse, and of English
racing, may be said fairly to begin, though no existing pedigrees are
traced back to that time. But, though pedigrees be not directly traced
to great antiquity, enough has been given of the history of English horses
to lot the reader know how long was the time, and how careful the breed-
ing, required to produce, in the thoroughbred of to-day, the most supei'b
race of horses the world has ever known ; for wind, speed and })ottom5
he is without a rival in ancient or modern times.
The horse has of course always figured prominently in fiction and ro-
mance ; but in this connection it will sufiice to state the fact that in the
Homeric poems of the Trojan war, there is no mention of the trumpet
or of cavalry. In Virgil, mounted men, saddles, spurs, and clarions are
mentioned. In the romance of " Sir Bevis, of Southampton," he speaks
of races of three miles, for "forty pounds of ready golde." Homer
knew nothing of horsemen and trumpets in war, while Virgil was famil-
iar with them. The author of " Sir Bevis," in his day and generation
probably saw races of long distances, and long-distance races generally
precede short ones. /
The excellence of the English race horse of the last 100 years is prob-
ably more due to the Barb than to any other one strain, it was in 1121
that the first Arabian was imported into England, but the Arabian of that
day was not what he was in the centuries 1400, 1500 and 1600, during
the time immediately succeeding the overthrow of Charles I. Of English
racing horses, Eclipse was the most wonderful of all whose perform-
ances have come down to us well authenticated
THOROUGHBRED HORSES.
163
164 CYCLOPEDIA OF LHTS STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Vn. American Thoroughbreds.
The thoroughbred hortse of America i.s of course the descendant of
English ancestors. It is probably true that the American thoroughbred
is a su])erior animal to the English thoroughbred ; and this opinion is
certainly fortified by the triumphs of American horses in England and
France, in their greatest races, in the year 1881. A horse transi)orted
from one country to another, entirely different in climate, might be par-
doned for not performing as well there as he would do at home. Yet,
our horses have won laurels in England and Fvance from the very best
thoroughbreds there, and in their most exacting races.
In the S6uth, there has always been a passion for the spoils of the
field, and liiuch attention has been devoted to the breeding of horses of
speed and bottom. Interest in fine horses is growing in tlie North from
year to year, but while we have some high-caste breeding studs in the
North, the South, and especial I3' Kentucky and Tennessee, still holds the
lead. It will not be necessary here to go into a detailed history or
description of the American thoroughbred. Importations made before
the revolutionary war, and continued from time to time have given us a
horse that has no superior on the earth ; one that has at last snatched
victory from the best of English horses on their own turf. In France,
American horses have held their own against the best of English and
French thoroughbreds.
VIII. The Arabian.
The Arabians profess to trace the ancestry of their horses back to the
time of Solomon, yet in the light of authentic history, their horses before
the thirteenth century were not of a character worthy of special notice.
The horse of the desert receives the personal care and affection of his
master. To the Arab the horse is not only a companion in solitude, but
is also his only means of locomotion in arduous and perilous journeys.
It is not strange, therefore, that these nomads of the desert should bestow
much care upon the breeding and rearing of their horses ; and during the
past seven centuries, such care has been bestowed. The Arabs undoubt-
edly did understand the true principle of breeding, care, feeding, selec-
tion and training, at a period when Arabia was the seat of learning, and
all Europe was enveloped in the gloom of the dark ages, or was just
beginning feebly to see the dawn of the revival of letters.
Arabian travelers of the last century do not agree as to the number of
distinct breeds of horses in that country. A Mohanmiedan writer who
seems to have had candor, and a good opportunity for gathermg facts di-
vides them into six tribes, as follows •
THOROUGHBRED HORSES. 165
" The Dgelfe, foun \ chiefly in Arabia Felix, seldom seen at Damascus,
but common in the neighborhood of Anaze. Horses of this breed are
of lofty stature, have narrow chests, but are deep in the girth, and their
ears are long. They are remarkable for spirit and fleetness, but are ex-
ceedingly tractable, and their ability to endure hunger and thirst is a
remarkable feature.
" The Secaloni, a breed from the eastern part of the desert, somewhat
inferior to the Dgelfe, though resembling him in most points.
" The Mcfki, a handsome horse, but not so fleet as either the Dgelfe
or the Secaloni. In figure, he bears a resemblance to the Spanish or
Andalusian stock.
" A fourth breed is called the Sabi, similar to the Mefki, but seems to
j)ossess no specially useful or striking qualities.
" The Fridi. This breed is very common ; but they are often vicious
and untrustworthy, and lack some of the excellent qualities possessed by
the l)est of the others.
" The Nejdi, found chiefly in the region of Bussorah. These are said
to be at least the equals of the Dgelfe and the Secaloni. Some judges
assert that there is no horse to be compared with them, and they stand
very high in the market."
The Dgelfe and Nojdi are reported to be the most valuable. They are
known to be the favorites of the horsc-fancicrs of India, man}^ fine ani-
mals of these stocks having been carried thither by the sportsmen of that
country.
Other writers make mention of but three distinct breeds, to which thev
attribute names different from those above given ; and it is difficult to
reconcile the statements of the two, and to determine whether they have
really agreed in any way in pointing out the same animal, though hy
diverse names, as possessing the striking excellences which have made a
certain breed famous and Avell known to us. Writers of the latter class
speak of an inferior race, little esteemed, at home or abroad, which they
call the Attechi. These arc sometimes found in a wild state. Then
come the Kadischi. a sort of half-breed stock, possessing some points of
resemblance to the true l)lood, and being sometimes imposed upon dealers
for the genuine. Finally, they describe a superb race, the pure descend-
ants of some extraordinary ancestors, and these they call the Kochlani or
Kailhan. The best of them are found among the Shammar and Aneyza
tribes. The Arabs themselves pretend to trace the Kochlani back to the
days and the stables of Solomon. While this cannot be credited, it is
known that some of thom have wTitten jiedigrees for at least four hundred
years, with extreme care, and always on the side of the mare. They are
166
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
dnely-formcd, enduring, ficel, rather small-sized horses of great vivacity
and intelligence, but. for speed, bottom and physical development decidedly
inferior to our thoroughbreds. Yet, though not as swift as the English or
American thoroughbred, the Arabian is one of the best of horses. And
while we could hardly gain any advantage from a fresh infusion of this
blood, the Arabian is king on his native deserts, and no other horse could
there fill his place. He is peculiarly adapted to the wants of the people
and to the topography of that barren country. So good a horse is he
< 0-day that English residents in India pay from $700 to $1,000 for the
best that are offered for sale ; and it is well knowu that the best horses
of the desert are never sold at anv price.
PERCHERON STALLION FRONTON.
CHAPTER VIII.
ABOUT TROTTING HORSES.
1 THE BREEDING OF TROTTERS. II. PROGENITORS OF F.\ST TROTTERS-
MESSENGER III. IMPORTED BELLFOUNDER. IV. THE MODERN TROTTER.
V. WH.\T GOLDSMITH MAID WAS LIKE. VI. THE MOVEMENT IN
TROTTING. VII, DISTJSE OF THE TROTTING FACULTY. VIII. HIGHLY BRED
HORSES. IX. STRAINS OF TROTTING BLOOD.
I. The Breeding of Trotters.
The production of trotting horses, like that of racers, has come to be
a distinct branch of breeding, and is pursued as a specialty, with a
view to developing, in the highest possible form, the best trotting action
in the horse. Hence , any person undertaking this branch of the breeder's
profession needs to understand the peculiar form to be attained, and also
to know the families from which the best trotters have been bred.
The Morgans. — Twenty years ago the trotting form was thought by
many to l)e most strongly developed in the Morgans ; at least it was
hoped that this breed might be found to possess the qualifications nec-
essary to develop the highest degree of trotting speed. The Morgans,
however, disappointed the expectations placed upon them. The records
of the turf have proved that fast trotters owe their speed to thorough
breeding ; and that their speed is directly in proportion to the degree of
blood of thoroughbreds of trotting peculiarities that is in their veins,
Ethan Allen. — Ethan Allen, one of the most celebrated of ths Mor-
gans, was a good trotter for his day, and yet he was never able to beat
Flora Temple. At three years old he trotted a mile, three heats, in
2 : 42 ; 2 : 39 and 2 :30 minutes, which was the fastest time then record-
ed for that age . The false estimate placed upon Morgan horses up to
twenty years ago, not only kept back the development of really excellent
trotters, but was a positive and incalculable damage to the horses of the
country generally, in that it caused the size of the farm ani-
mals to be reduced. For the farmers especially went zealously into the
rage for possessing Morgan horses.
Development of the Trotting Horse. — The trotting horse of America
has been entirely developed within the last forty years. He is not an
animal of a separate and distinct breed ; for first-rate trotters have come
of Canadian or Nonnan-French blood, from the horses of the middle
States of mixed blood, from the Morgans and other New England
breeds, and from Western horses of mixed blood.
167
168 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLKTE STOCK DOCTOR.
II. Progenitors of Past Trotters.
Notable among tlie horses that have made wonderful records in trot-
ting of late years are those descended from, and partaking largely of the
blood of, Messenger, Bellfounder and of Hambletonian. Hambletonian,
after a career of varied success as a racer, at length became distinguished
as a getter of trotting horses of elegance, finish, speed and endur-
ance, either under the saddle or in harness. It is not our purpose to go
minutely into the record of noted performances ou the Amei-ican trotting
turf. Nowhere else in the world is the fondness for exhibitions of
speed in trotting, so nearly universal among the people, as it has become
here ; and in no other country are such exhibitions so patronized by every
class. Even in Russia, the home of the famous Orloff breed, this sport
is by no means a national one. WTiere the general reader is usually so
well informed of current events, the familiar details of exploits upon
the turf are deemed to contain far less interest than will be found in a
brief account of some of the most celebrated sires, whose descendants
have proved constant in their performances.
Messenger. — The original source of our best blood. Imported Mes-
senger, not only gained fame for himself, but bequeathed his excellen-
ces to a long line of descendants, who have been famous in the annals of
the turf. His own ancestry possessed character for great and peculiar
merit. Foaled in 1780, his first sire was Mambrino ; second sire, En-
gineer ; third sire, Sampson ; fourth sire. Blaze ; fifth sire, Fljdng Childers ;
sixth sire. The Darley Arabian. On the female side, his dam was by
Turf ; second dam, the sister of Figurante, was by Regulas ; third dam
by Bolton Starling; fourth dam, Snaps by Fox; fifth dam, Gipsey by
Bay Bolton , and so on through Ne^A castle Turk, Brierly Turk, Taffolet
Barb, to the ninth dam by Place's White Turk, out of a natural Barb mare.
Messenger was threfore in-bred to a considerable degree, and combined
in his veins the purest and richest blood of early English race horses.
Potency of Arabian Blood. — Godolphin Arabian appears three times
m the pedigi-ee of ]\Iessenger. Flying Childers was the phenomenon of
the English turf in his day, and the accounts of his performances appear
almost fabulous. Of one of the progenitors of ISIessenger, Sampson, it
is said that while the thoroughbred of his day was scarcely more than
fourteen and a half hands high, rarely reaching fifteen, Sampson was fifteen
hands two inches, and was reported to be the largest-boned blood horse
then ever bred. Horses of the Sampson blood, as we knew it nearly
forty years ago, were wonderfully compact animals of great bone, muscle
and sinew. Sampson, Engineer and Mambrino were all rough and coarse,
and the last two were considered the strongest and heaviest-boned horses
ABOUT TROTTING HORSES.
169
of the English turf. It was a most lucky circumstance for American
studs that a. scion of these coarse horses was imported, to stamp his impress
upon the thoroughbred of this country. We have found that kind of
coarseness to be the embodiment of strength, bone, muscle, and conse-
quently of most enduring speed and bottom.
III. Imported Bellfounder.
This wonderful animal was known in his day as the Norfolk trotter,
and was, like Flying Childers, a phenomenon of the turf. He was
fifteen hands high, a bright bay in color, with black legs. Being seven
years old at the date of his importation, in 1822, he must have
170 CYCIOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOft.
been foaled in 1815. At five years old he trotted two miles in six min-
utes, and the next jeai-, trotted nine miles in twenty-nine minutes and
thirty-eiglit seconds. Velocity, Lis dam, by Haphazard, trotted, in 1806,
sixteen miles in an hour, and in 1808 trotted twenty-eight miles in an
hour and forty-seven minutes ; wonderful work it was for that day, and
would be so considered, if performed by a horse of the presort time.
Bellfounder's Ancestry. — Bellfounder was not thoroughbred. He
was sired by Fireaway out of a Shields mare. The Shields horse, oth-
erwise called "Shales," in England nearly one hundred years ago were
hackneys, or, as we would now call them, road and trotting horses. Had
the English people cultivated driving, as they did riding, America might
not stand unrivalled, as she does to-day, in the pre-eminence of her road
and trotting horses.
rv. The Modern Trotter.
Our account of modern trotters would be incomplete if we should
wholly omit to mention that wonderful descendant of Hambletonian,
Lady Suffolk. Nor must the Morgans be forgotten. The Canadian
l.'ottcrs also claim remembrance ; notable among wiiich -were those won-
derful little pony-horses, many of them not fourteen hands hign, known
as the St. Laurences, from the name of their sire. The best of them
were good for a three-minute gait on the road, before a buggy ; for ener-
gy, docility, speed and tireless endurance, while drawing the load of a
horse, they have seldom been equaled among animals of their size. But
it is our purpose more especially to notice the famous trotters of the
hist twenty years.
Goldsmith Maid and Abdaliah. — Among the galaxy of wonderful per-
formers, none surpass Goldsmith Maid. This remarkable mare was
foaled in 1857. Her sire was Edsall's Hambletonian, and her dam a mare
by old Abdaliah. Abdaliah Avas a Hambletonian. In 1862 he became the
propcily of R. A. Alexander, the celebrated Kentucky breeder of thorough-
breds, and was thereafter known as Alexander's Abdaliah. Earl}-^ in
1865, this Abdaliah, together with several other valuable horses, among
them Bay Chief, a son of Mambrino Chief, w^as seized by Guerillas.
Shortly after, in an attack upon the guerillas by Federal soldiers, Abdal-
iah fell into the hands of one of the attacking party, who refused to give
him up. This magnificent stallion, unshod and wholly out of condition
for hard service, Avas nevertheless ridden day after day, over the roughest
and hilliest road, until at last, completely exhausted, he was turned
loose on the w ayside,and died of pneumonia.
Abdaliah as a Sire. — To show what might have come of this horse, had
he bVed. it is only necessary to mention some of his offspring and to note
ABOUT TROTTING HORSES.
171
what they have done. First is Goldsmith Maid with a record of 2:14;
and V further record of 232 heats with 2 :M) as the slowest. We also have
Mayor Edsall, who made his mile in 2:29; and Wood's Hambletonian,
172 crcLOPEDiA OF isrm wtocm. ajto oomplbte stock doctor.
with sons making records in from 2 : 23 to 2 : 27|. Pacing Abdallah, the
getter ot excellent roadsters, was another of his sons, as was Belmont, the
sire of horses going the mile in 2 : 23 ^to 2 : 30. Again, there is Thern-
dale, a compact and muscular stallion, greatly celebrated, not only for his
own great speed, but for the excellent trotting qualities of his offspring. In
1876, after serving eight years m the stud, he made five mile heats in 2 : 22f ;
2 : 22J : 2 : 32^ ; 2 : 20 ; 2 : 25. Another remarkable son of Alexander's
Abdallah, is Almont. His offspring ai-e yet young to the track, but Pied-
mont, at four years old, trotted in 2 : 30^.
V. What Groldsmith Maid Was Like.
The likeness of Goldsmith Maid shows her appearance, when in trot-
tmg condition, and will be studied with interest as an accurate view of
the proportions of this most famous and one of the best bred of the Queens
of the trotting course. She was fifteen hands and onemch in height, and
seems rather delicately made m a superficial examination of her form.
Yet the quality of her make-up is in every respect superb.
An accurate and capable writer says of her: "Her head and neck are
very clean and blood-like ; her shoulder sloping and well placed ; middle
piece tolerably deep at the girth, but so light at the waist as to give her a
tucked-up appearance, and one would say a lack of constitution, but for
the abundant evidence to the contrary ; loin ani coupling good ; quarters
of the greyhound order — broad and sinewy ; her limbs are clean, fine-
boned and wiry ; feet rather small, but of good quality. She is high
mettled and takes an abundance of work without flinching. In her high-
est trotting form, drawn to an edge, she is almost deer-like in appear-
ance, and when scoring for a start and alive to the emergencies of the
race, with her great flashing eye and dilated nostril, she is a perfect pic-
ture of animation and living beauty. Her gait is long, bold and sweep-
ing, and she is, in the hands of a driver acquainted with her peculiarities,
a perfect piece of machinery. She seldom makes an out-and-out break,
but frequently makes a skip, and has been accused of losing nothing in
either case. Aside from the distinction of having trotted the fastest mile
on record, she also enjoys the honor of making the fastest three consecu-
tive heats ever won In a race, which renders any comments upon her
staying qualities unnecessary."
The tmie of Goldsmith Maid has been beaten several times since 1877,
but this detracts nothing from her wonderful performance. She con-
tinued on the turf until past twenty years old, and after completing that
age she closed her public career with the year 1877 by trotting, during that
year, forty-one heats in 2 : 30 or better, and making a time record of
ABOUT TROTTING HORSES.
173
2 : 14^. Her record .stands at the close of licr career at 2 : 14, with 332
heats in 2 : 30 or better. Her r-.cord and her career are the marvel of
the aofe.
VI. The Movement in Trotting.
A trotter, especially if he go fast, must go level and square, both be-
fore and bf.iimd, and with as low action as may be compatible %\aththe
necessary stride. It l? this ability to £rp close to the ground, or in what
174 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
has been called by some the sling-trot, and by others the slouching trot, of
the thoroughbred, that enables the best trotters to make their great speed;
the sling-lrot is simply the gait in which the animal reaches far forward
vithout raising the feet unnecessarily high, thus economizing time and
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nmscle. This movement, at an easy gait, of, say twelve miles an
hour, is well displayed in the cut illustrating the trotting movement. It
is not an artificial gait, as has been stated by some good English horse-
n)en. Every one who has reared a w^ell-bred colt has seen it, when fol-
lowing the dam, strike naturally into this gait, \vith head up and tail
ABOUT TROTTING HORSES. 175
straight out. The trot is a natural gait of any horse, and is always used
when going at easy speed on a smooth surface; but the best trotting
action is the result of breeding and training.
VII. Disuse of the Trotting Faculty.
That the English blood-horse has lost the trotting faculty to a great
extent, is not because it was never in the blood, but because it was never
allowed to be exercised in the training. And, as few horses could ever
gallop fast or far, without special training, so, no horse can trot to the
best advantage unless the gait has been developed by long practice; and
it is a peculiarity of this gait that the trotting horse, unlike the runner,
seldom arrives at his best, until he is over eight years old. The same rule
will apply to fast walking horses. They must be specially trained to walk
fast, and there is no better preparation for the trotting horse than this
preliminai-y training in walking.
VIII. Highly Bred Driving and Saddle Horses.
Within the last ten years, the Hackneys have come to find a prominent
place among American driving horses. These horses may also be trained
to jump either from a standstill or when extended. They have come to bo
considered as excellent ponies for polo playing, and, as now bred, their fine
turn of speed makes them availa]:»le for light driving.
Testing Horses as Roadsters — So again trotting horses of good style,
but not fast enough for the track, make admirable roadsters and general
drivers. They are also available for light express wagon work and other
similar purposes where speediness is necessary. The farmer who likes to
breed this class of horses, that will make good sellers at fair prices, may get
them out of stylish roomy mares, from staunch sires of trotting blood.
This class of horses will also be found available for general farm use, but
if intended for the uses described, should not be used for the heavier uses
of the farm, but three abreast will do a deal of plowing without injury.
The New Morgans. — The Morgans can not hold their own to-day as
against the English Hackney, the trotting horse or Kentucky saddle horse as
now bred. The palpable reason is that we want size with stamina now.
This we get with a number of fashionably bred horses — Hacknej^s, trotters,
saddlers, French Coach and even thoroughbreds, not quite stylish enough for
high priced carriage, coach, trap and other uses, all of which sell well as
roadsters, light express, general delivery teams, drivers and cavalry horses.
Saddlers. — Another class that always sells well both for home use and
export. They also make wonderfully fine cavalry horses. There are two
classes of these — one, the saddler per se, and the combined saddle and
carriage horse; the latter is a good general-purpose horse for running to
1/6 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
town with a light load; will do a good job in light plowing or for chasing
around. The Kentucky saddle horse should be used for the saddle exclu-
sively, and if well bred is a good horse for export.
Market Classes and Grades of Horses and Mules.
Believing that "market classes of horses are not well understood, and
that a clear setting forth of true market standards will do much toward
establishing correct ideals on the part of the horse breeder and pro-
ducer," R. C. Obrecht, of the Illinois Station, has made an investigation
of Chicago and St. Louis horse markets, which are considered similar
to other markets of note, with a view to clearly defining market classes
and grades of horses and mules. The first fact of importance brought
out by this investigation is that the majority of horses which find their
way to the large markets do not approach the degree of perfection de-
manded by the intending purchaser.
A correct understanding of the market classes will enable the farmer to
form a better estimate of the value of the horses which he has to sell ; for
without this the farmer is at a decided disadvantage in selling his horses,
not knowing their real market value. In this way he may fail to get what
his horses are worth or he may lose a sale by ai?king too much. Again
it often happens that he fails to distinguish clearly between his good and
his poor marketable animals. As a result the dealer takes the desirable
ones at a good profit and leaves the undesirable ; thus the inferior horses
are left in the country to become the parent stock.
To form an intelligent estimate of the value of horses or mules,
therefore, it is necessary to have a thorough undci-standing of the mar-
ket requirements and a correct undei-standing of the market classes and
grades.
The principal factors that determine the market value of horses or
mules arc: Soundness, conformation, quality, condition, action, age,
color, education, and general appearance.
Horses or mules of a general type are grouj^ed into classes, for con-
venience and a definite understanding; and in most instances the
names of the classes are suggestive of the use to which they are put. The
classes of horses are divided into subclasses which embody those of a
similar type but slightly diff'erent in size, weight, action, or the use to
which they are put. Mules are not divided into subclasses.
The market classes are: Draft hoi"ses, chunks, wagon horses, carriage
horses, road horses, saddle horses, mining mules, cotton mules, sugar
mules, farm mules, and draft mules.
Horses. — Draft horses are broad, massive, rugged, and compactly
built, with great weight and strength. They stand from 15-3 to 17-2
hands high and in good flesh weigh from 1,600 to 2,200 pounds or
ABOUT TROTTING HORSES. 177
more. The class is subdivided into light draft, heavy draft and loggers.
Chunks are short-legged, broad, heavy-set horses, the name of the
class being indicative of their conformation. The subclasses are eastern
or export, farm and southern. The class varies in weight from 800
pounds, the lightest of the southern, to 1,550 pounds, the heaviest of the
eastern. They stand from 15 to 15-3 hands high.
Wagon horses are those used principally where business requires quick
delivery. They must have good action, a clean set of limbs, good feet
and bone with an abundance of quality, be closely coupled, compactly
built and have a deep broad chest indicative of constitution and stamina.
In this class are express, delivery wagon, artillery and fire horses.
They stand from 15 to 17-2 hands high and weigh from 1,050 for the
light weights of artillery horses to 1,700 pounds for heavy fire horses.
Carriage horses, sometimes spoken of as "heavy harness horses," are full
made, round bodied and smoothly turned with an unusual amount of qual-
ity, and must possess to a marked degree high action, with a fair amount of
speed. They should have a long, well-arched neck, small neat head, a
short, well-muscled back, long, level croup, and well-developed thighs
and quarters. The class is comprised of coach, cob, park, and cab horses.
They range in height from 14-1 to 16-1 hands and weigh from 900 to
1,250 pounds.
Road hoi-ses arc more lithe in build and angular in form than those of
the carriage class. They are sometimes spoken of as drivers or "light
harness horses" and are usually driven to light-weight vehicles. A con-
siderable speed is desired of some of the individuals of this class, which
is composed of runabout and roadsters. They range in height from
14-3 (<) 1() hands and weigh from 900 to 1,150 pounds.
Saddle Horses. — in this class are grouped those horses that perform
their work under the saddle, the requirements for which are sureness of
foot, ea.se of carriage to the rider, good manners, and ease of control. In
order to be sure of foot they must have an oblique shoulder, high thin
withers and a properly set pastern with an abundance of energy. The
above qualities together with a short strong back will give strength for
carrying weight and also an easy gait. The minimum height is 14 hands
for a polo pony and the maximum 16-1 hands for hunters. The weight
varies from 850 to 1,250 pounds. Grouped in this class are five-gaited
saddlers, threc-gaited saddlers, hunters, cavalry horses, and polo ponies.
Mules. — Mining mules are those purchased with which to operate
mines. They are heavy boned, rugged, compactly built individuals, with
large feet and strong constitution. They range in height from 12 to 16
hands and weigh from 600 to 1,350 pounds.
Cotton mules are lighter boned than miners and not so compactly
built. They are round bodied, smoothly turned, and possess considerable
178 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
quality. They range in height from 13-2 to 15-2 hands and weigh from
750 to 1,100 pounds.
Sugar mules are those shipped south to use on the sugar farms of
Georgia, Louisiana, and other Southern States. They are taller, larger,
and more breedy looking than cotton nuiles and have heavier bone.
They stand from 10 to 17 hands and weigh from 1,150 to 1,300 pounds.
Farm mules are those purchiused to be used on the farms of the
Central States. They are somewhat lacking in uniformity of type and
many of them are young and somewhat thin in flesh. An average height
is from 15-2 to 16 hands and weigh from 900 to 1,250 pounds.
Draft mules arc large heavy boned, heavy set mules that possess quality
and niggedness. They are used in cities for heavy teaming and by con-
tractors for all kinds of heavy work, such as railroad grading, etc. They
range in height from 16 to 17-2 hands and weigh from 1,200 to 1,600
pounds and upward.
The grades distinguish the good from the poor aninuds within the
classes and subclasses. The grades are choice, good, medium, common,
and inferior.
An animal to grade as "choice" must be sound and iip[)roa.ch the ideal
type, possess quality and finish, have good style and action, and be in
good condition. A ''good" animal should possess the essential qualities
of his class but need not have the quality, condition, and finish neces-
sary to grade as choice. A horse or nuile of "medium" grade is likely to
bo ))l;iiii in bis makc-ui) willi a tendency toward coarseness, and some-
what of a lack of symmetry and condition. A lack of style, action, or
soundness may also cause him to grade as medium. The lowest grade
found in many of the classes is "connnon." Such individuals are Avant-
ing in most of the essential qualities that go to make them desiral)le.
An "inferior" animal is of the lowest possible grade.
Owing to the fact that the point where two classes or grades meet and
merge into each other is not always distinct, it is sometimes difficult to
say just where certain animals that are not clearly typical should be
classified. Again, if the demand exceeds the supply it is sometimes neces-
sary to temporarily draw from a similar class of animals, or the price
may advance and in this way equalize the demand. If. on account of a
meager demand or an excess supply the price should drop, it is some-
times necessary to place some animals of one class in another, i. e., they
will be purchased by a different class of trade.
The breed to which a horse belongs has but little influence upon hi?
market value and the classes are not determined by the breeds, but by the
individuality and conformation of the horse; however, a judicious use of
choice pure-bred sires is best suited for the production of marketable
horses.
ABOUT TROTTING HORSES,
180 CYCLOPEDIA OP LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
TWO CHOIC'K CAVALRY HORSES SELECTED FOR THE U. S. ARMY.
These horses meet the government specifications for a cavalry horse, to-wif
must be sound, well bred, of a superior class, and have quality; gentle and of a
kind dispoeition; thoroughly broken to the saddle, with light and elastic mouth,
easy gaits, and free and prompt action at the walk, trot and gallop; free from'
vicious habits, without material blemish or defect, and a gelding of uniform
and hardy color, in good condition; from 4 to 8 years old, weighing from 950 to
1100 pounds. Height. 15 to 15-3 hands.
ABOUT TROTTING HORSES. 181
IX. Strains of Trotting Blood.
That the trotting horse of America owes his great powers to the infu-
sion of thorough blood, we have before stated. To Imported Messenger
is this due in the greatest degree. Another great trotting sire of Amer-
ica was Imported Bellfounder. There has been much controversy over
his breeding, first and last, but that he was a staunch trotter and a getter
of admirable horses, there is no doubt, giving splendid action to his get.
Still, it must be admitted that, admirable as was Bellfounder himself, his
get was not equal to the descendants of Messenger in all that constitutes
speed, endurance and action.
Duroc also became a valuable factor in our trotting blood. His strain
of blood appears in the Medley's, Duroc Messenger's Mambrino Chief's
and Gold Dust's.
One of the sub-families of Messenger's blood, ILimbletonian, who
united the blood of Messenger and Bellfounder, has raised the trottino-
horse of America to the highest point of perfection. He was not a hand-
some horse from a thoroughl)red standpoint, if indeed he was thorouo-h-
bred, which has been doubted. Ilis pedigree has been given as follows :
Hambletonian was by Abdallah ; he by Mambrino, a son of Messeno-er.
The dam of Al)dallah was the mare Amazonian. The dam of IIaml)letonian
was bv Imported Bellfounder ; second dam by Plambletonian ; third dam,
Silvertail, said to have })een by Imi^orted Messenger
In all that constitutes stoutness and ability to perform, in freedom
from tendency to disability, his stock has been wonderful . Noted for
immense and strong joints, length and strength of bone, magnificent mus-
cular development, prominent, S(|uare, massive build, mighty hips and
excellent barrel, all knit together to form a most admirable frame, united
to a nervous constitution that reproduced itself in his descendants, in a
most wonderful degree.
In relation to the descendants of the progenitors of the strains of trot-
ting blood, Mr. H. T. Helm, in his work, "American Roadsters and
Trotting Horses," says of the trotting horse of to-day : "The combined
Abdallah-Bellfounder is a horse of the teens; Goldsmith Maid, 2 : 14 ;
Dexter, 2:17; Gloster, 2:17; Bodine, 2 : 19i ; St. Julian, 2 : 22^ ;
Gazelle, 2:21; Fullerton, 2 : 18 ; Mountain Boy, 2 : 202 ; Jay Gould,
2 : 21^ ; Nettie, 2 : 18 ; Startle — . Joe Elliot would, in his opinion, have
stood as a bright star in the firmament." We can add to this our own
opinion as a breeder of descendants of Messenger and Bellfounder many
years ago, that we never had a disappointing colt. They were mighty
driving horses, of great bone, muscle and sinew, of great lung power,
and, of course, of great endurance.
182 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
CHAPTER IX.
THE BREEDING AND REARING OP COLTS.
t. IMPORTANCK OF ACCURATE KNOWLEDGE. 11. BREED FROM MATURE ANIMALS.
III. NO PROFIT IN INFERIOR HORSES. IV. HEREDITY IN ANIMALS. V. PECU-
LIAR ORGANIC STRUCTURE. VI. HEREDITY OF DISEASE. VII. AVATISM OR
BKEEDING BACK.— BREED TO NONE BUT THE BEST. VIII. VARIATION AND DEVEL-
OPMENT. IX. TRANSMISSION OF QUALITIES. X. THE IMPRESS OF COLOR AND
FORM. XI. RELATION OF SIZE IN SIRE AND DAM. XII. BREED ONLY FROM
PUKE SIRES. XIII. THE BEST ARE CHEAPEST IN THE END. XIV. SELECTION
OF STALLION AND MARE. XV. SERVICE OF THE STALLION. XVI. THE PERIOD
OP GESTATION — TREATMENT. XVII. TREATMENT AFTER FOALING. XVIII.
HOW TO KNOW TF A MARE IS IN FOAL. XIX. HOW TO KNOW THK FOALING TIME.
XX. THE FOALING STALL. XXI. ABORTION, OR SLINKING THE FCETUS. XXII.
HOW TO RAISE A COLT.
1. Importance of Accurate Knowledge.
The breeding and raising of farm stock is one of the most interesting
branches of agricultural art, audit is one requiring judgment and ac-
curate knowledge in a high degree. In the preceding chapters we have
therefore, carefully gone over the ground covered by what pertains to
the anatomy and physical condition of the horse, to the end that
any intelligent person may become so thoroughly master of the subject
that he may not only know what constitutes a good horse, ])ut may also
decide with tolerable accuracy as to the age and constitutional vio-or of
an animal, and l)c familiar with the characteristics of the principal breeds.
Know what You Breed For. — A horse should l)e bred with a view solely
to the labor he is to perform. The first thing for the breeder to do,
therefore, is to decide what he wants with the horse. If the animal
is intended for the turf, there is but one course to pursue ; breed only to
horses of the most approved pedigree, for the distance, whether it be
one, two, three, or four miles. It is well known that but a moiety of the
colts, even of the best blood, e\er arrive at high eminence. So many
are the contingencies to be met, and so many the risks to be taken, that
our advice is, Do not undertake the breeding of this kind of stock, un-
less you are amply able to provide all the varied requirements, includino-
the most perfect stables, and a training track. Above all, do not waste
money on the so-called thoroughbreds, that travel country districts, ex-
pecting to breed high-priced horses from common mares. You would be
quite as likely to be struck by lightning as -to succeed in getting any-
thing better, from such parents, than a quarter nag for a scrub race. So
with trotting horses, do not expect to get a crack trotter unless the blood
of trotting thoroughbreds is strong in the veins of sire and dam. Nor
can you get a fine carriage dri\nng horse from some weedy, dancing,
183
184 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
THE BREEDING AND REARING OF COLTS. 185
high headed sire, whose nervousness comes from timidity, and whose
blood is made up from guess-work breeding. Read carefully what is con-
tained in the preceding chapters, and breed from stock, already improved,
rather than seek to make a breed yourself.
If you desire to breed up from the stock you already have, the object
is a laudable one, provided you want horses only for general use. In
this case, breed from the best sires you can find, and those which combine
the characteristics you seek to perj)etuate.
II. Breed From Mature Animals.
Maturity in breeding stock is indispensable, since it is futile to expect
to get the best development from animals undeveloped themselves. We
believe the weediness of many thoroughbreds, which means want of de-
velopment and lack of constitutional vigor, to be the result, in part,
of too early and fast work, and also of breeding their parents while yet
too young, or after they were broken down for service on the turf. To
get the highest exellence in the offspring we must have the highest de-
velopment in the parents. Degeneration will surely result, if we l)reed
from immature or broken down animals. Another important requisite is,
that the sire be given plenty of exercise during the season of service ;
and after that, and until the next season begins, he should have constant
work, except for a period of rest with a run on the grass immediately
after the service season. The mare also sh(,ald not be idle, nor confined
to the stable ; exercise is as necessary to the dam as to the sire.
III. No Profit in Inferior Horses.
The best and purest stock, well adai)ted to the end sought, is always
the cheapest. This is a fundamental principle, to be kept constantly in
view. It costs no more to feed, shelter, and properly care for good
stock, than it does to feed, shelter and care for inferior stock. The first
cost of good animals is, of course, more, but this is the capital invested, and
for which you expect to get adequate returns. It costs no more to raise
good stock than it does to raise inferior stock. It costs no more to fit and
train the one than the other. After 3'ou have secured the female stock,
smooth in movement, of undoubted constitutional vigor, and of the
proper blood for the labor intended, if you do not own, or cannot afford
to own, the sire, you need not fear to pay lil)erally for such blood as you
require ; you may, moreover, safely incur the expense of sending your
mares considerable distances to procure the proper sire. This, however,
wdll rarely be necessary unless you wish exceptional colts ; for, in all well-
settled districts, there are plenty of good sires, outside of the highest-
caste thoroughbreds, and trotting strains. In thinly-settled districts
the breeding of high-caste stock should not be undertaken unless the
186 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
breeder can afford to keep the sires at his own expense or hj co-operation,
or in partnership, with others.
Taking it for granted that the reader accepts, as true, the foregoing
propositions, we will next inquire into some points that should be borne
in mind by every one who hopes to win success as a breeder, whether
from the stand-point of profit or with a view to the pleasure of doing a
thing well.
rv. Heredity in Animals.
We have dwelt with some emphasis upon the importance of breeding
from sound, vigorous parents ; for like produces like, and the rule is
constant even in the case of phenomenal animals. Extraordinary devel-
opment is by no means the result of chance, though it may be the bring-
ing out in an extraordinary degree, of qualities that have been dormant,
perhaps for generations, for the want of what breeders call nicking.
By "nicking" is meant the development of dormant traits through the
union of a sire and dam of peculiar qualities, of the most excellent
traits perfectly blended together, and conferring vigor of constitution,
soundness and fineness of bone, along with great muscular development,
good digestion and excellence of the respiratory organs, and of the nerv-
ous system, and nerve force. With these, an animal must be good ; and
how to have them good is the object of this work.
Let us now see what goes to make up that quality called heredity,
which is caiTied in the breeding of an animal. Charles Darwin has writ-
ten voluminously and conclusively on this subject, as have many others.
Dr. Miles, late professor of Agriculture in the Michigan State Agricultu-
ral College, in a treatise on the laws of development and lieredit}^ in rela-
tion to the improvement and breeding of domestic animals, has collected
and arranged much valuable matter bearing upon this subject ; and he
cites heredity of normal characteristics, atavism, variation, the relative
influence of parents, influence of previous impregnations, and various
other matters, as being well worth the study of the breeder. The
position we have assumed is, therefore, founded upon correct and long-
continued observation kiy the most eminent minds of this and other ages ;
for more than a glimmering of the laws of heredity was had even by the
ancients. In classic times there were families of athletes among the
Greeks ; and the extract already given from Xenophon shows that he no
less understood what a horse should be, than he did how to conduct the
memorable retreat of the ten thousand, and to fight successful battles.
Later researches by Gaiton have shown that the best wrestlers and oars-
men belong to a small number of families in which strength and skill
have become hereditary. The most successful of our trotting horses are
THE BREEDING AMD REARING OF COLTS. 187
derived from three families ; of these the descendants of Messenger are
most strongly marked in hereditar}'^ trotting qualities. Among running
horses Eclipse begat 334, and Herod 497 winners. The hereditary trans-
mission of strongly marked peculiarities in races is conspicuously shown
in the Jews and in the Gypsies, who intermarr}-, each, only, among their
own race. Hence, says Ribot, "their distinguishing characteristics have
remained the same for centuries." So, certain breeds of sheep, as the
Spanish INIerinos, certain breeds of cattle, as the Dcvons, like certain
breeds of horses, are strongly characterized by their hereditary traits and
tendencies.
V. Peculiar Organic Structure.
No loss remarkable is the tendency, sometimes seen, to inherit abnor-
mal organic structure. A peculiar structure of the ear, nervous system
and vocal organs, gave to the fariiily of Sebastian Bach, that power which
in eight generations produced no less than twenty-nine eminent singers.
Fecundity, length of life, abnormal peculiarities of members of the body,
day-blmdness, total blindness, peculiar forms of infirmity, and of disease,
are well known to be hereditary in some human families. According to
Finlcy Dun a tendency to consumption anddysentery in cattle is indicated
by certain well marked signs ; the most obvious of which, he says, are a
thin and long carcass, narrow loins and chest, flat ribs, a hollow appear-
ance at the flanks, extreme thinness and fineness of the neck and withers,
hollo wness behind the ears, fullness under the jaws and a small, narrow
muzzle. All these are indications of defective nutrition, and will apply
generally, not only to cattle, but to other animals ; and defective nutri-
tion is the parent of disease.
VI. Heredity of Disease.
Of 1000 cases of insanity noted in France, 530 were hereditary. In
the family of Le C'ompt, thirty-seven children and grand-children became
blind like himself, and in this case the blindness, for three successive
generations, occurred at about the age of seventeen or eighteen years.
Blindness is well known to be hereditary in horses. Spavins, curbs,
ring-bones, strains of the back tendons, swelling of the legs and grease,
roaring, thick wind, chronic cough, partial as well as total blind
ncss, malignant and other tumors, epilepsy and various nei-^^ous affec
tions, are also distinctly hereditary in the horse, and often do not appear
until mature age. Hence, it is necessary to know that the stock you
breed from is not only sound, but that it came of sound ancestry ; for
disabilities may ^'<^ dormant for one, two or three generations, and then
appear.
188 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
The predisposition most to be guarded against in horses, is hereditary
disability in the bone, sinew, viscera, and especially in the sight. Defec-
tive sight leads to shying, fright and consequent un manageability, and is
therefore dangerous in the extreme,
VII. Atavism or Breeding Back.
In breeding, if an abnormal characteristic appears in any of the young,
and this is found to be valuable, it should be sedulously preserved and
fostered. What is called breeding back or throwing back, may occur after
the lapse of many years. The occasional appearance of horns in Galloway
cattle is a case in point. Mr. Darwin mentions the occurrence in two of a
litter of Essex pigs, of marks of a Berkshire cross, that had lain dormant
for twenty-eight years. The reproduction of a peculiarity of an ancestor,
near or remote, whether of form, color, mental trait or predisposition to
disease, is termed atavism. It is a valuable trait when good qualities are
thrown, and they are likely to be, if the good qualities are inherent. It
is to be guarded against, if the qualities transmitted are bad. Hence we
have laid it down as a rule : Breed to none but the best.
VIII. Variation and Development.
Variation is among the rarest of the occurrences that the breeder ever
encounters. It is in fact not susceptible of proof that distinct and well-
marked variation of a race is possible. Its occurrence is probably due to
the throwing l)ack to some long dormant quality of a remote ancestor.
Wild animals do not change ; among them one is like the others. If
transported, they may be dwarfed in size, and acquire a more abundant cov-
ering of hair, while their stomachs and other organs may become modi-
fied to suit the changed conditions in a rigorous climate, or, with warmth
and abundant food they may be increased in size and general develop-
ment. But this is not what we understand by variation, which is not
some sudden change in the species. Variation is rather the departure of
the individual from the well-known traits of his species or family, and is due,
as already stated, to avatism or breeding back to some ancient ancestor, and
to some remote cross or mingling of blood. Species may acquire certain
traits by development, but the process is gradual, and when once attained
the traits may be perpetuated. This development is most gradual in
horses, somewhat quicker in cattle, yet faster in sheep, and still more so in
swine. Horses breed but once a year, mature the most slowly of all farm
animals, and rarely produce more than one young at a birth. Cattle
mature faster, breed younger and frequently produce twins. Sheep ma-
ture still faster, and often produce two or more at a birth, while swine
mature rapidly, breed young, and produce many at a birth.
THE BREEDING AND REARING OF COLTS.
I8D
IX. Transmission of Qualities.
In breeding, there are two points to be taken into consideration, in
relation to the transmission of the qualities of the sire and dam. As a
rule the sire of pure blood, coupled with a "cold-blooded" mare, by
which we mean a mare of mixed blood, will get a foal more strongly
resembling himself than the mare. Some sires have this power of im-
pressing their characteristics upon the progeny in a remarkable degree.
A fact that is still more striking is that some females have the faculty of
bringing young remarkably like the sire. This is a species of atavism.
If a mare possesses this peculiarity, she is invaluable, and if of pure
blood should never be served by any but the best sires. If of cold blood
then she should be served by a sire of like peculiarity as to the transmis-
sion of blood, and possessing the qualities which are wanted in the foal.
Again, the oftencr a female is served by the same sire, the stronger will
be the likeness of the i)rogeny to the sire, as a rule ; and the oftcner the
sire is changed, the greater will be the danger of variation in the progeny.
Hence, the absolute importance of breeding in such manner that the blood
sought will l)e more and more impressed with the characteristics required ;
and, hence, again, the imperative necessity that the first time a female,
especially one of pure lineage, is allowed to breed, it be not only to
an animal of known purity of blood, l)ut to one bred in the same line,
that is, having the same qualities as herself; for, not only is the dam
impressed with the blood of every sire with which she has had contact,
but the first impress is stronger than any succeeding one. It is not nec-
essary here to go into a demonstration of these facts. They are so well
established that they may be taken for granted.
X. The Impress of Color and Form.
Breeding to color is also an important point to l)e considered. Never
use a parti-colored stallion, but always use one of self-color. Ba3^s and
chestnuts with darker manes and tails are the best colors, as a rule. These
colors may be broken with white at the fetlocks, and by a star in the
forehead; but too much white should l)e avoided, while "calico mark-
ings" are the least desirable of all. Certain breeds have characteristic
colors, as the gray in the Percheron, bays and browns in the Clydesdales,
and black in the English carthorse. Adhere to definite colors, whatever
they may be ; if others incline to crop out, especially marked ones, be
sure they arc due to atavism, from some near or remote cross.
With regard to form, the rule more generally acknowledged to be cor-
rect, and the one borne out by many facts, is, that the sire impresses
outward form and color to a great degree, and the mare the inner and
physical form to a corresponding degree. If the sire be of the purest
190 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOGJK DOCTOR.
lineage, his impress, all through, will be the stronger, and if the mare be
the purest, her characteristics will predominate. In breeding up to a
higher standard, be sure, therefore, that the sire is of the purest and the
most strongly marked characteristics, as to impress of lilood.
XI. Relation of Size in Sire and Dam.
In the production of full-formed, vigorous and symmetrical animals, it
it is desired to increase the size, the mare should be relatively larger than
the horse. But if the size is correct, according to the breed, select sire
and dam of relative size ; that is, select a sire proportionately larger than
the dam, according to the breed. In Devon and Hereford cattle, for
example, the cows are smaller than the bulls, wherein they contrast with
the Short-Horns, where the relative size between male and female cor-
responds more nearly with the relative size of horse and mare. Above
all, never make the mistake of attempting to breed-up the size by using
overgrown males. Such an experiment nuist alwaj'S end in disaster, as
many farmers have found by breeding small mares, Avhicii they happen
to have, to some coarse, large-boned horse, with the idea of getting large,
able-bodied colts. At the time when overgrown horses were fashionable
in England, for coach and carriage teams, the farmers of Yorkshire
attempted to breed such animals from overgrown stallions on small mares.
The result was a dismal failure. The converse of this has been seen in
this country, in breeding pony Morgans upon much of the farm stock
with a view of getting fine horses. The outcome was stock too
small for labor, and not good enough for anything like road horses.
The results of this mistake may yet be seen in some jDarts of the country,
in undersized animals.
XII. Breed Only From Pure Sires.
In-and-in breeding, as already stated, as the breeding together of ani-
mals closely related, as the progeny of one sire and dam or members of
the same distinct and closely related lineage. Cross breeding is the
union of two distinct sub-families of the same tribe. Hybrids are the
produce of two distinct tribes of a familj'^, as for instance in the
genus equus, of the mare and ass, or the mare and zebra, or of the
mare and quagga. Cross-bred animals are fertile ; hybrids are not.
Breeding in line is the union of animals closely enough related to pos-
sess similar characteristics. In this connection it will be sufficient to state
conclusions founded upon experience and facts. The data may be found
in the records of herd and stud books, and in works dealing in special-
ties relating to physiology, anatomy and breeding.
If it be desired to keep a stock absolutely pure, and to retain the well-
known characteristics of a breed in their best form, the proper plan is to
THE BREEDING AND REARING OF COLTS.
191
breed to line with individuals having the distinct points required. If the
object is to breed-up, to found a breed, or to refine certain points and
characteristics with a view to their perpetuation, it will be safe to
breed in-and-in, or closely, for three generations, and then take an out
A CHOICE ROADSTER AND MANY TIMES A CHAMPION.
Note the unusual length of body and rangy conformation. Note, also, the
unusual length from hip to hock and well muscled thighs and quarters indicating
speed qualities. Height, 15-3 hands; weight 1150 pounds.
Good roadsters stand from 15 to 16 hands high and weigh from 900 to 1150
pound.s. While 16 hands is the upper limit for this class, a 16-hand roadster is
not nearly so desirable as one that does not stand more than 15-3 hands high.
Some authorities go so far as to say that a 16-hand horse is not wanted; how-
ever, if the extra height is all that is against him, he usually finds a buyer with-
out great difficulty.
cross, or breed to line, as the case may be. For ordinary purposes,
where stamina, strength of constitution, and not exceptionally constant
characteristics are required, crossing is not objectionable, though violent
crosses, as heretofore stated, must not be allowed. Breed your females to
the best male vou can find, having due regard always to the i)oint that the
i92 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
female must not be bred to a male widely different from herself. Good
mares of the common mixed breed may l>e bred to staunch thorough-
breds to refine, and to give style, symmetry and speed to the foals ; to
Percherons, or Clydesdales, to increase the size and strength for draft ; to
the Cleveland Bay, to begot handsome, able horses for the farm and car-
riage, and to well-bred trotting stock to get good horses for the road, and
for all work.
An historic animal strikingly illustrating our meaning was the widely
celebrated horse Gold Dust, a horse of mixed blood, got by Vermont
Morgan, out of a dam nearly or quite thoroughbred, it will serve to
s^ "tw a result of cross breeding. The progeny partakes more of the
thorough than of the mixed blood. The famous Shales, a half-bred
horse foaled in England, early in the century, and noted during
his whole life as a most wonderful trotter, shows the result of a
thoroughbred sire, with a dam of mixed lineage. Here the pre-
ponderance is in favor of the thoroughbred sire. The noted Der-
vish shows an example of pure breeding, and probably of close, or
at least line, breeding. He was a little bay Arab, of great style
and fineness, remarkable for his darting, square trot ; that is, for throwing
out the fore-leg, and str.'''ghteniiig the knee before the foot touched the
ground.
Vlll. The Best are Ctieapest in the End.
The highly-bred trotters of to-day, those quite or nearly thorough-
bred, show the value of breeding ni line, that is, we repeat, the breeding
together of animals of close descent, or those having characteristics in
common. Many of our best thoroughbred racers show examples of in-
and-in breeding, and, as a rule, those bred in the same line of descent are
more uniform in their qualities, than those which have been produced by
the union of many sub-families of the same original blood. The objec-
tion to close in-and-in breeding is, that, if persisted in, it will ultimately
result in weakening the constitution, while at the same time it refines.
To establish a breed it must be closely followed, departing from the rule
only when undue delicacy of constitutional vigor is feared. In the wild
state, gregarious animals, such as horses and cattle, breed in-and-in for
two or three generations, or until the strongest males become enfeebled
with age, or are obliged to succumb to j^oungcr and more Aigorous ones ;
which is in accordance with the principle of the survival of the fittest,
and may be called a modification of in-and-in breeding alternated with
breeding to line. The same rule would be a sound one, if modified by
careful selection, in the artificial breeding of domestic animals, always
keeping in mind that in sheep, and especially in swine, the rule must not
be so closely followed. But in all this, remember constantly that tV'
THE BREBDIXa ANU REARINQ OF COUTS. 193
best are always cheapest in the end. It is true that the breeder's purse
must be considered ; but, be he rich or poor, it is always a money-losing
business to breed to an ill-formed male because he is cheap.
Xrv. Selection of StaUion and Mare;
The selection of the stallion, while it vnW depend primarily upon what
the colts are intended for, should always be for the good there is in him.
He should be of full medium-size lor the breed, and should possess the
(characteristics we have previously stated, in writing of breeds. He
eihould be masculine in every fiber, with the distinguishing beauty,
strength, fire and courage of the male. Never breed to a feminine-look-
mg male. The outcome will alwaj's be a failure.
Selection of the Mare. — The selection of the mare is no less important.
It is she tiiat is to nourish the foetus, and after birth give suck to the
young. The mare, whatever her size, should not be coarse at any point.
Her beauty needs to be feminine, just as that of the stallion must be
masculine. She should carry more muscle or flesh than the horse, be
more rounded in outline, but be finer in head, neck and limb, and thin-
ner in mane and tail than the stallion. Her strength should be that of
fleetness, her fire that of docile playfulness, and her courage that of am-
bition to perform. She should have a larger pelvis, relatively, than the
horse, and her barrel should be rather rounder and more roomy. Her
milking qualities should of course be good, for upon them depends, in a
great measure, the future usefulness of the colt.
XV. Service of the Stallion.
The mare may be served just as she is coming into heat, but bettei
Just after her greatest passion of heat has passed. The best time for
service is early in the morning. After being served let her remain quiet,
or, if she seem fretful, walk her slowly about, and, after fifteen minutes,
turn her into a pasture that she may amuse herself eating grass ; but not
in a pasture where there is other stock. A mare will usually receive the
horse on the eighth or ninth day after foaling, even though she exhibit
no particular sign of heat ; if not, she may come into heat when the coH
is about four weeks old.
Treatment after Service. — After being served, try her with the horse
on the ninth day ; if she refuse, try her again on the seventh day follow-
ing ; upon a second refusal, try her again on the fifth day after that ; if
she then refuse, she may be fairly conceded to be with foal. Above all
things, the mare should bo kept away from teasing horses ; from badly
castrated geldings ; from ridglings, or horses imperfectly gelded, and bear-
ing one testicle in the body ; from yearling colts, and from other mares in
heat. When once the time of heat is known, and service given, the
/194 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
mare should be returned to the horse as recommended, so that the time may
not run over when the mare should receive the horse. Forty-four weeks
being the usual time the mare goes with foal, if the service of the stal-
lion is delayed it will bring the birth of the next foal too late, perhaps, in
the next year ; and, possibly one year may have to be intermitted in breed
ing.
XVI. The Period of Gestation.
Gestation, the carrying of the young, continues, on an average, eleven
months or forty-four weeks. This period ma}^ however, according to
the observations of Mr. Youatt, be diminished by five Aveeks, or extended
by six weeks. Thus it will be seen that there is a variation of nearly
eleven weeks, or nearly three months. M. Fessier, a French observer,
counting 582 mares, finds the longest period 419 days, the shortest 287
days and the average 330 days. In an observation by M. Gayot on
twenty-five mares,the average was 343 days, the longest period 367 days and
the shortest period 324 days. Small marcs, as a rule, go a shorter time
than large ones, and a mare is apt to carry a horse colt longer than one
which is a female. The observations of M. Fessier may be taken aa
the most conclusive, since they were extended over a period of forty
years.
Treatment During Gestation. — The mare should not be worked imme-
diately after being served. Once quieted, it is proper that she have ordi-
nary work until within about three months of the time of foaling. After
this she may do light work, not fast work, with benefit to herself and the
foal. Care, however, must be taken that she do not slip or strain herself,
nor fall down
XVll. Treatment After Foaling;
After foaling, and until the colt is a month old, the mare should do no
work. In fact, no valuable mare should do any work, certainly not more
than enough for exercise, until the colt begins to eat grass and grain
freely. There are more colts dwarfed, and mares injured, by the dam
being worked hard while sucklingthe colt, than at any other time, and by
all other means Avhatever. She is then weak, liable to become overheated,
and any disability experienced by the mare will surely be participated in
by the foal
XV 111. How to Know if a Mare is in Foal.
As already stated, if the mare refuse the horse upon the third trial, on
the twenty-first day after service, she may be considered to be with
foal. Between these trials, however, if the mare be not gravid, or in
foal, the lips of the vagina will be moist, bright, and of a fresh florid
THE BREEDING AND REARING OF COLTS. 195
appearance, and with a fresh drop of fluid at the lower part, which bein<r
touched will incline to extend. If she be gravid, the surface of the vagina
will be dry and of a dirty brown or rusty color, while the drop that
before was clear fluid, will be dark and brown. After the third month,
the belly will begiu to swell, and at the end of the fifth or sixth month the
movements of the foetus may be seen by watching ; or by standing the
mare at rest and pressing up sharply in the flank, with the thumb and
fore-finger closed, the foetus may be distincly f elt by the rebound.
XlX. How to Know the Foaling Time.
From one to Jthree months before the time of foaling, the udder begins
to fiH and swell, more or less, and this will continue increasino-. Durinf»
the three weeks immediately preceding the time of foaling, a f uiTOw-like
appearance is seen, reaching from the haunch to the tail on each side of
the spinal extension, as though the pelvis was separating its parts. This
will be more and more apparent as the time approaches. The udder will
fill, and two days, generally, though sometimes only one, before foaling,
a gummy subst^.nceAvill exude from, and stand at the end of, each teat.
XX. The Pealing StaU.
WTiatever the place provided for foaling, it should be so tight that the
mare cannot get her limbs through the interstices. It should be warm
and well-littered T\ath short, fine straw, and the mare should be left
entirely to herself, except in those rare cases when she may need mechan-
ical assistance in foaling. This, however, should not be resorted to unless
the size of the foetus requires it, or a false presentation is made.
XXI. Abortion, or Slinking the Poal.
From the time when gestation has proceeded three months, and up to
the fifth month, there may be danger of abortion. To prevent this, the
mare should not be exposed to foul smells, nor to the sight of blood or
dying animals, nor should she be allowed to be frightened. She should
have better feeding, and less work, since from this time on her system
will be called on to nourish the fast-growing foetus. There are many
causes of abortion. Among the most prolific are, allowing her to see
food given others, that she does not get herself, and which she likes ;
sudden fright , sympathy with the distress of other animals ; and above
all, the germs arising in a stable in which there has been an abortion.
The prevention is to avoid all these things, and to allow the animal
plenty of fresh air. If an animal once aborts, unless it is brought on by
strain or acute disease, or if once the tendency is established, it is some-
what difficult to overcome the predisposition, which generally arises at
about a concm-rent period of gestation. Hence, great pains should be
taken to prevent any liability to this disaster.
196
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
XXII. How to Raise a Colt.
The colt should bo allowed to run with the dam until it is about six
months old. The mare should have plenty of grass, and such other food
as may be necessary to keep up her condition. If, at weaning time, the
Mare do not dry off kindly, the milk should be drawn by hand, often enough
to prevent inflammation ; keeping her on dry food will assist in the pro-
cess of drying, especially if she be put to steady but light work. At all
events she should have j^lenty of walking exercise daily. The colt should
be handled and fondled from the time it is a week old, if strong, and a
light halter should be put on, to lead it by. Thus it early becomes ac-
customed to the master, and if kindly treated will soon come to seek the
fondling hand. As soon as it will eat, say at three months old, it should
be accustomed to a little crushed oats daily, and the mess may be in-
creased from time to time, until it gets a full ration, at six months old.
POITOU-ASS.
Many persons suppose that a colt needs no water. Nothing could be
further from the truth. After it is a week old, the colt should be offered
water once a day, at noon, and as it increases in age, oftener. When ready
to wean, it will already have been accustomed to lead by the halter. Tie
it securely where it may not hurt itself, preferably in sight of the mare ;
feed ^'t generously, give it plenty of water, and allow it to run at play
every day.
THE BREEDIXr, AND REARING OF COLTS.
197
198 CYCLOrEDIA OF LIVE STOCK
VXD COMPLETE STOCK
CHAPTER X.
ASSES AND MULES.
\. THE MULE AND HINNY DEFINED. II. THE ASS. III. ANTIQUITY OP THE MULE.
IV. BREEDING-JACKS. V. LONGEVITY OF THE MULE. VI. THE VALUE OF
MULES FOR LABOR. VII. MULES ARE NOT VICIOUS. VIII. THE BREEDING OP
MULES.
I. The Mule and Hinny Defined.
The word mule signifies a hybrid, that is, the offspring of animals
belonging to the same genus, and fertile one with the other, but of dif"
ferent species. Mules or hybrids are usually infertile, one with another,
and are always incapable of propagating the species indefinitely. As now
generally accepted, the word mule is used to designate the offspring of
the male ass with the mare. They have been known and bred since the
time of ^'emotest history, having always been prized for their longevity,
sure-footedness, and ability to labor in extreme heat.
The Hinny. — The hinny is the produce of a she-ass, bred to a horse.
They were called hinnus by the Romans ; — hence, our name, hinny.
They resemble the horse more than the ass, just as the mule, sprung
from the mare and ass, resembles the male parent most. Hinnics are
handsome, round-bodied like the horse, but exceedingly small, and are
also said to be slow and more difficult to manage than the mule proper.
They have, therefore, seldom been bred, and when so, soon passed into
disuse.
II. The Ass.
The wild ass is said to have been indigenous to Arabia Deserta, and the
countries which formed the Babylonian Empire. Those now found in the
northern region of India are said to be so fleet, in the hill country, that
no horse can overtake them. Four different races seem to be indicated
in the Hebrew Scriptures, where they are named Para^ CJiamor, Aton
and Orud. Of the wild ass Para, Scott's version of the description by
Job is as follows :
"Wild tenant of the Avaste, I sent hun there
Among the shrubs, to breath in Freedom's air.
Swift as an arrow in his speed he flies ;
Sees from afar the smoky city rise ;
Scorns the throng'd street, where slavery drags her load.
The loud-voiced driver and his urging goad :
WTiere e'er the mountain waves its lofty wood,
A boundless range, he seeks his verdant food."
190
200 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
m. Antiqaltyof the Hnle.
Mules were used and much prized from a remote antiquity, and are
mentioned both in sacred and profane history. They were introduced
into the chariot races in the 70th Olympiad, or about 500 years before the
Christan era ; and in the time of the Romans, Q. Axius, a Roman Sena-
tor, paid, according to Pliny, 400,000 sesterces, or more than $13,000,
for a male ass, for the stud ; and he also states that the best female asses
were worth a like sum to breed sires, \7hen we compute the difference
in value between money then and now, the price was greater than that
now paid for the most celebrated racing and trotting horses.
IV. Breeding-Jacks.
The best jacks now are those of Spanish origin. They are large,
strong-boned, long-bodied, and, of course, long-eared. The cut will give
a good representation of the Poitou ass, an animal similar to the Spanish
jack. The jack, whatever the breed, is sensitive to cold, and to the influ-
ence of storms, and, if not warmly housed in winter, soon becomes useless
and disabled, from rheumatic and other affections. Of the jacks imported
at an early day into America, as a present to General Washington, Mr.
Custis has written as follows :
*'The Boyal Gift and Knight of Malta, were sent to General Wash-
ington about the year 1787 — the Gift with a jennet, a present from the
King of Spain ; and said to have been selected from the ro^^al stud. The
Knight^ I believe, was from the Marquis de Lafayette, and shipped from
Marseilles. The Gift was a huge and ill shapen jack, near sixteen hands
high, very large head, clumsy limbs and to all appearance little calcula-
ted for active servnce ; he was of a gray color, probably not young when
imported, and died at Mount Yernon but little valued for his mules,
which were unwieldy and dull. The Kniglit was of a moderate size,
clean limbed, great acti\'ity, the fire and ferocity of a tiger, a dark brown,
nearly black colour, white belly and muzzle ; could only be managed by one
groom, and that always at considerable personal risk. He lived to a great
age , and was so infirm towards the last as to require lifting. He died on my
estate in Kew Ken*-., in the state of Virginia, about 1802 or 1803. His
mules were all active, spirited, and ser\nceable ; and from stout mares
attained considerable size.
*' General Washington bred a favorite jack called Compound, from the
cross of Spanish and Maltese — the KnigJit upon the imported Spanish
Jennet. This jack was a very superior animal ; very long bodied, well
set, with all the qualities of the Kniglit and the weight of the Span-
ish. He was the sire of some of the finest mules at Mount Vernon, and
died from accident. The General bred mules from the best of his coacb
ASSES AND MULES,
201
mares, and found the value of the mule to bear a just proportion to the
value of the dam. Four mules sold, at the sale of his effects, for upwards
PERCHERON STALLION CASINO.
of $800 : and two more pairs at upwards of $400 each pair ; one pair ol
these mules were nearly sixteen hands high each.
"From these jacks a compound breed were produced, that, when bred
to larjre mares, were unexcelled for size and activity."
202 CYCLOPEDIA or LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
ASSES AND MULES. 203
The breeding of jacks and jennets, as the female of the ass is called,
is confined to but few hands. These breeding studs are mostly located in
Kentucky and Tennessee, though some are found in Ohio, Indiana, Illi-
nois and Missouri. Up to the time of the late war the breeding of this
stock was an important industry, the jacks produced being distributed
for service all over the Southern and Western States. Since the war,
with the breaking up of the great breeding studs, the industry has lan-
guished, owing to the decreased demand for mules. A new impetus,
piazio \\-i.\xiX(_; muf.e.
Specially piioiugraphud lor this wurk.
however, has given rise to the breeding of jacks again in considerable num-
bers in the South, and this branch of husbandry will undoubtedly again
assume more than its original importance; for the agricultural interests
of that section are steadily growing, and a constant improvement is noted
in the quality and numbers of the live stock.
204 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
V. Longevity of the Mule.
The longevity of the mule is proverbial. It was a commoii saying dur-
ing the civil war that "mules never died;" they might sometimes be
knocked over by a shot, but if one ever died a natural death the army
wags refused to credit or record the fact. Pliny gives an account of one,
taken from Grecian history, that was eighty j^ears old ; and though i)iist
labor, followed others, that were carrying materials to build the temple
of IMinerva at Athens, and seemed to wish to assist them ; which so
pleased the people, that they ordered he should have free egress to the
gi-ain market. Dr. Rees mentions two that were seventy years old in
England. Mr. P. S. Skinner says, "I saw myself, in the West Indies, a
mule perform his task in a cane mill, that his owner assured me was forty
years old ;" and adds, writing nearly twenty years ago,"Inow own a mare
mule twenty-five years old, that I have had in constant work twenty-one
years, and can discover no diminution of her 2:)owers ; she has within a
year past often taken upwards of a ton weight in a wagon to Boston, a
distance of more than five miles. A gentleman in my neighborhood has
owned a very large mule about fourteen years, that cannot be less than
twenty-eight years old. He informed me, a few day since, that he could
not perceive the least failure in him, and would not exchange him for any
farm horse in the country. And I am just informed, from a source enti-
tled to perfect confidence, that a highly respectable gentleman and eminent
agriculturist, near Centerville, on the eastern shore of Maryland, owns a
mule that is thirty-five years old, as capable of labor as at any form«!i
period."
VT. Value of Mules for Labor.
It is beyond dispute that mules will continue to labor for at least dou-
ble the period of the usefulness of the horse. They endure extreme)
heat better, but are pinched with cold. It is a mistake to suppose that
the mule will subsist on far less food than the horse. In proportion to
size, they require a])Out the same quantit}' ; but, weight for weight, they
will draw a heavier load ; and, for the reason, that they take little notice
of what is going on about them, do not fret and seldom scare. As pack-
animals, they are far superior to the horse ; while, in sure-f ootedness and
freedom from disease, no farm animal, except the goat, can compete with
them. The impression that mules can get along with little or no care- and
that they may be turned out in the winter to shift for themselves, has led
many people to be disappointed in their use. In summer, when a horse
would seek the shade, we luive seen mules lie prone in the sun and enjoy
the heat. For ordmary farm labor and all teaming purposes, nmles
become more and more valuable as we go south of 40 degrees. As we
ASSES AND MULES.
205
proceed north they become less and less serviceable, and few are found in
use north of 45 degrees.
VII. Mules are not Vicious.
It is generalhr supposed that the mule is naturally vicious. This is a
mistake. He is resentful and never forgets an injury ; and if subjected
to a long course of ill usage he at length becomes vicious. On the other
hand, no animal is more susceptil)lcto kindness, or will exert himself more
strenuously for a kind master. Nevertheless, the mule must have a mas-
ter, one firm and 3'ct kind. The mule, as some of our readers probably
know, has a most perfect means of offense and defense, namely, his heels.
A CHOICE MULE AND TYrH'AT, CLASS.
The market requirements of mules are approximatei\' the same as those of
the horse. They must be sound, of a marketable age, be in good flesh, have a
sleek coat of hair, possess quality and conformation indicative of strength and
endurance and be of desirable color. They should also have straight line action
and be of a class for which there is an active demand. Serviceably sound is
practically all that is looked for, but any unsightly blemish is objectionable,
though not in the same degree as with the horse. Mules are rarely used for
pleasure purposes, but almost entirely as beasts of burden. Because of this
fact slight blemishes that do not interfere with their usefulness receive less
consideration than in the horse.
VIII. Tbe Breeding of Mules.
In the lireeding of mules, as of all other animal.'^, attention must be
paid to the use for which they are intended. If for packing in the moun-
tains, small, compact mules, such as are bred from small, fine Spanish
206 CYCLOPEDIA OF I,I\
r
K \\T) fH)MPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
THE ZEBRULAS AS EXHIBITED AT THE ST. LOUIS WORLD'S YMU.
The stocky, docile, striped Zebrula is the latest product in the evolution of the horse.
Zebrulas are' the progeny of the Indian pony stallion and the female zebra. They inherit
the endurance of both sire and dam. For them is claimed the capacity to render more ser-
vice than the mule and that with less food and drink. The Hagenbecks, the great ani-
mal showmen, in their experiments at cross-breeding, originated this animal. Whether
the Zebrulas can reproduce is yet to be determined. To the thousands of horsemen assem-
bled, the Zebrulas were more than curiosities. They suggested the possible successor of
the mule. It was only a suggestion. Beside the Missouri mule, Zebrulas were dwarfs.
It seems particularly adapted to Africa where an especial interest is being taken
in the rearing of this animal. It looks as if they will be for that country what the
mule is for America. It is also being bred in western United States.
ASSES AND MULES.
207
jacks, are required. These are at once agile and sure-footed. For work
on Southern planttitions medium-sized mules are most sought. These are
bred from mares of ordinary size, by good-sized jacks. In breeding
mules for the road and for heavy teaming, large, roomy mares are used.
These are served with the largest jacks, and at three years old command,
when well matched, from $300 to $600 a span. The treatment of the
mares and of the mule colts should be precisely like that described in the
preceding chapter. The colts should be handled young, gently treated and
made completely subordinate to the will of the master. At two years old
ZEBRULA MARES.
they may be broken. They should be carefully harnessed, without fright-
ening them, and hitched to a strong wagon, when they will generally
move off without much difficulty. Thereafter they may do light work
until they are four years old, when they may be put to full labor. Then-
dentition is similar to that of the horsee, and the rule for telling their
ages is identical with the advice for that animal.
CHAPTER XI.
HOW TO TRAIN A HORSE.
1. THE OLD SYSTEM AND THE NEW. -II. THE AMERICAN WAY BETTER THAN THE EN-
GLISH. III. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BREAKINa AND TRAINING. IV. FIRST LES-
SONS. V. LEARNING TO LEAD. VI. TO MAKE A COLT COME TO YOU. VII. LES-
SONS IN SOUND SIGNALS. VIII. FLEXIONS. IX. THE PROPER AGE FOR WORK.
X. HARNESSING AND DRIVING. XI. THE A(!E FOR REAL WORK. XII. HOW
TO SUBDUE A WILD COLT. XIII. HANDLIN(; A VICIOUS COLT. XIV. SUBDUING A
VICIOUS OR TRICKY HORSE. XV. TRAINING A STALLION FOR SERVICE. XVI.
TRAINING FOR DRAFT. XVII. HOW TO HAVE A (iOOD PLOW TEAM. XVIII. FORM-
ING A GOOD SADDLE HORSE. XIX. THE DIFFERENT GAITS. XX. TRAINING TO
TROT IN HARNESS. XXI. FORMING A TROTTER. XXII. TO TRAIN A RACER.
XXIII. SADDLING. XXIV. HARNESSING.
I. The Old System and the New.
L idcr the old system of training, an animal was subdued by main force.
What lie learned was acquired under the impulse of fear. Under the
new system, an animal is taught to depend upon and trust his master, by
convincing him that he will not be injured. Under the old system, ths
whip and spur, and "terrible voice," were the means used to drive and
force him up to, and beyond, an object that might be terrifying to a young
and inexperienced horse, however harmless in itself. Under the new sys-
tem, the young horse is allowed to see for himself that steam, harsh
noises, great crowds, locomotives, the beating of drums, the thunder of
cannon, and the various sights and sounds that, even to the savage and bar-
barian, would be terrible, are quite innocent, when the master's hand di-
rects. Hence, the horse, trained to obedience and made familiar with
the various sights he is to encounter, fears them as little, and is as eager
to witness them, as a child. The habit of entire dependence upon the mas-
ter prompts him to go forward, even into the most imminent danger, with-
out other sign than that of eager curiosity or of obedience to the will of
the rider or driver.
It is true that all this may be accomplishea i>v the whip and spur,
vvhich are, even now, freely and needlessly used by some brutal teamsters,
as well as by many really liumane persons, who have never sought to un-
derstand the intelligence of the hor.se, .ind far less that of the other do-
mestic animals under their care. Hence, to persons of this latter class,
the horse is a slave, whereas, to the intelligent master, he is a servant anx-
ious and eager to do his will. The clement of fear cannot, of course, be
entirely dispensed with in training. A wilful animal must be subdued at
any cost of punishment , but this punishment should be as intelligently
and humanely administered as in the case of a child. Those who train
animals should first, themselves, lear-n to know what the animal means
208
3
I ^
P o
o
HOW TO TRAIN A HORSE. 209
by his mute language ; in the case of the horse, for instance, they should
know at a glance what is meant by the play of the ears, the arch of the
neck, the expression of the eyes, and the attitude generally. These
things once understood, more than half the difficulty of training is over-
come.
II. The American Way Better than the English.
It has often been remarked that English horses are wilder, more dan*
gerous and difficult to subdue, have stronger resisting powers, and are
more liable at any time to exhibit freaks of temper, than American-bred
horses. This is quite true, and for the reason that, in England, the old
system of horse-breaking is more in vogue than in this country. In
England, colts are not raised on every farm, as in the United States and
Canada, to be the friends and the pets of the children. Their keepers are
generally ignorant servants, who seem to think that horses have but two
impulses — to eat and to iiijure. In America, colts are the pets of the
boys of the family, and, while running with the mare, they become
habituated to all the sights and noises of the farm. They never come to
know their real strength as a resisting power against man ; that power
lies dormant, because on the farm, as a rule, they have no occasion to
exercise it We have accordingly insisted, as the result of experience,
that the education of animals should begin at a very early age, when the
power of resistance is small. For, if once an animal finds that the supe-
rior intelligence of the master is more than a match for brute force, kind-
ness and careful lessons will thenceforth easily complete the education of
all farm animals, and especially that of the young horse.
III, Difference Between Breaking and Training.
The difference between "breaking" and training must already be appar.
ent to the reader. The aim of the first is to subdue, and force is
promptly resorted to as the ■eadiest means to this end. The compara-
tively-weak but intelligently directed brute-force of the master will, of
course, generally v/in, and the animal, broken in spirit, becomes an autom-
aton, performing through fear what he cannot avoid by resistance. In
those cases where the superior force of the animal wins, he is thencefor-
ward vicious and tricky, and passes from one master to another, until,
worn out in the struggle, he either ruins himself or becomes the drudge
of some reckless and brutal teamster.
Training, on the other hand, consists in teaching the young animal to
know that, while the master must be obeyed promptly and implicitly, he
is truly an indulgent master, requiring nothing but what is necessary to
be done, and, once the task is performed, that the rewards of care and
rest will follow.
210 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
No horse l)roken by inaiii-strength and brute-force is quite safe for a
woman to ride or drive, unless she be a complete horsewoman. The
more wilful of them are never safe for any woman to drive. A horse
carefully trained, however, is always safe for a woman to drive, if she be
not especially nervous, and has accustomed herself to the guidance of
horses ; the only exceptions being such animals as by defective organiza-
tions are naturally vicious, cowardly, timid from imperfect sight, or
tainted with insanity. These defects have already been mentioned in
the chapter on breeding, under the head of heredity.
rv. First Lessons.
As before stated, the first lesson to be imparted is that of reliance on
the will of the master. This lesson in obedience should be given at
weaning time, or when the colt is first haltered to be stabled. If it has
been haltered, as recommended, when quite young, there will be no resist-
ance. If this has not been done, tiie colt must be driven into a confined
space where it cannot escape. Take the halter in both hands, and keep
liolding it to the colt until it will touch it with the nose. Do not hurry.
The important thing here is to show the animal that there is nothing dan-
gerous about a halter. When the colt ceases to fear, place the halter on
the head quickly, and fasten it. If it show no serious fear, tie it up at
once. If it seems frightened, allow it to wear the halter a little time
before tying up. When you fasten it, do so securely, for at some time
or other it will try to break away. When this occurs, halter and strap
should be strong enough to resist every effort. When it ceases to pull,
it is thoroughly halter-wise, so far as standing quietly is concerned. It
will have ceased forever to pull at the halter simply to free itself.
V. Learning To Lead.
The next lesson before the colt is learning to lead. You should have a
small yard, into which you can take the colt. Provide yourself with a
light switch, and also with a line about ten feet long, to be tied to the end
of the halter. Let the colt play around in a circle, if it chooses, for a
time. Approach him gently, take the halter by the nose-band with the
left hand, while holding the switch in the right hand. If the colt rear,
support yourself with the right hand, by grasping the top of the neck to
keep the colt down. Use no undue violence. Do not strike it. When
it gets through floundering, it will thereafter be quiet. Next take the
halter in the right hand, and bid the colt go on. If it refuse, tap it
uncler the belly wnth the switch, until it moves. If it rears again, again
subdue it. So continue until it moves forward. Then talk to it, and
pet it, and it will soon lead kindly, turning to the right or left at will
HOW TO TRAIN A HORSE.
211
VI. To Make a Colt Come to You.
Have a lone flexible whip. Place yourself just so far ahead of the colt
that you can easily touch him in the flank, and then bid him "come here,"
at the same time pulling on the halter. If he will not come, tap him m
the flank, or on the fore legs, and so continue until he obeys. If he pulls
back, checkhim, and continue touching him until he comes up. Then pet
him and give him a small taste of sugar, or something he likes. Continue
in this way until he comes readily at the word. The colt will not always
become perfect under the first or second lesson. Perseverance wnll accom-
plish each and every other lesson more easily than if violence were used.
VII. Lessons in Sound Signals.
We have shown that the first lessons are to accustom' the colt to
prompt obedience to the will of the trainer, as expressed by the voice or
signals. The voice, however, must be the chief reliance. The signal by
sound, should precede the signal by sign, or the check by the strap or rein :
and should always precede the tap of the whip, when the whip is necessary.
A child is taught to speak through its po^Ner of imitation. If it
never heard spoken language, it would never learn to articulate
speech. So, the same word should always be used, to induce the perform-
ance by the colt of a certain act, as : Whoa ! Back ! Go on ! Come here !
When this has been accomplished, and the colt has been taught to stand
at rest, to lead quietly or to circle about the tutor, at the end of the
rein, he should next be taught to follow the master about the yard -with-
out leading, first with the halter strap in the hand, the tutor backing as
the colt follows, and afterwards with the strap over the neck of the colt.
The preliminary lesson in backing may be taught, l)y taking the colt
by the head, standing in front of him, and using the word "back," at
the same time, pressing in the proper direction, and tapping it on the
breast, if necessary. After a time the animal
will back promptly and continuously at the
word. This lesson, and all others of flexions,
must be taught with the bridle and bit, since to
back easily and properly, the head must be
raised.
In all first lessons the form of the halter
is important. AVe give that of a good one,
which will not hurt the colt unless he pulls
strongly on it. Upon ceasing, the halter will
let up of itself. When once the animal is taught
to stand quietly, an ordinary halter may be
,^g(J^ A GOOD FOBM FOR A HALTliB,
212 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Vm. Flexions.
That tlie colt may be able promptly to turn in any direction, what
are called flexions should be practiced. The more simple of these are,
raising the head high, putting it down close to the ground and then rais-
ing it, turnnig the head to the right or the left side, with the nose close
to the bod}^ but obliquely to it, etc. Full instruction in these flexions
need not be perfected until the animal is two or three years old ; and, in
fact, but little of this exercise is actually necessary, except with the-sad-
dle horse. For saddle horses, flexions are especially important, since the
object of them is to render the head, neck, body and li'Jibs supple and capa-
ble of varied action. A curb-bit is necessary to their proper performance,
and hence only preliminary and simple lessons should be given the colt,
for the curb should not be used until the animal is nearly ready for work.
At the proper age, put on a bridle with a curb-bit, taking care that it
fits properly in every part. Between the chain and jaw, the finger should
sRp easily, and the bit should just touch the upper part of the lips, and
that only in the slightest manner. Stand in front of the horse, take the
off or riiiht rein with the right hand about six inches from the branch of
the bit, and the near or left rein with the left hand, at about half the dis-
tance from the branch. Draw the right hand to the body, and press with
the left, so as to turn the bit in the mouth. If the horse backs, follow
hmi up, pressing steadily until he lowers his head, and flexes his jaw.
Then slip the left hand along the rein until it is ojiposite the right hand
and press the head to the breast, holding it curbed perpendicularly but
obliquely to the right, until the horse A\ill maintain the position himself.
Then flex the jaw to the left by a reverse action to that above given.
Teach the horse to raise his head high and perpendicularly, hy taking
each rein, six inches from the branch, and raising, and pressing slightly
back. Teach him to lower the head by a contrary action. Next teach
him to sway the head to the right and to the left, to raise and lower
the head alternatel3s by means that will readily suggest themselves. It
will surprise you to find how soon the average horse will understand.
In all this, use no undue violence, and above all bear in mind that a
curb-l)it is a powerful lever, and must be carefully handled. When the
animal is perfect in these flexions, take the reins :n the left hand, near
the branches of the bit ; and standing close by and facing the shoulder,
holding the head fairly up, and to you, induce the animal to move his
hind feet, in a circle from you, the fore feet remaining stationar}^ as a
pivot. This lesson perfect, make him stand firm behind, and move his
fore parts from you in a circle. There are many other flexions taught
in t.he menage ; but the foregoing are suflScient for a saddle horse or light
HOW TO TRAIN A HORSE. 213
driving horse , and these are not necessary unless the animal be intended
tor this kind of work, or for racing or trotting. Remember one thing,
teach only one lesson at a time.
Again, let us repeat the caution, never to use undue violence, and
never lose your temper, never speak loud, or jerk the reins, or act upon
;5udden impulse. Keep cool. Your object is to train, not break the
will. When the animal understands the wish, and performs it, reward it
with something it likes, and let it rest; a bit of carrot, or sugar for
instance, goes a great way with a young horse.
IX. The Proper Age for "Work.
The preliminary training may go forward from the time the colt is six
months old, until the age of two years is reached. It will by this time
be quite submissive to the will of the tramer, and without fear. A pad,
with light stirrup-leathers attached, may be put on, and the colt be
allowed to play about the yard with it, at the end of the rein. A well-
fitting bridle may be put on, with keys attached to the center of the
bit, w ith which the colt may amuse itself. When the colt is one year
old and over, the crupper-strap may be put on, and the little animal may
be reined loosely to the top of the pad. Later, the side reins maybe
put on, and the head gradually Orought into position.
The colt, if stabled, should be regularly cleaned. His feet should be
raised, and the hoofs lightly tapped with a hammer. He should be
taughtto lead, walk and trot, beside the trainer. Thus at the age of two
years, if well-grown, he will be ready to be trained to light work, or, as it
used to be put, "broken to harness,"
Under the course of treatment w'e have laid down, he will have learned
the use of the reins, — to go back, or forward, and to turn to the right or
left at the word ; and above all, he will have confidence in himself, and
no fear of his master. In nine cases out of ten, if the colt has been
taught to lead beside a well trained team, and used to the rattling of xhe
wagon, he will go off pretty much like an old horse, except for his super-
abundant life, the first time he is harnessed.
X. Harnessing and Driving.
Two years is the best age for putting the colt to light work. He has
better teeth then than at three years old, and has arrived at the. period
when careful driving will assist to spread and develop the frame.
The colt will, of course, first have been taught to allow himself to be
harnessed and unharnessed kindly. Put the harness on carefully and
hitch him up beside a well-trained horse, usually on the off side, and
start the team ; then, if he plunge, he can do no m.ijchief. Tie the dou-
ble-tree of the old horse, so that he can pull all the load if necessary
214 CYCLOPEDIA or LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
and bid them go. If the colt plunge and rear, keep the steady horse in
motion, and talk to the colt. If he show too much temper, a few sharp
cuts of the whip will bring him to terms, but in punishing him strike but
once, and repeat if necessary. This discipline, administered with caie,
and driving to make them way-wise, is all the difficulty one need ever
nave with colts.
XI. The Age for Real Work.
Having performed light work, when from two to three years of age,
let the colts have rest during the twelvemonth from three to four years of
age. They are then shedding their principal teeth, and should be allowed
to grow. At five 3'ears they may be put to real work, and they will then
go on getting better and wiser, until they are eight years old, at which
age a horse should be kind and without fear under any circumstances, and
fit for any one to drive, who can hold the reins, aiid has judgment enough
to keep from running against obstacles.
This may seem like a long course of training, and one accompanied b^
much trouble. It all, however, comes in the regular routine of farm
life, and must be midertaken in one way or another, unless the animal
be intended for mere drudgery.
XII. How to Subdue a Wild Colt.
The narrative of how the writer once subdued, and rendered perfectly
amenable to the will, a pair of wild, high-bred four-year-old colts, that
had never even been haltered, may prove interesting. The colts had been
purchased from a person who was a capital and humane horseman, but
believed in never handling a colt until four years old — and this is cer-
tainly better than imperfect handling. The two were driven together,
into a close stall. From the outside of the stall, after many trials, in
which no violence was used, but, on the contrary, soothing words, strong
cavesson halters, such as are shown in the illustration, were put on the ani-
mals and buckled. A rope twenty-four feet long, and with a powerful
snap hook in the middle, was attached to the ring of the halter, leaving
the ends twelve feet. Two men were placed at each end of the rope,
whose only duty was to keep it spread, and, so accommodate themselves
to the movement of the colt, as to keep it as nearly within bounds as
possible. Our horseman friend superintended one colt, myself the other.
The colts were allowed to find their way each into separate yards. The
men picked up the ends of the rope, and the struggle began.
The masters' part was simply to direct the movements of the men,
and talk, each to his own colt. In ten minutes the rearing and plunging of
one colt was over, and in less than fifteen minutes the struggles of the
HOW TO TRAIN A HORSE.
215'
other had ceased ; in less than twenty minutes each of the colts, ex-
hausted, allowed the hand of the master to be placed on the nose, and
himself to be gently fondled.
Standing a short distance before the colt, with a flexible whip in hand
and a cord attached to the ring of the halter, the men still holding the
ends of the rope, but slack, I bade the colt come forward, tapping it on
the knee after every word, with the end of the whip. The colt did not
fear the master, only the assistants, and soon first one, and then the
other, came foirward promptly, and within an hour would follow like a
dog.
They were led home and put in the stable. The next day they were
bitted, and their training proceeded steadily. Within a week each of them
was ridden, and in ten days they were harnessed together and driven.
They were broken, during the season, to light driving under sharp curb-
bits, accustomed to various odd sights, and having first been rendered
submissive to the voice and will of the master, never showed fear that
could not be quieted by a word.
Xni. Handling a Vicious Colt.
Some colts are naturally vicious. The head of such an animal is rep-
resented in one of the illustrations given with Chapter IV. If you un-
fortunately have one, get him into a close stall, fasten him securely in,
halter him and get him in the yard, using ropes to the halter-ring, not
less than twenty feet at each end. After he has struggled and exhausted
himself, proceed to make him lie down. This can be done in the follow-
ino- manner. Have ready a strong bridle with a snaffle-bit, and put it
on him ; also fasten around the refractory youngster a good ])added sur-
cingle, with a strap for the fore leg having a loop that will draw tight
around the fetlock. Raise the leg, l)uckle the end of the strap securely
around the arm^ and you have him so he cannot kick. Fasten a longer strap
with a similar loop, but no buckle, around the off fetlock ; pass the end
under the surcingle, taking the end in the right hand, while theleftgrasps
the bridle by both reins ; cast off the hampering ropes, and as the horse
rears to free himself, pull tight the strap that has been passed under the sur-
cino-le, and when he comes down it will be on the knees. As he strug-
gles, press his head from you, by pulling the off rein tight over his neck,
and he will fall over on the side. When he gives up entirely, and lies
still, the horse should be fondled, the straps taken off, and after a time,
ne should be allowed to rise. If not entirely subdued, the same thing
must be gone over again.
This is essentially Mr. Rarey's plan. It need never be resorted to ex-
cept under extraordinary circumstances, and the operator must have
216 CICLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
been accustomed to handling horses, and understand the movements nec-
essary in overcoming vicious and rearing animals.
Another plan is to hopple the horse and throw him down, but the one
we have described is the best and most successful. It should never be
attempted, however, except in a yard so thoroughly covered with some
soft material that the animal will not hurt itself in falling.
XTV. Subduing a Vicious or Tricky Horse.
No person who is not well assured of his own power, should have any-
thing to do with a vicious horse, especially if the animal be vicious from
some physical infirmity, such as partial insanity, wicked temper, etc. If
the horse has been made tricky l)y a previous timid owner, the case
is not so bad. Go into the stable where he is tied, and speak to him in a
firm voice. Put a strong snaffle bridle on him, take it by the bit, and
order him to back. If he do not obey, strike him sharply with the whip
on the fore limbs, holding him with the left hand, yourself partly facing to
the rear, but so you can see every motion of the eye and ear. If he kick,
cut him sharply ^ath the whip (a raAvhide is best) just above the hock,
over the fleshy part of the leg. If he rear, cut him over the fore legs
—never, however, giving more than one stroke at a time.
When he backs, take him into a small, close yard, and make him obey
you, coming forward, backing, or standing, as you order. If he again
show signs of temper, or unruliness, proceed to make him lie down, as
before directed. But a horse that has been in the habit of having his
own way with a previous master, is thereafter never safe for any one to
drive, except him who has become his conqueror.
In making a horse lie down, never use undue violence. Once the
straps are fastened, you have him completely in your power. Let him
struggle; it will do him good. You have simply to watch, keep him
from hurting you, and seize the proper moment for subduing him.
Once you have him down, and quiet, show him a buffalo robe, or any
other object he dislikes ; touch him with it, and let him touch it with his
nose. When he at length smells at it, let him satisfy himself that it will
not hurt him. At the first attempt at putting him down, if he get tne
advantage, let him rise and then try again. When, however, you have
him in your power and quiet, soothe him : pass your hand repeatedly
over his body ; breathe in his nostrils ; open his mouth ; gently stroke his
ears and nose, and let him taste of something he likes. Thus, by using
judgment, knowing your own power and ability to manage an animal, the
most vicious can be subdued to your will, if not to that of other drivers.
But, once you undertake to subdue a horse, do not leave him until he
gives up completely.
HOW TO TRAIN A HORSE. 217
XV. Training a Stallion for Service.
For the reason that a stallion is stronger, more courageous, higher in
nervous force, and more self-willed than the gelding, it is absolutely
necessary that his actual training begin from the time he is a year old. He
must be stabled, unless a pasture be provided where he may run every
day. The ordinary training to halter, and in the flexions, learning to go
forward, to back, to stand, to go kindly under the saddle and in harness,
may be proceeded with much as in the case of any other colt. In addi-
tion to these exercises, he should be taught to circle at the end of the
long bridle rein, to the right and to the left at the word of command, to
describe the figure eight, to kneel, to sit on his haunches, and to rear and
to come as suddenly down at the word of command. These lessons being
acquired, he should be exercised in them frequently, and be also taught
to come instantly to his master at the word, without bridle or halter-
rein.
It will take time, all this, but henceforth he will not be found drago-ina
his keeper about as though he were a toy attached to him." When the
actual season of service is at hand, it will save many an accident, when
in contact with unruly mares.
Sooner or later, there may come a time when the stallion will resist
authority, and then there must be no hesitation. The whip must then
be used sharply and strongly, to subdue him. If he comes at you with
mouth open, strike him suddenly a stinging blow across the nose. If he
rears, cut him across the fore legs. If he kick, strike across the hind
legs, just under the stifle. The whip should be strong, long, flexible, of
the best workmanship and loaded with lead at the handle. We have
known its use, in striking a frantic brute behind the ears, to bring him
down.
Remember what has been said about not striking more than once. Let
there be a distinct interval between each sharj) stroke, accompanied by as
distinct a word of command. There is really little danger, to the cool
horseman.
The horse and master should never lose temper at the same time. If
so, the strongest brute-force will certainly conquer. After a stallion is
once thoroughly trained, never trust him to any but a thoroughly compe-
tent groom, and one of calm courage. He is too valuable an animal to
be either abused or spoiled. And during the season of service, never allow
him to be ridden from one station to another. He should be led beside
another horse, even when taking his daily exercise. This exercise should
be thorough, out of the season of service, except for a period of rest of
a month's duration immediately after the season. During the season,
218 CYCLOrEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
the exercise must be sufficient to keep the muscular condition well up.
and the digestive organs in perfect order. Thus only can you expect to
have the most perfect colts as the produce of your sire.
XVI. Training for Draft.
A horse to be used safely for draft, requires less training than any
other. He has but one thing to learn ; viz : to exert his strength to the
best advantage when occasion requires. To accomplish this, he should
be daily exercised at a dead pull, being careful always not to overload,
until he has acquired his maximum strength, which will not be until the
age of eight or nine years is reached.
Training to the Wagon. — The wagon-horse should be trained to trot
steadily with a light load, and to walk fast with a medium load. He
must turn readily to the right and left, and describe short circles ; he should
also be taught to stop suddenly, by throwing himself in the breechings, so
as to hold a wagon steady in going down hill, and last, but not least
important, he should be taught to back all that he can draw forward.
XVII. How to Have a Good Plow Team.
A plow team should be thoroughly under control. The animals should
be trained to the word, fully as much as to the rein, and taught to obey
promptly the slightest signal. They must be evenly matched for
strength and agility ; for a fast, fresh horse, and a slow, dull one,
together, are bad enough anywhere, but worst of all at the plow. With
suchateam, no plowman can do good work, and without good plowing we
need not expect good crops. The team should be taught to move forward
without crowding together or pulling apart ; at the end of the
furrow, the horse describing the least segment of the circle, should keep
a little behind the other when coming about, so as to avoid being step-
ped on ; and in the case of coming short-about, as in turning corners, he
should make the turn by a series of short steps. To accomplish this, the
team must be talked to, though few take the trouble to do it, and hence
we seldom see a really perfect plow team, one that can accomplish their
task with the least labor to themselves and their driver.
XVm. Forming a Good Saddle Horse.
The forming of a saddle-horse, perfect in all his gaits, and amenable
to the slightest sign of the bridle, voice, or heel of the rider, is more
difficult than any other special training. It can only be done under a
sharp curb-bit, and, to use this pi-operly, the rider must have perfect
command of himself in the saddle, and the lightest possible hand in
using the reins. He must first become a horseman himself, before he
can train a horse to the saddle. The animal should be perfectly flexed,
HOW TO TRAIN A HORSE. 219
to render supple every portion of the body and limbs. He must be
taught to go with head well-up and haunches well under him, to describe
short circles and the figure eight, to turn, using the hind feet as a pivot,
and also with the fore feet as a pivot ; and he should know how to wheel
suddenly without danger of unseating his rider. This latter is accom-
plished by a turn of the hind feet, the fore feet being in the air, and
just after the impulse is partially given for the forward movement.
A saddle-horse should also be taught to change the leading foot, while
in motion ; and under whatever gait. The idea will be caught from the
manner in which a person changes the leading foot in catching the step
of another person. The horse's head is to be turned somewhat out of
line by pressure on the bridle-rein, and also l)y pressure of the opposite
foot of the rider. This will throw the head and croup out of the natural
line of progression somewhat, as is done at starting, and then by a pecu-
liar movement of the limbs their motion is changed. Thus, if the horse is
leading with the right fore-leg, turn the head to the right, and, with the
heel turn the croup to the left, and vice versa. Once learned, it is never
forgotten.
XrX. The Different Gkiits.
The natural gaits of the horse are walking, trotting and galloping.
Walking is jierformed in 1-2-3-4 time, and in regular cadence. The
ordhiary trot and the jog trot are l)ut modifications of the walk.
Galloping is performed in 1,2-3,4 time, and the faster the stride, the
more nearly simultaneously are the fore feet and hind feet brought down,
so that when the horse is running at speed, the movement is apparently
in 1-2 time. Then the animal is extended to the utmost, Avith head and
tail straight out. The gait is truly a succession of leaps, and soon
exhausts the animal.
The slower the gallop, the less should the animal be extended, and the
more should the head be raised and the haunches thrown under the body.
Thus when an animal acquires the distressing, but fashionable, promen-
ade canter, if he is handsome and has other corresponding accomplish-
ments, he is almost priceless. The promenade canter is taught by rein-
ing the horse in to get his head well up, and then restraining him to the
pace required. Thus the slower he goes, the more upright he holds him-
self. To teach this, the spur must be used, but with discretion.
The canter then is a slow gallop. The hand-gallop is faster and is an
easy gait for the horse, since he goes at half speed and in a natural man-
ner. The running gait is not distressing until the violent exertion begins
to tell on the wind and bottom.
220 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Besides these, and other artificial modifications of the gallop, the pace
and its modifications, are the only other gaits which a horse may be taught :
forlcaping, wheeling, rearing and springing forward or from side to side,
are all forms of the gallop. The amble is Sf)inctimes classed as a modified
pace. It is, in reality, a slow gallop, easy and smooth, and, like any
other saddle gait, must be taught under the curb.
The true pacing horse lifts the fore and hind feet simultaneously on a
side, first on one side and then the other. Like running at speed, it
is performed in 1-2 time. The rack is a modified pace. Instead of two
feet being lifted simultaneously on the one side and then the other, the
feet are lifted in 1-2,3-4 time, but not regularly as in the walk.
Single-foot, again, is a trained rack. Some horses take to it easily,
and in fact almost naturall}^ just as some horses take to pacing natur-
ally. But it often takes time to instruct the horse therein, though once
acquired, it is not soon forgotten.
No written instructions can be given for adapting all these gaits, except
such general rules as are laid down for rendering the animal amenable to
training. Once, by practice, you have imparted the gait, be sure to give
the animal a kind word, and a rewarding caress.
XX. Training to Trot in Harness.
If a horse have the trotting instinct, all that is necessfiry in order to
develop it is perseverance and training. The head shoul d be carried toler-
ably high, but not unnaturally so. The conformation of the horse must
be studied, (see Chapter IV), and to assist tbe reader further, two cuts
are given, one showing a horse's head, stramed unnaturally and
AN UNNATURAL POSITION. IIEAO (AKRIEI) NATURALLY.
by the bearing rein, the other showing the head drawn up naturally Avith
the bit. In the one case the head is strained up by both check rein and
curb, while in the other it is simply held in proper position by the curb.
There is no objection to the use of the check rein if it be not improp-
erly used. It serves to keep the horse in shape under a slack rein, and
from putting his head to the ground, when standing at rest
A matter in relation to driving in light harness, under the curb, may
here be worth relating. We once trained a nnir of fine roadster colts to
HOW TO TRAIN A HORSE. 221
drive together in harness, solely under a pair of sharp curb-bits. This
was thirty years ago. We were told that we could get no speed out of
them, and that there would be danger of their falling. The lagt we knew
to be nonsense, and the first we found to be a mistake. There were few
teams that could out-foot them on the road ; and, trotting at speed, they
seemed to be going upon a slack rein. Not so, however; their mouths
had never been calloused by the sawing of the "pulling bit," and they
were amenable to the slightest sign. In fact, they were kept in perfect
form, but it required delicate handling to do it. How much more ele-
gant was this than the "g'lang" style adopted by too many persons when
driving for pleasure on the road. Train, therefore, a pair of horses or a
single light-driving horse, under the curl) always, and, then, if you wish,
you may drive them handsomely under the snafile.
XXI. Perming a Trotter.
All that is required in a horse for trotting a race, is that he go fast
enough. The training of trotters is a fine art, and one in which but
few persons gain eminent success. Yet, a fair amount of the speed that
is in a horse, may be gotten oat of him, by strict attention to feed, wa-
ter, grooming and proper work. He must be exercised every day to
bring his muscles into proper condition for fast work, and at some period
in each exercise, he must be made to trot as fast as he can, without break-
ing into a run. Thus his speed may be gradually increased, until at last
he will forget the impulse to run, and if, in urging liim strongly, he goes
off his feet, he can readily be made tp catch the stride again, by chang-
ing the bit ; that is by pulling him a little out of line, as in making a
horse change his leading foot. It is not necessary that you pull him hard
to make him trot fast. The pull should only be hard enough to keep
him steady and up to his gait.
The real Avork is done by long continued driving, and by lengthening his
stride, by means of every persuasion possible. Do not expect to suc-
ceed the first or second year with a colt. A horse seldom comes to his
full trotting power, until he is seven or eight years old, and often not
until he is eleven or twelve. Hence, the large prices the fast ones bring.
XXII. To Train a Racer.
With running horses, as with saddle horses, it is necessary that they first
be trained into i^erfect ol)edicnce ; and the lessons in flexions must also
be attended to, so that their limbs and bodies may be rendered supple.
This part of the training having been thoroughly accomplished, all that is
required is to keep them in perfect muscular condition, by proper feed-
ing, gi'ooming and exorcise. They are then taught to increase their stride
by daily speeding them, extending the trial from time to time until they
222 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
attain their best speed. This training should begin at two years old. At
three, they should be given an extended stride, and they will reach their
full powers at four, five or six years of age.
The training of colts to run fast races at two years old, is severely to
be condemned, if the future usefulness of the animal is to be considered.
Nevertheless, as long as it is found profitable by breeders and trainers, it
will no doubt be practiced. The training of running horses, like the
training of trotters, is a fine ai-*-. Yet the general principles, we have
given, may be understood by all. A diet of oats and hay, the best of
stable care, and daily work upon a proper course, under the eye of an
intelligent master, arc the things necessary to get the speed out of well
bred horses ; and no other than properly-bred animals should ever be
trained for great speed. It is not in them.
The horse being in motion, the rider throws nearly all his weight in the
stirrups, steadying himself with his knees and thighs. The rear of the
body is thrown back and the loin arched, so as not to carry the Aveight
too far forw^ard. The trainer must know how to ride with the gi-eatesl
ease to the horse, and to assist the movement by every means in his power ;
thus, the leg, from the knee, will be slightly thrown back, so that by
stiffening the leg, the rider's center of weight may be easily changed,
without his ceasing to bear firmly in the stirrups.
These directions are for riders or jockeys of medium weight. Lightei
ones ride with longer stirrups, supporting themselves more by the thighs.
The best race-riders scarcely, if at all, touch the seat of the saddle.
This gives a good command of the horse, but is only used in race-riding,
since it soon tires out the rider. The same position, however, will ease
any horse in galloping over bad or rough ground, or any space that mus^
be quickly ridden over.
XXnr. Saddling.
It will only be necessary to add some general directions to this chapter.
In saddling a horse, for whatever purpose, do not use undue haste. Do
not throw the saddle on, especially if the horse be young, or in the least
inclined to nervousness. Go about the matter quietly and in a business-
like way. See that the saddle fits. If it do not, make it fit. See that
the girths are properly adjusted, and tightened, and that the crupper-
strap, if there be one, is smooth and well fitting. The bridle must also
be looked to ; see that it is strong, properly put on, and of the right
length from the head-piece to the bit. Before mounting, look again to
the girths. They may need tightening another hole.
XXIV Harnessing.
in harnessing a horse it is also necessary that the gear be perfect in its
fit, and not heavier than oooa<^on rsquireK. See that the back hand doet
HOW TO TRAIN A HORSE.
223
not pinch, that the hames fit the collar, and that the collar fits the horse
For draft, especially, there should be room enough between the lower
part of the collar and neck for the hand to be easily thrust between. If
it is a breast collar, see that the draft-band is at the right place on the
breast. For light work, a horse may have a closer-fitting collar than for
heavy work, but whatever the worlv, the collar should be made to fit the
horse, and not the horse to fit the collar. A horse may, indeed, work in
a badly fitting harness. So may a man with an ill made tool.
Pulling aC tlie Halter.
When a horse acquires the habit of pulling on the halter, it is very dif-
ficult to break him. We have already stated the prevention; the first
halter put on the colt should be strong enough to resist all attempts ai
breaking.
CARMON, AT TWELVE YEARS OF AGE.
Standard bred carriage stallion, shown as "Glorious Thunder Cloud." At the
head of the Government Stud at the Colorado Experiment Station.
A strong bitting harness and fastenings that cannot be broken are
arranged so that, when the horse pulls back, the whole weight of the
pull will come on the jaw. One effort will satisfy him of his in-
ability to break loose, and the punishment will be such that he will not
pull thereafter.
CHAPTER XII.
STABLES AND OTBCR SHELTER.
I. THE ECONOMY OF COMFORT. II. HOW TO BUILU STABLES. III. WHERE TO KEEP
HARNESS. IV. TEMPERATURE AND VENTILATION. V. THE ARRANGEMENT OF
STALLS. VI. CONSTRUCTION OF MANGERS AND RACKS. VII. THE HAY AND
STRAW LOFT. VIII. AN ECONOMICAL GRANARY. IX. THE WAGON AND CAR-
RIAGE FLOOR. X. THE HARNESS ROOM. XI. THE STABLE-YARD AND OUT-SHEDS.
XII. GRASS LOTS NEAR THE STABLE. XIII. A GOOD SUPPLY OF WATER XIV.
CLEANING THE STABLE.
I. The Economy of Comfort.
Ill building a stable, or other structure for housing animals, however
rough it may be, the economy of comfort should be as carefully studied
as though the building were intended for the family. Even the wealthiest
do not always do this. Everything may be elegant and costly, and yet
there is often less real comfort and economy, in the arrangement of their
stables and barns, than is found in the poor man's buildings which, though
rough, may, nevertheless, be arranged with an intelligent aptitude for
making a place for everything needed and proper facilities, crude though
they be, for doing the work and providing for the comfort of the occu-
pants in the easiest but most thorough manner.
The selection of the site is of importance, since much depends upon
this, when drainage and ventilation are considered. A commanding situ-
ation is generally selected for the dwelling house, and there is no reason
why the next-best location should not be taken for the stable. The horse-
stable should, if possible, be a building separate and distinct from the
barn. In a suburban place, it need not be entirely hidden from the house.
Neither, on the farm, is it proper that it be glaringly exposed to view, to
save steps in the morning. In either case the stable may be somewhat
hidden by planted trees, but not so much so as to cut off the free circula-
tion of air. On the farm, if there is a chance for a bank-basement,
breeding-cattle, requiring extra care, may occupy the basement; but
never put horses there. Like birds, they require an abundance of air,
but must not be exposed to drafts. The stable should be comfortably
warm in winter and cool in summer. Attention to this point not only
secures economy in feeding, and perfect health, but promotes that pecu-
liar luster and softness of the hair, which all the grooming possible can-
not give without it.
II. How to Build Stables.
The stable floor should not be less than sixteen feet wide. The walls
should be at least eight feet high, though nine is better ; and the horses
224
STABLES AND OTHER SHELTER. 225
should stand in a single row, when but few are kept. The heads
of the animals should be toward the wall, so that the ventilators may
admit air directly to them, and as near the top as possible. If more
horses are kept than a single row will accommodate, in a barn of the size
wished, they may stand in a double row, with sufficient space behind each
row that t ley canoot kick each other. Thirty-four feet in width will be
ample.
m. Where to Keep Harness.
For farm or draft horses, che harness may hang in the stable on pegs
seven feet high, at the rear of each horse. But carriage harness, or other
fine gear, should be hung in the harness room, out of the way of dust
and the effluvia of the stable. The harness room is, indeed, the proper place
for all harness, but few persons will take the trouble to carry it there,
and it is, on the whole, economy to hang it as we have stated, especially
when there is abundant light admitted to the stable of draft horses from
proper windows, and the ventilation is perfect.
IV. Temperature and Ventilation.
The proper temperature for the stable is fifty degrees, ranging to sixty-
five in summer, but never below forty in winter. The reason is obvi-
ous. The horse is especially sensitive to cold, and when the temperature
is less than fifty degrees, the system becomes chilled. This may be obvi-
ated by clothing; and, here again, is one of the most important matters
in stable management, both on the score of economy and of comfor';,
though it is one too generally neglected. The proper heat of the body
must be kept up in some way. It is cheaper to do so by means of cloth-
ing, than by extra feeding. So, in summer, a thin sheet keeps the body
cool, and is especially useful in protecting the animal, measurably,
from flies.
Ventilation, again, is all-important, since by this means not only is' the
proper supply of fresh air constantly admitted, and without undue drafts,
but it is also an important means of regulating the temperature, espe-
cially in winter. If the stable be made with hollow walls, the ventilation
may come up through these. In any ease, however, the air s-hould be
admitted as high up as possible.
A simple means of admitting air is by the use of sliding panels, which
may be moved easily up and down, if hung with sash-weights, as in the
case of windows. If the windows themselves are the ventilators, the
same rule will apply.
Not the least important, in this connection, are the pipes for conveying
the impure air up through the building and out at the roof. The main
ventilating trunk should be not less than four feet square, beginning at
226 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
the center of the stable and leading to the peak of the roof. Funnel-
shaped branches, opening behind each two or three horses, should connect
with the main trunk. If the main ventilating trunk be provided with
proper doors, it may serve to convey straw down from above for
bedding, and also hay, if open mangers are used ; and it may be
remarked, in passing, that open mangers are altogether the best, to our
way of thinking.
An excellent additional means of ventilation to supply cool air in sum-
mer and warm air in winter, is Mr. Wilkinson's plan of sub-earth venti-
lation. This consists, simply, in laying an eight or ten-inch tile tube at
a depth of four to six feet under ground, and extending for 300 to 400
feet away, to an out-lot. The air coming from this pipe will always be
cool, or about fifty degrees in winter, and seldom more than that m sum-
mer. If four funnel-shaped openings are provided at the upper end of
the upright tube, it will always catch air from whatever direction the breeze
comes. This means of ventilation is especially valuable in country dwell-
ings, cellars and dairies.
V. The Arrangement of Stalls.
Large stalls are best, and each horse should have a separate stall.
Whether built cheaply or elaborately, the stalls should vary in width
from five feet, to five feet six inches, according to the size of the horse,
and should be ten feet from front to rear. The partition-posts at the rear
should ])G round, not less than five inches in diameter, with a gain cut
on the inside, to admit the ends of the plank forming the sides of the
stalls. The partition planks may lie betw^een cleats. The posts may in-
cline inward or not. If they do so incline, the bottom should be ten feet
from the wall, and the top eight feet. The sides should be four and a half
feet high, of two-inch plank, and if on the top of this there be placed a
strip of strong wo ven-wi re cloth, two feet higher, it will prevent ugly
horses from biting or gnawing each other, and at the same time allow
good-tempered ones to get their noses near together for companionship.
The floor should be double, and the upper one should be in three parts ;
that is, the first three feet in front, of hard-wood, two-inch plank should
be laid close and nailed solid ; the other two sections, of narrow, hard-
wood plank are nailed on strong end-pieces, and with half-inch spaces
between. These are to be hinged to other plank nine inches wide, next
the sides of the stall, so as to shut together at the middle, to within half
an inch of each other. Thus, all tlie liquid matter passes directly through
to the solid and water-tight floor beneath, made of planed and grooved
plank, and ending just inside the posts, in a narrow gutter, whence it is
conveyed away to a tank.
STABLES AND OTHER SHELTER. 227
Thus the animals are always clean, and the upper floor is readily raised
tor the daily washing it should receive. The solid dung and litter may
be wheeled outside, or if there is a basement, throw it down through a
trap door, to be made into compost.
If the expense of such a floor, as that described, is deemed too
great, the floor may be made of hard-wood plank, or better, of smooth
cobble stone laid in sand. Hard-rammed clay makes a most comfortable
floor to stand on, if it be kept repaired, and straw enough is used for
bedding to keep the animals clean. Plenty of straw must be used, what-
<iver the floor, where the animal lies down.
The Economy of Bedding. — It is mistaken economy to stint the bed-
ding. With a full bed, so that the animal may not only lie clean, but
comfortably in other respects, there is no more straw soiled than with a
thin bed. What remains clean can be used again. And, if it be an object,
much of the soiled straw may be dried and used again. On farms where
there is much straw wasted, it is incomprehensible that an animal should
be scantily bedded. The soiled straw, contains the most valuable por-
tion of the manure — the urine — and is a mine of wealth to a careful
farmer.
VI. Construction of Mangers and. Backs.
The construction of the manger should be such as to allow plenty of
room for hay. It should be built from about eighteen inches above the
floor, with a slat bottom or a tight bottom as preferred. It need not be
more than two feet four inches wide at the top, by eighteen inches at the
bottom, and about three feet four inches high. It should extend clear
across the stall, the top rail being of sound, solid oak, with a feed-box
two feet wide, for grain and cut feed, and as long as the manger is wide ;
sixteen inches will be depth enough, and if it slope to about eighteen
inches at the bottom, so much the better.
On the other side may be an iron vessel that will hold a pail of water,
and so arranged that it may be fastened in and removed at pleasure,
for cleaning. An iron feed-box similarly arranged is better than one of
wood, on the score of cleanliness. If there is to be a hay rack, the
manger should not be omitted, and this should be larger at the top than at
the bottom, and so arranged that the hay may be thrown in from the loft.
The bars of the rack should be about six inches apart, and these also may
be bought, of iron, if it can be afforded, and hung so as to open and fall
back against the wall, for ease in putting in hay. The manger should
have a substantial ring at the top, with not less than a two-inch opening,
to tie to.
The manger may be built of yellow pine or oak, an inch and a half
thick for the front, back and ends, and the bottom of two-inch plank,
228 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AKD COMPLEIfi STOCK DOCTOR.
unless it be made of iron and hinged at the back, to let down for clean-
ing, in which case a secure catch must be used in front. The top-froni
of the manger should be protected with two and a half inch iron bands,
rounded at the edges, firmly screwed on, so as to project slightly over
the top bi:r. They prevent the manger being gnawed and disfigured. It is
also better that a post be placed from the ground to the under-side of the
top bar of the manger, and midway from the sides of the stall. In this
case a ring may be screwed by the shank, or stapled into the post, in
such a way that it may play freely. The tie may have a light weight
at the end, so that the bight of the halter will be in no danger of get-
ting under the fore legs of the horse.
VII. The Hay and Straw Loft.
Every stable should have a loft for hay and for straw, mth chutes, or
tubes, for easily throwing it below. The chute for straw may be the
tube used for ventilation and, of course, must have a tightly-fitting door
to prevent efiluvia from entering the hay loft. The ventilating tube may
be used for hay, even if the hay has to be carried from the floor to the
manger, but it is better that the hay-chute connect directly with the
manger. If a rack is used, the chute should connect therewith.
TJie floor of the loft should be of tightly-fitting, planed and grooved
flooring, to prevent the sifting of seeds and dirt below, and especially to
keep the efiftuvia of the stable from rising into the loft.
Vni. An Economical Granary.
The granary of the stable should be in the loft or floor above the
stable. This should be a tight room, rat proof, with bins for oats, bran
and cut-feed, with chutes from each running to a feed room below, each
bin being provided with a proper slide, for giving out or shutting off the
grain. The bottom of the bins are better if funnel-shaped, so that the
entire contents will run out when necessary. The chutes for grain should
be four inches inside. There should also be a room for cut hay and straw,
each with its chute, these being not less than twelve inches in diameter,
though fifteen is better. Thus it will always be easy to get either cut
hay or grain, and it is certainly easier to put the supply at once where it
is safe and easily come at, than to take many steps each time you want
feed. Besides, it saves grain.
Below them should be a suitable trough for mixing feed, and also a
sieve, with a mesh small enough to save any feed grain, for winnowing
and cleaning the grain before feeding. The regular feeding of absolutely
clean sfrain has often saved the stable-man the care of serious disorders in
his horses.
STABLES AND OTHER SHELTER.
229
The cut of stalls we give, and those we have described, are the very
best that can be made. It does not follow, however, that they must be
made in a costly manner, as wi-itten. The good sense of any intelligent
farmer may so modify them, that while they are strong, a large outlay
need not be made, and yet the principles of utility may be retained. It
is the same here as with building. The cheap structure, if strong and
economical in the design, may be fully as safe and comfortable as the
most expensive. A thing well done is economically done. Illy done it
causes waste and loss. If you have no lumber, poles and puncheons,
carefully smoothed, answer every purpose. If you are not an adept at
framing and must do your own work, strong stakes set in a pretty deep
trench, or driven solid, and quite close together, evened at the top, and a
cross-piece nailed securely on the top will serve as a manger. The rack
may be made of two poles, bored half through with a two inch auger at
A CONTRIVANCE TO BREAK A HORSE OF THE HABIT OF KICKING IN THE STALL.
the bottom, and clear through the top piece, with an inch and a half
auger, to receive the slats, which maybe straight saplings, properly shaved.
So, the rear posts may be young trees, six inches in diameter, properly
dressed. Thus any inside fixture may be easily arranged, and at light
cost by any one ordinarily handy with axe, saw, drawhig knife and ham-
mer, as every farmer should be. The device for kicking horses shown,
is the one in common use. It is illustrated to show how faulty it is. A
far more sensible plan for a kicking horse, if you are so unfortunate as to
have one, is to replace the log with a good compact bunch of osage oratijre
brush. This will punish without injuring the horse.
230 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
IX. The Wagon and Carriage Floor.
It is good economy to have ample space in the horse-barn in which to
keep the carriage, buggy and other more costly vehicles. No one should
own a vehicle for pleasure, or even a spring wagon, without proper
means of sheltering ; and it is needless to say that fowls, pigeons or
other birds, are never to be allowed inside the horse-stable and carriage
house.
The ordinary farm wagons may be kept under a proper shed, when not
in use. If the habit were formed of putting every vehicle in its place,
even if to be used again soon, it would be found not to take any more time
than to have them left wherever the driver may think proper. In nine
cases out of ten they are left just where they are in the way, or else they
are exposed to the heat of the sun, or to sudden storms.
X. The Harness Koom.
The haniess room should be near the carriage floor, and easy of access
from the stable, but separated from each by a tight partition. This
room, besides containing pegs, or hooks for hanging each harness, should
also contain a table for cleaning and oiling harness, and a cupboard for
oil, blacking brushes, sponges, tools for mending harness, needles,
thread, wax, a saddler's horse, pieces of leather, buckles, etc.
XI. The Stable Yard and Out-Sheds.
The stable yard shouW be dry and firm, and large enough to properly
exercise and trahi an animal in. It should be protected on every side l)y
a tight fence six feet high. On one side, but not facing in the yard, will
be found a good place for the wagon shed. Along one side, and opening
into the yard, may be a shed containing feeding troughs at the wall. It
will be useful for many purposes.
XII. Grass-Lots Near the Stable.
At least one grass-lot should be near the stable, and, if large
enough to be divided into pasture and meadow, so much the better. The
pasture will often be wanted to turn a lame or partially disabled animal
into, and it is also a good place for the colts to have a run. If there is
no spring or stream in the pasture a trough, under shelter, must be pro-
vided, and this may be connected with the house-pump by an underground
pipe.
XIII. A Good Supply of Water.
It is essential that a constant supply of fresh water be had at the
stable. The best stable buildings are provided with a windmill atthe top,
and a tank in the loft, to secure the needed water from the nearest well
or stream. The tank should be closed tight and should be provided with
STABLES AND OTHER SHELTER.
231
a waste pipe at the top. Another pipe, from the bottom, leads to the
stable, with a branch to the place where the carriages are washed. A
hose will thus enable you to wash vehicles thoroughly and easily. The
windmill and tank may be placed anywhere on an elevation, from which
the water may be carried by underground pipes to the stable or to any
other part of the premises where it may be wanted.
XrV Cleaning the Stable.
This should always be done at the proper time, twice a day regularly,
and oftener if waste matter accumulates. A splint broom will easily
sweep away the accumulations of manure, that gather from time to
time during the day, and the satisfaction of seeing everything neat and
clean will more than compensate for this light extra labor. A stable-
man should always be held to account for any neglect of this duty.
AN EFFECTIVE HARNESS TO
BREAK A HORSE OF THE
HABIT OF KICKING.
JOINT BAND TO PREVENT
HORSE FROM KICKING
IN THE STALL.
The tools necessary in a stable are two good manure-forks, a hay-fork,
brooms, a scraper for pulling away manure, strong pails, sponges,
brushes, curry-combs, a card-comb, scrapers for taking the sweat from
the body, and plenty of cloths for rubbing the body and limbs of the
horses. There should be also provided a thin sheet for every horse in
summer, and warm blankets for winter. There should be a full set of
tools for cleaning the animals for every two, or at most three, horses
kept in the stable.
CHAPTER Xm.
FEEDING, WATERING AND GROOMINO.
I. THE GOOD THAT A SIEVE WILL DO. II. HOW TO FEED. III. WHEN TO FEED.
IV. WHAT TO FEED. V. CONDIMENTS. VI. HOW TO MAKE MASHES. VII.
HOW TO MAKE GRUEL. VIII. THE QUANTITY OF GRAIN TO FEED. IX. HAY AND
STRAW. X. GROOMING. XI. WHEN TO GROOM. XII. GENERAL STABLE
CAKE. XIII. BLANKETS AND OTHER CLOTHING.
I. The Good that a Sieve WiU Do.
There is, of course, such a thing as beingtoo methodical, but more fail-
ures result from want of proper attention to the little things that go to
make up the whole, than from too minute an attention to details. A com-
petent knowledge of the requirements in every case, combined with accu-
rate judgment to carry each one out according to its relation to the whole,
is what marks a man of sensible, methodical habits, by contrast with one
who works at random, or neglects some detail that may be of the first
importance.
How few farmers, for instance, think it necessary to have a sieve for
cleaning the grain which is fed to horses ! And yet, this is one of the
most important of the minor implements of the stable. The use of a
sieve saves cleaning the dirt from the feeding boxes ; saves horses the an-
noyance of swallowing bits of wire and other trash, quite common in
these days of automatic binders ; saves the teeth of the animals from
being broken on gravel, or other hard substances in the grain, and gives
one the satisfaction of knowing that the horse is enjoying a meal, clean
and wholesome as that of his master. Many careful men wash the grain
after it is cleaned from trash in the sieve ; which is a most sensible opera
tion, avid an easy one, since you have only to drop the sieve partly in
water and shake it, or pour a bucket of water over it and let it drain.
II. How to Peed.
A horse must be fed with reference to what he is to do. The horse
doing slow but hard and exhausting labor, should have all the clean,
sound grain he will eat three times a day, with as much clean, sweet hay
at night as he will consume, though we seldom find hay so fine and good
that all will be eaten. The grain, during the heat of summer, should be
oats, in cooler weather oats and corn, while in winter the corn may con-
stitute fully half the ration.
If cut feed be used, half oats and half corn, ground together, may be
used, and this mixed with one-third its bulk, not weight, of bran. When
the animals are fed whole grain, this mess should be given two or three
times a week, at evening, as a change.
232
FEEDING, WATERING AND GROOMING. 233
The ordinary farm-hoise should be given as much oats as he will eat
three times a day, in summer, and be allowed grass or hay at night, in
their proper season. When not at work, on Sundays, they are sometimes
put upon pasture, and we have known farmers turn out their horses at
night to feed. This plan we dislike. The farm-horse has exhausting
labor, and should rest in the stable when not at work. The grass at
night is good ; let the farm-horse have it by all means, but cut and carry
it to him.
Horses kept for driving, light pleasure horses, and the business-man's
horse, should be fed on sound oats and hay, with a sweet mash of bran
once or twice a week. Many persons of this class, turn their horses out
to pasture during the summer. Nothing could be more injurious. The
animals are eaten up by flies and mosquitos ; they get out of condition,
and the owner blames the person who has grazed them at so much a
week. If they are turned out at night and sheltered during the day, and
get half rations of oats, it is not so bad.
The proper time for a horse to have a run at grass is in May and early
in June ; but the animal should have a little oats daily. A month at
grass is amply sufficient.
The full feed for driving horses is from four to six quarts of oats,
three times a day, according to size, and as much sound hay as they will
eat. Musty grain, musty or dusty oats, gives rise to heaves and other
disorders, and should never be fed to any horse. Hence, in using ground
feed, be sure that it is made from sound grain. Washing and kUn-drying
does not cure musty grain, though it may deceive the unwary. Hence,
again, the best plan with all driving horses, and horses for other fast
work, is to feed whole grain to them.
m. When to Peed.
A horse should get his feed as regularly as a man. His stomach, like
that of a man, is small, and the size has been reduced by artificial
breeding and care. Horses doing f?»,st and exhausting work, should be
fed grain four times a day ; at six and at ten o'clock in the morning, at
two in the afternoon and again at night. Carriage horses should also
be fed four times a day ; but the morning feed need not be until seven or
eight o'clock, since the animals are not required to be used, as a rule,
before ten. They should be fed again at lunch-time, or as near twelve
as possible ; also before going out in the afternoon, and again upon their
return in the evening ; if they bring the family home late, they should
also have a feed before being left for the night.
Trotting horses and racing horses should be fed with grain four times
a day, and light-feeding animals should have every inducement held out
234 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK ANB COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
to get them to eat enough. It is seldom that animals of this kind are too
greedy. Their feeding is so regular and their care is so good, that they
are seldom inclined to overload their stomachs. If an animal be a glut-
ton he mu:st be restrained to such a quantity of food as will support the
labor he is to perform. No horse driven at fast, or to exhaustive work,
should be taken out in less than an hour and a half, or two hours after
finishing the meal ; and it is better for any horse if he have an hour of
rest after eating, before returning to work.
rv. What to Peed.
"What the feed of horses should be, has been partly stated in the pre-
ceding sections. It may be varied somewhat, according to the price of grain.
As a rule much cut feed is given to teaming horses, express and dray
horses, in cities, especially in large stables, where a methodical sys-
tem is followed, and intelligent foiemen have charge of the different
departments. If com is giveji as a substitute, in part, for oats, bran
should be used with it. Cut feed at night, with oats morning and noon,
makes excellent provender for any draft team, including those for farm
work. On anumber of farms where many horses are used, this is the rule,
and a most excellent one it is, during the season of hard labor. In winter,
more corn may be fed than oats ; and when corn-meal and bran are used,
a heaping measure of bran to a stricken measure of meal, is a good pro-
portion.
The intelligent reader will be able to judge, from the suggestions here
given, how to regulate the messes. A horse, regularly and fully fed, will
seldom eat too much. Now and then it vn\\ be necessary to restrain a
greedy one. If a horse is given to bolting his grain whole, he should
have chopped food, or it must be so managed that he can only pick it up
little by little. It is the half -fed horse that founders himself when he
gets at the grain bin.
V. Condiments.
It is well to avoid horse condiments, condition powders, and nostrums
wan-anted to cure. On the farm they should not be needed ; and if the
animal is really ill, the proper treatment of the case T\all be found fur-
ther on, in the chapters devoted to diseases. In the cities and larger vil-
lages, the advice of a competent veterinary surgeon can now-a-days gener-
ally be procured. Ai'senic, strychnine and other violent drugs, especially
the first named, are much in vogue to give an animal fire and a sleek
coat, especially by ignorant persons who pretend to know all about horses.
They are ruinous unless used as prescribed by a competent veterinarian.
If a horse lacks appetite, rest and a few bran-mashes will generally rem-
edy the trouble. Condition powders are beneficial, if the system is out of
FEEDING, WATERING AND GROOMING, 235
order. Their use, and how to prepare them, will be given in the chap-
ters on the treatment of diseases. Salt is the only true condiment for
herbiverous animals. This they should have always before them. They
will then take just what is needed and no more.
VI. How to Make Mashes.
A sweet mash is made by taking four quarts of good bran, moistening
it gradually with hot water, and then adding enough boiling water to
bring it to the proper consistency. Cover with a cloth, and when cool
enough give it to the horse. A small teaspooiiful of salt may be added,
if desired.
Another good mash Is made by boiling two quarts of ground oats, a pint
of flax-seed and a little salt, for three hours. Then mix with it enough
bran to bring it to a proper consistency for eating. A half pint of
molasses may be added to the water. Cover with a cloth and feed cold.
This is the quantity for a horse, and is a good Sunday morning meal
when the team is kept on dry food during the rest of the week.
VII. How to Make Gruel.
There is nothing better for a tired horse than gruel ; every horse should
be taught to drink it. Stir a pint or more of oat-meal gradually into
four quarts of cold water. If you have no oatmeal, use half a pint or
more, each, of fine corn-meal and flour, according as it is liked, thick or
thin. Then fill up the pail, in which it is mixed, with water ; stir and
give it to the animal at once. Sometimes a dainty horse may be induced
to take it, by first giving him a single swallow of water.
Never give a horse solid food when exhausted. If he will not take
gruel, try him vnth hay tea, after having first turned down a quart of
good stock ale. Rub him, in any event, until dry, and then give him his
feed. By this time he will probably have taken some hay.
Hay Tea. — To make hay tea, fill a bucket with the best of hay, clean
and bright. Pour over it enough ])oiling water to fill the pail. Cover
closely to keep in the steam, pressing the hay down occasionally, or put
it on the stove to keej) it hot while pressing. In fifteen minutes it will
be sufficiently steeped. Turn off the water into another bucket, and add
enough cold water to make six or seven quarts, and give to the horse when
cool enough to drink. It is nourishing and an excellent stimulant for a
tired horse.
Vm. The Quantity of Grain to Feed.
Grain should always be fed by weight. If a team require a bushel of
oats a day, this will be 36 pounds of sound, clean oats ; if the oats are
not clean, the bushel will weigh only 32 pounds, or less. If com is to
be substituted, give only a half bushel, or 28 pounds of shelled corr
236 CYCLOPEDIA OF UVB STOCK AMD COMPJLETE STOCK DOCTOR. *
to the team at three feeds. If this is not enough, the allowance may be
increased to thirty-six pounds. If the corn be on the ear, thirty-five
pounds is the weij^ht of the half bushel. In every case a half bushel of
com Is the equivalent of each bushel of oats fed. In other words, the
stable uses seventy pounds of car corn, or fifty-six pounds of shelled corn,
for every two bushels of oats discontinued. The change, however, should
never be made suddenly, but gradually. Barley, rye and wheat are not
injurious to the horse, but we must not feed more pounds than the regu-
lar ration of the grain previously fed. If ground feed is given, one-fiftb
less in weight will be re(j[uired.
3X. Hay and Straw.
As before stated, none but sound hay should be used. Timothy, Blue
grass, (poa pratensis or poa compressa), Vow\ meadow, (poa serotina).
Orchard grass, (dactT/Iis glomerata), and Red Top, all make excellent
hay. Clover should never he fed to horses ; it is always dusty, and gen-
erally badly cured. Hungarian grass, if cut just when in blossom, may
be given once a week ; if fed constantly, or if too ripe, it acts strongly
on the urinary organs.
Straw should always be used for bedding — oat-straw is the best ; and
a feed of sweet, clean, bright straw is relished occasionally by the horse.
We once kept twenty pairs of farm mules all winter on bright straw and
com, with a feed once a week of Hungarian hay, and never had them
come through better.
X. Grooming.
Stable tools are to be used, not abused ; nor is the animal to be tor-
tured with them. The groom who strikes a horse on the hocks, or other
part of the body, with the curry-comb or other stable tool, should be
discharged instantly. The groom who uses the curry-comb to the posi-
tive discomfort of ahorse, or about the joints, should be admonished,
and if he persist he should be discharged. The use of the curry-comb
is simply to loosen the scurf and dirt, and to clean the brush. The
curry-comb should be carried lightly and In circles over the body, and
then a good bristle brush should be used to clean the horse. The brush
should be usod with firm, long strokes, and after every two or three
strokes It should be drawn over the comb to free it of dust. Very shorts
haired and tender-skinned horses require little more than the brush, to be
followed with a damp wisp of straw, finishing with cloths. The wisp
and cloth should always be used to finish a horse.
If the legs are dirty and wet, they should be washed clean and rul)l)ed
dry ; if they are dirty, clean them with the brush. Be particular about
FET;r»TXO, WATERING AND GROOMING
238 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
the fetlocks, and the long hair of the lower limbs. They must be left
both dry and clean.
The mane and tail should never be touched with anything except a
coarse-toothed horn comb, and the brush. Brushes are made especially
for this purpose.
The feet should always be looked to and cleaned when the horse comes
into the stable. He may have picked up a nail, or graveled himself.
Whatever injury of this kind he may have sustained should be promptly
treated.
XI. When to Groom.
Every day, before going to work, the horse should be thoroughly
cleaned. If he comes in dirty at night, he should certainly be cleaned
before the master goes to bed. It is an open question among horsemen,
whether a horse should be washed when dirty. Our plan is to scrape the
body as dry as possible immediately, blanket in cold weather, bandage
the legs to keep them warm, and clean when dry. The tired horse should
never be placed in a draft of air to cool. If he do not cool kindly, he
wants a stimulant, hay tea or gruel. If necessary, he may be walked
about in the air ; it will both dry and refresh him, unless he be badly used
up.
XII. General Stable Care.
Of general stable care we have previously written. The animal should
have done for him what he cannot do for himself. It is poor economy to
be without any necessary article to properly care for the horse. The
ordinary tools have been already indicated. Proper tools for cleaning the
stable must be had, and proper implements for cleaning the horse are
quite as necessary. The drinking bucket should never be used for wash-
ing the horse. When not in use, both drinking and washing buckets
should be prevented from falling down. Keep them full of water, and
change when necessary, but never mistake the wash bucket for the drink-
ing bucket.
A wheel-barrow is a most useful thing in the stable, and its uses are
also various about the place. The list of cleaning tools is a long one,
but a horse may be cleaned in the ^inost thorough manner with a good
curry-comb, a brush, a wet sponge, a wisp of straw and rubbing cloths.
A scraper should always be near for use upon sweaty horses^ A section
of a flat barrel-hoop will do very well at a pinch.
Xm. Blankets and Other Clothing.
The driving horse should have a summer and a winter stable-blanket,
and a summer and winter blanket for the street ; also a hood for the head
and neck, and other appliances for protecting the limbs, as bandages, etc.
FEEDING, WATERING AND GROOMING.
239
The farm horse requires only a summer and a winter blanket, and a hooded
sheet, or good fly net, when driven in summer. Each horse should have
his own blanket, plainly marked. If you have them, you will of course
use them when necessary. A blanket is of but little use without a sur-
cingle. Sec that the surcingle is properly buckled, and protected, so it
will not hurt the horse. Each blanket should have one or two breast
straps and buckles, and a proper cord to pass across the buttocks, under
the tail, to keep the blanket from moving to one side or the otheer. We
repeat: proper horse clothing is among the most necessary and profitable
investments for the stable.
CHAPTER XXIV.
HUMANITY AND COMMON SENSE.
I. THE ECONOMY OF HUMANE TREATMENT. II. COMMON SENSE IKf flj^
THINGS. III. THRIFT AND UNTHRIFT CONTRASTED. IV. CRUELTY
AND IMPROVIDENCE VS. THRIFT AND KINDNESS. V. WHY THE HORSE
REQUIRES INTELLIGENT MANAGEMENT. VI. HOW TO KNOW AN INTEL-
LIGENT MASTER. VII. PICTURES FROM REAL LIFE. VIIL THE
KIND MAN WILL HAVE A WILLING TEAM. IX. THE "GOOD FELLOW'S"
CRUELTY. X. HOW TO USE ONES MEANS.
I. The Economy of Humane Treatment.
In the treatment of animals, humanity and common sense are one and
the same thing. For, the humane treatment of these dumb creatures
not only contributes to their comfort, but promotes their physical wel-
fare and enables the owner to get from them the largest amount of labor
that they are capable of. The farm animals, and especially the horses, of
a cruel, slovenly or miserly farmer are rarely in condition to perform the
most efficient labor. A master, so unthrifty or penurious as to begrudge
the proper care and feeding of his animals, is also apt to over-work and
under-feed his laborers, and an employer who does this never has efficient
help. His hired men, while at work, shirk everj^ duty they can, and at
the first opportunity they quit him ; and the work that they cannot shirk
is done in the most inefficient and slovenly manner. Even if inclined to
do their duty they cannot work to the best advantage because the team is
unfit. Here, then, we see two causes operating against the grudging or un-
thrifty farmer — inefficiency in his help and in his ■animals ; whereas, the
farmer who has common sense and humanity enough to keep his animals
in good condition, has only one possible cause of inefficient labor to
guard against, viz: inefficiency in the men he employs. A man of the
latter kind, however, will have little difficulty in securing efficient help;
whilst the grudging or unthrifty man seldom secures the best labor, be-
cause good men will not work for such a ma.ster, unless obliged to.
Hence, the want of common sense or of humanity always reacts against
the individual, and at a loss to himself. The horses of a good farmer
are not pampered. His workmen do not expect to be ; but the common-
sense man will see to it that they are made as comfortable as circum-
stances will admit ; that neither hoi-ses nor men are ovenvorked ; that the
food, both for man and beast, is given in sufficient quantity, and that it
is of good quality. Plain, but substantial food, well-cooked, should be
provided for the men, and sound grain, plenty of water, careful groom-
ing for the horses; and the eye of the master should also see to it that
the animals are pot abused by beating. If the horses have not been
240
N O
HUMANITY AND COMMON SENSE.
241
broken in spirit, they will not need whipping; for the intelligent master
will not long keep dull, lazy brutes, any more than he will employ lazy,
shirking men.
II. Common Sense in all Things.
It would show ius great a want of t-oniuion sense to put a pair of colts,
intended for fast road-horses, or trotters, or a young animal intended for
a high-priced saddle-horse, to continuous and hard draft, as it would to
expect, extraordinary speed from an ill-bred brute, or from a horse bred
solely for draft. Does not the same rule hold good in all transactions?
Is it not the result of ignorance, or of a penny-wise and pound-foolish
disposition that an inferior animal, of any kind, is ever allowed to be bred
for any purpose? Whatever may be the labor that is to be performed,
none but the most superior animals for the use, should ever be bred;
just as none but the most perfect seed should ever be planted or sown.
If the rule were universally adopted of breeding none but the best ani-
mals and sowing none but the best seed; and if, in addition, the proper
care were observed in the breeding of animals and in the cultivation
and saving of crops, the productions of the country might be doubled
in three years, from the same acreage, while the average value of farm
animals might be more than doubled in ten years. This is the direction
of our thoughts when we urge the importance of common sense, intelli-
gence and humane care upon the farm ; their exercise brings the largest
profit to the master at the lowest cost.
III. Thrift and Unthrift Contrasted.
In the one case we see a shiftless and at the same time cruel and per-
haps drunken owner, with a miserable nmle and a still more miserable
one-eared and one-eyed horse for a team. They would sell simply for
the price of their hides. Of course, they do not eat as much as an able
team would eat, because they cannot get it. Scant feed is certainly not
economy in their case, for the result of their day's work would be not
more than an acre scratched over. So much for the unhappy team of a
reckless master. This man and his family do not live. They simply
exist, and their only mission in life seems to be to reduce the average
price of live stock, and the average yield per acre.
Look at the other picture, if you wish to see a thrifty and able master
with a handsome and able team, going off as though they meant business.
There, also, are the happy children, just come out with the lunch basket;
there is nothing miserable here. The master is hard at work increasing
the average yield of wheat, and by the exercise of humanity and common
sense, raising the average price of farm stock.
242 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
IV. Cruelty and Improvidence vs. Thrift and Kindness.
The cruel or improvident man's team stands exposed to flies, or shiv-
ering in the street of the village, while the man is guzzling beer or whis-
key close by. They stand in their own filth at home, uncleaned, as they
are half fed. The team of the kind and thrifty master stands in the sta-
ble at home, eating generous provender, when not at labor on the farm,
or hauling heavy loads of produce to the market. The animals do not
IMPORTED l^KENCH CUACH STALLION.
lack blankets when necessary. They have no bony shoulders to be galled.
They are not jerked about by the bits, nor are they lashed or beaten with
a club while at work. They have simply been trained to obedience, and
have been taught something of the English language.
In the streets of our large cities we can see plenty of such teams as we
have described, teams both of the cruel and the provident master. On
the average farm, we see none of the first kind. They are, happily, con-
fined mainly to a rare class, shiftless, drunken squatters on waste land,
HUMANITY AND COMMON SENSE. 243
though occasionally such masters are found, as renters, with their worth-
less brutes on the lands of a landlord too greedy to give an industrious
laborer a fair rental for his labor. Do such landlords thrive? Unhap-
pily yes. Sometimes, by denying themselves and families the common or
decent necessaries of life, and by cheating even the poor knackers whose
improvidence has thrown them in their way.
V. Why the Horse Requires Intelligent Management.
It is because hoi*ses are intelligent animals. They have a sense of
reason, w^hich may be improved by training. They are naturally dis-
posed to rely upon their masters, and this disposition should never be
overcome by the fear of injury. They are courageous, and at the same
time timid. Their courage should be fostered, since it increases their
spirit and decreases their timidity. They fear objects with which they
are unfamiliar. Once they learn that an object is harmless, they cease
to fear it. Thus they may be accustomed to the sound and sight of a
locomotive, one of the most fearful objects to them naturally, and if
allowed to satisfy themselves that a locomotive is not dangerous, they will
at length want to touch it with the nose ; for this is the last means a horse
uses to fully satisfy himself that an object will not injure him. Thus
satisfied, all further fear of that object is passed.
VI. How to Know an Intelligent Master.
An intelligent master, however poor he may be, will not drive a
broken-down, rat-tailed, spavined team, with ears torn away, eyes knocked
out, ill-kept and ill-fed. He will not have rusty tools, nor keep a hog-
wallow by the side of his door. His wife will not be found pulling down
and burning the remnant*? of a fence, for want of better firewood. His
team, indeed, may not be in high flesh. The necessity of extraordinary
labor, and plain food, may keep master and hoi-se thin, but there will be
intelligent care shown even in poverty. Cunning is not intelligence,
neither is brute force power. The intelligent man, however unlearned,
may be known by his surroundings, and by the care of his horse, if he
is fortunate enough to own one.
It is certain that an unkind man in his family will be brutal to animals.
All horse owners cannot have fine teams, but no man can afford to own
a poor team. They must be kept in proper condition for labor, else the
owner is losing money on them constantly. All farmers cannot have fine
houses and barns, but no farmer should have either cold, or, in other
ways, uncomfortable buildings. By studying chapter XII, one may
easily learn how to make the cheapest stmcture comfortable. The illus-
tration on this page fully illustrates an idea of comfort in farm animals.
244 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
The horses are not specially fine, but they are in good flesh and well
cared for. The master has no fear that they will run away. They are
well trained and know they will not be abused, hence they drink con-
tentedly, preparatory to the half-day's plowing expected of them. The
barn is a rough structure, but it is well built and thoroughly warm in
winter.
VII. Pictures from Real Life.
The surroundings of a man, in any condition in life, are an index to
his character. The kind master may have only a stable built of poles,
the sides filled in with hay, and the roof of the same material; but it
will be comfortable. Health, thrift and care, in the end, will enable him
to build better. However poor, there will be method in his labor. He
will sow no more crops than his team can properly prepare the ground
for, and himself can carefully tend. His debts vnW not be for useless
trumpery, and what tools he has will be in good order. His animals
will be no more than can be properly cared for, so that, in the end, his
barns and yards may look something like the picture of the shelter of
the provident man.
The barn of the improvident man will be dilapidated. The door will
be off the hinges, and propped up with rails. There may be some
attempt at chinking up cracks. His wagon will stand anywhere in the
storm, while his harness will lie handy, perhaps on the tongue of the
wagon, or else be flung on the floor of the hovel he calls a barn. His
animals will be unsheltered, and allowed to shift for themselves at a
neighboring hay stack, yet he will be so fully employed, that he will
have no time to do better. He will have no barn filled to the ridge-
pole with fodder, no horses, cattle and sheep enjoying themselves in
the stables. His pigs can of course shift for themselves entirely. They
will be so thin that they can easily slide through any fence near by,
within which, indeed, all his stock have probably helped themselves,
unless his careful neighbors have made their fences ''horse-high, bull-
proof and pig-tight."
As to his home, it may look something like the picture, airy in
summer, but not comfortable in winter — for a brush-pile, eked out with
bark torn from the fences, does not make generous fuel. Dear reader,
have you not recognized the picture in your travels? Have not some
of us seen the same thing near home?
The home of the intelligent and thrifty man will in time come to look
like the one shown in the illustration of kindness and common sense
exemplified. At all events, however humble, neatness and good care
will be apparent everywhere.
HUMANITY AND COMMON SENSE.
245
VIII. The Kind Man will have a Willing Team.
The team of the considerate man, if they unfortunately become chafed
by the harness, ^vhen away from home, in a storm, are immediately at-
tended to. They are kept warm, dry and clean; and however tired at
night, are always ready for work the next day, because they have rested
in plenty of clean straw, with plenty to eat. If the master's means will
IMPORTED ENGLISH SHIRE STALLION, HOLLAND MAJOR.
permit, they vdW be lordly looking animals, not unlike the picture of a
kind man's team.
At all events, they will not resemble a cruel man's team, wth ribs
showing like bean-poles, and themselves the pictures of hunger, gazing
at an empty bucket, — or at least, a bucket empty except for the air it
contains.
IX. The "Good Fellow's" Cruelty.
There is another class, known as good fellows, whose time is so taken
up helping their friends, that they never have leisure to care for anything
246 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
at home. They have time to hunt and fish, to play cards and drink.
When they work, they work very hard, and are generally so used up,
both man and team, that they require rest for several days. These
"good fellows" often own but one hoi-se, and borrow some other "good
fellow's" horse to "splice a team." Their borrowings are extensive, and
their more intelligent, because more careful, neighboi-s lend, for the sake
of the poor family at home. Some people would call them lazy ; perhaps
this is as good a name for it as any other. They certainly do not work
when they can avoid it. They do not think themselves cruel. Are
they not? Yes, cruel in their neglect at home. The "good fellow's"
surroundings may be shown in three pictures. First is seen his barn, if
he hns a barn, with his sorry old horse mournfully contemplating the
chances for the coming winter. He has a house? Yes, we show a
corner of it, and his door yard gate. He has, perhaps, a farm, or has
hired a part of some richer good fellow's farm. Here is the other good
fellow's field gate, and himself coming home after having had a good
time. If too tipsy to open the gate, it will not be difficult to push it over.
X. How to use One's Means.
This chapter may not, perhaps, be altogether practical, except in the
sense of showing the impractical, and the folly of neglecting to use the
meens which any man may have. All cannot own fine teams ; all cannot
own strong teams, but every man who owns a team of any kind, should
keep it in a condition for labor. The man who is improvident in the
neglect of his farm and stock, is improvident in the underlying principle
upon which all else rests. Hence, the pictorial story of thrift and
unthrift may not come amiss; and the thrifty man who buys this book,
may become an angel in disguise, if he will lend it to his unthrifty neigh-
bor. It may be the means of mending his ways. The unthrifty man we
have depicted seldom sees books — ^^his family almost never, unless they be
loaned to them. May-be it will teach the use of means at his command,
to improve his condition. If so, it will be a beneficient work that will
give comfort to some animals, by improving their mastei's.
All bad masters, however, are not improvident, in the sense we have
last shown ; but whether improvident, niggardly, selfish, cruel or brutal,
the amendment cannot but do good to themselves, their families, and to
the dumb animals under their care. The improvement will put money
in their pockets, because none of the vices arise from intelligence properly
directed, though many of them proceed from perverted intelligence.
In preventing the growth and spread of vice, every man may increase
the measure of intelligent endeavor. And intelligent endeavor is always
the easiest road to success in any walk in life. And, again, the intelli-
gent treatment of brutes is not the least of the human virtues.
HUMANITY AND COMMON SENSE.
2n
248 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
A CHOICE PARK HOUSE— MANY TIMES A BLUE RIBBON WINNER.
This is a horse of extremely high action. Such horses are seldom as stockily
built as other carriage horses. The prime essential of the Park Horse is that he
should be high acting both at knees and hocks. As well as being high, the action
should be straight forward and open without winging or interfering. The action
should be regular as if the feet were put down in rhythmical order. On
account of extremely high action a great amount of speed is seldom secured.
Height of this horse, 15-3 hands; weight, 1100 pounds.
The demand for park horses greatly exceeds the supply, as they have never
been produced in great enough numbers to equal the demand and probably never
will be. Breeders trying to produce them succeed with only a small percentage
of the colts reared.
Park horses possess much of the coach horse type In that they must be
symmetrical, with well rounded bodies and an abundance of quality and action.
In reality, they are the "cream" of the small coach horse. They are strictly a
dress horse and as their name indicates one which a lady or gentleman would
want to drive in a park, and are hitched singly to a cart or tandem or to a gig. A
solid color is more desirable than one with white markings. It is not considered
In good taste for a lady to drive a strikingly marked, extremely high Acting horse.
CHAPTER XV.
HOW TO BUY AND SELL A HOUSE.
I ACCURATE KNOWLEDGE NECESSAKY. IT. BUYING CHEAP HORSES. III. A GUAB»
ANTEE OF SOUNDNESS. IV. KNOW WHAT YOU BUY FOR. V. THE PROPORTIONS
OF THE HORSE. VI. DESCRIPTION OF ECLIPSE. VII. WHAT CONSTITUTES A
GOOD HORSE. VIII. MODELS FOR BUYING. IX. THE RACING AND THE TROT-
TING FORM. X. THE ROADSTER. XI SADDLE HORSES. XII. A HORSE OF
HIGH FORM. XIII. BUYING FOR BLOOD. XIV. CHOOSING THE BROOD MARE
XV. SELECTING THE STALLION. XVI. HOW TO DETECT VICES AND DEFECTS.
XVII. SOME FAULTS AND IMPERFECTIONS. XVIII. WHAT IS UNSOUNDNESS ?
XIX. BLEMISHES.
I. Accurate Knowledge Necessary.
The value of correct information in trading is no where greater than
fii buying a horse, with a view to his future use. There is so much to be
yarded against in selecting an animal of good physical proportions for
the labor intended ; so many vices, the result of bad breeding, or of abuse
oy previous owners ; so much unsoundness occasioned by hereditary trans-
mission, by overwork, hard driving, or neglect ; so many defects which
dishonest intelligence may cover up for the time being, that the purchaser
must have been a close student and a keen observer to be able to guard
against them all. In fact, no man can do so without a trial of the horse,
in addition to the exercise of critical judgment.
In Chapters II, III, IV, and more especially in Chapter V, we have
given illustrations and directions covering many important points. In
the chapters relating to veterinary, others will be found. In this chap-
ter, we shall go thoroughly over the ground not elsewhere covered.
n. Buying Cheap Horses.
The mania for buying cheap horses, or rather for getting an animal for
much less than his actual value, is a weakness of such a large number of
persons, that it is no wonder there are so many bad horses in the hands
of farmers. Their means are often small, and, desiring to get as much
as possible for their money, without being prepared to judge correctly
the parts of an animal, they are often duped by designing men. And,
having thus been taken in, the animal, as a rule, must indeed be a sorry
one if the victim does not in turn practice the same deceit upon another.
To avoid being swindled, it is a good and safe rule to distrust any horse
that is offered for much less than his apparent value. An animal thus
offered has generally been dishonestly come-by, has some unsoundness,
■ IB vicious in some way, or has some defect known to the sjclier and not
represented. Hence, a guarantee should always be taken, unless
the price paid is sufficiently low to cover all possible defects. Moreover,
249
250 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
never buy a horse of a man whom you do not know to be responsible, for
unless the seller is a resident, and solvent, liis guarantee is, of course,
worthless,
m. A Guarantee of Soundness.
When a horse is bought on a guarantee, the article ohould be concise,
and yet comprehensive. Unnecessary verbiage often causes litigation,
and long forms are frequently written by scoundrels to deceive. A form
like the following will cover the ground :
Received of Mr . , Dollars for
warranted years old^ and under years, sound, free from vice, and
quiet to ride or drive.
Signature.
The place and date of purchase, the name of the person who pays, the
amount paid, the description of the animal with pedigree, if any, and
reference to the proper stud book, and the age, should be filled out and
signed by the seller. Insert the names and the guarantee might read
as follows ;
Received, St. Louis, Mo., January 1, , of James G ashman.
Eight hundred and fifty (8 SO) dollars for the dapple bay imported stal-
lion Fearnought, black mane and tail, and two white hind fetlocks. Sire
Stakeholder, dam Surprise, etc., as contained in the stud book. Said
stallion is warranted five years old, and under six years, sound, free from
physical defect, and safe and quiet t^ ride or drive.
(Signed) Alexander A. Horseman.
This form clearly covers the ground, and may be altered to suit any
transaction in buying a horse.
A bill of sale may read as follows :
St. Louis, Mo., January 1,
For and in consideration of the sum of dollars, [or, if a notft
is given for the whole or part, state this fact.] I- have this day sold to
James Cashman the horse, etc., etc., [as in the other form."]
IV. Know What You Buy For.
The buyer must have a definite idea what he is buying for. If for
work, the horse should be large, able, a good walker, and strong all over.
See cuts of draft horses, and horses of all work. If for the carriage, he
should have fine style and action. If for speed, this must be known. If
for breeding, the particular use to which the offspring is to be put must
be duly considered ; if for breeding racing horses, the pedigree must
be without a flaw; if for use where speed of any kind is desired, the
pedigree should not be neglected ; if for trotting, the pedigi-ee should
trace to trotting blood. And so of particular breeds, the genealogy of
HOW TO BUY AND SELL A HORSE
251
the horse mus't be distinct, and the buyer must have accurate knowledge
of pedigrees, or else must know that the seller is solvent and a man of
his word. There must be no guess work or anything left to chance, in any
animal bought for breeding a particular strain. For, once a mistake is
made in breeding, the eradication, theoretically, can never be compassed.
Practically, it will take a long time so to work out the false trait that the
peculiarity will not be apt to appear again. On this point, the reader
would do well to refer to what is said on Atavism and Heredity.
V. The Proportions of the Horse.
To assist in judging the horse, wo give an outline indicating the propor-
tion of the several parts. This, says Mr. J. H. Walsh (Stonehenge)
one of the most graphic and correct of English authorities on the horse,
combines the average of six horses selected for perfect symmetry, and
taken, two of them from celebrated stallions, two from thoroughl)ied
hunters, and two from chargers of great value. This, therefore,
will not apply to draft horses, yet it will be found that the nearer tne
general utility horse comes to the measurements, the better he will be.
SCALK OK MeASUKEMENT;:
Inches
Height 63
Length from shoulder-point to quarter 66
From lh(« lowest part of the chest to the ground ;^6
From tlie elbow-point to the ground 39
From the withers to the poll, just behind the ears, in a straight liiie 30
The same measured along the crest 32
Leuffth of head 22
252 cyclopedia of lxfe stock and complete stock doctor.
Inches.
Width across the forehead 9 1-2
From the withers to the hip 22
From the stifle to the point of the hock, in the attitude shown in the
plan 29
From the root of the tail to the stifle-joint 26
From the point of the hoclf to the gi-ound 22 1-2
Length of arm from the elbow to the pisiform bone (the rear bone of
those forming the upper articulation of the knee) • 19 1-2
From the pisiform bone to the ground 19 1-2
Girth varies from 78 to 79
Circumference of fore-cannon bone (large metacarpal or shank bone,
extending from the knee to the fetlock) 7 1-2, 8, 8, 8, 8 1-2 and 9
Circumference of arm just below the elbow 16 1-2 to 18
VI. Description of Eclipse.
That wonderful horse, Eclipse, differed essentially from this model. His
head was of the average length in the six horses above, but was of
extraordinary ^^^dth across the eyes — said to have been twelve inches. He
was very low before and yet was 66 inches in height. As Mr. Percival
sums him up, "he was a big horse in every sense of the word ; he was
tall in stature, lengthy and capacious in body, and large m his limbs. For
a big horse, his head was small, and partook of the Arabian character.
His neck was unusually long. His shoulders w^ere strong, sufficiently
oblique, and though not remarkable for, not deficient in, depth. His
chest was circular. He rose very little in his withers, being higher
behind than before. His back was lengthy, and, over the loins,
roached. His quarters were straight, square and extended. His limbs
were lengthy and broad, and his joints large. In particular, his arms and
thighs were long and muscular, and his knees and hocks broad and well-
formed." As a weight-carrying, swift, long-distance racer it is not
probable that his equal will soon again be seen. He was a phenomenon.
For racing, and especially for leaping, and for saddle horses, select the
superior points of Eclipse, as many of them as you can find, leaving out
the low withers. Except for draft, the horse that will come nearest
to the points we have named, will be sure to give satisfaction.
VH. What Constitutes a Good Horse.
It is the ability to perform in the best manner the particular labor for
which he is intended, that constitutes a good horse. Within the last
fifty years, and especially ^vithin the last thirty years, particular atten-
tion has been paid to the breeding of animals especially adapted to draft,
to the road, to use as fine carriage horses, and to trotting. The race
horse, the saddje horse, and the hunting horse may be said to have
attained about as high a degree of perfection as man is able to give them.
HOW TO BUY AND SELL A HORSE. 253
The fine roadster, the trotting horse and the horse for general utility,
may yot be much improved. Within the last ten years the speed of tlie
trotting horse has been greatly developed. In 1880, Maud S. made a mile
in 2 : lOA, thus beating the record of 2 : 14 made by Goldsmith Maid in
1874, and in 1881 we saw her trot -two heats in 2:11 and 2 : llf, the
fastest two heats ever made.* We also saw Little Brown Jug pace a mile
in 2 : 13. There are now a number of horses that can trot the mile in
i : 15, and not a few that can do it inside of 2 : 20.
Whce the limit of speed for trotters is, or how near they may yet come
to the fastest running time, no one, of course, can tell. In buying a
horse to breed colts for fast time, great attention must be paid not only
to form, but to the pedigree as well. You may breed fast horses from
those of good pedigree, though they do not themselves possess extraor-
dinary speed. But you cannot breed fast horses from those which have
no pedigree, however good their apparent form may be.
Vm. Models for Buying.
For reasons heretofore given, we have insisted that, to judge correctly
the merits of a horse, one must have accurate knowledge — knowledge not
only of what constitutes general excellence in horses, but minute and
familiar knowledge of the qualities which fit them to perform in the besf
manner, the various services required. Knowing the great value of object
lessons, we have not only presented numerous general forms, showing
proportion, muscular development and anatomy, but have also given
faithful representations of the more celebrated breeds. If you find aq
animal of the particular breed, conforming to the standard, do not fear
to buy if you wish one from which to breed.
rx. The Racing and the Trotting Form.
As a model for study in racing form, the illustration we give is
good. The illustration of the American thoroughbred in Chapter VII,
may also be referred to in this connection. In Chapter YIII, some of
the best trotting forms are shown, and exijlicit information about trotting
horses is there given. The racing horse should be from 15^ to 16 hands
high, muscular all over, short-backed, round-])odied, with long hips and
deep and oblique shoulders ; the head clean and the neck rangy and well
set on. The limbs should be clean-cut, sound and firm in the bone, —
not small and slender by any means, — and the eyes especially should be
full, bright and clear, but mild, denoting, with the broad forehead, high
CO irage and energy, combined with docility of temper.
X. The Roadster.
Roadsters must possess so many valuable qualities, good size, fine
action, elegant carriage, high form, docility, and undoubted bottom, that
• Maud S. lias since trotted a mile in 2:10>4.
254
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AM) COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
it is difficult to define their distinct points, seriatim. A sixteen-hand
mare, handsome and fairly bred, generally brings first-class roadsters,
when stinted to good trotting sires. If you are going to breed them, select
go
§2
those that come nearest to the forms we give. If you aie going to buy
for use on the road, select the form to correspond to the models, and
then insist upon a thorough and extended trial, and take a guarantee
before you pay a high price for one or a pair.
HOW TO BUY AND SELL A HORSE.
255
XI. Saddle Horses.
The saddle horse is the most difficult of all to get in perfection, except
the fastest turf and trotting horses. They must be handsome, large
enough to carry the weight easily, be perfectly trained; and then the
A CHOICE THREE-GAITED SADDLER.
This is an exceUent type for carrying weight Note tlae long, oblique should-
ers, the high withers, short, strong back and loins. This horse is a little coarse
and heavy in the throat latch, but otherwise a good model. Weight, about 1125
pounds. The "walk, trot and canter," are the three gaits of this class of saddler,
and in general type and conformation, they are much the same as the flve-gaited
horse, but are required to go only three gaits. A good point to be looked for
in a three-gaited horse, or all saddle horses for that matter, is to get a confor-
mation that will place the rider well back, showing as much of the horse in
front of him as possible; thus lightening the weight on the forehand. The "walk,
trot and canter" horse is strictly an English type, which has become popular in
America in recent years.
better the breeding, the more valuable they are. The illustration on
the next page shows a good form for a model, if the hoi-se is to be used
both for driving and for the saddle — one that will perform well, look
well and not easily tire. Such a horse will, upon mares of high style
but rather light in the limb, and perhaps with the pasterns somewhat
256
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
too weak, get high-caste, easily-trained, flexible goers, that will sell any-
where. And those not of perfect form for the saddle will make good
driving horses, or good horses for general utility ; for it must be remem-
bered, that, whatever the breed, only comparatively a few may be trained
to a degree ;i]>prn;i(liiiiM ]iri rcciiiiii. l>ut, the better the stock, the more
perfect animals the breeder will secure.
XII. A Horse of High FomL
For fine action, high form, ability to carry weight and good perform-
ance, especially in the hunting field, a hoi-se at least three-quarters
HOW TO BUY AND SELL A HORSE.
257
bred is to be preferred. The taste for hunting is largel}^ indulged in
in the South, and, as wealth increases, it will become more and more fash-
ionable in the West. In fact, the demand for horses of high form and
A CHOICE EXPRESS DELIVERY HORSE.
Note the conformation of ^reat physical endurance indicated by his obliquely
■^et shoulder, depth and compactness of body, shortness of back, closeness of
coupling, unusual length of croup, well set pasterns and good shaped feet.
Height, 16 hands; weight, 14riO pounds.
A typical expiess horse is rather an up-standing, deep bodied, closely coupled
liorse with good bone, an abundance of quality, energy and spirit. He should
.stand from 15-3 to 16-2 hands high and weigh from 1350 to 1500 pounds in good
flesh. The average express horse is about 16 hands high and weighs about 1400
pounds in working condition. His head should be neat, his neck of good length
and crest well developed. His shoulders should be obliquely set, coupled with
a short, well muscled back and strong loin. His croup should be broad, rounding
and well muscled, his quarters dee^ and thighs broad. He should not be "goose-
rumped" nor cut up in the flank. His underpinning should be of the very best,
his cannons broad and clean and hoofs of a dense, tough horn of a waxy nature.
The horse above shown is typical of that class and practically a perfect sample.
breeding, for saddle use, is increasing in the West, and many Kentucky
and Tennessee horses are bought for this purpose. It must be con-
fessed, that as a rule they are not as good as they ought to be, many of
17
258 CtCLOttiDlA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOB.
them ranging as under-sized. Colts from a "horse of good form and
action," on proper mares, staunch, handsome and well-bred, will turn
out to be the animals desired.
Such a horse will have a great stride, fine leaping powers, and the
bottom to carry weight at high speed. It must be admitted, also, that
such a stallion, when found, would cost a rather large sum of money ; but
the colts would sell correspondingly well.
"Why should not every well-to-do farmer, who breeds horses, breed
good ones, and for a particular purpose?
There is no reason why he should not have a well-trained and well-bred
saddle horse to sell, when called for.
There is no finer country for training than the "West and the South-
west, and the training could easily go on during the use of the colt. It
the reader has given close attention to the chapter on training, the abil-
ity to succeed will come with practice. But do not try to make a good
saddle horse out of a "plug." It cannot be done I
XIII. Buying for Blood.
A person who l)uys blooded horses with a vie^v to breeding must not
only understand the form and the various other qualities that go to make
a good horse, as we have described them, but he must also understand
pedigrees, or else depend upon some friend who does. There are about
as many chances of raising a crack colt from the ordinary thoroughbred,
even of unstained lineage, as there are of drawing a prize in a lottery.
The sire and dam must not only be of perfect lineage, but the descent
must be direct through a line of winning horses. Such sires are not
numerous, and are in the hands of but few breeders. The well-to-do
farmer cannot expect to compete with them, but he can secure blood that
will improve his stock yearly, and give him many fine saddle-horses ;
and, those likely to fail as saddle nags will make handsome and fast-sell-
ing horses for general work on the road.
XIV. Choosing the Brood-Mare.
In buying a brood-mare the first thing to be considered is her blood ;
next her development ; next her freedom from disability and disease,
which latter is called soundness. Last, but not least, her temper must
be carefully looked to. A fretful, ill-tempered mare is totally unfit to
breed from ; and yet, undoubtedly, a majority of farmers consider a
mare good enough to breed from, even when worn out with work. A
well-bred mare of this kind is certainly more fit than one of ill breeding
and badly developed, or one balky from bad temper, or suffering froni
hereditary disease. A sensible breeder will reject all mares of this kind.
HOW TO BUY AND SELL A HORSE.
259
The Value of Partly-Bred Horses.— The real value of all draft, as well
as speed, horses lies in their crosses and grades. When bred on roomy
mares the half bloods make magnificent animals, losing, it is true, much
A CHOICE SOUTHERN CHUNK.
Note the quality and finish and the absence of draft horse blood. A little
\nore depth of flank would improve her appearance. Southern Chunks, as they
tre termed in some markets, are small horses that are bought by dealers for
the southern markets. They are used by southern planters for tilling their
lanas and for riding and driving. The southern farmer does not cultivate deeply
and the soils are light, consequently, he does not require very large horses.
Southern Chunks are small horses, standing from 15 to 15-3 hands high
and weighing from 800 to 1250 pounds. They are rather fine of bone, possessing
an abundance of quality and are more rangy in conformation than any of the
other Chunks, having more of the light horse blood.
of the wonderful appearance of strength, as shown in the original breed,
whatever it may be; but if they lose in this respect, they become finer,
a.s the uncritical would view it — really so, when bred upon good blooded
200
CYCLOPEDIA OK LIV
i.M I'l.irii'; s'I'ock: doctor.
In the half-bred Clydesdales, as seen in the accompanying illustrations,
the limbs are finer and much of the shaggy covering of the limbs is lost.
The breadth of the forehead is well preserved, also the strong, hand-
somely supported neck, the fine shoulder and breast, the length of arm,
the short leg below the knee, the strong fetlocks and hoofs, and the
round-barreled, well-ribbed bodv and fine loin
A CHOICE HEAVY DRAFTER OP THE SHOW RING ORDER.
For several years he was a First Prize Winner at the International Live
Stock Show at Chicago. Note his abundance of quality, smoothness of finish,
obliquity of shoulder, and correctly set pastern. For hard service a little. more
depth of body would be desirable. His height is 17 hands and his weight 2150
pounds.
This is the class of draft horse used by wholesale mercantile houses, packers,
brewers, coal dealers, contractors, lumbermen, and firms having heavy teaming
work. They are in demand in all large cities. They are wanted also for export,
but during the past few years prices have been too high in the United States to
make exportation profitable and consequently but few draft horses have been
exported. The supply is much short of the demand, causing sharp competition,
and consequently Drafters are bringing good prices on the open market and the
indications are favorable to permanent, active demand and permanent high prices.
In the rear view of the same gelding, is shown clearly the excellent
eye and prominent brow, the fine neck, the active, pointed ear, the great
l)ower of limb, the broad quarters, the muscular thighs, and handsome
tail. Such animals will sell anv where.
HOW TO BUY AND SELL A HORSE. 261
XV. Selecting the Stallion.
Stonehenge says: — "In choosing the particular blood which will suit
any given mare, ray impression always would be, that it is desirable to
fix upon the best strain in her pedigree, if not already twice bred
in-and-in, and then to put to her the best stallion available of that blood.
In some cases, of course, it will happen that the second best strain will
answer better, because there happens to be a better iiorse of that blood
to be had than of the superior strain, which would otherwise be preferred.
If, on the other hand, the mare has already been in-bred to the extent of
two degrees, then a cross will be advisable; but I am much inclined to
believe, from the success of certain well-known cases, that even then a
cross into blood already existing in the mare, but not recently in-bred
nor used more than once, will sometimes answer."
Traits of Sire and Foal. — "The choice of particular stallions, as
dependent upon their formation, is not less difficult than that of the
mare, and it must be guided by nearly the same principles, except that
there is no occasion for any framework especially calculated for nourish-
ing and containing the foetus, as in her case. As far as possible the horse
should be the counterpart of what is desired in the produce, though
sometimes it may be necessary to select an animal of a breed slightly
exaggerating the peculiarity which is sought for, especially when that is
not connected with a preponderance of fore or hind-quarters. Thus, if
the mare is very leggy, a more than usually short-legged horse may be
selected, or if her neck is too short or too long, an animal with this organ
particularly long, or the reverse, as the case may be, should be sought
out. But in all cases it is dangerous to attempt too sudden alteration
with regard to size, as the effort will generally end in a colt without a
due proportion of parts, and therefore more or less awkward and
unwieidly."
Sound Animals. — "In constitution and general health, the same
remarks exactly apply to the horse as the mare. All hereditary diseases
are to be avoided as far as possible, though few horses are to be met with
entirely free from all kinds of unsoundness, some the effects of severe
training, and others resulting from actual disease, occurring from other
causes. With regard to fatness, there is an extraordinary desire for
horses absolutely loaded with fat, just as there formerly was for over-fed
oxen at Christmas. It is quita true that the presence of a moderate
quantity of fat is a sign of a good constitution, but, like all other
good qualities, it may be carried to excess, so as to produce disease ; and
just as there is often hypertrophy, or excess of nourishment of the heart.
or any bony parts, so is there often a like superabundance of fat, causing
'262 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITE STOCK AND COMFLJi;Tlil STOCK DOCTOR.
obstruction to the due performance of the animal functions, and often
ending in premature death. This is in great measure owing to want of
exercise, but also to over-stimulating food ; and the breeder who wishes
his horse to last, and also to get good stock, should take especial care
that he has enough of the one and not too much of the other."
XVI. Vices and Disabilities, and How to Know Them.
A horse is reduced in value, in proportion to his disability for labor
or other use. A blind horse will do as much work in a horse power as
one that can see. For any labor where sight is required, he is prac-
tically useless. A horse "dead lame" is useless anywhere. Unsound-
ness is a disability. Vices are dangerous, and defects also detract
from the price of the animal, and, as in the case of stunil)ling, are
also dangerous. Balking, backing, kicking, pulling at the halter, run-
ning away, rearing, shying, etc., are vices, and all of them dangerous
ones. Crib-biting, the tail turned to one side, stumbling, etc., are
defects, and more or less serious, according to the use to which the
horse is to be put. For the saddle a stumbler, among defective hor-
ses, is next in danger to the horse with the vice of backing. Then
follows probably shying, which is a vice if occasioned by bad usage
of the trainer, or a defect if occasioned by weak eyes or cowardice.
Youatt notes vices as follows :
1. — Restiveness. — "The most annoying and the most dangerous of all.
Whenever it appears in the form of kicking, or rearing, or bolting,
or in any way that threatens danger to the horse, it rarely admits of
a cure," This is really the starting point of nearly all the vices of the
horse, and generally ends in some one or more determined vices, more
often perhaps in difficulty of shoeing, from the brutality of the smith.
The cure is difficult. The prevention of nearly every kind of vice
may be accomplished by firm, temperate, and yet kind management.
2. — Backing or Gihbing. — "These are so closely allied that it is not
easy to separate them. It is frequently the effect of bad breaking.
To detect, rouse the temper of the animal.
3. — Biting. — "There is no cure. It is caused by foolish or timid mas-
ters or servants, in handling a bad tempered horse. The biter will
usually throw back his ears, when approached by a stranger.
4. — Getting the Cheek of the Bit Into the Mouth. — "This is to be
detected by bridling the horse, and enticing the movement of the
mouth. It is nc^ serious, since a round leather guard on the inside of
the cheek of the oit will prevent the vice.
5. — Kicking. — "Examine the horse for swelled hocks, or other injury
about the hind leajs. Examine the stall for marks of kickinfr. Notice if
HOW TO BUY AND SELL A HORSE, 263
the horse remains kind, when a strap is placed under the tail. A kicker
in harness should never be tolerated.
6. — Unsteadiness While Being Mounted. — "This may be from eager-
ness to start, or from irritability. The first is unpleasant, the latter dan-
gerous. When confirmed, it is a vice. The prevention is never to allow
a horse to start until the word is given. Firmness and gentleness in
training must be observed.
7. — Rearing. — "This is always unpleasant, and, when confirmed, most
dangerous. It is usually caused by a sharp curb in the hands of an
unpracticed rider. Drawing the horse up suddenly before starting him,
is the usual test.
8. — Running Away. — "Once the habit is confirmed, there is no cure.
And once running away, the horse seldom forgets the vice. A good
horseman may manage such a horse under the saddle, with a sharp curb.
In harness, the horse is dangerous to the best of drivers. It is difiicult
to detect. Laceration of the mouth, bruises and scars, ..rt indications.
9. — Shying. — "This can only be detected by trial. If occasioned by
cowardice, or from weak eyes or near-sightedness, it is dangerous. If
irom piavfiilnei*f«, it may be cured by firmness and gentleness.
10. — Vicious to Shoe. — "This is caused by timidity or brutality in the
shoer, with young horses. If confirmed, it will be shown when a shoer,
strange to the horse, handles him."
XVII. Minor Disabilities.
Among defects, that may, or may not — some of them — be classed
as vices, are the following, condensed from Youatt :
1. — Crib-Biting and Wind- Sucking. — They are analogous to each
other. The first is gripping any hard substance, with contraction of the
windpipe, the other a violent sucking motion, attended with a peculiar
sound.
2. — Cutting. — The marks will be shown. Proper shoeing will often
remedy this. If not, boots or other artificial appliances must be used.
3. — JSfot Lying Down. — A serious disability to a hard-worked horse.
Give such horses a loose box, good, evenly laid bedding, and plenty of
room.
4. — Overreach. — Striking one shoe with the other. A heavy shoe, or
toe-weights forward, will sometimes remedy this. If in old horses, it
may amount to a serious and dangerous disability. Young horses may
outgrow it.
5. — Pavnng. — A serious defect, or vice, of irritable horses. There is
no remedy save confining the fore feet.
264 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETK STOCK DOCTOR.
6. — Quidding, and Swallowing the FoodWithout Grinding. — The first
is occasioned by bad teetli, or disease, as sore throat, catarrh, etc. The
latter from the same cause, or greediness. The cause must be removed.
In the case of greediness, it is difficult.
7. — Rolling in the Stable. — More a vice than a disability. It may be
either. A horse inclined to roll, should always be given the end of the
halter in a straw yard, before being tied in the stall. Rolling in the
stable is a vice dangerous to the horse.
8. — Slipping the Halter. — A trick of which a horse can never be cured.
The remedy is a halter that cannot be rubbed off, or a strong loose box
that cannot be broken down.
9. — Stumbling and Tripping. — A disability, that ])y bad usage and pun-
ishment may become a vice. It is always dangerous, and the result of
infirmity. The only test is trial over rough ground. Some horses,
however, are more apt to trip on even than on rough ground.
10. — Weaving "consists in a motion of the head, neck and body, from
side to side, like the shuttle of a weaver passing through the web, and
hence the name which is given to this jjeculiar and incessant motion. It
indicates an impatient, irritable temper, and a dislike to the confiuemnet
of the stable ; and a horse that is thus incessantly on the fc(!i, will seldom
carry flesh, or be safe to ride or drive. There is no cure for it, but the
olose tying up of the animal, except at feeding time."
XVTII. What Is Unsoundness?
Upon this head we condense from Youatt, retainining his language,
as follows: "That horse is sound in whom there is no disease, nor
any alteration of structure in any part which impairs, or is likely
to impair, his natural usefulness. That horse is unsound that labors
under disease, or that has some alteration of structure that does interfere,
or is likely to interfere, with his natural usefulness. The term natural
usefulness must be borne in mind. One horse may possess great S[)eed,
but is soon knocked up ; another will work all day, but cannot get beyond
a snail's pace ; one with a heavy forehead is liable to stumble, and is con-
tinually putting to hazard the neck of his rider ; another, with an irritable
constitution and a washy make, loses his appetite, and begins to scour if a
little extra work is exacted from hnu. The term unsoundness caimot be
applied to either of these ; it would be opening far too wide a door to
disputation and endless wrangling. The buyer can discern, or ouijht to
inow, whether the form of the horse is that which will render him likely
HOW TO RUT \ND SETT. A HORSE. 265
to suit his purpose, and he should tiy nirr sufficiently to ascertain his
natural strength, endurance, arfi mannei L>f going. Unsoundness, we
repeat, has reference only to disease, j.- *^^o that alt ration of structure
which is connected with, or will produce d'>eat>:. anc ■es^in the usefulness
of the animal,"
1. — ''Broken-Knees certainly do not constitute unsound'. ess after the
wounds are healed, unless they interfere with the action al the joint, for
the horse may have fallen from mere accident, or through tha fault of the
rider ; but no person would buy a horse with broken knees until he had
thoroughly tried him, and satisfied himself as to his form and action.
2. — '' Capped- Ilocks may be produced by lying on an unevenly-paved
stable with a scanty supply of litter, or by kicking, in neither of which cases
would they constitute unsoundness, though in the latter they would be an
indication of vice ; but in the majority of instances, they are either the
consequence of sprain of the hock, and accompanied by enlargement of it,
when they would be unsoundness. A special warranty should always be
taken against cap[)ed-hocks.
3. — ''Contraction is a considerable deviation from the natural form of
the foot, but not necessarily constituting unsoundness ; it requ. es, however,
most careful examination on the part of the purchaser )r veterinary
surgeon, to ascertain that there is no heat about the quarter, or ossifica-
tion of the cartilage ; that the frog, although diminished in size, is not
diseased ; that the horse does not step short and go as if the foot wen
tender, and that there is not the slightest trace of lameness.
4. — " Corns manifestly constitute unsoundness. The portion of the fool
in which they are situated will not bear the ordinary pressure of the shoe ;
and any accidental additional presure from the growing down of the horn,
01' the introduction of dirt or gravel, will cause serious lameness.
5. — "Cough. — This is a disease, and consequently unsoundness. A
horse, therefore, should never be purchased with a cough upon him
without an especial warranty ; or, if the cough not being observed,
he is purchased under a general warranty, he may be returned as soon
as it is discovered.
6. — "Boaring, Wheezing, Wliistling, High-blowing^ and Grunting,
being the result of alteration of structure or disease in some of the air
passages, and interfering with the perfect freedom of breathing, and
especially when the horse is put on his speed, without doubt constitute
unsoundness. There are decisions to the contrary, which are now
universally admitted to be erroneous. Broken-wind may be regarded as
still more decidedlv unsoundness.
266
CYCLOrEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
7. — "Crib-biting. — Although there is some difference of opinion among
veterinary surgeons on this point, crib-biting must be regarded as unsound-
ness. This unnatural sucking in of the air must be to a certain degree
injurious to digestion, must dispose to coiic, and so interfere with the
strength, and usefulness, and health of the horse. Some crib-biters are
good goei-s, but they would have probably possessed more endurance had
they not acquir.^d this habit; and it is a fact well established, that as soon
as a horse begii-s to become a crib-biter, he, in more than nine cases out
of ten, begins t) lose condition.
8. — "Curb co.istitutcs unsoundness while it lasts, and perhaps while the
swelling remains, although the inflammation may have subsided : for a
YEARLING MORGAN FILLY.
horse that has once thrown out a curb, is for a while at least, very liable
to do so again on the slightest extra exertion. A horse, however, is not
returnable if he should spring a curb five minutes after the purchase, for
it is done in a moment, and does not necessarily indicate any previous
unsoundness or weakness of the part.
9. — "Cutting, as rendering a horse liable to serious injury of the legs,
and indicating that he is either weak, or has an awkwardness of gait
inconsistent with safety, should be considered as unsoundness.
HOW TO BUY AND SELL A HORSE, 267
10. — ''Enlarged Glands. — To a slight enlargement of the glands under
the jaw much attention need not be paid ; but if they are of considerable
size, and especially if they are tender, and the gland at the root of the ear
partakes of the enlargement, and the membrane of the nose is redder than
it should be, we should hesitate in pronouncing that horse to be sound.
We should fear the commencement, or the insidious lurking, of disease.
11. — ''Enlarged Hock. — A horse with enlarged hock is unsound. The
structure of this complicated joint being so materially affected that,
although the horse may appear for a considera])le time to do ordinary work
well, he will accasionally fail even as to that, and a few days' hard work
will always lame him.
12. — ''The Eyes. — That inflammation of the eye of the horse which
usually terminates in blindness of one or both eyes, has the peculiar char-
acter of remitting or disappearing for a time, once or twice, or thrice, before
it fully runs its course. The eye, after an attack of inflammation,
regains so nearly its former natural brilliancy, that a man well-acquainted
with horses will not always recognize the traces of former disease. After
a time, however, the inflammation returns, and the result is unavoid-
able. A horse from four to six years of age that has had one attack of
this complaint, is long afterwards unsound, however perfect the eye mav
seem to be, because he carries about with him a disease that will again
break out, and eventually destroy the sight. Whether, therefore, he
may be returned or not, depends on the possibility of proving an attack of
inflammation of the eye, prior to the purchase. (See ophthalmia, page
r)"2().)- All defects of the eye should be provided against by special
guarantee. (See \n\\i,o 250.)
13. — "LamenesSy from whatever cause arising, is unsoundness. How-
ever temporary it may be, or however obscure, it lessens the utility of the
horse, and renders him unsound for the time. How far his soundness
QVtiy be afterwards affected, must depend on the circumstances of the
case. A lame horse is for the time an unsound one.
14. — " l^eurotomy . — A question has arisen how far a horse that has
undergone the operation of the division of the nerve of the leg, and has
recovered from the lameness with which he was before affected and stands
his work well, may be considered to be sound. In our opinion there
cannot be a doubt about the matter. A horse on whom this operation
has been performed may be improved, may cease to be lame, may go
well for many years ; but there is no certainty of his continuing to do
so, and he is unsound.
15. — "Ossification of the lateral cartilages constitutes unsoundness, as
interfering with the natural expansion of the foot, and in horses of
nuick work almost invariably producing lumeness.
268 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
16. — ^'Pumiced-foot, — ^When the union between the horny and sensible
lamellae, or little plates of the foot, is weakened, and the coffin-bone is
let down, and presses upon the sole, that horse must be unsound, and
unsound forever, because there are no means by which we can lift up the
coffin-bone again into its place.
17. — '■'Quidding is unsoundness for the time ; but the unsoundness will
cease when the teeth are properly filed, or the catarrh relieved, or the
cause of this imperfect chewing removed.
18. — '« Quittor is unsoundness.
19. — '<■ Ring-bone. — Although when the bony tumor is small, and on one
side only, there is little or no lameness, and there are a few instances in
which a horse with ring-bone has worked for many years without lame-
ness ; yet, from the action of the foot, and the stress upon the part, the
inflammation and the formation of bone have such a tendency rapidly
to spread, that we must pronounce the slightest enlargement of the
pasterns or around the coronet, to be a cause of unsoundness.
20. ''Sand crack is manifestly unsoundness ; but it may occur without
the slightest warning, and no horse can be returned for one that is sprung
after purchase.
21. — ''Spavin is unsoundness, whether bony or blood-spavin. In the
first, lameness is produced, at least at starting, in ninety -nine cases out
of a hundred, and there is enlargement of the hock, which rapidly spreads
with quick and hard work, although the horse may be capable of, and
may even get better at slow work. Blood-spavin is unsoundness, l)ecause,
althou ,'a it may not be productive of lameness, at slow work, the rapid
and powerful action of the hock in quicker motion will produce perma-
nent, although not considerable lameness, and which can scarcely ever
be with certainty removed.
22.— "Splint.— It depends entirely on the situation of the bony tumor
on the inside of the shank-bone, whether it is to be considered as
unsoundness. If it is not in the neighborhood of any joint, so as to
interfere with its action, and if it does not press upon any ligament or
tendon, it can be no cause of unsoundness.
23. "Tliickening of the Bach Sineivs, if pronounced, and occasioned
with thickening of the leg, is unsoundness.
24.—" TJioroughpin, when of great size, and thrush, when pronounced,
should undoubtedly be regarded as unsoundness, and is so regarded by
good authorities."
In fact, in many disabilities, the most discriminating judgment shoulci
be used. Since a disability that would detract but little from a horse
for one use, might render him comparatively worthless for another.
BOOK 1
PART II
Diseases of the Horse
HOW TO KNOW THEM; THEIR CAUSES. PRE-
VENTION AND CURE
270
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOK.
Diseases of the Horse.
CHAPTER I.
SYMPTOMS AND GENERAL TREATMENT.
I. INTRODUCTION. 11. OUTWARD MANIFESTATIONS OF DISEASE. III. SYMP-
TOMS OF INTERNAL DISEASES. IV. IMPORTANCE OF PROMPT TREATMENT.
V. KNOW WHAT YOU ARE TREATING. VI. NURSING AND FEEDING SICK ANI-
MALS. VII. EXPLANATION OF TERMS USED. VIII. GRADUATION OF DOSES.
IX. HOW OFTEN TO GIVE MEDICINES. X. FORMS OF MEDICINES AND HOW
TO ADMINISTER.
I. Introduction.
The horse, especially when subject to artificial care and conditions, and
more especially in cities and large stables, is liable to pretty much the
same diseases, or, at least, to diseases similar in their nature to those of
man. Besides various epidemics, such as lung diseases, colds and influen-
za,— diseases arising from injuries, and bad care, involving diseases of
the skin and its integuments, and of the ligaments, muscles and bones,
are quite common in horses. Such diseases are comparatively rave in
the human family, for the reason that horses are often put to terrible
strain in running, leaping, drawing heavy loads in the mud, and on rough
pavements, etc. These, from the want of proper knowledge, or from
neglect, assume the most serious forms, and often totally unfit the horse
for active labor, if they do not entirely ruin him.
The importance of common-sense treatment and training has been
fully elucidated in the preceding pages. The importance of proper care,
sufficient clothing, grooming, good ventilation, and kindness in their gen-
eral treatment has also been insisted on. If the information to be given
in the succeeding pages, relating to proper care in sickness, is observed,
much trouble and loss will ])e saved to the farmer, who is often necessarily
precluded from calling in the services of a competent veterinary sur-
geon, because, in many country districts ,there are none.
The object of this work, therefore, is to give, in plain language, the
necessary treatment of such diseases as may be cared for, by other than
the professional surgeon ; and to give such advice as will prevent the oc-
currence of many disabilities, which, if taken out of the list, by their
prevention, would very much lighten the task of the veterinarian. These
should l)c well known and carefully studied by every horse owner, for
thus might often be i)revented spavin ; curb ; splint ; ringbone ; caries,
271
272 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
in its various forms ; swellings of the muscular integuments, causing se
rious trouble ; injuries tc the sinews, causing breaking down ; poll evil
and oti?.er astulous affectio^is ; fractures ; founder ; grease ; inflamma-
tions of the glands and yetrxs ; cra^cked hoofs ; quittor ; hernia and many
other diseases, not reccgaiaed by the horse owner, as a rule, until they
tiwie beconxe serious.
A careful attention to symi)toms which will be given in plain language,
and the application of appropriate remedies, will save the owner money,
and at the same time will also save the most intelligent servant, and if
allowed to be, the faithful friend of man, much terri])le torture. The
feet ar.d linibs are most liable to disease. Those who have suffered fron»
che torture of a tight boot, can only form a paiiial idea of the agony of
ti horse sulfering from disease of the feet, and especially from navicular
disease, attacking, as it does, the most delicate organs, encased in the
horny covering of the foot. The causes of disease, therefore, how to
know it by outward symptoms — for the horse cannot tell his distress,
except by mute signs, and what to do, will be told in the following pages.
In cases where danger is present from contagious and utterly incurable
diseases, as glanders, or incurable infectious diseases as hydrophobia, the
animal should be quickly and mercifully killed, and buned deej) out of
the way o- ianger.
tX. Outward Maoifestations of Disease.
To make plain what would otherwise not be readily comprehended, the
diseases will be illustrated by cuts. These cuts will often present the
disease m its strongest forms, whereby the same difficulties will be the
more easily recogiii^ied in their lighter manifestations. Man}^ of the dis-
eases of the skin, and especially of the bones, may go on for a long time
without the cause being surely known. Hence the illustration of some
internal diseases, as shown outwardly, will be very mstructive. The
mo3t of them are caused by neglect or abuse. Their treatment will be
^ylven in their proper places, as, for instance, those of the feet, in the next
chapter. The condensed description of their origin, with references to the
illustration on the next page, will enable them to be readily recognized.
1 — Discharge from nose, either mucus or pus, or both. This may
occur not only in glanders, but also in acute and chronic catarrh.
2 — Profuse flow of saliva, resulting from a severe wound or swelling
of the tongue, the mouth being partly open.
3 — Loose, flabby Up, an evidence of partial paralysis of the part.
4 — Fistula of the lower jaw, from an ulcerated tooth. This sometimes
involves a large part of the lower jaw.
6 — Fistula, of the upper jav), from same cause.
6 — Blind eye. Frequently, accompanynisr a blind eye there is a con-
tinuous flow of tears over the cheel:.
DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 'Zl'S
7 — Salivarij fistula ; a fistulous opening into the duct that conveys the
saliva from the parotid gland to the mouth.
8 — Large, long, drooping ear. Some horses have ears so large that
they droop from their own weight.
9 — Small short ear, sonivjlimes called "Hare Ear."
10 — Poll evil; a running sore on the back of the neck, originating in
a boil, or from striking the poll a hard blow, as on a low ceiling, etc.
11 — Itch or Mange; itchy skin diseases, causing the animal to rub him-
self, oftentimes till the hair and mane are all rubbed off.
12 — Ewe neck; the neck appears to be put on wrong side up; instead
of curving upward and forming a handsome crest, it curves downward.
13 — Bony tumor, caused by a blow on the jaw bone, from striking
against ihe manger or other hard body.
14 — Goitre; the common name for an enlarged thyroid gland.
15 — Enlarged jugular vein, following bleeding, when badly done.
16 — Swelling of parotid gland, from a bruise or undue compression.
17 — Fistula from imj^roper bleeding: the wound fails to heal.
18 — Farcy buds on I he neck.
19 — Abscess on breast, from truise from a collar, or other contusion.
20 — Swelling of ike lymphatic glands of the l)reast.
21— Fistulous withers; a chronic discharge following the formation of
an abscess, caused by a bruise.
22 — Sway back; c. back unusually hollow.
23 — Saddle gall, fonnir.g a sitfast when chronic.
24 — Eel back; a rough unt^vsn outline over the croup,
25 — Drooping rump — an extrsme case.
26 — Coarse, j^^inted hip, one liable to be knocked down.
27 — Atrophy of the muscles, from disease or a bruise, or else from
Jong standing lameness, allowing wasting to take place from disuse.
28 — Rat-tail; hair off from disease of the skin of the tail. If it
drops out badly once, it seldom returns.
29 — Thickened tendons (involving also (heir sheaths), at the back of
the leg, from sprains, and causing severe lameness.
30 — Splint; a bony tumor, the ossification of an L'flusion thrown out
between the cannon and splint bones.
31 — Gall on fetlock joint, from Interfering.
32 — Enlarged fetlock joi d, from neglected or ill-treated sprain, etc.
33 — Malformed pastern, which is too long and low; from this faulty
confornia'ion, the fetlock is liable to come too low, inducing sprains.
34 — Ridge in the hoof. Any ridge or wrinkle in the hoof indicates
ihe existence of fever in the coronet at some previous time.
35 — Ox foot; a foot resembling that of an ox, either as a natural
18
274 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AUTD COMFLETE STOCK DOCTOE.
peculiar conforniatioii or from disease of the coffin joint, causing ii bulg-
ing of the hoof in the front part of the foot.
36 — Quarter crack; a split in the fibers of the hoof from faulty nu-
trition of the part, allowing it to become brittle.
37 — Indurated enlargement of the knees^ from sprains or bruises.
38 — Stilt foot, from disease of the foot around the heels or quarters.
39 — Contracted hoof, either from disease or disuse.
40 — Mud fever (Erythema); inflammation in the skin from exposure
to ice water and mud. There is swelling of the leg, scabby condition of
the skin, and the hair falls out.
41 — Mallenders; inflammation of the skin in the flexure of the knee ;
the skin becomes dry and hard, with transverse fissures, and the knee
is chronically enlarged.
42 — Shoe boil; a tumor caused by lying on the shoe.
43 — Navel rupture; the intestines protrude through the unclosed navel
opening, l»eing held in only by the skin.
44 — Inguinal hernia ; the intestines pass down through the abdominal
rings and inguinal canal, and, in stallions, into the scrotum.
45 — Flank (or ventral) hernia; the abdominal wall having been rup-
tured, the bowels protrude through it, being retained only by the skin
46 — Stifle lameness, from a sprain, kick, puncture or other wound.
If dislocation of the patella occurs, the horse is said to be stifled.
47 — Farcy buds; enlarged (sometimes ulcerated) lymphatic glands.
48 — Bog spavin; distension of the synovial bursa, with lameness.
49 — Sallenders; a skin disease in the flexure of the hock joint; the
same disease in the flexure of the knee is called mallenders.
50 — Bone Spavin ; a disease affecting the bones of the hock joint, and
generally accompanied by ,'i bony tumor on some part of the joint.
51 — Bursal enlargement of fetlock, in front; a soft, puffy swelling.
52 — Hoof with rings, indicating previous fever, usually laminitis.
53 — Sand crack; same as quarter crack, but comes in front,
54 — Flat foot. The bones and hoof are flat and large, being the op-
posite of the straight, upright foot.
55 — Quittor; a running sore or fistula of the quarter, the opening be-
ing above the coronet, and the sinus running downward, inside the hoof.
56 — Grease heel; a deep-seated skin disease, with an offensive dis-
charge ; due to humor in the blood, and aggravated by filth and neglect.
57 — Big leg, from neglected disease of the limb.
58 — Wind galls; soft, puffy swellings that appear to be filled with
air, but, really, with synovia or joint oil.
59 — Blood spavin ; a distension of the vein at the hock from pressure
upcii it by a bony tumor.
DISEASES Oif" THE HORSE. 275
60 — Throughpin ; a puffy enlargement at the upper and back part of
the hock joint, usually appearing both on the inside and outside.
61 — Weak, small thigh, from faulty development.
62 — Capped hock, an enlargement on the point of the hock, usually
filled with serum ; caused by a bniise, oftenest by kicking in the stall.
63 — Curb; an enlargement of the back of the hock, from sprain.
64- — Saddle gall, from uneven pressure of the saddle.
III. Symptoms of Internal Diseases.
Iiiloniiil diseases cannot be illustrated except to de[)ict the actions of
thoanimal when suffering with derangement of the internal organs or their
connections. Their actions, such as position, standing, lying, rolling, kick-
ing, jumping, running etc. ; inclinations, such as the appetite, either rav-
enous or lost ; thirst, either excessive or none, etc., are all condensed
into one word, Symptoms. They express the feelings and appearances
of the animal, and these, along with a few scientific observations, are all
we have to rely upon to diagnose (recognise) the disease. Hence, it is
of vital importance to be cognizant of the actions, habits, constitutional
condition as to pulse, respiration, digestion ; color and quantity of the
excretions ; nature, quality and quantity of food required ; characteris-
tics of age, length of time in uterOy development and longevity ; in fact
all the characteristics of health, in order to be able to know when an ani-
mal is sick. The sooner sickness is recognized and given the jiroper
treatment, che sooner health will be restored and the less will be the lia-
bility of death and loss ; and from a humane point of view, the less
the animal will suffer from extensive lesions.
IV. Importance of Prompt Treatment.
A stitch in time saves nine. There is nothing in which this true saying
applies more forcibly than ui the treatment of ailments of all kinds,
either external or internal. For instance, a horse goes lame from a corn ;
if attended to properly it is cured in a week ; if neglected it festers,
spreads, works up through the foot and breaks out at the top of the
hoof, forming a quittor, which takes from one to three months to cure.
the animal necessarily being idle nearly all the time. Or the horse
catches cold, has catarrh, running from the nose and eyes, sore throat,
cough and loss of appetite ; and if promptly and properly treated he may be
cured in from two to ten days. But if neglected for a Jay or two, to see if
hewMll get well without any botheror expense, the disease is almost sure to
run down onto the lungs and cause a sickness very painful, of long dura-
tion, considerable expense and possible fatal termination.
V. Know What You are Treating.
Therefore we would urge as a matter of very great importance that the
course adopted in case of sickness or lameness be applied promptly and
276 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK 4K1> COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
thoroughly, yet with sufficient ctiution to be convinced that you are on the
right track, so as not to be treatinsf an ankle because it is cocked when
every particle of the lameness is in the foot, or dosing a horse for bots
when the trouble is pleurisy, or giving a. dog medicine for inflammation
of the l)rain when he is suffering from rabies.
These and niaiiy other siinihir mistakes have come under the observa-
tion of the writer. One notable case, in which many might have been
deceived, was seen not very long ago ; a horse was blistered from one
knee up the leg, over the shoulders and withers and down on the other side
to the knee for sprain and soreness in the shoulders, when every bit of the
disease lay in the feet. It was a case of acute founder. We relate this
to impress upon the reader the necessity of careful, deliberate study of a
case before taking ac^tion ; but when the derangement is conclusively
located go ahead and appl}^ promptly the remedies prescribed.
VI. Nursing and Feeding Sick Animals.
Much ingenuity can be displayed in nursing a sick animal. In order to
do it intelligently the nurse must be familiar with the habits and require-
ments of the animal in health. A few simple rules will assist the ama-
teur. Make the animal as comfortable as possible, warm in winter and
cool in sunmier. Give plenty of fresh air to breathe, but in all cases
avoid a draft ; ventilation without drafts is the rule. Clothing for horse?
is often necessary, woolen blankets in winter and linen sheets and nets
in summer. Hoods to cover the head and neck are often needed if the
stable is not sufficiently warm. The proper temperature for the stable
that is used for the hospital is from 55 ^ to 60 ° F. This is warm
enough for all animals except very weak lambs and sick dogs ; they
require a warmer room, from 62® to 70 "® F. A part of the dwelling
house is the best for them, if they are not too numerous.
See that the place is dry and the drainage good. An elevated location
is better than a low-lying one.
The food wants to be simple, clean, nutritious, easy of digestion by
being cooked, changed occasionally and administered often and in small
quantities. Give green food, always, when it can be got. Oats, corn,
barley, bran, shorts, etc., may be scalded with boiling water, covered and
'eft to steam till cold, and then given. It is a great advantage to have
the grain ground. Hay and water should always be given in Liberal
quantities ,• and see that they are clean and pure. Warm milk for calves,
and the same diluted and sweetened a little for Jambs and foals ; beef
lea, law eggs, porridge of either oat or corn meal and milk for dogs, and
the same for pigs will be found to be the best diet. In feeding sick ani-
mals g-ive a little, often, l)ut be careful not to over-feed, as that is liable
DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 277
to throw the patient back aud increase fever. Horses, cattle, etc., need
*;o be fed three or four times a day ; foals, calves, lambs, dogs, etc., every
two to four hours.
Fever patients should have pure water near, so tlicy i^aii hel[) them-
selves when they wish it. Those suffering from diarrhoea or excessive
purgation should be watered four or five times a day, but in smallei quan-
tities.
Rest should always be given to sick animals ; many cases prove fatal
from working too long after being taken sick, or from being put to work
too soon after recovery.
VII. Explanation of Terms Used.
To some readers a few words of explanation may be necessary in ordei
to the proper understanding of the drugs and their doses.
Alteratives change the conditions and functions of organs.
Ancesthetics deprive of sensation and suffering.
Anodynes allay or diminish pain.
Antacids are antidotes to acids.
Anthelmintics kill or expel worms.
Antiperiodics arrest or retard the retui-n of a paroxysm in periodic dis-
eases.
Antiseptics prevent, arrest or retard })utref action.
Antispasmodics prevent or allay cramps.
Aperients gently open the bowels.
Aromatics, strong-smelling stinmlants, dispel wind and allay pain.
Astringents cause contraction of vital structures.
Carminatives, warming stimulants (Aromatics).
Cathartics, Purgatives, freely open the bowels.
Cholagogues increase the secretion of bile.
Demulcents sheathe and protect irritated surfaces.
Diaphoretics, Sudorijics, cause perspiration.
Discutients dispel enlargements.
Disinfectants destroy infecting matter.
Diuretics increase the secretion of urine.
Ecbolics, Pai'turients, cause contraction of the womb.
Emetics induce vomiting.
Expectorants increase the secretion from the air tubes.
Febrifuges counteract fever — lower temperature.
Laxatives (Aperients).
Narcotics allay pain and produce sleep.
Refrigerants diminish heat.
Sedatives depress nervous power or lower circulation.
278
CiOLOPEDIA OF LIVB STOCK AND COMFLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Soporijics induce sleep.
Stimulants temporarily excite the nervous or circulatory system.
Sialogogues increase the secretion of saliva.
Stomachics improve digestion.
Tb?^^t•s gradually and permanently improve digestion and nutrition.
Vermifuges kill and expel worms.
VII. Graduation of Doses.
The relation of quantity of medicine to the age of the patient is thu?
given })y Prof. Low : The doses given may be held applicable to full
grown animals of medium size, therefore some allowance must be made
in any case in which the patient exceeds or comes short of the average of
his kind. A similar modification must be made as regards young anim-
als, not only on account of their smaller size but also of their greater
susceptibility. The following table may serie as a guide :
HORSE, ETC.
OX.
SHEEP.
SWINE.
DOGS.
DOSE.
3 years.
11^-3 "
9-18 m'ths.
5-9 "
1-5 -
2 years.
1-2 "
6-12 m'ths.
3-6 "
1-3 •'
13^ years.
9-18 m'ths.
5-9 "
3-5 "
1-3 "
15 m'ths.
8-15 "
6-8 "
3-6 "
1-3 "
}4 year.
3-6 moths.
11^-3 "
"*^45 days.
:lO-20 "
1 part.
Allowance must also be made for a nervous temperament which usually
renders an animal more impressible, for habit or continued use which
tends to decrease the susceptibility for individual drugs, for idiosyncrasy
which can only be discovered by observing the action of the agent on the
particular subject, and for the influence of disease when that is likely to
affect the action. Thus in most diseases of the brain and spinal cord, and
in some impactions of the stomach, double the usual quantities of pur-
gative medicine will be necessary, while in influenza and ether low fevers
half the usual doses may prove fatal. In acute congestion of the brain,
stimulating narcotics (opium, belladonna, hyoscyamus,) would aggravate
the symptoms, etc.
IX. How Often to Give Medicines.
Febrifuges, or doses intended to reduce fever, such as aconite, bella-n
dona, spirits of nitre, solution of the nitrate or chlorate of potash, or
any form of ammonia should be repeated as often as every two hours in
bad cases, and from that to three or four times a day in mild cases.
Alteratives may be repeated once or twice a day. Purgatives may be
repeated after twenty to thirty hours in bad cases, and after forty to
forty-eight hours in mild cases. Tonics should be repeated once, twice
or thrice a day. Stimulants, especially alcoholic, may be repeated after
two to six hours. Ecbolics may be repeated after half an hour ; ano-
dynes after half an hour ; other remedies as reauired.
DISEASES OF THE HORSE. 279
X. Forms of Medicines and how to Administer.
Medicines should always be given in the food or drink, when possible,
to av^oid worrying the patient and also to avoid the danger of choking from
the liquid running into the lungs. When the medicine is nearly inodor-
ours and tasteless it can be mixed with bran mashes, or other soft feed.
Aloes should be made into a roll the size and shape of your linger and
wrapped in thin paper or put into a gelatine capsule, and passed back onto
the root of the tongue of the horse.
Liquid medicine, in large doses, is given as drenches out of a strong-
necked bottle or horn, the head being elevated and the neck of the bot-
tle inserted at the side of the mouth and ^ y
poured verj'^ slowly in, the head being
kept raised till all is swallowed. If the
patient coughs while being drenched, let /l^^^^Sl^^Wl^iilil^v,^'
the head down instantl}^ regardless of the
loss of the medicine, for, if kept up, it is
apt to run into the lungs, and cause death
in two minutes.
Small doses are best given with a s}^-
, T ,1 '^u ^1 1 Xi. 1 1 M-A^NNER OF GIVING a DREKCH TO
mge ; open the mouth with the left hand ahorse.
and insert the syringe in the left side of the mouth, and shoot the con-
tents well back into the throat. A syringe or s-poon may be u«ed on
all small animals.
Medicine for cattle and and sheep needs to be more bulky and watery,
on account of the great size, comparatively, of the stomach, and Avhen
not practicable to administer it in the food, it siiould be dissolved in
from one to two quarts of water for cattle, and one to two pints for
sheep, and given as a drench from a bottle or horn.
Care should be taken to avoid letting the animal bite the bottle ; keep
the neck of it firmly up agai^ist the roof of the mouth between the
two rows of upper teeth. If the animal should break the bottle, let the
head down instantly and remove the broken glass as quickly as possiblco
280 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE 9T0CK DOCTOB.
A GOOD FARM CHUNK.
This horse has a little too much length of body and not enough deptB.
Height, 15-3 hauds; weight, 1350 pounds. Horses of this type may be found on
the market at all seasons of the year, but during the spring months they form
an important feature of the trade. They are adapted to use on the farm and
are in most urgent need during the season when crops are being planted. They
are usually mixed breeding, draft blood predominating, commonly known among
farmers as "all purpose horses."
For this class low down blocky horses are wanted, not so heavy as the
Eastern Chunks. Farm Chunks are usually lighter of bone and often slightly
blemished or unsound. Since farmers do not usually care to pay for high priced
horses they are often compelled to accept those with slight injuries, such as small
side bones, curbs, wire marks, etc. In general, the typical Farm Chunk should
be a moderately sized, all around good individual standing from 15 to 15-3 hands
high and weighing from 1200 to 1400 pounds. The sample here given is well
representative of the class.
CHAPTER II.
FEET OP THE HORSE AND THEIR DISEASES.
I. CORNS. II. QUITTOR. III. QUARTER AND SANI> CRACKS. IV. SKEDY TOE.
V. PRICKING FROM NAILS VI. ACUTE FOUNDER OR LAMINITIS. VII.
CHRONIC FOUNDER OR LAMINITIS. VIII. PUMICED FEET.
I. Corns.
There is no ailment so common to horses' feet as corns. Fully nine-
tenths of the lameness in the feet are from this source.
Qauses. They are the result of uneven pressure of the shoe, too much
bearing on the quarters, especially the inner one, and too heavy bearing
on the heels. This results from the shoes being left on too long without
beiiu'- reset, and the feet pared down and the heels opened to remove the
surplus growth of hoof, that would be worn off if the foot were not
shod. Corns arc often caused by contraction of the foet, the pressure
on the walls of the quarters, by the contraction of the hoof, being very
great.
It is necessary, as a rule, to shoe horses' feet, and in order to
keep them healthy the shoes should be reset about once a
month, the sole and wall reduced to their proper size, heels
opened, and the ragged surface, if any, trimmed off the frog.
The effect of the too heavy bearing on the quarters and heels is
SOLE OF A ^Q bruise the soft parts underneath, giving rise to soreness, and
s3il a after a day or two a reddish or puq^le spot will appear, varying
rol'*fid[cI^ in size from a ten cent piece to that of a quarter of a dollar. If
\£g L" new ^^^ bruising is light, the corn may become caloused and remain a
constant source of lameness, but not very severe, for a long time ; but,
if it is bad, the corn soon festers, matter forms and increases, spreading
in all directions, till it gets vent either by being opened at the bottom, or
breaks out at the top at the jmiction of the hoof and hair, forming a
quittor.
How to know it.— Li^meness appears, slight at first, but increasing
very fast from day to day. The horse will show an inclination to favor
the sore quarter, and will not wear the shoe quite so much on that heel.
By applying the hand to the foot, you will notice heat in the sore part.
281
282
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
^■^
FEET OF THE HORSE AND THEIR DISEASES. 288
Tapping the foot gently with a hammer will make the horse flinch when
the sore spot is reached, and he will point the foot (thrust
it out forward) restingitonthe toe, raising the heels com-
pletely off the ground. If there are corns on ])oth feet, he
will change feet, mil point first one, then the other. If
the corns are small and not very sore, the lameness may
diminish with travel, so that when well warmed up he will sole ok
go quite sound, till he stands at rest again. Then he will *'^^'^'
go off lamer than ever. When the corn is festered, he will poS/of a'coTn""'
be very lame, indeed, will only touch the toe to the ground, will move
with the greatest difficulty and reluctance. When the shoe is removed,
you will find the purple spot in the quarter, between the wall and the
bar, near the heel.
What to do. — Remove the shoe, pare out the quarter well, so as tore-
move all pressure, and let out any matter that may be under the sole ;
then put the foot into a linseed poultice made up soft with hot water.
Leave it on twenty-four hours, then renew it. While the poultice is
off, examine the foot to see if it needs any more paring ; if the hole is
deep, you will need to cut the hoof well away to allow the matter to escape
freely ; for if you do not, it will work up through to the top of the hoof.
Before putting the poultice on again, pour into the corn a little pure
carbolic acid, or turpentine, or dilute nitric acid — diluted one-half with
water. Dress it in this way once a day till all soreness is gone, and the
horse will stand on the foot as well as ever. Then leave off the poultice.
If proud flesh comes up in the hole, burn it down with powdered blue
vitriol. The hoof you have pared away will soon grow again. When it has
stopped running, apply the vitriol once a day, which will dry and heal it.
When it is all dry, and the horse walks sound on the foot, put on a bar
shoe to protect the weak quarter, giving the frog gentle pressure ; pour
warm tar into the hole, and stuff oakum or tow soaked in tar under the
shoe. When shoeing afterwards, bear in mind to avoid too heavy bear-
ing on the heels. When that quarter has grown out again, and is strono^,
the bar shoe may be replaced, by an open one.
If the foot is much contracted, take the bearing off the quarters by
reducing the walls a little, so as to have the appearance of the shoe hav-
mg been sprung off the heels, but let the shoe be perfectly level. Open
the heels well up towards the hair, so as to give the feet a chance to
spread while growing.
When a foot is much inclined to have corns, the shoe should be reset
often — every two or three weeks — and the quarters well cleaned out each
time.
Extra care will have t») be taken of the feet that have once been affec-
t-ed with corns, to keep them soft. Soak them in a tub of either cold or
284 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTORc
warm water. Some add salt, soda, etc. , but it is better clear, as the only
virtue lies in the moisture. Many of the substances used are injurious to
the hoofs, by making them brittle. Or pack the hoof with linseed meal, or
oil-cake meal, wet up with hot water. If there is much heat and fever,
put on swabs, either made of felt or pieces of old blanket or woolen cloth,
folded and tied around the pastern, and left to hang down over the feet,
and wet frequently with hot water.
A horse that has chronic corns can be cured by shoeing him with tips reach-
ing half way back to the heels, letting the heels come to the ground and
take wear. This gives frog pressure also and spreads the quarters, which
will in time gi'ow the corns completely out. A little fly blister rubbed into
the coronets of the fore feet will stimulate a healthy growth of horn, and as-
sist in overcoming the conditions of the hoof that helped to induce the corns.
n. Quitter.
Quittor is the name given to a disease of the foot, when the festering of
any other sore works up through, and breaks out at the top of the hoof at
the junction with the hair.
Causes. — It is usually the result of a neglected corn, prick of a nail,
gravel getting into a nail hole, or a festered corn working up through to
the top of the hoof.
How to Know It. — It usually occurs on the quarters, anywhere from
the heels to two or three inches forward, but is oftener seen on the inner
quarter, because corns are most often found there. It
makes its appearance, after the horse has been lame for
some time, by swelling at the coronet. Sometimes the
first active swelling of the part is as large as a hen's egg.
In the course of a day or two it breaks and discharges
In active suppuration, matter, whcu the horse will be relieved of some of the
before the pus has . i . i i
broken out at the top. pam, which has bccu very intense during the formation
of the sore. Sometimes the foot can scarcely be put to the floor at all,
and may be kept pawing most of the time. After the quittor has been run-
ning two or three days, the flesh around the opening will turn purple and
A get soft, and the matter will spread, extending each way,
^^^^'■"Mm^ but more towards the front. In a couple of weeks pipes
^wiSfil^B^ ^^^ have formed, pointing downwards in all directions,
^^g^Mr having one common center in the opening at the top. If
^^^S^^^0 ^®* alone, the walls of the pipes will thicken and harden,
A QUITTOR. and the enlargement at the top will increase, sometimes to
oiit at t1feiop° ^" the size of a man's fist. All this time the lameness con-
tinues very great, and, if allowed to run on for three months or more, the
foot becomes so full of pipes and so large, hot and painful as to require
FEET OF THE HORSE AND THEIR DISEASES. 285
very persistent and thorough treatment to stop the disease, and can never be
reduced to its natural size and form. In extreme cases lameness is per-
manent, with a tendency of the toe to turn up, and the horse walks on his heel.
What to do. — If taken as soon as it breaks open at the top, poultice the
foot for twenty -four hours, to soften all the parts. Then give the diseased
part vent at the bottom, to allow the matter, if any, to run out there if it
will; but if none is found at the bottom, do not cut the hoof to make it
bleed, as that would only make another sore, and would do no good. Open
it freely at the top; probe it with a piece of smooth, rounded whalebone to
find how deep the hole goes, and in what dii'ection. Then follow the probe
down with the knife, and open right out and down the hoof, as far as the
hole goes, taking out a V-shaped piece of the wall to allow the matter to
escape at the bottom, instead of making it come out at the top. Scarify the
purple flesh to set up a healthy inflannuation in the part. Then sponge it out
with warm water to cleanse it, and follow with a lotion made as follows:
No. 1. 2 Drachms sulphate of copper,
Yi Pint water.
Mix.
Inject it well down into the wound, twice a day. If it burns and causes
a scab to come on the flesh, dilute it a little after using it three or four
days. If after a week or ten days the wound does not appear to be getting
weU, change to the following:
No. 2. 3 Drachms sulphate of zinc,
Yi Pint water.
Mix.
By being careful that the opening is down to the bottom all the time, to
let the matter out, you will have no trouble in curing it. Keep the shoe
otf till the foot is well enough to work ; then put on a bar shoe so as to
protect the weak quarter.
In very bad cases, in which there are several pipes running in as many
directions, it is absolutely necessary to open up each one fearlessly. Then
go on with the lotions given above, and change occasionally to the following:
No. 3. 1 Drachm corrosive sublimate,
Yz Pint water.
Mix.
In long continued treatment it is advisable to alternate the lotions, one
week on, and one oflf.
The hoof will grow faster on account of the inflammation in it, so that it
will be necessary to have the foot pared down occasionally. When the
discharge is all dried up and the disease cured, blister the enlargement to
reduce it. After the blister has taken hold, grease the part once a day,
till it is nearly well, then repeat the blister. Soak the foot often, and pack
it with oil-cake meal to keep it soft.
286 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
m. Quarter and Sand Cracks.
These are cracks in the hoof, usually lengthwise of the fibres of
the hoof, though sometimes the hoof breaks across the fibres for a dis-
tance of an inch or so. But the crack rarely extends through
the hoof into the laminae, or quick, consequently it does not
cause lameness.
^ Quarter cracks come on the quarters, usually on the in-
side, on account of that quarter being thinner and weaker
than the outer one.
Sand cracks come on the wall of the foot, anywhere forward of the
quarters, and are so called on account of their l)eing more common in
sandy parts of the country.
These cracks are due to a ])rittle condition of the lioof, :ind a want of
elasticity in the fibres.
Causes. — Poor assimilation, or faulty distribution of the food and a want
of proper imtrition to the hoof, are principal causes giving rise to a slow
growth. AVhat does grow is hard, brittle and inelastic. Sometimes the
hoofs become cracked from the heating, drying influences of sandy roads,
stony pavements in cities, and long continued want of
moisture to the feet. When the feet are in this condition,
any severe work or pounding of the hoofs is liable to break
them . Racers and trotters are particularly subject to them ,
because the tracks are sometimes very hard, and the tre-
mendous exertions of the horses, and the pounding of the
Or deficiency of the , ,. , . i i ^
outer wall. fect Oil the track, are peculiarly trying to the hoofs ; and
unless they are in first-class condition, they are apt to crack.
How to know it. — A crack or split in the hoof, it may be only at the
top or at the bottom, and very short, or in the centre, from top to bot-
tom ; or it may extend clear from the top to the bottom. It may extend
inward but a little way, or it may be deep, clear into the quick, so that
the soft parts are pinched between the edges of the crack, making it bleed
and causing great lameness. The lameness may come on gradually or
suddenly. It depends upon whether the crack starts on the surface and
increases in depth with every strain, or whether it breaks right through
to the quick at once. In the latter case, the horse will go dead lame
immediately, and oftentimes the blood will run from the crack. But in
the former case he will not be lame till the crack does extend through to
the quick.
As in all cases of lameness in the foot, wheic there is pain, he will
point the foot, that is, thrust it forward, to rest it.
FEET OF THE HORSE AND THEIR DISEASES.
28-;
Top or wall
Iron for burmnq hole:>
Actual/, thxckjvess
ofwaJjts of'JhOOt'
w; ^ v-<
'/s
\ 0
\
J^> ^
\
<^< ^y
\
Quarter -crnrtc witio cross cue
Die chnuf) (i/id naiJ nmcdu-^ appliecL.
Toe crock. tVaJl removed to sfio^
nbsorptiorv of coffin hone
'Treated by cLainpuig wUJv nai/s
\
Ocukcd^'fiaMs
One eJfect of Quarter CracA
OUAHTER-CRACK AND REMEDIES
2<S8 0Yf;L01'EDIA Ol'^ LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
COiLtractc^ foot.
SextLon. across ft^. 7 atx.
7
Badl} u/rur(j ctcdL foot.
Soujixl biu. t'/at toou
SOUND AND CONTRACTED FEET.
FEET OF THE HORSE ANB THEIR DISEASES. 289
What to do. — Remove the shoe and reduce the wall of that quarter, to
take off the beaiiug. If it is broken through into the quick, take a
sharp shoeing knife and pare down the edges of the crack the Avhole
tength, enough to relieve the pinching, and for a distance of half an inch
on each side of the crack, to make it more pliable. Then take either a
sharp knife or a red hot iron, mth an edge to it, and cut or burn across
the crack at the top, right through to the quick. MaKe the cut at least
an inch long ; this is to start a new hoof and make it grow down sound
and naturally.
If the crack does not extend clear through the hoof, it
is not necessary to pare away the edges. If there is no
lameness, you may be certain it is not broken through into
the quick, for if it is the horse will go lame. It is a
good plan to cut or bum across the crack at the top, and
take off the bearing at the bottom, but do not cut or burn ^uarteu cuack
so deep as in the more severe case. Then have a plate ^"bear'n^takei^off a1
either of brass, copper or iron, half an inch wide, and saod.''°"°"'' ""^
an inch and a half long, screwed on across the crack ; have the screws
.about a quarter of an inch long, and screw them into the lioof , while an
assistant draws the edges of the crack together with a
pair of pinchers, the horse at the time standing on the
other foot to take the weight off the one operated on.
As the foot grows, the plate will have to l)e moved
down, about once a month or six weeks, or, i)erhaps, not
P- ,1 . , ,1 J. ^1 1 J. QUARTER CRACK.
oitener than once m two months, according as the hoof
f, 1 Showing- the hoof
^ USt or slow. broken only part way
" ~i n n 1 1 IT oi 11 "P» dressed, pared
Jf flesh grows up between the edges of the crack, burn and shod.
it down with powdered blue vitriol, applied once a day. When it is dry
and the soft parts are healed by the vitriol, dress it
with pine tar once a day.
In all cases blister the coronet at the junction of
hoof and hair, clear around from heel to heel, but
do not blister back of the heels, in the hollow of
the pastern. Let the blister be of cantharides
(Spanish flies.)
If the cracks are bad, it is best to shoe with a
bar shoe, which should be reset every three or four
weeks.
CLOSING A nOOF CRACK.
Cracks that break crosswise of the hoof seldom By the use of thin wire.
amount to disability. If there is iny flesh exj^osed, dress it with
290
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AJSD COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOB,
powdered blue vitriol once a day, till it is dry, then with tar. No
change will be made in the shoeing.
FALSE QUARTER.
Relieved of bearing
on the shoe.
SAND CRACK. •
Pared away at the
sides and bottom,
to remove bearing
' also method of
shoeing with clips
to support sides of
crack.
SAND CRACK.
Dressed, shod and
bandaged for
work, when rest
cannot be givon.
IV. Seedy Toe.
Seedy toe is a dry, mealy condition of the wall at the toe.
Causes. — It is caused ".sually hy bruising of the toe, by the clip of the
shoe being pounded into the toe too tightly ; and the
bruised part takes on a sort of dry rot, or gangrene,
which extends up between the wall and the laminae. It
causes tenderness of the foot when bad, but is rarely met
with. It is a separation of the tAvo layers of horn which
SEEDY TOE. * « , , » -, • r
Showing the separation composc thc crust of the hoof, rcsultmg f I'om discase
soft plrTs^'underneaUi! ^"6 to bruises or faulty condition of the body.
How to know it. — When the shoe is removed, a mealy, whitish-looking
substance will be seen immediately under the Avail, at the toe, running up
towards the hair, sometimes for an inch or so, and may be picked or
broken down easily with a nail, leaving a hollow beneath the shell.
What to do. — Pare away the wall at the toe after taking off the shoe,
so as to remove the bearing therefrom. Pick out all the mealy substance
that breaks dowm easily, and turn in warm tar, and press in a little wad
of tow. Replace the shoe, and apply a mild blister of cautharides to the
coronet.
PEET OF THE HORSE AND THEIB DISEASES.
291
Prevention. — Avoid pounding the clip of the shoe into the toe, but cut
away a little of the wall to form a hollow place for it.
DIAGRAM OF SHOE.
Showing clip that is
hammered into the toe,
sometimes causing
seedy toe.
VIEW OF A FOOT.
Showing toe pared to receive the
clip to avoid seedy toe.
V. Pricking from Nails.
Causes. — Pricking may come from a nail running into the quick when
Bhoeing, or a nail may be picked up in the street. It is often dose by the
horse stepping on a piece of board containing a nail, and the nail is often
pulled right out again when he steps off the board, or the nail may be
broken off inside.
How to know it. — Sudden lameness will tell you that something serious
is wrong. Pull off the shoe and examine the foot carefully. If one of
the shoe-nails has punctm-ed the quick, it will be moist and black. If a
nail is found anywhere in the foot, pull it out carefully, so as not to break
it off. If it should be broken off, pare away the hoof around it, and get
hold of it with nippers and pull it out.
The lameness will be greater or less, according to the amount of injury
done ; if the nail wounds the tendon, that plays over the navicular joint
in the foot, or pierces the navicular joint, the
lameness will be very great, long continued and
sometimes permanent. In many of these cases
there is high fever, great pain, restlessness, blow-
ing, redness of eyes, and the horse will not lie
down. He wnll paw or continuously raise the
foot. There will be loss of appetite in some cases,
and not in others ; the flanks will be tucked up,
and every evidence of intense pain will be shown,
especially if the wound is in the hind foot, and
more especially if the navicular joint is punctured, pricking from nails.
In that case there will be a discharge of joint oil, showing the shoe partly nuiied oft
a yellowish watery matter, which clots like blood '^t^fi^VitriTJ^lr' "'''"''
aooQ after runnimr out. When dressing it, you will find clots of yellow-
292 CTCL-OPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOK.
ish, amber-colored matter on the poultice. In bad cases the leg swells.-
sometimes to the body. Great heat is in the foot and leg, and pain is
shown if the foot is tapped. There will also be a hard, hot swelling in
the hollow of the pastern and around the heels, with great tenderness to
the touch.
All these symptoms will be noticed to a greater or less extent, accord-
ing'to the amount of injury done. Cases in which the nail does not
wound the joint are usually simple.
What to do. — When you have removed the shoe, and found where
the prick is, pare out the hole, and around it a little, to thin the hoof :
this Avill relieve the pressure when it begins to swell. Then turn in a
small quantity of solution of carbolic acid, one part of acid to twenty
of water, or use a little turpentine. Either will tend to prevent suppur-
ation. Then put the foot into a boot, or bag of linseed meal poultice.
Change it once a day and examine the wound each time, to see that any
matter that forms can escape. This is very important.
If it is a mild case, it will get well soon and the
lameness disappear, when the horse can be shod and gc
to work. But if it is a bad case, and much matter
forms, it will extend under the hoof and spread. In
order to prevent this it is best to remove that part of
the hoof which has matter under it. The same rule
applies to the frog ; sometimes the matter works un-
der the entire fros:, and it has to come off, but a new
THE SOLE OF A „ j-i ""
FOOT. one forms readily,
showinff nail wound and A hot poulticc is bcst, cxccpt whcu there is an open
and how to pare it out. ^.^.^^^^ ^j^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ,^ ^^^j^ ^^^^^ instead. At cvcry dress-
ing apply the carbolic lotion, and poultice right over it.
If proud flesh comes up, keep it down ^vith powdered blue vitriol,
applied once a day ; if it comes up suddenly, as large as your thumb,
you can cut it off with perfect safety. Then, when it stops bleeding,
dress it with the vitriol. As soon as there is no more matter, and the
lameness is nearly gone, leave off the poultice and dress it once a day
with pine tar.
If the joint is opened, in addition to the treatment given above spread
over the injured part of the foot, and also in the hollow of the pastern,
Solid Extract of Belladonna, a piece as large as your little finger-nail,
once a day and let the poultice go on cold, right over it. Continue
/his as long as there is much lameness. If there is much fever, give
T^R'^t'ue of Aconite Root in ten-drop doses, in a table-spoonful of cole
orater every two hours until the horse is better.
FEET OF THE HORSE AND THEIR DISEASES. 293
No change need be made in the shoeing, except to stuff tar and tow
over the nail-hole, under the shoe. If nail wounds are neglected lock
jaw is very apt to follow.
VI. Acute Founder or Laminitis.
Founder is of two kinds, acute and chronic. It is acute where, when
it first takes place, all the symptoms are aggravated and the disease is
attended with more or less fever. It is chronic when it has been of long
standing and the diseased condition has taken an organized form, will
remain as it is and become a part of the organized system, but is not
attended by any fever, other than a slight local heat.
The inner surface of the wall of the hoof has horny leaves or laminae,
very fine and near together, running up and down. On the outer surface
of the bone of the foot are sensitive, fleshy leaves that dovetail, as it
were, into the leaves on the wall of the hoof. On these leaves is borne
the weight of the entire body.
Causes. — Sometimes it is caused by overwork, in which the feet are
pounded, and sored up, causing inflammation in tlie leaves. But founder
is usually a metastatic disease — one that originates in some
other part of the body and goes to the feet by a peculiar trans-
ference called metastasis. It may originate in congestion of |
the lungs, pleurisy, inflammation of the bowels or periton-
eum (the membrane holding the bowels in place) or in almost
any part of the body. Drinking cold water when warm, or ^^?^^,^^J"
standing in a draft when heated will cause it. sole.
How to know it. — The acute form is easily recognized b}^ f'^^^^'^^^^^'l^^'^
the horse being in great pain, persistently standing in one P^-^'ced foot.
place, as if riveted there, it lacing almost impossible to move him an inch
in any direction, especially backward. He absolutely cannot back, but
will hang the body back, throwing most of the weight on the hind legs,
and stretching the fore legs as far forward as possible. If the animal
tries to lift a foot it fails and acts as though the foot were fastened to the
floor.
The pulse is quickened, temperature raised, the mucous membianei
become red and injected ; the breathing is quickened as though there were
some lung trouble; sweating is profuse, he will not lie down, and the
appetite is lost for the time. The characteristic symptom i* the inability
to back ; if you try to force the animal to back, it will swing the body
back, without moving the feet. When thoroughly exhausted from stand-
ing, the horse will drop down, and will lie much of the time afterwards.
The inflammation in the bones of the hoof is followed by an effusion of
water which severs the connection between the leaves by maceration,
19
294
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
letting the toe of the foot drop down, forming pumiced foot, if it is aoft
promptly treated. Pumiced foot is incurable.
POSITION TAKEN IN ACUTE FOUNDER.
Sometimes the inflfimmation goes on to suppuration. Matter forms and
extends around the hoofs, often causing them to drop off, which will
take place in the course of three to six weeks.
Acute founder is often fatal by the excessive fever, by the absorption
of pus into the system, causing pyemia, or by the extreme weakness that
follows a long, lingering case.
What4o do.— Give a dose of Kaw Linseed Oil, one Pint, then pull off
all the shoes and pare down the walls of the bare feet, so as to let him
A CONVENIENT WAY OF SOAKING THE FEET IN HOT WATER IN CASr
OF FOUNDER.
stand on the sole and frog. If the feet cannot be raised to remove the
shoes, lay him down and then remove them. Then, if standing, put him
into a hot foot bath all around, one or two feet at a time. Let the water
FEET OF THE HORSE AND THEIR DISEASES.
295
296 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
FEET OF THE HORSE AND THEIR DISEASES.
297
be hot for each one, and with a little mustard in it. Bathe the legs with
it as high as the knees and hocks. Leave them in as long as the water
remains hot ; then take them out and put each foot into a linseed poultice,
hot and soft, and bandage the legs with flannel. Repeat this morning
and night for two or three weeks, or until the soreness is nearly all gone
from the feet. Then stand him in a clay puddle, daytimes, and take him
out of nights, and continue this as long as there is any stiffness. It will
need to be continued, in most cases, for a month or more. Leave the shoes
off till he is ready to work again . As soon as the feet are well put into
poultices, begin on the following mixture :
No 4. 1 Ounce sweet spirits of aiti'e,
1 Dractim tr. aconite root,
1 Ounce potash nitrate,
%, Pint water,
Mix.
Give a tablespoonf ul every two hours, until the fever abates and the
patient becomes comfortable ; then drop off to three times a day. Con-
tinue this for about a week, or in a very bad case, ten days. Feed lightl}'
on warmmashes, scalded oats, grass, &c.
VII. Chronic Pounder or Laminitis
How to know it. — ^The chronic form is a modification of the acute.
In bad cases you will notice the difiicult backing ; lameness ; pointing of
the feet, first one and then the other ; the horse goes with a short,
shambling gait, as though the legs were all stiff, and the shoulders are
ACUTE LAMINITIS (Foundered),
(Feet close together).
thrown forward, giving the chest the appearance of being drawn in.
Hence the mistake some make, in supposing the horse to be chest-foun-
dered. There is no such thing, it is always in the feet.
DEFORMED
298 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AN1> COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
The shoes will be worn off more at the heels, and when pointing them
he will extend the feet and rest them on the heel, turning the toes up
as much as possible, because the trouble nearly all lies in the toes.
Horses with chronic founder will choose the soft parts
of the road, but will avoid the water and mud holes as
much as possible. In feeling of the feet you will notice
them very hot nearly all the time, and there will be
^ rings on the hoofs, from uneven growth of horn. The
feet will very soon become much contracted and the
HOOF. hoofs brittle.
^tin^ 'iXacu?e^''o; WHot to do.— You canuot do anything to cure it, but
chronic founder. j^. ^.^^^ ^iB allcviatcd by kccpiug the feet as cool and soft
as possible with poultices, clay puddles and foot baths.
In addition, rub a little fly blister around the coronets once a month,
and reset the shoes often.
VIII. Pumiced Peat.
Causes. — When the inflammation in the feet, from acute laminitis, is
neglected, or allowed to run on several days before the proper treatment
is applied, the connection between the sensible and insensible laminae,
or leaves, is destroyed by the effusion that accumulates between thejn
and soaks them apart, letting the toe of the bone tip on to the sole. ,
pushing it down to the ground, or nearly so, and making the lower sur-
face convex instead of concave, as it should be. Sometimes the toe ot
the bone will be punched quite through.
How to know it. — Take up the foot, and instead of seeing a nice, cup-
shaped sole, 3'ou will find it bulged down towards the ground, making it
oval the wrong way. If the bone is punching through, you will notice
it, and it will leave no doubt in your mind as to what it is. The horse
will be lame with all the characteristic symptoms of chronic founder.
What to do. — Nothing can be done to cure it, but if it is not very bad,
careful shoeing, to keep all pressure off the sole, by means of a shoe,
well concaved on the bearing surface, will help to keep him on his feet;
then, by keeping the feet as cool as possible, he can be made serviceable for
easy work.
When the toe of the bone pushes through, he is of no more use, and
might as well be destroyed, to mercifully put him out of his misery.
CHAPTER HI.
PEET OP THE HOBSE AND THEIR DISEASES, CONTINUED.
I. THKUSH. II. NAVICULAR DISEASE. III. CONTRACTION OF THE FOOT. IT.
GRAVEL. V. CANKER. VI. CALKS. VII. FRACTURE OP THE BONE ©F
THE FOOT. VIII. STONE BRUISES. IX. SIDE BONE.
I. Thrush.
Thrush is the name given to a disease of the frog. It is a rotting or
ulceration of the frog, and is attended with a very offensive, black, wat-
ery discharge. The frog rots completely off sometimes, and extends
down in the cleft between the heels, to a depth of from half an inch to
two inches.
Causes. — Uncleanliness, standing in a filthy stable, especially in their
own excrement. The filth remaining in the foot a long time and exclud-
ing the air, sets up decay which runs into ulceration.
How to know it. — The ragged frog, offensive smell, black discharge,
deep cleft between the heels, which causes them to drop in towards each
other, making them look very much contracted, are evident signs. In
bad cases the animal sometimes goes lame, but not in mild cases. Still,
great harm results from neglecting it, on account of the injury to the
shape of the foot.
What to do. ^Trim off all the ragged parts of the frog, clean out all
the holes and crevices with a case knife, or some similar instrument, then
apply a linseed poultice, with charcoal powdered over the surface. After
twenty-four hours clean it all off, and dress the affected f)arts with calo-
mel well introduced into all the cracks, with the case knife. Repeat this
once or twice, letting a day intervene between the applications. When
it is all dried up, dress the part with pine tar.
Prevention. — Pick out the feet well, each day, to let the air in around
the frog, which is necessary to keep them healthy.
n. Navicular Disease.
One of the tendons of the leg {the flexor pedis perforans) passes
down the back of the leg to the foot, and around beneath the navicular
bone and joint of the foot, that lies directly above the frog. The tendon,
passing between the bone and the frog, attaches itself to a rough hollow
on the sole of the coffin bone. Disease in that part of the tendon, bone
or joint is navicular disease-
299
300 CYCLOPEIrlA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
The tendon is inflamed, sore and swolen ; the inflammation extends to
the joint and from that to the bone, Avliich becomes rough and porous
from having its fatty portion al)sorbed. The edge sometimes gets so
sharp and rough as to saw through the tendon. This will let the fetlock
down onto the ground, and the toe will turn up.
Causes. — It is caused by a very severe sprain of the tendon in its lower
portion ; any severe bruise on the frog or heels ; the prick of a nail en-
tering the foot far enough to wound the tendon or joint ; or it might be
caused by great contraction, the hoof pressing on the ends of the navi-
cular bone, interrupting nutrition, thereby setting up disease.
How to know it. — There will be lameness of a peculiar kind. In the
earlier stages the horse will go out quite lame, from a dryness of the
joint, but will improve as he goes farther, though not so as to go sound ;
for the tendon being injured it would be impossible for the lameness to
disappear altogether with exercise. He Avill wear the shoes most at the
toes, will point the feet when standing, alternating them if both are af-
fected, and rest them on the toes.
As the disease progresses, the gait becomes short, and the horse is liable
to stumble, going too much on his toes, forming lameness known as
groggy lameness.
Upon pressure of the thumb down into the hollow of the pastern, be-
tween the heels, tenderness will be noticed, and usually some swelling ; the
hollow will be tilled up, and the pastern will be straightened up, nearer
the perpendicular than is natural, and the knees will soon begin to go
over.
What to do.— When the first symptoms are noticed, viz : slight lame-
ness, with inclination to stumble, going out a little lame and soon warm-
ing out of it, tenderness to pressure in the hollow of the pastern and to
tapping on the frog and heels, take off the shoes, pare out the feet well,
open the heels, reduce the frog a little, and put on a wide-webbed, open
shoe with the heels raised half an inch, to take off the bearino- from the
heels and frog, and to relieve the tension on the tendon. Then put the
foot into a hot, soft, linseed poultice ; change it once a day, and continue
it right along for a couple of weeks.
If matter should show itself anywhere, you may be sure you have
made a mistake in the disease. The matter must come from a nail or a
corn, for matter never shows itself in navicular disease. Trace the pus,
if any, to its origin, and treat it as prescribed for Pricks from Nails, and
Corns.
After ten days or a fortnight, if the horse is better, take off the poul-
tice and apply a fly blister to the hollow of the pastern, if it is swollen ;
FEET OF THE HORSE AND THEIR DISEASES.
301
if not, let it alone. After the blister has been on for twelve hours,
smear fresh lard over it. Continue this once a day, till the scabs come off ;
then turn him out to grass, with the shoe on, but reset it once a month,
with the same directions carried out as given above.
If it is impracticable to turn to grass, keep the foot soft for a couple
of months, by soaking in a foot-bath, or poultice-boots occasionally.
He had better not be worked or driven during this treat-
ment. Even after you think he is well, the high heel had
better be continued for a couple of months.
If this does not cure, the next thing to be done is to
have a frog seton inserted. This requires the skill
of a qualified veterinary surgeon, and the foot must
be kept in a poultice boot six weeks. A long
rest and proper shoeing afterwards will also be neces-
necessary.
In all chronic cases, or those that will not yield to
treatment, all there remains to be done, is to perform
neurotomy. This also requires the skill of the surgeon ;
it never should be done, except as a last resort, and when
the horse is useless from incurable Ipmeness, from this or
any other disease in the feet.
III. Contraction of the Foot.
Causes. — Contraction is thought by many to be an original disease,
coming on without any departure from a healthy foot previouslj^ ; but
this is a mistake, except in very rare instances. It is nearly always the
effect of some other disease, especially when bad. Contraction accom-
panies navicular disease, corns, founder, sprains of the tendons, liga-
ments and muscles of the leg or shoulder. Any long-standing lame-
ness, of the foot or leg, is always accompanied by contraction of that foot
from the continual rest it gets in being favored every time the horse
stops ; when standing, he always points that foot, and rests it til]
compelled to start again. At the same time, the healthy foot expands on
account of getting more than its share of the work ; so it is only a ques-
tion of a short time for the feet to become very uneven, one small and the
other large ; and they will no longer be mates. When you see this con-
dition you may look for chronic lameness ; it is most likely to be in the
feet, either navicular disease, or chronic founder.
But contraction, to a certain extent, is the inevitable result of shoeing,
A colt's foot, before being shod, is large, round and open-heeled, the
quarters spread out like wings, and the whole foot on the under side hae
DIAGRAM.
Showing Ihe coursi.
of the nerve thai
is severed in neu-
rotomy, a is the
nerve leading tc
frog.
302
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
the appearance of a large saucer. In shoeing, the quarters have to be
narrowed more than the toe, because they are spread more, and in their
expanded condition cannot bear weight on a shoe ; the toe gets broken
and worn off, while running, so it never spreads to the same extent as the
quarters.
The cause of the colt's foot being so round and open is, that he has
run on the turf without shoes, the feet have gathered so much moisture,
been kept so soft, stepping on the earth or into the mud, that they
act like a sponge, being compressed w^ien stepped on, and expanding as
soon as the weight is relieved, so that the hoof spreads a little every time
the foot is raised. Another reason is, the foot being in moisture nearly
all the time, the hoof grows faster, and extra fast growth is inclined to
spreading, w^hereas a slow growi,h is inclined to contraction ; and as soon
as the colt is shod and put to work the slower growth of the hoof begins,
and w^ith it contraction.
Good shoeing will do a great deal towards preventing contraction and
keeping the feet in good condition ; and bad shoeing will ruin a foot in
very little time.
n
There is no more prolific cause
than leaving the shoes on six,
eight or twelve weeks without being
reset, for the shoe, being nailed to the
hoof, compels it to grow down in the
form prescribed by the shoe. And
when it is removed, and the hoof pared
down to its natural size, you will find
the heels very much contracted. An-
other common cause is standing on
hard floors, allowing the feet to become all dried up.
What to do. — When there is no other disease in the foot, and con-
traction comes from bad or neglected shoeing, pull off the shoes, pare the
feet down liberally, so as to be able to press the sole with the thumb,
open the heels right up to the soft parts, rasp off the quarters quite thin,
leave the frog as large as possible, in fact do not touch it at all. Then
rub in a little fly blister to the coronet, smear the quarters with hoof oint-
ment once a day, and turn out to pasture on soft ground. If you do not
wish to turn the horse out, the shoes may be put on again ; in doing
so, let them be plain shoes with no calks, medium weight, perfectl}" level
on the bearing surface, and beveled off to avoid bearing on the sole.
Reduce the quarters so as to relieve them of any bearing on the shoe,
SHOE LEFT ON TOO LONG.
Causing the hoof to prow over the shoe
quarters, and to contract.
rEET OF THE HORSE AND THEIR DISEASES.
303
and let the frog come right down to the ground. Set the shoes once ev-
ery three or four weeks, and repeat the above treatment each time, and in
the course of three or four months, you will have a decent foot. There
are several methods of spreading the heels by force, but in the long run
they are all impracticable, and cannot be recommended. In addition to
the above treatment, the feet may be packed with any soft packing, or a
wet sponge held to the sole by any one of the many devices for that pur-
pose ; or the horse may be stood in a soak tub of either hot or cold water
f. couple of hours in the forenoon, and the same in the afternoon ; or
i tand him in a clay puddle, as prescribed for founder.
A LOW HEELED, FLAT FOOT.
Seldom afflicted with contraction
A STRONG, UPRIGHT,
HIGH HEELED FOOT.
Predisposed to contraction.
rv. Gravel.
Causes.— Gravel is apt to work up into a sore of any kind in the foot,
and cause'great pain, irritation and lameness. It often gets into a corn,
or into a nail hole, made either by a prick in shoeing, or by a nail picked
up in the road. It may get into a quarter crack, calk, or any wound
whatever, and always causes an increased inflammation, and aggravates
any existing difficulty.
How to know it.— Examine the wound carefully, to avoid pushing the
gravel farther in. Jt will be readily detected by feeling hard, grating
grains in the wound, or by the dirty appearance of the wound itself ; it
will look black and unhealthy.
If neglected, it will work up through and break out at the top, forming
a quitton It sometimes gets into a crack that forms between the wall
of the quarter and the sole, either from the sole shrinking away from the
wall, or the wall being broken away from the sole.
What to do.— Trim the hoof away around the opening, ao as to have
plenty of room, then wash it out, rinse it out with a syringe, by shooting
104
CrrCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AN1> COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
the water into the hole with some force ; then dig it all out carefully, and
inject into it carbolic lotion :
No. 6.
1 Part carbolic acid,
30 Parts water.
Mix.
Then a[)ply a poultice, hot and soft. Repeat this once a day till the hole
is filled up with sound, healthy flesh. Then a[)ply the treatment pre-
scribed for corns.
V. Canker.
When any extensive disease of the feet necessitates the exposure of
much of the soft structures, instead of the flesh becoming nicely covered
with hoof, and coming out smooth, it sometimes sprouts up into a shreddy,
leathery substance, that will not grow together and form hoof, but remains
spongy, enlarged, soft and tender.
CANKER OF THE SOLE.
The horny sole being re-
moved.
CANKEK OF THE FROG.
The horn laid back to show
the diseased parts.
Causes. — Neglected or badly treated wounds, they boing also affected
by the air in which the horse is kept during the healing of them ; low,
damp, dirty stables, without drainage or ventilation ; and the horse
standing in his own excrement during their treatment.
It is more common among draft horses and those of a phlegmatic
nature.
How to know it. — By the uneven surface, growing up in leaves that
extend down, sometimes from a half to three quarters of an inch.
What to do. — Bad cases are usually considered incurable ; when such
exist, the foot never can be made to grow into a tine, solid hoof. But in
most cases the disease will yield to proper treatment.
Pare away all you can without bleeding it; then dress it with pow-
dered blue vitriol. Keep the sole and all diseased portions dry ; this is most
important, as moisture prevents a solid growth, and promotes a fungous
growth. If any pas comes out between the leaves, insert, well down into
FEET OF THE HORSE AND THEIR DISEASES. 305
the hole, a stick of lunar caustic. Dress it in this way once a day till the
leaves are all reduced to a solid surface, then, if it is raw flesh, and not too
prominent, apply burnt alum or air-slacked lime, alternating them
occasionally with the vitriol. Keep the sore part perfectly dry all the
time.
When it is well started, and good quality of hoof is growing, dress it
with pine tar and tow. The horse may be shod as soon as it is well
enough to be dressed with the tar ; before that time the shoe is better off,
the foot being in a canvas bag and the horse running in a box stall.
VI. Calks.
Causes. — Calks are cuts and bruises on the coronet, or soft parts above
it, caused by one foot stepping upon the other, and the calk of the shoe,
if sharp, cuts into the flesh. It is most common in fall, winter and
spring, when mud and snow are deep • the horse getting stuck is almost
Bure to step on his own feet.
CALKS OR TREADS ON THE CORONET.
What to do. — If the wound is in the skin, and of any length beyond
one inch, take a stitch in it, or more if needed. Put the stitches half an
inch apart, first clipping off the hair along the edges of the wound. If
any artery is cut, so as to bleed a stream, put a dry sponge over it and
bandage with a coarse cotton bandage, tight ; leave it on ten or twelve
hours, then remove and dress with the carbolic lotion :
No. 6. >^ Ounce carbolic acid,
I Pint water,
Mix.
Sop it on and bandage just tight enough to keep the parts in their proper
position. Remove the bandage twice a day, wash the wound with warm
water and castile soap, and dress with the above lotion.
When the edges are united, or if the stitches tear out, which they are
very apt to do, and expose a raw surface, apply the White lotion:
No. 7. 6 Drachms sulphate of zinc,
1 Ounce sugar of lead,
1 Pint water,
Mix and shake.
306 CYCLOPEDIA OF lilVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Dress the wound with this three times a day, washing it as often as
necessary to keep it clear of pus. If the wound is inclined to gape open,
continue the bandage a few days.
If the calk is in the coronet, running down under the hoof, it will fes-
ter, and pus will accumulate and cause great lameness ; the part will
swell, and will be red, hot and tender to the touch ; the lameness being
so great in some cases as to prevent the animal putting the foot to the
ground at all.
Pare away all ragged edges, and as much of the hoof, following the
sore down, as confines any pus ; remove any hair or other foreign matter
that may have got into it ; then apply a poultice, after dressing with the
carbolic lotion. No. 6. Change the poultice twice a day, using the car-
bolic lotion each time, and examine the wound carefully to ascertain if
there is a sack or pocket containing pus below where it is pared out.
The hoof needs to be reduced to the bottom of the wound and kept so.
Continue the poultice until the hole fills up, and the lameness is nearly or
quite gone ; then discontinue the poultice and dress three times a day
with the White lotion. No. 7.
Lay the horse up till the wound is well enough not to be injured by
sand getting into it. If any proud flesh springs up, burn it down with
burnt alum.
When the hoof is growing down, apply a mild blister of flies to the
coronet, and trim the new growth from time to time to keep it smooth.
The flesh which fills up the hole in the hoof must be kept down even
with the deep edge of the old hoof, otherwise the edges press against
the flesh and prevent it from healing.
Vn. Fraotare of the Bone of the Foot.
Causes. — This does not occur very often, but we see it occasionally.
It is caused by striking the foot with great force against any hard sub-
stance, especially if the foot receives the blow on the quarter. The bone
of the foot may also be fractured by being run over with a loaded wagon ;
or by being stepped on by a heavy horse, the foot coming on the top of
the hoof in front breaks the pyramidal process, (the point rising from
(he center of the coffin bone.)
How to Know it. — Extreme lameness comes on suddenly, soon after
the accident, and increases with time. The foot swells around the coro-
net, and is very tender, and the horse will not put any weight on it at all.
What to do. — Remove the shoe and ascertain, if possible, the location
of the injury by pressure, tapping and pinching ; then pare or file away
FEET OF THli: HORSE AND THEIR DISEASES.
307
the hoof over the spot, so as to give it a chance to swell and relieve the
pressure. Put the foot into a poultice ; change it once a day, and relieve
the pain as much as possible by paring away all the
hoof you can over and around the part ; it will
grow again long before the horse is fit to work.
If any hole forms for the escape of the pus, you
may be sure there is a broken piece of bone that
is acting as an irritant, and must be removed.
Follow down the hole, paring away the hoof as
much as is necessary to remove all detached pieces,
for every piece that is separated from the main
body will have to come out.
When all the pieces are removed, dress with the carbolic lotion. No. 6,
iwice a day, letting the poultice come over it until the discharge is stop-
ped, and the hole filled up with flesh. Then dress it with the White lo-
lion. No. 7, three times a day. Trim the new hoof as it grows to make it
frrovr down as evenly as possible. When sufficiently healed to be safe to
turn him out, do so, and let him run two or three months. In most cases
the wound will fill up and heal with very little trouble, and the foot will
be nearly as good as before.
DIAGRAM OF FOOT.
Showing the position of the cof-
fin bone, which is often frac-
tured.
vm. stone Bruises.
Causes. — Bruises are often found on the feet, especially around the
heels. They are usually caused by stepping on round or pointed stones,
or other hard substance. Sometimes they are slight and get well without
any treatment other than a day or two of rest.
But sometimes they result seriously, when the
bruise is so deep that suppuration takes place, and
is liable to spread or work up through and break
out at the top, like a corn . Sometimes the bruise
is so severe as to destroy the life of the soft
parts undemeatli, causing them to slough out
bodily as soon as the hoof over the spot is
removed, leaving a hole large enough to put your
finger into. Sometimes it comes by a very hard
blow on the heel of the shoe, which bruises the
quarter, and all of its attachments, from the bone,
60 that a core as large as the end of your thumb
sloughs off the wing of the coffin bone. When the injury is so great it
must be promptly treated, or it will break out at the top and form a
qaittor.
BOTTOM OF FOOT.
Showing a stone caught between
the sole and shoe-
308 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
How to know it. — There will be lameness, according to the extent of
the injury. Upon examination a tender spot is found on the sole or frog,
or on one of the heels. Lameness increases from day to day. \Vlien
the shoe is removed no nail hole is found, nor any discoloration denoting
a corn ; but the tender spot exists ; it is not where tenderness from navic-
ular disease would be found, therefore you come to the conclusion that
it is a bruise.
What to do. — The shoe being removed, put the foot into a poultice for
twenty-four hours. Then pare down on the bruised spot and liberate
any pus that may have formed ; if none is found without cutting too
deep, replace the poultice and tr}'^ again the next day. A pair of pinch-
ers will help to locate the bruise l)y pinching all around the foot. If the
tissue is bruised off the wing of the coffin bone, it will come out like a
core when it is sufficientl}^ rotted and the sole is cut away underneath ; if
it is not cut away the disease will go on and break out at the top of the
hoof.
When the core is taken out, dress it
with the carbolic lotion, No. 6, and replace the
poultice. Continue this treatment till the hole
is filled up with sound, healthy flesh. Then dry
it up with pondered blue vitriol by applying it
once a day ; omitting the poultice and leaving the
sole dry, but keep the foot cool and soft with
DIAGRAM OF A FOOT. ^^^^^^ ^-^^ sLVound the Wall of the foot, and wet
^'ffn'^'K°^o^te°n°badiy ^bruised ^ith cold watcr scvcral times a day. When dry,
and som'etimes fractured. ^Jj.ggg ^^J-^ ^^^j. ^^-^^ ^^^ ^^^ p^|. ^^ ^^^^ g^iOe SO aS
to protect the weak spot ; do not have any bearing on that portion,
IX. Side Bone.
Side bone is a hardening of the lateral cartilages of the fore feet.
These cartilages are situated in the quarters of the feet, one on each
side, and are attached to the wings of the coffin bone. They extend
above the quarters of the hoof, are covered only with the skin, and can
be felt readily ; they are found to be very pliable in health, but are per-
fectly solid in cases of side bone, being ossified. They are the resuH of
inflammation in the lateral cartilages.
Causes. — Any severe injury to the quarter, by the horse stepping on
his own feet, getting the foot caught under a root in a woody pasture,
contraction of the heels setting up inflammation by undue pressure, quit-
tor, very severe nail wounds, or severe bruising of the heels ;anditoftei>
accompanies navicular disease.
FEET OF THE HORSE AND THEIR DISEASES.
309
How to know it. — The quarters are enlarged upwards from the hoof,
are as hard as bone, and perfectly inelastic. In the early stage there mil
be heat, soreness, pain upon pressure, and lameness.
What to do. — AVhen the quarters have been bruised or injured, in any
way, foment with hot water in cold weather, and cold water in hot weather.
Apply the water as continuously as possible, and wrap them in woolen
BigTit fUting. Wix>ng fiUing.
RIGHT AND WRONG FITTING SHOES.
cloths saturated with water between the times of bathing. When the sore-
ness has left them, and there is no more lameness, discontinue the water
treatment, and apply a fly blister over the spots. This will cause any
remnants of inflammation to be absorbed. After they are once thoroughly
hard they seldom or never cause any further lameness, but there will al-
ways be a clumsy, stiff action, due to a want of elasticity.
CHAPTER IV.
SHOEING AND CARE OF THE FEET,
I. WHAT A SHOER CAN DO. II. HOW TO PREPARE THE FOOT FOR THE SHOE. III.
WHERE THE BEARING SHOULD REST. IV. WEIGHT OF SHOES AND HOW TO FIT
THEM. V. CARE OF THE FEET IN THE STABLE. VI. THE FLOOR OF THE
STALL.
I. What a Shoer Can Do.
Horse shoeing is a trade in which a great deal of skill can be exhibited.
A good shoer can keep the feet in the very best condition as far as shoe-
ing is concerned, and a poor one can ruin a set of feet in a very short
time.
n. How to Prepare the Foot for the Shoe.
The foot should be carefully prepared by being rasped down to its
proper size and all superfluous growth of wall and sole removed. To do
this requires judgment, for there are scarcely two feet alike. Some grow
faster than others ; some are high-heeled and some low, some have thick
soles and are very concave, while others have thin soles and are flat. Flat-
footed horses have the latter, and the extreme in the other direction is
seen in the club-foot. In flat feet the toes are long and thin and are
spread out, the heels low and soles thin. In club-feet the toe is short,
the wall straight, almost pei-pendicular, the heels high and strong., and
the soles thick. The flat foot needs very little paring and is seldom
afiiicted with contraction, while the strong foot is very prone to contrac-
tion and needs considerable trimming to prepare it for the shoe. The
flat foot is more subject to laminitis, bruises, pricking and gravel ; the
strong one to corns, quittor, contraction and navicular disease. Both the
flat foot and the strong foot are objectionable ; the medium is the best
foot.
310
SHOEING AND CARE OF THE FEET.
311
III. Where the Bearing Should Rest.
In paring the foot for the shoe, the wall wants to receive the most of
the bearing, though the sole near the wall can take some of it. The
heels ought to be lowered the least trifle to reduce their bearing, and
should be opened about half way up to the hair in a V shaped manner to
allow the foot to expand a little every time the weight comes on it, so as
to avoid as much as possible the evil of contraction, which, as already
stated, is the inevitable accompaniment, more or less, of shoeing in all
cases. If there are any ragged edires on the frog, trim them off, other-
wise the frog need not be touched.
IV. Weight of Shoes and How to Pit Them.
In making the shoe it should be perfectly level on the bearing surface,
beveled off gently all around from about three-eighths of an inch from
the outside to the inside, so as to avoid giving any bearing on the sole,
and to facilitate the removal of any gravel that might work in between
the shoe and sole. Let it be of good length, and of a weight to suit the
horse ; some require heavy and some light
shoes. Fore shoes vary in weight from
ten to twenty ounces ; hind ones, from
eight to twelve ounces. On the
ground surface it is well to bevel towards
the centre, thereby widening the web
which protects the sole from bruises and
pricking from nails. Let the toe be
rounded off for driving horses to prevent
as their work will allow. The driving
horse is usually better on a plain shoe,
while the draft horse needs calks to give
him a purchase on the ground so as to
pull heavy loads. The hind shoes are
best with a small toe calk, and the heels
raised by leaving the shoe a little thicker
to level it up to the toe calk.
Shoeing for diseased feet, (pathalogi-
cal shoeing, ) has been treated on in con-
nection with the diseases of the feet in
the two preceding chapters.
In finishing off a foot with the rasp, after shoeing, the wall should not
be rasped above the nail clinches, as it destroys the oily, unctious cover-
ing that is there to keep the fibers tough and pliable, and prevent sand
crack.
THE CRAMPON, TO PREVENT HORSES
SLIPPIMG IN FROSTY WEATHER.
312
CTCLOrJ£DIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPI^TE STOCK DOCTOR.
V. Care of the Feet in the Stable.
A PLAIN SHOE.
With large, sharp-headed nai
winter use.
Care of the feet in the stable has a great
influence on their health. Horses that are
kept on floors and pavements continually,
and even country horses in dry weath-
er, should have the feet either soaked
out in a foot bath or clay puddle, or
packed with moist sponge or oil-cake meal
two or three times a week. If it is not done,
they dry and contract from want of moisture,
get brittle, and have sand and quarter cracks,
and lose nearly all toughness. When the hoof
is brittle and inclined to crack, in addition to
the above, a hoof ointment, made and ap-
plied as follows is beneficial :
No. 8.
4 Fluid ounces pine tar,
4 Fluid ounces whale oil,
Mix.
Rub a little well into the coronet and upper part of the hoof once a aay,
If the ointment gets too thin in warm weather, a couple of ounces of mut-
ton tallow may be added to give it a better consistency.
VT. The Floor of the Stall.
Confinement to the stable, even under the most favorable circumstan-
ces, has a tendency to produce diseases of the feet, such as are compara-
tively rare among farm horses which enjoy constant exercise at work or
running in the pasture. The anatomy of the
horse's foot is such that exercise is absolutely
necessary to keep up the circulation of blood
under the hoof, and the bad effects of inaction are
only aggravated by requiring the animal to stand
on an unnecessarily hard surface. The confined
horse endeavors to supply the lack of outdoor
exercise by stamping and pawhig, and should have
a soft surface of eailh or sawdust to paw upon.
Pawing and stamping serve the specific purpose of
keeping the blood moving under the hoof ; crib-biting on the other hand
is often merely an exhibition of the restlessness an active animal
feels at being cooped up.
VEINS OF THE HOUSE'S
FOOT.
The network of veins without
valves situated immediately
under the secretive membrane
of the hoof.
SHOEING AND CARE OF THE FEET.
313
Side view of a Fore Hoof shod so as to quicken the
action in a forger. Note the short shoe, heel calks in-
clined forward to the rolled toe.
In constructing the floor of the stall
the health and comfort of its occupant
ill also be promoted, if care is taken
to avoid having his fore feet
rest upon a higher level than
his hind feet. The op-
posite practice, that of
building the stall floor
to slope from the man-
ger backwards, is too
often resorted to for the
purpose of securing
surface drainage ; but
it is a blunder to do
this. When in the open
field and free to choose
Side view of a Short-toed Hind Hoof of a Forger, shod to slow
the action and to prevent injury to the fore heels by the toe of
the hind shoe. Note the elevation of the short toe by means of a
toe calk and the projection of the toe beyond the shoe. When
such a hoof has grown more toe, the toe calk can be dispensed
with and the shoe set farther forward.
Side view of Hoof and Shoe. Note the straight toe, weak
ring formation running parallel to the coronet, clinches
low down, and on a level, length of the shoe, and the under
bevel of the toe and heel.
his ground, the horse will se-
lect for a rest a gentle slope on
which he will stand
with his fore feet
resting on a lower
level than that oc-
cupied by his hind
feet. It is the po-
sition in which
there is least strain
upon the back mus-
cles of the foot and
leg while standing
— the one in which
the horse rests
easiest.
CHAPTER V.
LEGS OP THE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES.
I. BONE SPAVIN. II. BOG SPAVIN. III. OCCULT SPAVIN. IV. BLOOD SPAV-
IN. V. TIIOKOUGHPIN. VI. CURB. VII. RINGBONE. VIII. SPLINT.
IX. SPRAIN OF BACK TENDONS OF THE FORE LEGS. X. BROKEN
DOWN.
1. Bone Spavin.
Spavin IS an arbitrary name given to disease of the hock joint, in which
inflammation is an early symptori. Effusion follows it, and ossification
of the exudate forms a bony lump on the joint, usually on the inner
side near the front, but it may occur on any part of the joint. It always
affects the joints more or less and causes great lameness, which is usually
susceptible of a cure, but sometimes defies treatment, and permanent
lameness is the result.
The hock joint is composed of a ti-ue hock joint that works like a hinge,
and three flat gliding joints below
it before we come to the cannon bone,
and on each side of the cannon is a
splint bone the same as in the fore
leg. The connection between the
;ij splint and cannon bones is ligamen-
tous. The spavin usually takes its
origin between the cannon and the
inner splint bone, and extends up to
the joint and around it, and some-
times involving the whole hock, ex-
(Tpt the true hock joint, stiffening
i( and interfering Avith the action
\cry seriously.
Causes. — It is often caused by a
-prain of the ligamentous connection
1h tween the cannon and inner splint.
Sometimes the sprain may affect the
ligamentous connection between the
(annon and the outer splint, but
nsnally it is on the inner side, on
account of the line of the center of gravity being more to the inside, bring-
ing more weight to the inside than to the outside. It is sometimes caused
by a bruising of the joint itself by kicking, jumping, running, pulling
heavy loads up hill, bringing great strain on the hind legs,
314
BONE SPAA'IX.
LEGS OF THE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES. 315
316
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
LEGS OF THE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES. 317
How to know it. — In the early stage there will be lameness, more or
less acute, according to the amount of injury to the joint. The lameness will
be distinguished by a stiffness in moving from side to side in the stall,
by backing out and going off on the toe of the foot for a few steps, but
soon improving with exercise till he will go all right after having gone a
few steps, and remains so till stopped and allowed to cool off, when he
will go off worse than ever, until warmed up again. The cause of this
CURED BONE SPAVIN. BONE SPAVIN.
is : By standing the joint becomes dry, and great pain attends the flex-
ion of it, but the exercise excites the secretion of synovia, (joint oil)
which lubricates it, and the horse is comfortable till the joint gets dry
again.
Upon pressure, a soreness and heat will be found, usually just at the
bottom of the joint on the inside, ])ut well to the front. A. slight amount
of swelling may l)e noticed, but not much until the aecorid stage is
reached, when a hard, bony enlargement will spring up and extend more
or less, sometimes only involving the splint, cannon and the first bone of
the gliding joint. But at other times it extends clear around and in-
volves all the gliding joints, the calois and cuboid parts of the joint, and
it leaves bony deposit around the tendons ])otween the splint bones at the
back of the hock. The enlargement is best seen by standing at the side
of the horse, about a yard from the shoulder, when, instead of the
smooth, straight declination of the inside of the hock, you will detect
the lump just above the end of the cannon. Sometimes the lump is
farther back ; then it can be seen better by stooping down in front, and
looking between the fore leg". Occasionally it will be seen only on the
back part of the hock ; ther it usually escapes detection even by ex-
perts.
What to do. — If taken when it is in the first stage, before any effusion
is thrown out, it can be cured by treating vigorously to remove the in-
flammation. This is best done by continuous applications of hot water
318 CTCIiOPEDIA OP LIVE STOCK AND COMPLEIB STOCK POCTOE.
or poultices ; raise the heels of the foot about an inch and give absolute
rest till all lameness and soreness are gone. Then turn him out to
grass or straw yard for three or four months.
But if the spavin runs on to the second stage, in which effusion is
thrown out and ossification is begun, a good smart blister, well rubbed in
after the soreness is taken out by the hot applications, will perform good
work in some instances. If it is not improved by the first application
repeat it. The blister is made as follows :
No, 9b yi Ounce powdered cantharides,
2 Ounces lard,
Mix.
Also prepare
No. 10. 2 Drachms red iodide of mercury,
2 Ounces lard,
Mix.
Mix the two blisters together and rub it well in, first cutting off the
hair. After twelve hours, smear fresh lard over the place. Repeat
the lard once a day till the scabs are all off and the skin is nearly healed ;
then repeat the blister, and so on till he is cured. This treatment is effec-
tual if begun in time and vigorously applied, and sufficient rest given
afterwards. It may absorb nearly all of the enlargements. If this fails,
or if the case is allowed to run on to the third or confirmed stage, in
which the lump has become thoroughl}^ ossified and the gliding joints more
or less incurably affected, the only hope of doing anything to any advantage
is to produce anchylosis (stiffness) of the joint. For when the articular
surface of the joint is much affected it cannot be cured and restored to
soundness, so the only thing to do is to stop the lameness. The most
effectual way to do this is to apply the actual cautery (firing iron), which
produces so great an amount of artificial inflammation, causes such an
increased flow of nutrition to the part, that, when accompanied by rest,
it destroys the joints that are affected, by stiffening them. There are
several ways of applying the firing iron, but the most common is to pass
the iron, with a dull edge, over the part affected, in lines running
obliquely each way, forwards and backwards, from a centre line drawn
perpendicularly from about the centre of the hock on the inside to a point
on the cannon about an inch and a half below the hock. Draw similar
lines on the front and back of the hock, and then draw the oblique lines
from one to the other, giving it a feathered appearance. In bad cases it
is advisable to fire on the outside of the hock, too, as a surer means
of removing the lameness, but, on account of the iron leaving scars where-
ever it touches, this outside application is usually objected to, unless the
first firing fails and it has to be repeated ; then it should always be car-
ried clear around. It is the opinion of some authorities that every case casj
be cured of lameness by repeating the firing, if necessary, half a aozei.
LEGS OF THE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES. 319
times, but it is accepted as a fact, by most surgeons, that when the
articular ends of the bones are ulcerated there will be permanent lameness.
Apply the blister, No. 9, well rubbed in with the hand, immediately
after firing. Some operators delay the blister till next day, but it is
preferable to rub it in before the leg gets sore and swollen from the
firing. Tie up the horse's head for twelve hours to prevent him biting
it. After twelve hours, grease over, and repeat the application once a
day till pus begins to form under the scabs ; then wash it once a day
with warm water and soap to prevent blemishing by the pus burrowing
under the scabs. When dry, rub the grease in. Give him absolute rest
in the stable for four weeks ; then give him a three or four months' run at
grass ; and when beginning to work again, let it be gently for some time.
While this treatment is going on, it is advisable to have a high-heeled
shoe on the foot of the lame leg ; let it be raised an inch. When shoe-
ing, after he is well, continue the high calks for a month or two.
There are numerous patented spavin cures in the market, some of
which have more or less merit ; but ais a rule, the above is the only relia-
ble treatment. Some of the nostrums claim to be able to cure a spavin
in twenty-four hours without breaking the skin, but they are humbugs of
the worst kind. Sometimes very strong corrosive blisters are recom-
mended, such as corrosive sublimate, etc., but they are cruel in the
extreme and not as likely to cure as the treatment laid out above, which,
being the most humane, although pretty severe, is the best to pursue.
When firing, it is advisable to cast the horse to keep control of him and
be able to perrorm a better operation, and the hair should be shaved off.
II. Bog Spavin.
This is the name given to an enlargement of the hock by distension of
the synovial bursa. The synovial membrane of the joint becomes in-
flamed and secretes a superabundant amount of joint oil which distends
the membrane and enlarges the joint sometimes to the size of a child's
head. It can be alleviated by good treatment, but when once well-dis-
tended it can seldom be radically cured, and very many unfortunate
animals carry the big joint with them to the bone yard.
Causes. — It is caused by severe sprain of the joint, the inflammation
extending to the synovial membrane, and sometimes even
to the joint. Sometimes the origin of it lies in the joint itself
from severe bruising by concussion when jumping, kicking or
being kicked. It is also caused by wounds fr^m being stabbed
with the fork by reckless grooms, or pricks from nails in
the stall, when a restless horse demolishes it by kicking. „^^^ ,^^^^^
^-^ HUCK. JOINT.
How to know it.— There will be a large, soft swelling showing the en.
on the inner and front aspect of the hock. The swelling Bo|TpTvin.°'
is of the same character as wind galLi * it seems to be filled with air, but
o20 CTCLOFEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOlt.
it is synovia. In mild cases there is little, and, sometimes, no lameness •,
but in bad cases there is lameness of a general character, stiffness in the
hock, more pain evinced when starting than after a little exercise, heat,
soreness upon pressure, and a tendency to get worse rather than better,
even with treatment.
What to do. — Bathe it as continuously as possible with either hot or
cold water for twelve hours, then apply an oil-meal poultice, hot and soft.
Continue the poultice for several days, changing it once a day, and bath-
ing with hot water at the time of changing. AVhen the soreness and
lameness are gone apply the following liniment twice a day ;
No. 11. 3 Ounces tincture of iodine,
1 Ounce aqua anunonia,
1 Ounce turpentine,
1 Ounce glycerine,
Mix.
Rub well in with the hand till the skin is quite sore ; then grease it once
a day till it is healed, then repeat. Keep it pretty sore for a few weeks,
giving perfect rest. Then turn the horse out for a long time.
Some recommend bandages, but they are not practical since they are
very difficult to keep on and always chafe the skin above and below,
necessitating their suspension from time to time to allow the skin to heal.
Puncturing the sack is i)rescribed by some, but it is very dangerous and
cannot be recommended.
III. Occult Spavin.
Occult spavin is similar to bone spavin in all respects, except that there
is no enlargement, and no external evidence of any lesion whatever. The
lameness is severe, persistent and of the same character as inl)one spavin,
the horse going off on the toe, working out of the lameness with exercise
in the earlier stages, but the lameness is often permanent through all the
subsequent stages.
Causes. — Severe concussion on the ends of the bones in the joint
How to know it. — There will ])e the charactei-istic bone spavin lame-
ness, but the disease will show no outward marks. A very sure test is to
drive the horse enough to warm him up and get the spavin to working
well, then let him stand half an hour, then take the toe of the foot of the
lame leg in your hand and raise it as high as possible so as to Hex the
hock joint. Hold it there two or three minutes, then drop it and rush
the horse off on a smart trot. If it is spavin he will go off on three legs
for a few steps, and bring the toe down first as he warms up again, and
after a little will go all right until stopped and allowed to cool.
What to Do. — When it is satisfactorily located give it the same treat-
ment prescribed for bone spavin.
LEGS OP THE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES.
321
322 CYCLOPEDIA OF LJVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
v.
it I
■kt
5^
4
LEGS OF THE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES.
823
IV. Blood Spavin.
Causes. — Blood spavin is u distension of the saphena major vein as it
passes over the enUirgementof bone spavin. Th; vein is constricted and
the blood dammed up to a certain extent, causiig a distension of the
coats of the vein and giving the leg the appearance of having a very large
bone spavin on it. It seldom does any harm.
How to know it. — Stand at the shoulder and view the hock as directed
for bone spavin, and you will see the enlargement in the same position as
the bone spavin.
What to do. — Upon examination with the hand, the enlargement will
l)e found to be soft and readily rubbed down, which should be done often.
This is the only treatment of any virtue.
V. Thoroughpin.
This is of the same nature as bog spavin (distension of the 83010 vial
bursa) but occui's between the os calcis, forming the point of the hock,
and the rest of the joint. It seldom does any more harm than to form an
eyesore. Lameness from it is very rare^
Causes. ^Tt is produced by many of the same causes that are ascribed
to boir spavin, though the principal cause is hard work, consequently it
ENLARGEMENT.
Forming: thoroughpin.
DIAGRAM.
Showing dissection of thor.
oughpin and bog spavin ; al-
so the junction of the two affec-
tions.
is oflon seen in draft horses, hack horses, stage horses, and animals for
general utility. It is also often seen on stallions that are used for serv-
ing mares, the strain thrown on the hind legs being very great. It is
often seen in young growing colts when large and heavy for their age,
owing to the immense weight brought upon young and tender joints.
How to know it. — Unsightly puffs are seen just in front of the point
of the hock. They are soft and appear to be filled with air ])ut it is syn-
ovial fluid that distends them. Thoroughpin usually accompanies bog
spavin^ but it may exist without the latter.
324 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
) perfora/iS.
\ Flexor
ypert'orcUus.
NavLcuZarBLsecLse,
ailer Stonehen^e .
RINGBONE And navicular^ disease'.
LEGS OF THE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES.
325
What to do. — When first seen, apply a cooling lotion, made as follows :
No. 12. 1 Ounce muriate of anuuonia,
1 Ounce saltpetre,
1 Quart water.
Mix.
Bathe the part with hot water, ml) dry and apply the lotion three times
a day, giving absolute rest. Follow this up for a week, then, after bath-
ing with the hot water, appl}^ the liniment No. 11, well rubbed in, twice a
day. When the part gets sore from the liniment, hold up a few days and
grease the part with lard till nearly healed, then repeat. It cannot be
permanently cured, for, when made to absorb by the treatment and rest,
it will return with work.
In case of a young colt getting thoroughpin, shorten his allowance of
feed a little for a couple of months, and the i)uffs will become absorbed.
VI. Curb.
Curb is an enlargement on the bitck of the hock and a little below. It
is seen in the form of a bowed section about four inches in length ; some-
times it is swollen up as thick as an
inch from the health}^ form, and some-
times the enlargement is so slight as
to be hardly noticeable. When in the
inflammatory stage the swellings cause
lameness, but when once well harden-
ed they seldom do. The seat of the
injury lies in the calcanco-cuboid
ligament and others lying near it.
That form of hock known as curby
hock is most liable to it. The form
that merits that name is curved from
the foot t6 the stifle, extending back-
ward outside of the perpendicular line
drawn straight from the posterior point of tlie hip to the ground. It is
sometimes called sickle or cow hock. On account of the curved out-
liiKi of the leg there is a greatly increased strain on the back of the leg at
the point of the greatest curvature. This is found at the hock, hence we
frequently have curbs on such legs.
Causes- — A sprain of the ligaments of the back part of the hock, fre-
quently produced during severe exertions in jumping, running, trotting,
pulling heavy loads, etc.
How to know it. — Standing at the side of the horse, opposite the hind
parts, and looking across the legs you will notice a curve on the back and
lower portion of the hock, instead of a straight line, as there ought to be
BRACE FOR SPAVIN.
326 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Weakness of liga- Bowed Side
ments of lower joints tendons. bone,
causing fetlocks to
descend. .
PAIR OF FORE FEET OP REGU-
LAR FORM IN REGULAR
STANDING POSITION.
PAIR OF FORE FEET OF BA.SR-
NARROW FORM IN TOE-NAR-
ROW STANDING POSITION.
PAIR OF FORE FEET OF BASE-WIDE FORM IN TOE- WIDE STANDING
POSITION.
FORMS OF HOOFS: a, side view of an acute-angled fore foot (shod); b. side view
of a regular fore foot, showing the most desirable degree of obliquity (45°); c side view
of a stumpy, or "upright." fore foot; obliciuity above 50°. In a, b, ce, note particularly
the relatiom between the length of the shoe and the overhanging of the heels. Note also
the toe roll of the shoes.
OBJECT LESSONS ON FEET.
LEGS OF THE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES. 327
in a healthy leg, from the point of the hock to the fetlock pad. In recent
cases there is lameness, heat, soreness to the touch, and, like all sprains,
it grows worse with exercise.
What to do. — In a recent case when the sprained tendons and ligaments
are sore, swollen and hot, apply the cooling lotion. No. 12, bathing the
part with hot water three or four times a day for half an hour at a time.
Raise the heel an inch, continue this treatment till all soreness is gone,
about a week or ten days, then apply the blister, Nos. 9 and 10, mixed.
When the blister has taken well, grease it once a day for a few days till it
is healed, then blister again. Give three or four weeks' rest. If this
does not cure, or, if there is no improvement in two weeks, resort to the
firing iron. Draw a line down the back of the leg, over the curb, and then
draw lines obliquely to it in the form of a feather. The lines should be
burnt about half way through the skin, but in no case burn clear through,
for that would make abadbiemish. Rub the blister, No. 9, well in over
the firing. Grease that the same as in the milder treatment, and wash it
occasionally to remove scabs that may have pus underneath, which must
l)e liberated. In old, chronic cases that have been neglected or have not
yielded to other treatment, resort immediately to the firing iron, as rec-
ommended above.
Prevention. — Avoid breeding animals that have curby hocks, for they
are very objectionable, and the form of the leg, in most cases, is trans-
mi t ted.
VII. Ring Bone.
This is an exostosis (bony enlargement) on the pastern, around the
ujiper or lower pastern joint. It usually runs clear around the leg in the
form of a ring, hence its name. It usually forms around the upper pastern
joint, but sometimes affects the lower one. In the latter case it is under
the coronet, and is then worse, as itcannotbe got at to be treated, and is
more likely to cause permanent lameness from its extension to the navic-
ular joint, involving it in the inflammation and anchyolsis. When the
ringbone comes under the coronet, it often grows so large and extends so
much as to make a large, ugly, stiff, club-foot of the handsome, elastic
pedal extremity of the horse, and gives rise to permanent lameness. But
when it forms around the upper joint it does not usually grow very large,
and is quite susceptible of treatment.
Sometimes the bony deposit is only in front or on one side, or on both
sides and not in front, in either the upper or lower forms.
Causes. — A sprain, a blow on the bone from a kick, stumbling and
striking it on a stone, stab from a fork tine, in fact, any severe in-
jury setting up inflanmiation on or near the bone, is apt to result in a ring-
bone. For the nutritive material sent to the legs and feet is of a bony
828
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
DIAGRAM.
Showing Pastern
and Pedal Bone of
a horse affected
with Severe Ring-
bone.
t. The joint between
the pastern bones,
showing the
groove in which
the tendon of the
extensor p e d
character, that is, makes bone, so when an effusion is thrown out it be-
comes organized or forms i)ai't of the living system,
and ossifies, the size of the deposit depending upon the
extent of the inflammation. There is a theory among
scientific men, that liability to throw out bony enlarge-
ments, especially around joints, is hereditary in the form
of an ossific diathesis, which is borne out hy actual eX'
perience in breeding ; marcs or stallions affected ^vith
spavin, ring-bone, splint, enlarged knees, etc., are apt
to transmit them to the offspring. We frequently see
foals two months old with ring-bones, and sometimes
with spavins and curbs, making it very convenient for
dealers to excuse their presence by saying the colt was
foaled so, and that it never will hurt him. Which may
be true enough in one sense, for the affected parts be-
come solidly anchylosed, and as strong as any other part,
muscle reposes. and pcrhaps stronger, for the extra deposit acts as a sup-
*'tween^ Uie" lower ^Qi't to the wcak part ; the part being naturally weak, in-
pastern bone and I i t . . „„
the bone of the t^erited from one of the parents, the deposit is an effort
of nature to strengthen it. Therefore, the practice of breeding from
stallions or mares that are unsound from any bony deposit, except those
caused by some known accident, is to be most emphatically condemned.
How to know it. — ^In the acute stage, (when it is beginning to grow)
there will be lameness that works off with, exercise ; and also soreness,
heat and swellino- when examined carefully with the hand. When it has
run on to the second stage, and become hardened into bone, it will be felt
around the pastern joints in lumps, or in a ring running clear around the
pastern. Or it may be spread over the surface of the bone as if plastered on.
Nature may effect a cure by anchjlosing the joint, which will stop the
lameness, but there will be a certain stiffness always ; or ulceration of the
heads of the bones may take place and cause permanent lameness. As
lono- as it is in the stage in which the lameness works off with exercise,
there is a chance of curing it by stiffening the joint. But when there
is permanent lameness the chances of a cure are small, al-
thouo-h it is best to try, and repeat the trial too.
What to do. — In the first stage apply hot baths, and fol-
low them with the cooling lotion, No. 12, three or four times
a day till all active inflammation is gone ; then blister with
Nos. 9 and 10, mixed. After the first blister has healed,
repeat it. But when the ringbone will not yield to this
treament and goes on increasing in size, hardness and lameness
or when it has reached the second stage without treatment,
there is nothing so effectual as the actual cautery (finng
is applied in lines running up and down parallel with each
FOOT OF A
HORSE.
Affected with
ringbonC; The
pastern joints
being entirely
stiffened.
iro***. ) It
LEGS OF THE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES.
529
other, beginning at the corner of the pastern and extending arouna the
front of it to the opposite side ; but do not draw lines in the hollow of
the pastern, as the flexion of the leg would keep the part eternally sore.
Apply the blister. No. 9, immediately after firing. Remove the shoes
and give absolute rest (no exercise at all) for four or five weeks ; then
turn to pasture for a couple of months. If the lameness is not cured, or
shows no prospect of curing, in four or five weeks, repeat the operation,
drawing the irons in the same lines made by the first applications. The
lines may be made from the coronet to the lower edge of the fetlock joint,
a distance of from two to four inches, according to the length of pastern.
A short pastern is more liable to ringbone from the greater amount of
concussion it sustains through its lack of elasticity, which the long pastern
has. The foot will always grow faster after the leg has been fired for
ring))one, therefore the shoes will need to be reset of tener than on a
healthy foot, and the hoof reduced.
VUL. Splint.
Splint is an enlargement on the cannon bone just below the knee,
usually on the inside, but it is sometimes seen or the outside. Splints
are quite conmion on the fore legs ; in fact, nearly all horses that have seen
DIACJKAM.
Showing the different locations
of splints. 1. High splint
near the knee. a. Low splint
far below the knee. 3. Bony
tumor, often miscalled a
SPLINTS OF A SERIOUS KIND.
Splints involving the knee joint. 2. Splint
interfering with the back tendons. 3.
Small splint under the tendon of the ex-
tensor muscle.
splint.
much service have them, but they are occasionally seen on the hind legs.
The usual seat of them is between the cannon and inner splint bones.
Sometimes they attain to the size of a hen's egg, but usually are quite
small. They generally cause some lameness when growing, but rarely do
so after they become hard.
Causes. — Slipping, jumping, running, kicks, bruising the bone, etc.,
anything that may sprain the ligamentous attachment between the can.
non and the splint bones. Sometimes the splint comes on the surface^
330 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
and then it does not cause much lameness, but when it comes under the
periosteum (the covering of the bone) it is very painful. When splints
come from bruises they may come on any part of the leg.
How to know it. — In the early stage there will be lameness of a pecu,
liar kind, in that the horse will go sound on the walk and will trot lame.
Upon examination a sore spot is found below the knee
on the inside of the leg. By feeling of it, with the leg
flexed, you can locate it immediately. In the later
stages a bony lump will form on the leg, adhering di-
rectly to it. When the lump is an inch or more below
the knee, it is no permanent detriment, but if it is
closer to the knee than one inch, it is objectionable, as
it is apt to interfere with the action of the knee. When
it does affect the knee it usually causes permanent
DISHING ON THE lamOUCSS.
TROT
Thought by some to What to do-— If noticed when the injury first occurs,
h'^if 'an^'irroneous applv either hot or cold water with the cooling lotion,
dish' [he fore^fe^t No. 12, till the sorcuess is nearly gone and then apply
}TavT no "spunts! as tlic bllstcr, Nos. 9 aud 10 mixed. Give a couple of
them. ""^ weeks' rest. Feed on light, soft food while idle. When
the lameness and soreness to the touch are excessive, especially if the
nodule is small, the trouble lies beneath the periosteum and requires the
operation periosteotomy to split the covering of the bone to allow the
exudate from the inflammation to escape, which will relieve the tension.
It is done by cutting a small hole in the skin and pushing in a thin, long
blade and cutting the periosteum over the lump. No change need be
made in the shoeing.
IX. Sprain of Back Tendons of the Pore Legs.
Sprains of the back tendons are very common on account of the severe
strain they are put to in all cases of unusual exertion. In such cases,
a large amount of the effort is made by the forelegs, especially m racmg,
where the strain upon the fore legs in grabbing the earth and pulling the
body exceeds that of the more powerful hind legs in pushing it, hence
the frequency of theee sprains. There are four ligaments and tendons m
the leg below the knee, and the degree of injury to the horse in case of
sprain, depends upon which tendon is most affected. That of the one
nearest the bone being the worst, the next one to it being next, and
so on to the last on the posterior surface, injury to that one being of least
account.
UauseS- — Sprains received during severe exertion in running, jumping,
trotting fast, slipping on uneven ground, stepping on the edge of a hole
LEGS OF THE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES,
331
with the toe, letting the heel drop, and sometimes cuts or bruises by a
blow across the l)ack of the leg, overreaching, etc.
How to know It. — Severe lameness will be a prominent symptom, the
more so the more important the tendon is in the leg. The suspensory
ligaments lie next to the bone, and sprain of them can be felt on either
side of the leg according to which branch (the inner or
outer) is affected, for sometimes only one, especially the
inner, is sprained. When it is the suspensory ligaments
that are affected, the swelling will be upon each side near
the bone, and not far from the fetlock joint. These liga-
ments are the main support of the leg, and when sprained,
the lameness is far more severe than when any of the oth
ers are affected.
When the one next to the suspensory ligament is sprained,
the swelling w\\\ be on the sides between the latter and the
outside tendon. This tendon, next to the suspensory liga-
ment, is called the pcrforans. The outside one is the per-
foratus, swelling of which is seen on the back of the leg,
cui*ved backwards like a bow. Sprain of the latter is of
the least importance of any of them, as the damage done
is slight, being easily cured, and not causing much lame-
ness compared to sprain of the others.
Sprain of the mctacari)al ligament is next in importance
to that of the suspensory ligaments. They are often af-
fected in common with the pcrforans. Swelling of it, the
metacarpal, is found near the bone just below the knee, but
usually extends to all parts immediately surrounding
it.
There will be swelling, heat, pain and soreness ; when
the injured spot is touched the horse 'vill rear some-
times in his effort to draw the leg from your grasp. In
resting the leg he will thrust it forward and cock
giving it the appearance of being swollen on the
and in walking he will not straighten the fetlock back to its natural posi-
tion but will maintain it in the cocked position. If neglected and allowed
to become chronic, the tendons contract and hold the fetlock in that posi-
tion ever after.
What to do. — Remove the shoe and replace it with heels raised an inch,
to take the strain off the back tendons ; apply hot fomentations to the
part as continuously as possible till nearly all the soreness is gone, wrap
the leg in a woolen bandage and keep it wet and hot, applying the water
FLEXOK TEN-
D O N S OP
FORE LEGS.
I. The pcrforans.
3. The perfora-
tus. 3, 4. Ac-
cessory muscles.
5, 6. "Restrain.
^"S ligaments.
7. The pedal
cartilage divi-
ded. 8. The
navicular bone.
the fetlock,
front part,
332 CYCLOPEDIA OP UVB STOCK AN© COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOB.
three or four times a day. Bathe the leg between times with the cooling
lotion, No. 12, or make one as follows :
No. 13. 1 Pint strong vinegar,
1 llaudfiil common salt,
1 Pint water.
Mix.
Bandage as tight as the soreness of the leg Tvill allow, with a dry cotton
or linen bandage, immediately after applying the liniment. AVhen the
soreness is nearly gone apply the following liniment, well rubbed in after
bathing with hot water, twice a day, and increase the tightness of the
bandage from day to day :
Ho. 14. 1 Ounce tincture arnica,
1 Ounce tincture opium,
1 Ounce turpentine,
1 Ounce alcohol,
1 Ounce licpior annnonia,
Water, to make one pint.
Mix.
If the liniment irritates the skin much, suspend it for a few days and
grease with fresh lard till healed, then repeat it. Give this treatment and
rest for three or four weeks, then if there is a probable cure, turn the
the horse out for a run at grass ; if not, clip off the hair and blister well
with No. 9. When the blister has taken, smear over it some fresh lard
to keep the air from it and prevent pain. After two days it will need
washing, and when dry grease it. Eepeat this once a day till healed, and
give -?. long rest. If all these means fail to effect a cure, or if the case is
an old, long standing one the firing iron must be resorted to. Clip off
the hair and fire in lines feathered as directed for curb. We would rec-
ommend in this, as well as in all similar cases, that the operation of firing
be done by a qualified veterinary surgeon, for it is very easy to ruin a
good horse by firing too deep ; it is an operation that requires exjDerience
and good judgment.
It will be found in most cases in which the suspensory ligaments are
sprained, that the firing iron will have to be used, as they are very
obstinate and will not yield to mild treatmefit. But in most cases
in which it is the others that are affected the milder treatment
will be effectual. To get the thickening out of the blistered leg,
after the treatment is done, shower the leg with cold water tAvo or three
times a day, and also give it plenty of hard rubbing and bandage. Omit
the high heels as soon as the soreness is gone from the tendons and
before giving the treatment requiring the long rest.
LEGS OF THE HORSE, THEIR ACCmENTS AND DISEASES. 333
X. Broken Down.
Causes. — Broken down is the terr.i applied to rupture of the suspensory
ligaments. It is most common among racers, because the strain their
fore legs are put to in a race exceeds the strain of all other kinds of work.
The force of the stroke comes on the fore legs. They gral) the earth, pull
the body forward, and when the body is passing the poise, and just before
lifting the forward foot off the ground, they give a trcmenduous push
that sends the body forward and at the same time high enough to avoid
falling on the nose while gathering their feet for another spring. It is
during the spring, just after the body has passed the poise, that breaking
down takes place.
Kow to know it. — The ligaments are ruptured, the toe turns up and
the fetlock pad comes down to the ground, completely ruining the
animal.
What to do. — In cases of complete break down it is an act of mercy
to destroy the animal. But horses are often so nearly broken down that
they are ruined for all kinds of active labor, yet might be saved for
breeding purposes by giving the leg thorough treatment, and a year's
rest. The same treatment prescribed for sprain of the back tendons
mil apply to this, especially the firing, which is absolutely necessary.
Treatment for Blood Poison:— This is usually due to absorption of the
putrofaetive matter of gangrene or ulceration, or the pus of internal or
large abscesses.
How to know it: — Fever, loss of appetite, langour, rapidly iuereasing
weakness, emaciation, ana?mia and palor.
What to do. —Take of quinine six drams, alcohol four ounces, glycerine
four ounces, water to make one pint, mix, give two ounces every two to
four hours. If recovery is not prompt call in a qualified veterinarian.
Treatment for Sallenders or Mallenders:— Mix a half teacupful
of lard, one oz. of gum cauii)h()r and two dr. mercurial ointment and
apply twice a day. If more serious, treat as for "grease."
CHAPTER VI.
LEGS OP THE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES— CON-
TINTJED.
I. CAPUI.ET OR CAPPED HOCK AND ELBOW. 11. FRACTURES. Til. OPEN JOINT.
IV. BROKEN KNEES. V. KNEE SPRUNG. VI. COCKED ANKLES. VII.
WINDGALLS. VIII. SHOULDER LAMENESS AND SWENEY. IX. CRAMP
OF THE MUSCLES OF THE THIGHS.
I. Capulet or Capped Hock and Elbow.
The elbows and points of the hot-ks fire liable to injury, giving rise to
swellings of the nature of tumors. They are filled with a watery exu-
date, slightly tinged with blood. If not emptied and properly treated
they become caloused and organized into a solid fibrous mass in the course
of a month or so. When this takes place, the callosity on the dlbow
becomes very heavy and hangs from the elbow, a very unsightly mass,
sometimes as large as a child's head.
The callosity on the point of the hock never gets so large as on the
elbow, but becomes just as hard and unsightly, and is more noticeable
being farther from the body.
Causes. — Bruising is the only cause. It is usually long continued,
hence the gradual dcn^elopment into a hard fibrous tumor. The one on
the elbow is caused by laying the point of the ell)ow on the shoe or on
the hard floor. Some horses have the habit of pawing the bedding all
back before lying down, and letting the elbow come directly on the floor,
while others always lie with the elbow on the shoe. Either way of lying,
if continued for any length of time, w\\\ bruise these points and a watery
exudation is formed, which fills the sack. If not evacuated it increases,
and may suppurate and break, or it may become organized and solidify,
the walls thicken and the whole become a solid mass.
CAPPED ELBOW^ OK SHOE BOIL.
The one on the hock is usually caused by kicking cither in the stall or
harness. It is often seen on nervous, high-spirited horses that do not get,
334
LEGS OF THE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES. 335
work enough, become restless in the stable and go to kicking to
amuse and exercise themselves, and thus bruise the points of the hocks
against the sides of the stall ; if kept in a box stall, they are just as apt
to do it. It is also often seen on draft horses that arc Avorkod to the
cart ; being hooked too near to the box, they strike it with their hocks
every time their legs are raised. Sometimes it is caused by runaways or
by pieces of timber falling on the hocks.
How to know it. — In case of the elbow a scurfy, wrinkled appearance
indicates the danger, and if not attended to and tlic cause removed, it
goes on growing day by day, till a large tumor is developed. Some-
times by a sudden shifting of the position of the feet in lying, a large,
hard, hot swelling may spring up in one night ; it may be only a couple
of inches thick, but may be eight or ten in diameter, very sore to the
touch ; but w^hen the tumor grows gradually it is not usually very sore.
When on the hocks, the points are found much swollen, hot, tender
and sore to the touch. The trouble usually comes on suddenly with one
or two nio-hts' locking.
What to do. — When hot, sore and of short duration, remove the cause ;
give a laxative of one and a half or two pints of raw linseed oil ; foment
the parts with hot water, with a handful of common salt in it, for an
hour or so, then rub dry and rub gently in, the following liniment:
No. 16. 1}4 Ounce tincture arnica,
1^ Ounce liquor ammonia,
1 Ounce tinctiu-e opium,
Water to make one pint,
Mix.
Repeat morning and night for two or three weeks, and if the case is j>
V-iild one, this treatment will cure it. In case it is the elbow and there
is a soft fluctuating feeling, tap it with a knife and let the water out,
making the opening large enough to pass your finger in. Syringe out
the sack with warm water and follow it with No. 6. Repeit it twice a
day, continuing the external treatment the same as before. After the
oil has operated, give one of the following powders in the feed morning
Hnd night :
No. 16. ^^ Ounces rosin,
2 Ounces saltpetre,
Powder and mix,
DiAide into twelve powders.
It should bfe borne in mind that the cause must be removed absolutely,
m order to have the treatment of any avail, otherwise it will all be lost,
and the tumor will continue to grow in spite of all you can do. When he
SS6 CrCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
lies on ttie floor, give more bedding; if on the shoe, apply a roller to
the pastern, as large as jour arm, so as to let it take the bearing on the
arm instead of the elbow on the foot. If it is a very bad case, it will be
well to keep the horse standing a few days. If it still remains large and
hard, change the injection to the following :
No. 17. 1 Drachm iodine,
1 Drachm iodide of potash,
1 Ounce alcohol,
1 Pint water.
Mix.
Inject a little, twice a day, after usingthehot water as before. When
dry apply tincture of iodine twice a day, till it gets vervsore, then grease
it with fresh lard till healed, and repeat it.
If it becomes hard and solid, the only remedy lies in dissecting it out
bodily. The operation is quite simple. Cut the opening in the skin in a
line running up and down, then cnt the cellular tissue around the tumor and
dissect the whole lump out, being very careful not to cut into the elbow
joint. If an artery or vein is cut so as to bleed a stream, take it up and
tie it, sew the skin together, and dress it three times a day with the lo-
tion. No. 6. If the stitches break out, and the wound gapes open, it is
no use to resew it, but dress it three times a day with No. 7, and it will
draw together as it heals. We would urge in this connection the employ-
ment of a qualified veterinary surgeon to perform operations in every
case, as the use of the knife requires a thorough knowledge of the anat-
omy of the parts, as well as experience to avoid giving unnecessary pain
to the animal.
Where it is the hock that is affected, the same treatment will suffice in
all matters of detail until you come to puncturing the sack, when you
must stop. Never cut into a capped hock except in a rare, 3xaggerated
case, and then employ a veterinary surgeon to do it. Hand-rubbing will
do a great deal towards making it absorb. As soon as the inflammation
is well reduced, and all points working satisfactorily, the horse may as
well be at work as idle.
Prevention. — G-ive the horse plenty of bedding ; do not allow a faithful
friend to sleep on the bare floor. Give plenty of exercise to avoid mis-
chief in the stable, that may run on to bad habits and vices.
n. Fractures.
Causes. — ^Fractures of the limbs are very common among horses, not
that the bones of horses are more brittle, but they are more exposed to
accidents than those of any other animal, man not excepted. They are
60 active, quick-motioned, fleet and heavy, that when an accident occurs
LEGS OF THE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES.
337
the effects are apt to be disastrous ; for, like a railway train, the unlucky
animal does not have many chances to come out whole. All bones of
the body are liable to fracture, but the bones of the legs are more so
from being more exposed. In runaways, the animal often comes to a
sudden stop by falling or colliding with some heavy, solid object. Then
he is sure to suffer ; any one of the limbs may be broken, or it may be
the ribs, back, neck, head, jaws, hips, etc. Kicks are very often the
causes of fractures, especially of the legs — the cannons, thighs or arms
being the bones which most frequently suffer. The bone of the foot is
often broken by striking with great force against a stone, post, or any
other solid object. The pastern is sometimes split through its entire
length by jumping. The writer knew of a case of fracture of the can-
non bone of one of the hind legs by catching the toe in the girth of the
harness when kicking flies, breaking the bone short off.
Fractures are divided into the following classes : Simple — when nothinf^
else is broken but the bone ; compound — when the ends of the bones punch
through the flesh and skin ; complex— when the bone is shattered into many
pieces, and one or more pieces may prick through ; transverse — when the
bone breaks short off ; oblique — when the fracture is in an obliqe direc-
tion across the bone ; green stick — when the bone breaks like a green
stick, splitting and bending and twisting without breaking directly off.
The bone may be only cracked, or broken without misplacement.
The bones of old horses are more liable to fracture than those of
young ones, becoming brittle with age.
How to know it. — ^When the fracture cannot be seen, but is suspected,
manipulate it a little, listening attentivel}^ at the same time, and you will
hear the grating of the ends of the bone together, which is an unmistak-
able symptom ; for grating or rubbing of rough ends toget'ier is never
heard in health. Great lameness is inseparable from a fracture, be it
ever so slight. When the bone is only cracked, there will be great lame-
ness, with few if any conclusive symptoms to indicate fracture, but by
careful examination a sore place can be felt ; the horse will not bear a
pound on the limb, and will keep lifting it as if in great pain. In all
cases there will be a rise in frequency of the pulse and respirations from
the nervous shock and pain ; more or less inflammation follows, and the
temperature will be raised a little. As the length of time increases
after the fracture, if nothing is done to relieve it, all the symptoms in-
crease, the nostrils dilate, the countenance becomes haggard, and ex-
presses anxiety, the eyes become injected, the injured limb swells, be-
comes hot, and in all fatal cases, when the inflammation reaches its
height, mortification begins and extends towards the body, when death is
338
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
only a question of a few hours. The p:irt gets cold and clammy, ape-
culiar offensive sweat rises on the surface, the skin, if white, l)ecomes
purplish, but if l)hu>k, the discoh)ration cannot l)e seen. As soon as mor-
tification sets in the pain ceaseSo
What to do.— If it is a fracture of the cannon, arm, thigh, femur
(tiic ])()ne Ix'tween the hip and stifle), shoulder or back, ninety-nine times
out of a hundred the case is fatal if displacement takes place, and espe-
cially so if it is a compound or complex fracture. If it is a fracture of
the back, ])arah>i- of all part> Ixhind 1 lie IVacfuv will ensue. In any of
J2gacs8>f-^ f<7
SLING IN USE.
the above instances, the horse may as well be destroyed, for it is utterly
impossible to keep him quiet till the ])ones knit ; thoy would repair
as readily and as substantially as those of man, if we could put him to
bed and keep him there six weeks. But take what measures you may,
in most cases you wnll fail from no other reason than that he keeps mov-
ing about, swinging the leg, and behaving in a very restless manner gen-
erally, which prevents the ends of the bones from remaining m quiet
contact long enough to grow together. The bones of dogs, sheep and
sometimes cattle, grow together very readily because they are more
quiet, and favor an injured leg more than a horse. If it is the shoulder
or thigh, it is so deeply imbedded in muscle that it is verj difficult to set
the bones, especially if the fracture is oblique, for the muscles contract
and draw the ends of the bones past their proper positions from two to
six inches, and it is an utter impossibility to bring the ends togetiier
again even with the aid of pulleji'
LEGS OF THE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES. 339
But if it is a fracture of the foot, pastern, fetlock, hip or any other part
^here there is no displacement, a cure can usually be made. After put-
ting the horse in a roomy, comfortable, loose box, put him in slings to
take the weight off the injured leg, and relieve the weight from the
others. Make the broken limb as straight as possible, then envelop it
f.or a distance of five or six inches in plaster of Paris, or if that is not handy,
soak a piece of sole leather in water until quite soft, and mould it to the
form of the leg, and bind it on so as to keep it perfectly tight and solid,
and in its place. Splints may be put on outside of the leather. A starched
bandage is very good in connection with the splints. Have the starch
very stiff, fill the hair with it and then begin to wind, not tight but just
enough so to keep the parts in their places ; put on a considerable quan-
tity of starch with each wind of the bandage ; after making about half a
dozen turns, put on the splints, one on each side, and one on the back, but
none in front ; then continue the bandage four or five turns. If the lee
swells, so as to make the bandage too tight, slit the banuage up a little
way at either end. Leave the whole thing on al)()ut five or six weeks,
keeping the horse in the sling all the time, just tight enough to give gen-
tle pressure on the belly and he will lie in it at his pleasure. If he acts
unruly at first, quiet him by talking to him, and he will very soon get ac-
customed to the arrangement, and like it.
If any pieces of bone become detached they will act as foreign matter
and must be removed. Any such complication in a leg already done up
in a starched bandage, or in plaster, will be recognized by increased swel-
ling in the surrounding parts, and also by heat and soreness, uneasiness and
increase in temperature, pulse and respiration. The natural condition
being: Pulse 36, respiration 10 to the minute, and temperature 98.5®
F. The pulse is taken on the angle of the lower jaw, as the artery
passes around the under side on its way to the face. Temperature is
taken by a clinical thermometer inserted in the rectum, and allowed to
remain in two minutes. Respiration is taken by counting the breaths,
one m and one out making a respiration.
When the hip is broken down, making what is known as "hipped,"
there is nothing to do except to give time and what constitutional treat-
ment is indicated. Fracture of the shoulder blade is treated in the same
way, except that it might be advisable to put the horse in slings.
In all cases watch the symptoms and treat them as they require, oat
it would be well always to give the following mixture : —
j^o. 18. 1 Drachm tincture aconite root,
2 Ounces spirits of nitre,
2 Drachms fluid extract belladonna,
1 Ounce nitrate of potash,
1 Ounce carbonate of ammonia,
Water to ooake one pint,
MlTfo'
340
CYCLOPEDIA OP LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Give one ounce (two tablespoonfuls) every two, four or six hours, ac-
cording to the requirements of the case. This is the dose for ji fell sized
adult horse, a young or small one in proportion. Continue this as long
as there is any fever. Give all the cold water to drink the horse wishes,
but give it little at a time and often. If the neck is broken, death ensuet*
immediately, on account of the nervous communication to the heart,
lungs and stomach being cut off, and so they stop working.
m. Open Joint.
Open joint is one of the most serious accidents that horse flesh is lia-
ble to, and unfo'.-tu 'lately is quite common.
Causes. — Cuts, bruises, pricks from nails, pricks from the fork in
handling the manure and bedding, falling on the road, kicks from othec
horses, etc., are common causes.
BAKER'S BRACE FOR BROKEN
KNEE WHEN THE JOINT IS
OPENED.
WHERE JOINT OIL IS.
The lines mark the points where synovia
(or joint oil) is interposed between the
different structures.
How to know it — A wound, of course, is present, and a discharge
also is seen when it is at all serious. The character of the discharge de-
termines the extent of the injury ; if it is an open joint, in addition to
pus there will be a discharge of joint oil (synovia). Synovia is inodor-
ous ; has no smell ; amber colored when fresh ; whitish yellow when co-
agulated I thin and watery, but at the same time is of an oily nature
when fresh ; coagulates on exposure to the air. When the discharge
LEGS OF THE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES. ;^41
partakes of the character given above, especially in the latter particular,
and is accompanied by more or less fever, good appetite, gradual wast-
ing of muscular tissues, (though somet'mes the wasting of tissue is
rapid), tucked up appearance, hard unyielding swelling, with great sore-
ness to the touch, and extreme lameness, there need be no doubt but that
there is an open joint.
What to do. — If neglected and allowed to run its own course it will be
fatal ill uhnost every case ; the horse will die from irritative fever, ex-
haustion and inanition. Sometimes it is fatal even with the best treat-
ment, therefore it is of the utmost importance that remedies be promptly
applied, and vigorously pursued.
When an open joint is recognized, wash the wound with tepid water with
a few drops of oar1)olic acid in it ; if the wound is deep, and there is pus
mixed with the synovia, syringe it out gently, with the lotion. No. 6 ; gen-
erally, however, it is best not to syringe, probe nor push in the wound
any more than is a])solutely necessary ; but let all the treatment tend
towards filling up the wound with healthy granulations. As soon as the
wound is nicely washed, make a paste of the following;
No. 19. 2 Drachms glj^cerine,
1 Drachm carbolic acid,
Flour to make a thick paste.
Make a plug of the paste and insert it into the wound ; then smear solid
extract of belladonna over all the hard swelling around the wound, and
let a cold poultice made of oil-cake meal go on over the whole. Change
the poultice and dress it twice a day. When the suppuration ceases, and
there is a clear flow of synovia, omit the plug and let the poultice come
directly in contact with the wound. Keep the horse as quiet as possible ;
curry food and water to him, so as to avoid the least motion. If it is
practicable apply apparatus to stiffen the joint during the treatment. A
convenient appliance will ])e described in the next article on broken
knees.
The most difficult thing in the treatment of open joint is to stop the
flow of synovia without checking the flow of pus. For whenever there
is pus in a wound it nmst come out, or damage will l)e done ; at the same
time you cannot wash and syringe an open joint to get rid of the pus as
you would an ordinary wound, because that would tend to keep the
wound open and continue the flow of synovia ; consequently there is an
opportunity, usually, to display very fine judgment. Give, internally,
tonics composed of :
No. 20. 2 Ounces pure sulphate of irou,
2 Ounces chinehona bark,
Powder and mix.
Divide into twelve powders.
342
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Give one night and morning in tlie feed.
is nearlv well.
Continue this till the wound
IV. Broken Knees.
Broken knee is a term used to designat<^ contusion, abrasion and
laceration of the soft parts — skin, ligaments and membranes — over the
knee joints, but not the bones. Tt is quite common, especially where
horse-back riding is fashionable, and fox hunting and steeple chasing
are ]>racticed. Sometimes the knees are only bruised or the skin broken,
and then it is very si)nple and recovery is quick. But they are often
broken right through into the joints, opening them completely and allow-
ing a raj)id flow of synovia. Sometimes they are ea.sily cured, and at
other times defy all treatment, and the joints become ruined and stiffened;
and sometimes large spavins grow upon them. They sometimes prove
BROKEN KNEE.
Manner of probing the
dirt sac of a broken
knee.
COCKED ANKLE.
Ilesult of corns anc
similar diseases.
BROKEN KNEE.
Manner of opening the dirt sac of a
broken knee when it is found
necessary lo do so.
fatal by the excessive amount of irritative fever produced; the horse
becomes very much emaciated, tucked up in the flanks, runs at the eyes,
and weakness is great. Whenever the joints are opened, you have a very
serious case at the best, and one that will tax the patience and judgment
of the attendant.
Causes. — Knees are always broken by falling on them. The causes
of falling may differ. Work horses drop upon their knees sometimes
when starting very heavy loads, and if on stony or gravelly roads, are
very apt to break their knees. Driving horses stumble and fall on their
knees when they are sore in the feet, stiff in the legs or lame in the
shoulders, and often open the joints. Saddle horses are the most liable to
broken knees ; if ridden slowly, on smooth roads, the weight on the back
makes them more liable to stumble; if ridden across country they often
come upon their knees on the other side of a fence or ditch.
LEGS OF THE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES. 343
How to know it. — There will be a contused, lascerated, ragged wound ;
the skin hanging in shreds, hair bruised off, the ends of tendons protrud-
ing and curling like bands of white tape. A discharge of synovia (an
oily looking, aml)er colored liquid) takes place, and in bad cases the Avhite
glistenii^g bones of the joint can be seen and felt.
What to do. — If the wound is dirty with sand, gravel or other sub-
stance, wash gently to remove it. If the ends of tendons or ligan»ents
protrude, clip them off with scissors close down to the edge of the wound ;
draw the ends of the skin together and bind on a soft piece of old linen
to keep the i)arts in place and the air from ii:, wetting the wound and
linen with lotion No. G. Then proceed to have the l)race made as seen in
the illustration on page 340, for it is absolutely necessary to keep tbe
knee stiff and perfectly quiet, so as to get as small a secretion of synovia
EiS possible. Splints arc generally used, but they always irritate the log
where they come in contact, and fail in a great measure to jirevent motion ;
but when Baker's brace is used, neither the knee nor any joint below it
c;an be flexed a particle.
To make the brace, take a rod of good iron half an inch sipiai'e, and of
ii length sufficient to reach from the ground to at least three inches
above the knee ; rivet a band two inches wide and six inches long on to the
upper end of the bar, and bond it to fit the fleshy part of the arm ; then
bend the rod in its passage down the ])a('k of the leg to fit a healthy limb
in its natural position when the weight is on it ; make a three-quarter
book at the bottom, bending backward, to hook into the eye in the bar of
the shoe, so that it can be inserted and removed at pleasure without re-
moving the shoe. Insert two rivets or a staple at the top, and another
set midway between the knee and fetlock, to receive the strai)s that bind
the leg to the brace. Let the straps be an inch wide, and pad between
them and the leg, especially over the shin. Pad the band well to prevent
abrasion of the skin. The shoe may be an old one that fits the foot, with
the heels carried out at least an inch beyond the heels of the foot, and
turned upward a little ; weld on across the heels of this shoe a bar
three quarters of an inch wide, with an eye in the center to receive the
hook. The shoe needs to be nailed on very strongly, or the horse will
tear it off in his efforts to flex the leg, Avhich he v/ill try to do at first,
but he will soon get accustomed to it, and walk around, lie down and get
up the same as a man with a stiff leg. The strap at the top wants to be
buckled tight enough to keep the brace in place, the one at the center of the
cannon tight enough to keep the leg well straightened back in its natural
position. The shorter brace is used in the same way in case the fetlock
or pastern joint is cpsaed ; then it is not necessary to stiffen the knee.
344 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
When the brace is adjusted, remove the bandage and linen, and apply
directly to the wound a soft, cold, oil-cake meal poultice, wet somewhat
with the lotion, No. 0, after it has taken up all the water it will. When
ready to be applied, sprinkle the poultice over with finely powdered char-
coal. This will encourage and promote healthy, solid granulations and
prevent much suppuration and sloughing. Some sloughing and suppu-
ration will have to take place on account of the wound being contused in-
stead of being made by a clean cut, as with a sharp knite. Dress the
wound in this manner twice a day ; continue it right along till the flow
of synovia is stopped, even then it is better to leave the dressing on a
few days more to further reduce the inflammation in the part. If the
ends of the tendons protrude at any time they must be clipped off. If
there is high fever give the following mixture :
No. 21 . 1 Drachm tincture aconite root,
1)4 Ounce sweet spirits nitre,
1}4 Ounce nitrate of potash,
Water to make one pint.
Mix.
Give a tablespoonful every two hours, till the ])ulse is improved arc
fever abated. Feed lightly for a good while.
V. Knee Sprung.
Knee sprung is not a disease, but is the effect of disease. When the
legs are healthy, the center of gravity passes dov;n through the center of
them, and out at the heals ; but in case of knee sprung, the center of
gravity passes back of the knees, giving them a very bowed appearance.
It always comes on gradually, and may stop at any stage, and never ge:
worse ; but sometimes it goes on to so great an extent as to render the
animal almost useless. Horses often sleep standing, and do it with
safety, no danger of falling, as long as the legs are sound, but when the
knees are so bowed forwards as to throw the center of gravity on a line
forward of the origin of the suspensory ligaments the horse will fall when
he goes to sleep standing.
Causes. — ^The most common cause is sprain or other injury of the
back tendons of the leg. The ones most often sprained, and injury to
which is most likely to cause knee sprung, are the suspensory ligaments,
and the metatarsal ligament. Sprain of these, without proper treatment
and rest, is sure to be followed by knee sprung. Sprains of the other
ligaments, long continued soreness in the feet, sore shins, soreness in the
joint, etc., are also frequent causes. In fact any abnormal condition of
the foot or leg below the knee, that gives rise to long continued lameness
and resting the heels or leg by knuckling the fetlock, is sure to be fol-
lowed by a going over on the knees, from contraction of the back tendons
LEGS OF THE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES. 345
and ligaments, which hold the parts in th.it position ever after, unless
relieved by the operation called tenotomy.
How to know it. — The legs of somid horses are straight from the el-
bow to the fetlock. Hence, any deviation from that position indicates
something wrong. Stand opposite the shoulder of the horse, and notice
the leg ; any bending forward from the straight line at the knee creates
suspicion. Any bad case, and many mild ones, are accompanied with
thickening of the back tendons, indicating neglected sprains.
What to do.— There is nothing to be done, except in recent cases,
which are rare. A case that has not been longer than two or three
months in coming may be benefitted by clipping the hair from the back
tendons, wherever there is any thickening or soreness, and showerino-
with cold water several times a day for two or three days, and then ap-
plying blister, No. 9, well rubbed in. Remove the shoes, pare down the
feet and open the heels. Tie his head up, so he cannot bite the blister,
for thirty hours ; then grease it once a day till nearly healed, and turn
him out for a long run at grass. If he is not improved in a month, re-
peat the blister.
In old, chronic, incurable cases the operation called tenotomy, can be
performed sometimes to very great advantage, but not as often as in
ease of cocked ankles, which form the subject of our next article. The
operation will be therein described.
VI. Cocked Ankles.
The fetlocks are often knuckled forward, but this, like knee spruno-j
is only a symptom of some other trouble. The fetlocks are, however,
often mistaken for the seat of the.lameness, and are blistered and muti'
lated, of course without any benefit.
Causes. — Sprains of the suspensory ligaments, when low down around
or below the fetlock joint ; lameness in the bursa of the pcrforans ten-
don, as it passes over the fetlock ; bruises on the heels ; corns ; quittor ;
navicular disease, or nail in the foot — anything that makes the horse
rest the heels or lower and back part of the leg. Sometimes in bad
eases of shoulder lameness, the leg is rested in such a nianner as to let
the back tendons contract so as to throw the fetlock forward.
How to know it. — It is recognized by the ankle joint being thrown for-
ward like a knuckle ; the heels raised slightly ; the tendons contracted :
and absence of any soreness or thickening in the joint itself.
What to do. — Spare no time nor pains to find the cause and remove it,
and the effect will cease. Ninety-nine times in a hundred it is only
symptomatic. In a great majority of cases the cause will be found in
the feet ; treat them, and the ankle will straighten up.
346
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
In long-standing cases the tendons become so contracted as to render a
return to a natural position an impossibility ; in such cases tenotomy is
sometimes practiced to advantage. A small opening is made in the skin
about midway between the knee and fetlock ; a small blade is run in,
edgeways, and through to the skin on the opposite side, but not through
it ; then turn the edge up and cut off the tendons, stopping before the
gkin is cut above them, being careful not to injure the suspensory liga-
ments. If they are severed, the animal is useless and might as well be
destroyed. To perform the operation, a knowledge of the anatomy of
the parts is necessary ; hence it is advisable always, when possible, to
employ a competent veterinary surgeon.
VII. WindgaUs.
The tendons, iis they pass down the back of the leg, are covered with a
sheath moistened with synovia ; and where they pass over the fetlock
WINDGALLS.
Showing situation and form*
of WindgaUs.
CAPPED HOCK.
WINDGALLS.
As they appear upon dissection.
joint are synovial burste, to prevent friction ; there is also synovia between
the tendons to prevent them from rubbing against each other. When,
from hard work, tlie membranes secreting the synovia become irritated,
they are excited to secrete more than their natural (piantity, and the ac-
cumulation of it forms the soft, puffy swellings around the fetlocks, either
fore or hind. They are always caused by work.
It is an old, popular idea that these swelling are filled with air, hence
the name. They seldom cause lameness, except in the early stage, or in
the very last stage, when they become ossified ; in the first stage the lame-
ness soon passes off ; in the last it is permanent.
How to know it. — Soft, puffy swellings appear after considerable work,
around the fetlock. They are usually the size of your thumb, l)ut in
some cases they grow to the size of a hen's egg.
LEGS OF THE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES. 347
What to do. — Make frequent applications of cold water, or cooling
lotion, No. 12; and after a couple of da3^s apply liniment, No. 11, well
rubbed in, twice a day, and bandage tightly over it, till well blistered.
Then omit the liniment but continue the bandage, vnth grease applied to
the skin, giving the puffs all the direct pressure possible. Pieces of cork
laid over the puffs, and bandaging over them is very effectual.
When the skin is sufficiently healed, repeat the liniment. Continue
this treatment for three or four weeks, and then give the horse a run at
grass or in a straw yard. This will be effectual if persevered with ; l)ut
as soon as the horse is put to work again, either road or heavy draft, the
windgalls will return.
Vin. Shoulder Lameness and Sweeny,
Shoulder lameness is common. Sweeny is rare, but it is often imag-
ined and severely treated for, when the cause of lameness is very remote.
Sweeny is wasting of the muscles of the shoulder blade, leaving the spine
on the blade exposed the whole length, with hollows on each side that you
could nearly lay your arm in.
Causes. — Shoulder lameness is usually caused by a sprain ; it may be
of the ligaments of the joint or of the muscles around the joint. Sprain
of the latter is most common.
The sprain may be produced by slipping, falling, stepping on the heel
of the fore shoe with the toe of the hind .shoe, especially in the mud or
snow, or catching the hod under a 2'ootor railroad track. Sweeny is usually
caused l)y the shoulder being badly bruised by the collar in hauling
heavy loads, or plowing, or by the horse falling and bruising the shoul-
der.
How to know it. — Lameness is a characteristic symptom ; the shoulder
and leg are carried forward all of a piece ; no knee action ; the shoulder
carried forward and the leg swung ; at the time the leg is ])cing taken
forward the head is nodded down at the start and suddenly jerked up
toward the finish of the action. There is an inability to raise the leg to
steji over an obstacle a foot high, but he will drag the leg over. Swell-
ing, hep.t and soreness are noticed.
In case of sweeny the muscles are wasted as described above, and
much the same action of the leg will be noticed. In recent cases of
either, the horse will rest the leg by flexing the knee and resting the foot
on the toe without extending it. In mild cases, when he is able to travel,
rest will seem to cure him and he will go out sound, but will go lame
'Sfter a little, and get worse the farther he goes.
If allowed to run on without treatment, sprain of the shoulder, espe-
cially if it IS ot the joint, becomes chronic, extends to the bones, affect-
ing the heads of them and causing permanent lameness.
348 CYCLOPliDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOE.
What to do. — In all cases of shoulder lameness where there are heat,
swelling, soreness to the touch and lameness, foment with hot water,
never with cold, for half an hour at a time, three times a day. It is welJ
to add a handful of common salt to a pail of the hot water. When it has
dried after washing, rul) well in tlic liniment. No. 14, morning and night.
In most cases, if taken immediately and the above well applied, a cure
will be effected, if rest is given, in from one to four weeks. If this faik
to cure, a blister well rubbed in over the affected part will do good ;
use No. 9. In nine cases out of ten, when the lameness is in the shoul-
der, remedies applied to the joint of the shoulder will be effectual. A
common mistake is made in applying blisters over the shoulder blade and
withers, which only cause pain and often leave blemishes, without doing
one particle of good, except necessitating a long rest ; but it is better to
have some other excuse for the rest.
When these means fail, the last resort is the seton. Vfhen well ap-
plied it produces counter irritation, that can hardly fail to cure unless
there is porcelaneous deposit on the heads of the bones in the joint.
When the exact source of lameness is located, pass the seton down over
it just beneath the skin, letting it run always as nearly perpendicular as
possible. Let it pass eight to fourteen inches under the skin, and leave
the ends projecting three or four inches. The seton is best made of
strong, coarse, unbleached muslin, torn into a strip, one inch and a half
wide. Fasten leather buttons on each end to prevent it coming out.
Smear it once or twice a week with a little fly blister to promote a dis-
charge and increase the irritation. Foment and wash thoroughly clean
with hot water morning and night. If the horse is inclined to bite and
pull the seton, tie one end of a stick to his halter, and the other end to
the surcingle to hold his head and neck straight. A needle made on
puri)()se is needed to insert the seton ; it should be fully a foot long.
The seton should be left in thice weeks in mild cases, and four to six
weeks in bad and clironic cases. Always give from one to three months'
rest after removing the seton.
Sweeny is treated by mild blisters of flies in ointment as in No. 9, or
in tincture, rubbed in gently, and repeated every fortnight for two or
three months. The horse is better at grass Avliile this treatment is ]>eing
given. It will stimulate the muscles to rc-devclop. Gentle exercise is
better than absolute rest.
IX. Cramp of the Muscles of the Thighs.
The muscles of the thighs are very subject to cramp in hard-
worked horses, especially in old ones. These cramps are often diagnosed
wrongly, are mistaken for dislocation of the stifle, are in fact rarely rec
ognized except by an expert.
LEGS OP THE HORSE, THEIR ACCmENTS AND DISEASES. 349
Causes. — Very severe exertion, especially if prolonged to any great
extent ; the muscles become fatigued, and the nerves in them exhausted ;
then if the horse is forced to continue working, cramp is very apt to
take place. It is sometimes seen in cases where horses are being made
to swim ; cramps seize these muscles and render them for the time use-
less, being often the cause of drowning.
How to know it. — The horse is going along apparently all right, ex-
cept that he is laboring from fatigue, when suddenly one or both thighs
cramp and draw all into knots ; a constriction will be seen in the hollow
of the thigh ; the point of the hock is drawn up, and the horse crouches
with his hind parts ; in fact he is drawn down and is utterly unable to
move. On account of the position the hind legs assume, the trouble is
often mistaken for dislocation of the stifle. When both legs are affected
the horse often falls in the most intense agony, being una])le to stand
longer. When only one leg is affected it is usually drawn upwards and
])ack\vards ; he is unable to extend it. If left alone, the cramps may pass
off in the course of a few minutes, or they may last several hours.
What to do. — Get hot water as quickly as possible, and apply it, bath-
ing the leg continuously till the muscles relax and the leg is let down, and
the horse walks as w^ell as ever. Then rub dry and rub well in liniment
No. 15, In the absence of that high wines, tincture of camphor, arnica,
hot vinegar, etc., are good. Give the patient a few days' rest.
Leakage from Navel: — If a portion of the naval cord remains im-
mediately after birtb, the tying of it carefully may be all that is needed.
If this does not prove sufficient, apply Monsell's solution of iron with a
feather three times per day. Allay inflamation by fermenting with hot
water. Give internally one-fourth teaspoonful of Salol in a tablespoonful
of castor oil and a little milk three times per day. When these remedies
fail it will be necessary to pass a needle through the tissue back of the
opening containing a strong silk thread and tie so as to include as little
of the skin as possible. Apply tar water to keep flies away in summer.
Sometimes rheumatism accompanies or follows such condition of the
colt. If so, see treatment for that under appropriate heading. Keep the
colt quiet and warm. Give more nourishment as it grows better.
Navel Infection: — ^Thisis known by an inflamed or swollen condition
of the parts and may be the result of weakness in the breeding, the colt
falling an easy victim to filthy surroundmgs. Cleanliness and a prompt
disinfecting and tying of the cord should head off any trouble in that line.
Wormy Corn Disease: — This ailment is designated in this way
for want of a better heading. It usually comes on with the advent of
a new crop of corn, the quality of which is inferior. The remedy is
obvious: Feed sound grain. The unsound usually rises to the surface
when thrown into water and may bo skimmed off. For pasturing stalks
see * 'Cornstalk Disease" in Cattle Department.
Engorgement: — ^This usually happens when the horse fills his stom-
ach with grain, the swelling of which may cause death in a few hours. Give
a purgative— No. 48 — and follow with occasional doses of raw linseed oil .
Exercise him constantly until free passages are obtained. Allow no water.
CHAPTER VIL
jiiaS OF THE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES, CON-
TINUED.
lo STIFLED. II. niP LAMENESS AND HIPPED. III. STOCKING. IV. ELEPHAN-
TIASIS OH LYMPHANGITIS. V. SCRATCHES OR CRACKED HEEL. VI. GREASE.
VII. MUD FEVER. VIII. FURUNCULUS OR CARBUNCLE. IX. DISLOCATIONS.
X. WOUNDS. XI. 60RE SHINS. XII. OSTEOPHYTES, FOLLOWING SORE
SHINS. XIII. PORCELANEOUS DEPOSIT. XIV. STRING HALT. XV. INTER-
FERING. XVI. OVERREACHING. XVII. FORGING. XVIII. RUPTURE OF
MUSCLES. XIX. ATROPHY OF THE MUSCLES.
I. Stifled.
The term "stifled" is usually applied to a horse suffering from any
derangement of the stifle joint, but properly it is only applicable when
there is dislocation of the pulley bone, (the patella). The patella is
sometimes thrown out, but not as often as is generally supposed, and al-
ways on the outside, there being a ridge or flange of bone on the inside
which prevents it going that way.
The ligaments of the stifle are often sprained, giving rise to lameness
more or less severe.
Causes. — Dislocation is produced by a slip and a twist at the same
time, the weight probably being upon that leg at the time ; the animal re.
covers from the slip and finds himself with the leg as far back as it can be
got, having carried the body forward on it, and when ready to bring th«j
leg forward he is unable to move it. The leg remains protruding back-
ward until help comes to relieve the awkward situation.
Sprains are caused in the same way, but to a less extent.
How to know it. — Dislocation is recognized by the position of the leg
as described above, with inability to move it forward. The horse can be
made to back, but he will swing himself back over the injured leg with-
out raising it off the ground. The other legs are moved all right, but
this one remains with the foot in one position as if riveted to the
ground.
Lameness from sprains is recognized by a labored action in carrying the
leg forward ; the leg is carried farther forward than in health, and is
swung outward, flexing the stifle as little as possible. When made to
trot, all symptoms are exaggerated. Upon a careful examination with the
hand there will be found a thickening around the ligaments and soreness
upon pressure. When brought to a standstill he will rest the leg.
350
LEGS OF THE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES. 351
What to do. — In case of dislocation tie a rope to the pastern and
pull it forward and a little outward at the same time, the mar, handling
the rope standing about a yard from the horse's shoulder ; then anothe"
man standing at the stifle shoves the bone back into its place, by pushino
toward the horse's flank. It will slip in with a snap. Then put en a
high-heeled shoe, the heels raised two inches, and bathe the stifle as con-
tinuously as possible with the cooling lotion. No. 12. When the inflam-
mation that follows is gone, apply a blister all around the joint, use No.
9. Give a long rest. If this does not cure in four or five weeks, a seton
may be put in over the joint, running up and down about four inches ;
wash it clean once or twice a day with liot water, and leave it in from
two to four weeks. When entirely well, replace the shoe with an ordi-
nary one.
DEVICE FOU A STIEl.El) HORSE.
Showing the manner of replacing the patella, in case the stifle is thrown out.
Treatment for sprains of the stifle is the same as prescribed for dislo-
cation. Do not omit the high-heeled shoe, and give plenty of rest. If
it is a mild case a strong liniment may be effectual ; apply No. 14. The
more heroic treatment may be applied when the mild fails.
II. Hip Lameness and Hipped.
Lameness and accidents are commonl}' found affecting the hips. The
points of the hips often knock against door posts, trees, stakes and posts
in the pasture ; and also when falling the hip is often the first point to
strike. At such times a point is often broken, or the Avhole hip is knocked
down, giving a one-sided appearance to the hips, wiien they are known as
hipped.
Causes. — Ordinary hip lameness is caused by spraining the ligaments
or muscles around the joint. It may be done by slipping, falling, being
kicked by other horses, etc.
852
CYCLOPEDIA OP LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
ELEPHANT LEG.
How to know it. — Lameness in the hii) is rather hard to diagnose on
account of its usually being so deep-seated. A bad case of hip lameness
lis known by a short step, about half the
length of that of the sound leg, while the
whole leg is carried together, all of a piece,
and swung outward somewhat. When standing
he will not always rest the leg, butmay stand
perfectly sound on it and only show lame-
ness when moving, showing it entirely by
[labored action, the leg being brought forward
)wly and with difficulty.
^Manipulation will usually find soreness di-
Irectly over or near the joint, and upon close
examination, when standing behind and com-
paring the two sides, there will be found a
slight swelling in the region of the injury.
Sometimes the sprain is in the back part of
the joint ; then the labored action is seen
more in backing, the horse going forward
[with little or no difficulty.
In case of fracture there will be a very
perceptil)le deficiency or falling away in that region, accompanied by
great lameness and soreness to the touch.
What to do. -Ii^ cases of fracture all that can be done is to make the
horse as comfortable as possible and apply anodyile lotions and liiii^
ments, accompanied with hot applications, either water or vinegar, and
the Imiment, No. 15 ;and also give along rest, from one to three months.
The bones cannot be got at to be set ; so all there is to be done is to let
nature do the work. The animal will alwaj.:; remain one-sided, and will
generall}^ go a little one-sided, partly cornerwise, in tl e road ; but he will
be just as useful as ever for ordinary work.
Sprain of the hip is treated the same as any other sprain. Rest, hot
water, and liniment. No. 14, well rubbed in, twice a day, will generally
cure in from one to three weeks. But in bad cases a blister is often
required; rub No. 9 well in over the affected part. If this fails to cure
a seton is the last resort. Let it be a piece of strong unbleached muslin,
an inch and a half wide and ten inches long. Run it upwards and down-
wards, about four inches, under the skin. Leave it in from three to six
weeks. Keep the place running by applying a little fly blister to the
string from time to time. Give absolute rest during this treatment, and
when the seton is removed, turn the horse to pasture or straw yard for
two or three months.
LEGS OF THE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES. 353
III. Stocking.
Stocking is the name given to swelling of the legs, usually confined to
the parts below the knees and hocks, although in bad cases it extends
above these joints.
Causes. — Weakness of the tissues of the legs, being unable to support
the pressure above ; weak, watery, impoverished condition of the blood,
and the legs being the most dependant part, it settles on them. Stand-
ing still is a very common cause, so much so that there is a good deal of
it just from standing from night till morning. It is most common in
badly drained and illy ventilated stables ; and young horses are more
subject to it than older ones. It is often a symptom of some disease
that requires attention ; for stocking in disease is always a symptom of
weakness which needs tonics and stimulants.
How to know It. — Swelling of the legs without other symptoms of dis-
ease ; the swelling entirely disappearing with exercise, but returning
when standing any length of time.
What to do. — Give the following tonic, one powder night and morn-
ing, in the feed :
No, 22. 1)4 Ounce pure sulphate of iron,
2 Ounces nitrate of potash,
Powder and mix.
Divide into twelve powders.
Shower the legs with cold water in hot weather, but omit the water
in cold weather, give gentle exercise to reduce the swelling, and when
coming in from exercise or work, bandage them tight; if in summer,
use cotton bandages ; in winter use flannel.
Avoid all strong, irritating or blistering applications. If necessary,
repeat the powders. Remove the bandages when going out for exercise,
and give the legs hand-rubbing.
rv. Elephantiasis or Lymphangitis.
This disease, sometimes called weed, is more particularly a blood dis-
ease, but oeing located entirely, by outward appearances, in the legs, we
will consider it in this connection. It is usually seen in fat animals,
rarely in poor ones. It is a species of surfeit and indicates a fat, ple-
thoric condition of the system, more so than the excretory organs can
take care of. It usually attacks one leg, and that a hind leg, though
sometimes it is seen in both hind legs, and occasionally in the fore legs.
It comes on suddenly after standing still a day or two or more. It often
develops between Saturday night and Monday morning. The lymphatic
glands of the leg become inflamed and unable to perform their func-
tions, and the superfluous nutritive material is thrown back ; the coats of
354 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOB.
the lymphatic vessels become weak and the fluid oozes through them,
infiltrates the cellular tissue and makes a leg something like that of an
elephant.
Causes. — Too high feeding with too little work. When horses are
worked every day it will seldom develop, but when a too highly fed
horse is left in over Sunday, a rainy day, or from a nail in the foot, etc.,
the big leg will be found next morning.
How to know it. — An immense leg is seen on enteving the stable. It
is hot, painful, sore ; if touched on the in^'-ilv. or the thigh the horse will
raise the leg as high as possible, sometimes so high as to throw himself
down. It is with the greatest difficulty that the leg is moved at all.
There is a high fever, accelerated pulse, temperature raised, breathing
increased in frequency, mouth hot, great thirst, and usually loss of appe-
tite. It is as liable to happen in winter as in summer.
DISCOVERING THE ELEPHANT LEG.
What to do. — The treatment applied is with a view to depletion, to re-
duce the system to its proper condition in regard to the amount of fat it
is capable of taking care of. So the first thing to be done is to give a
ball of Barbadoes aloes :
No. 23. 5 Drachms Barbadoes aloes,
1 Drachm gentian,
1 Drachm ginger,
Syrup or soap to mix.
Make it into a ball the shape of your finger, and, grasping the tongue
with your left band, draw it down between the front teeth and pass the
ball back onto the root of the tongue with the right hand, keeping the
hand up against the roof of the mouth ; do it fearlessly, for you cannot get
hurt so long as you keep firm hold of the tongue with the left hand.
The ball being safely down, put a teaspoonful of saltpetre into a gallon
of water and give him to drink. Repeat this every three or four hours
till the urine is increased in quantity and clearer in color ; then continue
it two or three times a day.
LEGS OF THE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES. 355
Bathe the leg with hot water with a handful of salt in it, for an hour
or two, having che water as hot as a man can bear his hand in. Then
bind the leg in woolen clothes to keep it thoroughly warm, let them
reach cjear to the body, and avoid all drafts. Restrict the diet to hay,
water and bran mashes till he is able to go to work again. As soon as the
soreness will a^Jow of exercise, give him a walk of a couple of hours twice
a day, increasing it from day to day. This may be kept up till all sore-
ness and inflammation are gone, when he may go to work again ; which
will be before all the swelling is gone from the leg, but the exercise will
help to reduce it. On coming in from work apply a wet bandage tight :
and give plenty of hand-rubl)ing when going out. Bring the horse back
to his feed gradually, and yvoid overfeeding.
Prevention. — If a horse is working hard every day, and consuming large
quantities of very nutritious, heating food, the regular allowance should
be cut down one half when he is laid up for a single day or more. He
should receive a large, wet bran mash for supper on Saturday night, no
oats or corn at all, and only one-half, or two-thirds at most, of the regu-
lar allowance on Sunday. If this rule is followed no elephant leo-s will
^^e found on Monday morning ; but if the full allowance of strong grain
is fed Saturday night and all day Sunday, the horse is liable to this and
tbany other disorders.
V. Scratches or Cracked Heel.
Scratches or cracked heels are simply chaps and cracks around the
heels and in the hollow of the pastern ; they correspond to chapped
hands in man. They are usually very simple, but sometimes arc quite
severe and require considerable perseverance to cure them.
Causes. — Exposure to cold mud, snow, slush and ice-water without
proi)er care in fall, winter and spring. It is unknown in hot weather.
How to know it. — The skin is swollen in the hollow of the pastern ; and
around the heels, cracks and chaps extend in all directions ; and larger
cracks will run around the leg where it is the most
flexed. When dry, they will be hot, sore to the touch,
and painful. Sometimes the flexion in moving will
cause the animal to raise the feet a couple of feet high
at first, but with exercise the soreness partially disap-
pears.
What to do. — When the horse comes in, wipe off the
parts as nicely as possible, bandage them with flannel
to keep them warm, and when dry clean them thor-
oughly with a brush, not touching them with water at
all. Washing with warm water would do no harm cra.ckeu ueel,
if they were well dried afterward, but to be on the safe side it is better
356
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVK STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
not to wash them at all. When clean, apply casmoline, petrolina, arnica
jelly, carbolic salve, or an ointment made of lard and pounded alum in
equal parts. Any of these may he applied, both when coming in and when
going out. If they get very bad, give him a few days rest. If proud flesh
springs up in the cracks, burn it down with bui-nt alum. If necessary
to rest the horse for them, give him a tcaspoonful of saltpetre in the
feed morning and night for three or four days.
Prevention. — Never wash the feet and legs in cold or wet weather, say
after November 1st, till April. It is good for them to be washed in warm
weather ; it softens the dry, hard hoofs, and cools off the horse when
heated ; but it is objectionable in cold weather. When coming in from
cold slush and mud, dry and (tlean the feet and legs thoroughly.
VI, Grease.
Grease is the name given to a disease of the lower jjartsof the legs that
seems to be ascgravated scratches, ])ut it is entirely distinct from
FIRST SYMPTOM OF GREASE.
Scratching one leg with the other foot.
FIRST STAGE OF CONFIRMED GREASE.
EXUDATION.
scratehes. Scratches lies in the upper or cuticular layer of the skin,
and grease is inflammation of the deeper layers. It is so called from the
nature of the discharge, which is profuse, and greasy in appearance. It
has a very offensive odor.
Causes. — Neglected scratches often runs into grease, but there must
be other conditions favorable — impure blood, tendency to surfeit, hide-
bound and general bad condition. It is just as likely to appear in warm
xv^eather, when it is the result of surfeit, as it is to appear in cold
weather, when it results from neglected scratches.
How to know it. — The legs are swollen to the knees and hocks, and
an offensive, greasy matter is oozing from the pores. When bad they
are so sore as to cause considerable lameness. The discharge comes at
much, and often more, from above the fetlocks as from below, and
LEGS OF THE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES. 357
mostly from the long thick hair on the back of the legs. Draft horses
are most subject to it. Itching of the part is an early symptom. When
grease is neglected, proud flesh sprouts up through the openings made by
the pus, and after a while they become caloused and horny, andthenthey
are called grapes. At this stage of the disease the swelling of the leg
has become chronic, and can never be reduced.
What to do. — Give the horse a purgative of aloes, No. 23. Feed on
bran mashes a few days. When the purging has stopped give a teaspoon-
ful of saltpetre in the feed morning and night for three or four days.
Apply hot poultices, with powdered charcoal sprinkled over the top, to the
SECOND STAGE OF CONFIRMED GREASE GRAPES.
CRACKS. The stage of Grease in which horny lumps
are seen, called Grapes,
Jegs, changing them once a day ; continue them till the active iuflamma
tion is nearly all gone, then leave them off and apply lotion
No. 24. 1 Ounce sugar of lead,
1 Pint water,
Mix.
Apply three times a day. Wash the parts often enough to keep them
clean and poultice them occasionally to keep the inflammation out.
While using the lead lotion, give a tablespoonful of epsom salts in the
feed once a day. If proud flesh springs up burn it down with burnt alum.
When the disease is cured, if there is any thickening remaining in the
legs, work, hand-rubbing and bandaging will reraove it.
VII. Mud Fever.
This is fever in the skin of the legs, from the feet to the knees and
hocks. The skin is covered with scabs as if it had been blistered, and
when they come off the hair usually comes with it, leaving the legs bare.
Causes. — Chilling cf the skin by standing or working in cold mud
and ice-water. The skin becomes thoroughly chilled, almost like frost-
bitten, and when warmed the reaction is so great as to produce much
358 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
fever which leads on to the conditions spoken of above, and sometimes
to furuncle and carbuncle. It is most common on limestone roads, the
soil being irritating.
How to know it. — Swelling of the legs is seen. After being exposed
for a day or more to cold, wet mud, or ice-water, they will be found to
be very hot and sore next morning. After a few days the hair will be
filled with scabs that cling tightly to the skin, but after a few days more
tbey will loosen and come off, bringing the hair with them, leaving the
legs entirely bare sometimes. There is usually more or less systemic
fever with rheumatic tendencies.
What to do. — If had, leave the horse in for a few days, wash the legs
with warm water and bathe them afterwards with lotion. No. 24. Repeat
this two or three times a day. When the swelling begins to go out of
them and the skin gets scaly, grease them with fresh lard once a day well
rubbed in. Give internally two tablespoonfulls of Glauber's salt three
times a day for a few days and follow that with No. 22.
Mud fever often runs into f urunculus which will next be described.
Vm. Furunculus or Carbuncle.
Furunoulus is the name applied by Prof. McEachran to what is called
by many mud fever in an aggravated form, when it takes the form of
carbuncle. It attacks the legs, but usually is confined to the coronary
region and pastern. It acts a good deal like a bad boil, swells very large,
gets very hard and is awfully painful, so much so that when it comes
under the coronary band or on the front of the pastern it is often fatal,
especially on the hind foot.
Causes. — All the causes that belong to mud fever are applicable to
furuncle, and, in addition, an unhealthy condition of the blood which
always has a tendency to aggravate any malady.
How tc know it. — Extreme lameness is usually the first symptom
noticed ; a reluctance to put the weight on the foot ; a continual raising
of the foot, indicating great pain ; the horse does not lie down ; great
fever in the system ; mouth hot ; eyes red ; nostrils dilated and more or
less blowing ; swelling of the coronet in the region of the carbuncle, unless
it is situated an inch or more above the coronet. When this has run on
for twenty-four hours the skin breaks in rags and in the course of the
next ten hours it sloughs off and a core goes with it varying in size from
a cherry to that of a man's thumb. Sometimes the skin sloughs off from
a surface as large as the palm of a man's hand. When these cases are
fatal the horse dies from irritative fever and exhaustion from pain. The
appetite is not always affected, the pain being so great a drain on the
system that the horse will often eat more than usual ; but in all cases he
loses flesh fast and becomes thin and tucked up in a very few days.
LEGS OF THE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES. ^"9
What to do. — When first noticed, give a ball of purgative medicine
made up as directed in recipe No. 23, regulating the quantity of the aloes
by the size of the horse ; give from three to five drachms. Then give
tincture of aconite root in ten-drop doses every two hours till the purga-
tive begins to work ; then stop. Apply a linseed poultice, hot and soft,
to the inflamed part. Change it twice a day till the sloughing takes place ;
then wash it with a weak solution of carbolic acid — one part of carbolic
acid to forty parts of water — and renew the poultice ; dress it in this way
till the sore begins to granulate nicely, then omit the poultice, and dress
three times a day with lotion No. 7, washing it often enough to keep it
clean.
Pf the swelling comes directly under the coronet the tension will be im.
mense, on account of the little elasticity in it ; the soft parts underneath
cannot swell, and therefore the pain will be unbearable unless it be cut.
So we would recommend in such cases to sever the coronet by passing a
probe-pointed knife in under it and cutting outwards. If it bleeds pro-
fusely, which it is likely to do, tie it up loosely for a while with a cotton
bandage. Subsequent treatment will be the same as given above. Feed
liberally all the time. The healing of the wound will appear to be slow,
but patience is required, as the skin will not form over the surface all at
once, but must grow over from the edges. If lotion No. 7 is well ap
plied there wiU be no proud flesh nor other hindrance to the healing pro
cess
IX. Dislocations.
Dislocations are very rare in the horse, except that of the stifle, which
is described in the article under that head. The shoulder and hip joints
are imbedded so deeply in muscle, and the sockets of the joints are so
well guarded by the cartilage that surrounds them that dislocation oi
those parts is seldom met with. The bones, femur and humerus, frac-
ture through their necks before their heads give way from their sockets.
The elbow, knee, hock, fetlock, pastern and cofiin joints are all so well
guarded by flanges, central ridges, depressions, width of joints, etc.,
that fractures almost invariably take place before dislocations. In order
for a dislocation to occur, many of the strong ligaments that surround
and hold their joints togther would have to be ruptured and torn from
their attachments, which would be nearly if not quite as serious as a
fracture, and in most cases, except that of the stifle, destruction of the
horse would be the cheapest treatment ; for a great length of time would
be required to effect a cure, and the result would be very unsatisfactory.
But in case of a valuable stallion or mare, that might be used for
breeding it would be well to give them a chance, by putting them in the
360 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
slings and using hot fomentations, and careful bandaging to support the
injured joint, at the same time giving internally, mixture No. 21, to keep
down any fever that might arise from the injury to the synovial mem-
brane. And after bathing with hot water, which ought to be done three
or four times a day, the following liniment may be used, and bandage
right over it, applying the bandage middling tight: —
25. 1 Ounce tincture aruica,
1 Ounce laudanum,
Water to make one pint,
Mix.
X. Wounds.
What to do. — Wounds are common, and in most cases have to be
treated, at least for the first dressing, at home by those who happen to be
upon the premises, owing to the urgency of the situation. Bleeding is
often profuse to a dangerous degree, and when stitches are required it is
always desirable to insert them while the wound is fresh. For the stitch-
ing is not only much more painful and less successful when postponed,
but aftei a lew hours, when swelling and suppuration have begun, it is
useless, for the edges will not unite and the stitches will certainly tear out,
adding to the soreness and blemishing that follows. Hence it is very
important for some one about the place to act as surgeon, at least for the
time being.
When the skin and flesh are laid open by kicks, calks, cuts, collisions,
etc., the first thing to do is to stop the bleeding. Arterial blood is bright
scarlet, venous blood is dark blue. When an artery is cut apply the
compress above the wound, towards the heart, to intercept the blood as it
is coming down. If it is a vein that is cut apply the compress below the
wound, for the veins conduct the blood towards the heart. The compress
may be a cork bound on the artery or vein, or a wad of cloth, or a piece
of dry sponge with a bandage Avound over it pretty tight. If the wound
is in a position that will not admit of bandaging and there are arteries or
veins cut, so as to be dangerous, they must be caught up and tied. In
the absence of proper instruments an artery can be taken up with a fine
pair of nippers and the end tied with a piece of silk. But in many cases
it is unnecessary to tie the artery, since the bleeding may be stopped by
filling the cut with scrapings from the flesh side of sole leather, cob-webs
oakum, tow, lint, etc., or a solution of copperas, or the tincture of iron
may be thrown into the wound.
if no bleeding is taking place, proceed at once to sew up the wound.
f Jse a needle that is strong and not liable to break while being pushed
LEGS OF THE HOUSE, THEIR AC(;ibKNTS AND DISEASES. 8ol
through the skhi, Jiiid silk thread, douhU'd to prevent, its tearing out.
Make the stitches about three-fourths of an
inch apart and tic each one before taking
another. Clip off the hair from the edges of
the wound so that none will be doubled under,
and bathe it with the carbolic lotion, No. 6.
If the wound is on the leg it is best to draw
the skin together with a few stitches, even
though they are certain to tear out, and, after
dressing with the lotion, apply a bandage
smoothly over the wound just tight enough to
hold the parts in place. Then let it alone till
it begins to suppurate, when it needs washing
with warm water and castile soap to clean it,
and dress as before with lotion and bandage.
When the stitches burst, cut them out. stitching with a fixku
When the wound is filled up with flesh even seton needle.
mth. the surface, change the lotion to No. 7, and leave off the bandage.
[f the wound is on the body and cannot be bandaged use lotion No. 6, till
the flesh has made considerable headway towards filling up the hole and
then change to No. 7.
If the bone is affected and caries (ulceration) begins, drens it twice a
day with lotion : }^ Ounce hydroclilotic acia,
^ „ 1 Pint water,
*®-^ Mix.
Apply it with a swab directly to the caried spot. The flesh in such m
case may be dressed with the other lotions the same as above.
If the joint is nffected, treatment for it particularly will l)e found un-
der the head of Open Joint.
If the tendons are cut off so as to let the fetlock down to the ground
and the toe turns up, it is very serious indeed. Put the horse in slings
and keep him there until the wound is healed and strong. It will take
two months or so. Cut off with a pair of sharp scissors any tendon
that protrudes, support the leg in its natural position so that the ends
of the cut tendons meet, draw the skin together, bandage and treat as
above. Put on a high heeled shoe to relieve the strain and if there is
weakness after healing apply No. 14 until mildly blistered an grease with
fresh lard. If but one tendon is cut, apply the same treatment.
XI. Sore SMns.
Younc racers are very apt to have sore shins from too much galloping
Sefore the bones become thoroughly hardened. The bones all along the
from the foot to the knee, become quite sore, somewhat enlarged
,$62 CYCLOPEDIA OP LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
and cause lameness. The consequences of sore shins are quite serious
as they often render the colt unable to go on with his training. The in-
flammation is often followed by an ossification of the effusion that is
thrown out and gives the leg the appearance of having patches of
bone plastered over the shins under the skin.
Causes. — Too much galloping when the bones are soft and young, and
the soreness is often, aggravated by too much rubbing when coming
in from exercise. The bones should never be rubbed hard nor very
much, but the tendons on the back of the legs may have all the rubbing they
can get. Sore spots on the legs are often produced by bruises, kicks
from the toes of stable boys' boots, kicks from other horses, etc. These
last named causes are often followed by bony enlargements on any part
of the legs, or the enlargements may come directly on a joint, when very
serious results may follow.
How to know it. — Soreness forward, shown by a short, stiff, stilted
gait ; if more in one leg than the other there will be lameness. There is
soreness to the touch, more or less swelling all over the surface of the
shin bones, or at any point of injury when it is the result of accident.
The swelling is soft at first and spungy, but in a few days becomes quite
hard and has the feeling of bone. The soreness may extend over the
whole surface, or it may be confined to that part near the joints, espec-
ially the fetlock and pastern. The animal is inclined to knuckle at the
fetlock, and go over on the knees.
What to do. Give absolute rest ; remove the shoes ; foment the legs
with hot water for half an hour at a time three times a day, and follow
the hot water each time with the lotion. No. 12, and bandage loosely, wet-
ting the bandages and legs with lotion No. 27, as follows :
No. 27. 1 Ounce tincture arnica,
1 Ounce tincture opium,
Water to make one pint,
Mix.
Continue this treatment till all soreness is gone, then, if necessary, apply
a little of the blister. No. 10, rubbed in once a day till pretty well blis-
tered, then grease once a day till healed, and repeat.
In mild cases, where the first symptoms are shown, frequent bathing,
say three times a day, with lotion No. 27, and loose bandaging, will pre-
vent its full development, especially if rest is given. In bad cases the
rest needs to be prolonged to several months. The same rules and
recipes will apply when enlargements come on the bones from kicks and
other bruises. The firing iron may be drawn over the spot when near or
on a joint, if other and milder measures fail.
LEGS OF THE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES. 303
Xn. Osteophytes, Following Sore Shins.
This is the name given to the bony deposits that follow sore shins.
There are several different kinds. The velvety, or villous resembling
hour frost, is usually spread all over the bone in a uniform layer, and is
seen ou bones of young racers, hack horses and sometimes driving
horses. The splintered or laminated kind grows more in excrescences and
splintered as in spavin. The warty or stalactite kind grows like a wart
with either a pedicle or stem on a narrow base, or may-be a small sur-
face on a large base, or a large excrescence spread on the bone over con-
siderable surface ; these are seen on any bone as results of bruises, etc.,
and sometimes appear around the hock and knee joints. Many other
forms may be seen, like tarry matter poured over the bone hot, and hard-
ened while cooling, etc.
Causes. — Hard work of any kind making the bones sore, inflammation
sets ni and then deposits follow as a natural result. Accidents, bruises,
kicks, etc., contribute their share.
How to know it, — The bony enlargement can be seen and felt. In
addition to that there will, in all probability, be more or less lameness.
In the absence of lameness there will be a stiff, short, stilted gait ; more
or less knuckling of the fetlocks and going over on the knees — knee-
sprung. It is most often seen in hack horses, saddle and buggy horses
that get much work.
What to do. — Treatment is unsatisfactory in that it requires a long
tmie, continuous rest and considerable attention, and after all, the horse
is not much improved ; but it is always best to give it a trial, especially in
young and valuable horses. In the early stages the same treatment pre-
scribed for sore shins is applicable, which see ; and in the later stages
repeated applications of the blister No. 10, and a long rest will help him
some, if it is an old, chronic case ; and if it is a recent case, it will cure.
xm. Porcelaneous Deposit.
Causes. — Often in bad cases of spavin and ringbone, and in many
other joints of the body, an ulceration of the head of the bone takes place
in the joint, the cartilage becomes absorbed and lets the ends of the bones
together, and as a result of friction, a bony deposit is made on the ends
coming together which gets rubbed and chafed till it is polished as smooth,
hard and glossy as porcelain, hence the name.
How to know it, — By negative symptoms rather than positive. The
horse is always evenly lame ; the lameness does not work off with exer-
cise : no treatment does any good, and the true nature of the trouble can
only be determined by a post mortem examination.
364
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
What to do. — Give the afleeled joint the treatnu'iit prescribed under its
proper head, exhaust all known remedies, and when you utterly fail to
produce a cure, you may come to the conclusion that there is porcela-
neous deposit in the joint which is incurable. No treatment is of any avail.
XIV. String Halt.
Causes. — Strinp; halt or spring halt is a purely nervous affection in
which the cause cannot be defintely located, but which may be due to any
local disorder. It often exists witliout any visible lesion.
How to know it. — The leg is jerked up towards the l)ody with every step,
sometimes so strongly as to strike the belly with the fetlock. Some-
times it is very slight, only sho\ving in moving from side to side in the
stall, or only when starting forward or backward. Sometimes both legs
A BAT) CA.'^K OF STTilNf! HAT.T.
are affected. It is usually worse when starting; sometimes it is so bad
that the horse has hard work to start at all and will stand and jerk up first
one leg, then the other; but once started he goes without hesitation. But
it is very fatiguing and wearing; and the horse seldom accumulates any
flesh.
What to do. — ^The treatment is very unsatisfactory, seldom or never
resulting in any benefit, but it is best always to treat any local disorder
of that region tis it requires, with a hope that it Avill alleviate the ner-
vous jerk.
LEGS OF THE llOUSK, THKIK ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES. 385
XV. Interfering.
Interfering is the effect of ii variety of causes that make the horse
brush the foot that is going forward against the other leg. It may be
either fore or hind. He may brush any part of the leg according to
the height to which he raises the foot, sometimes the knee or above it,
the shin or the coronet, but usually the fetlock.
The fetlock is brushed when the horse is walking or on a dog trot ; the
coronet, on the walk with very low action ; the shin, on the trot when the
feet are raised higher than when the fetlock is brushed ; the knee, on the
trot with very high knee action; above the knee, when there is exces-
sively' high action.
The effects of interfering are always bad, but particularly so when it
is the knee that is injured. Interfering is usually conlined to brushing the
foot against the leg, but sometimes the foot is brought
against the leg in such a manner as to strike it, causing the
horse to go off on three legs for a few steps, and doing great
injury by bruising the part. This is sometimes done by
horses that do not l)rush luibituall}^ but from some misstep
the foot is brought forward with a swing and strikes the
other leg in its passage.
Causes. — Colts, before being shod, seldom or never inter-
fere, l)ut often do it as soon as shod, while in other cases the
fault does not appear until some bunijlino; shoeinjj is done.
mi , • • .1" ^ . ? , ENLARGED
Ihe shoemg is a common cause; tiie foot is often pared knee, prot.?
down too much on the inner side, tipping the fetlock in so as speedy cut.
to l)ring it in the way of the other foot ; the shoe is sometimes left too
full on the inner side, projecting out so far as to brush in passing ; beinof
shod too heavy or too light often causes it. Colts interfering when
shod first, is due to the increased weight of the feet, but when the
muscles become accustomed to carrying the shoes it disappears. Mal-
formation is a common cause ; the fetlocks are sometimes tipped in ; the
toes turned in or out giving a s\vinging motion to the fore feet. Weak-
ness is a common cause, and also thinness in flesh.
How to know it. — There is often lameness from rt without any visible
marks on either leg or foot ; in such a case chalk the foot, or smear lamp-
black on it and move the horse and it will be demonstrated. But the
point struck is usually very plain, also a polished surface on the foot,
and sometimes blood on the hoof.
What to do. — The first thing to l)e done, alwa3's, is to apply a l)oot to
the place on the leg that is brushed. Nicely-fitting boots for all parts of
the leg are made of both cloth and leather, that protect the part from
injury ; this done, proceed to remove the cause. If jt is \n the shoeing
366
CYCLOPEDIA OF MYB STOCK AHD COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
take the horse to a shoer who is an artist in the business, and by close
examination ascertain what changes can be made. As a rule no two feet
are alike, and it requires an artist and a mechanic to change the position
of the feet and legs relatively. A good rule to follow in all ordinary
cases is to shoe so as to tip the fetlocks out, giving the feet room to pass
by without brushing. This is done by leaving the inner side strong and
paring down the outer side, which will throw the centre of gravity in a
new line and often prove successful. Instead of leaving the inner side of
the shoe full make it rather scant. If the shoes are too heavy, lighten
them ; if too light, or too large, change them. If the horse is overworked,
thin and weak, give him a rest and a little
better feeding. There is no plan much
more effectual than to spread the legs with
good solid flesh, making them travel wider.
If the knee gets larger and the swelling
fills with liquid, tap it carefully and let the
liquid out. Other points are not likely to be
bruised badly enough to cause an effusion.
After the cause is removed foment with
either hot or cold water and apply lotion,
No. 12 ; repeat it three or four times a day.
Gentle exercise may be given if the swel-
ling is not too large and sore. When below
the knee bandages may be used to advan-
tage. When the swellings become hard
and calloused the liniment. No. 11, may be
rubbed in twice a day after a hot bath,
rubbhig the part dry before applying the liniment.
A GOOD FORM.
Rear view of a horse showing how full
thighs spread the legs and prevent inter,
fenng.
ANKLE BOOTS IN COMMON USE.
The cuts above illustrate the application of a few of the most com-
mon forms of boots, used to prevent injury by interfering.
LEGS OF THE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES. 367
It should be remembered that there is no chance of reducing the
enlargement until the cause is removed. A boot should be worn till the
tendency to interfere is obviated.
XVI. Overreaching.
Causes. — Overreaching is catching the toe of the hind foot on the heels,
quarters and shoe of the fore foot, often cutting the quarters badly, in-
juring the hoof and causing it to grow down from the wounded part,
giving rise to quarter cracks, weak quarters and rough, horny patches over
the heels and pasterns.
What to do. — This is a fault that has to be overcome by proper shoe-
ing. Usually, shoeing quite heavy forward and very light behind will
make the horse take up the fore foot quicker, and get it out of the way
of the hind foot before the latter strikes it. But in trotting horses, this
is insufficient ; for, when trotting fast the hind foot passes by the fore
foot on the outside to get an extra long reach ; but they often fail to do
it nicely and cut their quarters badly. This is usually overcome by
weighting the hind foot on the outer side of the toe, cornerwise, as it
were, to the foot ; this will have a tendency to throw the foot outward
and forward at the same time.
But in slow-going horses this is impracticable, and dependence nmst be
placed on shoeing. The heels of the fore shoe need to be very short,
the toe of the hind shoe set well back under the hoof, and the toe calk, if
any, set well back on the web of the shoe ; but in such cases, if the
work of the horse will allow, it is best not to have any toe calk at all —
let the shoe be plain. While trying different plans to overcome the
habit, apply quarter and heel boots to the fore feet to avoid ruining
them.
XVII. Forging.
Forging is the habit of clacking the hind and fore shoes together
when trotting. It is not productive of any harm other than wearing off
the toe of the hind foot ; but it is very disagreeable and annoying to the
driver, and fatiguing to the horse.
Causes. — The position of the feet at the time of the clack is differ-
ent from what it is popularly supposed to be. The prevailing impression
IS, that the toe of the hind shoe comes in contact vnth the heel of the
fc^-e shoe, but that is a mistake. As the fore foot is being raised off the
ground, with the heel already raised and the foot in th3 act of rolling on
the toe, the toe of the hind foot comes flying in under the heel of the
fore, and the two shoes come together, the toe of the hind against the
web of the fore, making the cladding noise. It often f/ears off the to©
of the hind foot badlyr
368 CICLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND CUMPLIUTE STOCK DOCTOR.
What to do. — The object to be gained is to increase the action and
activity of the fore leg, to get the foot out of the way of the hind foot.
Shoe light behind and heavy forward. Let the weight of the fore shoe
be mostly on each side, and the web at the toe as narrow as possible,
setting the toe calk, if any, as far forward as you can. Set the hind
shoe back from the toe a (juarter to half an inch, and the toe calk as far
back on the web as possible, and very small. Leave the toe of the hoof
projecting over the shoe.
XVIII. Rupture of Muscles.
Causes. — i'be muscles are sometimes ruptured across the fibres by
over rxcition, severe sprains, etc.
How to know it. — (ircat lameness is apparent as an early syni[)tom.
Swelling, heal, soreness and pain are noticed in the course of from two to
six hours after the accident. There will be unwillingness, amounting
almost to inability, to move. When the inflammation has entirely sul)sided
and the swelling is all gone, there will be a depression in the muscle at
the seat of the injury from absorption of the injured jDortion.
What to do. — During the active inflammation, foment with hot water
as continuously as possible, and apply in between bathings, the anodyne
linin)ent. No. 27. When the inflammation has all subsided and the hol-
low in the muscle has formed, apply the tincture of cantharides, lightly
rubbed in once a day, till it is pretty well blistered, then suspend it and
grease the part once a day till it is healed, and then repeat the blister.
Continue this treatment for several weeks and the muscle will generally
re-develop. Give gentle exercise during the treatment.
XIX. Atrophy of the Muscles.
This is a wasting away and shrinking of the muscular tissue, leaving a
flattened or hollow surface in the place of a full, round muscle. It is
similar in effect to rupture of the muscles, but is more extended.
Causes. — Sprains, strains, bruises, severe pressure, etc.
How to know it. — A flattened or hollow surface will be found in the
place of the muscle. Compare the part with tho corresponding muscle
on the other side, and you will notice the affected muscle has wasted away.
What to do. — Repeated applications of the tmcture of cantharides
will usually make the muscle re-develop, but if it does not succeed after
trying for three or four weeks, insert setons over the wasted portion
about two or three inches apart, the length of the atrophy ; apply a little
fly blister to the setons about twice a week. Foment them with hot
water twice a day. Leave them in three or four weeks. Give gentle ex-
ercise. All means frequently fail to make the muscle re develop. The
animal is often just as useful, bvittbe wasted muscle is a constant eye-sore.
LEGS OF THE HORSE, THEIR ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES.
369
J Brace for diiloctUioii or Ui.e nlboM- applied to the horse,
la, The aainr bnfce seen, atonm. 2, Brnce for cLislocatiOTt
of fetlock 2n. The name brace appU^sd to the hor^.
J.Brace for sprained or iU.stx>cot£(l .^hnuhler,
Ja.rhe sn.me. brace applied, tv the sh^aUter.
DISLOCATION OF SHOULPER AND KLBOW
3/0 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
BANDAGE FOR THE
CROUP.
BANDAGE FOU TOP OF THE NECK.
BANDAGES FOR THE FRONT AND SIDES
OF THE NECK.
THE EYE BANDAGE.
SHOE WITH IRON EXTEN-
SION,
The extension constitutes one
iind of a splint.
POULTICE FOR STRANGLES.
EAR BANDAGE.
SOME LESSONS IN BANDAGES FOR VARIOUS DISEASES.
CHAPTER Vm.
BODY OP THE HOESE, ITS EXTERNAL ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES.
I. CARIES. II. NECROSIS. III. OSTEO POROSIS. V. EXOSTOSIS OP THE JAW.
VI. BROKEN BACK. VII. SPRAIN OF THE BACK. VIII. BROKEN RIBS.
IX. BROKEN TAIL. X. FRACTURE OF THE SKULL. XI. TUMORS.
XII. GOITRE. XIII. INFLAMED PAROTID GLAND. XIV. FISTULA OF THE
PAROTID DUCT. XV. FISTULOUS WITHERS. XVI. POLL EVIL. XVII.
INFLAMED JUGULAR VEIN. XVIII. SADDLE GALLS. XIX. SIT FASTS.
XX. SURFEIT. XXI. DROPSY. XXII. CHORDES. XXIII. HERNIA.
XXIV. WARTS. XXV. RAT-TAIL. XXVI. ITCHY TAIL. XXVII. ITCHY
SKIN. XXVIII. MELANOSIS. XXIX. HIDE BOUND. XXX. ECZEMA.
I. Caries.
This is molecular death or ulceration of a bone. It may affect any
bone in the body. The bones most frequently af-
fected by caries are the teeth ; the lower jaw,
from injury from the bit ; the jaw bones, from
diseased teeth ; bones of the neck, from poll evil ;
spines of the back, from fistulous withers ; bones
of the tail, from docking — in fact, any bone sus- caries.
taining an injury of sufficient severity to cause a or the lower jaw-The eflFect
sloughing of the bone substance. ° ^'"^*p"
Causes. — Wounds, either contused, lacerated, or clean cut, affecting
the bone, are liable to be followed by inflammation, ulceration, and
sloushinsr of the bone substance.
How to Know it. — A peculiar, offensive odor is the first indication that
the bone is affected — an odor of decayed teeth ; the discharge that comes
directly from the bone is small, but there is sufficient mixed with the pus
from the fleshy surface to give the whole the characteri.stic odor. The
surface of the bone is usually rough when felt with the finger, and has a
tendency to spread if neglected. The surrounding parts always swell
considerably, and become, in long-standing cases, quite hard and cal-
loused.
What to do. — Wash the part, and make an opening on the under side,
if possible, to allow a free escape of the pus ; scrape the diseased surface
of the bone Mith a dull edge, and dress twice a day, with the following
lotion :
No. 28. 2 Drachms hydrochloric acid,
J^ Pint water,
Mix.
371
372 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE t TOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Apply with a swab directly to the diseased spot on the bone. This will
have the effect of arresting the caries, and promoting a healthy granu-
lation on the surface of the bone, which will fill up the hole. Continue
this lotion till all disease of the bone is certainly gone ; then change to
No. 7, which will heal the flesh wound, or use a little tincture of myrrh,
or gum balsam. Jf it is cold weather, compound tincture of benzoine
(Friar's balsam) is probably the best for flesh wounds. These latter may
be api)licd two or three times a day. Treatment of parts re(iuii'ing
particular appliances will be fouiul under their proper heads.
II. Necrosis.
This is death of a pari or the whole of a bone ; usually seen in the long,
harder bones of the body, and (juite often in the lower jaw-bones of
horses that i)ull very hard on the bit. Necrosis is sometimes seen affect-
ing the cannon bones of young racers, causing the whole bone to run out,
and a new one to form, but it is very rare.
Causes. — External violence is the usual cause, setting up inflammation
of the periosteum (the covering of the bone), and cutting' off the nutri-
ment of the bone, so that it perishes.
How to know it. — There will be one or more openings in the skin and
flesh, through which the pus will find its way ; the odor of decayed teeth
will be present, and occasionally a small piece of dead bone will p-iss out
with the pus; this dead bone is called sequestrum. The discharge is
irritating and excoriates the surface it runs over.
What to do. — Make the openings large and dependent to allow a free
escape for the pus, and remove the sequestrum as fast as possible, for
the sooner it is removed, the sooner the sore will get well. Keep the
parts clean, and dress three times a day with the following lotion, if the
iisease is on the surface, so that it can be got at easily:
No. 29. y^ Ounce carbolic acid,
}4 Pint raw linseed oil.
Mix.
But if the pus cavities run deep, inject lotion No. 5. If the legs are
aifected, put the horse in slings.
III. Big Head, (Osteo Porosis.)
Big head is the common manifestation of constitutional or generalized osteo
porosis. It is a disease of the bones of tlie body, in which they become
inflamed, swollen, softened and, finally, degenerated into cheesy matter, so
soft as to be easily punctured. It may be confined to the bones of the head,
either upper or lower jaw, or both, or it may attack the bones of the legs
or back, causing lameness and stifl'ness and finaJy breaking down by rupture
of the attachments of the ligaments, necessitating destruction of the animal.
It is most often seen in the central and southern portions of the United
BODY OF THE HORSE, ITS EXTERNAL ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES. 37.")
States, and occurs in all classes, breeds and ages of horses; sometimes in
single scattered cases and sometimes affects a major portion of a herd.
Causes. — The cause is unknown, but it is thought to be due to germs of
some sort in the her])age that causes the inHamnuition of the bones that leads
on to the degeneration of them. It can not be attributed to any i)articular
kind of food, for it occurs in horses on hay and grain, in colts at grass, in
horses with good care as well as in the starved and abused ones.
How to know It. — Slow, painful mastication with an inclination to chew
on one side of the mouth by turning the sore side up, and twisting the head,
will be the first symptoms noticed. After a few days the side of the face
v/ill begin to swell in the region of the fangs of the molar teeth; great ten-
derness will be evinced upon pressure; the gums will swell and extend down
between the teeth; specula? of bone pierce through and make the surface
rough {md cause bloody saliva to flow profusely from the mouth. After the
disease attains to considerable size the nose will turn over towards the sound
side; the lining of the nose swells so as to almost obstruct the breathing,
giving rise to considerable roaring. If the skin is pierced the bone will be
found to be easily punctured. When the back and legs are affected he will
be stiff" and lame with or without local swelling or soreness, resembling
rheumatism, when suddenly, with some exertion, he will break down in some
joint, usually the fetlock. This sometimes occurs when rising from a recum-
bent to a standing position, or when being driven.
What to do. — In the early stage it oftentimes can l)e helped by giving
a change of food or pasture, and giving the following powder, night and
morning, for a month, in soft food:
Half an ounce of hyposulphite of soda,
Two drachms pi-ecipitated phosphate of lime. Mix, and give as one dose.
See that the drinking water is good, and give plenty of common salt.
V. Exostosis of the Jaw.
This consists in the growth of bony tumors on the lower jaw, where
they are quite often seen.
Causes. — It is usually caused by some ex-
ternal injury, often by the curb-chain.
How to know it. — They are sometimes
spread over a large portion of the jawbone, with
a very broad base; sometimes they are in the
form of little nodules the size of the end of a bony tumor.
man's thumb, with a very small base. They caused by curb-chain.
become perfectly hard and do nt) harm, usually, further than to be an eyesore.
What to do. — Treatment is useless, owing to the late stage of the
inflammation. If the true nature of the disease is known while the tumor
is forming, repeated blistering with No. 10 will do much good.
374
OrCX4}FlSDIA OF LITE STOCK AND OOMFL^TTB STOCK DOOTOB.
VI. Broken Back.
Causes. — The back is sometimes broken by heavy objects falling on
it ; this quite frequently happens in Northern cities by snow and ice slid-
ing off the roofs of houses. Sometimes the horse falls through traps and
holes, and the back is sometimes broken when being cast for opera-
tions.
How to know it. — If the spinous processes only are broken, there will
not be much change in outward appearance ; but the crepitation charac-
teristic of all fractures will be noticed and probably some alteration in
the straight outline of the back will follow — it will become depressed in
the region of the fracture. But, if the back is broken so as to press
HORSE SUFFEKING PROM PARTIAL PARALYSIS OF HIND LEGS.
upon the spinal cord, it will cut oif all sensation and power of motion
from all parts back of the fracture. This inability to move and feel is
paralysis and is due to the pressure of the broken bones upon the spinal
cord.
Sprain of the psooe muscles is sometimes mistaken for broken back,
but the distinguishing difference is very plain, and the test easily applied.
Prick the tail or any part back of the fracture with a pin ; if there is no
sensation the back is injured, and the spinal cord is enduring pressure ;
but if thej9Soce muscles are only sprained, while there will be inability to
move the hind legs, there will be sensation and ability to move the tail
ivhen pncked with a pin.
BODY OF THBi HORSE, ITS EXTERNAL ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES.
!75
What to do.— If the spinous processes only are fractured, the animal
will recover. Put him into slings if he can stand when raised ; if not,
leave him on the floor, as he is safer and more comfortable there than in
the slings, unless he can bear the most of his weight comfortably on his
feet. Apply cold water rugs to the fracture, and bathe the part occa-
sionally with tincture of arnica or camphor. After the active inflamma-
tion has subsided, stop the cold water and just give the horse time, and
nature will mend the fracture. But if any of the l)roken pieces of bone
do not reunite, and continue to act as irritants, cut down upon them and
remove them.
If the back is absolutely broken, so that there is inability to move, and
no sensation in the hind parts, particularly if there is displacement, treat-
ment is useless, and the animal ought to be destroyed, for it is only a
question of a few days for him to die, and he might be saved all the suf-
fering accompanying a natural death.
In case there are broken bones to remove, it is best to wait till the
irritant is located by the abscess that is sure to follow; then, when the
abscess is soft, tender, and nearly ready to break, open it sufliciently to
allow the finger to enter, and remove the pieces that are acting as
thorns.
VII. Sprain of the Back.
Causes. — Sometimes the back is only sprained by slips or falls, but if
the sprain is severe, many of the same symptoms will be noticed, and the
TEST KOR Sl'KAIN OF TUK BACK.
ligaments, and sometimes the coverings of the spinal cord, are involved
these are amenable to treatment but recovery is often slow.
370 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVK STOCK /iND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
How to know it. — Sprain of the back is diagnosed by pressing the
thumb and finger along the spines, and by throwing the weight suddenly
on the tender spot, when pain will be evinec^d.
What to do. — The treatment consists in clii)ping off the hair along the
back, and rubbing in well the blister, No. D. Oil the blister once a day
afterwards. Repeat it if necessary after a couple of weeks. Give a long
rest and a run at pasture.
VIII. Broken Kibs.
Causes. — The ribs are often broken by falling, colliding with trees,
walls, etc., while running away, kicks from other horses, etc. If dis-
placement occurs, the ends are apt to puncture the pleura (the mem-
l)rane that lines the chest and covers the lungs), and the lungs ; in either
case the effects may be very serious, from hemorrhage and inflammation
in the parts wounded.
How to know it. — If there is no displacement there will be no external
alteration in the l)ody, and the diagnosis must be based upon rapid
breathing, the breath being cool, and effort to raise the flanks forming a
(Tease along the sides of the belly to avoid working the ribs in breathing,
unwillingness to move, and upon the horse persistently remaining
standing.
If displacement takes place there will be either a bulging in or out,
according to whether the ends are tipped in or out, but they are usually
tipped in, leaving a hollow over the fracture, and puncturing the pleura,
in which case there will be, in addition to the symptoms above mentioned,
more evidences of pain and some bleeding from the nose, loss of appetite
for a day or two, and more or less fever, according to the amount of
injury done to the chest and its contents.
What to do. — After moving the horse as carefully as possible to his
loose box, apply a bandage with surcingles directly over the fracture, and
draw them middling tight, to prevent working of the ribs. Then watch
the symptoms, and treat them as they arise, to subdue fever, stop hemor-
rhage, etc. The fever is best kept under control with the following mix-
ture :
No. 30. 1 Drachm tincture aconite root,
2 Drachms fluid extract belladonna,
Water to make four ounces
Mix.
Give a teaspoonfuU every two hours, if there is much fever, till it is
reduced. Feed on soft feed. Give perfect quiet till the horse is willini'
and able to take gentle exercise, which will be in four or five weeks. Two
months should elapse before the horse is put to work.
BODY OF THE HORSE, ITS EXTERNAL ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES. 377
IX. Broken Tail.
Causes. — The tail is sometimes broken at the dock, or where it joins
the body, by the horse falling through floors to a floor below, or by
some heavy weight falling from above, or by rearing up and falling back ;
in fact, any accident that may break the back will break the tail if the
blow strikes in the right place. The place where the fracture is most
likely to occur is about three or four inches above where the tail leaves
the body, — at the point where the tail begins from the upper part of
the pelvis, called the sacrum.
The sacrum being without joints and inelastic, is protected by the flat
bones of the pelvis, but just Avhere the protection ceases the tail begins,
so that in case of a fall on the rump, the tail is most likely to break at
ics origin.
How to know it. — There will l)e a sudden dropping of the outline of
the upper and back part of the rump ; the dock will be dropped down
into the space between the posterior joints of the hi[)s, pressing down the
anus, and making it very difficult, if not impossible, for a mare to be
delivered of a foal. A mare with the dock broken down never should be
bred.
What to do. — Nothing can be done for it except to try and raise the
l)Hrt by iiiiroducing the hand into the anus, but a.s nothing CiUi be fixed to
retain the parts in position, the attempt will not be at-
tended with success. It is no permanent injury fur
work, but is a great eyesoro.
X. Fracture of the Skull.
Causes. — The skull is often fractured by kicks, blows,
bruises, collisions in runaways, etc.
RIOHT-SIDED PARALYSIS OF
LOWER LIP AND TONGUE.
Engraved for this work from a
Photograph.
BONE TUMOR OF THE LOWER JAW (FROM A PHOTOGRAPH).
How to know it. — Besides the external marks of violence, there will be
either stupor or delirium from pressure on the brain, and more or less
378
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
fever may follow; also accumulations of serum in the ventricles of the
brain, delirium, convulsions and death.
What to do. — Trephine the bone and remove the portion that is
pressed down into the skull and is liable to cause pressure on the brain.
Keep the wound clean and treat it as a simple wound. If the pulse rises
and fever sets in, give the fever mixture, No. 30, and apply ice poultices
(chopped ice and bran) to the head continuously for several days and
nights, if he gets better it will be in the course of three or four days,
but if the fever rises and delirium increases it will terminate fatally in
UNEVENLY WORN OFF
JAAV TEETH. (a)
The remaining sharp points causing
wound in upper jaw (&).
FILING THE REMAINING UNWORN
PROJECTING TEETH. (a)
In the same way any sharp points of the balance of the
jaw teeth are filed. It is necessary, however, to
first place a wedge between the teeth.
from three to six days. If he gets down and raves and fights furiously,
he had better be hobbled to prevent him from injuring himself and his
attendants. If necessary he may be thrown down on a soft bed and con-
fined, when it will be easier to apply the ice and give the medicine, and
increase the chance of recovery. In this, as in all fevers, give the patient
all the water he will take — in small quantities and often. If it is in cold
weather keep him warm and dry.
XI. Tumors.
Causes. — Tumors are prenatural growths, that develop on any part
of the body. They may be fatty, fibrous, bony, cartilaginous, gland-
ular, and fungoid. They develop without any apparent cause. Some-
times they do little or no harm except to blemish the appearance i at
BODY OF THE HORSE, ITS EXTERNAL ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES. 379
Other times they do a great amount of harm ; interrupt the circulation,
breathing, mastication, cause paralysis when on the brain, and injure
the eye when near it.
How to know it. — Fatty tumors,, as the name indicates, are fatty in
composition, and grow oftencr on the internal organs, sometimes around
joints. Fibrous are hard, caloused, fleshy lumps like shoe boils, lumps
on the ribs, etc. Bony tumors are similar in structure to bone, though
not so dense ; they grow on bones, and are often the results of bruises.
Cartilaginous tumors are those that grow on cartilages, and are a part
of them ; are seen on the brisket, shoulder blades, etc. Glandular tumors
are hypertrophied glands, abnormal growth of the glands, and they
become indurated and i-emain so — see goitre and inflamed parotid gland.
Fungoid tumors, are those that sprout up like fungus ; they are exuberant
Igranulatious, and bleed easily when touched ; they are seen quite often
iiround the eyes, and may grow from the surface of any wound.
What to do. — Treatment of tumors, almost always involves surgery
iLhat requires a qualified veterinary surgeon to perform. The knife
should never be used to any extent, except by an expert.
XII. Goitre.
This is hypertrophy of the thyroid gland, that is situated on the under
side of the neck, about five to eight inches
below the angle of the lower jaw, on each
side of the windpipe. It sometimes attains
the size of a child's head, and presses
against the trachea, so as to interfere with
the breathing.
Causes. — The cause is unknown.
How to know it.— By the large, hard
lump on the side of the neck. It is mova-
GOITRE OR BRONCHOCELE. , , • •.• j 11
ble, insensitive, and grows slowly.
What to do. — Wash it thoroughly once a day with hot water and soap,
to remove all dirt, scurf, etc., then, when dry, rub well in a piece as large
as a chestnut of the following ointment :
No. 31. 2 Drachms iodide of potash,
2 Ounces lard,
Powder and mix.
Continue tnis for three or four weeks Treatment may be carried on
while working.
Xm. Inflamed Parotid Gland.
These glands are situated on each side of the throat, running from very
near the ear to the angle of the lower jaw, and are about the size of a
medium sized hand.
380 CirCLOFEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR,
Causes. — They become inflamed occasionally from cold settling in
them, or from injury.
How to know it. — There will be considerable enlargement, and soreness
upon pressure in that region ; hot, dry mouth ; painful mastication, and
more or loss general fever.
What to do. — Bathe them with hot water and apply linseed poultices.
Give internally fever mixture. No. 18, till the fever is subdued. If the
gland suppurates and comes to a point in any spot, open it, and continue
the poultices as before.
XrV. Fistula of the Parotid Duct.
Causes. — Sometimes from a tumor or lump of hardened food in the
region of the parotid duct (in the cheek opposite the third molar of the
upper row of teeth), the opening of the duct becomes obstructed,
inflammation sets in, and the duct often breaks out in a fresh spot. And
on account of there being a constant flow of saliva, the opening soon
becomes flstulous.
How to know it. — A sore is found on the cheek, usually on the outside,
but sometimes on the inside ; but the inner one does little harm as
the saliva is not wasted. The saliva flows continuously, but more freely
during mastication.
What to do. — Clip off the hail- around the opening, and remove any
irritant or obstruction on the inside ; see that the natural opening is clear.
Scarify the edges of the external opening to make a fresh wound of it ;
then apply the paste. No. 19, to the opening, and let a cold linseed poul-
tice go on directly over it. Dress it in this manner twice a day, and the
fistulous opening will soon close if the natural passage is kept open.
XV. Fistulous Withers.
Causes. — When the withers become bruised, swollen and festered, and
SLIGHT ENLARGEMENT WHICH MAY END FISTULOUS WITHERS— WORjT STAGE.
IN FISTULOUS WITHERS.
running sores follow, pipes are formed and constitute fistulous withers,
(Ihistelce of the horse doctor and cow leech).
BODY OF THE HOUSE, ITS EXTERNAL ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES. 381
How to know It. — A constant discharge is seen to come from the
swelling around the withers and run down over the shoulder. The pipes
conveying the pus are white, with thick w^alls, and very tough. The pu&i
is ordinary healthy pus, unless the bones of the spine are affected, which
is often the case, and then the pus will have the strong offensive odor
characteristic of caried bone.
What to do. — The knife must be used freely, but cautiously, and it
is urged, as in all similar cases, to employ a qualified veterinary surgeon
if possible. But if it is impossible to procure one, make the best of a
bad case and open the sinuses right up from top to bottom. If there
is a large hollow space on the tops of the bones under the skin, open the
skin right up from end to end, letting the cut run lengthwise the horse.
If the ends of the bones are exposed and caried, rough, diseased, and
smelling badly, the diseased portions must be removed either with bone
forceps or a fine saw, and dressed twice a day with lotion No. 28.
Dress the pipes with lotion No. 1, twice a day for a week, then change
to No. 5, alternating them. If the bones of the withers are exposed, but
not caried, use loti(m No. 5 on them and alternate it with No. 7 ; use one
a week, then the other.
XVI. Poll-evil.
This is a fistulous sore affecting the bones of the neck near the top of
the head or poll.
Causes. — It starts with a bruise from striking the top of the head
against a low ceiling, doorway or roof of
a car when being shipped, rearing and
falling backwards, etc. Suppuration sets
in ; the pus breaks out on the top, like
any other abscess, bu.t burro\\s down into
the bones at the same time, dift'ering in
this respect from ordinary ahscesses, so
that, within a few days after l)ursting on
top, it has burrowed down so as to reach
the bones or the joint between them. In
old, long-standing cases the disease some- J'*^' '-"^vil ddking the first
times causes the Ugamentum nuchoe to
become so rotted and eaten away by the suppurating process as to break,
letting the head drop. The animal in this case is rendered useless.
How to Know it. — There is always more or less tumefaction and flow
of pus, which runs down the sides of the neck. The pus has a strong,
disagreeable odor coming from the tendinous muscle, and, when coming
from the bone, it will have the characteristic odor of caries.
382
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AN1> COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
POLL-EVIL IN ITS SECOND STAGE.
In the course of a week or so, pipes form, and their walls get thicker
and thicker as they are allowed to run.
What to do. — As in the treatment of all fistulous sores, the sinuses
must be opened up and a free dependent opening made for the pus. It is
more ditiScult to do this in poll-evil than in almost any other case ; but
the sinuses usually run down into the
muscle of the neck more or less.
Follow them and open them up
freely ; then, there being a free con-
nection between the top of the sore
and the bottom of the sinuses, wash
it out thoroughly and inject lotion
No. 5, twice a day. If it is noticed
in its incipient stage, apply a linseed
poultice, hot and soft, till it is ready
to open ; then open it and inject
lotion No. 5, twice a day; continue the poultice till the holes all fill up
with fine, solid, healthy, granulations ; then apply lotion No. 7, three
times a day. If the bones are affected so as to expose a caried surface,
wash them off with warm water and scrape the rough surface to expose
the healthy bone; then dress it by applying lotion No. 28, twice a day
v/ith a swab till the exposed surface of the bone granulates so as to feel
like velvet when touched with the finger; then change to lotion No. 29.
Alternate lotions No. 29 and No. 5, one Aveek on and one week off. If
proud flesh springs up, keep it down with powdered bluestone.
XVn. Inflamed Jugular Vein.
Causes. — This disease is not so common as it used to be in the days of
bleeding. Bleeding is rarely resorted to now-a-days ; hence the infre-
quency of this trouble, for it is always the possible sequence of bleeding.
As the effect of this inflammation, the vein is liable to become obliterated,
filled up and caloused so as to remain so, the work of returning the blood
to the heart being done by the vein on the other side of the neck.
A horse with a jugular vein obliterated, cannot graze on account of the
rush of blood to the head, owing
to the lessened capacity to return
the blood from the head freely.
How to know it. — In the active
stage of inflammation the vein and
contiguous parts will be swollen,
sore and hot. In the later, chronic
INFLAMED JUGULAR VEIN. stagc, thc vciu wiU bc a hard, ine-
Position of a horse with inflammation of the jugular vein, lastic I'ldgC runuino" doWU frOm
the bond to the body, above the windpipe.
BODY OF THE HORSE, ITS EXTERNAL ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES. 383
What to do —After bleeding, watch the vein for several hours. If it
bleeds, and the blood coagulates, and the vein begins to swell, bathe it
with warm water, and manipulate the clot to try and break it down, and
make it pass on. Continue this till all danger of obliteration is past. Once
the vein has become obliterated, nothing can be done.
If the inflammation continues and abscesses are likely to form, apply
a blister of tincture of cantharides, after
having removed the pin. If sinuses form
.-ind sacks of matter are found, open them
freely, and continue the hot fomentations
and poultices ; syringe the sinuses and
abscesses with lotion No. 5. When the
sinuses and wounds fill up, if any flesh
presents itself too prominently, dress it
once a day with burnt alum. « .,,, simple form of
STRANGLES.
XVIII. Saddle GaUs.
Causes. — When a badly-fitting saddle is ridden any length of time, oj-
a saddk^ is kept on a back unaccustomed to carrying one, the back gets
bruised, scalded with the sweat, chafed with the saddle, and the skin rubs
off in spots, leaving raw sores exposed. The same applies to the collai-,
breast i)latc or harness saddle.
What to do. — Foment them with hot water with a little salt in it, three
or four times a day, wipe dry and apply lotion No. 24, or the following :
No. 32. 1 Ounce vineofar,
}4 Ounce tannin,
1 Quart water,
Mix.
Sometimes the skin will become dead, and continue to hold on fast to
the flesh like a scab ; this must be removed with the knife before it can
begin to heal. Make it a clean, fresh, active wound, and it will heal
readily with the above treatment. It is absolutely necessary to remove
the cause by either leaving off the saddle, collar, etc., till it heals, or by
remodeling the same so as to give an even bearing on the back or
shoulder.
xrx. Sit Pasts.
Causes. — These are large, calloused, tumor-like lumps on the back, as
a result of saddle galls, or on the points of the shoulders, from collar
galls. When the animal is continued at the work that causes the galls,
these calloused swellings make their appearance.
What to do. — Any treatment other than the knife is of little use. They
can be easily dissected out by cutting around them carefully and takmg
them out ])odily ; then treat the wound as a simple wound. Keep all
384 CYCLOPEDIA CF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK L.OCTOR.
pressure off till it is thorouglilj healed. A breast collar can often be
used in the place of the ordinary collar, while Avaiting for the wound to
heal.
XX. Siirfeit.
Surfeit is the term applied to the breaking out of pimples on the skin.
It is an effort of nature to throw off some of the impurities of the blood,
due to plethora. When the body gets fat and the blood rich, the liver
and kidneys often become inactive, and that throws an extra amount of
work upon the sldn ; and surfeit is the effort of nature to get rid of super-
fluous heat and effete matter.
A HORSE AFFLICTED WITH SURFEIT.
Causes. — Too high living, with too little exercise.
How to know it. — A rough, scabby surface will be found on the skin.
Sometimes it comes out, suddenly, all over in little blotches, that
may disappear in the course of a few days, or may scab over, owing to
the surface fever that usually accompanies it. Little or no difference,
otherwise, is noticed in the health, of the horse. There is sometimes a
great amount of itching, and sometimes none.
What to do. — From the nature of the affection, the treatment indicated
is to deplete the system. The best way to do is to give a full dose of
purgative medicine, restrict the food, and give more exercise. The best
purgative for the horse is from four to seven drachms of Barbadoes aloes,
according to the size and age of the patient, and the time of year. Six
drachms is the dose for an ordinary-sized horse. Larger doses may be
given in the spring than in the fall. The dose must be diminished in
BODY OF THE HORSE, ITS EXTERNAL ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES. 885
size for tender years, even if the colt is as large as he ever will be. The
aloes may be given in a bolus the size and shape of your finger, and
passed back into the throat with the right hand, while holding the mouth
open with the left ; or it may be given dissolved in a pint of warm water,
with a bottle. Feed on bran mashes for a couple of days after taking
the ball. After the ball has finished working, give a tablespoonful of
the following mixture, night and morning, in the feed :
No. 33. 2 Ounces nitrate of ootash,
2 Ounces rosin,
2 Ounces linseed meal,
Powder and mix.
No local treatment is needed, except to give all the necessary grooming
the condition of the skin will allow.
XXI. Dropsy.
Causes. — Dropsy is rather the result of disease, or the result of a
peculiar condition of the system, than a disease itself. It depends upon
CROW-BAIT — EFFECT OF DROPSY.
a debilitated condition, the result of other weakening diseases, especially
of the kidneys, and starvation ; it sometimes comes from diseased and
irregular teeth.
How to know it. — It is manifested by swelling of the legs, belly, and
sheath ; languor ; pallor of the visible mucous membranes ; indifference
to food ; emaciation with weakness etc.
What to do. — It is of paramount importance to remove the cause the
first thing ; therefore examine the teeth, extract any that are decayed, rasp
383 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
off the .sharp edges next to the cheeks ; sometimes one gets broken,
and the one opposite, having none to wear against, grows long and sticks
directly into the gum, making mastication very difficult and painful — in
this case, rasp or saw it off. If the cause lies in n debilitated condition
from some other disease, tonics are indicated. If the appetite is good,
give the following powder :
No. 34. 1 >2 Ounce pure sulphate of iron,
1 Ounce nitrate of potash,
2 Drachms foeuugreek seed,
2 Ounces linseed meal,
Powder and mix.
Give a tablespoonful night and morning in soft feed. If there is not
sufficient appetite to take medicine in the feed, give the following :
No. 35. 1 Ounce tincture of iron,
1 Ounce tincture of gentian,
Water to make twelve ounces.
Mix.
Give one ounce (two tablespooiif uls ) three times. Tempt the appe-
late with whatever he may fancy ; sometimes when a horse won't eat
oats h-e will eat corn or apples, carrots, cabbage leaves, etc. Con-
tinue the tonics till all signs of dropsy are gone, and give gentle exer-
cise as soon as the strength of the horse will allow.
XXII. Chordes.
This is a name applied to cramps of the muscles of the neck and loins ;
it is of a rheumatic nature, and is most common in spring, fall and win-
ter.
Causes- — E-^posure to cold and damp by sleeping on the ground in
wet, cold weather.
How to know it — It may be known by swelling of the muscles of the
affected parts, tenderness on pressure, neck twisted around towards one
side, and is stiff, so that the horse cannot feed off the ground. The
horse under these circumstances is stiff and sore all over.
What to do- — Apply hot rags, wrung out of very hot water, and laid ou
the sore muscles. Keep him warm and in a dry place. Give one of
the following powders in soft feed three times a day :
No. 36. 1 Ounce colchicum seed,
1 Ounce nitrate of potash,
2 Drachms foeuugreek seed,
Mix.
Divide into twelve powders> Give gentle exercise.
BODY OF THE HORSE, ITS EXTERNAL ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES. 387
XXIII. Rupture or Hernia.
Hernia or rupture is the breaking away of the parts that contain the
bowels, sometimes in one place and sometimes in another. The different
hernias are named from their location : Scrotal hernia is rupture into
the scrotum, and the bowels pass down through the abdominal rings into
the scrotum ; this only occurs in stallions. Inguinal hernia is rui)ture
into the groin through one or both abdominal rings. Ventral hernia is
when the abdominal walls are ruptured and let the bowels through into
the skin ; this is most liable to grow to enormous size. Umbilical hernia
is rupture through the opening through which passed the cords during
foetal life, and which never has closed.
Causes. — The last mentioned one is from a natural defect ; the othei-s
are from blows, kicks, great strains in jumping, pulling, falling, and in
the case of the stallion, it is usually caused by the exertion peculiar to his
labor.
How to know it. — There is a soft, puffy swelling on a surface that
ought to be smooth ; it is easily pushed back and remains so as long as
pressure is maintained. Scrotal hernia is found in the scrotum ; the
scrotum is larger than it ought to be, and the hernia is often attended by
very serious results, such as colic, strangulation of the gut, inflammation
of the bowels in that region, moililication and death. Inguinal hernia is
found in the groin or flank, and is nearly as bad as the scrotal. All the
different kinds of hernia are liable to fatal termination as described for
the scrotal. Sometimes the omentum or caul (the membrane holding
the bowels together) only is protruded; then it is not so bad and not
liable to a fatal termination unless the opening enlarges and allows the
bowels to protrude too.
What to do. — Try and reduce the hernia by pushing it back ; then
introduce skewers crosswise through the skin over the opening, and wind
silk around the skin, below the ends of the skewers, middling tight ; then
put on a compress and give the part considerable pressure. If this is
not successful there are other operations, such as opening the skin and
sewing up the opening in tiie abdominal wall with catgut sutures ; inject-
ing salt and w;>ter under the skin, etc. But these all require the skill of
the veterinary surgeon.
Scrotal hernia is the hardest to overcome, and nothing but castration
will do it in some cases. Introduce the hand into the rectum and
endeavor, if possible, to remove the gut from the hole leading to the
scrotum. This done, put the horse in a stall where the hind legs stand
the highest, and feed on concentrated food, with as little bulk as possible,
and give perfect rest. If this fails, he will have to be castrated by using
the clamps and enclosing the external coverings of the cord, except the
akin.
388 CYCLOPEDIA OP LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
XXrV. Warts.
Description. — Warts arc small, rugous, mammillary tumors of very
little vitality. They may come on any part of the body, but usually
come in the greatest numbers and most frequently
on the head. They are composed of filaments that
are semi-fil)rous, and are rooted in the skin. Some-
times they are tough and hard ; at other times
they are soft, and bleed easily. They are flat or
pedunculated.
What to do, — If they are pedunculated, clip
them off with a pair of scissors, or tie them off
with a silk thread ; then, when done bleeding, cau-
terize tiieni Avith lunar caustic, or touch them with
HEAD COVERED WITH a rcd-hot irou. The latter may be resorted to, to
wAurs. g^^^p ^j^g bleeding if necessary. If they are flat,
burn d^em with mtric acid once a day, till they are destroyed. When
well burned down, grease them once a day with fresh lard. It may be
added that attempts at charming them off do not generally succeed.
XXV. Rat-Tail.
This is loss of the hair of the tail, from disease, destroying
the hair follicles, and leaving nothing to reproduce hair from ; conse-
quently it is incurable. It is called rat tail, from its resemblance to the
caudal extremity of a rat. Sometimes a rat tail is not so bad but that it
will pass for a light tail, and sometimes there are only half a dozen hairs,
nearly ruining the appearance of an otherwise good looking horse.
XXVI. Itchy Tail.
This is an itchy condition of the tail at its origin or dock.
Causes- — It is caused either by filth, surfeit, worms in the rectum,
mange, or some other parasitic disease.
How to know it- — The horse is continually rubbing his tail against
posts, the fence, or anything he can reach, till he rubs off nearly aH the
hair from the dock.
What to do- — Wash it well with soap and water once a day, and satu-
rate the hair with a strong lotion of salt each time. If that does not cure,
give injections of salt and water, and apply lotion No. 24, to the tail
three times a day. If that does not effect a cure, give the horse a purg-
ing ball. No. 23 ; and use lotion No. 32 on the tail.
BODY OF THE HORSE, ITS EXTERNAL ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES. 389
XXVn. Itchy Skin.
This is scientifically known as prurigo. It is an itchy condition of the
skin all over the bod}^ which some-
times makes the horse almost frantic,
rubbing, scratching and biting himself
continually.
Causes. — It is one form of surfeit
when not due to mange or hen lice,
and is caused by a heated, surfeited
condition of the body, which mani-
fests itself in this manner.
What to do. — Give the horse a pur-
gative. No. 23, and when he has fin- showing signs of prurigo.
ished purging, give a tablespoonf ul of the followiug, in bran mashes morn-
ing and night.
No. 37. 4 Ounces Epsom salts,
2 Ounces nitrate of potash
4 Ounces hn^ed meal,
Mix.
Wash him all over with soap and water, and when dry, sponge him over
with vinegar. If practicable, give green food for a month.
XXVni. Melanosis.
This, although a constitutional disease, is only seen to be recognized
during life, on the surface of the body, therefore it will be described
in this chapter.
PREDISPOSED TO MELANOSIS.
Color and class of horses usually affected with melanosis.
Melanosis is considered to be a species of cancer. It is a black tumor
forming on any part of the body — in the lungs, liver, muscular and
areolar or connective tissue. It is, in the latter, immediately under the
"390 CTCLOPEDTA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOri-OS.
skin that it is found during life in the horse ; usually around the tail.
Pus cavities and abscesses are apt to form around them. One fully six
inches deep, and located under the tail was seen by the author lately.
They seem to be confined to white horses ; even grays are not afflicted
with them.
Causes. — The cause lies in the blood — in the form of a predisposition
to cancer.
How to know it. — Black tumors form under the
skin but show through quite distinctly; they
are usually flat and irregularly round, about half
an inch or an inch thick, sometimes not larger than
hickory nuts, and sometimes they are seen the size
of a man's hand. Nasty, disagreeable sores often
form around them.
What to do. — When they first make their appear-
MELANOsis. ance, they can be cut out with perfect safety. If
Dock of a horse afflicted sorcs fomi, clcau them out, scarify the surfaces and
with melanosis, showinp
loss of ha
the disease.
eflTectof drcss thcm with lotion No. 5, three times a day.
Give internally the following mixture :
No. 38. 2 Ounces potassium iodide,
1 Pint water,
Mix.
Give two tablespoonfuls morning and night, in a bran mash. Continue
this for about three weeks ; then omit two weeks and repeat.
XXIX. Hide Bound.
Causes. — Hide bound is the effect — not the disease itself — of some
derangement in the system, that interferes with the general health, and
gives rise to a generally unthrifty condition. It may be due to indigestion,
diseased teeth, exposure to cold, and starvation. Abuse is a common
cause ; no horse can thrive and look handsome that is pounded, jammed
and banged around.
How to know it. — The skin is as tight on the body as a glove on the
hand, and the hair all stares the wrong way. A thin condition is usually
an accompaniment of hide bound. The hair is dry, and skin dirty — full
of dandruff.
What to do. — Remove the cause — if exposed to cold storms, sheltei
him. Examine the teeth, and if the edges of the molars are sharp, rasp
them off with a, rasp for the purpose. If starvation be the cause, feed
better, and the skin will begin to loosen as soon as the horse begins to
thrive, and will become oily and soft. If the manure has a strong smell,
j^ive him a purgative, No. 23, and a teaspoonful of saleratus in soft feeu,
once a day, for a while. Give regular exercise.
BODY OF THE HORSE, ITS EXTERNAL ACCIDENTS AND DISEASES 391
XXX. Eczema.
This is the name applied to a scabby, pimply condition of the skin.
Causes. — Heat, either from the sun, or fever in the skin from getting
wet and the sun coming out hot and scalding the back, or getting wet
and remaining so a long time in the fall, this chills the skin, and the fever
is the reaction and eczema is the result.
How to know it. — The skin is covered over the neck, back and hips,
and sometimes over the belly and sides, with scabs usually about the
size of your little finger nail, and as thick as they can stand, giving a
rough, pimply appearance and feel to the skin. It seems to cause no
inconvenience, not affecting the health at all, nor even to cause itching.
What to do. — Treatment is unnecessary, for as soon as the horse is
sheltered from the sun in summer and storms in the fall, the scabs will
gradually come off. Grooming will assist in removing them. When
they are removed the hair has a rough, dirty appearance for a few days,
but will soon regain its smoothness and luster.
JACK AND STALLION SORES.
A form of eczema is often seen in jacks and stallions due to overfeeding
and idleness. It breaks out on the legs or any part of the body and is
inclined to become chronic, in fact it often defies treatment. These sores
sometimes itch so badly that the animal will bite or rub them till the skin
is destroyed, leaving them ugly, raw, suppurating surfaces.
What to do. — Give the animal a purgative, No. 23, and repeat every two
weeks for two to four times. Give internally as an alterative one ounce
of glauber salt night and morning in soft feed for about a week in between
purgatives. Reduce the grain rations one-half, and mix a double handful
of dry bran with each feed. Locally, — Wash the sores with soap and
water once or twice a day, dry them with absor])ent cotton and apply a
little of lotion No. 7, after shaking the bottle well. The lotion may be
applied three to six times a day. Keep the animal from rubbing or biting
it if possible, for one bite or a rub will do more harm than can be cured
in a week. A little petrolatum may be rubbed in to the skin around the
sore once a day.
EMGLISH FEEDING TABLE WITH SEPARATE PLACE FOR HAY, OATS AND WATER.
The rack basket Is fastened under the table. Parts of dust falUng at once to the floor, (a) Oats
crib, (6) water bowl, (c) rack basket, (rf) halter hook.
CHAPTER IX.
DISEASES OP THE RESPIBATORY ORGANS.
L TUMOR IN THE FALSE NOSTKIL. II. POI.rPUS. III. CATARRH. IV. NASAJ<
GLEET. V. LARYNGITIS, ROARING AND WHISTLING. VI. QUINSY. VIl.
BRONCHIIIS. VIII. PNEUMONIA. IX. HEAVES. X. CONGESTION OK THE
LUNGS XI. PLEURISY. XII. HYDROTHORAX. XIII. CHRONIC COUGH.
DIAGt; JVI SHOWING RESPIRATORY ORGANS IN THE HEAD OK A HORSE.
l._The nostril leading direct to 2.— The larynx, situated at the commencement of the windpipe. 3.— The
tongue. 4. — The oesophagus or gullet. 5. — The soft palate, which lies upon the tongue and affords a resting-
place whereon reposes the epiglottis, or the guardian cartilage to the entrance oJ the larynx (3). 6.— The
guttural pouches, or large membranous and open sacs, containing nothing but atmospheric air. 7.— Nasal or
trontal smuses. 8.— The false nostril.
I. Tumor in the False Nostril.
The false nostril is the small pouch or cul de sac on the outer side of
the lower edge of each nostril. Tumors are liable to form in these, and
partake more of the nature of abscesses, in
that they are filled with pus of a cheesy
consistency, but are tumors in that they
form slowly and do not point and break like an
abscess. They are usually about the size of a
hen's egg; they are not sore, but cause more or
less wheezing in the breathing on account of
the diminished capacity of the air passage.
How to know it.— A small swelling will be
apparent on the outside, but the main depend-
ence is to be placed upon the examination of
the nostril, when it will be found to be nearly
closed by the tumor in the false nostril.
392
FACE OF HORSE.
Showing appearance of muzzle
when there is a tumor in the
false nostril.
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS.
893
What to do.— It can be opened without the slightest danger. Insert
the knife inside the nostril and make a free opening and evacuate the
pus. Inject lotion No. 6, twice a day. It is not likely to recur.
n. Polypus.
This is a tumor-like excrescence growing in the nostril. It may form
in any part of the passage from the muzzle to the throat. It is usually
a fleshy bulb, on a pedestal or neck. It varies
^ «|h in size from a cherry to a man's fist.
\ T How to know it. — The breathing is obstruct-
ed, to a certain extent, and, upon examination,
the polypus is found.
What to do. — Cast the horse, and catcb
firm hold of it with the forceps for the pur
pose, then pass the chain of an ecraseur ovei
it, an 1 cut it out close to the surface from polypus
which it grows. A fine copper wire may be
used, if the ecraseur cannot be had ; pass the
wire over the polypus and twist it off. There will not be hemor-
rhage to do any harm. The polypus may grow again, but it is
not very likely to.
m. Catarrh.
■ ?or grasping the poly-
pus for removal.
Hanging
from the
upper part
ot the QOS<
tril.
Under this name are included acute catarrh and the common cold
when it is confined to the nose. It is simple in itself, but all inflamma-
tions of the upper air-passages are liable to run
down into the lungs and cause bronchitis and
pneumonia, which are always serious. Catarrh is
inflammation of the mucous membrane of the nos-
trils, and often extends to the sinuses of the head,
especially the frontal sinuses situated between the
eyes.
Causes. — Exposure to cold winds, rain and snow
storni;>, cold nights, etc.
How to know it. — There is always a discharge
from one or both nostrils. The discharge is thin
watery mucous at first, and turns to muco-puru-
ient in the course of a couple of days ; and then
to purulent, if not properly treated. The muco-
purulent is white and frothy ; the purulent is yellow, and has an offensive
A HORSE'S HEAD WITH
COLD.
394
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR,
LYMPHATIC GLAND OF THROAT
SWOLLEN.
-The enlarged lynsphatic within the jaw.
odor. In l)ad cases, there is considerable fever, loss of appetite, and
redness of the eyes. If neglected, and
nature is not vigorous enough to throw
it off, it becomes chronic, and is known
as nasal gleet. Sometimes the lym-
phatic gland, under the lower jaw, en'
largcs.
What to do. — Remove the cause ; if
exposed to cold storms, shelter the ani-
mal, put on a blanket if necessary, feed
on soft feed, give a teaspoonful of saltpetre in a bran mash night and
morning. If that does not perform the work satisfactorily, give the
fever mixture, No. 4. If there is much fever and loss of appetite, give
No. 18. In all bad cases, give rest till the horse is better. If the at-
tack is prolonged to a week or more, during convalesence, give the tonic
No. 22, and syringe the nostrils out, two or three times a day, v/ith tlie
following lotion :
No. 39. 2 Drachms carbolic acid.
1 Pint of water,
IMix.
Apply the blister No. 41 to the throat, letting it
go well up towards the ears. If the skin is not
mildly blistered with one application , repeat it after
twenty-four hours ; then grease it once a day with
fresh lard. When the discharge does not come
freely, it can be helped by steaming the head in a
bag of hot bran.
IV. Nasal Gleet.
This is the name
given to chronic ca-
tarrh, and is always
complicated by exten-
sion of the disease to
sinuses of the
head, often causing the bone over the one affected to bulge out, as if
swollen.
Causes. — Neglected or obstinate catarrh, that will not yield to treat-
ment with an ordinary amount of perseverance, are the only causes. The
sinuses of the head are all in communication with each other by tubes
and passages. When inflammation extends to them, the swelling of the
mucous membrg^ue closes these passages, and confines the pus with suffi«
NOSE 15A(;.
For steaming horse with cold. \\^Q
A HORSE WITH THE THROAT
BLISTERED.
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS oq5
cient force to cause the bones to bulge out, but there will be a constant
flow of i)us from the nostril, sufficient being forced through the passage
b}'^ the pressure, to keep up the discharge.
How to know it. — The general health is not in the least affected,
except, perhaps, in long standing cases. There is a continual flow of thick,
offensive, yellowish matter that will usually sink in water. One nostril
usually runs more than the other, and oftentimes the chrome trouble is
entirely confined to one side. The face between the eyes will be found
to be full, giving a dull, solid sound when tapped on each side of the
median line running down the centre of the face. In long standing, bad
cases the bone of the face, referred to above, will be bulged out, and
great pain evinced when tapped.
Pus is, naturally, the blandest secretion of the body ; but being con-
fined, it corrupts, and then smells abominably. The facial sinuses formed
in nasal gleet, oi)en to the nostrils on either side by two comparatively
small flaps, slits or valves. These are their only means of communica-
tion with the external atmosphere ; and through these valves all the pus
must flow. It is not surprising that such structures occasionally become
clogged, till the accumulated secretion, or the increased breathing, or the
position of the head, obliges the passage to give way.
What to do. — If the sinus is full, there is no cure for it without the
operation of trephining to remove a portion of the bone, to evacuate the
sinus, and give local treatment ; but if there is no bulging
of the bone, it may be cured by syringing out the nostril
with warm water to clean it, then injecting a little of lotion
No. 39 with along-nozzled syringe, using considerable force
to cause a spray when it strikes the back of the nose.
Repeat this, morning and night, for a month or so, and
give internally. No. 34. The operation of trephining the
frontal sinus, will be found described in the chapter on
operations.
All treatment, except the operation, may be continued
and the horse kept at his work, unless he is laid up on
account of the appearance of the nostril, as it looks very nasal gleet.
bad to drive a horse with a chronic discharge from the "wuh iTasaVgieel
and bulging of
the trontal sinus.
V. Laryngitis, Roaring and Whistling.
This is what is ordinarily known as sore throat. The inflammation
liea in the lining of the larynx — that is, the cartilaginous box in (he throat,
which is the upper end of the windpipe or trachea containing the vocal
cords, and is the seat of roaring.
396
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOB,
p:ffect of laryngitis.
A horse trying to drink, the water returning by
the nose.
Causes. — Exposure to cold winds and storms, standing in drafts when
warm, nes^lect when cominjj in when warm from work, and extension of
catai'rh from the nose. The cause of
roaring is chronic iniiammation of
the mucous membrane lining the lar-
}Mix, diminishing the air passage so
that when he is unable to get suffi-
cient air, and forcing it through the
small i)assage, makes the noise.
How to know it. — The throat is
usually swollen on the outside, but
sometimes only on the inside, and is
tender upon pressure ; the nose is
protruded ; he has great difficulty in
swallowing, and often , when drinking,
the water will come back through the
nose nearly as fast as it goes into the
mouth, and what is swallowed is forced down with an effort. There is
usually a short, painful, subdued cough, dry at first, but getting more
moist after a couple of days.
What to do.— Clothe warmly ; shelter from cold storms and drafts ;
rub mustard paste well into the throat on each side, well up towards the
ears ; feed on soft mashes, boiled oats, etc., and set a pail of water in the
manger for him to play in to cool the throat and mouth. Give internally
fever mixture No. 4, every two hours till the fever is reduced and the pulse
lowered ; then drop off to three or four times a day. If the swelling in
the throat does not yield to the above treatment, apply a soft, hot linseed
poultice to it, and change it once a day for a fresh one. The loss of
appetite, or rather inability to eat, will soon disappear and recovery will
be rapid.
In case of roaring, apply a smart blister of cantharides, No. 9, to the
throat, and after three weeks repeat it. Inject a tablespoonful of the
mixture No. 35, three times a day well back into the throat, and let the
horse run at grass or feed on very soft food.
Bad, long standing cases of roaring are incurable. Whistling is similar
to rearing, except in the noise produced ; it is subject to the same causes
and treatment.
Roaring and whistling are sometimes, but very rarely, the effect of
paralysis of the nerves of the larynx, letting one or more of the cartilages
drop into the box to a certain extent, and thereby diminishing the caliber
of the air passage. Sometimes a small portion of the cartilage doing the
damage can be removed, but it requires the skill of a qualified veteri-
nary surgeon.
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS.
397
VI. Quinsy.
Causes. — Sometimes the inflammation in the throat in laryngitis is so
great and deep seated that abscesses f onn in the throat, producing quinsy.
It is caused by the same agents as hiryngitis, and is always more pro-
longed in duratiou than simple sore throat.
How to know it. — It may start with all the symptoms of laryngitis
but will not yield to treatment at first. The throat gets sorer and sorer
from day to day, till suddenlj'^ the abscess bursts, and a tremendous
flow of pus comes from the nostril, and the animal Avill be relieved at
once. Quinsy lasts from one to three or four weeks, and is very apt to
be followed by roaring or whistling.
What to do. — Apply the same treatment as prescribed for laryngitis.
Continue the linseed poultices right through ; apply them so as to cover
the throat nearly to the ears, and keep them quite soft.
Vn. Bronchitis.
The bronchial tubes are the two branches of the trachea or wind pipe ;
they lead to the lungs. Inflammation of these branches, and also of the
lining of the tubes as they ramify through the lungs, is known as bron-
chitis.
A Fir SUBJECT FOR FOUNDER OR BRONCHITIS.
Causes. — The same exposures that cause catarrh and sore throat are
prolific agents in producing this disease. And there is a very great ten-
dency in the horse to inflammations of the upper air passages which run
down upon the lungs, so much so that many cases of catarrh and larjmgi-
tis terminate in bronchitis and pneumonia.
398
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOB.
How to know it.— It is always ushered in with a shivering fit, but this
fit is seldom seen, and if seen is thought nothing of by most people ; the
chill passes off and the reaction brings fever ; the pulse runs up to fifty
or sixty, is soft, full and bounding ; temperature soon runs up to 102 ®
or 103 ^ F. ; the breathing is hurried and the nostrils are distended.
If pressure is applied to the chest just ai)ove the breast bone, pain will be
evinced and a cough provoked, which is soft, deep and subdued, great pain
being manifested while coughing ; the horse is loth to move ; if the ear
is placed to the nostril a grunt will be heard with each breath ; and if
the ear is placed in front of the chest a thick, unnatural sound will be
heard ; the ears and legs are usually cold ; the appetite is indifferent.
All of these symptoms will be noticed in the course of ten or twelve
hours. In the next twenty-four hours the pulse may run up to 70, and
the temperature to 104 ^ or 105 ^ ; the pulse will be soft and full ; the
cough will increase and the thick, heavy sound when the car is applied to
HORSE WITH STIFF CRAMPS.
Head stretched. Mouth clamped together. Front feet spread (saw buck position) cramps
causing the miisc'es of the tail to raise.
the breast will have run into a harsh, grating sound ; the horse persist-
ently stands ; drinks considerable water, and the appetite will be lost in
most cases ; the mouth will be hot to the finger placed under the tongue ;
the breath is hot as it comes from the nostrils, and the urine is scanty
and high colored. The horse may die from continuation of the inflam-
mation and extension of it to the lungs proper, or may drown in the
mucus that is secreted in the passages forming the next stage following
the dry one ; in this last a rattling bubbling sound is heard when the ear
is applied to the chest above the breast bone, by the air rushing through
the mucus.
Convalescence will be noticed by a diminution of the mucous rattle :
falling of the pulse and temperature ; return of the appetite ; and a gen-
erally relieved appearance ; ability to lie down and rest quietly, and the
frequency of the breathing lessened.
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS.
399
What to do.— If seen during the chill, give two ounces of whiskey in
a little water and follow it with No. 4, for the next twelve hours ; then,
if better, continue the same at longer intervals, but if worse, change it to
the following:
No. 40. 1 >i Ounce sweet spirits of nitre,
1 Drachm tincture of aconite root,
2 Dracbms tluid extract belladonna,
1 Ounce tincture of gentian,
1 Ounce powdered saltpetre,
1 Ounce powdered sal ammonia:,
Water to make one pint.
Mix.
Give a wine-glassful every two nours till the horse is better, then drop
off to three or'four times a day. Set a bucket of water in his manger.
Give scalded oats to eat ; if he won't eat them try him with other things
A HORSE miESSED FOR BKONCHITIS.
_a couple of ears of corn three or four times a day, carrots, apples,
good hay, etc. Rub a little of the following liniment well into the sides
over the lungs, and on the chest once a day till it is well blistered :
No. 41.
2 Ounces liquor ammonia,
2 Ounces spirits turpentine,
2 Ounces linseed oil.
Mix and shake.
When the blistering has been carried far enough, rub a little fresh lard
well into the hair once a day to take out the scabs without pullmg
out the hair. If the skin comes off anywhere from the blister, apply
No. 24 to the spot three times a day.
Give plenty of pure air to breathe, but avoid drafts and dampness;
see that the drainage is good. Remove him from the other horses if pos-
iOQ
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AITD COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
sible, on account of the vitiated air he would have to breathe in the stable
with them.
When convalescence is well established and there is much weakness,
change the medicine to No. 1 8, but do not give it as often as every two
hours, unless there is still a good deal of fever; thi-ee times a day is often
enough in most cases.
When the fever is all gone, change the medicine to No. 35, if the
appetite is poor, but if it is good, give No. 34 in the feed. Give gentle
exercise when well enough to bear it. The horse should be well clothed,
and the legs bandaged. Bring him back to his feed and work gradually.
While wearing the bandages they should be removed morning and night,
and the legs well rubbed and the bandages replaced.
Vm. Pneumonia.
This is inflammation of the lung tissue; oftentimes the right lung only
is affected. Pneumonia is rather rare, at least it is far less common than
bronchitis, and sometimes the two diseases are combined in the form of
broncho-pneumonia. It may
be either sporadic or infec-
tious. In the latter case it
is seen as a complication of
influenza, and has typhoid
symptoms, and is occasionally
enzootic, or may be epizootic.
Causes. — The same as for
other acute affections of the
air passages, except when
existing as a complication of
HORSE WITH CHEST AILMENT. influeuza, then it is due to a
Front feet spread. Strong running of the nose after couKhing. • • /ii
i^uugumg micro-organism (the pneumo-
coccus). The sporadic form will usually recover if given a fail- chance,
but the infectious is frequently fatal.
How to know it. — The first stage is the shivering fit and sanguineous
congestion, in w^hich there is a rush of blood to the lungs; high fever follows
the chill, the pulse runs up to sixty to eighty, and is soft and weak; the
temperature is likely to run up to 105° to 107° Fahr. The breath is hot,
and breathing labored and fast — respirations running up to twenty-five to
thirty-five per minute; the ear being applied to the sides, the gi-ating sound
indicative of inflammation is heard; there is no cough; ears and legs are
cold; the body heat is great, and the urine scanty and high colored.
The second stage is that of hepatization, in which the lungs become solid,
like liver; no sound is heard at all by the ear when applied to the side, and,
DISEASES OF THE KESPIRATORY ORGANS.
401
HORSE WITH PNEUMONIA.
The appearance of a horse in the early stage
of pneumonia.
when tapped, it sounds solid like a barrel when full of water — the natural
when tapped being resonant, like a drum. The lower part of the lung
being usually most affected, the breathing is floated upward, as it were,
and becomes shallow; the breath becomes cold in conso(iuence; the nostrils
flap, and the hor.se thrusts his nose
through the windows or doors of
the sta])le in search of more air;
the flanks heave; the ribs are workea
violently in and out; the legs spread
to stand in a braced position; the
strength becomes exhausted, and
the system suffocates for want of
oxygen, and the animal usually dies
in this stage.
If he lives through this stage, the
third stage begins— that of absorption; in favorable cases this goes on to so
great an extent that recovery is complete. Unfavoralile cases fail to
absorb the liver -like condition of the lung, and suppuration sets in; the
whole diseased portion may turn to pus, and he thrown up through the
nose, where it has a grayish, lumpy appearance. This is the fourth stage,
and is always fatal ; the discharge is extremely offensive, attracting hosts
of flies and rendering a whole stable unfit for other horses to remain in.
In this, as in bronchitis, the horse
never lies down till he is very much
better, or nearly well.
In infectious pneumonia, in addition
to the above symptoms, there will be
marked yellowness of the mucous mem-
branes, more rapidly developing weak-
ness than in the sporadic form, and
occasionally diarrhoea and other symp-
toms of influenza.
What to do. — The same treatment
prescribed for bronchitis will apply to
this, and, in addition, during recovery,
if weakness is great, give malt ale in
pint drenches three times a day. If
there is no appetite, put the ale in with oatmeal gruel, and give them
as a drench together. Clothe him warmly, and give plenty of fresh
air to breathe, but avoid a draft. It is a good plan, when feasible,
to isolate him from all other horses, particularly in the infectious form.
THE POSITION ASSUMED BY THE HORSE
DURING AN ATTACK OF
PNEUMONIA.
402 CICLOPEDIA OP LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
If the fever remains above 104° F. longer than three days give the follow-
ing mixture:
No. 91. }i Ounce sulphate of quinine,
1 Pint of whisky,
Yz Pint of water.
Mix.
Give a wineglassful every two to four hours, alternating wiih the fol-
lowing mixture:
No. 92. 1 Ounce tincture of nux vomica,
1 Ounce tincture of gentian,
Water to make one pint.
Mix.
Give a wineglassful every two to four hours.
Keep the stahle clean and sprinkle jhioride of lime around it freely once
a day. Give no exercise till convalescence is well established.
IX. Heaves.
The lungs are made up of an innumerable quantity of small air cells,
and the lung tissue is capable, to a great exten^, of expelling the air fron?
it, and drawing more in by virtue of the ela8ti(;ity and contractility it
possesses. Sometimes many of these cells become ruptured into one large
cell, which destroys the contractility of that portion of the lung, in which
case the diaphragm, ribs and abdominal muscles are brought into use to
exi)el the air, giving rise to the second spasmodic, twitching effort seen
in the flanks. This condition constitutes heaves, also known as broken
wind.
Causes. — The most common cause is driving too fast, and keeping it up
too long when the horse is not in condition — either having his stomach too
full and not giving the lungs room, or the lungs themselves are weak
from very light work, or entire disuse. Horses fed entirely on dusty
Timothy hay, are more subject to it than those fed on prairie hay. A
horse is more likely to get the heaves when driven fast against the wind
than with it ; the lungs get very full of air, immensely distended by the
extra amount taken in, and if kept at that kind of work any length of
time, the lung tissue gives way, and a rupture is the consquence.
How to know it. — Instead of the regular, easy breathing noticed in the
flanks, there is a second effort made by the jerking of the muscles of the
flank. "When the ear is placed against the side over the lung, a whistling,
wheezing sound is usually heard. When once begun it is very apt to
increase, and often renders the horse useless.
What to do. — It is incural)le, but it can be alleviated by careful feed-
ing, giving as condensed food as possible, with a view of getting the
greatest amount of nourishment in the smallest compass. Wet everything
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 403
he eats, to lay the dust. Give the following mixture twice a day in soft
feed :
No. 42. 2 Ounces powdered lobelia seed.
2 Ounces liuseed meal,
Mix.
Divide into eight doses ; give one night and morning. When they are
gone, wait a week and repeat it. Avoid giving too much, as it is apt to
weaken the kidneys. Always drive a horse slowly
that has the heaves.
X. Congestion of the Lungs.
Congestion, is always a precursor of inflamma-
tion of the lungs, but it sometimes comes on in
such a way, as to need separate consideration.
The pathology of it is turgescencc of the lung
tissue by stagnation of the capillary blood vessels
and arterioles. Under favorable circumstances it bad position.
improves, and total recovery is the result, but in For head of horse affected with
,T ... ,, j'rt ,. heaves; for it aggravates the
bad cases it is very apt to run on to niflanmiation difficult breathing,
of the lung tissue, and a case of pneumonia is the result.
Causes. — Overexertion when not in condition to take it ; the system is
fat ; the blood is rich and fat ; the lung tissue is weak from want of use
during longer or shorter periods of idleness. When in this condition, the
horse is taken out, perhaps, once a week, and the driver thinks because he
has had so long a rest, he ought to be able to go faster than if he were
out every day, and sends him through to beat the crowd. Congestion of
the lungs is quite frequently the result. This is oftener seen in the old
country among the hunters, but is not infrequent in this country among
the gentlemen's road horses. From the contraction of the muscular
tissue, the blood is thrown inwardly to the lungs, liver and spleen ; the
lung tissue becomes fatigued, and the small blood vessels surcharged with
blood to such an extent as to interfere with the circulation.
How to know it. — The horse suddenly stops, all out of breath ; nos-
trils distended ; the countenance has a look of anxiety upon it ; he looks
around as if in search for more air ; paws the ground in his endeavor to
breathe, and acts generally as though suffocation were near.
What to do. — Let him stop ; turn his head towards the wind ; loosen
all harness that interferes with the free expansion of the chest and pass-
age of air to the chest ; let down the check rein ; loosen the throat lash ;
remove the collar or breast plate and girth ; and a small stab of the knife
m the roof of the mouth to draw a little blood may assist in restoring the
circulation. As soon as he is sufficiently recovered, take him home quietly
404 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
and place him in a comfortable loose box ; give him a sponge bath with
alcohol and plenty of friction from head to foot ; also cold water to drink
in small quantities, and give recipe No. 30, in a little water, till the
breathing and circulation are normal. If it does not yield to this treat-
ment, and pneumonia is incvita])le, adopt the treatment prescribed for
that without delay, and apply it vigorously. Approaching pneumonia will
be noticed by a rise in temperature. If the temperature goes above 101 ®
Fahr. and the breathing continues labored, look out for pneumonia.
Prevention. — Feed a horse according to his work. If he is doing
daily hard work there is very little danger of overfeeding, but if the
work is light and little of it, feed sparingly on heavy grain. Give daily
regular exercise. There is very much less danger of derangements if the
horse goes out every day than if he only goes out once or twice a
week, and he is able to do ten times the work from the fact that he is in
a strong, vigorous condition — muscular without being fat.
XI. Pleurisy.
The lining of the chest and coverings of the lungs are serous mem-
branes that secrete a serous, slippery moisture that prevents friction by
rubbing of the lungs against the ribs — called the pleura. Inflammation
of these serous membranes is known as pleurisy. It is attended with
great pain, and is often followed by hydrothorax or filling of the chest
with water, which is generally fatal. Pleurisy may exist alone or with
pneumonia ; then it is called pleuro-pneumonia.
Causes. — Any sudden exposure to cold rains ; drafts in the stable,
especially if the horse comes in warm. It would be very prevalent if the
inflammation in these parts did not go to the feet by metastasis as often
as it does. See founder or laminitis.
How to know it. — The horse has a chill, followed by high fever ;
great pain in the chest, shown by colicky pains ; nose turned around towards
the chest frequently ; ears and legs are cold ; breathing hurried ; pulse
quick, from 50 to 75 per minute ; temperature raised three or four de-
gress ; elbows turned out, and a line along the lower edges of the ribs
denoting a fixed position of them to prevent friction in the chest ; loss of
appetite ; great pain evinced upon pressure with the fingers between the
ribs ; a grating sound heard by the ear applied to the sides, made by the
rubbing of the parts internally, which are rendered dry by the inflam-
mation.
If recovery takes place, it is usually within four days : but if it con-
tinues longer than that, effusion takes place, and the chest begins to fill
with water, floating the lungs up and forming hydrothorax. If the chest
does not fill more than one-third, it will usually absorb, and he will re-
cover ; but if the chest fills more than one-third full, it is usually fatal.
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS.
405
What to do. — If seen during the chill, put on blankets ; shelter from the
cold air, and give half a teacup of whiskey in a little water, and loUow
it with receipe No. 40, giving a dose every two hours till he is better;
set a pail of water before him, and feed lightly. Rub the liniment. No.
41, well in to the sides, and, after six hours, repeat it. When the
fever is broken, change the prescription to No. 18. When convalesence
is well established, give receipe No. 22.
XII. Hydrothorax.
Causes. — This is a filling of the chest with water, following pleurisy.
How to know it, — The horse has been enduring great pain all through
the attack of active inflaniniation, but as soon as effusion bci^ins, and
the chest begins to fill with water, the i)ain is relieved ; he brightens up,
commences to eat, and is more comfortable, till the water floats the lungs
up and interferes with the breathing. Then the countenance becomes
haggard and anxious ; breathing short and fast ; breath cold, from shal-
low, bronchial respiration ; the extremeties aie cold ; pulse very high,
from 80 to 150 per niiiuite ; tapping on the sides will pioduce tiie solid
CONGESTION OF l^UNGS.
Fore limbs apart and weU under body. Nostrils are flapping and the eye has a
deadly stare.
sound of a barrel full of water ; the ear placed to the side will fail to detect
the customary respiratory murmur; there will be lifting of the loins and
elevation of the back at each effort at insijiration, that is, drawing breath
in ; the ribs bulge outward ; dropsical swellings appear under the chest and
belly; the head is extended; there is flapping of the nostrils; regurgitation
of the blood in the veins; splashing of the water is heard in the chest when
it reaches the heart; the pulse gets smaller and smaller; breath shorter and
shorter, till he drops suffocated, as completely drowned as though he
were pitched into the lake.
406 CrCLOPEDIA OP LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Favorable symptoms are lessening of the effusion in the chest ; im-
provement in the breathing and pulse; return of healthy appetite, etc.
But recovery is slow, and complete recovery is seldom realized, for the
lung is apt to grow fast to the ribs, and stitches in the side attack him
during active exercise.
What to do. — Put him in a comfortable place, dry, warm, nnd well-
venlihited, l)ut no drafts. Clothe warmly, and l)andage the legs. If the
sides have not been well blistered with receii)e No. 41, apply it imme-
diately, and repeat it every six hours, till the sides are well-blistered, and
give No. 18 internally, every two hours, very persistently; if he eats
nothing, drench him wnth oat-meal gruel. If the chest continues to fill
it may be tapped, the operation being called paracentesis thoracis, direc-
tions for wliich may be found in the chapter on operations.
XIII. Chronic Cough.
Causes. — When the inflammation of tlie mucous membrane of either the
larynx or bronchial tubes becomes chronic, the irritability of it remains
and the smallest thing will produce a cough, and sometimes a fit of cough-
ing that may last several minutes. Dust in the hay or oats, or breathed
in wliih' on the road, sudden gusts of air, pressure of the collar or throat
lash, or pinching of the throat with the hand will excite the cough.
THE ACT OF COUGHING.
How to know it. — Coughs are efforts of nature to free the breathing
apparatus of irritants, and they differ according to the i)art affected and
the extent of the affection. The healthy cough is strong, full and usu-
ally followed by a sneeze to clear the nose. The throat cough is a
lighter, shorter, hacking one, while that of the chest is a hollow, deep,
resonant cough, except in the acute, painful stages of bronchitis, when it
is almost noiseless from being so much subdued.
What to do. — Chronic cough is almost incurable when long standing,
but in the more recent cases good treatment will benefit and oftentimes
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 407
cure. If the cough is recent, apply recipe No. 41 to the throat, wellrub-
bed in all around and up towards the ears. Give internally the foUowincr
powders :
No. 43. 1>^ Ounce gum camphor,
1 Ounce digitalis,
2 Ounces linseed meal,
Powder and mix.
Divide into twelve powders and give one night and morning in soft
food. If one course does not cure, repeat it. If that proves ineffectual,
apply blister No. 9 instead of No. 41, to the throat and give Prof.
Dick's recipe as follows :
No. 44. 1 Drachm camjihor,
1 Drachm digitalis,
1 Drachm calomel,
1 Drachm o|)inm.
Mix in a ball with syrup.
Give it as one dose ; repeat it oiu-e a day for a week, then rest a week
and repeat.
If the cough is ver^^ troublesome and the appetite is poor, give the
following :
No. 45. 2 Drachms diluted prussic acid,
1 Ounce tincture of camphoi-,
3 Drachms fluid extract belladona,
1 Ounce tincture gentian.
1 Ounce chlorate of potash,
Water to make one pint,
Mix.
Give one ounce three times a day, with a syringe ; open the mouth
with one hand and shoot it well b;ick into the throat. Do not attempt to
hold a horse's head up to drench him with anything else than oil when he
has a cough ; for it is apt to irritate the throat and might choke him.
For the treatment of v'oughs accompanying catarrh and laryngitis refer
to them. If the above treatment fails, we
would recommend the insertion of a seton
under the skin of the throat and a long run at
grass, if practicable. Leave the seton in
three or four weeks ; wash it nice and clean
once a day with hot water. Sometimes a
run at grass will do more for a bad cough
than all the medicine in the world.
If the cough appears to come from the ^ s^ton in tmk thkoat ok a
chest, and pressure in the hollow just al)ove hokse.
the breast bone aggravates it, apply the blisters there, and give the same
treatment otherwise as for the throat-
CHAPTER X.
DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS OP THE ALIMENTARY CANAL.
t. TEETH— ACHE, DECAY, FILINO— WOLF TEETH. H. TONGUE LACERATION.
III. SOKE MOUTH. IV. PAMPAS. V. PHARYNGITIS. VI. CHOKING.
VII. GASTRITIS. VIII. STOMACH STAGGERS. IX. DYSPEPSIA. X. SPAS-
MODIC <;OLIC. XI. FLATULENT COLIC. XII. RUPTURE OF THE STOAIACH,
INTESTINES OR DIAPHRAGM. XIII. CONSTIPATION. XIV. DIARRHOEA AND
SUPERPURGATION. XV. DYSENTERY. XVI. ENTERITIS. XVII. PERITON-
ITIS. XVIII. CALCULI. XIX. INTUSSUSCEPTION AND GUT TIE.
I. Teeth— Ache, Decay, Piling— Wolf Teeth.
Causes- — Derangements of the teeth very frequently lead to jrravc
difficuhit's, both local and constitutional. The teeth often heconi'e
decayed, holes form in them, and tooth-ache is a common occurrence.
How to know it. — It will be detected b}^ the horse holding his head
on one side \vhile chewing, turning his head first one way then the other,
as if trying to remove food from a sore tooth,
and doing th(; same when drinking, if the water
is very cold. The disease often extends up the
tooth, or starts in the form of ulceration on the
fang, and breaks out into the nose, causing a
discharge from the nostril on the side on which
the rotten tooth is located. A chronic discharge
from a tooth is often mistaken for nasal gleet,
A HORSE WITH TooTiiAciiK. jiud somctimcs for glaudcrs, OH account of the
disagreeable odor, which will be recognized as that characteristic of dis-
eased bone.
Sometimes the ulceration, when of a lower tooth, breaks out at tne
angle of the lower jaw, and sometimes extends to the root of the tongue
and to all the soft tissues between the ])ranches of the lower jaw ; in one
instance that came under the notice of the writer, the disease proved fatal
to a Yaiuable horse.
The teeth frequently get broken b}^ chewing on stones taken up with
oats, and when one molar tooth gets broken off, the opposite tooth, not
having anything to wear against, gets very long and sticks into the oppo-
site gum, and makes mastication very painful. The edges of the molar
teeth get sharp from the fact that they wear bevelling — the edges must
necessarily sharpen as they wear ; the upper rows bevel downwards and
outwards, the edges cutting the cheeks, and the lower rows bevel upwards
and inwards, cutting the tongue.
408
DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL 409
The broken and sharp teeth make mastication not only painful, but
almost impossible, consequently the horse
bolts the food half chewed, which causes
indigestion, colic, dyspepsia, hidebound,
emaciation, etc., any of which may run on
to a fatal termination. The food is fre-
quently quidded and dropped into the man-
ger.
Colts, when sheddins: their teeth, often suf-
- i. -, ^ f " 4^1 1 • 1 ^ HORSE QUIDDING.
fer a great deal from sore mouths, which
causes them to look rough and scaly until the old teeth are shed, and new
ones grow.
What to do. — In case of a discharge froia the nose, always examine
the teeth, and if any are decayed so as to cause the trouble, remove them.
If a tooth extends below the others on account of the opposite one being
broken, file it off even with the others. If the edges get sharp, so as to
scarify the checks and tongue, tile them off round. There are files made
expressly for that purpose. The edges only need filing ; the surfaces get
very rough, but that is intended to be so by nature ; it is h-er millstone
to grind the grain ; and the arrangement of the tooth material is such
that the more it wears the sliarpe'* it gets.
In case of a parrot mouth, where the upper incisors i)roject over the
lower ones, the horse is unable to graze, anjl the mouth, as far as age is
concerned, presents a horril)le appearances, passing for
double the age he really is. Either file or saw them off
even Avith the lower row.
Wolf Teeth. — These are small, insignificant teeth, that
come immediately in front of the upper rows of molars.
It is a popular idea that these affect the nerve running
. ,, 1 1 T J 1 A. n J. PARROT MOUTH.
to the eye and cause moon-bbndness, weak eyes, etc. But
it is a whim ; they do no possil)le harm, except, perhaps, to wound the
cheek by its being pulled against the wolf tooth by the bit. But they do
no possible good, and, consequently are just as well, and a little better,
out. Take a pair of blacksmith's pinchers and pull them out. They are
usually only in the gums, and come out easily. When the new teeth of
colts come before the old ones are out, the old ones should he removed,
to make room for the new.
n. Tongue Laceration.
Causes. — The tongue is sometimes bitten by falling and striking on the
mouth ; torn with the halter chain, or by being pulled forcibly out of the
aQouth on one side, being cut against the sharp molar teeth.
410
CYCLOPEDIA OF LiV2 STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
What to do. — Wounds on the tongue heal readily. If the end is torn
half-way oif , or less, it will heal, but will not grow together, but may be
left, and no inconvenience will be felt ; but if it is more than half torn
off, it will be found advisable to cut it clear off. Dress wouads of the
tonijue with the followiuir lotion :
No. 46.
1 Oi^nce borax,
1 Ounce honey,
1 Pint water,
Mix.
Dry the sore with a sponge, and rub on the lotion three times a day.
Sometimes it is necessary to amputate the tongue, on account of
wounds and accidents. It is quite feasible, but requires the skill of a
qualified veterinary surgeon.
III. Sore Mouth.
Causes. — The mouth is often made sore by the bit, by caustic sub-
stances in the food and medicine, by too hot mashes, etc. The bit often
excoriates the angles of the mouth,
and, if allowed to continue doing
harm, the mouth soon becomes cal-
oused, and loses all sensibility.
Sometimes the bit injures the lower
jaw bone so as to kill a portion of it,
when it will become a foreign sub-
stance and slough out, leaving a very
sore mouth.
This is most often seen in violent
pullers and when the curb bit is used. The oval portion of a curb bit
often presses upon the roof of the moutli and does a great amount of
injury.
How to know it. — When an;y
portion of the mouth is swollen
and sore, examine it carefully
and locate the cause if possible.
When the bones or roof of the
mouth are injured, there will be
great soreness and some swelling.
What to do. — Remove the
cause, that is, leave the bit out of
the mouth for several days. If
the angles of the mouth are raw, apply recipe No. 32 three times a day.
If the bones are injured and exposed apply No. 39 three times a day;
SORE MOUTH.
With the angles excoria-
ted by the bit.
SORE MOUTH.
ngl
cheeks swollen, cal"
loused and insen-
sitive.
INJURY BY THE BIT.
A mouth with the bone bad-
ly injured by the bit, the
left side being much swol-
len around the tusk.
MISUSE OF CURB.
The roof of the mouth
injured by the curved
part of the curb bit.
DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL.
411
if the flesh is not broken it would be advisable to scarify it to allow it to
break through the tough skin more easily, and
examine it carefully each day to see when the
dead piece of bone is loose, and remove it.
Then dress the wound with the same lotion, (No
39) till the bone is covered by healthy granula-
tions, then dress it Avith No. 46. Do not use the
bit in such a mouth under two months at
least.
When the mouth is scalded by giving strong
medicine, pure, instead of diluting it as directed
on the label, the whole inside of the mouth will be found co be swollen,
red, and if very bad, will skin in spots. Swab it out with recipe No. 4«!
three times a day.
rv. Lampas.
This is an imaginary disease. It is supposed by most people that when
a horse does not eat he must have the lampas, and they proceed U
SCALDED MOUTH.
From giving strong caustic
medicine pure.
BURNING I- OK LAMPAS.
LAMPAS IRON.
The old time instrument
of torture.
burn out one or two of tlu; bars in the roof of the mouth which are i)laced
there by nature to prevent the food dribbling from the mouth, which it
would do were it not for these bars in the roof of the mouth. They
all point or turn backwards towards the throat, and have a tendency to
v,'ork the food back. It is the same in the human mouth.
Sometimes the one or two bars nearest the incisors become inflamed,
especially M'itli colts when teething.
What to do. — If the bars are red instead of a bright flesh color, and
extend below the teeth, take a penknife and scarify them gently ; this
will be sufficient. Never countenance the burning nor any other barbar-
ous practice.
V. Pharyngitis.
That portion of the aesophagas or gullet that lies in the throat, above
the larynx is called the pharynx. Inflammation of it is pharyngitis.
412 CVCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOK.
Causes. — It is usually caused by some foreign substance lodging ther&
or by extension to the pharynx of inflammation from the larynx and
nasal chambers. It is usually associated with pharyngitis and catarrh,
strangles, quinsy, etc.
How to know it. — Painful swallowing, and sometimes a total inability
to SMullow is seen ; the water returns by the nose while drinking, and
the food is quiddod. More or less enlargement of the throat and glands
on the outside, tenderness upon pressure, and the neck straightened and
me head extended, will be the symptoms usually noticed.
What to do. — If any foreign substance is suspected, examine the throat
and remove anything that may be found. Apply a counter irritant in the
form of the recipe No. 41. Give internally, mixture No. 21. Feed on
soft feed, such as scalded oats, boiled barley, bran mashes, etc. If it
continues longer than a week, give oat meal gruel injections — two quarts
every four or five hours. Cook the gruel the same as for the table.
VT. Choking.
Causes. — Horses very seldom get choked ; but in some instances they
bolt their food, especially when fed on dry ground feed, and swallow it
before it is properly moistened with saliva,
and it accumulates in the gullet sometimes as
large as your double fist, usually about six or
eight inches from the throat. It often gives
rise to a great amount of flatulence. Some-
times it leaves a sac in the gullet, from the
distension of the fibres of its walls ; the sac is
called dilatation of the onsophagus.
What to do. — Give the horse a couple of
swallows of raw lindseed oil, and manipulate
the lump, and try and pass it on a little at a
time, till it is all worked down; if this proves
ineffectual, the probang must be used, but
CHOKING. great care and caution are necessary not to keep
A horse trying to raise the food stuck •«- •„ i. l j i. i i -i ii i ii
in the throat from a stricture in tlie it m tOOlOUg, aud nOt tO pUSh it thrOUgh thc
walls of the gullet. A horse cannot breathe
with the probang in his thi'oat, therefore it is dangerous to leave it in
longer than one minute at a time. If the obstruction is near enough to
the throat, so it can be reached with the hand, run j^jur arm down and
remove it. As a last resort, when all other means have been exhausted,
J-- ^ cut down upon the substance and
_^^^^ remove it. Make the opening
TWO FORMS OF PROBANG '° ^^^^ '.^"^ ^^«^ ^'^«"^?h ^^ g^^
T,, . .,^ . , a hand in, but make the hole in
The probang with a piece of sponsre on the end is far the
''est. the gullet as small as possible,
just large enough to get one finger in, and break down the obstruction.
DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL.
4i;
Cut carefully so as not to wound the jugular vein. Draw the edges of the
gullet together with either catgut or silk, and dress it twice a day with
lotion No. 39. Sew the skin with silk, and after dressing the wound with
the ahove lotion, saturate a wad of oakum with the lotion and tie it over
the wound. Keep the horse on very sloppy food, and very little of it.
WHERE TO TAP FOR STOMACH
STAGGERS.
CEREBRO SL'JXAL .Mi;.\l.\e: I'l'lS
Horse is Delirious and Partially
Paralyzed.
mostly oatmeal gruel, until the w^ound in the gullet is healed. Avoid
making the opening if possible, for it is very hard indeed at all times,
and sometimes utterly impossible, to make it heal, and a fatal termination
is often the result.
VII. Gastritis.
Causes. — This is inflammation of the stomach, caused by over-eating
at any one time, getting into a clover field or at an oat bin or corn crib.
l']ating poisonous herbs or accidentally eating poison also causes it. The
MOVEMENTS IN INFLAMMATION OP THE BOWELS.
Horse gets up and down slowly and hesitatingly. Often mistalcen for colic.
disease has a tendency to leave the stomach and go to the feet and cause
founder. On account of this tendency we seldom have occasion to treat
gastritis.
414 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
How to know It. — There is a tendency to wind colic, the food not
being digested rapidly enough, decomposition sets in and leads to flatu-
lence. There is usually a loss of appetite, and sometimes symptoms of
nausea, such as turning up the nose.
CHRONIC GASTRITIS.
A horse quenching the excessive thirst of chronic gastritis.
What to do. — Give a complete change of food ; if corn and oats have
been fed, change to bran, carrots and boiled barley, and if in season, give
green food. Give raw linseed oil in half pint doses once a day till the
bowels are quite soft, and feed a little oil-cake meal, a pint once a day.
If wind accumulates after eating, give the following as a drench :
No. 47. 1 Teaspoonfiil bicarbonate of soda,
1 Ounce excract of ginger,
yi Pint water,
Mix and give as one dose.
If thirst is excessive, give half an ounce of chlorate in the water, well
dissolved, twice a day. This excessive thirst is often seen as a symptom
of the disease when it has become chronic.
VIII. Stomach Staggers.
This is a sleepy, dumpish, stupid condition resulting from engorgement,
and through the nerves the impression is carried to the brain, and stupor
is the effect.
Causes. — It frequently happens after over-eating on clover, or the
horse gets into the garden and fills up on cab})ages or roots of any kind.
How to know it. — The horse is usually found standing in a stupid man-
ner as though asleep, perfectly quiet, and perhaps with his mouth full of
food ; he is oblivious to all around ; place one foot across the other, and
he will leave it so ; prick him and he may wake up for an instant, but
subsides again as quickly.
DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. 415
What to do.— Put him in a safe place: remove all food; give him very
• ^ttle water, and give a dose of purgative medicine as follows:
No. 48. 6 Drachms barbadoes aloes,
1 Pint raw linseed oil,
Mix.
Give as one dose. As soon as he is sufficiently recovered give him
walking exercise. If the purgative does not work in the course of twenty-
HORSE AFFECTED WITH PAINFUL SUFFERING OF THE HIND QCARTERS
four liours, give injections of warm water and soft soap every houi till
purgation is obtained.
Prevention. — Avoid engorgement; feed on bulky food.
IX. Dyspepsia.
Causes. ^ — This is rather uncommon, but is occasionally seen in horses
that have been fed artificially for any great length of time especially if
highly fed.
How to know it. — There will be a general unthrifty appearance to the
horse; he will be thin; coat rough and staring, hide bound; and the
surest symptom of all is the yellowish color and offensive smell of the
manure. After a while the appetite wanes; he gets hungry, and will
rush at the food as though he would swallow the whole at once, eats a
few mouthfuls and leaves the rest; perhaps he will nibble a little more,
but will not eat as though he relished it. He gradually grows worse, till
he becomes a mere skeleton.
What to do. — If practicable, give him three or four months at grass;
first examine his teeth, and remedy any defect. If it is not the right
416
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
time of year to turn out to grass, give a complete change of food • cai>
rots, turnips, apples, boiled bailey, scalded oats, and bran mashes. F«^ed
no corn at all. Give ii dose of purgative medicine, recipe No. 23.
When the purgation is all over, give the tonic No. 34, in soft feed. If
the appetite is poor, so that he won't eat the powder, give No. 35. Con-
tinue it a week, then stop a week, and repeat.
X. Spasmodic Colic.
The term colic, means pain in the colon, (one of the large intestines),
but is accepted as the name for all pain in the abdomen. It is often
called belly-ache. It is always very serious, indeed, for two reasons — it
is terribly painful, and is very apt to run into inflammation of the bowels,
which is usually fatal.
Spasmodic colic is pain in the bowels, from the violent, spasmodic con'-
traction and cramp of the muscular coat of the bowels. It is called spas-
modic on account of the pain and cramps being spasmodic and not contin-
A RUPTURE BANDAGE.
(a) Spot where a skewer lias been inserted which holds back the rupture.
uous ; there are moments of relief from the pain, in which the animal will
be quite at his ease, but it is apt to come on again after a few moments.
Some horses are particularly subject to colic, owing to a ravenous
manner of eating and drinking, consequently they have it from time to
time, and usually die with it after a few repetitions.
Causes. — It is caused by some irritant in the bowels — indigestible
matter; also by large draughts of cold water, particularly if the horse
la warm. Colicky pains are very often symptoms of other diseases.
riow to know it. — In the first stage, the horse will begin to be uneasy ;
looks around ; raises up his hind feet towards hisbelly ; ste[)S around from
one side of the stall to the other ; stops eating ; will curl as if to lie down
DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL.
41'
In the second stage, he lies down and gets up again after lying, per-
haps, a couple of minutes ; in the third stage, he rolls, kicks, sweats pro-
fusely, has a haggard countenance, is inclined to turn upon his back, and
remains so. In mild cases, after kicking for half an hour or so, "ihe
SECONP STAGE OF SPASMODIC COLIC.
horse usually gets better, the pain all passes off, and he returns to his
accustomed spirits and habits ; but if it does not go off in the course of
half an hour, and from that to two or three hours, it is apt to run into
enteritis, and kill him.
What to do. — Give mild, diffusible stimulants, as early and quickly as
possible. Give either of the following :
No. 49.
2 Ounce whiskey,
1 Ounces extract of ginger,
3^ Pint water,
Mix.
Give as one dose. Or this :
No. 50. 1)4 Ounce sweet spirits of nitre,
1 Ounce laudanum,
J4 Ounce extract of ginger,
}4 Pint water,
Mix.
Give as one dose. Always, when possible, give warm water injectiona
with a very little soap in it, just to make it a little slippery. Give the horse a
soft, roomy place to roll in, and if he has the colic at all bad, give a
couple of days rest afterwards, feeding on soft food. Give the abdo-
men friction, and put on a blanket to avoid his cooling off too soon.
When the worst part of the pain is over, a little walking exercise will
be beneficial. If after giving the first dose the pain continues more than
418 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR,
half an hour, repca^^ it every half hour till relief is obtained ; but if it
does not yield Avith tliree or four doses, give the following:
No. 51, 1 Quart raw linseed oil,
\^ Ounce chloroform,
Mix-
Give as one dose. In half an hour, if the pain is continuous, give
No. 52. 4 Grains sulphate of morphia,
y^ Ounce water
Mix.
Give as one dose with a syringe. Repeat it every half hour if necessary
to keep him quiet. If this does uot effect a cure, refer to treatment for
enteritis, for it certainly has run into inflammation of the bowels.
TBIRD STAGE OF SPASMODIC COLIC.
JQ. Flatulent Colic.
Causes. — ^The nature of this disease is acute indigestion. Either
weak digestion, or a suspension of digestion entirely, allows the undi-
gested food to decompose, and while undergoing that process, fermenta-
tion sets up, gas is evolved, and the horse bloats up, sometimes to an
alarming extent, even to cause death by suffocation or rupture of the
stomach, intestines or diaphragm. It is most common where corn is fed
freely, and is apt to come on when the horse is taken out to work or
drive immediately after eating. The active exercise retards or wholly
interrupts digestion, and the moment digestion stops, decomposition set^
in and the evolution of gas begins. It is very weakening and often fatal.
It usually lasts about two to four hours, but sometimes lingers for ten or
twelve, and sometimes proves fatal in half or three-quarters of an
hour.
DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS OF THE ALIMENTAUY CANAL,.
419
How to know it. — The churacteristio symptom is the bloatino: withgaa^
and there is always a great amount of pain. The horse rolls, kicks,
paws, tries to lie on his back, gets up and down, sweats tremendously,
has a haggard look in his face, gulps Avind and food from the stomach in
small quantities through his nose ; and the food thus discharged is usually
green and very sour. The nostrils are distended, breathing rapid and
breath cold from the shallow breathing ; the pulse is quickened at the
start, but gradually grows harder and smaller as the fatal termination
approaches ; the belly becomes so distended that the flanks are above the
points of the hips ; and in some cases, when lying down, the legs are so
spread from the distension of the belly that the animal is unable to get up.
If it lasts very long, the nervous system becomes exhausted ; the
FLATULANT COLIC-FIRST STAGE.
FLATULENT COLIC, RUPTURED
OR LAST STAGE.
muscles around the chest, shoulders and neck cramp and draw down so as
to almost pull the horse to the ground, and he will sometimes scream
out like a child from the pain. The cars and extremities get deathly
cold.
If rupture takes place, he will sit on his haunches like a dog, turn up
his upper lip as though nauseated and tr}'^ to vomit ; but owing to the
peculiar formation of the stomach the horse cannot vomit. The pulse
gets weaker and smaller till he falls and dies from nervous exhaustion.
When he dies in earlier stages, it is from suffocation : the distension of
the stomach and bowels presses on the lungs so hard that it forces them
up into so small a compass that they cannot work, and suffocation is the
result.
420 CJfCLOrKDlA OF LIVK STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR,
Favorable symptoms are cessation of pain ; free evacuation of gas per
rectum ; pulse returns to its normal condition ; ears and extremities re-
gain their natural temperature ; sweating stops, and the horse returns to
his feed and customary habits.
What to do. — As soon as it is discovered, give the following:
No. 53. 1 Tablespoonful bicarbonate soda Csaleratus),
1 Teacupful water,
Mix.
Give as one dose, and repeat it, if necessary, in ten minutes.
Give warm water injections, being careful not to push the nozzle of the
syringe through a gut ; for the intestines crowd backward so hard that it
is ^^ery difficult to give injection enough to amount to anything, although
it is best to try. If the soda does no good, give the following:
No. 54. 1 Ounce turpentine,
% Pint raw linseed oil,
1 Ounce laudanum.
Mix.
Give as one dose, and repeat it in fifteen minutes, if necessary. It
this proves ineffectual, give
No. 55. 1 Ounce chloroform.
1 Pint raw linseed oil.
Mix.
Give as one dose, and repeat, if necessary, in half an hour.
Bind hot water rags to the belly, and keep them hot.
As a last resort, if the flatulence does not yield to the above treatment,
the trocar and cannula may be used. Let it be a small one, not over one
quarter inch in diameter and three inches long ;
II II ^*^P find the center of a triangle formed by the
last rib, point of the hip, and the edofes nearest
TROCHAR PROVIDED WITH , n i j. i • . .
CANNULA FOR PUNCTUR- thc flauk of the spmes in the loins ; clip off
iNG THE ABDOMEN. ^^^^ j^.^-^.^ ^^^ p.^gg ^j^^ trochar in slowly
and firmly, pointing it in and down at the same time, so as to
avoid wounding the kidney ; leave the cannula in there, but draw out the
trocar, and, if the gut that is distended is tapped, the gas will rush out.
Sometimes f cecal matter will clog the cannula ; if so, pass in a smal)
piece of whalebone, or other probe, to remove it from the lower end. If
no gut is tapped, try the same operation on the other side. It makes no
difference which side is tapped, for there is no paunch adherent to the
side of horses, as in cattle. The treatment by the mouth may be kept
up while this is done.
?nien they drop from suffocation, or when ruprure takes place, it is
too late to do anything ; but, in every case, persevere till either one or
the other of these tells you further effort is useless.
DISEASES AJSL) ACCIUENTS OF THE ALIMEXTAKY CANAL,.
421
XH. Rupture of the Stomach, Intestines or Diaphragm.
Causes. — This occurs iu violent cases of flatulence. When the gener-
ation of gas is excessive in the stomach or the intestines, they are liable
to rupture, and let the food out into the abdominal cavity, or from the
UNNATURAL ATTITUDE INDICATIVE OK ABDOMINAL INJURY.
tremendous pressure against the diaphragm, it is liable to rupture and let
the intestines into the chest among the lungs and heart. Either case is
fatal, the animal dying from shock to the nervous system, hemorrhage
and suffocation.
How to know It. — The horse will sit on his haunches ; but this is not n
characteristic symptom of itself, for we see it occasionally in spasmodic
colic, and often in enteritis ; the horse will
turn up his nose with an intensely disgusted
expression on his countenance, but this, too,
is often seen in colic and enteritis ; he will try
to vomit, which is a characteristic symptom,
and the muscles and legs will tremble and shake
as if vnth cold ; the ears and legs get cold ;
cold sweat breaks out in patches ; the mouth
gets cold, the pulse grows smaller and smaller, till it becomes impercepti-
ble, and death claims the patient in the course of half an hour to two
hours.
XHI. Constipation.
When the foecal matter in the intestines gets dry and hard, and resists
the peristaltic effort of the bowels to pass it on, or Avhen there is no per-
istaltic motion to the bowel, and the food lies quiet in one spot, there is
NOSE STRAINED UPWARD.
422 CYOI-OPEDIA OF IJVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR,
an obstruction to all intents and purposes, which is called constipation,
or costiveness.
Causes. — AVhcn the food dries and hardens so that it cannot be passed
on, it is due to an insufficient quantity of water in the bowel, owing to its
all going to the kidneys, or it is due to the horse not drinking enough, or
to inactivity of the liver and other glands that supply the bowels with
juices. When it is from a want of peristaltic motion, it is due to ner-
vous weakness in the bowels.
How to know it. — Little or no fcEtal matter is passed ; what is passed
is hard and dry ; mild colicky pains are felt at intervals of half an hour
or so. The horse may continue to eat and otherwise appear all right,
but as it runs on, the pains will come oftener and be more acute till it
runs into enteritis.
What to do. — If the pulse is natural and the colicky pains slight and far
between, give recipe No. 23 ; also give warm water and soap injections.
If the pains continue and increase, give a quart of raw oil and recipe No.
62. If it does not yield to this, give the following :
No. 56. 1 Quart raw oil,
1 Ounce tinchire nux vomica,
Mix.
Give as one dose. Repeat recipe No. 52 often enough to keep down
the pain. If the pain seems to be increasing and the constipation obsti-
nate, apply to the belly, well rubbed in, the following:
No. 57. 1 Ounce croton oil,
3 Ounces raw linseed oil,
Mix.
Repeat recipe No. 56 every six hours till a passage is effected. Re-
peat the injections once an hour, but put in less soap each time. If it is
necessary to repeat them more than four or five times, use clear water
without soap.
Xrv. Diarrhoea and Superpiirgation.
These are watery evacuations from the bowels, and are the opposite to
constipation.
Causes. — In diarrhoea there is an excessive secretion of the juices of
the SA'stcni, owing usually to some irritant in the bowels, but some-
times to too laxative food. Superpurgation is due to an overdose of
purgative medicine.
How to know it. — The evacuations are frequent and watery ; after run-
ning a while the bowels become irritable and the patient strains a good
deal and becomes weak ; the pulse gets feeble ; the mouth clammy ; the
ears and extremities cold i the eyes and nose pale ; the horse grinds his
DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. 423
teeth, and refuses food ; thirst is excessive. The temperature of the
body takeu with the thermometer is down, perhaps to 95 ® Fahr. If it
goes down to 93 © , the disease is ahnost sure to terminate fatally.
What to do. — If it is a straight case of diarrhoea — that is, without any
purgative liaving been given — give a complete change of food and the
following :
No. 58. 1 Ounce prepared chalk,
1 Ounce ginger,
1 Drachm opium,
1 Pint starch gruel,
Mix.
Give as one dose, and repeat it, if necessary, after three or four hours.
Give him water with flour stirred in to drink, but restrict the quantity to
about two quarts every three or four hours. If this does not stop it after
giving two or three doses of the medicine, give the following:
No, 59. % Pint raw linseed oil,
1 Draclnn opium,
1 Ounce tincture catechu,
Mix.
Give as one dose. If supcrpurgation is the trouble, give tht flour and
water to di'ink. If this docs not check it in five or six liourr. give j"^
addition :
No. 60. 1 Ounce tincture catechu,
)2 Ounce tincture camphor,
1 Ounce tincture opium,
1 Quart starch gruel,
Mix.
Give as one dose. Repeat it if necessary ever}^ four hours. Restrict
the drinking a little, and feed lightly when the appetite returns.
XV. Dysentery.
The nature of this disease is bloodv evacuations with ffreat straininsr,
There is inflammation of the mucous membrane of the large intestines,
with more or less fever and great irrital)ility of the intestinal tract.
Causes. — Neglected diarrhoea and supcrpurgation ; too acid a condi-
tion of the bowels ; impure, indigestible and musty food ; and foul
atm()s])licre.
How to know It. — By the bloody evacuations ; severe, frequent and
ineffectual attempts to pass fa-cal matter ; colicky pains ; considerable
fever; great thirst; no appetite; pulse quick, weak and compressible.
It is rather rare in the horse ; when it does exist, worms are often found*
too, and are thought by some to assist in the cause of it.
424
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
What to do. (^ive recipe No. 59, and give injections of starch with
one ounce of landannni in each injection; repeat the latter every half
IMPACTION OF LARGE BOWEL.
A SUFFERKR PROM CONSTIPATION.
The tucked-up belly, the attitude, and
general expression of suffering are
plainly shown.
hour. Jn one hour after takin«^ No. 59 give No. 5S, and in another hour,
if the straining continues, give No. 60, and the following injection :
No. 61.
1 Ounce tinctui'e of opium,
1 Ounce .sulphuric ether,
1 Quart starch,
Mix.
If no improvement takes place in the course of ten hours, give a pint
of raw oil and repeat the injection every half hour.
XVI. Enteritis.
Inflammation of the bowels takes two forms, according to the part
affected. Enteritis is inflammation of the mucous lining of the bowel ;
the next subject, peritonitis, is inflammation of the outer or serous
covering of the bowel.
Causes. — Irritating substances in the food ; catching cold which settles
in the bowels, continuation of colic, either spasmodic or flatulent ; and
poison.
How to know It. — There is continuous pain, light at first, and increasing
as the inflammation develops. It is different from colic, for which it might
be taken by an ordinary observer, in that it is continuous, while colic is in-
termittent ; in colic, the horse throws himself down ; in enteritis belies down
carefully ; the pulse is raised to seventy-five or eighty, or even a hundred
DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL.
425
beats to the minute ; the countenance wears an anxious look ; he is very un-
easy ; when not getting up and down he is turning around ; if in a box stall,
he looks around to his sides, paws, raises his legs up towards the body ; the
breathing is hurried ; there is profuse sweating ; the pulse is soft at first,
but grows gradually harder, faster, and at last it gets wiry, and finally
imperceptible ; the extremities get cold, and the horse wears himself owt
POSITION ASSUMED BY HOUSE SUFFERING FROM ABDOMINAL INJURY.
with the pain and constant moving about. Towards
the last, the pain will apparently abate a little ; he
will stand quiet for a while ; brace his legs till he
cannot resist any longer, and will reel and drop, the
hind end first, generally. He dies in the course of
eight to twenty hours after the first symptom, but in
some instances the horse will die in six hours after the
very first symptom. Sometimes they get perfectly
crazy with the pain, and they will rear, run, climb
over anything, tear down the stalls, etc. They can
bear no pressure on the belly without pain.
What to do. — Treatment is of very little use, for
a genuine case of enteritis is always incurable, but it
is best to try always. At first, it is usually taken for colic, and the pre-
scribed drenches are given for that disease ; but when you notice the pain
is continuous and the pulse runs up, it is sufficient evidence to locate the
trouble as inflammation of the lining of the large intestines ; then give
No. 56, and apply a mustard paste to the belly. After it has been on an
hour, wash it off and repeat it, or apply No. 41, and confine the fumes
with a blanket. A few minutes after giving the oil, give No. 52 ; repeat
the latter every half hour, if necessary to keep him easy. Give No. 30,
continuously, in addition to the others. Also give injections of soap an<?
ENTERITIS.
A test for enteritis, the
mouth usually being
found hot and dry.
426
CYCLOPEtLA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
water. If the pulse continues to quicken and got hard, repeat the oil
every two or three hours, and ai)[)lY No. 57 to the l)elly where the mus-
ANOTHEK TEST FOR ENTERITIS.
A horse manifesting tenderness upon pressure on the belly in enteritis.
tard was. If the oil works through, there is a chance of success; then
just let the horse remain i)erfectly quiet for several days, give oat-meal
gruel to drink.
Post mortem examination shows the bowel affected to be almost black
from congestion, inflammation, and mortification. The disease usually
APPLICATION OF AN AMMONIACAL BLISTER.
conflnes itself to about a yard of the gut. The tissue of the intestine
will be swollen sometimes over an inch thick.
XVII. Peritonitis.
This is inflammation of the outer covering of the bowel ; it is leos rapid
in its course, and less painful. It may last a week or so, or it may kill
HI ten or tw^elve hours.
DISEASES AND ACCIDENTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL. 427
Causes. — Wounds in the abdominal cavity, exposure to cold storms,
kicks in the belly, etc.
How to know it. — The pulse is quick — from sixty to seventy-tive, and
is hard and wiry ; the horse lies down very easy, but gets up quick ; loss
of appetite. When the inflammation does not kill, effusion of water
takes place into the belly, giving the horse the appearance of dropsy by
the large abdomen. There is great pain upon pressure on the abdomen.
Post mortem examination reveals extensive discoloration of the bowels
and surrounding tissue. A great quantity of bloody matter is floating in
the cavity. The inflamed poition of the intestines is very much swollen.
What to do. — Give No. 56 as soon as the nature of the disease is recog-
nized. Give No. 52 occasionally to allay the pain, and apply No. 57 to
the belly. Give No. 30. continuously for several doses, till the pulse is
improved. In case the abdomen fills with water, it may be tapped by
passing in the trocar and cannula — the smallest size — through the centre
of the bell}^ and through the hard, fibrous band running down the center.
It is c'AW^d. paracentesis abdomenis, and should be performed by experts
only.
XVIII. CalcuU.
Intestinal calculi are not very common, although they are occasionally
let with. It is very probable, that if all the cases of death from bowel
troubles were examined post tnortem, calculi would be quite often found,
aa that is the only way their presence can be determined.
Causes. — These stones are formed of calcareous material laid on in
layers, and are usually found enveloping a nucleus of some kind — a
piece of a nail, or a pebble, or a wad of hair, etc. They sometimes attain
to enormous sizes and weight, and are usually round or oval. These
stones are most common in sections of the country where hard well water
is used for drinking, especially in lime districts.
Dust balls are common in horses that are fed on mill-sweepings ; the
dust accumulates around oat hulls or chaff from other grain. As many
as a dozen have been found in one horse after death.
Calculi are seldom or never passed in a natural way, but make sacks in
the bowel, and lie there till by accident they are dislodged and roll out into
the passage, and form an obstruction, cause a stoppage, inflammation
and death.
How to know it. — In addition to the symptoms of enteritis, the patient
will frequently sit on his haunches like a dog. This is not a characteristic
symptom, but in cases where calculi have been found, it was a prominent
symptom.
What to do. — Nothing more can be done than to treat the symptoms,
which are those of enteritis. Back raking is advisab^B, but it is not
428 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
among the probabilities that the stones would be near enough to the
rectum, to be reached l)y the hand.
XIX. Intussusception and Gut Tie.
This is the slipping of a part of a gut into another part, like turning a
finger of a glove partly wrong side out. It is rather uncommon. A case
was lately seen by the writer, in which the l)lind end of the coecum was
turned into the other part, the fold coming at the intersection of the
small intestines.
Causes. — The cause of intussusception is purely accidental.
How to know It. — There are signs of bowel trouble ; colicky pains that
come on gradually ; the horse looks around ; paws ; stretches at full
length, which is a tolerably characteristic symptom ; gets up and down ;
the pulse rises and has a tendency to become hard and wiry ; legs and
ears get cold ; patches of cold sweat break out over the l)ody ; the pulse
gets smaller and harder ; the muscles tremble, and death soon follows,
which is caused by strangulation of the gut and mortification of the part
affected.
Post mortem examination shows great swelling of the gut, sometimes
to an inch thick, and the mortified portion will be black.
What to do. — As soon as any rise or change in the pulse is detected,
especially if there is stretching and colicky pains, give recipe No. 56, hot
water injections, and hot water rugs to the belly. If this does not give
relief in an hour, give No. 55, and repeat it every two hours till relief is
got ; in between these doses, if necessary to keep down the pain, give No.
52. In some cases the intestines will return to their proper place, and
their functions go on naturally again, but in some cases all efforts are
unavailing, and death takes place in from ten to thirty hours.
Gut Tie. — This is similar in effect ; the boAvel gets into a half knot
and strangulation follows the same as in intussusception.
Gut Twist — This is a twisting of a gnt by turning partly over. If it
does not right itself, strangulation and death are the inevitable result.
CHAPTER XI.
DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM.
1, PHRENITIS OR INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN. II. CEREBRO-SPINAL MENINGITIS.
III. APOPLEXY. IV. MEGRIMS. V. TETANUS OR LOCKJAW. VI.
PARALYSIS. VII. SUNSTROKE.
I. Phrenitis or Inflammation of the Brain.
All the highly developed nervous systems — those of man, the dog and
the horse — are more subject to disease than the quieter, and less devel-
oped nervous organizations of the ox, sheep, pig, etc.
Inflammation of the brain, sunstroke, tetanus and paralysis are quite
common in the first mentioned animals and very rarely met with in the last.
INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN.
Sample of the antics of a horse during the delirium of brain fever.
Causes. — The causes of phrenitis are various, such as concussion of
the brain ; exposure to cold, wet storms; extension of fever from the
body ; and sometimes the cause is not apparent.
How to know It. — There is a quick pulse ; great prostration ; respira-
tions are quick, bowels coostipated ; visible mucous membranes are very
429
430
CYCI OPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
red ; delirium at first, but eoon runs into stupidity ; the horse places his
head against the wall and pushes and braces himself against it, and
always bruises his eyes and head badly ; he will eat occasionally, and will
doze off into a fit of stupor with his mouth full and let the food drop ;
when roused he will paw and move around, hang his head against the
wall and then doze off again. These synitoras may continue for several
days, the mad fits connng oftener and more violently each time till death
takes place, or he may die in forty-eight hours. Animals thus affected
sometimes recover, Init not very often, and when they do they are not safe ;
they are liable to another attack at anytime, from the most trivial cause •
AN ADVANCED STAGE OF FLATULENT COLIC OR TYMPANITES.
fits may come on while in the street, the disease assuming almost a
chronic character. Young horses are more liable to phrenitis than old
ones.
What to do. — If discoverea m the very earliest stage when the pulse is
very full and quick, bleed the horse, taking from two to four quarts of
blood. Give a purgative — recipe No. 48, and apply ice to the head and
keep it on continuously. Give No. 30 as a sedative. If the fever entirely
subsides and consciousness returns, blister all over the upper part of
the head with No. 9. It is necessary to secure the animal well, for he
struggles violently during the mad spells.
DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM. 431
n. Cerebro-Spinal Meningitis.
This is not a common disease among horses in the cities, and is rarely
or never seen in the country. It has existed as an epizootic in New
York and Boston.
Causes. — Impurities in the air, the horse being kept in a small or
overcrowded, ill ventilated stable, fed very high and not worked very
hard. It is induced by a plethoric condition.
How to know It. — The horse seems listless for a day or two, stumbles,
reels behind, and sometimes will fall quite down ; the pupils become
diUited ; the pulse gets quick and full ; respirations rapid ; there is
twitching of the muscles of the head and neck ; at first he is sensi-
tive to noises, but as the fever increases and the disease developes,
blindness and deafness set in, and death soon follows.
What to do.— Put the horse in slings, if possible, before he gets so bad
that he cannot stand, and apply ice and bran poultices to the whole length
of the spine ; give the purgative No. 48, and the following recipe in one-
ounce doses three times a day :
No. 62. 8 Ounces bromide of potash,
1 Pint water,
Mix.
Effusion takes place on the brain and paralysis results. When the
effusion reaches the centers that supply nerve power to the lungs and
heart the animal dies.
III. Apoplexy.
Causes. — Apoplexy results from a sudden pressure on the brain when
the horse is otherwise healthy ; it is usually due to over exertion in a tight
collar, causing a rushing of blood to the head.
How to know it. — There is insensibility, the horse staggers and falls ;
froths at the mouth ; the muscles twitch ; there is partial paralysis for the
time being ; respiration is suspended for a short time.
What to do. — Remove the harness as quickly as possible ; give a free
chance to breathe ; and dash cold water over the head. He will sood
recover and go on again all right.
Prevention. — Do not allow the horse to get too fat ; see that the collar
is not too short for him ; it may press hard on each side of the neck to
advantage, but it must have good length, at least two inches at the bot-
tom below the neck ; avoid fast driving when the horse is not in a condi-
tion to stand it.
432
CTCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AKD COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
EXPRESSION CHAKACTEKIS
TIC OF MEGKIMS.
IV. Megrims.
This is similar to apoplexy, but is a milder form of the disease.
Causes. — It is due to the same causes as apoplexy, but the animal
recovers more quickly.
How to know it. — The horse stops, throws
up his head, shivers all over, staggers ;the eyes
close for a minute ; he braces his legs so as not
to fall ; stands so for a few minutes like a
drunken man, shakes himself and goes on as if
nothing had happened.
What to do. — See that the harness does not
press too tight where it ought not to ; if cold
water is handy, throw a little over his head ; if
not, just let him stand and he will soon recover.
It is a pet hobby with some to bleed the horse,
to stick a knife through the partition in the
nose, or into the second or third ridge in the
roof of the mouth, but it is entirely useless and somewhat dangerous from
overbleeding ; it is often very difficult to stop the bleeding from these
small stabs.
V. Tetanus or Lock-Jaw.
This is an excessively irritable condition of the whole nervous system,
producing cramps or violent contractions of all the nmscles of the body.
It is an infectious disease, very painful, and fatal in from seventy-five to
eighty -five per cent.
Causes. — It is due to a specific germ (the bacillus tetani) that gets into
the system through a wound, usually on the outside of the body, such as
nail pricks in the feet, punctures in the skin, following cartration, collar
and saddle galls, etc., and sometimes it arises from the germs taken in with
the food getting into a small wound in
the stomach or bowels, made by some
sharp indigestible substance. These
germs exist in the soil nearly every-
where, especially in garden soil, and
they grow best where there is the least
oxygen, consequently, nail pricks in
the feet are oftener followed by tetanus
than other or larger wounds. The
germs multiply and produce a chemical
poison (ptomaine) that gets into the
blood, poisons it, irritates the nervous system, which produces the muscular
contractions (cramps). Mild tetanic spasms may be caused by colds, over-
TETANUS OR LOCKJAW.
Note tenseness of muscles.
DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM. 433
heating, sometimes following parturition, etc., but they are not specific
and they usually recover. These are cases of tetany.
How to know it. — The first thing noticed will be the haw of the eye
drawn over the eye ball, showing more of the haw and less of the eye; the
nose is protruded; the neck straightened; the tail elevated and trembling;
the legs straddle and are as stiff as saw-horse legs; the belly is tucked up;
the nostrils dilated; the ears are as stiff as sticks; the respirations are hur-
ried; the muscles are as hard as board; he sweats profusely; and the most
serious point of all is the jaws are locked. If the disease is discovered at
the start, the jaws w^ill be found not to be locked, but very stiff and opened
with difficulty; but they usually lock tight in the course of twelve hours.
SHOWING HOW FAR AN ANIMAL WITH TETANUS IS CAPABLE OF MOTION.
If the head is raised, the haw is drawn completely over the eye; the tail
is more elevated; he trembles all over, and, if the head is pushed a little
farther up, he is liable to fall. He never lies down; cannot eat; drinks
with very great difficulty, and is in the most intense agony all the time.
Death usually follows in from three days to three weeks, but if he lives
nine days, he is likely to recover, and if he lives eighteen days, he is almost
sure to.
What to do. — If it comes from a wound, and all the symptoms are
fully developed, there is no use doing anything but to destroy the animal,
and thus save a great amount of suffering; but if it is a mild case, give him
a chance. Give the purgative No. 48. Put him in a quiet, dark, loose
434
CrCLOPEDlA OF LIVE STOCK AKD COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR
box; allo\v no visitors; keep him as quiet as possible; put oatmeal water in
his manger, and also a pail of clear water. Clothe him warmly, apply a
linseed poultice to the wound, wherever it is, first smearing it with Solid
Extract of Belladonna. Change the poultice once a day, and smear on the
belladonna each time. Give internally the following:
No. 63. 2 Ounces fluid extract of belladonna,
2 Ounces prussic acid, diluted.
Water to make eight ounces.
Mix.
Give a tablespoonful three times a day with a syringe.
Put him in a cool place, and get the purgative down, if possible. Let
the same man tend him all the time, and allow no spectators, no loud talk,
etc., let everything be as quiet as possible, and he will usually recover in
the course of five or six weeks. Never bleed nor blister for lock-jaw, for
the bleeding only weakens and the blistering only irritates the nerves all
the more. Put him in slings early to keep him from going down, for if he
lies down he oftentimes is unable to rise on account of the stiffness; this
will certainly seal his fate unless raised very soon. Tetanus anti-toxin
(a serum) is used considerably now (1899) with some success in developed
cases, and is eminently successful in preventing it if given soon after the
infliction of the wound. It is necessary to employ a veterinarian to give
this treatment.
VI. Paralysis.
This is just the reverse of tetanus; the nervous system loses its power,
and the part affected becomes helpless. It usually attacks the hind parts,
but sometimes one side, and sometimes the neck and face.
A PROPER METHOD OF FEELING
THE PULSE.
Causes. — injuries to the back are common causes, in which case there
Is paralysis of ail parts back of the injury. It usually accompanies azoturia,
cerebro-spinal meningitis, lead poisoning, sun-stroke, etc. When half
DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM.
435
the body, face, or neck is paralyzed, the cause lies in the constitution, and
is not apparent; or it may come from abscess in the brain.
How to know it.— The horse lies in a helpless condition; he can raise
himself forward, but is utterly powerless behind. Prick him with a pin,
anywhere back of the injury, and no sensation is produced. If it is
paralysis of one side, that side is partially helpless; he dragn the legs.
If it is in the neck and face, the part will be twisted towards the well side,
and the diseased part without sensation.
What to do. — If the horse can stand at all, put him in slings; if not,
let him lie down as comfortably as possible. Turn him twice a day, to
prevent scalding. Clip off the hair close, and blister well with recipe No. 9,
'^S
^JLJ
HELPING HIM TO STAND FOR TREATMENT.
Also first step in throwing — See page 550.
along the spine from the seat of the injury back to the croup. It it is
paralysis of the face and neck, apply the blister to the base of the brain,
over the poll. Rub the surface w^ell with liniment No. 14. Give inter-
nally the following powdcOs :
No. 64. 1 Drachm powdered nux vomica,
2 Drachms powdered g-entian root,
}^ Ounce linseed meal.
Mix.
Give as one dose; repeat it once a day for two or three weeks; then
let him wait a fortnight, and repeat it. When convalescent, give gentle
exercise. Abscess in the brain is almost always fatal.
436 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Vn. Sun-Stroke.
This is common in some parts of the country, especially in large cities.
It is a loss of water in the blood, owing to overheating of it, especially in
humid atmosphere. It is usually fatal unless promptly and vigorously
treated. All the functions of the body are interfered with or almost
stopped.
Causes. — Exposure to the hot sun, or over-exertion in hot weather,
even if the sun is not shining. Some animals are more subject to it than
others, probably depending upon the condition of the system at the time.
How to know it. — The horse may be sweating and suffering with the
heat, when suddenly he will stop sweating and dry off; will begin to
stagger; get dumpish, deaf, weak and stupid; there will be labored breath-
ing and he will soon drop in the road in an unconscious condition; the
breathing will become more and more labored till death takes place, which
will be in from half an hour to two or three hours if no relief is given.
The surface of the body will be found to be very hot to the touch of the
hand.
What to do.— When the horse begins to suffer and labor with the heat,
let him stop in the shade ; give a few swallows of cold water to drink,
and also sponge off the head and face with cold water. After half an
hour he will be able to go on. If he has been compelled to go till he
drops, or even till he is in a staggering condition, throw cold watei- all
over him ; or if it is in a city where a hose can be used, keep it playmg
on him from head to tail continuously till he is cooled off ; then leave
him in a cool place, but not in a draft ; let him rest till next day. If It
is in the country throw cold water over him by the bucketful till he
recovers. If he goes down, use ice on the back if possible. As soon as
he 5s sufficiently recovered to be able to swallow safely, give the fol-
lowing drench :
No. 65. 2 Ounces whiskey.
y^ Ounce sweet spirits of nitre,
1 Drachm nitrate of potash,
}4^ Teacuiiful water,
Mix.
Give as one dose, and repeat it every hdf hour till he is pretty well
recovered ; then drop off to every four or six hours. Leave him in the
stable at least a week, and be very careful of him for a long time.
During recovery feed on soft food — grass if it can l)e got. If it leaves
him weak and staggering in his gait, clip off the hair from the back and
blister with recipe No. 9.
CHAPTER Xn.
DISEASES OP THE HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS.
I. INFLAMMATION OP THE ENDOCARDIUM. II. ENLARGEMENT OF THE HEART.
III. ATROPHY OF THE HEART. IV. INDURATION OF THE HEART. V. FATTl
DEGENERATION OF THE HEART. VI. OBESITY OF THE HEART. VII. CYANO-
SIS OR BLUE DISEASE. VIII. RUPTURE OF THE HEART. IX. RUPTURE 0»
A BLOOD VESSEL. X. ANEURISM. XI. PHLEBITIS OR INFLAMMATION OF A
VEIN. XII. THUMPS.
Diseases of the heart are numerous but difficult to diagnose, except b}*
their effects. Few of them are influenced by treatment ; therefore this
short chapter on the subject, is given more as a matter of general infor-
mation than of practical utility.
I. Lifiammation of the Endocardium.
This is inflammation of the sac surrounding the heart. This sac is
a serous one, similar to the pleura, and secretes a fluid to moisten and
lubricate the heart in its perpetual motion.
How to know it. — The horse will attract notice as not being in his usu-
8ual healthy form ; his head will hang down ; the countenance will
express pain ; he will stand still with no inclination to move ; the pulse
will be raised considerably. Upon application of the ear to his side over
the region of the heart, a harsh rasping sound will be heard indicating
the diy stage of inflammation.
What to do. — All that can be done to advantage is to treat the
horse constitutionally by giving recipe No. 40. Feed on soft food for a
few days ; keep him warm and aoply No. 41 to the side over the heart.
n. Enlargement of the Heart.
This is not uncommon ; the heart sometimes increases to twice its nat-
Ui-al size. This is especially so of the left ventricle ; its walls sometimes
get unusually thick.
How to know it. — It cannot be definitely recognized during life, but a
fair opinion can be based upon the pulse, which will be irregular in its
action, both as to force and number of beats. The temperature of the
body will be uneven ; one side may be cold, and the other warm, one leg
Gold and the others warm, etc.
437
438 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOB,
What to do. — Give the following recipe ;
No. 66. 1 Drachm iodide of potash,
1 Drachui powdered uux vomica,
1 Drachm powdered fCBnugi-eel£ seed.
Mix.
Give as one dose in a bran mash, and repeat it morning and night, for
three or four weeks. Feed on soft food, and give gentle exercise.
m. Atrophy of the Heart.
This is a shrinking and wasting away of the substance of the heart.
The walls become soft and flabby, and fail to perform the work in a
healthy manner.
How to know it. — The pulse will be weak and irregular — often missing
two or three beats at a time. There will be emaciation, languor, pallor
of the visible mucous membranes. Death is liable to occur suddenly, at
any time, from complete interruption of the circulation by ante-mortem
clots, that is, clots that form in the heart and blood vessel? be:6ore
death .
What to do. — Give the following oowder night and morning, in soft
feed.
No. 67. 1 Drachm mix vomica,
1 Drachm sulphate of iron,
1 Drachm foenugreelc seed,
Mix.
Give this at one dose, and repeat it morning and night for three or
four weeks. Give gentle exercise, and feed some oil-cake meal every
day if he will eat it. Feed well.
rv. Induration of the Heart.
This is a hardening of the substance of the heart, which sometimes be-
comes almost as hard as wood. There are no characteristic symptoms
other than the weak, irregular pulse, and sudden death at some unex-
pected time. Nothing can be done.
V. Patty Degeneration of the Heart.
The fleshy substance of the heart degenerates into a khid of fatty sub-
stance that is not strong, and may be easily pulled to pieces by the hand
after death. There are no symptoms to recognize it by ex-cept the weak,
irregular pulse. Death is apt to occur suddenly, from ante-mortem
clot.
VI. Obesity of the Heart.
This is an accumulation of fat around the heart, which interferes with
Its action, giving rise to a quick, fluttering pulse as though the heart were
laboring under a load that muffled it. It makes the breathins: short, and
DISEASES OF THE HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS. 439
the animal will pant after tlie least exercise. Nothing can be done.
Death is liable to occur from suffocation when tiie horse is put at hard
work.
VII. Cyanosis, or Blue Disease.
This is very uncommon in the horse. Tiie circulation peculiar to foetal
life does not change at birth, as it ought to, ])y the closing of atemporary
opening between the right and left sides of the heart. The failure of
this opening to close at birth allows the venus blood to pass right through
into the arteries without going through the lungs to be aerated, and
gives a blue color to all parts that ought to be pink — the eye-lids,
mouth, etc. The animal does not live long, but dies in the course of a
week or two. The surface of the body never gets warm ; the respirations
are usually slow, and there is great weakness, which increases as death
approaches.
VIII. Rupture of the Heart.
Horses are liable to rupture the heart at the time of any sudden exer-
tion or jerk. Those with heaves are the most often affected. The right
ventricle and the auricles are most liable to it : the left ventricle has walls
so thick that rupture of them rarely takes place. Nothing can be done
for it. Instant death is the result.
IX. Rupture of a Blood Vessel.
This is a more common accident than any other pertaining to the heart
and blood vessels. Any very severe exertion, such as racing, trottino-,
jumping, extra hard pulling etc., is often interrupted and brought to a
stand-still by the rupture of a blood vessel. Those most lial)lc to rupture
are the arteries and veins in the abdominal region of the bodv ; the next
those in the chest, head, etc. There is no way of foreseeing its approach
nor of obviating its effects, which are always fatal from internal hemor-
rhage. Having the horse in as tine condition physically as possible for any
extra exertion is the only way of diminishing the liability to its occurence.
X. Aneurism.
Arteries are liable to get weak in their walls (a tendency to rupture),
and dilatation is the result, owing to the immense pressure of the blood
from the action of the heart. The large arteries in the abdominal cavity
near the back arc most often affected in this way.
How to know it. — If it is suspected, examine the parts internally by
the hand inserted in the rectum ; a large bulge or elliptical enlargement
and distinct pulsations are felt when aneurism exists. The swelling is
soft and compressible.
440 OrCLOPBDIA OF LITE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
What to do. — Nothing can be done for it in that position ; if it occurs
on the outside of the body, apply cold water aud ice, and a compress to
'.he enlargement.
XI. Phlebitis, or Inflammation of a Vein.
This is far less common now than it was a few years ago, owing to the
practice of bleeding being done away with ; for it was a common result of
bleeding, either from using a rusty fleam, or from the horse catching cold
in the wound afterwards, or from improper care, the horse not being kept
clean. It may result from any wound.
How to know it.— The vein swells and gets hot, sore, red and painful ;
the Hiflamniation spreads to surroundmg parts, and considerable tume-
faction is the result. The effect of this condition of things is quite often
obliteration of the vein ; it becomes hard, filled up, and ceases to act as a
vein. The result is not so serious as might be supposed, except when
the jugular vein is the one affected ; then the horse cannot graze, owing
to the blood that is forced to remain in the vessels of the head and neck,
causing congestion of those parts, they being in a pendent position.
What to do. — Foment the part affected with hot water three times a
3ay, and manipulate the vein and get the obstruction to move on if
possible
Xn. Thumps.
This is an excited^ ^spasmodic action of the heart, due to over-exertion
— it may be from pulling in heavy draft, leaping or driving. It is most
likely to occur in very hot weather.
How to know it. — The horse appears to be in distress, and is pressed
for breath ; the heart thumps away as if it wanted to make a hole and
get out ; it often shakes the whole body ; the countenance has an anxious
expression, and the horse usually sweats profusely.
What to do. — Give something to revive the nervous system, and stim-
ulate the heart to a healthier action. Give recipe No, 65. Rub him
down well, put on a blanket if the weather is cold, and give a bran mash
to eat. Let him rest for a day or two, and the nervous system will
regain its strength, aud the horse be as useful as before.
CHAPTER Xm.
GENERAL DISEASES OF THE BLOOD.
}. iNFLtJENZA— EPIZOOTT— "PINK EYE." II. PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA.-^ III.
RHEUMATISM. IV. ABSCESSES. V. ERYSIPELAS.
I. Influenza— Epizooty— "Pink Eye."
Influenza is the name given to a blood disease in horses that is peculiar iu
many ways. It is known as the Upizooty and "Pink Eye." It is a
blood disease, in that it is caused by the introduction into the system of
a poison that has its origin in the atmocphere, and cannot be isolated ; it
is supposed to be of a malarious nature due to influences very extended in
character.
The greac epizooty of 1872 extended over the most of Europe and the
whole of North America. It spread from East to West, moving slowly,
attacking all animals of the equine race, and lasting from one to three
weeks in each locality. It proved fatal to a great many horses ; it laid
all horses up for a few days at least, so that in all large cities the streets
were clear of horses for about a week. It left a great many horses with
chronic cough and debilitated systems from which they never recovered,
80 that they were left in a condition that invited diseases of all kinds,
many of which proved fatal, coming as they did in fall and winter.
The "Pink Eye" of the year 1881, was less general in its at-
tack, and milder in its character in some respects, but more severe in
others. It was more severe in the latitudes including the cities of New
York, St. Louis, Detroit, Chicago, etc. It was very mild both north
and south of the above mentioned latitudes. It was fatal in many cases,
but mostly either from want of care or improper treatment.
It was called "Pink Eye" from the redness of the eyes, which was a
prominent symptom in all cases. It was of a complicated nature, there
being catarrh of the mucous membranes, both of the respiratory and ali-
mentary tracts ; tyi^hoid fever ; acute rheumatism ; and, in some cases,
inflammation of the lungs, bowels and brain ; and occasionally tetanus.
How to know it. — The first symptom noticed will be languor ; dull-
ness in harness ; weakness; sweating easily; and, in very many cases,
actual staggering from weakness and nervous prostration in the course of
ten hours after being first taken. The horse hangs his head ; the ear*
441
442 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
droop ; the appetite fails ; the eyes become very red ; the pulse verj»
quick, frequeutly as high as seventy to eighty per minute, full at first
but gradually getting weak ; the respirations are rapid ; the eyelids
swell sometimes so as to close entirely ; the temperature taken by the
thermometer will show as high as 105 ° to 107 ^ F. All these symp-
toms will appear in the course of twelve hours. In the next twelve
hours there will be colicky pains, and constipation ; the stools wMU be
rather hard and dry and covei-ed with slime, indicating a feverish lining
to the bowels ; the legs swell tremendously and get very sore to the
touch, especially around the fetlock joints and along the back tendons *,
the mouth is very hot, and sometimes dry ; the eyes run tears profusely,
which flow down over the face ; the surface of the body in most cases
is very hot to the touch ; the urine is scanty and high-colored ; the thirst
great ; in some cases there is swelling of the throat and a cough ; the
nose runs a watery discharge. During the second and third days the
eyes discharge matter which runs down the cheek, scalding off the hair ;
the discharge from the nose becomes purulent and sticks around the nos-
trils ; the legs get sorer ; the bowels loose ; sometimes diarrhoea sets in
and carries the animal off suddenly ; sometimes constipation appears
which usually runs into inflammation of the bowels and kills ; the lungs
are liable to take on an inflammatory condition and run into pneumonia,
often causing death ; and the fever often goes to the brain and causes
phrenitis which is usually fatal. Horses with influenza lie down a great
deal at first, but if the lungs become affected, they persistently stand, and
they lose flesh most unaccountably fast — it goes off as though it were
whittled off, leaving a fat hearty animal as thin as a skeleton in a week.
They may refuse to eat ; and the fever may continue to increase, and
weakness become so great as to prove fatal without any other complica-
tion.
The favorable symptoms are retui l vif the appetite ; diminishing of the
swellings around the eyes and legs ; ability to lie down comfortably ;
bowels and kidneys regular ; and a brightening of the countenance
What to do. — AVhen the first symptoms are noticed, lay the horse up
at once ; see that the stable is clean, dry and well-aired, but no drafts ;
put on blankets, and bandages to the legs ; give soft feed to eat, if they
will take it, and anything they may fancy, if the appetite is poor ; a little
corn, oats, carrots, apples, etc. ; but the best foe J is oats and bran in
equal parts, wet up and steamed with boiling water ; all the treatment
must be given with a view to sustaining the strength. For medicine, at
the outset, give No. 40, in two-ounce doses, every two hours, till the
fever is checked ; continue it night and day till the thermometer comes
down to 103 o ; then hold up on it a little, and give it only three times a
GENERAL DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. 443
day, and when the temperature comes down to 100, change to No. 18
— three times a day — for a couple of days ; then, if everything is pro-
gressing favorably, give No. 35 three times a day, or No. 34 in the feed
twice a day. If the throat swells, and there is a cough, rub the throat
with No. 41. If the fever goes on to the lungs and causes bronchitis or
pneumonia, apply No. 41 to the sides and chest, and give the other
recipes as directed above. Set a pail of water in the manger, so he can
A HORSE WITH INFLUENZA.
drink a swallow or two often to cool his mouth and throat. Give plenty
of bedding, and make him as comfortable as possible. The bowel trouble
you need not give anything for, unless the colicky pains hang on for
several hours, then give No. 52. If the diarrhoea is distressing, give him
flour, one pound in a pail of water to drink instead of clear water. There
is no danger of constipation in this disease. If there is long-continued
weakness, give No. 64 alternately with No. 35. During convalescence, give
gentle exercise. For treatment of lung complications, see pneumonia.
IL Purpura Hemorrhagica.
This is an infectious, hemorrhagic disease, in which the red corpuscles are
destroyed, the blood becomes thin, the tissues of the blood vessels get weak
and relaxed, allowing the blood to ooze through them into surrounding
cellular tissue and into cavities, and is inclined to settle to dependent parts,
into the legs, under the belly and chest, and around the muzzle.
Causes. — It is due to a specific bacillus, a micro-organism that exists in
filthy stables, especially badly drained and ventilated ones. The disease
attacks horses most often that have become debilitated by some other
disease, such as influenza, but it often attacks the strong, vigorous, well-fed
ones, SLW^ runs in them a malignant course, causing death in three or four
days, but when occurring secondarily to influenza, or other debilitating
disease, it is frequently of a milder type, and the animals recover in from
two to six weeks.
444 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR,
How to know it. — The limhs swell enormously, so much so vhat th«.
animal can scarcely move. The swelling l)egins in the lower part of tne
legs, and keeps coming higher from hour to hour, there being an abrupt
termination of the swelling at the top. It continues to rise till it reaches
the body; then extends along the belly, the full width of it, and as thick
as a small mattress.
Yellowish, watery fluid will ooze through the skin and trickle dow^n the
legs. The same from the belly, but to less extent. The muzzle begins to
swell the same as the legs, and the swelling extends up
towards the eyes, often completely closing them. The
breathing becomes labored. The secretions are usually
at a stand-still, especially the urine, none being secreted;
the water, when it accumulates around the internal organs,
causes death. The visible nuicous membranes wall be
found to be covered with purple patches, varying in size
from a dime to a lifty-cent piece. The pulse is small,
PURPURA vfeak and wary. The discharges on the legs and belly
Appearance of horse's have an offcusive odor, and the breath is also offensive.
head with purpura. ^ . , , .,.. . . , j ^i i •
Great debility is a prominent symptom; the horse is
unable to eat or drink. The disease is generally fatal, either by the causes
mentioned above, or by suffocation from the swelling of the nose, or by
gangrene of the internal organs. Usually, before dying, the animal presents
a most horrible sight, so as to* look like almost anything else than a horse.
What to do. — Begin early to give the following recipe:
No. 68. 1 Ounce tincture muriate of iron,
2 Ounces sweet spirits of nitre,
2 Drachms quinine.
Water to make one pint.
Mix.
Give two ounces every two hours with a syringe, so as to get it back
into the throat wdth as little trouble and worry to the patient as possible.
Alternate with No. 68, the following:
No. 69. 1 Ounce turpentine,
3 Ounces linseed oil,
Mix.
Give a tablespoonf ul every two hours. Alternating these two recipes
will fetch doses only one hour apart; continue these as persistently as
possible, till he is either better or dead. Give oatmeal gruel to drink, and
give anything to eat he can masticate. If he cannot eat nor drink, give
oatmeal gruel injections. Foment the head, if swollen, with hot water as
persistently as possible, with the view of driving the swelling to other
parts. Let the other swellings entirely alone.
GENERAL DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. 445
The favorable symptoms will be a diminution of the swellings, return of
the secretions and appetite, improvement of the pulse, and disappearance
of the purple (echymosed) spots.
in. Rheumatism.
Causes. — This is supposed to be an accumulation, in the blood, of a
peculiar acid that settles around joints, along tendons and sometimes in
muscles. Upon the slightest provocation in the way of exposure or
derangements of the stomach or bowels, it is apt to assume the acute form,
and to cause intense pain and lameness.
How to know it. — There is lameness, usually of a peculiar kind, flying
from one joint to another, and from one leg to another; sometimes the
parts swell and sometimes not; the joints most commonly affected are the
fetlocks, knees, shoulders and hips. There is usually more or less fever,
high pulse, and sometimes suppuration of the affected parts.
What to do. — Give recipe No. 36, Foment the affected parts with
hot water three times a day and apply, as a liniment, recipe No. 15, after
wiping down the legs quite dry, and bandage warmly with flannel. After
the most acute symptoms are gone, give walking exercise.
IV. Abscesses.
An abscess is a gathering of pus in a sac from a morbid process in the
tissues. It may develop in any part of the body. The most common
locations of them are on the ribs, on the belly, in the groin, in the levator
humeri muscles, etc. They sometimes attain to tremendous proportions;
they are not painful as a rule, but if they come in or near a nerve center
there is great pain; when they form in the groin, for instance, there is
great pain; while on the ribs they cause little or no pain.
Causes. — Impurities in the blood from retention in the system of effete
matter that should be eliminated through the excretory organs — the bowels,
kidneys and skin. The exciting causes are sometimes bruises from blows,
kicks or other injury; but these bruises are not sufficient in themselves to
cause an abscess, but must be accompanied by the morbid condition of the
blood; then the injury may simply afford an excuse for its breaking out in
that particular place. The pus germ is usually found in them, and is
thought, by bacteriologists, to be the same as suppui-ation.
How to know it. — There is always a great amount of swelling, hard at
first all over; but as it grows and approaches a full development it gets
soft in the center, pitty in a ring around the center, and hard on the out-
side. It is hot, red, and sore to the touch. It takes from one to six
weeks to mature an abscess so it will break of itself, according to its loca-
tion and depth. Those in the groin take three or four weeks to mature;
446 CYCLOPEDIA OP LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCIOB.
those on the ribs and belly mature in the shortest time above mentioned;
and those in the levator humeri muscles (found just inside and in front of
the Joints of the shoulders) take the longest time to mature. In fact, the
latter sometimes acts like a tumor by its slow growth, hardness and length
of time it takes to break out without outside assistance.
When opened, the pus runs out, and the abscess usually heals readily;
but sometimes the healing process requires a great deal of assistance, and
the abscess is liable to start anew and develop others as soon as one is
healed, unless the cause is removed by pui-ifying the blood.
What to do. — Give a purgative of recipe No. 2S, and when it has stopped
purgiug, give No. 34 for a week or so. Poultice the abscess with any
hot, soft poultice — linseed meal is the best — till it points, (comes to a
head), in a soft spot ; then tap it with a pointed knife, and evacuate the
sac ; make the opening big enough to allow a finger to be passed in ; see
that all is clear for a thorough emptying ; then inject warm water to wash
it out, and inject No. 5. Repeat this twice a day. Make the opening at
the bottom, if possible, to allow the pus to gravitate out, instead of having
to be squeezed out. The abscess in the levator humeri muscle is always
deep-seated in the muscle, and requires a great length of time to rot out.
It is easily recognized by its position, being inside and a little to the
front of the point of the shoulder. It is useless to wait for it to come to
a head ; open it at once. Take a long-bladed scalpel or pocket knife and
run it in directly into the center of the tumor, letting the knife be par-
allel with the horse's body ; then there is no danger of tapping the jugu-
lar vein. It is necessary, usually, to cut about four inches deep before
reaching the pus, but when once emptied it heals very readily.
V. Erysipelas.
This is inflammation of the skin. It may be superficial and omy
involve the upper layers of the skin, or it may be deeper-seated and
involve the under layers. The superfi nal does not suppurate, but the
deep-seated usually does, with more or less sloughing. It is often
thought to be contagious, which it undoubtedly is to a small degree ; but
not suflSciently so to be ranked as a specific blood poison. It some-
times rages as an enzootic — common in any certain district. It usually
follows wounds, injuries and sores, but sometimes comes on apparently
healthy skin.
Causes. — It is due sometimes to the weather, when it is damp, hot and
oppressive, with thunder frequent and low barometeric pressure, especi-
ally if the horse is kept in low, filthy places. Poorly fed, thin, neglected
animals are most subject to it. The sudden suppression of a chit>nic
discharge, and feeding on rich, heating food when the animal has been
GENERAL DISEASES OF THE BLOOD, 447
accustomed to poor, scanty food, and keeping animals with open sores
near decomposing animal tissue are also cause of erysipelas. The common
means of contagion are washing erysipelatous and healthy wounds with the
same sponge, using the same harness, clothing, etc.
How to know it, — There is usually some fever; the pulse and temper-
ature are raised; the urine is scanty and high-colored; the bowels usually
constipated; there is loss of spirit and appetite. These symptoms are fol-
lowed, in the course of twelve hours, by a diffuse swelling that is hot,
red, and painful ; if it is on a white skin it will be found to be shill-
ing, tcuse and of a deep red. It spreads rapidly, terminating aln-uptly
at the edges in a well defined line of demarkation. The swelling does
not pit on pressure ; the redness disappears on pressure, but returns
when the finger is removed. It is confined to the head and legs. It
has a peculiar smell, like that of burnt hair.
Sometimes it extends to the cellular tissue under the skin when it is
known as pJdegmonous ; this always suppurates, and has a purple
appearance previous to breaking.
What to do, — Give tonics and stimulants internally ; give recipes No,
37 and No. 35 ; if much depression exists, give No, 65, Feed on boiled
oats, barle}^ etc. Apply locally No, 24, and keep the part wet with
it continually. If the swelling spreads in spite of this lotion, paint the
healthy skin for two inches all around the diseased part with tincture of
iodine, and change the lotion to the following:
No. 70. 1 Ounce tincture muriate of iron,
8 Ounces water,
Mix.
Keep the surface wet with it till the skin begins to be irritated ; then
go back to No. 24. If extensive sloughing takes place, poultice with oil-
cake meal, with charcoal sprinkled over the poultice, till a healthy sore
is obtained ; then apply lotion No. 7. If the erysipelas comes from an
unhealthy sore, cauterize it with powdered bluestone continuously, once
a day, till all signs of a purplish, unhealthy condition, have disappeared ;
then continue the lotion No. 7. Continue the tonics for several weeks,
giving soft food enough to keep the bowels loose.
CHAPTER XIV.
CONTAGIOUS BLOOD DISEASES.
I. GLANDERS AND FARCY. II. STRANGLES. III. RABIES OR HYDROPHO-
BIA. IV. HORSE rOX OR EQUINE VARIOLA. V. SURRA. VI. MY-
COTIC LYMPHANGITIS, OR JAPANESE FARCY,
Diseases are said to be contagious when they reproduce themselves in
a healthy animal, either by inoculation and absorption of the virus into
the system through a wound or mucous membrane, or by absorption of
disease o-erras floatins: in the air or in the water that the animal drinks.
I. Glanders and Farcy.
These are different forms of the same disease, which is a specific poison
that affects the whole system. When it breaks out in the nose, affecting
also the lungs and lymphatic glands between the branches of the lower
jaw, it constitutes glanders ; when it attacks the lymphatic glands and
other tissues of the legs and body, it constitutes farcy. The two forms
of disease often exist separately, but usually symptoms of both will be
found in the same case. The contagion lies in the discharges from tlie
ulcers, either those in the nose or farcy buds ; it is contagious only by
inoculation, the poison being of heavy specific gravity and not volatile.
The virus from glanders may produce glanders or farcy, or both ; the
virus from farcy may do the same. The mode of inoculation is usually
through the nose or mouth, by the introduction of the virus taken by one
horse working in double harness with a glandered horse, or standing in
the same stall, rubbing his nose on a hitching post or fence or edge of a
water trough where a glandered horse has stood. These latter are com-
mon channels through which glanders is got ; for when a glandered horse
is driven up to a post or water trough, the first thing he does is to rub
the accumulatious of matter off bis nose, the clogging of which is uncom-
fortable. And so great is the vitality of tlie virus, that a horse coming
along an hour, a day, a week, or even a year after, and happening to rub
his nose on the same place gets the disease by inoculation.
The poison may lie latent in the system a week, or a month, or two
months and then break out, perhaps violently, and run the acute course*
causing death in three to six weeks ; or the disease may appear in a very
mild form and run the chronic course, so that the horse may live in very
448
CONTAGIOUS BLOOD DISEASES.
449
comfortable condition for one to three or four years, though sowing the
seeds of contagion for other horses to gather all the time, thus doing an
inestimable amount of harm.
When the disease breaks out, it does so by ulceration of the tissues
involved. These ulcers differ from ordinary ones, by their resistance to
treatment; if made to heal, they break out again either in the same or
another place, and have a tendency to spread and slough, eating away the
tissues till the ulcers become confluent and the Scluieiderion membrane
(lining of the nose) is destroyed. The disease was known in the earliest
times, and was written on by Vegetius, Rouan, and many others; but it
was not well understood as to its actual seat till La Fosse discovered that
it lay in inflammation and ulceration of the nasal membrane. The poison
of glanders and farcy is communicable to men, goats, sheep and dogs, with
all the characteristic symptoms of the disease in horses, and is contagious
from man back to the horse or ass.
Causes. — It is due to the germ called baccilus mallei, discovered by
Lofller and Schutz in 1882, which exists in all of the purulent discharges.
It is usually propagated, fostered and extended by contagion through the
villainous traffic carried on in glandered horses by unscrupulous dealers.
For many diseased animals retain the appearance of health sufficiently well
to be bought and sold many
times, the dealei-s explaining
the discharge from the nose as
coming from a cold, and the
swollen legs as resulting from
impurities in the blood; and
Tom, Dick and Harry, think-
ing they "know all about a
horse," buy the animals, be-
lieving the explanation of the
dealer to be true; and thus
thousands of dollars worth of
stock is ruined each year by
the spread of this fatal disea.se.
But the disease sometimes
arises spontaneously in armies,
on ship-board, or in overcrowd-
ed, low, damp, badly-ventilated
stables. Overcrowding is the
chief cause of its spontaneous appearance, the horses, asses or mules being
compelled to breathe over and over again, air vitiated by the emanations
from their own f cecal matter and from their bodies, and which has been ex-
hausted of its oxygen by passing through the lungs a number of times.
BAD CAiJE OF GLANDEKS.
450
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOK.
How to know it. — Acute glanders is characterized by languor ; dry,
staring coat ; red, weeping eyes ; loss of appetite ; quick pulse ; elevated
temperature, the thermometer registering 103 <5 to 106 ® F. ; accelerated
breathing ; a grayish purple color of the lining of the nose ; a watery
discharge, which soon becomes yellowish and sticky, causing the hair on
which the matter accumulates in and around tlie nostrils to stick together.
The discharge looks like melted butter, and when dropped into water it
eijiks. The glands under the jaw swell and often adhere to the bone, but
notalwa3^s. The partition between the nostrils will become ulcerated;
small yellow points with purple bases will
come up and burst, making the discharge
bloody for the time. These ulcers, with ele-
vated edges and depressed centers and purple
bases, will spread and become confluent,
eating away the membrane till little or noth-
ing of it is left ; the discharge increases and has
a horribly offensive odor; the lungs become
affected by ulcers forming in them ; the breath-
ing becomes labored, and the animal finally
dies, the most emaciated and disgusting ()l)ject imaginable.
The chronic course is longer continued and runs less rapidly; but all
the same symptoms are developed, with the exception that the appetite
is less impaired till near the last ;
the discharge is less copious and
offensive, and emaciation does
not take place so rapidly. Bnt
if the horse is exposed to any de-
gree of hardship and cold storms,
the chronic form may run into
the acute form at any time. The
cough is not always noticed, and the ulcers are sometimes so far up in
the nose as to be out of sight. It is often necessary to inoculate a worth-
less animal in order to determine the disease. If it is glanders, it will
probably prove fatal to the one inoculated in two or three weeks, running
the acute course.
Farcy is recognized by swelling of the legs affected, usually one or
GLANDERS,
^^Tien the dis-
charge has be-
comepurulent.
GLANBERS,
In the last stage
when the pus
is mixed with
vlood from ex-
tensive slough-
ing.
SECTION OF A LUNG
Of a glandered horse, showing the existence of tubercles.
two, though sometimes all four.
The swellings are along the lines of the
lymphatic reins on the legs, belly or any part of the body ; small nodular
points come up, which break and discharge a glairy unhealthy pus, run a
few days, dry up and leave a scar or bare spot that usually lasts to tell
the tale as long ae the horse lives ; other nodules follow and spread nearly
^ over the body, head and neck ; the swelling of the iimb? does not
CONTAGIOUS BLOOD DISEASES. 451
yield to treatment, and they soon become chronically enlarged. The dis-
charge is contagious the same as that of glanders. Farcy sooner or later
runs into glanders and terminates fatally. Doubtful cases can be proven by
testing them with mallein, a toxin prepared from the cultivated bacillus.
The services of a qualified veterinarian are needed to make this test.
What to do. — Treatment should not be attempted at all, for it is always
fatal in spite of the most scientific and persistent efforts ; the fatal termi-
nation may be postponed for a while, but the animal is sowing the con-
tagion all the time, and doing an inestimable amount of damage. The
fact that the disease is contagious to men, and always fatal too, is another
reason why no man should attempt to treat a case a moment after it is
satisfactorily diagnosed. When any doubt exists, or a suspicious case i=
seen, isolate the animal at once and quarantine him ; prevent any com-
munication with other animals, and await developments. The discharge
of catarrh being whitish and more mucous in character, is easily recog-
nized, and the nasal membrane never assumes that mouse-eaten appear-
ance that is seen in glanders. Shoot every animal known to be affected
with glanders, and bury the carcass very deep.
Prevention. — Avoid overcrowding and poor ventilation. See to it that
no affected animals are allowed to run at large, or even to be used about
the place in any way ; avoid letting horses drink any more than is abso-
lutely necessary in public troughs. Either tear down and burn any
infected stable, or have it disinfected under the supervision of a qualified
veterinary surgeon. All suspected cases should be placed under his
charge till the doubt is settled.
It should be made a criminal act, with a heavy penalty, to expose
affected animals in public places, or to sell or offer them for sale. A
health commission of three qualified veterinary surgeons should be em-
powered to destroy glandered horses, with or without the consent of the
owner ; and the State should bear half the loss, by reimbursing the
owner w4th half the value of the animal before he took the disease. It
ki a misfortune for which he is not to blame, and which the State should
help him to bear.
n. Strangles.
Strangles is a specific blood poison, peculiar to hor»es, and usually
confined to young ones. It depends upon a morbid condition of the
system, is contagious, and corresponds to children's diseases in human
medicine. It is most common in damp, cold seasons. The poison in the
blood manifests itself in large, phlegmonous abscesses around the throat;
this is the usual manner in which it breaks out. But in some cases it
takes a very different course, breaking out in abscesses on any part of the
body. Sometimes no abscesses gather at all, and the fever remains
diffused in the system, instead of coming to a head in one place. These
452 crrcLOPEDiA of live stock and complete stock doctob.
last two kinds are called bastard or unusual strangles. It is often fatal^
but such cases are duo to neglect, to colds from exposure while the fever
is high, etc.
Causes. — It often arises spontaneously, from the existence m the sys-
tem of some morljific matter developed while growing ; for spontaneous
cases are only found among young horses ; when older ones have it, it
comes from contagion.
How to know it.— There are all the indications of fever — quick, weak
pulse ; high temperature ; hot mouth ; cold extremities ; staring coat ;
loss of appetite, and nervous prostration. In a few
hours the throat begins to swell, both on the sides and
between the branches of the lower jaw ; this swelling
is sometimes immense, and makes the colt hold his
neck and head stretched out in one position, stiff,
like a child with the mumps. There is usually a
distressing cough and inability to swallow ; often
there is a desire to eat, but the throat is so sore he
cannot swallow. The nose runs a mucous discharge
at first, which soon becomes purulent ; the eyes very
red, and tears run down over the cheeks. The swel-
ling is painful and sore upon pressure, and usually
A BAD CASE OF brcaks in about a week, and discharges pus. When
these swellings come in the lungs, the breathing will
be affected, and the chest will be sore upon pressure or percussion on the
ribs, and he will stand all the time. If it comes in the abdomen, colicky
pains are felt, and he lies down nearly all the time. Sometimes it comes
around the heart. Any of these unusual forms are likely to be fatal.
What to do- — Avoid depletives of all kinds, and foster the strength of
the patient in every possible way. If the bowels are constipated, give a
few injections, Init do not risk a purgative ; give recipe No. 40 every two
to six hours with a syringe, for it is unsafe as well as painful, to try to
drench him with the throat in that condition. Apply hot linseed poultices'
to the swellings, and let them get very thin indeed before opening them ;
or, even let them burst of themselves to avoid that thickening often seen
after being opened. It is no use trying to check it ; it must run its course.
Give him a warm, dry place, well ventilated, and nourishing food such as
boiled oats, barley, roots, etc. During convalescence give recipe No. 35.
III. Rabies or Hydrophobia.
This is a specific blood poison, arising spontaneously in the genus
cams (dog, fox and wolf) and in cats. It is communica])le to all ani-
mals and to mam but can only be inoculated by a bite. The virus lies in
CONTAGIOUS BLOOD DISEASES.
453
the saliva and blood, but not in the milk. Nearly all animals bitten by
a rabid dog, are attacked Avith the disease in the course of time, but man
seems to possess a partial immunity ; only a small percentage of the
men bitten by rabid animals have rabies.
Incubation.— The period of incubation varies in different animals. The
horse goes fifteen to ninety days, usually
thirty ; cattle, twenty to thirty days ;
sheep, twenty to seventy-four days ; swine,
hventy to forty-nine days. In man the
period of incubation varies from a few
days to a few months, though some cases
develop after a year or so, or even longer,
the rabies at last being more the effect of
fear and long continued anxiety and worry
over the possible effects of a bite, than of
the bite itself.
How to know it. — The horse becomes
frantic with fever and pain ; delirium sets in early ; he neighs, paws,
bites his manger, clothing, etc. ; is ravenous for water but swallows with
difficulty ; he grows worse till death takes place by paralysis.
COUNTENANCE OF A HORSE WITH
KABIES.
IRREGULAR STRANGLES.
What to do. — No treatment is of any avail ; if there were anything that
could be given, it would be too risky to attempt it; but so far, science
has discovered nothing to prevent a fatal termination. As soon as a case
is suspected isolate the horse, tie him so that he shall be powerless for
harm, and await developments. As soon as it is satisfactorily recognized
destroy him.
454 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
IV. Horae Pox or Equine Variola.
Nearly all animals have a pox peculiar to their kind, although all forms
of pox sccni to be closely allied. They are all contagious from one ani-
mal to another of the same species, and usually among the different
species to a greater or less extent. Having any of the different kinds of
variola once, gives immunity from subsequent attacks of the other kinds,
for a number of 3^ears at least. Kine pox, taken either by inoculation
from the cow or by vaccination, confers immunity, to a great extent, from
small pox. Horse pox appears to be identical with kine pox ; the one can
not be distinguished from the other when inoculated into man, ox or
horse.
Horse pox usually attacks the limbs, but sometimes the face, mouth, lips,
flanks and other parts of the body.
How to know ii. — There is slight fever, which is often unnoticed ; heat
and swelling of the affected part for a day or two ; then hard nodules
form, increasing in size to about half an inch in diameter ; the hair ruffles
up and the skin reddens around the pock ; on the ninth to the twelfth day, a
limpid, yellowish fluid flows from the pustules, and sticks the hair up in
yellowish scabs or streaks, on the removal of which a red, raw depression is
seen with the scab fixed in its center. In three or four days the secretion
ceases, the pustules dry up, and the part heals and the scabs come off.
The most active virus is the lymph that runs from the pustules. It is
readily carried from horse to horse by the grooms on their hands or
clothes. It sometimes exists to almost to an epizootic extent in some
localities. The grooms often get inoculated and have the horse pox,
which saves them the trouble of being vaccinated.
What to do. — It must run its course, so all that is necessary is to give
laxative diet ; keep the parts clean by bathing with warm water once or
twice a day, and grease them over, when dry, to prevent itching and pain
from the scabs getting too hard and dry. If the fever should run high
and the appetite suffer, and the urioe become dark and scanty, give
recipe No. 23.
V. Surra.
This is an acute fever of equines, which affects not only horses and
cattle, but various other animals — goats and ducks being immune. It
ha.s long been known to the English veterinarians, especially in India,
occurring just after the rainy season. It is most violent in the low,
flooded lands along canals, rivers, and lakes. Its existence in North and
South America is limited.
Causes. — The essential cause of the disease is parasitic. It nnist be
borne in mind that the mature parasite appears in the blood, at intervals
in swarms, and that examination at a particular time of the day may
CONTAGIOUS BLOOD DISEASES. 455
fail to detect it, while examinations made earlier or later are successful.
The appearance of the disease is at the conclusion of the rainy season,
when the waters dry up and become foul. This has led to the idea that
the parasite lives in water; but as this is also the time of the year of great
swarming and activity of flies, and as horses crowd together, so that the
fly with piercing apparatus still wet can pass from horse to horse, the
opinion has grown that it is a compulsory parasite, which is transmitted
through the bodies of insects.
Symptoms. — in experimental cases a small raised swelling in the seat
of inoculation appears within 24 hours, increasing to 2 to 4 inches in
diameter, and 1 to II/2 inches high by the fourth day, and loosely con-
nected with the parts beneath. From the fourth to the fourteenth day
it decreases in size and softens, and general symptoms set in. In casual
cases these general symptoms are the first to be observed. There is a
transient fever 102 to 104 degrees, highest toward night, and without
preliminary chill, hot mouth and skin, dullness, sluggishness, inappetence,
yellowness of the mucosae, petechias on conjunctiva or vulva and some-
times nodules like those of urticaria on the skin. After a day or two
these symptoms subside, the temperature is 101 degrees, or below, the
mucosEe clear and pale, and the spirit and appetite nearly normal. These
slight first paroxysms are rarely seen by the veterinarian, having been
looked upon as one of the oft-occurring bilious attacks of the hot climate.
The remission lasts for 3 to 10 days, and the second paroxysm sets in,
like the first, but even more marked; temperature 102 to 104 degrees,
slight catarrh from nose or vulva, it may be stocking of the legs, or pitting
swelling under the breast bone or abdomen, or in the sheath. Like the
fii-st, the second paroxysm subsides, and after another interval the third
sets in to be followed in like manner by a fourth or fifth, and so on if
the patient survives. With each the symptoms become more pronounced,
the nmcosae are left more pale and bloodless, debility and weakness are
greater, emaciation is more marked, oedema of the limbs or body more
extensive, hyperthermia may reach 105 degrees, or more, the pulse is
weaker and the heart more liable to palpitation, and the respirations may
reach 50 to 60 per minute. Ulcers are sometimes found on the tongue,
inner sides of the lips, the nose, eyes, the vulva, beginning as epithelial
degeneration, followed by superficial erosion and early healing. Some-
times similar erosions appear on the skin. Generative excitement may
be present. The submaxillary glands sometimes swell and even sup-
purate, and discharge a gluey pus. The bowels are usually costive at
first, the faeces may by glazed, but in adva'nced stages they may become
soft, pultaceous, and foetid. The urine, at first normal in amount, be-
comes later abundant or even profuse. It is at first yellow and turbid,
later of a dingy green or greenish yellow. Sometimes it diminishes as
the disease advances. It may contain bile, albumen, or even casts,
456 CYCLOl'EDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
though the latter appear to be exceptional. The reaction varies, sugar is
absent and the parasite has not been found in it. Appetite, though inter-
fered with during paroxysms, remains fair or even voracious in the inter-
vals and the animals may eat to the last. Thirst usually increases with
the advance of the disease in keeping with the free urinary secretion.
Humbling and gurgling of the bowels are common and even tympany at
times. In the advanced stages the picture is one of great anemia and
general dibility. When moved the animal will stumble over the slightest
obstacle, even the litter, recovering himself with effort and difficulty. If
he should fall he is liable to remain down indefinitely, the side next the
ground becoming drenched with sweat though there is no general per-
spiration. The hair becomes increasingly dry, withered, and erect, the
skin dry, powdery, rigid and more and more firmly adherent to the bones
and muscles, losing all its natural pliancy and mellowness and becomes
like that of a dead animal. It is bloodless, and sloughs readily over the
prominent bones, where compressed or bruised in lying, owing to the
lack of nutritive and reparatory action. The muscles as a whole are
wasted to an extreme degree.
Prevention. — The first consideration is to avoid placing equines, and
especially horses and mules, in the rainy season in the infecting localities.
Oxen and buffaloes can be used in such places with greater impunity.
If horses must be used in such localities, place the stables or pickets well
apart from marshes and stagnant water. Keep the stables dark during
the Surra season, open to light on one side only and with screens in the
windows. Make a deep pit for the manure, keep it well darkened and
screened and turn every particle of manure into this several times a day
so that the stable may be perfectly clean. All rubbish heaps should be
similarly dealt with. Flies breed in the manure and beget organic
matter. After each sweeping of the stable sprinkle the manure in the
pit with some disinfectant, phenic acid, tar water, copperas, etc. Smear
the skins of the animals with tar water, coal tar water, naphthalin, daily,
if necessary, to prevent the attacks of the flies.
An important consideration is to seclude every animal attacked with
Surra. The flies can only carry and inoculate the poison, when there is
some source from which they can obta,in it. The carcass and all pertain-
ing to it, blood especially, should be promptly and deeply buried and the
place thoroughly disinfected.
Treatment. — In well established cases in the horse, ass or mule, no
treatment has succeeded in saving the patient. Almost every germicide
has been called into requisition, but without good effect. The usual out-
come is that the animal dies, and the only claim that can be made is a
slight extension of life. This is favored by dry, clean, airy stables,
change of water, rich grain and succulent food with iron, arsenic, and
other tonics, yet the best that can be said for them is that they have
deferred somewhat the inevitable death.
CONTAGIOUS BLOOD DISEASES.
457
VI. Mycotic Lymphangitis, or Japanese Farcy.
This disease has been k^o^vn as epizootic lyinphaiigilis, or Japanese
farcy; it is a chronic contagious disease, particularly of Horses, caused
by a specific organism, and characterized by a suppurative inflammation
of the subcutaneous lymph vessels and the neighboring lymph glands
Owing to the fact that this affection does not spread as an epizootic and
that its casual factor is a yeastlike fungus, the name mycotic instead of
epizootic lymphangitis is suggested. This disease was first described by
Italian and French veterinarians, and the specific organism was discov-
ered by Rivolta in 1873. The presence of the disease in the United
States was first obsei^ed by Pearson in Pennsylvania in 1907, although
it is probable that it has existed in various parts of this country for
many years. More recently its presence was definitely established in
Ohio, Iowa, California, and North Dakota, and there is a probability of
its existence in Indiana and several
Western States. The disease is also
present in the Philippine Islands,
Hawaiian Islands, and Porto Rico.
Causes. — The natural infection
is without doubt caused through
superficial wounds, such as galls,
barbed-wire cuts, or through va-
rious stable utensils, harness, band-
ages, insects, etc. Solipeds are
mostly susceptible, but cattle may
also be infected.
How to know it.— The inflam-
mation of the lymph vessels is
usually fii"st observed on the ex-
tremities, especially on one or both
hind leg-s ; it may also appear on the
fore legs, shoulder, or neck, and
more rarely on the rump, udder,
and scrotum. The lesions as a rule
develop in the tissue adjacent to the
place of inoculation. In the early stages of the disease the lymph vessels ap«.
pear very hard and thickened, and along their course hard nodules de-
velop, ranging in size from a pea to a hen's egg. Later these nodules
soften, burst spontaneously, and discharge a thick yellowish pus. The
surface of the resulting ulcers or abscess cavities soon fills up with ex-
huberant granulations which protrude beyond the surface of the skin,
giving a fungoid appearance. The affected extremities are considerably
enlarged, similar to cases of simple lymphangitis. In rare cases the
MYCOTIC LYMPHANGITIS.
458 CYCLOrEDIA OF LIVE STUCK AND COMrLETK STOCK DOCTOR.
mucous membrane of the nostrils may also become affected, showing yel-
lowisli flat elevations and ulcerations, and these may extend by metastasis
to internal organs. In cases wliere the nmcous membrane is affected the
submaxillary lymph gland may also become enlarged and suppurate
The constitutional syjnptoms accompanying this disetise are not very
marked or may be altogether absent. There is usually only a very slight
fever, which seldom runs over 102° F. The appetite is not impaired except
in the advanced cases.
The diagnosis is based on the characteristic appearance of the ulcera-
tions, which show exhuberant granulation of a bright-red color, inverted
edges, and a thick, creamy, glutinous discharge. These manifestations
differentiate the disease from glanders, in which the ulcers are craterlike,
do not contain exhuberant granulations, and the discharge is of a viscous,
oily character. In some chronic cases of mycotic lymphangitis, however,
the lesions may closely resemble those of farcy, and in these cases the
microscopical examination of the pus will disclose the nature of the
affection.
What to do. — Treatment consists at the onset of the disease in entire
extirpation of the nodules, lymph vessels, and neighboring lymph glands
in case the lesions are localized. In cases where the nodules have formed
abscesses their opening is recommended, followed by the application of
the actual cautery or a 1 to 250 solution of bichloride of mercury. It must
be borne in mind that the organism is highly resistant to almost every
antiseptic, and the best results will be obtained from the application of a
solution of a strong antiseptic following the opening of the lesions.
In the most favorable cases recovery results in from five to seven weeks;
as a rule, however, it requires several months.
CHAPTER XV.
DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS.
I, NEPHRITIS OR INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. II. CONGESTION 01<
THE KIDNEYS. III. CYSTITIS OR INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDEIt.
IV. .PARALYSIS OF THE BLADDER. V. EVERSION OF THE BLAD-
DER. VI. SPASM OF THE NECK OF THE BLADDER. VII. RUPTURE
OF THE BLADDER.^— VIII. DIABETES INSIPIDUS OR PROFUSE STALING.
IX. HAEMATURIA OR BLOODY URINE. X. SUPPRESSION OF THE
URINE OR DYSURIA. XL DRIBBLING OF THE URINE OR ENURESIS.
XII. STRICTURE OF THE URETHRA. XIII. GONORRHOEA OR GLEET.
XIV. FOUL SHEATH. XV. URINARY CALCULI. XVI. MILLET
DISEASE OF HORSES.
Diseases and derangements of the urinary organs are far less common
than the majority of people suppose. Whenever a horse has the colic or
l)leurisy, the average horseman attributes the pain to the ravages of bots
or to .stoppage of the water, and goes to work to start the latter and quiet
the former. Many are the nostrums that are given, sometimes harmless
and sometimes very irritating and injurious.
AZOTURIA.
Hind quarters paralyzed. Can get up with fore limbs but not with hind limbs.
Many of the diseases mentioned in this chapter are often seen, by a
veterinarian who has an extensive, active practice. Diseases of the kid-
neys are either organic or functional, usually the latter.
I. Nephritis or Inflammation of the Kidneys.
Causes. — The usual causes are too free use of diuretic medicine, and
blistering on the back with fly blister; eating musty hay and kiln-dr..-f>d
459
460
CTCIX)PEDIA OP LTTE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
oats ; getting chilled by standing under the eaves where water drips upon
the loins ; and extension to the kidneys of inflammation of surrounding
parts from blows and other injuries.
How to know it. — There will be very profuse sweating, great pain from
the inelastic character of the capsule covering the kidneys ; the horse strad-
dles in walking, and is loth to move ; high fever ; elevated pulse, temper-
ature and respiration ; heat and a slight humping up of the back : great
tenderness upon pressure in the region of the loins, especially when ap-
plied to the sides just under the transverse spines of the loins ; the pain
is colicky in character, and more severe at times than at others ; he looks
around to his flanks and is almost continually trying to stale, and passing
a little at a time, and that very red and thick, sometimes mixed with
blood and pus. It runs on to suppuration, and sometimes to gangrene,
and death. When once well set in, it is very hard to control.
INFLAMMATION OP THE KIDNEYS.
What to do. — Examine the case carefully to Ije certain of the location
of the trouble ; then apply hot water rugs across the loins continuously
for several days. Give internally a quart of raw linseed oil. As soon as
this is well down, give recipe No. 30, and follow it up every two hours.
If no relief comes in the course of five or six hours, give copious muci-
laginous drinks in the form of flaxseed tea and slippery elm l)ark. Clothe
warmly, to encourage sweating. Freshly-flayed sheepskin may be laid
across the loins, or mustard paste may be rub])ed into the hair, and the
rags applied over it. Feed on short, laxative diet. Avoid diuretics
strenuously, especially nitre and spirits of nitre. Give anodyne injections
of warm water and one ounce of laudanum, once an hour. Keep the
patient quiet and avoid over-feeding.
^ DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 461
II. Congestion of the Kidneys. — Azoturia.
This is a constitutional disease affecting all parts through the blood, in
which lies the cause of the internal lesions ; but as it affects the kidneys
most, and the kidney symptoms being most noticeable to the average
observer, we describe it under this head.
Causes. — Too plethoric a condition of the system is the great cause.
The blood gets so fat and thick that it interferes with the working of the
internal organs, especially the kidneys. The animal is usually fat, but
not necessarily so, for it is often seen in horses in strong, Avorking condi-
tion, but thin in flesh. In i)ost mortem examinations, fat can be seen
floating in globules in the blood. It gives rise to thick, coffee-colored,
ropy urine.
Like diabetes, this is rather a disease of the liver and blood-forming
functions than of the kidneys, but as prominent symptoms are loss of
control over the hind limbs and the passage of ropy and dark-colored
urine, the common idea is that it is a disorder of the urinary organs. It
is a complex affection directly connected with a fullness in the blood
of nitrogenized constituents, with extreme nei-vous and muscular disorder
and the excretion of a dense reddish or brownish urine. It is directly con-
nected with high feeding, especially on highly nitrogenized food (oats,
beans, peas, vetches, cotton-seed meal), and with a period of idleness
in the stall under full rations. The disease is never seen at pasture, rarely
under constant daily work, even though the feeding be high, and the
attack is usually precipitated by taking the horse from the stable and
subjecting it to exercise or work.
On account of its effect on the urine, the disease has been called
Albuminuria, from the supposed existence of albumen in the urine ;
Azoturia, from the abundance of urea the urine is thought to contain ;
Plethoric congestion, from congestions in the system, due to plethora.
The latter name is the most appropriate, as there is no albuminous urine
and not any great increase of urea in this disease, but the name under
which we describe it is readily comprehended and the trouble easily
located by the average observer.
How to know It. — The animal is accustomed to hard work or regular
exercise, and high feed ; he may be laid up from a nail wound, etc., for
a few days or a week ; the feed is kept up the same as though he were at
work ; he gets well, and goes out hopping and prancing like a colt, goes
about half a mile or so, begins to sweat profusely, lathers up well, gets
stiff in the left hind leg, and is inclined to drop it. Then the trouble
extends to the other leg ; the horse becomes weak across the loins,
462 crcLOPEDiA of live stock and complete stock doctor.
staggers behind, blows hard, and is pressed for breath; he goes on ror
half a mile or more in this manner, and then comes down in a heap, per-
fectly helpless, unable to rise, and has the appearance of being paralyzed
behind. He is unable to pass urine, which, when drawn off with a cathe-
ter, is thick, ropy, dark, coffee-colored. Swelling of the muscles over
the loins is seen, and they are very painful and sensitive to pressure, as
are also the kidneys, if examined per rectum. There are severe, colicky
pains or cramps, in which he w^ill throw himself around, try to get up,
M'ill get up forward, and will sometimes drag himself all over the terri-
tory allowed him. Inflammation of the kidneys follows, and runs on to
suppuration and death in the course of four to fifteen days.
What to do. — Knowing the origin of it to be plethora, the rational
treatment is to deplete ; give No. 48 internally, and also frequent injec-
tions of warm water ; apply hot rugs to the loins continuously, and give
a great abundance of flax seed tea to drink ; if he will not drink it,
drench him with it liberallj^ ; give nothing to eat for a day or two. Tie
his feet if he is inclined to struggle much. When he is able to get up,
put him in slings ; keep hini on short feed ; and during convalescence
give gentle exercise. Be chary of diuretics. If the case has run on for
a week or more, give No. 4, but only three times a day, in a little water.
Draw off the urine three times a day, till he can pass it without
assistance .
III. Cystitis, or Inflammation of the Bladder.
Causes. — Too free use of diuretic medicine ; too free application of fly
blisters and turpentine to the back or other extensive surfaces ; acrid
diui-etic plants in the food ; prolonged retention and partial decomposition
of urine, and irritation from calculi.
How to know it. — Colicky pains ; looking around to the flanks ; fre-
quent painful evacuation of urine in small quantities, with more or less
mucous and epithelium from the lining of the bladder ; straining ; high
fever ; mouth hot ; respiration and pulse quick ; tenderness on pressure
just in front of the pubic bone of the pelvis, and same upon pressure in
the flanks. The loins are rigid ; the bladder is tender to the touch per
rectum — or in the mare, per vagina; if examined by running the finger
into the bladder, the walls will be found to be thickened ; the tail is
switched continuously ; the gait is stiff and straddling. If the neck of
the bladder is affected, the urine escapes involuntarily ; if there is a stone
in the bladder, it can be felt by inserting the hand into the rectum.
What to do. — Remove the cause, if possible ; stop diuretic medicine of
all Idnds ; give large doses of flaxseed tea, and injections of warm water ;
give a laxative of linseed oil, one pint, and soft diet and pure water at
DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 463
will ; also, a long rest. Avoid diuretic medicine ever after, as the part*
once affected are more tender and susceptible.
IV. Paralysis of the Bladder.
Causes. — Long continued distension of the bladder from the urine bein^
held, as in lockjaw, rheumatism or any disease that confines the horse to
a Ijniig position.
How to know it. — The urine dribbles away as it is formed, and decom-
poses, setting free ammonia, which scalds all parts it comes in contact
with ; the urine scalds the sheath and the inner sides of the thighs and
legs. This disease often results in inflammation of the bladder, and
sometimes follows partial paralysis.
What to do. — If the trouble originates from paralysis, give that its
proper treatment and draw off the urine several times a day with a catheter
to prevent distension.
V. Eversion of the Bladder.
Causes. — This affects only females, and results where labor is very
protracted, or from straining in cystitis ; the bladder is forced back in
the pelvis and turned wrong side out.
How to know it. — The bladder will be seen protruding from the lower
part of the vulva, a round, red, fleshy looking substance, and the entrance
of the ureters (tubes from the kidneys) will be plainly seen near the neck
of the l)ladder, with the urine dripping from them.
What to do. — Bathe the bladder with tepid water and laudanum in the
proportion of an ounce of laudanum to a pint of water ; then press it
gently and continuously till it is returned to its place. Great care will be
needed to avoid pushing the fingers through the walls of the bladder,
especially after it has been out some time and become swollen. If it is
inclined to come out again, after being returned to its place, put on a
compress to hold it in.
VI. Spasm of the Neck of the Bladder.
Causes. — It is caused by long retention of urine when the horse is
being driven or ridden ; nervous irritation ; becoming chilled when
heated. It is a common occurrence during colic, the urine flowing freely
when the colic subsides ; males are more subject to it than females.
How to know it. — Frequent attempts to pass water, which is forced
out in small quantities by great straining ; colicky pains ; looking at the
flanks ; tenderness in the lower back part of the belly ; by introducing
the hand into the rectum, the bladder will be felt full and distended on
the floor of the pelvis.
464 CTCLOPEDIA OP LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
What to do. — Spread fresh litter under the horse to induce him to pass
the urine ; give warm water injections and antispasmodic drenches, such
as No. 50 ; gentle pressure on the bladder per rectum is sometimes suffi-
cient, but 1)0 very careful not to overdo it for fear of rupture. Pass the
catheter up the penis if necessary ; in the case of a mare all that is neces-
sary is to insert one finger into the neck of the bladder.
VII. Kupture of the Bladder.
Causes. — This only occurs in females during parturition when the
bladder has failed to be emptied before the labor is begun, and in cases
of long continued spasm of the neck of the bladder — especially, if by fre-
quent repetitions of the spasms the walls of it have become weakened
and flaccid.
How to know it. — Nervous trembling of the whole body ; accelerated
pulse ; cold extremities ; nausea ; abdominal pain that runs on to inflam-
mation and causes death, or the animal dies from the nervous shock.
Examination per rectum finds the bladder empty and flaccid ; introduction
of the needle of a hyi^odermic syringe, or a small trocar into the median
portion of the belly, will let out urine which is readily recognized by the
odor.
Nothing can be done.
VIII. Diabetes Insipidus or Profuse Staling.
This is a superabundant drain of water from the system through the
kidneys.
Causes. — Excessive and long continued use of diuretics in acute dis-
eases, especially lung troubles ; acidity of the stomach and chronic indi-
gestion, causing much thirst, so that great quantities of water are drunk.
Musty hay and kiln dried oats are frequent causes.
How to know it. — By the excessive thirst ; profuse staling, flooding the
stall ; the urine is copious in quantity, frequently voided and as clear as
water. Emaciation and hidc])ound soon follow. The appetite is capri-
cious ; the coat staring ; slight fever; inclination to lick the walls and
mortar to get lime, and to eat the bedding in preference to clean, fresh
food. There is weakness, and palpitation of the heart.
What to do. — Give one or two doses of the following recipe :
No. 71. 1 Drachm iodine.
y^ Dnichni iodide of potash,
Powder and mix with linseed meal to make a ball.
Give as one dose and repeat it once a day for two or three daj^s ; then
give a teaspoonful of bica)'b(iUJite of soda in a bran mash, morning and
night tor a, AveeK ; men give recipe No. 37, and give a complete change
of food — a run at grass if possible-
DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS 465
IX. Hsematuria or Bloody Urine.
Causes.-^This is caused by violence, affecting the loins, kidneys, blad-
der, etc. ; by cancer, tubercle, or abscess in the Iddueys ; by acrid
diuretic plants, etc.
HOUSE SUFFERING FROM BLOODY URINE.
What to do.— In case there is a profuse flow of blood, dash cold water
over the l)ack. Remove the causes, if they can be located, and "-ive flax-
seed tea to drink, and recipe No 70, in doses of two tablespoonfuls, three
times a day.
X. Suppression of the Urine, or Dysuria.
Causes. — This is retention of the urine from various causes, such as
contraction of the sphincter of the bladder ; enlargement of the prostatic
gland; stricture of the urethra; bean in the head of the penis, and
calculi.
What to do. — Pass in the catheter to empty the bladder, and then
endeavor, if possible, to find the cause and remove it. If it is from
enlargement of the prostatic gland, give No. 66 ; if from contraction of
sphincter of the neck of the bladder, refer to the treatment for spasms of
the neck of the ])ladder ; if from stricture, refer to the article on that sub-
ject ; if from a bean in the head of the penis, oil your fingers well and
remove it ; if it is from calculi, refer to that subject.
XI. Dribbling of the Urine, or Enuresis.
In this case the urine dribbles away involuntarily. It may come
from weakness of the sphincter of the bladder, or from injury to it by
the catheter, or from paralysis of the bladder. Care should be taken,
when passing in the catheter, to pass one hand into the rectum to o-uidethe
point over the curve. It may come from calculi ; if so, remove them.
If it comes from weakness, give a change of food, and No. .37 as a
tonic.
466 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
XII. Stricture of the Urethra.
Causes. — This is caused by irritating ingredients in the urine, and by
strong astringent injections used in gleet ; or l)y the healing of ulcers in
neglected gleet.
How to know it. — The urine is passed in a very fine stream ; the passage
recjuires a long time, and is attended with pain. There are frequent
painful erections.
What to do. — Pass in, daily, a catheter, beginning with one small
enough to i)ass the stricture, and increase the size of it from day to day,
l)ushing it by the stricture with gentle pressure.
Xm. Gonorrhoea.
Causes. — This is inflammation of the urethra from irritating sub-
stances in the urine ; excessive copulation ; masturbation ; connection
with a newly delivered mare or one that has an irritating discharge from
the womb ; mechanical injury to the penis, and irritation from the pas-
sage or arrest of small stones or gravel. It is mostly confined to
stallions.
How to know it. — By swelling and soreness in the sheath and penis ;
painful, slow urination, frequently interrupted and sent in jets, owing to
the pain ; more or less discharge of pus, which will be seen around the
head of the penis.
Wliat to do. — Give a pint of raw linseed oil as a laxative, and foment
the sore part with hot water ; rinse out any gravel, and inject a lotion
made as follows :
No. 72. % Ounce sugar of lead,
1 Ounce vinegar,
1 Quart water.
Mix.
Inject a little once a day. If it is necessary to continue this longer
than a week, change to
No. 73. 15 Grains nitrate of silver,
% Pint water.
" Mix.
Inject a little twice a day. Feed on soft food.
XIV. Foul Sheath.
The sheath of most horses needs cleaning occasionally. The glands in
the skin secrete a fluid to lubricate the parts, and at times it is secreted
in larger quantities than at other times, and accumulates in a gummy,
black substance in the sheath. Wash it out carefully with soap and warm
water, being careful not to use any violence in drawing down the yard,
DISEASES OF THE URIWARY ORGANS. 4(37
and particularly careful not to scratch the parts with the finger nails. If
this occurs the yard may swell to enormous proportions ; if so, bathe ii
with warm water and suspend it in a mde bandage passed over the loins.
Repeat the bathing two or three times a day. Give gentle exercise ; and
when the swelling is nearly gone, oil it with olive oil.
XV. Urinary Calculi.
Stones or calculi in the urinary apparatus differ in size, chemical com-
position and location. Sometimes they attain to very large sizes ; some-
times several small ones exist in the same place, and sometimes the
deposit is sand-like, the granules not uniting to form a stone.
Their chemical composition differs according to the nature of the food.
The calculi of herbivorous or grazing animals are composed mostly of the
carbonates, while those of carnivoi-ous or flesh eating animals consist
mainly of the phosphates. The calculi of omnivorous animals partake of
the character of the two kinds just mentioned. They will be more largolv
composed of the carbonates or of the phosphates according to the cha'-ac-
ter of the food and water taken.
Causes. — The carbonates of lime and magnesia are the principal com-
ponents of the calculi of horses and cattle ; they are due to the large
proportion of vegetabje acids in the food. These vegetable acids become
transformed into carbonic acid, which unites with the lime and magnesia
•n the blood, thus forming calculi. The tendencies to form calculi from
the food are strengthened by the following accessory causes : Scarcity
of water ; disinclination to drink ; excessive loss of water from the sys-
tem by diarrhoea and dysentery or profuse sweating ; feverish conditions,
giving rise to scanty secretions of urine ; dry winter fodder; and hard
drinking water.
A solid substance of some kind for a nucleus or starting point is usually
necessary to their formation ; around this nucleus the salts crystallize in
concentric layers. The nucleus may be a particle of mucus, fibrine
or blood, or a foreign body introduced with the catheter.
The locations in which they may be found are the kidneys, ureters (the
tubes leading to the bladder), the bladder, the urethra and the fossa of the
glans penis.
How to know it. — Those in the kidneys and ureters cause colicky pains,
straddling gait, tender loins, and sometimes blood in the urine. Those in
the ureters can sometimes be felt by the hand introduced into the rectum.
Those in the bladder get into the passage and obstruct the urine occa-
sionally, in which case they give rise to frequent straining efforts to pass
urine ; the urine escapes in driblets and jets, with frequent sudden ariests
of the flow ; but if the stone does not get into the passage, the flow is not
468 CYCLOPEDIA OF LITE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
checked. Blood, in clots, may be passed from wounding of the mucous
membrane of the bladder, hy the stone. Examination by the hand, per
rectum, will determine its existence. In the female, it can sometimes be
reached with the finger.
What to do. — There is no satisfactory treatment in cases where the
location of the stone is out of reach. Those in the bladder and urethra
can be removed by either breaking them down and washing the fragments
out (lithotrity), or they may be removed whole (lithotomy) ; both opera-
tions Avill be found described in the chapter on operations.
Prevention. — It is well to guard against the formation of them in the
first instance, and to prevent their return Avhen removed. If any fault
exists in the feeding, correct it ; give a reasonable amount of common
salt, twice a week to horses, and to cattle three times a week ; also give an
abundant supply of good water. If the water is hard, put a little caustic
soda or potash into it once a day, or a little hard wood ashes. Give roots
to cat if in winter, and grass in summer ; give half an ounce of tincture
of gentian morning and night for a fortnight, or a tablespoonful of
powdered gentian or quassia morning and night in soft food.
Wounds: — For treatment of lacerated wounds, see page 360. But
sometimes the skin is not broken, the flesh is very much bruLsed, result-
ing in poUevil, fistulous withers, sweeney or some other severe affection.
As soon as obsei*ved, bathe with hot water two or three times per day
for several minutes, wipe dry and apply venice turpentine, driving it in
with a hot iron held close to the wound
If you find it is going to head, put on flaxseed poultice to assist, and
on opening, treat as any other fi.stulous sore.
Should the surface wound be of long standing and will not heal, cauter-
ize it with sulphuric acid, using just enough to moisten, oil with vaseline
to protect healthy tissue and bathe with No. 7 three times per day.
A thickening is often seen after healing. To remove it, bathe w4th hot
water as above and apply No. 14 until fairly well blistered, apply fresh
lard until healed and repeat the process until satisfactory results are ob-
tained.
If proud flesh appears, put on powdered blue vitriol taking care to tie
the hoKO so that he can not get at the wound.
DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 469
XVI. Millet Disease of Horses.
In many sections of the West and Middle West millet is a common
hay crop. It is harvested and handled in the same manner as other hay.
The usual practice is to harvest the crop before the heads are fully ripe,
as there is a popular belief that the ripe heads are injurious to horses.
Several years ago the North Dakota Station reported that a large number
of horses had been affected with so-called "millet disease." This was
characterized by symptoms resembling rheumatism and derangement of
the urinary system. The name "millet disease" was adopted from the fact
that nearly 100 per cent of the horses affected had been fed upon millet.
In the few cases in which the disease was said to occur when millet was
not fed the symptoms of derangement of the kidneys were absent.
A. number of cases of millet disease were investigated by the North
Dakota Station. After feeding considerable quantities of millet the urine
for a time was very abundantly secreted. Lameness and rheumatic
symptoms soon occurred, and were accompanied by a suppression of urine.
Later the lameness became very severe, and fever was observed also. A
considerable proportion of the cases terminated fatally.
Very recently this station has published the results of further experi-
ments on the subject of feeding millet. Two tests were made. In the
first trial two geldings in good health were fed hay and grain for about
two weeks. Millet was then substituted for hay for about ten days. The
same ration as at the beginning was then fed for four days. All the
horses were driven daily for exercise. The symptoms of lameness ac-
companied by suppressed urine, previously noted, were observed in these
cases also.
The second test was similar to the first, and was made with two mares.
One of the mares became very lame and could hardly stand, and suffered
from time to time from retention of the urine. She was killed and post-
mortem examination of the carcass showed a very diseased condition.
The other mare did not show as marked symptoms during the test.
However, when fed millet for about three months she would become so
lame in the joints of the hind legs that it was almost impossible for her
to walk. When feeding millet was discontinued she would recover. The
lameness was "again produced by millet feeding. After about two years
of alternate periods of millet and hay feeding she became practically
worthless.
From these experiments and observations it would appear that feeding
millet alone as a coarse fodder is injurious to horses. It produces an
increased action of the kidneys, and causes lameness and swelling of the
joints. It causes an infusion of blood into the joints, and destroys the
texture of the bone, rendering it soft and less tenacious, so that the liga-
ments and muscles are easily torn loose. Feeding millet produces millet
disease, the specific cause to which the dangerous properties of millet are
due has not yet been discovered.
CHAPTER X^^I.
MALARIAL FEVER IN HORSES
OR
PERNICIOUS ANEMIA, SWAMP FEVER, OR SURRA.
I. DEFINITION. — —II. ETIOLOGY. III. SYMPTOMS. IV. DIAGNOSIS.
V. FIlOLl) WORK. — —VI. TREATMENT. VII. CONCLUSIONS.
I. Definition.
Pernicious anemia, or infectiou.s anemia, is known under various names
as swamp fever, American surra, and plain paralysis. The term perni-
AN ACUTE CASE. FIRST STAGE.
cious anemia seems the most suitable one to use, in the light of present
knowledge of the disease.
There has been a great deal of investigation of this disease. At the
present time the Bureau of Animal Industry is working in co-operation
with the Agricultural experiment stations of various states. The disease
is found from Manitoba to the Gulf of Mexico. It has been proven con-
clusively that this disease is due to an ultra-microscopical organism capa-
ble of passing through the finest porcelain filters. It is found most prev-
alent in low, marshy localities, although the disease is seen on higher
470
MALARIAL FEVER IN HORSES.
471
altitudes. It appears most frequently during the months from March
to October, but may appear any time of the year, and affects only the
equine species.
II. Cause.
The viris, in blood, drawn from an infected animal, has been found
active after twenty-four hours. Five Oc. injected into a healthy animal
has produced the disease.
Dr. Darling of the hospital force of the canal zone at the Isthmus of
Panama claims to have found a germ in all cases diagnosed as swamp
fever by veterinarians at the zone.
A SECOND ATTACK, SECOND STAGE.
The period of incubation after inoculation is from ten days to six
weeks. The onset of pernicious anemia is marked by an elevation of
temperature. If the mucous membrane is involved, it will run a chronic
course, lasting from six weeks to six months, or even longer. I have a
case in mind which lasted twenty-two months. It was under treatment
part of the time.
It is considered' that flies, mosquitoes, and internal parasites act as
intermediate hosts for the parasite that causes pernicious anemia.
The disease is characterized by a progressive anemia, remittent fever,
excessive urination and a gradual emaciation in spite of a good appetite.
The patient appears dull, listless, tires very easily, and exhibits more or less
stiffness of hind limbs.
472 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
The temperature at first 103° F. or higher after a while subsides to
run even higher hiter. Death is due to exhaustion or unconsciousness.
There may be either diarrhea or constipation — more frequently the latter.
All mucous membranes are pale in color, and there is more or less
weakness of all pendulent parts of the abdomen.
Lesions noted on the carcass are anemia and extreme emaciation.
The absence of adipose tissue makes the skin adhere to the body.
Purple or livid spots are found on the heart muscle, and on other visceral
organs. A plastic exudate is found in the thoracic cavity. There is a de-
crease of red blood corpuscles, and increase of white corpuscles.
A CHRONIC CASE, THIRD STAGE.
Says Dr. A. T. Peters of the Nebraska Agricultural station-. Many
of the farmers call the disease "Typhoid Fever," for it resembles this
fever very much. The manner in which the disease is contracted by
horses is not definitely understood. In the last few years, the Veterinari-
ans in the Philippines have discovered a disease, prevalent in India under
the name of "surra," the description of which corresponds very much
to that of malarial fever of horses in this country, with the exception
that bacteriologists have not been able to find the surra parasite in the
blood of affected animals in this country. As the parasite of surra is
very easily detected in the blood of affected animals, and as we have not
been able to discover it, the conclusion seems reasonable that the diseases
are not identical. It is difiicult to ascertain how the disease first made
its appearance in this country. We find it on the marshy pastures during
MALARIAL FEVER IN HORSES. 473
very wet seasons. It is the general opinion of those who have studied
the disease that it is caused by feeding on certain low, marshy pastures
and on hay that comes from such pastures. Whatever its origin, the
disease has spread on these pastures during the last few years. Horses
die from this disease on the Missouri river bottom and in the Elkhorn
valley and farther up in the western part of the state. In these districts
the loss is very great, especially in wet seasons, such as we have had in
the last few years. To the stockman the loss is very heavy, for when it
once makes its appearance on a ranch, it is very apt to recur, and carry
off every horse. Many ranchmen in these districts lost all of their horses
and were seriously crippled in finishing up their season's work, many
farmers losing from two to eight head of horses. This is the most serious
disease among horses that this state has been called upon to investigate.
III. Symptoms.
The disease usually starts in with a fever of the recurrent type. Fol-
lowing this is the symptom of weakness. The horses become tired easily.
They apparently have no life and perform their usual work with great
difficulty. The mucous membranes of the mouth and eyes become
very pale. After the animals have shown these symptoms for a few
days, one will notice a staggering gait. They become weak over the
loins, so that farmers suspect some kidney trouble. They drag their
legs. During these first symptoms the horses do not apparently lose
their appetite, eating ravenously, but growing thinner and weaker all
the time. The temperature becomes more elevated, running as high as
103° to 106°. The variation in temperature is one of the characteristic
symptoms. It may remain high for several days and then drop down,
only to rise again. In this condition of changing temperature the horses
become too weak to work. They lose flesh very rapidly and are usually
laid off from work. It may occur that the animal will improve for a
week or ten days, only to have another attack more severe than the first
one. Horses may have two or three attacks and death finally follows,
either from heart failure or from exhaustion. The ranchmen have
observed that when they feed their horses all they want while they are
sick with this disease, death is certain, but that if they feed them spar-
ingly they may recover, but usually have another attack. In the early
stages of the disease the pulse is always very rapid, while in the latter
stages it is very weak. Horses may linger with this disease for several
months. The writer has observed some to live three months. As a
rule, horses live from two to three weeks. It is only occasionally that
animals recover. Besides the above symptoms, there is a swelling of
the legs. This is a symptom that is not always observed, and then,
474 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
only in the latter stages of the disease. This swelling may also be noticed
under the abdomen. The swelling indicates a very poor circulation, and
is a very bad symptom. There are also found petecchiae (little blood
spots) on the mucous membranes. These are especially found on the
surface membrane of the eye. As the disease advances, the color of
these spots become darker, resembling that in mortification, and gives
the observer a very good index of the progress of the case. Whenever
these spots are found on the mucous membrane of the eye, the case almost
always proves fatal. Another marked symptom is the increase of the
urine. Large quantities of urine are secreted. This is also a serious
symptom.
IV. Diagnosis.
This disease is not very difficult to diagnose, at least not in the latter
stages of the disease. In the early stages it may be mistaken for influenza
or pneumonia, but when one has seen a case in the advanced stages, then
it is not so difficult. However, it is well for one w^ho is inexperienced to
defer judgment until the animal has been examined two or three times
on that many days. If one takes into consideration the good appetite
with continual loss of flesh, the pale mucous membranes, and the peculiar
pulse, he can diagnose without much trouble.
Prognosis. — The prognosis of this disease is very unfavorable. Some
ranchmen and veterinarians claim that the death rate runs from 50 to
75 per cent, while others claim even a higher percentage. The writer
is of the opinion that a very small per cent of the animals recover. We
have observed that where farmers have carefully nursed their animals
they appeared to recover, only to have another attack which seemed to
be more severe, death finally resulting. The writer has never seen a
thoroughly cured animal since he has observed this disease.
V. Field Work.
The disease was first observed by this station in 1902 in this statf:.
Since that time a great many horses have been lost.
The field work consisted in visiting several ranches on which a number
of horses had died, so as to study the conditions. It was our aim to make
post mortem examinations and to treat animals that were affected. In
the majority of cases that came under our observation the animals were
in the advanced stages of the disease.
Last July the writer visited a number of ranches, and also held post mor-
tem examinations on diseased animals. We found that the animlas were all
greatly emaciated and the mucous membranes very pale; and in all cases
MALARIAL FEVER IN HORSES. 475
we found the characteristic blood spots on the mucous membrane of the
eye. These blood spots were more pronounced in some cases than in
others, due to the severity of the attack. Some blood counts were made
from the diseased animals. The red corpuscles ran as low as 1,800,000
to 2,200,000, while the normal for a healthy animal is about 7,500,000
red corpuscles, which explains why the affected animals emaciate and
become pale so very rapidly. The post mortem examination also showed
a large number of worms known as the tetracanthum. This worm was
found more abundant in horses that showed slight symptoms or were in
the early stages of the disease, and was not found so abundant in the
chronic cases. It was always found in the colon and the intestines. In
none of the specimens that were examined were we able to find this worm
in the circulation. It is of importance to note that, as stated, in ad-
vanced, long-standing chronic cases, when a post mortem is held, few if
any of these parasites are found. This may possibly be explained by
the severe emaciation that the animal has undergone, the blood being
in such poor condition that possibly it had no nutritive value, thus
causing the parasites to leave their hosts. In one post mortem examin-
ation where, according to the owner's statement, the horse had been
affected twenty-one days, we could not find any of these worms. The
organs in the abdominal cavity were practically normal except the kid-
neys, which were very much enlarged, and showed plainly chronic lesions
of nephritis (inflammation of the kidneys.)
Laboratory Experiments. — Cultures w^ere made from the contents of
the spleen, blood, kidneys, and urine. These cultures were inoculated
into smaller animals, but without any results,
VI. Treatment.
The treatment of this disease has not been very satisfactory, which is
largely due to the fact that we have no definite knowledge as to the true
cause of the disease. The treatment consisted in using gasoline, creolin
and creosote to cleanse out the stomach of the intestinal parasites. In
addition to this, fever remedies were used, such as quinine, nux vomica,
digitalis, and the like, followed up with a general tonic, such as Fowler's
solution, but with no universal success.
At this time the Station is giving attention to the method by which
these animals become infected. Possibly it may be in the same way
that sheep and cattle become infected with the small parasite known as
the stomach worm. Embryos of worms have been found on blades of
grass and are taken up by stock when grazing. As soon as the definite
cause of infection has been learned, then possibly a cure may be forth-
coming.
476 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
VII. Conclusions.
Since we have no definite knowledge of how the animal becomes in-
fected, and from the fact that all medicinal treatment so far employed
has given no uniform success, attention should be given to the i^revention,
and especially to the mode of infection, as stated before.
A very capable authority gives the following facts as to mortality and
treatment :
The prognosis should be guarded. Most practitioners report about
fifty per cent, mortality, but if the horses were treated according to the
veterinarian's direction it is doubtful if the mortality would be more than
twenty-five per cent. Drs. Francis and Marsteller, of Texas, have issued
a bulletin in which they hold that an animal that has had the disease
is always infectious. This statement needs further experimental support.
In the treatment of the disease the affected animals should be kept
absolutely at rest, they should not even be led out of their stalls to the
watering trough. Sunshine has a decided injurious effect upon the
diseased animals; they should be kept in a comfortable stall.
In the acute type the temperature should be diminished by cold baths.
Water may be safely and conveniently applied with a hose. When water
is not available for a bath, frequent rectal injections of cool water should
be resorted to. Stimulants should be given, the dosage depending upon
the requirement of the case. Arsenic appears to be a very reliable agent
in this disease. It is usually given as Fowler's solution, the dosage vary-
ing somew'hat, though generally speaking, large doses should be given.
Any ordinary adult horse should receive from two to three ounces of
Fowler's solution daily until the temperature becomes normal. Tonics
should he prescribed for at least two weeks after the animal has apparently
returned to normal. In the chronic form, the temperature should be
kept as near normal as possible by baths or rectal injections. Stimulants
should be given at least three times daily, conjoined ^A-ith Fowler's solu-
tion, giving of the latter not less than two ounces daily. The Fowler
solution may be suspended for a day or two if there are signs of arsenical
poisoning. This line of treatment continued for from four to six weeks
apparently completely destroys the causative agent of the disease, or, at
least, the animals recover,
CHAPTER XVII.
DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS.
1. SYxMPTOMS. II. TREATMENT. III. SARCOCELE. IV. VARICOCELE.
V. DEGENERATION OF THE TESTICLES. VL WARTS ON THE PENIS.
VII DEGENERATION OF PENIS. VIIL EXTRAVASATION OF BLOOD IN
THE PENIS. IX. PARALYSIS OF THE PENIS. X. MALADIE DU COIT.
OR DOURINE.
CONGESTION AND INFLAMMATION OF THE TESTICLES, OR ORCHITIS.
In the prime of life, in vigorous health, and on stimulating food,
stallions are subject to congestion of the testicles, says Prof. James Law,
which become swollen, hot, and tender, but without any active inflamma-
tion. A reduction of the grain in the feed, the administration of 1 or 2
ounces of Glauber's salts daily in the food, and the bathing of the affected
organs daily with tepid water or alum water will usually restore them to a
healthy condition.
When the factors producing congestion are extraordinarily potent,
when there has been frequent copulation and heavy grain feeding, when
the weather is warm and the animal has had little exercise, and when the
proximity of other horses or mares excite the generative instinct without
gratification this congestion may grow to actual inflammation. Among
the other causes of orchitis are blows and penetrating wounds implicating
the testicles, abrasions of the scrotum by a chain or rope passing inside
the thigh, contusions and frictions on the gland under rapid paces or heavy
draft, compression of the blood vessels of the spermatic cord by the in-
guinal ring under the same circumstances, and, finally, sympathetic dis-
turbance in cases of disease of the kidneys, bladder, or urethra. Stimu-
lants of the generative functions, like rue, savin, tansy, cantharides, and
damiana, may also be accessory causes of congestion and inflammation.
Finally, certain specific diseases like maladie du coit, glanders, and tuber-
culosis, localized in the testicles, will cause inflammation.
I. Symptoms.
Apart from actual wounds of the parts, the symptoms of orchitis are
swelling, heat, and tenderness of the testicles, straddling with the hind
legs alike in standing and walking, stiffness and dragging of the hind
limbs or of the limb on the affected side, arching of the loins, abdominal
pain, manifested by glancing back at the flank, with more or less fever,
elevated body temperature, accelerated pulse and breathing, inappetence,
and dullness. In bad cases the scanty urine may be reddish and the
477
478 CYCLOPEDIA or LIVE STOCK AND COMl'LETK STOCK DOCTOR.
swelling may extend to the skin and envelopes of the testicle, which may
become thickened and doughy, pitting on pressure. The swelling may
be so much greater in the convoluted excretory duct along the upper
border of the testicle as to suggest the presence of a second stone. Even in
the more violent attacks the intense suffering abates somewhat on the sec-
ond or third day. If it lasts longer it is likely to give rise to the formation
of matter (abscess). In exceptional cases the testicle is struck with gan-
grene, or death. Improvement may go on slowly to complete recovery,
or the malady may subside into a subacute and chronic form with indura-
tion. Matter (abscess) may be recognized by the presence of a soft spot,
where pressure with two fingers will detect fluctuation from one to the
other. When there is liquid exudation into the scrotum, or sack, fluctua-
tion may also be felt, but the liquid can be made out to be around the
testicle and can be pressed up into the abdomen through the inguinal
canal. When abscess occurs in the cord the matter may escape into the
scrotal sac and cavity of the abdomen and pyemia may follow.
II. Treatment.
Treatment consists in perfect rest and quietude, the administration of
a purgative (1 to 11/2 pounds Glauber's salts), and the local application
of an astringent lotion (acetate of lead 2 drachms, extract of belladonna 2
drachms, and water 1 quart) upon soft rags or cotton wool, kept in contact
with the part by a suspensory bandage. This bandage, of great value for
support, may be made nearly triangular and tied to a girth around the
loins and to the upper part of the same surcingle by two bands carried
backward and upward between the thighs. In severe cases scarifications
one-fourth inch deep serve to relieve vascular tension. When abscess is
threatened its formation may be favored by w^arm fomentations or poul-
tices, and on the occurrence of fluctuation the knife may be employed to
give free escape to the pus. The resulting cavity may be injected daily
with a weak carbolic-acid lotion, or salol may be introduced. The same
agents may be used on a gland threatened with gangrene, but its prompt
removal by castration is to be preferred, antiseptics being applied freely
to the resulting cavity.
III. Sarcocele.
This is an enlarged and indurated condition of the gland, resulting
from chronic inflammation, though it is often associated with a specific
deposit, like glanders. In this condition the natural structure of the gland
has given place to embrj^onal tissue (small round cells, with a few fibrous
bundles), and its restoration to health is very improbable. Apart from
active inflammation, it may increase very slowly. The diseased testicle is
DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 479
enlarged, firm, non-elastic, and comparatively insensible. The skin of
the scrotum is tense, and it may be edematous (pitting on pressure), as
are the deeper envelopes and spermatic cord. If liquid is present in the
sac, the symptoms are masked somewhat. As it increases it causes awk-
ward straddling, dragging movement of the hind limbs, or lameness on
the affected side. The spermatic cord often increases at the same time
with the testicle, and the inguinal ring being thereby stretched and en-
larged a portion of intestine may escape into the sac, complicating the
disease with hernia.
The only rational and effective treatment is castration, and even this
may not succeed when the disease is specific.
IV. Varicocele.
This is an enlargement of the venous network of the spermatic cord,
and gives rise to general thickening of the cord from the testicle up to the
ring. The same astringent dressings may be tried as in orchitis, and,
this failing, castration may be resorted to.
V. Degeneration of the Testicles.
The testicles may become the seat of fibrous, calcareous, fatty, carti-
laginous, or cystic degeneration, for all of which the appropriate treat-
ment is castration. They also become the seat of cancer, glanders, or tu-
berculosis, and castration is requisite, though with less hope of arresting
the disease. Finally, they may become infested with cystic tapeworms
or larval stages of the armed roundworm {Strongylus equinus) .
VI. Warts on the Penis.
These are best removed by seizing them between the thumb and fore-
finger and twisting them off. Or they may be cut off with scissors and the
roots cauterized with nitrate of silver.
VII. Degeneration of Penis.
The penis of the horse is subject to great cauliflower-like growths on its
free end, which extend back into the substance of the organ, obstruct the
passage of urine, and cause very fetid discharges. The only resort is to
cut them oft", together with whatever portion of the penis has become dis-
eased and indurated. The operation, which should be performed by a
veterinary surgeon, consists in cutting through the organ from its upper
to its lower aspect, twisting or tying the two dorsal arteries, and leaving
the urethra longer by half an inch to 1 inch than the adjacent structures.
480 CYCLOPEDIA or LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
VIII. Extravasation of Blood in the Penis.
As a result of kicks, blows, or of forcible striking of the yard on the
thighs of the mare which it has failed to enter, the penis may become the
seat of effusion of blood from one or more ruptured blood vessels. This
gives rise to a more or less extensive swelling on one or more sides, followed
by some heat and inflammation, and on recovery a serious curving of
the organ. The treatment in the early stages may be the application of
lotions, of alum or other astringents, to limit the amount of effusion and
favor absorption. The penis should be suspended in a sling.
IX. Paralysis of the Penis.
This results from blows and other injuries, and also in some cases from
too frequent and exhausting service. The yard hangs from the sheath,
flaccid, pendulous, and often cold. The passage of urine occurs with les-
sened force, and especially without the final jets. In cases of local injury
the inflammation should first be subdued by astringent and emollient
lotions, and in all cases the system should be invigorated by nourishing
diet, while 30-grain doses of nux vomica are given twice a day. Finally, a
weak current of electricity sent through the penis from just beneath the
anus to the free portion of the yard, continued for ten or fifteen minutes
and repeated daily, may prove successful.
X. Maladie Du Coit, or Dourine.
This is propagated, like syphilis, by the act of copulation and affects
stallions and mares. It has long been known in northern Africa, Arabia,
and Continental Europe. It was imported into Illinois in 1882 in a
Percheron horse.
From one to ten days after copulation, or in stallions it may be after
some weeks, there is irritation, swelling, and a livid redness of the external
organs of generation, sometimes followed by the eruption of small blisters
one-fifth of an inch across on the penis, the vulva, clitoris, and the vagina,
and the consequent rupture of these vesicles and the formation of ulcers
or small open sores. Vesicles have not been noticed in this disease in the
dry climate of Illinois. In the mare there is frequent contraction of the
vulva, urination, and the discharge of a watery and later a thick viscid
liquid of a whitish, yellowish, or reddish color, which collects on and soils
the tail. The swelling of the vulva increases and decreases alternately,
affecting one part more than another and giving a distorted appearance
to the opening. The affection of the skin leads to the appearance of circu-
lar white spots, which may remain distinct or coalesce into extensive
patches which persist for months. This, with the soiled tail, red, swollen,
puckered, and distorted vulva, and an increasing weakness and paralysis
DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 481
of the hind limbs, serves to characterize the affection. The mare rarely
breeds, but will take the male, and thus propagate the disease. The
disease winds up with great emaciation and stupidity and death in four
months to two years. In horses which serve few mares there may be only
swelling of the sheath for a year, but with frequent copulation the progress
is more rapid. The penis may be enlarged, shrunken, or distorted; the
testicles are usually pendent and may be enlarged or wasted and flabby ;
the skin, as in the mare, shows white spots and patches. Later the penis
becomes partially paralyzed and hangs out of the sheath ; swelling of the
adjacent lymphatic glands (in the groin), and even of distant ones, and
of the skin appears, and the hind limbs become weak and unsteady. In
some instances the glands under the jaw swell, and a discharge flows from
the nose, as in glanders. In other cases the itching of the skin leads to
gnawing and extensive sores. Weakness, emaciation, and stupidity in-
crease until death, in fatal cases, yet the sexual desire does not seem to fail.
A stallion without sense to eat, except when food was put in his mouth,
would still neigh and seek to follow mares. In mild cases an apparent
recovery may ensue, and through such animals the disease is propagated
to new localities to be roused into activity and extension under the stimulus
of service. The diseased nerve centers are the seat of cryptogamic growths.
Treatment of the malady has proved eminently unsatisfactory. It be-
longs to the pure contagious diseases, and should be stamped out by the
remorseless slaughter or castration of every horse or mare that has had
sexual congress with a diseased animal.
482
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
CHAPTER XVIII.
PARTURITION.
I. NATURAL PARTURITION. II. DIFFERENT PRESENTATIONS. III. ATTENTION TO
THE MOTHER. IV. ATTENTION TO THE FOAL. V. DIFFICULT PARTURITION IN THE
MARE AND COW COMPARED. VI. DIFFICULTIES DUE TO THE MOTHER. VII. DIF-
FICULTIES DUE TO THE FOAL. VIII. OBSTETRIC INSTRUMENTS. IX. WHEN THE
FOAL IS BORN DEAD, OR THE AFTER-BIRTH RETAINED. X. THE UMBILICAL CORD OF
FOAL. XI. VARIOUS PRESENTATIONS ILLUSTRATED. XII. VARIOUS POSITIONS OF
THE FO.\L. XIII. DORSO-LUMBAR PRESENTATION. XIV. STERiNO-ABDOMINAL PRE-
SENTATION. XV. MECHANISM OF PARTURITION. XVI. MECHANISM OF PARTURI-
TION IN THE ANTERIOR VERTEBRO-SACRAL POSITION. XVII. MECHANISM OF PAR-
TURITION IN THE ANTERIOR VERTEBRO-PUBIC POSITION. XVIII. MECHANISM OF
PARTURITION IN THE ANTERIOR VERTEBRO-ILIAL POSITIONS. XIX. MECHANISM OF
PARTURITION IN THE POSTERIOR LUMBO-SACRAL POSITION. XX. NECESSARY AID IN
NORMAL PARTURITION. XXI. SPAYING, OR CASTRATION OF THE MARE.
I. Natural Parturition.
This branch of onr subject needs but little consideration, the various
phases of labor being so well known to all breeders. However, a brief
outline of the different stages ot labor will not be out of place.
Preliminary Stage. — This is announced by several well-marked fea-
tures. The milk glands of the mare, which are naturally small, become
large, tense and painful; in many instances the swelling extends to the
thighs up to the vulva, and along the belly to the breast bone. The vulva
beoomes enlarged, soft, and its inner lining of a bright red color. There
is also a discharge of sticky mucus which lubricates the passage, and when
in large quantity soils the hock and tail. The abdomen sinks near the
critical period, giving the croup a sunken appearance.
Fleming, in his justly celebrated work on veterinary obstetrics, says :
"As parturition draws nearer, these phenomena are more marked. The
animal also begins to be restless, and continually agitated; if feeding, it
stops for some moments, as if listening to some sound only audible to itself,
or, as if experiencing some strange internal sensation for the first time,
and which may be the commencing or preparatory contractions of the
uterus. Not infrequently the animal lies down and gets up again, as if
suffering from colic. Some are quite mute, though anxious and uneasy;
while others, in addition to exhibiting restlessness and distress, utter a half-
stifled cry of pain, and violently whisk the tail. ' '
The position taken during labor in the mare and cow is usually the
standing one, but the recumbent position, here illustrated, is not infre-
quent ; the mare, resting on the breast bone, strains and raises up somewhat
on the hind legs at the same time.
Dilatation of the Neck of the Womb.— This commences towards
the latter part of the former stage. It is marked by increased signs of
pain. It is a gradual ijrocess, the pain at first lasting for a few seconds;
483
484 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
later, -when the membranes are forcibly dilating the neck, it is continuous,
the Momb and vagina becoming, by the dilatation, one continuous cavity.
Expulsion of the Foetus. — The water-bag, having dilated the neck of
the womb, passes outward and appears at the vulva. The severe straining
soon ruptures it, allowing the feet of the fcetus to protrude. The head,
resting in most cases as described in the next section, aids in dilating the
I)arts. Nature usually allows a short rest after forcing the head through,
to prepare for the severest part, the passage of the shoulders, after which
all is easy. The umbilical cord is usually broken when the foal falls to
the ground, and it is freed from its coverings.
Expulsion of the After-birth. — This usually takes place a few minutes
after birth, but occasionally not for a longer time. If not detached within
^^^r^'^'^
KKCUMBKNT I'OSITION.
The large water-bag has just appeared.
a few hours it becomes a serious matter, as in removing it hemorrhage is
liable to occur. During and after the expulsion of the membranes, the
womb rapidly contracts and diminishes in size ; the neck of the womb also
grows smaller, and in a short time assumes normal proportions.
In the cow the placenta (after-birth) may be retained for one, two or
three days without causing any trouble, owing to its formation being
different from that of the mare.
II. The Different Presentations.
The variety of positions in which the fcetus may be presented is sur-
prising, but there are four presentations to which, because of their being
by far the most frequent, we will call special attention, namely: (1) the
PARTURITION.
485
head presenting, (2) the tail presenting, (3) the right transverse position,
and (4) the left transverse position.
Head Presentation. — This is the most common, and the one that is
attended with the least difficulty. It is depicted with great accuracy in
our illustration. The fore feet are extended, and the head rests upon
them ; thus they form a sort of cone, which acts as a dilator of the passage,
greatly facilitating the delivery. Many authors claim this to be the only
"natural" form of delivery.
Tail Presentation. — This is another frequent form, yet much less so
than the one just considered. Here the hind feet protrude, with the tail
resting on them. This form of delivery is not as easy as the first, on
account of there being no gradual dilatation to permit the passage of the
HEAD I'RESE^JTATION.
large croup. It is easily recognized by feeling the hocks and tlie tail of the
foetus.
Right Transverse Position.— This should not be considered a natural
form (though many veterinarians think otherwise), but rather as a mal-
presentation. The head is turned to the right side of the mother. It may
be distinguished by feeling the colt's withers, mane and head.
Left Transverse Position. — This is the reverse of the preceding. The
position is head to the left, as may be recognized by feeling the colt's
withers, and up along his neck.
All other presentations may, in a general way, be regarded as modifica-
tions of the four above described.
486 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
III. Attention to the Mother.
In this section we shall run over a few leading items as to the care of
the mother. For at least three or four weeks previous to the period of
foaling, the mare should be allowed gentle exercise, as a safeguard against
ab'^rtion. As the critical period approaches, she should be put in good
condition, not positively fat, and not thin, and if her digestion is dis-
ordered, it should be treated as directed elsewhere in this work. Medi-
cines, especially those violent in their action, are only to be used by ex-
perienced men, and even then with extreme caution.
No person should be allowed to stay within sight of a mare showing signs
TAIL PRESENTATION.
of foaling. Even the attendant should keep in the background, as this
animal has a natural aversion to anyone being present during delivery.
The stable should be warm, well ventilated, and free from drafts. A
box stall is always advisable. A mare heavy with foal should never be
tied in a stall, for if she should suddenly foal, she would be unable to
clean the offspring, and, besides, during the labor, she might seriously
injure herself.
If any marked weakness is shown after foaling, a dose of diluted
whiskey is advisable. The after-birth is ordinarily passed within fifteen
or twenty minutes, and while this is likely to be accompanied by additional
pains of a colicky nature, they are not to be regarded as dangerous.
PARTURITION.
487
IV. Attention to the Foal.
Inimediatelj^ the foal is born, the mother will clean it, and assist it to
the teat. Occasionally it is passed still enwrapped in the membranes, and
if these are not soon opened, it is liable to be asphyxiated. A careful in-
spection of the various openings of the body should be made to see that
they are free; possibly the eyes, rectum, etc., may be imperforate, necessi-
tating cutting the skin over them.
AVhen the mother neglects to clean the foal, it may be rubbed dry with
a soft cloth, or by some similar method. If too weak to stand, support
and hold it up to the teat; in many instances bandages to aid in strength-
ening the legs are of much benefit. Constipation is a frequent trouble in
very young animals, but may readily be removed by the judicious use of a
little castor oil.
RIGHT TRANSVERSE POSITION.
V. Difficult Parturition in the Mare and Cow Compared.
In the mare there is not often much difficulty in parturition. In the
vast majority of instances no aid is needed to bring the delivery to a suc-
cessful termination, and parturition is accomplished in a very short time,
the whole process being completed within about half an hour. Compared
with the cow, the mare's difficult labors have been placed by different
authorities at only 1-10 to 1-25 as many. But what she gains by the rarity
of her difficulties she loses in the very serious nature that they take when
they do occur. Practical farmers and breeders, for whom this book is
expressly w^ritten, will be interested in a comparison which has been formu-
lated by Donnarieix, as follows :
488
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
1. Delivery is often followed by in-
SUCCBBS.
1. Delivery always terminates favor-
ably.
2. A wound inflicted on the genital
organs is generally fatal.
2. A wound of these organs rarely
causes death.
3. Inversion of the womb is nearlj
always irremedial.
3. Inversion of the uterus is often
curable.
4. Mares nearly always succumb to
penetrating wounds of the abdomen
■'uring parturition.
4. This accident is generally not
fatal in cows.
5. Delivery of the most simple kind
*s occasionally followed by bad results,
^n abnormal and laborious parturitions
not infrequently mare and foal suc-
cumb.
6. Difficult parturition proves a her-
culean task to the operator.
5. Delivery, even in the most com-
plicated cases, generally proves com-
paratively easy, and obstetrical opera-
tions successful.
6. Such parturitions are not of
much difficulty to a practitioner skilled
in the necessary operations.
7. The duration of the life of the
foetus in a case of abnormal labor does
not extend beyond the fourth hour, on
account of the young animal having to
maintain its independent existence, as
if already born.
7. Under the same circumstances the
calf may live four or five days in the
womb, as life is maintained by the
large number of placental attachments.
These differences are explained by the
mechanism of foetal life in the two
species of animals, as well as by the
anatomy of the uterus and foetal mem-
branes.
8. The neck of the foal being very
long, the head is usually found deeply
buried in the flank whenever it is
turned backward. The operator has
very great difficulty in reaching the
head with his hand; indeed, it is often
impossible to bring it into its natural
position. The loop slips off the neck
of the lower jaw and has constantly to
be replaced; it is scarcely possible to
fix a cord there, this portion of the
jaw being so short, and the foetus
having no teeth.
8. The neck of the foetus being
shorter and thicker, the head is less
twisted, and the operator can with
greater ease bring it back into its nor-
mal position; in addition there are
teeth in the lower jaw, the neck of
which is narrow, so that the slip-knot
does not leave it, and straightening of
the head and neck becomes an easy af-
fair.
9. When once the amniotic fluid has
escaped, the introduction of the hand
is difficult, owing to the genital organs
becoming dry; this dryness causes an
efflux of blood to the mucous mem-
branes. The resistance made by the
foetal membranes to manipulation,
when made to ascertain either the po-
sition of the foetus, or for correcting
the position, together with the strug-
gles and violence of the mare, which
now and then drops as if dead, are all
difficulties to be overcome.
9. The genital organs are continu-
ally lubricated by a mucous fluid,
which, while it facilitates the introduc-
tion of the hand, renders easy any
necessary correction of position, and
favors parturient operations. Besides,
any movement made is not, in gen-
eral, of much consequence.
PARTURITION. 489
VI. Difficulties Due to the Mother.
The cause of difficult labor is not often found in the mare, but when
it is the obstruction is generally of a serious character. Anion 51; the num
ber may be mentioned fractures of the hip bones, which, by uniiing badly,
have reduced the possible vaginal diameter; tumors on the bones; disease
of the neck of the womb ; twists of the womb ; tumors in the womb, or the
adjacent pai'ts ; structure of the vulva, etc.
VII. Difficulties Due to the Foal.
Ordinarily, the cause of difficult parturition is to be found in the foal.
Malpresentations are, of course, the most common. Of these veterinary
science has had to deal with an exceedingly large number, but principally
v;ith those forms in which the head is turned back or turned to one side,
or the feet do not present properly. The head and tail presentations, both
excellently illustrated by our artist, are the ordinary ones; the right or
left transverse positions are necessarily sources of trouble. Under the
head we are considering must likewise be mentioned excessive size of the
foetus, its death, twins, too much fluid in the water-bag, monstrosities, de-
formities, etc.
VIII. Obstetric Instruments.
For the correction of a malpresentation, definite rules must be followed,
and certain instruments are necessary.
"When aid is given, always commence by securing the part that is pre-
senting, with a rope; then insert the hand, to determine the cause of the
SHARP HOOK. BLUNT HOOK.
difficulty. If due to the head or a foot being turned backward, bring it to
a proper position before endeavoring to remove the foal. The instruments
absolutely necessary are neither numerous nor costly, a thin, strong cotton
rope, a sharp-pointed hook, a blunt-pointed hook, and a long iron rod with
a cross-piece on the end, called a repeller. The last mentioned is exceed-
ingly valuable for pushing away one part to allow of another being
secured, or to aid in turning the foetus. The hooks are invaluable for
taking firm hold of a part and helping to extract the foal; to the loop at
the end a rope is attached.
490
CYCLOPEDIA OF LlVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
IX. When the Foal Is Born Dead, or the After-birth Retained.
In those cases already referred to, where death and decomposition of the
foetus has occurred, or where the after-birth lias been retained and becomes
putrid, efiicient antiseptic measures are necessary. After-treatment, such
as is so prominent in the physician's practice, following difficult partu-
rition, is never thought of in the veterinarian's. However, the copious use
of lukewarm vaginal injections of a mild nature, are very requisite in the
class of eases we are considering. An ordinary syringe will answer.
From one to two quarts of the fluid should be injected into the vagina,
whence it will gravitate to the lowest parts, and render harmless the germs
accompanying the decomposition. This may be repeated twice a day, for
three or four days, by which time its healthy action will have become very
apparent.
UMBILIC COED OF FOAI.
1. Cutaneous portion of cord.
2. Amniotic portion of cord.
X. The UmbilicU Cord of Foal.
The umbilic cord must be divided and the last direct relation between
the mother and young severed. This division results in a wound which
involves the arteries, veins and urachus, each of Avliich communicates with
internal parts of the system of the young animal. Different writers assume
different attitudes toward the care of the navel of the new-born. Natu-
rally, the umbilic cord becomes ruptured in a variety of ways. In the
foal the cord is so long (3 feet) that it is usually not ruptured when the
fffitus is expelled, if the mare is recumbent, but gives Avay only when she
rises to her feet, and even then in some cases not until she turns her head
toward the foetus in order to care for it, and in so doing pulls the cord in
PARTURITION.
491
two near the umbilicus. In other cases, in the mare, the chorion becomes
detached from the uterus almost immediately after the expulsion of the
^oetus and comes away with the cord still intact. It is then ruptured later
by the struggles of the foetus itself. The mare may step upon some portion
of the membranes when the foal is attempting to get up, and the foal, in
falling, throws its weight upon the cord in such a way as to rupture it.
After it ruptures, the behavior of the parts when left undisturbed is
interesting and highly suggestive of the degree and character of interfer-
ence demanded upon the part of the attendant. One of the most promi-
nent effects of the rupture of the cord by linear tension, or by laceration
by the teeth of the mother, is the promptness with which hemostasis is
brought about, so that as a rule there is but little hemorrhage, appearing
DOUSAL (or back) PRESENTATION.
usually to not exceed the amount of blood lying in the umbilic veins out-
side the umbilic ring.
XI. Various Presentations Illustrated.
The presentation results from the part of the foetus which first offers
itself at the pelvic inlet — that region of the young creature which the hand
of the obstetrist immediately meets on being passed into the os, and which
is directly opposite the inlet. In this sense the head, fore feet, hind feet,
croup, etc., are said to be presented, according as one or other of them
first offers itself on exploration.
These presentations are extremely variable, as any part of the foetus
may occupy this situation ; though so far as description and comprehen-
492 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
sibility are concerned, their study can be greatly simplified. As Rainard
says: "The fcetns, when covered by its envelopes, is oval shaped, or like
an olive, which it is desired to pass down the neck of a bottle, and which
may be presented to this in three ways — either by one of its two ends or by
its middle." These ends are the anterior part of the chest in front, and
the croup behind ; and it is these parts on which the classification of these
presentations is based. This classification gives two longitudinal and an
anterior and posterior presentation ; and, as the foetus may also ofifer itself
across the long axis of the uterine cavity, we have a transverse presentation,
which may again be dorso-lunibar or sterno-ahdommal, according to the
side of the fcetus which presents. These four fundamental presentations
are, therefore:
1. Anterior Presentation. — The chest of the foetus presents towards the
inlet, and is preceded, accompanied or followed by the head and fore
VENTRAL (or BELLY ) PRESENTATION.
limbs; the situation and direction of wliich may vary without altering the
essential features of the presentation.
2. Posterior Presentation. — The croup or breech is facing the inlet, and
the presence or absence of the limbs there only constitute varieties of the
presentation.
3. Dorso-lumhar Presentation. — Any portion of the upper part of the
body opposite the inlet. Lecoq and Rainard admit presentations of the
withers, back, loins, shoulder or haunch, as distinct presentations; but I
agree with Saint-Cyr in declaring the distinction to be practically useless.
On exploring the pelvic cavity, no matter what part of the back is first
touched, the hand always encounters the spine of the foetus, either directly
in the axis of the pelvis, or obliquely and at some distance from it. All
PARTURITION. 493
these varieties may, therefore, be reduced to the one now named, and which
may be either direct or oblique, according as the case may be.
Sterno-abdominal Presentation. — The limbs in this are in reality first
touched, and we may have all four, or only three or two ; these, however,
are not the fixed point of the p»resentation, which is the inferior part of
the body — or sterno-abdominal region — hence the designation.
These four principal presentations may be divided into natural or
normal, in which spontaneous or unaided birth is possible ; and into un-
natural or abnormal, in Avhich parturition is impossible without the inter-
vention of man. The longitudinal presentations alone comprise the first,
although they are not always normal; as a wrong direction of the head
or limbs may prove an obstacle more or less difficult to overcome, and
may require the aid of art. So that, taking this view into consideration,
the presentations may either be simple or more or less complicated, accord-
ing to circumstances.
XII. Positions of Foal.
The presentation being determined by the part of the foetus which offers
at the pelvic inlet, it must be evident that this part, whichever it may be,
may vary considerably in its relations to the circumference of that passage.
If the chest of the ftrtus first enters it, the attitude of this region may be
very different in different cases; in one the withers may correspond to the
sacrum of the mother, and the sternum to the pubis, or the reverse may
happen ; in another the fa?tus may be lying on the right side, the sternum
corresponding to the right branch of the mother's ilium, and the withers
to the left ilium, or vice versa. So that here are four different positions
in the same presentation — the anterior; and it will readily be understood
that it should be the same, or nearly the same, for the other presentations.
The position has accordingly been defined to be the relation of a deter-
minate point on the surface of the foetus, to an equally determinate point
of the pelvic circumference. The points, so far as the mother is concerned,
may be determined once for all, and they will always remain the same for
every presentation ; they may be, for instance, the sacral region above, the
pubic below, and the two ascending branches of the ilium at the sides. If,
with the fcBtus, we select any region — say .the withers — and put this part in
relation with any of these four points of the pelvic circumference, we shall
have four successive and easily recognized positions. If, therefore, we
first give the name of the region in the foetus, and next that of the pelvic
circumference with Avhich it is in relation, -we have a ready means of desig-
nating the positions : describing the foetus to be in vertebrosacral
position — for instance, when it.? vertebral region is in relation with the
sacrum of the mother. The fixed points may be invariable in the latter;
but they cannot be so with the foetus, as they will vary with each oresen-
tation.
494
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
With regard to the anterior and posterior presentations, Rainard has
selected the fixed points as follows : for the first he has taken the spinous
processes of the dcrsal vertebrae in the region of the withers; for the
second, the lumbar vertebra?. For the positions in the other two presenta-
tions he has not been so fortunate in a designation, in the opinion of
Saint-Cyr, who has very judiciously proposed others which are more ex-
plicit and comprehensible. The latter gives the various positions which
should be recognized in each presentation, as follows :
Anterior Position. — The chest of the fa?tus is at the pelvic inlet, and
it is desired to make known what relation this part has to the pelvic cir-
cumference. The determinate point on the fcrtus is the vertebras of the
withers; and these may be in rehition with the sacrum above, the pubis
below, the right ascending branch of the ilium on the right side, and the
ANTERIOR presentation: DOWNWARD DEVIATION OF THE HEAD.
left ditto on the left. From this we have four positions, named by
Saiut-Cyr, as follows :
1. Vertebrosacral Position. — This is the most favorable and the most
frequent of all, and is said to be the only natural position. The vertebne
of the foetus correspond to those of the mother, its withers touching the
sacrum of the latter, the belly corresponding to the abdominal parietes,
and its sternum to the pubis. This is sometimes named the 'first anterior
position.
2. Vertehro-pubic Position. — This is exactly the inverse of the first: the
foetus lying on its back, its withers towards the pubis, and the sternum
opposed to the sacrum of the female. This is also named second anterior
position.
3. Left Vertebro-ilial Position. — The foetus lies in the right flank, its
head to the left side of the mother, the neck being in the same direction,
PARTURITION.
495
and, when passing through the pelvic cavity, touching the ascending
branch of the left ilium. The feet, when they are not in the pelvis, must,
of course, be sought for on the opposite side, towards the right flank of
the mother.
4. Fight Vertehro-ilial Position. — This is exactly the reverse of the last-
described position, the withers corresponding to the right ilium.
The last two are sometimes named the lateral positions. They are less
frequent, as primary positions, than the first two. and are sometimes met
with as secondary positions after the reduction of a malpresentation — •
chiefly the doreal or ventral.
Posterior Presentation, — In this the croup or breech first presents
at the pelvic inlet. The lumbar region of the foetus, which is the deter-
ANTERIOR PRESENTATION ; FORE LIMB CROSSED OVER THE NECK.
minate point, may be directed towards the sacrum, the pubis, or the right
or left branch of the ilium of the female. Hence we have four positions,
as in the preceding presentation. These are :
1. Lumbosacral Position. — The foetus is in what some authorities have
called a "natural" position, but which is asserted by others to be un-
natural. The loins are towards the sacrum of the mother, the right coxo-
femoral articulation towards the right ilium, and the left articulation
towards the left ilium. This is sometimes named the first posterior
position.
2. Lumho-puhic Position. — Some practitioners designate this the pos-
terior reversed position. The fcetus, in fact, is lying on its back, its croup
496 CYCLOPEDIA OP LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
and loins corresponding to the pubis of the mother, while the limbs are
toAvards the sacrum, against which they are more or less pressed. This
is sometimes termed the second posterior position.
3. Left Lumho-ilial Position.— The foetus is lying on its left flank, its
croup and loins opposite the ascending branch of the left ilium of the
female, and the limbs towards the right flank, where they must be sought
for if they do not present* in the pelvis.
4. Right Ltimho-ilial Position. — This is exactly the reverse of the pre-
ceding position.
XIII. Dorso-Lumbar Presentation.
Here the foetus is presented across or transverse, and it may lie on one
or other of its sides, its head towards one of the maternal flanks, and the
body curved like that of a dog asleep. In this we have two distinct po-
sitions, according as the foetus lies on one side or the other. But it may
also assume a third and almost vertical position— the croup on the floor
of the abdomen of the mother, and the creature in the attitude of a dog
sitting.
The important consideration in these three positions is related to the
situation or direction of the head ; as, if this is known, we may easily infer
that of the other parts of its body, and thus appreciate the indications for
delivery to be followed in this pathological presentation. According to
the direction of the head, the three following positions are described:
1. Right Cephalo-ilial Position. — The foetus is on its right side, which
rests more or less directly on the abdominal walls of the mother, the head
in the right flank, the croup towards the left flank, the body more or less
curved, and the dorso-lumbar region towards the pelvis, in which it
presents.
2. Left Cephalo-ilial Position. — This is the reverse of the preceding.
3. Cephola-sacral Position. — In this position the foetus is presented by
the back, and in an almost vertical attitude : the croup resting on the
floor of the mother's abdomen, the head more or less depressed, and
directed forward towards the sacro-lumbar region — the creature being
seated, as it were, on the udder of its parent.
XIV. Sterno-Abdominal Presentation.
In this presentation the foetus offers the abdomen to the inlet of the
pelvis, and on exploration the hand first meets this part, and tAvo or more
of the limbs, but always at least a hind and fore one. The head may be
found, or it may be out of reach. The sternum and other parts on the
lower surface of the body can also be felt.
PARTURITION.
491
In this presentation there are two principal positions:
1. Left Cephalo-ilial Position. — The foetus lies on the right side, the
head towards the left ilium of the mother, and the croup to the right
ilium,
2. Right Cephalo-ilial Position. — This is the reverse of the preceding.
Saint-Cyr, who has mainly followed Rainard in the definition of these
presentations and positions of the foetus, insists on the necessity for study-
ing them carefully, as by so doing those Avho commence the practice of
obstetricy will be greatly enlightened as to the difficulties they may en-
counter, and the readiest and most scientific way of overcoming them ;
while this study will enable the skilled practitioner to describe his interest-
ing cases with more clearness and precision. To render what has just been
CEPHALO-SACRAL I'OSITION OF THE FOETUS.
stated more convenient, the following table is given, in order to show at a
glance the different presentations and positions.
PRESENTATIONS AND POSITIONS OF THE FOETUS.
r 1.
2
Anterior Positions ■^ „'
1 4:
Posterior Positions -j ^
[ S.
( 9.
Dorso-lumbar Positions < 10.
111.
Sterno-abdominal Positions | Jg
Vertebro-sacral.
Vertebro-pubic.
Right Vertebro-ilial.
Left Vertebro-ilial.
Lumbo-sacral.
Lumbo-pubic.
Right Lumbo-ilial.
Left Lumbo-ilial.
Right Cephalo-ilial.
Left Cephalo-ilial.
Cephalo-sacral.
Right Cephalo-ilial.
Left Cephalo-ilial.
498 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
XV. Mechanism of Parturition.
Under normal conditions, it may be said that the pelvis itself does not
offer any obstacle to the passage of the fcetus, and that it is the soft parts
alone which oppose its exit.
Of the different presentations we have enumerated the anterior — in
which the fore feet, head and chest present simultaneously — is the only
one we may designate as "natural," especially with the larger animals
and primiparae.
Fromage de Feugre was the first to point this out, though Rainard was
of opinion that the posterior presentation should also be looked upon as
normal; Avhile Dcsplas gave Ihrec natural positions — head and fore limbs,
STERNO-ABUOMINAL POSITION OF THE X'OETUS.
head only, and hind limbs only ; and Del wart gives four normal positions.
But experience abundantly proves that the first we have described is that
which alone merits the designation, as it is the one in which birth can take
place without artificial aid. It is true that birth is possible Avhen the foal
or the calf presents posteriorly at the pelvic inlet ; but this is a rare presen-
tation, and under the most auspicious circumstances it is much less favor-
able and more difficult for the mother, Avhile it is very often death to the
young animal (especially in the mare). In the majority of cases, without
assistance expulsion proceeds no further than the hocks, and the foetus
<Iies; and even sometimes with assistance much force is necessary to deliver.
Whereas, in the anterior presentation, the cases are exceptional (and these
•liiefly in primipara?) in which even slight traction is necessary.
PARTURITION.
499
We will follow Saint-Cyr in first studying the mechanism of parturition
in this presentation, in which, of the four positions pertaining to it, the
vertebrosacral is by far the most frequent and favorable. This we will
now notice.
XVI. Mechanism of Parturition in the Anterior Vertebro-Sacral Position.
In this position it has been stated that the foetus presents simultaneously
with the head and fore limbs, the back directed to that of the mother and
the withers towards the sacrum. AVhen perfectly natural, the head and
fore legs first enter the inlet; \ho head is extended, forehead looking up-
wards to the sacrum, chin towards the pubis, nose forward, the lower jaw
resting on the outstretched limbs, the feet of which extend a little beyond
the nose. Then comes the neck, and after it the chest and shoulders, which
arrive at the inlet when the nose and feet show themselves at the vulva.
HiND-LiaiB deviation; anterior presentation.
In this course it will be observed that, so far as the head and limbs are
concerned, there is no difficulty, as the pelvic diameter readily admits
them when the soft parts are sufficiently relaxed. With the chest, however,
there is difficulty, as its diameter is greater than that of the pelvis ; and the
question is, therefore, how it is got through the canal. Saint-Cyr saw four
well-bred harness and saddle mares give birth to foals at the Lyons Vet-
erinary School. Gestation had been regular, and parturition, which was
easy and favorable, did not exceed the ordinary duration. In taking the
diameters of the maternal pelvis by the method already described, and
those of the fcrtus (dorso-sternal, biscapulo-humeral, and bicoxo-femoral),
it was found that in these four instances the biscapulo-humeral diameter —
oOO CYCLOPEDIA OP LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
the largest in the chest — was easily accommodated in the bis-iliac diameter
of the female pelvis, which was greater by 42, 45, 48 and even 52 milli-
metres (from iy2 to 2 inches) ; while the sterno-dorsal diameter of the
young creatures exceeded that of the sacro-pubic region in the mothers by
28, 85, 87, 88 millimetres (from 1 to 31/2 inches). This part of the body of
the fa?tus had, therefore, to undergo a corresponding reduction in a ver-
tical direction before it could clear the inlet; and even if we take into ac-
count the excess of the lateral diameter of the pelvis, it will be found that
the thorax and withers of the fojtus still notably exceed in size the opening
through which they must pass. That they do pass through it, and with
ease in the majority of cases, w^ithout injury to the mother, or the young
creature, is a matter of daily experience ; but the mechanism by which the
reduction is effected has been much discussed.
Lafosse endeavored, in the last century, to describe it, and came to the
conclusion that the head once through the inlet, the shoulders of the foal,
which exceed the withers, pass by their upper part in front of the neck,
thus forming a kind of channel which glides along the maternal sacrum; also
that the spinous processes of the withers, which are almost cartilaginous,
bend back on each other, and to right and left of the spine, thus preventing
too great compression of the chest. Altogether, he concluded that the foal,
in its passage, becomes moulded in such a manner that the chest has the
form of the keel of a ship gliding on the stocks, and in every way corre-
sponds to the mother's pelvis, whose internal contour it assumes.
Rainard, however, takes a slightly different view of this matter; for,
while admitting, with Lafosse, the inclination backward of the dorsal spines
as a first cause in diminishing the vertebro-sternal or perpendicular
diameter of the thorax, he cannot admit that the upper border of the
scapula? lie against the neck, but states that the shoulders, on arriving at
the pelvic entrance, come in contact with the ascending branches of the
ilium, and are thrown back somewhat, leaving the front part of the chest
free, and thus diminishing its diameter. He also adds that the withers
first enter beneath the sacrum; that the sternum below is pushed back by
the anterior border of the pubis, and the chest in this way submits to a
process of elongation which notably diminishes its vertical diameter.
Saint-Cyr agrees with Rainard in this interpretation of the real mech-
anism of parturition in the mare. The sternum in being carried back-
wards also pulls back the ribs attached to it, and this not only diminishes
the chest in a vertical, but also in a horizontal direction, as is witnessed
in studying the mechanism of respiration in the living animal, in which,
during expiration, the chest decreases in wddth and depth. When the
chest is so altered during parturition, the foetus becomes, as it were, elon-
gated by this part being depressed : an alteration w^hich occurs all the
more readily from the bones composing the thorax being soft and supple,
and the organs they enclose (the lungs) not being so developed as they
PARTURITION,
501
are immediately afterwards; so that a moderate amount of pressure, pro-
vided it is not too long continued, may be borne with comparative impunity.
In the larger animals the pelvis cannot undergo any sensible increase
in size during the passage of the deepest portion of the foetal body through
the inlet, which is, in the mare, an absolutely inextensible bony girdle.
Lafosse has sawn through the pubis of mares about to foal, and he found
that during parturition there was only a space of two lines between the
sawn margins. So that it is the body of the foetus which has to accommo-
date itself to this part of the passage at this stage of delivery.
When, however, it has passed through the inlet, extiensibility of the
maternal tissues can, and does, take place, and permits an enlargement
of the canal. The wide sacro-ischiatic ligaments, which enclose the pelvis
ANTERIOR PRESENTATION ] EXTREME DOWNWARD DEVIATION OF THE HEAD.
laterally, are softened and more elastic during birth; the sacro-iliac and
sacro-lumbar articulations are increased in mobility; and even the pos-
terior part of the ischio-pubic symphysis may become slightly relaxed. So
that when once approaching the outlet the progress of birth is more rapid,
and this progress may be aided if, as is pointed out by Lafosse, the tail of
the animal is well elevated.
A slight check to expulsion is observed (especially in the mare) when
the croup arrives at the inlet, as this part nearly corresponds in diameter
to this opening, being, if anything, slightly less. However, notwithstand-
ing this, in consequence of the croup being less susceptible of diminution
than the chest, and although the bones may yield to some extent, friction
502
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
will occur, more particularly if the croup is largely developed, Avliicli it is
ill some foals. One haunch may pass into the inlet before the other, how-
ever, and thus facilitate the passage.
AVith the cow the mechanism of parturition in this presentation i.s
similar to that in the mare, Saint-Cyr shows, from actual measurements
of cow and fcetus, that the head of the calf can easily pass into the inlet,
owing to its less diameter; and that the principal difficulty is encountered
by the foetal thorax, which is slightly larger in every sense than the inlet.
The bicoxo-femoral diameter of the croup slightly exceeds the bis-iliac
diameter of the pelvis; but it is possible that the pelvis of the calf, being
more cartilaginous and supple than that of the foal, may be submitted to a
slight temporary compression. It is to be remarked, however, that the
progress of the calf through the pelvis must be more protracted than that
of the foal, owing to the greater length of the maternal pubic symphysis,
and the more considerable extent of the pelvic walls, as well as the peculiar
FORWARD DEVIATION OF POSTERIOR LIMDS IN ANTERIOR PRESENTATION.
curve in the floor of the pelvis; though these disadvantages are somewhat
compensated for by the greater mobility of the sacrum. And, as we have
seen, such is really the case, the duration of parturition being shorter in
the mare than in the cow.
With regard to the other animals, the same remarks will apply. We
may just note that with the common-bred bitch, which has a more or less
elongated muzzle, when fecundated by a dog of the same conformation
and size, and which in due course brings forth from five to eight young,
there is usually no difficulty in delivery. The conical form of the muzzle
of the puppies, and the softness of their tissues, permits their entering
the inlet in this presentation and passing easily through it under the in-
fluence of the uterine and abdominal contractions. But when the bitch
is of small size, and is fecundated by a young, vigorous and larger dog,
and especially if the muzzle of either or both parents is short, then the
PARTURITION, 503
head of the puppies is usually large and round, with the forehead high,
and the presentation offers grave, and frequently insurmountable dii^cul-
ties. This is more especially the ease if the puppies are few in number,
when they are usually larger.
XVII. Mechanism of Parturition in the Anterior Vertebro-Pubic Position.
In this position the same diameters of the fo:'tus correspond to those of
the maternal pelvis; though in practice it is found that this position is
less favorable, and that delivery is always more difficult and longer than
in the first anterior position. This appears to be due to the fact that in
the latter the dorsal spines, or withers, the most prominent part of the
fcetus, glide along the vertebral colunm of the mother in the kind of
channel formed by the psoas muscles, and is naturally directed towards
the pelvis; Avhile in the vertebro-pubic position it comes against the brim
of the pubis, where greater, more frequent and more continued con-
tractions are needed to raise it to this kind of step leading to the inlet.
And when it has cleared this obstacle, the foetus still passes with difficulty
through the canal, as the curve of this passage is exactly the reverse of
that offered by the body of the foetus ; all the articulations of the vertebra?,
but particularly that of the atlas with the occiput, and those of all the
limbs, being flexed downwards, or in a contrary direction to the curve of
the sacrum. Conse(|uently, in order to accommr^date themselves to this
curvature, all these articulations must be forcibly extended — an unfavor-
able condition — while the pressure and friction must be considerable. And
not only is progress through the pelvic canal slower and more difficult, but
the maternal organs are also exposed to injury, and sometimes receive
serious damage : the feet of the fcetus having a natural tendency to be
carried upwards, may squeeze the vagina against the sacrum, or press
against the perineum, etc., when Ave may have lacerations of the vagina,
vulva, perineum, or other part.
XVIII. Mechanism of Parturition in the Anterior Vertebro-IHal Positions.
These lateral positions — two in number and symmetrical — are rarely pri-
mary, but are sometimes found as secondary positions, due to the reduction
of some malpresentations. Spontaneous birth is impossible in these po-
sitions, because the chest of the fcetus presents its greatest diameter to the
smallest diameter of the pelvis of the mother. This, however, is an exag-
geration, as Saint-Cyr points out that the bis-iliac diameter is sometimes
equal, or even superior, to the sacro-pubic diameter ; so that it is not always
absolutely impossible for delivery to occur spontaneously in these positions ;
though it is very true that it is always more difficult, and sometimes im-
possible, if the position is not altered. Independently of the disproportion
between the diameters of the pelvis and the corresponding diameters of the
504
CYCLOPEDLV OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR,
foetus, here also we find the two salient parts of the latter — the sternum and
dorsal spines — jamming against the two resisting parts of the pelvic cir-
cumference— the ascending branch of each ilium — and it will be readily
seen that in some cases these will prove an insurmountable obstacle. Nev-
ertheless, a? a genera] rule, this obstacle may be easily turned by merely
causing the body of the fa-tus to rotate on its axis in such a manner that
its greatest diameter will be brought opposite the oblique diameter of the
inlet, which extends from the ileo-pectineal ridge to the sacro-iliac articula-
tion on the opposite side. Then its entrance into the pelvic cavity, and
complete expulsion, is rendered possible.
XIX. Mechanism of Parturition in the Posterior Lumbo-Sacral Position.
Of the four positions in Avhich we may have a breech or posterior presen-
tation, only one is compatible with spontaneous delivery — the lumbosacral.
The foetus is presented by the breech, the loins towards the sacrum of the
mother, the hind limbs in complete extension and entering the inlet, so as
to open the passage for the body, and though this position may appear to
be favorable for the expulsion of the young creature, yet it is far less so
than the first anterior position. The croup of the foetus is a rounded
voluminous mass which does not admit of much compression, and the
diameters of which — particularly the transverse — are nearly equal to those
of the pelvis; it is, therefore, not well disposed for passing through the
latter, and, in addition, its upper part presses against the sacro-vertebral
angle; while the stifles, which are salient, press against the edge of the
pubis, and the hip joints against the branches of the ilium. Entrance into
the inlet must therefore be slow, difficult and painful for the mother, and
when this first obstacle is overcome and the croup is in the pelvic cavity,
the chest has to follow, and to submit to the same compression at the inlet
as in the anterior presentation. But this part of the foetus is much less
favorably disposed for such a reduction of dimensions in this position, as
the resistance oft'ered by the walls of the maternal pelvis has a tendency to
erect the dorsal spines and to carry the ribs and sternum forward — all this
going to increase the diameter o-f the foetus in every direction. It is only,
then, by direct compression or crushing, that the necessary diminution in
the diameters of the young creature can be efiPected, and not by a kind of
physiological decrease, as in the anterior presentation.
There is also the obstacle offered by the hair of the foetus, the "set" of
which is against the direction of movement ; and this obstacle will be greatly
increased if the fluids have escaped for some time, and the parts are more
or less dry.
Taking all these considerations into account, it will be seen that in this
position, even when birth is possible with extraneous assistance, labor must
be long and exhausting, and that the young creature incurs the greatest
danger. Labor, however, is more likely to be successful and less tedious if
PARTURITION. 505
the haunches of the foetus present one after the other at the inlet; so that
a slight obliquity in the presentation makes a great difference; and it is
just possible that when birth takes place in this position without aid, this
obliquity may have been present.
In the cow, the calf is more frequently born alive in this position than
the foal, and birth is easier; a circumstance which is, in all probability,
due to the smaller dimensions of the croup in the young of the bovine
species.
XX. Necessary Aid in Normal Parturition.
Although, as a rule, parturition is generally effected in animals in what
we have designated a "spontaneous" manner (without the intervention
of man), and without danger or prejudice to the mother or offspring; and
although these do not require that minute and scrupulous attention be-
stowed on woman, even when birth has been easy, yet from the nature of
this act and the unfavorable consequences which are sometimes noted, cer-
tain precautions should be observed by the owner of the animals at this
period, and especially if' these should happen to be valuable and very
artificially kept. These attentions and precautions should be entrusted
for their carrying out to competent persons selected by the owner, as it
is seldom that the veterinarian is called in unless something serious has
occurred. The mother, as well as the offspring, require watching and more
or less nursing.
XXI. Spaying, or the Castration of the Mare.
Spaying consists in removing the essential organs of generation — the
ovaries. It is the counterpart of castration in the stallion. When the
mare is spayed, the object, generally, is to cure nymphomania, or some
other disease peculiar to her sex. The effect of this operation upon a
ferocious animal is often very marked; she soon becomes docile and easily
managed. In case of the cow, if the operation is performed after the third
or fourth calf (the best time), both the quantity and quality of the milk is
improved, and the flow will continue thus from eighteen to twenty-four
months. Besides this, she will then readily lay on a great deal of fat; as
beef, her flesh is tender and juicy, and she will bring considerably more
money when sold to the butcher. Of course, she can never produce any
.more calves.
There are two methods of operating in spaying — (1) through the flank,
and (2) through the vagina. The former method requires only a knife
and an ecraseur, or a knife and a silk thread for a ligature, and is the
easier one, particularly so for the inexperienced operator. The animal is
most easily worked on when she is in the standing position, with the feet
hobbled, the head held by a twitch, and the body pressed against the wall.
506
CYCLOPEDIA OP LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
The left is the flank usually chosen. A vertical incision in the upper part
of this region is made, sufficiently long to admit the hand, which is passed
in and upwards; the horn of the uterus will be felt just below the rectum,
as shown in the engraving, and, at the extremity of the horn, the egg-
shaped ovary. The ovary is drawn out of the opening and removed with
the escraseur, or by using a silk ligature and cutting it off with the scis-
sors. Thus the left ovary is extirpated. The right is next to be felt for at
the other horn of the uterus, and drawn out and removed in the same way.
Spaying through the vagina requires special instruments ; the principal
are a concealed knife, the torsion forceps or the ecraseur, or ligature.
It being too difficult an operation for anyone not an expert, our descrip-
TIIE POSITION OF THE ORGANS OF THE MARK.
1 — Uterus.
2— Horn of Uterus.
3 — Vagina.
4 — Bladder.
5 — Rectum.
6 — Anus.
7, 8— Vulva.
9 — Ovary.
10 — Oviduct to Uterus.
11— Kidney.
12 — Abdominal Muscle.
tion of it will purposely be condensed. The i)lace wliere the opening is
made is the vagina, at a point just behind the neck of the womb,
at the top of the cavity. The opening needs to be about two and one-half
inches long, and parallel with the cavity. Through it the finger is passed,
and the ovary, when secured, is drawn into the opening and twisted oft"
with the forceps, or crushed off with the ecraseur, or cut off Avith the knife
and the vessels ligatured. This process is then repeated on the opposite
side. There are other instruments for dilating the vagina, and for guid-
ing to the place to cut, that we have not described ; they are very costly, and
of no use to the average horse owner.
CHAPTER XIX.
DISEASES OP THE ORGANS OP GENERATION.
OF THE MALE: — T. INFLAMMATION OK THE TESTICLES. II. HYDROCELE, OR DROPSY
OF THE SCROTUM. III. EVIL RESULTS OF CASTRATION. IV. WOUNDS OF THE
PENIS. V. GONORRllCEA. VI. PHIMOSIS AND PARAPHIMOSIS. VII. MAS-
TURBATION.
OF THE FEMALE: — VIII. PARTURITION. IX. METRITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE
WOMB. X. INFLAMMATION OF THE OVARIES. XI. LEUCORRHCEA. XII.
PUERPERAL, FEVER. XIII. MAMMITIS. XIV. HYSTERIA. XV. ABORTION.
Horses as a race do not suffer with these diseases as much as cattle
and other lower animals, probably on account of their greater activity,
Tvhich is conducive to health, that of the organs of generation as well
as of other parts of the body.
1. Inflammation of the Testicles.
This usually occurs as a result of external injury, but is sometimes ihe
result of excessive copulation, glanderous deposit, or a localization of other
morbific conditions of the system. There will be more or less tumefac-
tion, great soreness, some fever and a straddling gait.
What to do. — Give a purgative. No. 23 ; also, give No. 16 in the feed,
which should be light and soft, grass if possible. Spread over the organ
a little solid extract of belladonna once a day, after hot fomentations.
Give gentle exercise, but allow rest from active male service for a week,
or longer if necessary. Should it go on to suppuration, open it and in-
ject lotion No. 39. If it becomes calloused, hard, and does not diminish
in size, substitute lotion as follows :
No. 74. 1 Drachm iodine,
1 Draciim potassium iodide,
% Pint water.
Mix.
Inject a tablespoonful into the organ twice a day, and apply some on
the outside. If treatment fails, castration must be resorted to. (See
chapter on operations.)
II. Hydrocele, or Dropsy of the Scrotum.
The scrotum is the pouch or bag that contains the testicles. Dropsy
9f it is due to the effusion following an injury thereto. It will be found
««larged, tender, soft and fluctuating.
607
508 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOB.
What to do. — Draw off the water with a small trocharand cannula ; re-
peat it, if necessary, half a dozen times, for these cavities are prone to
refill. Paint the outside with tincture of iodine. If all means fail and
the case becomes hopeless, resort to castration. (See chapter on oper-
ations. "^
m. Evil Results of Castration.
Scirrhus cord. — When the cord is left too long, the ends hanging
down between the lips of the wound made in the scrotum, it becomes ad-
herent to them, and the whole swells together, becoming an indurated
mass, sometimes as large as a child's head.
What to do. — The horse must be cast, the cord dissected away from
the scrotum, and the cord (which will be found in the form of a tumor)
excised. In the absence of a good veterinarian, excise it with the
ecraseur, taking pains to get down low, so as to take out as much of it as
possible, and dress it, twice a day, with lotion No. 5.
Abscess in the scrotum. — This occurs from healing of the wound
before the suppurative process, which always follows to a greater or less
extent, is finished. The confined pus accumulates and forms a large
abscess, causing the sheath to swell, as also the lymphatic glands on the
inside of the thigh, giving rise to a straddling gait and disinclination to
move.
What to do. — Open it freely, and evacuate the pus, when it will com-
monly heal readily ; if it does not, however, inject lotion No. 5, twice
a day.
Projecting cord. — Sometimes a small teat-hke piece of the cord will
project through the wound in the scrotum, preventing it from entirely
healing. Pinch this off close to the scrotum with the thumb nail, and
cauterize it with lunar caustic.
Tumors on the cord. - These may form from catching cold after cas-
tration, strangulation of the cord, or too rough handling. They sometimes
attain the size of a child's head. The tumor differs from scirrhus in
being situated higher up in the canal. It must be dissected out, the same
as scirrhus cord above described.
IV. Wound of the Penis.
This sometimes happens to stallions while teasing mares ; it gets kicked,
swung against a fence, or struck by mischievous boys in play. Some-
times amputation is necessary. (See chapter on operations.) When an
operation is not necessary, foment with hot water and apply lotion No.
24, two or three times a day. If tumefaction is great, support the penis
with a bandage passed over the loins.
DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 509
V. Gonorrhoea or Gleet.
This is catarrh of the mucous membrane lining the urethra. Its causes
are excessive work in the stud, connection too soon after parturition, or
irritating substances in the urine.
How to know it. — The urine will be passed in small jets, with frequent
interruptions and manifestations of pain, and there will be some swelling
and soreness of the parts.
What to do. — Suspend the labor in the stud for a couple of weeks;
foment with hot water frequently, and inject the following lotion twice a
day: (See also page 448, — treatment for another type of this disease.)
No. 75. 2 Drachms sulphate of zinc,
1 Pint water,
Mix.
Or, instead, the following may be used:
No. 76. 3 Drachms sugar of lead,
1 Pint water.
Mix.
VI. Phimosis and Paraphimosis.
These are swollen conditions of the penis. In the former, the penis ia
swollen and confined within the sheath, so that it cannot be protruded; in
the latter, the penis is swollen outside the sheath, and cannot be withdrawn.
What to do. — When phimosis exists, open the external portion of the
sheath, so as to enlarge the opening; then, if the penis is swollen when
liberated, bathe with cold water, and apply lotion No. 24 three times a day.
For paraphimosis, bathe with cold water, apply lotion No. 24 three times
a day, manipulate as much as the soreness will allow, and support the penis
with a bandage passed across the loins. Do not, on any account, omit the
bandage, as the weight of the swollen organ is alone sufficient to keep it
irritated and inflamed. If this fails to accomplish the desired effect, the
rim of the sheath may be slit up a little ways, and the organ manipulated
and pushed back. Leave the cutting, however, for the last resort.
Vn. Masturbation.
This is a bad habit of abusing nature, that some stallions get into. It may
result from weakness, consequent upon overwork in the stud, or, on the
other hand, from superfluous passion attending want of work in connection
with high feeding. When from the former cause, reduce the work, give
walking exercise, and administer tonics, such as Nos. 67, 35 or 33. When
from the latter, give, for a purgative. No. 23, reduce the feed, increase the
exercise, and give No. 37. It debilitates the horse so much that it makes
him useless. In addition to the remedies mentioned, let him wear a shield
whenever standing in the stable. This will usually cure a case that requires
an erectiou to emit the semen, but oftentimes, in bad ca£es, emission will take
510 CYCLOPEDIA OP LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
place without erection ; it flowing away, occasionally, with the urine. In
such a case castration is the only remedy. To prevent this disastrous
habit, let all stallions wear shields from the time they are two years old.
DISEASES PECULIAR TO THE MARE.
Diseases of the generative organs are not so numerous in the mare as
in the cow, i)rol)al)ly owing, as before explained, to her leading a more
active life.
Vni. Parturition.
This the mare gets through with very quickly when everything is
right, l)ut when it goes wrong or is prolonged, on account of mnlpresen-
tation, or malformation of the pelvis, the case is very bad indeed. The
cow may be in the act of calving many hours, and come out all right, if
she gets tlie right kind of assistance, but the mare, if not relieved, may
die inside of an hour. Do not interfere, however, unless absolutely nec-
essary in consequence of delivery coming too soon, (as from some exter-
nal violence), and before the ligaments of the pelvis are relaxed to allow
the foetus to pass, or of some malpresentation. In such cases, assis-
tance, to be of any service, must be rendered soon and efficiently.
The mare should be strong and in good healthy condition ; as to flesh,
not too fat nor too thin, and strong, as a result of proper exercise. The
bowels should be loosened by giving soft feed, roots, etc., at the close of
the period of gestation. In the great majority of cases, little cr nothing
else is necessar3^
What to do. — ^In case of malpresentation, refer to the corresponding
position in the cow, which will be found described in its proper place.
If all means fail to deliver the foal alive, and one or the other must be
sacrificed, cut the foal away, piece by piece ; but if the foal is alive and the
mare cannot be saved, the foal can be brought away by the Cesarian
operation. (See chapter on operations.)
Dead foetus. — Sometimes the fcetus dies some considerable time be-
fore the full term of gestation is completed, and thus becoming a foreign
substance, it must be removed. Sometimes, in such cases, the os uteri
does not relax and needs assistance. This condition of affairs will be
known by the mare's continuous and persistent straining, in the effort to
expel the foetus.
What to do. — Pass in your hand, after oiling it with olive oil, and in-
sert one finger into the os, then two and three, and so on, working very
gradually, till it is well dilated. If this does not succeed, insert a sponge
wet with fluid extract of belladonna into the os, and let it remain there
ten or twelve hours, and then try the hand again.
DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 511
IX. Metritis, or Inflammation of the "Womb.
This results from injury during parturition, or from catching cold by ex-
posure to cold or wet soon after delivery. It usually comes on in two or
three days after parturition. There is more or less fever ; colicky pain ;
continually straining, as if to pass another foal ; looking around towards
the flanks ; a discharge of foetid black fluid from the womb ; and arched
back.
What to da. — Give a mild purgative of raw linseed oil, in amount
from a pint to a quart, according to the size of the patient. Wash out
the womb with warm water, to which a little, a very little, whiskey has
been added, and inject No. 39. Give No. 18 internally, as often as the
fever and other symptoms require. Feed on light diet and keep warm.
X. Inflammation of the Ovaries.
This, though rare, is met with occasionally in the mare, and is mani-
fested by slight fever, soreness on pressure in the lumbar region, and dis-
inclination to walk. It usually occurs at the time of heat, and passes
away when that is over ; it aggravates the passions excited at that time.
What to do. — Give a teaspoonful of saltpetre in a bran mash, three
times a day, for a couple of days.
XI. Leucorrhoea.
This is catarrh of the vagina or of the womb, or of both. Caused,
originally, by a slight attack of inflammation, a discharge from the
irritated surfaces is set up and soon becomes chronic. It often follows dif-
ficult parturition, in which the parts have been torn and injured, more or
less. "When the after-birth is retained, leucorrhoea invariably follows,
owing to the irritation caused by the decomposition, which, in such cases,
is nature's only alternative for getting rid of the foreign body.
The discharge is whitish and slimy, of a disagreeable odor ; in fact,
when following retention of the after-birth, it is often purulent, and very
offensive. It tells heavily on the general health of the patient ; she loses
flesh ; the coat becomes rough, coarse and staring ; and the milk dries up,
or nearly so.
What to do. — Introduce a catheter into the womb, and draw off
the purulent accumulations, if any exi,st ; next, inject tepid water, draw-
ing it off with the catheter ; then inject lotions Nos. 75, 76 and 39, chan<y-
ing from one to another, and applying them twice a day till cured. At the
same time, give, as a course of tonics, Nos. 67, 35 and 22, changing
occasionally from one to another. Continue them throe or four weeks.
Give green food, if practicable ; if not, give bran mashes, roots, etc.
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOB.
Xn. Puerperal Fever.
This is a l)enign fever, usually occurring on the second or third daj
after parturition. It is aggravated by colds, exposure, or neglect.
How to know It. — The symptoms are those of general fever, accelera-
ted pulse and respiration, with heightened temperature ; the ears and
extremities, however, are cold ; the visible mucous membranes are inject-
ed and red ; the bowels are constipated ; the urine is scanty and high col-
ored ; secretion of milk is suspended ; and the udder inclines to inflamma-
tion and hardness. It may occur in mares of all ages, but is most often
met with after the first pregnancy, and seems to accompany the effort
of nature in secreting the milk.
What to do. — ■'Keep the animal warm, in a place with good ventilation
but no drafts ; give soft diet (grass if possible)^ and plenty of pure water
with a tablespoonf ul of sweet spirits of nitre mixed with it morning and
night. If the bowels are constipated, give half a pint of raw linseed oil,
repeating it after ten or twelve hours.
XII. Mammitis.
This is inflammation of the mammary glands, or udder ; it accompanies
parturition, and then always exists to a certain extent, consequent upon
the secretion of milk. It is apt to be most severe after the first foaling.
Usually, the inflammation subsides in the course of a week or so; that is,
as the organs become accustomed to secreting the milk, and their outside
is softened by the foal sucking and pulling at the teats ; but not in-
frequently it happens that, instead of getting better and softer, they get
harder and larger, sore, hot and painful. When it runs on to suppura-
tion of a quarter, as it sometimes does, the milk curdles and comes away'
with difficulty, in small quantities, and is bloody. There is always more
or less constitutional disturbance, fever, accelerated pulse, etc.
What to do. — Foment vigorously with hot water, as continuously as
possible ; manipulate to the utmost extent that the soreness will allow :
encourage the foal to suck and pull the teats, and milk all you can, at
frequent intervals, to prevent the milk from curdling. If it goes on to
suppuration, open the abscesses and inject lotion No. 39, twice a day, and
apply oil-cake poultices, changing them morning and night. Give soft
feed ; if in winter, take the chill off the drinking water, and keep the
mare blanketed. Give a teaspoonful of saltpetre in a bran mash morn-
ing and night. If the bowels are constipated, give a pint of raw linseed
oil. Rub the glands with the following, three times a day :
No. 77. 1 Ounce camphor gum,
y^ Pint olive oil,
Mix.
DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF 0ENEBAT1ON. 513
XIV. Hysteria.
This is a peculiar and quite rare nervous condition accompanying beat
and manifested, principally, by the voluntary muscles. The jaws champ ;
the teeth are ground ; the muscles tremble ; the legs and feet are liable
to paw, strike or kick spasmodically ; in short, the mare acts in a generally
delirious manner. Sometimes the brain is so much affected that this coo*
dition runs on into tetanic convulsions, inflammation of the brain, and
death.
What to do. — Give a quart of raw linseed oil, or else No. 23, and No.
52. Repeat the latter every four to six hours, till purgation takes place,
when all unpleasant symptoms will usually disappear.
XV. Abortion.
When mares abort, it is usually the result of accident or overwork.
If compelled to draw too heavy a load, a single extra hard pull is often-
times sufficient to produce abortion ; any such accident as slipping, fall-
ing, external violence, etc., may likewise bring it about. Usually, all
parts come away naturally, without any untoward result other than nerv-
ous prostration , and, perhaps, a slight febrile rise in pulse and temper-
ature for a day or two aftenvards.
What to do. — Allow absolute rest for a few days, and give soft feed
and chilled water. If any fever follows, give a teaspoonful of saltpetre
In the mash, morning and night.
CHAPTER XX.
DISEASES OP THE LIVER.
I. CONGESTION OF THE LIVER. II. HEPATITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OP THE LIVER
(ACUTE OK CHRONIC). III. CEROMA, Oil FATTY UEGENEKATION. IV. CIR-
RHOSIS, OK FIBROUS IJEGENERATION. V. JAUNDICE, ICTERUS, OR YELLOWS.
VI. BILIARY CALCULI, OR GALL-STONES. VII. HVFERTROFHY.- VIII. ATRO-
PHY. IX. SOFTENING, OR RAMOLLISSEMENT, WITH RUPTURE.
Diseases of the liver in the lower animals, are not as common as in the
human family, but they are met with occasionally, and their effects are
plainly visible. The other organs of the body necessarily suffer when
there is inactivity of the liver, since its functions are very important,
both in eliminating impurities from the blood, and in secreting the bile
that largely contributes to maintaining the health of the bowels.
Certain marked symptoms are common to all diseases of the liver,
viz : yellowness of all the visible mucous membranes, dullness of spirits,
languor, and loss of apj)etite. When the bile is secreted too abundantly,
the foeces are bright yellow, with either diarrhcBa, or a tendency that
way ; and when the bile is scanty, the foeces are of a gray, ashy color,
hard and very offensive to the smell. Again, when the liver fails to secrete
its customary quantity of urea, the latter is thrown back into the sys-
tem, with especial detriment to the kidneys, giving rise to congestion of
those organs or azoturia, (which see). The principal diseases of the
liver, in the horse, are enumerated in the heading of this chapter.
I. Congestion of the Liver.
This is engorgement of the hepatic blood vessels, and, in a secondary
manner, is accompanied by engorgement of many of the other internal
organs, Its subjects are commonly high fed, pampered, idle aninials.
It is frequently a symptom of influenza, from obstruction of the flow of
bile, caused by inflammation of the lining membrane of the bile ducts,
which, in turn, is simply one manifestation of the general catarrhal
inflammation of the mucous membranes of the whole body.
How to know it. — In addition to the general symptoms of hepatic dis-
ease, mentioned in the second paragraph of this chapter, there will be
some colicky pains ; turniiig of the head towards the right side ; high
brownish color of the urine ; constipation ; clay-colored fceces; an offen-
sive smell to both foeces and mouth ; and grinding of the teeth. Some-
times, there is also lameness in the right fore-shoulder, and more or less
fever.
514
DISEASES OF THE LIVER. 515
What to do. — Some authorities recommend bleeding and purgatives,
except when it is a symptom of influenza. In case tlie animal is fat,
bleeding would be an advantage. Follow it with No. 37, given in doses
of two or three tablespoonfuis in soft feed, three times a day. Let the
food be light and rather sparing.
When there are liver troubles, as a complication of influenza, it is not
safe to give them any special treatment. In such cases, treat for influ-
enza, as elsewhere given.
II. Hepatitis, or luflammation of the Liver.
This may be either acute or chronic. It is very rare in the lower ani-
mals, among which it is most often seen in old horses. The inflamma-
tion may have its seat either in the covering membrane, known to anato-
mists as "Glisson's Capsule," or in tlie glandular portion itself. It may
lead to abscesses, or to a hardening or softening of the organ. We will
treat, first, of the acute form.
How to know it. — There is marked loss of appetite, and dullness of
the eye ; the patient usually remains standing, but hangs his head ; the
manure, passed in small balls, is of a dark reddish-brown color, and
sometimes very much mixed with bile, covered with a slimy mucous
matter ; the urine is scant and high colored, and there is tenderness of
the right side.
What to do, — III the acute form, give early, as a mild purgative, No.
23, and follow it with this:
No. 78. 2 Ounces chlorate of potash,
1 Quart water,
Mix.
Give four ounces (about two wine-glassfuls) three times a day. Feed
on light diet.
The chronic form may follow the acute, or it may exist as an original
disease. It gives rise to material changes in the liver, which may become
enlarged and softened, or diminished in size and indurated and hardened.
In those cases where it comes on gradually, and exists as an original dis-
ease, it is the result of want of proper food, or a process of gradual
starvation, and tends to a fatal termination. If the food is insufficient
and unsuitable, the fact will be shown by a poverty-stricken appearance
of the animal generally.
What to do. — Give a complete change in every way possible — location
and altitude, as well as in the quality and quantity of food.
m. Ceroma, or Fatty Degeneration of the Liver.
This is usually seen in old horses that are very fat. The liver becomes
large and soft, and the hepatic cells becoming filled with fat, the secretion
51G CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
of bile is interfered with. Here we find one of the causes of con-
stipation and enteritis ; for the bile is the main agent in keeping the
bowels in order, including, also, the prevention of acidity and abnormal
waste of the tissues composing Ihem.
No treatment can be prescribed. These cases usually die suddenly,
from rupture of the capsule and escape of blood into the abdominal
cavity. Prevention might be effected by not allowing old horses to get
too fat.
IV. Cirrhosis, or Fibrous Degeneration.
This is due, probably, to material changes in the blood, which becoming
poor in quality and scanty in quantity, gives rise to atrophy of the sys-
tem, pining, and death. On post-mortem examination, the live/ is found
to be light, and in color of a yellow cast, roughened on the surface, firm
to the touch, not so easily broken down as in a healthy condition ; it is
hard, fibrous and dry; and, when cut across, the lobules are replaced by
white fibrous tissue, exhibiting a mottled appearance, like the interior of
a nutmeg. No specific treatment is possible.
V. Jaundice, Icterus, or Yellows.
This is only a symptom of derangement of the liver, though commonly
spoken of as a separate disease. It indicates an obstruction of the gall
duct that conveys the bile into the intestines, the consequence of which
is, that the bile is thrown back into the system, and hence the yellow
appearance so characteristic of all liver disorders.
If it is not complicated with any other disease, give a purgative. No.
23, and follow it with No. 37. If, however, it exists as a complication,
treat the other disease rather than this condition.
VI. Biliary Calculi, or Gall-stones.
Thougn gall-stones are rarely found, incrustations on the walls of the
ducts are quite common. They do little or no harm, unless they accu-
mulate to such an extent as to obstruct the duet, in which case there will
be colicky pains, frequent looking around to the right side, aud a yellow,
bilious appearance generally.
Give No. 55.
vn. Hypertrophy of the Liver.
This, which is the name given an abnormal growth of the organ, U
usually associated with a plethoric condition, resulting from idleness and
high feeding.
Reduce the flesh, by giving No. 23, and restricting the diet.
DISEASES OF THE LIVER.
517
"VTII. Atrophy of the Liver.
This is a wasting, shrinking, pining away process. Its causes are
either some other disease, or else starvation. If the former, treat the
other disease, and the system may, perhaps, redevelop. If starvation
and neglect are to blame, make a radical change, giving good food, and
plenty of it.
IX. Softening, or Bamollissement, with Rupture.
This is probably due to repeated attacks of congestion and engorge-
ment. The softening process goes on ,
till finally the inevitable sequel of
rupture takes place. Sometimes the
I'upture does not involve Glisson's
(japsule, but only the glandular mat-
ter, and when this occurs, it will be
manifested by colicky pains, and also
by fainting fits, if the head is raised
suddenly. The symptoms subside
after a while, and appear to leave no
injurious consequences. When, how-
ever, Glisson's capsule is ruptured,
hemorrhage into the abdomen occurs,
and a fatal termination suddenly ensues.
Prevention
softening and rupture, are due to improper feeding, the methods of pre-
vention are evident, viz : Regulate the diet carefully, reducing the
quality of rich and specially nutritious foods, and giving more hay, straw,
etc., and thus keeping down the tendency to undue obesity.
UEMORKHAGE
LIVEK.
BUOM THE
-Recognizing that all affections of the
liver leading to
CHAPTER XXI.
DISEASES OP THE EYE.
K. SPECIFIC OPHTHALMIA, OR MOON BLINDNESS. II. SIMPLE OPHTHALMIA, OK
CONJUNCTIVITIS. III. AMAUROSIS, GDTTA SERENA, OR GLASS EYE. IV.
GLAUCOMA. V. IRITIS. VI. LEUCOMA. VII. CATARACT. VIII. FILA-
RIA OCULI, OR WORM IN THE EYE. IX. KNTROPIUM. X. ECTROPIUM. XI.
TORN EYELIDS. XII. CANCEROUS TUMOR IN THE EYE. XIII. OBSTRUCTION
OF THE LACHRYMAL DUCT.
Diseases of the eye are not nearly as numerous among the equine
race as in man, though it would be a mistake to infer from this that the
eye is a less sensitive or complicated organ in the one than in the other.
The oculary diseases of the horse are about all included in the list above
given.
I. Specific Ophthalmia, or Moon Blindness.
This is the bane of horse-flesh in the West, where a multitude of
good horses lose their sight from an hereditary disease that is utterly
incurable, and runs on its certain course, fast or slow, to cataract. It
consists of inflammation of the cornea, choroid coat, ciliary processes and
iris, affecting, also, the humors and lens, and giving rise to an immense
amount of pain on account of the intro-ocular pressure.
It is called speciHc on account of its occult cause, nature and perio-
dicity. While it is transmissible to the offspring from either parent, it is
especially so from the sire.
How to know it. — There is swelling of the whole eye, lids, conjunctiva,
the mucous lining of the lids, and all internal
parts of the eye; and the cornea being in-
elastic, the pressure and pain are intense. The
eye is closed, or nearly so, from the light,
tears run down over the cheek, and the mu-
cous membranes become very red; and as a
result of the inflammation, pus is formed in
the anterior chamber, and may be seen as a
whitish substance down in the lower portion.
After a few days, the inflammation sub-
sides, goes away, and leaves the eye nearly as
bright as natural ; still, if examined carefully,
shreds of the lymph will be seen hanging
around in the anterior chamber, and the
pupil will be ragged. After a period of from
four months, the trouble will recur with
an aggravated degree; the whitish sub-
MOON BLINDNESS.
four weeks to three or
all the symptoms in
stance (lymph) becomes purulent, and, settling at the bottom, may
518
DISEASES OF THE EYE. 5 IS.
there be seen like a half-moon. Examine the eye by the light of a can-
dle, (the horse being in a dark place,) and the cornea will look dull, and
the back of the eye bluish yellow. These appearances, accompanied
by the recurrences from time to time, will plainly stamp the disease as
specific or periodic ophthalmia. It may affect either eye ah)ne, or both
at the same time, and the periodic recurrence may either be noticed first
in one and then in the other, or else always in the same one. After one
or more recurrences, the lymph or pus in the bottom of the anterior
chamber will remain. The pupil becomes uneven, the eye looks smaller,
on account of its being drawn back into the socket to avoid the light, and
before long, as a result of the inflammation, the fatty cushion at the back
of the eye becomes absorbed. After a few recurrences, there is perceived
a muddincss around the lens, which increases in opacity with each suc-
cessive attack, till a cataract forms. This is the inevitable result. Then
the intensity of the attack diminishes, and finally subsides altogether.
What to do. — There is no treatment known that will absolutely cure
it ; yet good attention will ward off the final termination for a long time.
When first coming on, give a purgative. No. 23, and follow it up with
this :
No. 79. 1 Drachm potassium iodide,
1^ Pint water,
"Mix.
Give this as one dose in a bran mash or from a bottle. Repeat it three
times a day for a fortnight. Feed on bran mashes, green food, roots,
etc. Bathe the eye with hot water an hour at a time, three times a day.
Apply the following lotion to the eye, with a camel's hair brush, four or
six times a day :
No. 80. 2 Grains sulphate of atropia,
1 Ounce water,
Mix,
Keep the animuji in a dark place, with plenty of water to drink.
When the active inflammation has subsided, use the following lotion ;
No. 81. 5 Grains nitrate of silver,
1 Ounce water,
Mix.
Apply with a camel's hair brush, twice a day for a week or so, which
will help to take up the cloudiness that may remain from the inflamma-
tion. If this object is not satisfactorily effected, apply No. 82.
Prevention. — Never breed a mare affected with specific ophthalmia,
not even when she is stone-blind and all danger of subsequent recurren-
ces gone. Never breed to a stallion similarly affected. Its hereditary
character is certain. It breaks out in the offspring, usually, between the
ages of four and seven, most often at about six.
520
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOB.
n. Simple Ophthalmia, or Conjunctivitis.
The lining of the eyelids is a sensitive, vascular, mucous membrane
called the conjunctiva. Inflammation of this membrane and the other
external parts is known as simple ophthalmia, or conjunctivitis.
Cause. — The most common cause is the introduction of foreign bodies
into the eye, such as hay-seed, hair, cinders, lime or other caustic sub-
stances, etc. It often accomi)anies other diseases, as a symptom of fever,
the conjunctiva at such times sharing with all other mucous membranes
in the tendency to congestion.
How to know it. — The eye is kept partly or nearly closed, the eyelids
are swollen, the tears flow copiously down the cheek, and when the lids
arc opened the lining is very red and inflamed, with
the haw drawn well up on the eye. After a day or
two, the surface of the cornea (the transparent por-
tion of the eyeball) becomes clouded with a whitish
film-like substance, caused by the interrupted nutri-
tion which attends the inflammation and tumefaction.
If neglected, the opacity increases and soon becomes
chronic, resisting treatment, and causing blindness.
Sometimes, when the irritant is very severe, the in-
flammation extends to the interior of the eye, break-
ing down the structure of the parts, when blindness
results, as a matter of course.
What to do- — Make a careful examination, and remove the offending
object. Foreign bodies can be removed with forceps, or l)y a silk hand-
kerchief passed over the head of a pin. The forceps should be curved,
and the curved surface applied to the eye, so as to avoid the possibility
of puncturing the points into it. If so much
swollen that the foreign body cannot be dis-
covered, the point where it is will be apt to be
more swollen than the rest, thereby giving a
due as to its location. If it is down under the
haw, the latter may be caught by a hook or
tenaculum, and drawn up so as to allow com-
plete examination of the surfaces beneath. It
is often necessary to fasten the haw, to prevent
its movements from interfering with the examination of the eye.
After the irritant is removed, bathe the eye with warm water having a
small quantity of salt in it, — a teaspoonful of salt to a pint of water ;
have the water and sponge clean, and foment the eye half an hour at a
time, three or four times a day. Insert a flaxseed under the lid several
times a day, or smear across and into the eye the white of an egg.
SIMPLE OPHTHAL-
MIA.
Ihe pupil natural, but
the line showing^ the
position of the haw, it
being^ drawn well up
on the eye, in its en-
deavor to brush off the
foreign body.
MANNER OF OPENING THE
EYE WHEN SEARCHING
FOR FOREIGN BODIES.
DISEASES OF THE EYE. 521
If the cornea becomes cloudy, apply the following lotion morning and
night, with a camel's hair brush.
No. 82, 10 Grains nitrate of silver,
1 Ounce water,
Mix.
Apply lotion No. 80, six to eight times a day, with a camel's hair
brush, all around under the eyelids and upon the eyeballs, to prevent
the extension of the inflammation to the inner parts of the eye, or to
alleviate it, if this has occurred. Give the animal rest, with soft feed and
a dark stall.
m. Amaurosis, Gutta Serena, or Glass Eye.
This is blindness from paralysis of the optic nei-ve (the nerve of the
sense of sight) and retina. The latter is the expansion of the optic nerve
over the back of the chamber of the eye. There is no alteration in the
structure of the eye, but simply loss of power to see. The pupil is greatly
dilated, indicating the eye's insensibility to light, and has a very clear,
bright appearance, like blue glass ;and instead of contracting and expand-
ing, as it should do, in different degrees of light, it remains fixed.
Cause. — It may depend upon injury to the brain, with effusion press-
ing on the optic nerve, and when this is the cause, the appearance of the
eye above described will be noticed. Or it may result from excessive
fever in any disease, and especially epizootic influenza, if the temper-
ature of the body runs above 106 ® . In the latter case, the retina is
involved in the iiiflammation, loses its beautiful bluish lustre, and be-
comes whitish-green in color, and the humors (the liquids) of the eye
get more or less muddy, and give a greenish cast to the whole eye.
As this condition may not be detected by
a casual observer, by looking into the eye
itself, it is necessary to notice closely the
actions of the horse. It may effect one or
both eyes. If only one, the horse's action
may not be altered, but if both eyes are blind
the fact Avill be betrayed by his high stepping
and his constant moving of the ears forward
and backward. These are indications which
should always create suspicion in this re-
•^ EYE AFFECTED BY SERENA.
spect.
What to do. — Apply a blister. No. 9, to the cheek or temple, and
on the back of the neck, and give internally Nos. 67 and GQ in alterna/
tion. But a cure is rarely to be hoped for.
30
522
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
IV. Glaucoma.
This is inflammation involving the whole globe of the eye, but more par-
ticularly the vitreous humor, (the fluid in the posterior chamber of the
eye,) the iris, choroid, and sometime the retina. It occasions a dilated,
irregular pupil, muddiness of the vitreous humor, and a sea-green color
of the interior of the eye, with blindness as a frequent sequel.
What to do. — It is treated by constitutional remedies — calabar bean,
electricity, etc., and also by iridectomy (an operation to excise a portion
of the iris, to relieve the intro-ocular pressure.) These measures all
require the skill of a veterinarian.
V. Iritis.
Inflammation of the iris (that portion of the eye forming the pupiJ
and giving the color to the eye) is called iritis.
Cause. — Severe external violence, extremes of light and darkness, ex
posure to severe storms, facing the wind, and constitutional disorders.
How to know it. — A pink ring is seen around the sclerotica (the white,
fibrous coat forming the large posterior portion of the eye) ; the eye is re-
tracted and partly closed ; the haw is drawn up ; the conjunctiva is inflam-
ed, there being considerable fever in the con-
stitution ; the pupil is very small, and the
aqueous humor beconies turbid, with white
flakes floating in the anterior chamber, and
usually a little pus in the bottom of the latter^
What to do. — Place the animal in a dark
stall, or cover his face with a green cloth. Give
a purgative, No. 23. Bathe the eye with warm
water as much as possible, and apply No. 80
every few minutes for half an hour ; then rest
four or five hours, and repeat it. So continue
from day to day, till all symptoms of inflam-
mation are gone. Let the feed be soft and un-
stimulatimg.
VI. Leucoma.
This is a white opacity of the cornea, from extravasation of lymph into
the fibres of the extension of the conjunctiva over the cornea. It may be
the result of other eye diseases, of fever in the system, or of external vio-
lence. It is best treated by keeping in a dark place, with laxative food
and continuous application of No. 82, till it is cleared up.
MANNER OF SHADING A
HORSE'S EYES WHEN SUF-
FER'NG FROM INFLAMMA-
TION.
DISEASES OF THE EYE. 523
VTI. Cataract.
As the most common termination of all inflammatory diseases of the
eye, we see a white opaque substance covering the lens, and oftentimes
completely filling the pupil. This is cataract, of which there are two
kinds, distinguished by the terms capsular and lenticular, according to
their position. Cataract is organized lymph attached to the lens.
How to know rt. — Usually the pupil is very much dilated, and filled
with the white lymph, the defect being so plain as to be seen a hundred
feet away. Sometimes, however, it can only be detected by a close ex-
amination. Examine the horse, first, in strong sunlight, and note carefully
the degree of contraction of the jDupil ; then place him in a dark stall, and
examine the eye with a candle. A healthy eye reflects three candles,
the first from the cornea, the second from the surface of the lens, the
third from the back of the lens. When either or both of the last two are
blurred or, worse, entirely wanting, you need no further proof of the
existence of cataract.
What to do. — III recent cases, the eye may sometimes be cleared up by
simply giving a purgative. No. 23, and applying a lotion. No. 82, at the
same time giving No. 66, internally ; but in later stages nothing could
avail except to dissect them out — an operation that is never practiced on
the horse for the reason that, without glasses, he would never be able to
see things again, in their right position, size and form.
A FREQUENT RESUl^i OJ< IMPERFECT VISION.
Imperfect vision is worse than blindness, bemg vastly more misleading
and wholly unreliable.
Vlli. Filaria Oculi, or "Worm in the Eye.
This is a small, thread-like worm, seen floating about in the aqueous
humor in the anterior chamber of the eye. It is very rare. The worm
524 crrcLOPEDiA of live stock and complete stock doctor.
is from half an inch to two inches in length , and the size of a hair. It
is white in color, and is very active, squirming about in the eye, appar-
ently very much at home. It is probably taken into the stomach in the
egg form, and after hatching, the mite works through the coats of the
intestines and blood vessels, is carried by the circulation till it finds an
agreeable medium, and there developes. It causes a great amount of in-
flammation and pain in the eye, in which it can be plainly seen by any
observer.
What to do. — The only remedy is to puncture the cornea and evacuate
the anterior chamber, when the worm will come out along with the other
contents. This, however, is a delicate operation, and should never be
attempted by any but a qualified veterinary surgeon. ( See chapter oi?
operations.)
TK.. Entropium.
This is inversion of the eyelids, causing the lashes to turn in upon the
eyeballs, and giving rise to an irritating disease called Trichiosis. It is
due to excessive thickness of the lid above the rim, so that the rim is
made to turn in.
What to do. — It is treated by cutting out an elliptical section of the
skin, and sewing the wound up again, to shoi-ten the lid. Let the long
axis of the ellipse r-in lengthwise with the eyelid, horizontally.
X. Ectropium.
This trouble is consequent upon an inflamed and thickened conjunc«
tiva. It is a turning out or eversion of the lids, showing their red mu-
cous membranes continually. It is most common in the lower lid. It is
treated by an operation to remove an elliptical section of the conjunctiva,
the after treatment being the same as prescribed for simple ophthalmia.
XI. Torn Eyelids.
The lids are frequently torn by getting caught in hooks, nails, etc.
When possible, sew them up at once. Bring the edges neatly together
and sew them with fine silk, making fine stitches, and dress two or three
times a day with lotion No. 39. Tie the horse in the center of a wide
stall, with a line from each side, and let him eat off the floor, to prevent
him from rubbing his head and tearing the laceration open again.
xn. Cancerous Tumors in the Eye.
These, though rare, are occasionally met with in the horse, and their
only treatment is to extirpate them by cutting out the eye. Cancerous
growths are always malignant, and spread to surrounding tissues. (See
chapter on operations.)
DISEASES OF THE EYE 525
XIII. Obstruction of the Lachrymal Duct.
This duct is the one that carries off tears and superfluous moisture from
the eyes to the nose. It runs from the inner corner of the eyelids to
within two or three inches of the nostril, and empties on the floor of the
nasal passage. It occasionally becomes stopped up from extension to it
of the inflannnation attending catarrh, and then the tcai-s, having no
MAKE aiiOWING C]r,\KA(
Am
lEKMAL MYCOCIS.
(Disease of Skin Caused by Microbes.)
other channel of escape, may be seen flowing down
over the cheek.
What to do. — See if there is any mechanical ob-
struction in the nose, and, if so, remove it ; if not,
swab out the nostril with an infusion of tobacco.
Should this fail, the duct must be opened with a
probe. Take a fine elastic probe, about the size
of a knitting needle, and a foot long, and insert
it once a day for several days, and inject No. 73
with a fi'ie syringe.
OBSTRUCTION OF
LACHRYMAL DUCT.
CHAPTER XXII.
PARASITIC DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
-IV. MANGE. V. RING-
L INTESTINAL "WORMS. II. BOTS. III. LIC
WORM.
I. Intestinal Worms.
Three kinds of tape-worms and seven of round worms have been found
in the intestines of the hoi^se. The tape-worms are very rare, and hence
have but Httle interest for the average reader. But the round worms are
both very common and highly injurious to the animal harboring them.
Pin-tuorms or ascarides. — The most noteworthy is the pin-worm, of
which two kinds are very common, viz.: Sclerostomum, Equinum and
Oxyuris curvola. These, which are usually spoken of as ascarides, are
small round worms about an inch and a half to two inches long, pointed
llOK-SK IX _LAST yT.\Oi: OF INPECTIOUtf ANEMIA.
(A Deficiency of Blood in the System.;
at both ends, with a small black head. They inhabit the large intestines
(the rectum usually, and sometimes the colon), where they often exist
in large numbers, some of them being passed, also, from tim^e to time, in
the dung.
Teres Lumbnci. — The next most common worm is the large round
worm scientifically known as teres Iv/mhrid, which are about as thick as a
clay pipe-stem, and, as to length, about eight to twelve inches for the
male and about ten to eighteen inches for the female. They infest the
526
PARASITIC DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
>2]
email intestines, and frequently enter the stomach, but from the fact
that they seldom exist in very large quantities, commonly do somewhat
less damage than the ascarides. Nevertlieless, the writer has occasion-
ally seen them come away by the hat-full, after a heavy dose of vermi-
fuge.
How to detect their presence. — AVhen in small numbers, their exis-
tence is hardly ascertainable, but when in largo numbers, their pres-
ence will be betrayed by a capricious
appetite, usually a ravenous one ; ema-
ciation, with dry, coarse, staring coat,
and a pot-belly ; a whitish-yellow
mould will be seen around the anus,
probably made by worms being crush-
ed while passing out, leaving their
contents sticking to the skin, and,
usually, more or less of the worms
will be seen in the dung. When
they get into the stomach, the horse
will turn up his upper lip, as if nau-
seated, and will also rub his lips
against the wall, manger, etc. ; he
will lick the wall, sometimes even
lick the hair off himself, and will persistently rub his tail or keep switch-
ing it around, and otherwise manifesting the irritation that exists in the
anus and rectum.
Giant Sti'ongle. — Another round
worm occasionally observed in the horse,
is the giant strongle, {EustrongyJus
Gigas,) found, most commonly, in the
kidneys and bladder. But sometimes,
after having completely devoured a kid-
ney, this rapacious parasite bursts the cap-
sule, and falling into the abdominal cavity,
there tloats about among the intestines.
It then causes peritonitis and death. These worms are as large as a
man's big finger, and from one to three feet long. Their color is a
bright pink.
What to do for worms. — There are numerous useful vermifuges. The
most convenient and effectual is the f ollowinir :
APPEARANCE OF COLT SUFFERING FROM
WORMS.
^/m
HORSE RUBBING HIS NOSE AGAINST
A WALL— A SYMPTOM OF WORMS.
No. 83.
1 Drachm sulphate of iron,
1 Drachm tartar emetic,
2 Drachms linseed meal,
Mix.
128
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOClv>R.
Give as one dose, repeating it morning and night for a week ; then
give a purgative of oil and turpentine, as follows :
No. 84.
1 Ounce spirits of turpentine,
1 Pint raw linseed oil,
Mix.
Give as one dose.
After three weeks, repeat the entire treatment, to catch the young
worms previously left in the bowels, in the form of nits or eggs, and which
have hatched since.
iVrtSrtZ a7ul bronchial acari. — One sort of acarus is found
in the nose of the horse, and another, the strongylus micrurus,
in the bronchial tubes. They are from one and a half to three
inches long.
II. Bets.
The oestrus equi, or horse gadfly, in laying its eggs,
attaches them to the hair of the horse, usually on the fore legs
and breast, so as to be convenient to the horse's mouth. The
horse licks the spot irritated by the fly and thus gets one or
more c'-'^s into his mouth ; it is hatched by the heat and moisture, passes
down the o-ullet, and attaches itself to the coat of the stomach by two little
booklets on the head, and there hangs for several months,
as yet not having tlie power to let go. This is one of
the stages it has to go through, to become a fly. When
it has matured, it lets go, and soon passes out with the
duno-. It then hides itself in the earth,
to undergo another change, and after six or ^MMttj^
seven weeks' growth, in the pupa condition, ^^B^^
THE GADFLY. emcrgcs a full fledged gadfly, cap«])le of ^ ^°^*
annoying many horses and propagating its species indefinitely.
PEUTASTOMA
TCENOIDES.
Acarus which
lives in the nose.
I. Female fly about to deposit an egg,
3. The egg magnified.
3. The bot.
^^B 4. The chrysalis.
^^ 5. The male fly.
THE GADFLY, AT VARIOUS STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT.
The bot sucks liquid nourishment from the food of the horse, and
PARASITIC DISEASES OF TIIE nORSE.
529
for the holes found in
never, as is popularly supposed, eats the stomach
the stomach soon after the death of a healthy ani-
mal, are really caused by the action of the gastric
juice, — in fact, a kind of self-digestion by the stom-
ach itself.
The only harm bots can do is to accumulate in
such large quantities in the stomach and bowels as
to interfere with digestion and the free passage of
the fa3ces. In such cases a purgative may prove
advantageous.
No specific treatment is necessary. Feed well.
III. Lice.
All animals suffer from the ravages of external parasites, the most
common of which are lice. They are wingless insects, divided into
two classes, blood-suckers (^Hoematopinus) and Bird-lice (trichodectes.)
BOTS FASTENKD TO THE
STOMACH, UNABLE
TO LET GO.
^P^
"mi
//iTw ^
::^^
HEN-LOUSE, OR DERMANYS-
SUS OF THE HORSE.
GONIODES STYLIFER OF
THE TURKEY.
The former have narrow heads and long, trunk-like sucking tubes ;
the latter, very broad heads and biting jaws, but no sucking tube. Lice
always impoverish the animal they infest, causing loss of flesh and general
unthriftiness. Our four cuts of them are, of course, greatly magnified.
What to do. — The safest and most effectual remedy is a tobacco
infusion, made as follows :
No. 85. 2 Pounds tobacco,
3 Gallons water.
Mix, and steep for two hours.
Sponge the animal thoroughly,
same manner :
Or the following may be used in the
No. 86.
3 Pounds quassia chips,
1 Gallon water,
. Mix, and steep one hour.
530
CrCLOPEDIA OP LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
rv. Mange.
This is a parasitic disease that is due to a class of
insects called acari, of which there are three kinds
that trouble the horse, viz : the
sarcoptes, dermatophagus and dermato-
coptis. The first named burrows in
the deeper layers and cracks of the
skin, while the last two live on the
surface, under the scabs, where, of
course, they are more easily got at than
the former, and hence are less difficult
to treat.
How to know it. — There is a terri-
ble itching that cannot be satisfied ;
the more the horse rubs, the more
he itches. Horses with the mange
will sometimes be found turned out to pasture, and rubbing and scratch-
ing against posts, trees, fences, etc., or even against one another. As
HCEMATOPINUS, OR
BLOOD-SUCKING
LOUSE OF THE
HOKSE AND ASS.
TRICHODECTES
OR BIRD LOUSE
OF THE HORSE.
DERMATOPHAGUS EQUI.
DERMATOCOPTES EQUI.
the mites possess great vitality, and will live a long time away from a
horse, those left on the posts, etc., will infest any other horse coming in
contact with it weeks, or even months, afterward. Mange is contagious
by actual contact. The skin gets rough and scaly ; the hair comes off
in patches ; the skin gets pimply, and when rubbed much, gets quite raw.
It usually affects the head and neck first, sometimes spreading so as to
take the hair entirely off. Its spread is quite rapid, and keeps the horse
in agony all the time. He will push against your hand, in evident
PARASITIC DISEASES OF THE HORSE.
531
pleasure, when you scratch the affected part ; and this constitutes a good
test for mange. (See cut below.)
MANGE MITE (MAGNIFIED.)
As given by Doctor Erasmus Wilson,
SARCOPTES EQUI.
What to do. — Wash the parts affected with hot water and strong soap,
to remove all scabs and scurf ; then, when dry, rub well in to all affected
spots the following mixture :
No. 87. 4 Ounces sulphur,
2 Ounces oil of tar,
% Pint linseed oil,
Mix.
V. Ringworm.
This is a fungous, vegetable parasitic growth, scientifically known as
tricophy ton tonsurans . It is contagious, and attacks all classes of ani-
mals, yet sometimes arises spontaneously from poverty and filth. It
manifests itself by a round
])ald spot, scaly and elevated
inside the ring, which is red
and inflamed. It begins in a
small pimple-like sore, which
spreads very fast, increasing
in size from day to day, and
new sores forming on other
parts of the body. The ring
is surrounded by a row of broken, bristly hairs, which split, and become
filled with spore* of the fungus ; and as fast as one row of hairs is dis-
posed of another row is attacked.
Ringworm is, at first, simply a disfigurement, but it should, on no
account, be neglected. If allowed to run on, it becomes very trouble-
some. The scurfy skin of ringworm is easy of recognition, the particles
of scurf coming off in little flakes or scales, which have been aptly com-
pared to the coarser, husky portions of bran.
TEST FOR MANGE.
532 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
There is another form of ringworm called favus. It shows the same general ap-
pearance of the other, except that a scab forms in the center, after the ring has
receded.
What to do.— Wash with soap and water; when dry, paint with tincture of iodine
or the following:
40 Grains corrosive sublimate,
No. 88. 1 1 Pint water.
Mix.
i Repeat once a day till cured.
BOTS. 1, Bots in the Stomach. 2. Bots in the Duoflenum, or Tntestme.
CHAPTER XXIII.
VICES IN THE STABLE.
. CRIBBING. II. WIXD SUCKING. III. GNAWING THE MANGER, CLOTHING,
ETC.— — IV. KICKING WHILE EATING GRAIN. V. WASTING THE GRAIN. VI.
PULLING BACK, AN1> BREAKING THE HALTER. VII. BALKING.
Horses frequently contract pernicious habits in the stable, such as
always jDrove very annoying and often incurable. Nevertheless, a little in-
genuity will sometimes work wonders, not only in preventing the forma-
tion of such habits, but also in breaking them up. The most common
stable vices are those above noted.
I. Cribbing.
This is a habit of catching hold of the manger, post, fence, or other
object in front of the horse, with the teeth, and bearing down till the
neck is altered in position, so as to form a tempo-
rary vacuum in the pharynx, when the air rushes
in to fill it, making a sound not unlike the hic-
cough. It frequently occurs that the horse will
devote nine-tenths of his time to cribbing, to the
neglect of eating and sleeping, especially if at
grass, and bringing on indigestion, emaciation
and hidebound. For this reason, cribbers are
usually thin in flesh.
Cause. — Cribbing is considered by some to be
the result of indigestion ; by otheiis, of pain in cribbing.
the teeth while teething; and by others still, of idleness. While there
are cases that undoubtedly seem traceable to the first two mentioned
causes, the writer thinks this habit will l)e found, uniformly, to be associ-
ated, at least, with idleness. Old horses sometimes take it up, and horses
of all ages are apt to do so, if tied beside a cribber ; but in every such
case idleness seems to be a prerequisite. This opinion is strengthened,
too, by the undeniable fact that a horse kept in the stable several weeks,
from some trivial cause, is especially apt to acquire it.
What to do. — There are many devices in vogue for the cure of crib-
bing, each containing more or less merit, — such as a piece of buffalo
robe, or of iron, nailed on the edge of the manger ; red pepper smeared
over the latter ; a small strap around the throat, drawn very tio-ht, etc.
But the most effectual plan is to tie him in a wide stall, with a line from
533
534
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
each side, to keep hiin in the center, and feed him on the floor, Some
horses, however, will crib lying down ; or, if tied too short to reach the
floor, Avill sometimes crib on their own knees. The writer saw a horse
tied in front of the Board of Trade Building, in Chicago, that was checked
up so short that he could not reach the flag sidewalk ; so he would put
one foot up on the walk and crib on his knee, which he was just able to
reach. He would stand there, and do this by the hour. Cases so invet-
erate are not curable. Give internally, as treatment for the stomach,
the following : —
No. 89. 2 Ounces bicarbonate of soda,
1 Ounce o^entian root, powdered,
2 Ounces linseed meal.
Mix.
Give a tablespoonful morning and night, in soft food, and give plenty
of exercise. Old, long standing cases are obstinate, but those more re-
cent may generally be cured by the above treatment, if persevered in.
Prevention. — Avoid long-continued idleness, and also overfeeding on
strong, heating grain. A horse, to be kept in health, should be exercised
every day, and fed according to the work performed.
II. ■Wind-sucking.
This is similar to cribbing, which it often accompanies, but the horse
may suck wind without cribbing. He arches his back, curves his neck,
draws in his chin towards his breast and down goes a swallow of air into
the stomach ; this continues, usually, till he is so bloated that he is like a
barrel, and cannot hold any more. It is injurious, as being apt to cause
indigestion, colic, emaciation, hide-bound, etc.
Give No. 89 in soft food. This may help the case ; still, wind-
suckers are generally incurables.
III. Gnawing the Manger, Clothing, etc.
This habit, and especially gnawing the manger, is formed in idleness,
or else indicates the want of salt. Tearing
the blankets sometimes comes simply
from being too warm, especially if the
horse is fat ; the skin gets hot and itchy,
and he would be more comfortable with-
out a blanket, and perhaps should have
medical treatment, constitutionally.
What to do. — Give him plenty of
work, and feed accordingly. If he per-
sists iu the habit, smear the manger with
GNAWING THE MANGER. assafostlda, or make it of iron. If a
blanket is really necessary, he can be prevented from tearmg it, by tying
V fetick from his cheek to the surcingle.
VICES IN THE STABLE.
535
IV. Kicking while Eating Grain.
This is another outgrowth of continued idleness, in connection with a
nervous disposition. The horse, while eating his grain, will kick the side
of the stall, sometimes as often as four or five times a minute. This he
usually does with one foot, but sometimes wdth both, — first one and then
the other.
What to do. — A piece of chain, a foot or so in length and tied to the
pastern of the foot used, will sometimes prove effectual. Another plan
which usually answers the purpose, is to run a small rope from the bit
through a collar and surcingle to the foot. Or, a small bit may be used,
— one that will not interfere with the eating. Whipping is useless.
V. Wasting the Grain.
This is a playful habit of taking up the grain into the mouth and sift-
inof it out atmin, tlirowino; it around much as a child would the bread and
butter of which he had too much.
As a rule, it shows that the horse
has too much grain and too lit-
tle exercise ; he is fed more than
he needs or can relish. A horse
will not do it till he is fat and
cloyed, except, perhaps, in occa-
sional instances of irregular or
decayed teeth. Treatment for
these exceptional cases is given in
the article on teeth.
What to do.— The treatment
consists in removing the cause ;
give more work and less grain.
Sometimes a hard-worked, ravenous horse will plunge his nose into a
mess of oats and throw half of them out, from sheer irritability of tem-
per. Treat him kindly, however ; place a large angular stone, the size of
a man's double fist, in the center of the manger, and put the oats in Avith
it, which will compel him to go about the matter more leisurely, and
prevent him from throwing the grain out.
VI. Pulling Back, and Breaking the Halter.
This very bad habit commonly originates from the horse getting fright-
ened, when, jumping suddenly back, he breaks the halter ; and as average
horse sense knows that a thing once done can be done again, the jerk
is repeated, in sportiveness or mischief, till it becomes a confirmed vice.
What to do. — Have a very strong halter, and tie high on the manger,
which will give the horse less power to pull than when tied low. Some
PLAYING WITH THE GRAIN.
53(j CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AJSTD COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
fecommend a small rope, passed under the tail and tied to the manger,
which may act well in some cases. But tlie main point lies in so fasten-
ing him that he cannot get away, when, after a few inettectual attempts,
he w ill give it up.
In halter breaking a colt, pass a rope behind him, so that he cannot
pull full strength on the halter, and be very sure nothing is used with
him that will break ; one accident of that kind may be enough to start a
persistent bad habit.
VII. Balking.
This, though not strictly a stable vice, is so nearly allied thereto that it
seems quite proper to treat of it in this connection. The best way to
break a horse of balking is not to be in a hurry, but, rather, to let him
stand to his heart's content; avoid hitching him to any load he cannot
pull easil}^ ; coax him and pat him; feed him apples, salt, sugar, etc.,
out of your hand. Let the same man always handle him, if possible;
a change of drivers might spoil all that has been accomplished. If there
is no time to wait for him, hitch another team ahead of him and
snake him along. The chain, or even rope, passed around his neck for
the other team to pull by, is very effectual. Try and divert his attention
by offering a handful of salt or oats ; or, even a handful of earth may
serve every purpose.
The maxim always to be observed in all of these cases is : Treat the
horse with kindness. A balky horse cured by kindness, an achievement not
only possible but absolutely feasible, is the best, toughest, most perse-
vering creature in existence, from the fact that only horses possessed of
a great amount of spirit and determination ever get balky, those that resent
and resist abuse. It is abuse, generally speaking, that makes a horse
learn to balk, — such foolish and barbarous work as gettmg into a hole
with a heavy load, and then whipping unmercifull}^ to try and make the
poor dumb victims perform impossibilities. Let the reader set it dowp
as an axiom, that kindness is always repaid by faithful service.
CHAPTER XXIV.
CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT OP STABLES, AS RELATED
TO HYGIENE.
t. NECESSITY FOR STABLES. II. CONSTRUCTION OP STABLES. III. FEEDING AND
WATERING STOCK. IV. THE CARE OF STOCK WHEN IN STABLE. .V. ADDI-
TIONAL DIRECTIONS FOR GIVING MEDICINES. VI. DETECTION OF DISEASE.
I. Necessity for Stables.
In many regions and climates, stables are not necessary ; horses,
mules, cattle and all kinds of stock lie down to rest and sleep in the open air,
under cover of the blue sky, or, if they have any shelter, they find it for
themselves, in gi'oves, edges of forests and canons. In some countries
yards or corrals are made, and the stock driven into them at night, to
keep them from straying, and from being attacked by wild beasts.
In this country, and especially in the northern and central States,
stables are indispensable, as a protection from cold, sudden changes and
severe storms. They are tokens of civilization and Christianity, the
result of a humane disposition to provide comfortable — sometimes even
foxurious — quarters for the animal dependents as well as for the family.
n. Construction of Stables.
The construction of the stable, in all its various features, including the
arrangements for its drainage and ventilation, as well as stalls, man-
gers, etc., is of great importance, as bearing directly upon the health, as
well as the comfort, of the animals. Mistakes in stable construction are
often the unsuspected cause of lameness, of disease, and even death.
Hygienic considerations should, therefore, have their full weight in plan-
ning and building a barn.
Location is the first consideration, as determining the possibilities of
good drainage. Do not build a barn in a hollow, with rising ground all
around it ; for this would expose your stock to miasmatic fevers and other
derangements of the general organism. In such a location, the simplest
attacks of disease would be likely to take on a serious type, with greatly
increased uncertainty in the action of remedial agents. Build a stable on
an elevation, if possible. Have ground around it, at least on one side,
that slopes away, so as to furnish good natural drainage, or free escape for
suq^erfluous water.
The next point after settling that of location, is the artificial drainage.
There should be one large drain, to act as the discharge, with several
o6i
538
CYCLOPEDIA Of UCVE SIOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
smaller ones extending in every direction, to act as feeders thereto ; also,
outlets to the several parts and corners of the stable. See that there
is descent enough to have a rajiid flow of the sewage.
The next point to be attended to is to build the shell or walls so as to
secure light enough. Right here is the chief defect in most city stables.
Nothing is so weakening to the eyes as to be kept continuously in a dark
place. When a horse thus stabled goes out into the glaring sunshine, the
eyes cannot immediately adapt themselves to the new order of things,
and see ol)jects dimly, uncertainly, and with a squint, and hence he is
apt to shy and otherwise misbehave. But this is not the only injurious
consequence. It is a frequent cause of congestion of some of the inner
sensitive parts of the eye, leading on to inflamnjatiQn, and perhaps to
blindness. If a small window is made at the head of each horse, it
sliould be placed at least two feet above his head, so as not to have the
light shining directly into his ej'es ; but the best arrangement is to have
the whole place lighted with a diffused light.
Next, as to the stalls. Let the plan always include one or more box
stalls, in which to place a sick or lame horse, as it is downright cruelty
to confine a sick horse. Have the box stall so constructed that it can be
darkened at will, as without this
you could not properly care for a
horse suffering with eye disease.
Let the box stalls have a level
floor, as it is not only fatiguing but
absolutely injurious to the joints
of the feet and legs to stand on a
sloping floor. The boxes should not
b*^ less than ten feet square.
The common stalls should be
from four to five feet wide, re-
membering that five is preferable to
four ; for horses are apt to get
cast in narrow stalls, and, besides,
they have less comfort when lying
down . The floor of the stalls should
slope a little, just enough to have
the urine drain off, that is, from one
to two inches, one inch being pre-
ferable. There is nothing more
injurious to the tendons, legs and
feet than floors built, as many are,
to slope from five to eight inches.
POINTS OF THE LEG.
Showing the location of syn-
ovial membranes and joint
oil.
INJURED TEN-
DONS.
The result of sloping
floors.
CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT OF STABLES.
539
Four cuts arc here given, showing the anatomy of the parts that sus-
tain injury in this way, and the results commonly seen following such
injuries. The center of gravity is thrown in a different line from what
nature intended ; and though the feet and legs can stand this for a while,
yet when long continued, the tendons become wearied, from the constant
strain, and are also predisposed to sprains when the horse is taken
out. The joints, too, share in the protest against the slope. The weight
being thrown upon a bearing that is unnatural, the cartilages and ends of
the bones become irritated, ana' the synovial bursse distended ; inflamma-
tion is set up ; and then follows ringbone, spavin, osteophytes, or the like
trouble, according to the special susceptibility of the animal.
Any one may satisfy himself as to the correctness of these views,
by noticing how a horse will back out of his stall, and stand with his
toes in the gutter, back of him What is this for? To rest the back
tendons that have been under an unnatural strain.
Horses, when left to choose for themselves, will almost
invariably find a place where the hind feet stand
higher than the fore. This is well illustrated by the
cut at the end of chapter IV,
Part II.
The stall should be built,
as to length, to suit the class
of horse intended to occupy
it. Draft horses, for in-
stance, require longer stalls
than buggy horses. Make a
gutter just back of the horse,
to carry off the urine, and let
the floor beyond the gutter
be on the same level as the
floor of the stall. Some
stables have the stall floor
built from three to ten inches
higher than the main floor. This is a great mistake,
notwithstanding it may save labor to the stable-man,
for his comfort and ease should never be allowed to outweigh those
of the stock.
Very serious accidents sometimes happen from the horse kicking over
the rear post of the stall, and coming down astraddle of it, in some
instances letting the intestines right out on the floor, and in others skinning
the whole inside of the leg, from the thigh to the foot, clean to the bone.
To prevent this, let the rear post go from floor to ceiling, and see that it
OSTEOPHYTES ON THE PAS-
TEllN BONES.
DISEASED HOCK
JOINT.
Another dang-er from
sloping floors. Hock
joint of the left hind
leer, in which the bony
deposit of spavin has
involved all but the
true hock joint.
5i0
CrZCLOPEDIA OF LIVE SKJCK AND CSOMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
is securely fastened there. Build the insides of the stalls of hard wood
plauks, to the height of four feet, and top them out three feet more with
strong wire-work, which is decidedly preferable to a solid partition
between the stalls, as it affords their inmates the comfort of one anoth-
er's society. Horses, like human beings, get lonesome when isolated, and
pine for company; besides this, solitude has a tendency to engender
viciousness.
Ventilation is a very important matter, as every one will admit who
has gone into a badly ventilated stable in the morning, and noticed how
THE LAZY MAN'S WAY OF CLEANING THE LEGS.
Easy and convenient, but very injurious.
it affects his eyes, his breathing, etc. Large tubes should be placed
alono- through the stable, from thirty to forty feet apart. They should
be from two to four feet square, and run out through the roof, with slats
at the top or sides for water-sheds ; below, they should come just through
the ceilino- into the stable. Then, every twenty feet, there should be tubes,
four or five inches square, entering at the floor, through the walls, from
the outside, and carried up along the wall inside as high as eight feet.
The air thus admitted, making a curve at the top of the tube, will descend
to the floor, but becoming tempered before it strikes the horses, and
will force up the warm, vitiated air through the large tubes and out through
CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT OF STABLES.
541
the roof. As to doors, have enough to keep the stable cool in summer,
but avoid a draft, especially when the horses come in warm and tired, as
they are then especially susceptible to colds, and attacks of throat and
lung diseases, etc.
III. Feeding and Watering Stock.
This is a matter that interests every stock owner, and one also in which
there is a great amount of abuse. We seldom find a duplicate of the
notorious bad-debt collector, Cottle, of Chicago, who deliberately starved
his horse to death, but we often find men who abuse their stock through
ignorance. For instance, there are not a few who water their horses only
twice a day. This is a real abuse, for not only does the animal get ter-
ribly thirsty, but, as a consequence of his intense craving for water, he
^vill, when he at last gets at it, drink a great deal more than is good for
THE PROPER WAY.
How to dry and clean the legs in cold weather.
him. The stomach of a horse holds only about three gallons, but in these
cases he will sometimes drink three or four pailfulls, making from nine to
twelve o-allons. If this follows soon after eating, it washes the food right
throu^^h the stomach into the intestines, before it is digested, giving rise to
colic, with all its attendant dangers. The water given stock should always
be clean, not from a foul well in the barn-yard, and should be allowed
three or four times a day, preferably four; or, better still, let it run
before them all the time, being careful not to lot them over-drink when
coming in warm from work.
The food should be clean, sound, dry, healthy grain and hay, and welj
harvested, free from smut. It is a great saving to the pocket of the
i42
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTORo
owner, as well as to the stomach of the Lorse, to grind all gram and cut
the hay ; and it is an unquestionable advantage to the animal to have the
grain partly cooked, by steaming. This can be effected, without much
trouble, by pouring hot water on it, covering, and then letting it steam and
swell. This will render the grain more digestible, and less liable to fer-
ment and cause flatulent colic ; more of it will be digested, also, because
the «JGoking will make digestible a considerable proportion of the food
THE OLD WAY OP GIVTN(? A BALL.
In which the operator is liable to get hi» hand scratched or bitten, and the horse's tongue may be torn.
that in its natural state is not so ; hence the economy. Stock of all kinds
should be fed three times a day — less at a time if necessary, but never
at greater intervals.
The quantity of food must always be gauged by the size of the animal
and amount of work exacted. Work horses accustomed to large feeds
of strong grain should have it reduced when idle, even for the short
time extending over Sunday. They should get simply a bran mash or
a mess of carrots on Saturday night, and the other feeds should be
reduced nearly one half on Sunday ; then they will come out in fine
condition on Monday morning. But if the usual quantity of strong,
heating grain is allowed, the horse is very apt to come out Monday morn-
ing with a big elephant leg — lymphangitis, or else, though going out
apparently all right, is soon attacked with congestion of the kidneys or
oth3r internal organs.
CONSTRUCTION AND JIANAGEMENT OF STABLES.
543
rv. The Care of Stock when in Stable.
The object of this section is more to correct abuses in the us of cold
water and want of exercise than to give elaborate rules in regard to
grooming, etc. Cold water is a good thing, but, like all good things, is
apt to be abused. In our northern latitudes it is too
cold to allow the free use of cold water in cleaning the
horse's legs and feet, from November 1st to April 1st,
or even a longer period ; for cold water thus used on
the extremities already chilled, is very apt — nay,
almost certain — to cause scratches, grease, furruncle,
or the like. If warm water is used and the legs
thoroughly dried, no damage is done, but it is not
once in a hundred times that they are thus properly
dried.' The best way is to clean and dry the legs and
feet with a whisk of hay or straw, or with a rubbing
cloth when the horse comes in ; then, when thoroughly scratches.
dry, clean them properly with a brush. This, in most
instances, will keep the legs free from scratches.
Horses should not be kept any considerable length of time on a board
floor without exercise and occasional removal of the shoes, the same as
though he were at work ; for the feet will get dry and brittle, contract and
As seen in the hollow of
the pastern.
SHOWING THE VEINS OF THE
FOOT.
Which may be seriously interfered with
by contraction of the hoof from standing
too long on a board floor without atten-
tion to the moisture, shoeing, etc., of the
feet.
EXOSTOSIS OF THE COFFIN BONE.
As sometimes seen in complications of navicu-
lar disease, contraction, side bones, etc.
press upon the quarters, causing corns, and perhaps setting up hiflamma-
tion that may form side bones, contract the tendons, etc. If obliged to
keep a horse standing idle in a stable, have his shoes taken off , and, if
possible, let him have a dirt floor to stand on, sprinkling occasionally to
dampen it. A box stall would be much the best for him.
V. Additional Directions for Giving Medicines.
It is very necessary for the stable-man to be able to give medicine, both
in the form of drenches and balls. Many a dose of medicine, of the
544 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
utmost value to the horse, is lost through not knowing how to administer
it properly. Small doses of liquids are best given with a syringe. Stand
in front of the patient, fill the syringe, (one that can be worked ^vith one
hand is absolutely necessary), open the mouth by inserting the left hand
through the mouth, and holding the fingers up on edge ; pass the
syringe between the fingers, and shoot away ; withdraw the syringe, and
elevate the head a trifle with the left hand. So continue till the dose is
all down. When properly done, not a drop is wasted and the horse is
not excited ; nor (which is quite a point) does the man get angry, and
whack the horse over the head with the bottle. With large doses, how-
ever, the bottle must be resorted to. Pass a loop in the mouth so as to
catch the upper jaw, then raise the head by running a line over a pulUy,
or by inserting a long crotch or fork in the loop and having an assistant
lift at it ; the operator, meanwhile standing at the right side of the
horse's head, steadies the head with one hand, and pours down the con-
tents of the bottle with the other. Pour very slowly, and never resort
to any violence to make the patient swallow ; just give him his time. If
he coughs, strangles or chokes, let down his head instantly, regardless of
the loss of the medicine. (See last cut in Chapter I, Part II.)
Solid medicine it is best to give in the form of a ball. Make up the
ball with syrup, soft soap or linseed meal, its size that of your big finger,
and wrap it in soft paper ; stand in front of the horse, catch firm hold of
the tongue with the left hand, and draw
it down between the incisor teeth, never
at one side ; take the ball between the
fingers, the thumb being drawn into the
palm of the hand ; then pass it back,
placing it on the root of the tongue, let
go of it, and give it another push with ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^ ^^^^
one finger ; withdraw the hand, let go
the tongue, close the mouth, elevate the head a trifle, and watch on the
left side of the neck for it to go down. Kemember, in giving medicine
of all kinds, never abuse or excite the patient, but take him as quietly
as possible.
For the benefit of young farmers and others of limited experience, we
would say that good sense and self-possession are the secrets of success
in treating sick stock. These will gi'eatly aid you to see clearly what
ought to be done, and to use to the best advantage such means as you
have at hand for doing it.
There are cases in which medicine and food have to be administered
in some other than the ordinay way ; as, for instance, to a horse with
tetanus, that cannot open its mouth. In this case, the medicine and
CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT OF STABLES.
545
liquid food can bo given through a tube passed through one of the nostrils
and down into the throat,
or they may be given by
the rectum ; but in the
latter case large quanti-
ties will be necessary, as
a portion will not be
absorbed.
VI. Detection of Disease.
FEEDING A HORSE WITH TETAKUS.
portance that every stable-
man should have a quick
eye for the early symp-
toms of disease in his stock. Ignorance of these symptoms allows
the case to run on into a more advanced stage, when its treatment re-
quires more skill, and more medicine, all entailing more expense in or-
derto save it, and, of course, with much less chance of doing so after all.
**A stitch in time saves nine ;" and no one will dispute the fact that it
pays to spend ten dollars to save a hundred. If it pays to treat an
animal at all, in pays to begin doing it early. One day's neglect of a
sick horse may cost his life. When, therefore, a horse stands back in
his stall, hangs his head, drops his ears, refuses his feed, declines to move,
partly closes his eyes, has the nostrils slightly dilated from increased
frequency of respiration, or has the ears and extremities cool or cold, —
when any of these indications are noted, it is safe to conclude that the
horse is sick, and something should be done
immediately. If near a qualified veterinary
surgeon, employ him ; otherwise, endeavor to
find out for yourself, and at once, what is the
matter. Note the symptoms carefully, taking
the pulse, respirations and temperature, and ex-
amining all parts ; then, when the disease is
diagnosed, proceeed with the treatment vigor-
ously. There are many simple ailments that
any intelligent man can cope with successfully.
Get at the bottom of the trouble, remove the
cause, apply the treatment, and, in most cases, you can cure the animal.
Take, for instance a case of aphtha, which is a simple irritation of the
mouth, tongue and lips, sometimes extending up to the cheeks, both
inside and out.
Aphtha is much the oftenest seen in foals, resulting from the irritation
to the membranes of the checks that follows too much sucking. When
A SICK HORSE.
Appearances about the head that
indicate a sick horse-
546 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
seen in older horses, its most common cause is the irritating effects of
the dew and frosted grass in spring and fall. The lips, tongue, etc., will
be found to be slightly swollen, and covered with a pimply eruption re-
sembling blisters; in fact, the parts affected
look as though blisters h ad actually been applied.
The treatment, in the case of a foal, is simply
to separate him from the dam for a few hours;
let him suckle, and then promptly separate them
again, and so on till he is well. Older horses
should be taken up nights, and not let out in the
APHTHA. niorninir till about nine o'clock. Swab out the
mouth and affected parts with recipe No. 46.
This is all very simple, and nothing at all but what any stock man
could do, if he would give the case proper thought and attention.
YII. Charbon or Anthrax in Horses.
This disease pertains to the horse as it does to all warm-blooded an-
imals. Curative treatment is useless. Preventive treatment lies in
vaccinating horses the same as cattle in infected regions. The regions
that are mostly infected, and require vaccination regularly, are the low-
land sections of Louisiana and ]\Iississippi. There are many plantations
down there that require vaccination once a year to save horses and
mules from dying with Anthrax. The vaccine can be purchased from
any of the dealers in biological products, with directions how to use.
The symptoms and post mortem appearances are the same in horses
as in cattle and hogs.
For fuller description, causes, prevention, etc., see Department on
Cattle, pages 821, 822, 823, 824 and 825. The facts there given
apply to the disease wherever it may exist and in whatever class of
animal it develops.
CHAPTER XXV.
OrERA^TIONS.
I. ANESTHETICS, AND HOW TO USE THEU. 1.. BANDAGES. III. BLEEDING
IV. BLJSTEUING. V. CASTING. VI. CASTRATION. VII. EXTIRPATION OF
THE EVE. VIII. FIRING. IX. LITHOTOMY. X. LITHOTRITY. XI. NEU-
ROTOMY. XII. NICKING AND DOCKING. XIII. OPENING AN ABSCESS. XIV.
TAPPING THE CHEST, AND TAPPING THE ABDOMEN. XV. PRICKING. XVI.
PROBING AND OPENING A FISTULA. XVII. SPAYING. XVIII. SUTURES. XIX.
TAPPING THE BELLY FOR FLATULENCE. XX. TENOTOMY. XXI. TRACHE-
OTOMY.
In this chapter we shall descrilje all of the more common surgical oper-
ations on the horse. Some of these can be performed by any intelligent
person, who will exercise a reasonable amount of care and prudence,
with ready reserve resource to fall back on in case of accident. The lat-
ter, in fact, is a very necessary qualilication in any operator ; for acci-
dents may happen, and result disastrously, in the most skillful hands. Ai
the same time, many valuable expedients may be resorted to, in cases of
this kind, wliich It is absolutely impossible to prescribe by set rules before-
hand. Here, quick-witted common sense must be the main reliance of
all practitioners alike.
I. Anaesthetics, and How to Use Them.
Anaesthetics are drugs or agents that destroy feeling. They take away
all sensation, and all power of voluntary action ; and they sometimes
cause death, by suffocation, or suspension of the involuntary actions of the
body, if they are given too fast, or their use is carried too far. Hence, they
should never be administered by inexperienced or unskillful hands. The
principal agents of this class employed in veterinary practice are chloro-
form and sulphuric ether ; chloral hydrate is often used as an anodvne,
but not as an anaesthetic.
The animal is usually cast, legs tied, and, when everything has been
prepared for the operation, a large sponge, saturated with chloroform or
ether, is held to the nose, beingre-wet every little while, as long as maybe
necessary. The nose is sometimes enclosed in a bag, so as to confine the
fumes, ]>ut it is better not to do this. The risk thus run vastly outweighs
the few advantages it offers. If sufficient air is mixed with the anaesthetic,
there is no danger, but horses usually struggle very severly during the
exciting stage, — just before they go under its influence, and, on that ac-
count the method mentioned is not considered safe by many of the best
authorities,
547
548
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
n. Bandages.
These are very important adjuncts to the treatment of lameness, when
m the legs, and, also, in stopping a hemorrhage and dressing wounds.
They should he applied smoothly, and with moderate pressure. For
lameness and dressing wounds, coarse unbleached muslin is the best.
For binding on a sponge or other substance, to stop bleeding, the many-
tailed bandage is very convenient. For moderate pressure, as in case of
windgalls and stocked legs, the Derby bandage is very useful. Elastic
bandiio-es are good wlien considerable tension is desired, but they need
careful application, to avoid alwading the skin.
m. Bleeding.
Bleedino- is an old time practice that has almost become obsolete, on
several accounts, of which the principal seems to l)e that the congestion
and pulse can be controlled by other means less depleting and weakening,
thus giving the animal a better chance
to recover by husbanding his strejigth.
Then, again, the seasons and atmos-
phere have so changed that diseases,
especially of the lower animals, are
more likely to become epizootic, with
typhoid symptoms and great nervous
prostration, when it is utterly unsafe to bleed. Still, bleeding is valu-
able in cases of congestion, when there is a full, strong pulse and no
MANY-TAILED BANDAGE.
BAI81MG THE VEIN BEFORE BLEEDING.
(Tbe Place to Out— an Old Time Practice.}
>;6akness, but only in the first stage — never when the temperature of the
patient is abnormally high and the system has become weakened.
OPERATIONS.
549
The finger is pressed on the vein, to make it fill ; or a cord may be tied
sufficiently tight around the neck. Then place the blade of the fleam on
the vein, at the point indicated in the illustration, and strike it agood smart
blow with a round stick, commonly called the blood-stick ; have a bucket
in readiness, and catch the blood in it, to know how much you draw.
Draw from two to six quarts, according to age and size, and the condi-
tions of the case. It is a good plan to blindfold the horse to avoid his
STRIKING THE FLEAM WITH THE BLOOD-STICK.
(An old time practice now almost obsolete.)
jumping away from the blow of the blood-stick. When sufficient blood
has been drawn, remove the cord or other obstruction, when the flow will
stop. Insert a pin and weave a hair or silk thread around the pin in such
way as to describe a figure 8. Leave it in for a few days, when it can
safely be removed.
IV. Blistering.
When w severe blister is desired, the hair should first be clipped off
very close or shaven. Apply the blister a little at a time, and rub it well
in, with sufficient friction to get up considerable heat between the hand
and the skin ; then, when sufficient is rubbed m, smear some over the sur«
face, and tie the horse up sufficiently short to prevent his getting his moudi
550
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOE.
to it, or he will bite and blemish the sore and blister his lips. Keep him
thus tied iw from twelve to twentv-four hours, smearino^ fresh lard ovei
CATCHING THE BLOOD.
(An ObBolete Practice except in Rare Cases.)
it at the end of ten hours, to relieve the pain by keeping the air from it,
which it will do without interfering with the blister. After about twf.
days, begin washing it with warm water and a very
little soap. Soften off the scabs, and clean the skiit
around the blister ; and when dry, apply the grease.
Repeat this once, daily. If the scabs are not softened
off when pus collects under them, the pus burrows,
and if not liberated, is apt to blemish.
In mild sweat-blisters, it is not necessary to clip
off the hair. Simply rub the blister in gently once a
day, till sore enough, then grease once a day till nearly
healed. Repeat this as often as necessary.
Ointments are preferable to liquid blisters as being
more manageable, and because they can be kept where
wished, while liquid blisters are apt to run.
V. Casting.
There are many ways of casting a horse, all having some merit. The
chief point to be remembered is to throw him carefully, as broken back,
broken hips, etc., are among the dangers that attend carelessnesso The
A HOCK WHEN BLIS
TEREL>.
OPERATIONS. 551
most convenient way is to put hobbles on the feet, and run a chain through
the D's, and draw the feet all together, having a rope running from one
arm over the back, to make him fall on the side desired ; also, a good
man at the horse's head to prevent his throwing it around and falling on it,
and thus breaking his neck. Always put down a good bed beforehand,
for him to fall on.
Rarey's plan of casting is good, in the absence of hobbles, viz: Tie
up one fore leg ; then tie a strap to the pastern of the other fore leg, and
pass it over the horse's back ; standing at the shoulder, push him over a
step, at the same instant pulling up the foot and bringing him to his
knees. He will do some rearing and jumping about, but when he gets
tired, he will lie quietly down^ when his legs can be tied and held down.
To prevent him from pounding his head, it is necessary to place a good
man there, who should put one knee on his neck and turn his nose up at
an angle of forty-five degrees. As a safeguard against too severe strain-
ing, tie a rope from just above one knee to above the hock of the leg on the
same side, and draw the legs as close together as possible, and confine
them there. This lessens his power to struggle.
VI. Castration.
The best age for castrating colts is from one to three years, tlie exact
time to be determined by the development of the neck and fore parts.
If these are heavy, castrate early ; if light, he will thicken up and grow
heavier, by being left entire another year. Prepare him by giving soft
food for a week previous, and nothing at all for about twelve hours be-
fore the operation. Cast him, and roll him up on his back ; tie the hind
feet down to a surcingle ; take the scrotum in the left hand, and draw it
over one of the testicles so as to bring the dividing line between the two
sides over it ; next draw a small superficial slit about half an inch from
the line, (one on each side of it,) thus marking the proper place to make
the incision ; then cut one slit through to the testicle, letting it out ; slit
open the inner coverings, one by one, till the testicle pops out clean
from all the coverings; (avoid wounding the testicle with the knife, as
this would cause profuse bleeding, and interfere with the work ; ) then sep-
arate the tunics from the small end, and let them drop down over the
cord; put on the steel clamps, to hold the cord while the ecraseur is
being applied; put the ecraseur on as low as possible, and with itbiteofi
the cord, still holding on to the latter with the clamps. Let go the cord,
and operate on the other testicle. Rinse out the sack with cold water,
and let him up. The emascnlator, a modern instrument, is becoming very
popular; it being handier and safer, less likely to be followed by hem-
orrhage, than the ecraseur.
552
CrCLOPEDIA OF LFVTE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
EXTIRPATION OF THE EYE.
The old way of castrating with chun[)s is convenient, but it gives rise
to an immense amount of pain, and is a quite inferior method compared
with using the ccraseur.
Vn. Extirpation of the Eye.
In cancerous growths in the eye, it is sometimes necessary to extirpate
that organ. After casting the horse, pass
silk threads thrcjugh the lids, so that an
assistant can hold them open ; then, with
a sharp knife, dissect the eyeball out,
cutting the muscles as they come, one
after another, and, finally, the optic nerve.
Dress the socket with lotion No. 39, for
a fcAv da3'S ; then change to lotion No. 7.
As this is a very painful operation, an
anaesthetic should always be used, if a
skillful man can be got to manage the
case.
VIII. Firing.
This is the ai)plication of the actual
cautery (burning by red-hot iron) to
set up a great amount of counter-irritation or of adhesive inflammation.
Its most common applications are for ring-bones, curbs, and sprains of
the back, tendons, etc. Clip off the hair, cast the horse, and draw the
edges (which should be blunt) of the firing-iron on the skin, making a
yellow crease on it, but avoid cutting through the skin, as that would
blemish more. Draw the lines, in the form of a feather, over a con-
siderable surface ; let the horse up, and rub in the blister immediately.
Give absolute rest for a month, and a run at grass for two months.
IX. Lithotomy.
This is an operation to extract a stone from the bladder. Cast the
horse, and insert a metallic sound into the penis to reach up to the curve ;
cut down to it on the curve, then insert a hidden bistoury, and open the
passage into the bladder, making it large enough to allow of the stone
being got out. Insert forceps with one hand, tiie other hand being in the
rectum and following up the stone and crowding it out. If too large to
extract whole, try and break it up with the forceps.
If the patient is a mare, it will not be necessary tv'> cast the animal.
She can be controlled suflaciently by using a twitch, which is a loop of
strong, small rope, on the end of a small stick, for twisting the uppei
OPERATIONS. 553
lip as shown hy the cut in Section XIV of this chapter. Insert the bis-
toury cache into the bladder, the oj^ening to which will be found on the
floor of the vagina, about three to six inches from the external orifice ; open
the neck of the bladder, and then, with one liandinthe rectum, the stone
can be drawn.
In either case above described, dress the wounds with lotion No. 39,
twice a day. The wound in the skin of the horse can be sewed up.
When dressing the wound, rinse out the bladder with tepid water.
X. Lithotrity.
This is the name given to the process (mentioned in the last section)
of breaking the stone into small pieces with forceps, and taking it away
a little at a time. It is sometimes so large as to make it absolutely nec-
essary to do this, or, in some cases, even to saw it in two.
XI. Neurotomy.
This is an operation to destroy sensation in the foot, in some cases of
chronic, incurable lameness. Cast the horse, and, after clipping off the
hair over the spot to be operated on, cut in through the skin to the nerve
three or four inches above the fetlock, just back of the cannon, where it
will be found running in the same sheath with the artery and vein. The
last two, however, are deeper seated and together, the nerve running on
the top of them. Make the incision half or three quarters of an inch'
long, lengthwise of the leg ; dissect away the cellular tissue ; raise the
nerve, and pass a thread of silk around it, and tie a knot ; (if it is the
nerve that is tied, the horse will struggle violently from the pain, but if,
from accident or mistake, the artery or vein has been taken up instead,
there will be no pain, and consequently no struggle) ; sever the nerve
above the silk with a sharp knife ; then, cutting below the silk, take out
a section of the nerve about three qcarters of an inch long. Take a
stitch in the skin, and dress with Friar's balsam three times a dny.
The foregoing is known as the high operation. If the lower operation
is preferred, the incision is made about midway down the long pastern
bone, on either side of it. The former is usually considered the bettei
one, as it takes away the sensation fi-om the entire foot, while the lower
only takes it away from the heels ; there are filaments from the anterior
branch of the nerve, extending down to the heels, which destroy the de-
sired effect, to a great extent.
Neurotomy should never be performed except as a last resort ; for it
does not cure the disease, but only destroys the feeling in the i)art, so
that there is no more pain iu it. Although the horse hangs the foot
down as though it were sound, it is only a question of time for it to go
554 CYCLOPEDIA Ot LJVI. STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
all to pieces, either from the tendon giving way, or else by suppuration
from a nail wound or corn, extending all around the foot. After neuro-
tomy, it is necessary to be doubly careful in shoeing and taking care of the
feet, to avoid the pricks of nails, corns, etc. , and, should these occur, to treat
them at once, lest bad complications ensue. Some horses work well for
four or five years after neurotomy, and some go to pieces in a few months.
XII. Nicking- and Docking.
Nicking and pricking are identical in efiect, viz: to straighten crooked
tails. When a horse hugs his tail, it is sometimes necessary to sever the
depressor muscles on the under side, and suspend the tail over a pulley, for
two or three weeks. Insert the knife about two inches from the dock, on
the under side at one side of the tail ; pass it in across the tail to within a
quarter of an inch of the center, to avoid the large artery running down
the under side in the middle, holding it flatwise — on its side; then turn up
the edge towards the bone, and, Avith a sawing motion, sever the muscle
clear to the bone. Withdraw the knife, leaving only the smail wound
through which the knife entered. Tie the tail to a rope running over
two pulleys; the tail being tied to a loop of it running down from each
pulley, the ends passing over them should reach to the floor, with a weight
attached to each end, so as to allow him to lie down. Keep the tail sus-
pended in this way from two to three weeks.
In case the tail is crooked or twisted to one side, insert the knife in a
perpendicular position from below upwards, just under the skin; turn the
edge towards the tail, and saw through the muscle; then tie the tail around
to the opposite side for a couple of weeks. It is often necessary to cut in
two or three places. If the cuts suppurate, dress them with lotion No. 39.
If the first operation fails, try it again.
Docking is amputating a portion of the tail, bone and all, to pander to
the taste or whim of the owner. It is best done with a pair of docking
shears made for the purpose. It is usually taken oflf from eight to ten
inches from the beginning of the long hair at the dock. Part the hair
evenly all the Avay round; fold that of the ui)i)er })ortion upward and tie a
strong cord tightly around the tail, including the hair, two inches above
the part. Hold the tail straight out and cut it ott" at the part. Scar the
end with a red-hot iron to prevent hemorrhage; then put a bunch of oakum,
the size of a fist, onto the end, pull the hair down over it, after removing
the cord, tie it around the hair tightly below the oakum. Begin next day
to apply lotion No. 5, several times a day for ten days, then apply No. 7.
If the horse carried a good tail before docking, a week will l)e long enough
to leave him in the pulleys, and he can be put to work; but if he carried
a poor tail, keep it suspended two or three weeks. Oftentimes it is neces-
OPERATIONS.
555
OPENING THE ABSCESS OF STRANGLES.
Also illustrating the twitch and manner of using it.
sary, in such a case, to nick the depressor muscles and keep him in pulleys
two or three weeks before docking him. If the knife is clean, there will
be no suppuration.
Xni. Openingr an Abscess.
This is a simple matter, when done properly. If improperly done, it
is of little use, and the cure is apt to be retarded. When an abscess is
ripe and ready to open, ascer-
tain, as near as possible, where
the bottom of it is, and insert
tlie knife at that point, making
an opening quite to the bottom
for the escape of the pu?^. If
this is impracticable, and the
opening must be made at the
top, the pus must be evacuated
b}' means of a syringe or sponge,
to draw it out. The main point
to be remembered is to open
it as near to the bottom as
possible. A twitch on the nose is usually sufficient to keep the animal
quiet in this and other minor operations.
XIV. Tapping the Chest and Tapping the Abdomen.
The chest fills with water in h}'drothorax; it is the stage of effusion in
pleurisy. The lungs are floated up, and sufl'ocation results. The presence
of water in the chest is detected by the solid sound — a sound of fullness — -
when tapped with the hand, and by the
absence of respiratory murmur; and, fre-
quently, the splashing of the water by the
action of the heart can also be heard.
Clip off the hair from a spot about three
inches ])ack of the elbow, and five or
six inches from the bottom of the chest.
Ascertain the exact location where a punc-
ture can be made without striking a rib
(the trocar to pass between two ribs) ; then
plunge a scalpel deep into the flesh, making a hole through the skin and
flesh for the trocar; insert the latter instrument and withdraw the trocar,
leaving the cannula to act as a spout; hold a pail and catch the water. If
pieces of lymph clog the cannula, pass in a small probe and push them off
OPENING OF THE SKIN,
Preparatory to tapping the chest.
556
CYCIXJPEDIA OP LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
WATER FLOWING
FROM THE CHEST.
In paracentesis thoracis
the end. Drain off all the water and withdraw the cannula. It is often
necessary to repeat this operation.
This operation is technically termed paracentesis thoracis. Cases so severe
as to require it are usually fatal.
Paracentesis abdoineiiis means, in plain English, tapping the belly. In
peritonitis, the belly often tills with water, which can be evacuated by
inserting the trocar and cannula on the medion line, a
couple of inches back of the navel. The operation may
be repeated, if necesssry; but, in this case, it is advis-
able to make a fresh hole, rather than insert again in
the old one.
XV. Pricking.
This is identical with nicking, (which see).
XVI. Probing and Opening Fistulas.
It is necessary to probe fistulous openings, in order
to know where they go. Take plenty of time, and do
it carefully. Find every sinus, if possible. When
practicable, the best and quickest way to cure them is to open them right
up along their whole length; but when this cannot be done without sever-
ing large blood-vessels or too much muscular fibre, pass a seton through
them and draw in caustic substances, such as burnt alum, powdered blue-
stone, etc. Or, instead, use injections Nos. 1, 3 and 5, changing from one
to another frequently.
XVII. Spaying.
This operation is very rarely performed upon the mare — never, m
fact, except in case of disease. There is great danger of its proving fatal,
and hence it should never be undertaken except by a skilled veterinarian.
It consists in removing the ovaries, corresponding to the castration of
the male.
XVIII. Sutures.
There are four kinds of sutures, viz: the interrupted, uninterrupted,
quilled and twisted. The interrupted suture is the one generally used,
and for most cases is the best. The needle
and silk — or, instead of the silk, the silver
wire or catgut — are all that are needed. Clip
off the hair from the edges, and be careful
to have everything clean. DraAV the edges of
the wound together with a slightly curved needle and silk, and when
tying the knot give the ends an extra turn through the knot, which will
UNINTERRUPTED SUTURE.
OPERATIONS.
557
QUILLED SUTURE.
keep it from drawing away and untying; then go on and make a hard
knot on the top of the other, and cut off the silk. Then take another,
and so on.
The continuous or uninterrupted suture sews
up the wound by continuing the stitches right
along, the same as in sewing cloth, and tying the
ends. The quilled suture is when two quills or
pieces of wood are used as skewers, and the ends
of the silk caught over them, the skewers being
placed one on each side of the wound, to prevent
the stitches from tearing out. The twisted suture
is simply a pin inserted and a hair or silk thread
wound around its ends in the form of a figure
eight, as already descril^ed in the article on
bleeding. In most cases, the stitches ought to
be taken about half an inch a})art.
XIX. Tapping the Belly for Flatulence.
It is usually either some of the large intestines or the stomach that is
affected with flatulence. The former are tapped by inserting the trocar
and cannula in the center of a triangle drawn from the point of the hip,
the ends of the transverse processes of the lumbar verteln-je and the last
rib. Clip off' the hair from a spot half an inch in diameter, brush the scurf
from the skin and make a i)uncture through the skin with a knife, then pass
in the trocar and cannula, directing it inward, downward and forward;
withdraw the trocar and leave the cannula to carry of ,the gas. After the
gas has escaped replace the trocar into the cannula before withdrawing it.
Wet this wound several times a day with lotion No. 5 for three or four
days. This operation may be rei)eated, if necessary, and on either side of
the horse. The trocar for this purpose should be six inches long and one-
quarter inch in diameter.
XX. Tenotomy.
When the tendons become very much contracted and cannot l)e relaxed,
they can be severed, when the ends will extend, grow together again, and
thus repair the excision. This o})eration, called tenotomy, is most commonly
practiced on the tendon of the leg, and about midway between the knee and
fetlock. Insert the knife across the tendons, with the l)lade on its side; let
it go just to the skin on the other side, liut not through it; then turn the
edge towards the outer part of the leg and saw away, taking care not to
cut the skin at the back of the leg. When the tendons are severed, break
up the adhesions by bending the leg across your knee. Dress the wound
in the skin, treating as a simple wound.
558
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR,
PERFORMING TRACHEOTOMY.
XXI. Tracheotomy.
This consists of the insertion of a tube into the trachea or windpipe,
to prevent death from threatened suffocation. The tube ought to be of
silver, but in the absence of
that, one made of tin will, in the
writer's opinion, answer every
purpose; it should be three-
quarters of an inch or an inch in
diameter, curved so as to slip
into the windpipe easily, with a
plate of the same material on the
end to tie to the neck, in order
to keep it in place. Open the
skin by an incision about two
inches long, at a point eight
inches below the throat; divide the
muscles, and lay bare the wind-
pipe; cut out a piece of two rings, making a hole large enough to admit
the tube. Take the tube out and clean it with carbolic lotion No. 39, once
a day, and replace it as soon
as possible. When the cause of
suffocation is removed, the tube
may be taken out for good.
The hole will soon fill up and
heal. Instead of using a round
tube and cutting out a section
of two rings, it is preferable to
use an oval tube and pass it in
between two rings. This does
away with the danger of a car-
tilaginous tumor growing from
the cut rings of the trachea. Such a tumor sometimes follows the cuttin
of the rings, and obstructs the breathing, rendering the horse useless.
THE STRUCTURES MET WITH IN THE OPERA-
TION OF TRACHEOTOMY.
1. The sterno raaxilaris jnuscles, (a pair) which have
to be separated, being joined by cellular tissue.
2. The sterno thyro hyoidei muscles lying under those
above mentioned. These also have to be separated,
being similarly united.
3. The trachea, which will be fully exposed when the
muscles are separated and pulled back.
CHAPTER XXVI.
CONCERNING THE VETERINARIAN'S CERTIFICATE OF
SOUNDNESS.
I. EXAMINATIONS IN THIS COUNTRY AND IN EUROPE. II. WHAT TUE VETERINA-
RIAN SHOULD SEE TO, FOR HIS CLIENT. III. CONDITIONS MODIFYING THE CER-
TIFICATE. IV. THE SELLER'S GUARANTEE SHOULD COVER VICES.
I. Examinations in this Country and in Europe.
Under what circumstances can a horse be returned to the seller, as un-
sound ? This we propose to consider briefly, even though at the risk of
a little repetition of directions given elsewhere. In Europe it is quite a
common practice to have horses examined for soundness by experts, but
in this country, where every man professes to be a horseman, there is
much less of it done. Here, if a man gets bitten in making a trade, he
usually says nothing, but contents himself with getting satisfaction out
of the next one. Still, there are some examinations made for soundness
even in this country, and it may be well to state what a veterinarian bases
his deci.sion upon, in giving a certificate.
II. What the Veterinarian should see to, for his Client.
The age, size, and general appearance of the animal should first be
considered ; also, his adaptability to the purposes in view. It is the vet-
erinarian's duty to use his influence to prevent his client from buyin^- a
draft horse for his carriage, or vice versa; m fact, he should consult not
only his client's needs, but his wishes and tastes as well, and should see
that these are met as fully as possible.
In making the detailed examination, he should see that the mouth and
toKgue are all right, no poll evil, no running at the nose, no cough, fistu-
lous withers, nor anything wrong with the head or shoulders. He should
see that the fore legs are free from bony deposits, and the feet from
corns, sidebones, contraction, etc. ; that there are no ruptures on any part
of the belly or scrotum, no broken hips, nor broken tail. He should
carefully note whether the hmd legs are free from bony deposits, capped
hocks, and spavins of all kinds, and make sure that there is no thicken-
ing of any of the tendons of either the fore or hind legs, nor yet any
windgalls or curbs.
559'
560 CYCLOPEDIA OF LlVUi STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Next, move him for tlie detection of lameness — slow, fast, turning,
bucking, stopping and starting again; and also
for the wind — whether thick or broken, and
whether there is roaring, Avhistling, or wheezing.
Then exar.rnc the eyes closely — tirst in the
sunlight, next \n a dark place, and then in the
Min again — to detect any abnormal expansion
or contraction of the pupil, and for opacity or
cloudiness of the cornea, and clearness or oth-
erwise of the humors of the eye.
ONETKST FOR KOAUiNG. "I" Conditions Modifying the Certificate.
Any disease of any kind existing at the time —
internal, skin or otherwise, is, strictly speaking, unsoundness. There
arc some conditions, however, which, though they are not absolutely
sound, do no harm, and these should be mentioned with a view of quali-
fying the certiticate. Under this head will come splints, when not near
the knee ; feet that show the previous existence of corns, but having
none at present ; and curbs, when old, as these, though objectionable, do
not often hurt a horse for work, either fast or slow. The previous exis-
tance of fistulous withers, if entirely cured and sound at present, is not
unsoundness ; but marks of poll-evil would make an animal objectiona^
ble, as it indicates a tendency to rear and, perhaps, to fall backwards,
throwing the head violently upwards, etc.
IV. The Seller's Guarantee shoiild cover Vices.
The seller shouUl guarantee a horse free from vice as well as sound,
for vices cannot always be detected, even by the most critical examina.
tion. Under such a guarantee, a cribbcr ; a windsucker; a kicker,
either in the stall or harness ; one that pulls back, and breaks the halter,
and a shyer, are all returnable.
In case of any departure whatever from an absolutely healthy, natural
condition, the surgeon, in justice to himself as well as his client, should
state his opinion as to how much the defects noticed are likely to
depreciate the value.
CHAPTER XXVIL
POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES.
i. GENERAL RULES. II. POISONING FROM DRUGS, MINERALS, ETC. III. POISON-
ING WHILE GRAZING IV. POISONING OF THE SKIN. V. POISONING FROM
STINGS. VL THE LOCO-WEED DISEASE.
I. General Rules.
Horses are frequently poisoned, sometimes by eating noxious plants oi
by getting hold of poisonous substances left about the stable ; sometimes
by malicious persons, from motives of revenge toward the owner, or to
advance some personal interest ; and sometimes by overdoses of strong
drugs. It is well, therefore, to know some of the more common i)oisons,
with their modes of action and their antidotes ; and it is, of course, ex-
tremely desirable to be able to find and use suital)le remedies with the
least possible delay, since the loss of only a few minutes will, in some
cases, cost the animal's life. A few general directions, like the following,
it will pay the reader to commit to memory, and thus have them at in-
stant command: — When the animal is poisoned by an alkali, give
him an acid, such as vinegar, &c. For poisoning by an acid, give an
alkali, such as bi-earbonate of soda (baking soda.) Both the articles
here specified are nearly always on hand.
II. Poisoning from Drugs, Minerals, etc.
^comYe is frequently given in overdoses, causing profuse perspiration ;
spasms of the glottis, seen in the continual swallowing when there is noth-
ing to swallow ; congestion of the lungs, with difficult breathing ; gas-
tro-enteritis (inflammation of the stomach and bowels) ; and quick pulse,
gradually becoming imperceptible. Give strong coffee, in pint doses,
every fifteen minutes till relieved.
Ay^senic is sometimes got hold of. It is a corrosive, 'rritant poison, caus-
ing diarrhoea, mucous discharge from the eyes and nose, a quick, wiry
pulse, and injected mucous membranes. Iron sesqui-oxide (iron rust) is
the best chemical antidote. It is prepared by dissolving copperas and bi-
carbonate of soda in water, separately, and mixing the two solutions,
when the iron rust will fall to the bottom. Wash it with warm
water, put in a bottle, and give three or four tablespoonfuls every ten
or fifteen minutes. Being insoluble, it will have to be washed down the
56X
562
CrCLOPEDiA OF LrrE STOCK AND CX)MPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
auimal's throat with plenty of water from the bottle. In the absence
of this remedy give eggs, oils, milk, powdered charcoal, or blue clay.
Aloes in large doses is poisonous. It produces diarrhoea and supcrpur-
gation ; dryness of the mouth ; yawning and straining ; quick, hard pulse,
gradually becoming imperceptible; injected mucous membranes; and,
sometimes, irritation of the kidneys. Give powdered ipecacuanha, in
half drachm doses, every hour; starch gruel, internally, and enemas
(cold) of the same, with one ounce of laudanum in each injection, re-
peating both gruel and enemas every hour ; opium, in drachm doses, every
four to six hours ; chalk ; port wine ; and hot fomentations to the belly.
GASTUO-ENTEKITIS.
Appearance of a horse suffering from inflammation ot the stomach and bowels.
Ammonia, carbonate, xa sometimes given in too large doses or not suffi'
ciently diluted, when the mouth, throat and stornach become burned and
blistered, and salivation follows. Give olive oil in doses of two or three
tablespoonfuls, five or six times a day ; also, milk and eggs.
Belladonna is a favorite remedy with some, and, Avhen much used, is
apt to be given carelessly and in too large doses, giving rise to dilatation
of the pupils, narcotism (stupor), swelling of the head, and delirium. On
post mortem examination, the blood will be found fluid ; and decomposi-
tion sets in early. Apply mustard to the chest, and cold to the head ;
give milk and linseed oil — a pint of each, mixed, — and gentle exercise.
Bryony is often given with aconite. Over doses cause gastro-enteri-
tis ; liquid fceces ; scanty, bloody urine ; and a quick, almost impercepti-
ble pulse. Give a pint each of milk and linseed oil, mixed, with an
ounce if laudanum in it ; starch gruel injections, with an ounce of lauda-
num in each one ; and hot cloths to the loins.
Calomel is a corrosive, irritant poison, causing a discharge of black
offensive foeces, diarrhoea, and great depression. Give opium, in drachm
doses, three times a day ; also use flaxseed tea.
POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES. 563
Cantharides is a narcotic, irritant poison, causing gastro-enteritis, great
irritation and inflammation of urino-genital organs, imperceptil)le pulse,
and injected mucous membranes. Give a jiint of linseed oil, which fol-
low, after an hour, with large quantities of flaxseed tea or mucilage ;
apply hot cloths to the loins ; give starch gruel and laudanum injections ;
and oi)ium, in drachm doses, three or four times a day.
(Jhlovoform is a narcotic poison. It causes a slow jjulse ; slow, heavy
breathing ; insensibility to pain ; muscular twitcliings ; dilatation of the
[)upils ; foaming at the mouth ; and stupor. Throw cold water over the
animal ; raise and lower the fore legs continuously ; pound the chest to
induce respiration ; use bellows in the nostrils ; and give sweet spirits of
nitre, in ounce doses, at intervals of half an hour, till two or three doses
have been given.
(Jhloval Hydrate is similar, ))()th as to its effects and antidotes, to
chloroform
Croton Oil is an acrid, irritant jjoisoii. It may be either swallowed or
absorbed from the skin, and causes gastro-enteritis, drastic pur<ration,
and great prostration. The treatment is that for superpurgation.
DRASTIC POISONING.
Characteristic appearance and action of a horse suffering irom this cause-
Copper Sulphate is a corrosive, irritant poison, bringing on gastro-
enteritis and diarrhoea; ulceration, perforation and thickening of the mu-=
cous membranes ; quick, hard, almost imperceptible pulse ; and, near
smelting works, emaciation, paralysis and exostotic disease of the joints.
These latter symptoms characteiigg tliQ chronic, slow poisoning resulting
564 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOB.
from grazing in the vicinity of these works, and inhaling the con-
densed fumes or eating the poison-tainted grass ; and the remedy is self-
suggestive, viz : to remove to a greater distance from the works. In the
acute i)oisoning, give a pint of linseed oil, eggs, soap in small quantities,
and milk, or flaxseed tea.
Corrosive Sublimate is frequently got hold of m the form of rat-
poison, and is a corrosive, irritant poison, causing gastro-enteritis,
erosion of the nmcous membranes of the stomach and bowels, fcetid
dian-hoea, salivation, foetid breath, quick, weak pulse, and yellow
appearance of mucous membranes. Give eggs and milk in large quanti-
ties, with occasional doses of opium — a drachm at a dose.
Ergot of Rye ^s a fungus that grows on rye and other kinds of grain,
and which is developed on low, undrained soils by long continued damp
weather. Large doses cause narcotism, colic, diarrhoea, and perverted
nervous action ; impairs the appetite ; induces weakness and wasting, and
serous — sometimes bloody — discharges from the mucous surfaces ; and in
a bad case, oedema and gangrene of the ears, tail, and even the limbs.
Give a pint of linseed oil, following it with large quantities of flaxseed
tea, and give a drachm of opium three or four times a day.
Ferrum Sulphas, (sulphate of iron), is a corrosive, irritant poison,
causing the same symptoms as sulphate of copper. Give, as an antidote,
galls, powdered, half an ounce; or, bi-carbonate of soda, an ounce.
After a few minutes, give large quantities of flaxseed tea. Repeat the
entire treatment every few hours.
Nux Vomica is an irritant poison, manifesting itself by tetanic spasms
and general convulsions ; convulsions of the diaphraghm, causing labored
breathing; and, sometimes, asphyxia. Give hydrated chloral in doses of
half an ounce, every two hours, with occasional doses of opium ; also,
employ galvanism when practicable.
Opium is a narcotic poison, producing partial or total paralysis, stu-
por, stertorous (lal)ored) breathing, slow pulse and contracted pupil.
After death, the l)lood is fluid, and decomposition sets in early. Shower
with cold water, give tannin, half a drachm, and an occasional dose of
sweet spirits of nitre — half an ounce at a time ; and force the animal to
take exercise.
Lead, in all its forms, is a corrosive, irritant poison, which, in acute
cases, produces violent constipation, delirium, colicky pains, tremor of
the muscles, and gastro-enteritis. In chronic eases, where the symptoms
develope slowly, there will be noticed what is called Plumbism — exos-
totic deposits, anchylosis of the joints, paralysis, staring coat, a blue line
around the gums, emaciation, quick and wiry pulse ; with fojces black,
glazed and foetid, the abdomen tucked up, and constant moaning. Give
POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES. 565
opsoni suits, two to four ounces ; after an hour, give iodide of potash,
two or three drachms ; accompany these with occasional doses of opium
in drachm doses ; put mustard paste to the belly ; and use large quanti-
ties of flaxseed tea,
Nitrate of potash, in large doses, is an irritant poison, causing gastro-
enteritis, (with vomition in pigs), injected membranes, inflammation of
the gullet, colic, etc., and it has a powerful sedative action on the heart.
Give linseed oil, and follow it with flaxseed tea and whisky; put mus-
tard paste to the belly and over the gullet.
Common salt (or sodium chloride ) , in large quantities, acts as a corrosive,
irritant poison, causing gastro-enteritis, injected mucous membranes,
diarrhcea, weak and irritable pulse and excessive thirst ; also vomition in
dogs and pigs. Give milk and eggs, with a drachm of opium every three
or four hours ; if there is abnormal pain, apply mustard paste externally.
Sulphur is an irritant poison, causing diarrhoea, gastro-enteritis, ema-
ciation, and ebullitions of sulphuretted hydrogen gas from the anus,
(foul wind-breaking). Give a dose of oil, with opium ; also starch gruel,
both internally and as an injection.
Strychnia is to be treated for the same as nux vomica.
Turpentine is an irritant poison, causing gastro-enteritis, strangury of
the kidneys, quick and hard pulse, diarrhcea, and a violet odor and high
color to the urine. Give a small dose of oil, with opium, starch gruel,
and laudanum, both internally and as an injection ; put hot cloths to the
loins.
Wliite Hellebore y (yeratimm album) is an irritant poison, causing vomi-
tion in dogs and pigs ; in the horse, intermittent pulse, gastro-enteritis,
diarrhoea, spasms of the superficial muscles, salivation and great prostra-
tion. It is liable to be absorbed from the skin as well as taken internally,
doing the same amount of damage in either case. Give eggs and milk in
large quantities, and small doses of olive oil and sweet spirits of nitre.
m. Poisoning While Grazing.
Acorns when eaten in large quantities, cause gastro-enteritis ; consti-
pation, followed by fluid foeces ; offensive breath ; glazed eyes ; quick,
wiry pulse ; discharges from the nose ; and gnashing of the teeth. Post
mortem examination discovers acorns in the stomach ; inflammation of the
coats of that organ and of the bowels ; and, sometimes, ecchymosis and
gangrene. Ir; the case of cattle, rumenotomy must be performed to
remove the undigested acorns. For horses, etc., give oil and gruel, ^Wth
laudanum, and follow these with gentian root, in two to four drachm
doses, three times a day.
566 CYCLOPfSDiA OP i,nrE stock Ann ooupiuEnnEi stock doc?pob.
Copper sidpliate jwi'soning, in its ciironic form, from grazing neai
smelting works, has been considered in the previous section.
The tobacco plant is a narcotic;, irritant poison, causing gastro-enteritis,
convulsions, metastatic inflammation, contracted pupil, sweating, inter-
mittent pulse, diarrhoea, stertorous breathing, and stupor. Treat the
same as for opium.
Sumach, or Poisonous Oak, is an acrid poison, causing gastro-enteritis.
etc. Give oil, oi)ium and flaxseed tea.
Lobelia is an acrid, narcotic jxjison, causing salivation, gastro-enteritis,
feeble pulse, convulsions, and stupor, (iive oil, opium and mild stimu-
lants.
IV. Poisoning of the Skin.
Vegetable poisoning of the skin is not an uncommon occurrence, from
the nose or lips of the aninial coming in contact with some noxious weed
or plant while grazing. There are many such plants, besides the poison
oak and white hellebore noticed in the i)receding section, such as poison
ivy (or poison vine), hemlock, St. John's wort, etc. The symptoms of
such poisoning correspond very nearly to those manifested in the human
economy from the same cause, and which every one living in the coun-
try is familiar with. The treatment is both constitutional and local, — the
former bj'^ the use of alteratives, together with such purgatives as may be
required to keep the bowels moderately loose ; the latter, by washing the
irritated surface with a solution of sugar of lead, or other cooling and
healing wash.
V. Poisoning from Stings.
In many sections, every farmer is lial)le, in the summer season, to
have his team severely stung by hornets, bumble-bees, or the like ; while
in the Southwest, the torture inflicted on stock by the swarms of certain
gnats and poisonous flies is fairly maddening. Then, too, a stock man in
the latter section is almost sure to occasionally meet with such urgent
cases as rattlesnake or tarantula l)ites,
A homely remedy for the sting of liees, wasps, etc., is to wash with
salt and water ; and this is excellent, in ordinary cases. Onion juice is
another. For severe cases, it will be better to anoint the parts Avith a
compound of hartshorn and oil, — three parts of the former to one of
the latter; or spirits of turpentine and laudanum, in equal parts, will
afford relief. It will be a good idea, if the irritation is very great, to
sponge the whole body with lime water or a weak solution of soda, and
then smear with linseed oil.
To protect against gadflies, wash the flanks and parts most likely to
be attacked, with a strong infusion of the green bark of the comraou
elder.
POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES. 5b7
To protect against buffalo-gnats, etc., that are so troublesome in the
lower Mississippi regions, smear the parts they most affect with a mix-
ture of tar or lard, in the proportions of one to two, respectively; or
instead, with equal parts of petroleum, lard oil (or bacon drippings),
and tar.
For the bite of a rattlesnake, copperhead, or other venomous serpent,
give the following as quickly as possible :
No. 90. 1 Teaspoonful of hartshorn,
1 Pint of whiskey,
y^ Pint warm water,
Mix.
Cauterize the wound immediately, with an iron at white heat ; and keep
the adjoining parts constantly wet for some hours, with ammonia, by
means of a sponge. Unless the symptoms are urgent, the above recipe
may be made up with half a pint (instead of a pint) of whiskey ; but in
every case it will be best to repeat this smaller dose every hour, till relief
is obtained.
Stings of centipedes, scorpions and venomous spiders, (of which the
tarantula is the most common), should be treated the same as snake bitei ;
but, in these cases, it is not so customary to cauteriae.
VI. The Loco-Weed Disease.
It is indeed rare that the domestic animals are poisoned by anything
but poisonous plants. Occasionally, however, boiled Linseed Oil is given
by mistake, or horses eat Paris green, but aside from this practically all
stock poisoning is the result of eating one of the few poisonous plants
that are found in nearly every pasture.
Loco Plants. — A large number of plants have been called by the name
"loco weeds," most of those which were suspected of being poisonous be-'
longing to the botanical family Leguminosae, to which belong also the
pea, alfalfa, and other similar plants. In western Texas, western Ne-
braska, western Kansas, and in portions of eastern Colorado the term "loco
weed" was applied specifically to the plant known to botanists as Astraga-
lus mollissimus.
Loco or Crazy Weed: Is a ]jlant on the plains of the west, from
six to twelve inches high, covered with minute hairs which give it a sil-
very look. It remains green throughout the winter.
The animal gets a mania for it, becomes unthrifty and dies of starva-
tion.
Treatment : Keep animals away from it and feed nutritious food. Cat-
tle or sheep may be disposed of by fattening.
Sorghum: The information concerning sorghum plant poisoning is
comparatively new, and there are many points concerning which more
information is needed. There seems to be plenty of evidence that stock,
particularly cattle, may be poisoned by eating sorghum plants, especially
plants that have been stunted by drouth or grown on very poor soil.
568 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
SyTYvptoms: Those who have hcod a chance to study these cases report
that the principal symptoms are stupor, jerking of the muscles, unsteady
walk, and a discharge from the eyes. The pupils are frequently dilated,
and skin lacks sensation. As the poisonous element in the sorghum
plant is prussic acid, death results very rapidly and treatment for this
reason is very unsatisfactory.
Prevention: Sorghum poisoning is most liable to occur when stock is
first turned into a new field. Hence the trouble can usually be avoided
by first putting in one animal for a few hours. If no harm is noticed
then the entire herd can be turned in with safety.
Jointed Rush, Pine Top, Colt's Tail, or Equisetum: This is a very
common weed, growing especially on damp, sandy or gravelly soils. It
is probable that stock is poisoned from eating hay containing this plant
much oftener than supposed. Horees are about the only animals poi-
soned by this plant. The younger ones seem to be more susceptible to it
than the older ones. Cattle are not poisoned by it at all. However, this
may be because they do not eat it.
^Symptoms: The horse becomes unthrifty and very weak, with imper-
fect control of the hind legs. The appetite may be good, but the horse
seems to get no nourishment from what it eats. He refuses to lie down
until very late in the history of the case, when he struggles a great deal,
and finally dies, apparently worn out from exhaustion. The pulse is
slower than normal until very late in the case, when the patient's strug-
gling causes it to rise. Old horses are less susceptible to this form of pois-
oning than younger ones. Horses having good grain feed seem to resist
longer than those that are insufficiently fed. The poisonous effects of the
plant seem to be confined entirely to the dry state ; that is, stock rarely eat
it while it is gromng in pastures. For this reason it is troublesome only
when it gets in the hay.
Treatment: Administer a cathartic, such as epsom salts or raw linseed
oil. Discontinue using hay that contains the plant.
Wild Cherry Leaves: There are several varieties of wild cherries that
cause stock poisoning, the most common being choke cherries and the
common black cherries. The poisonous principle in wild cherry leaves
is due, as in the above, to the presence of prussic acid. The young sprouts
that come up around the tree seem to contain the greatest amount of this
poison. The leaves are less poisonous when wilted than when green, and
when entirely dry seem to be perfectly harmless. For this reason they
seldom give any trouble in the hay.
Symptoms: The symptoms of wild cherry poisoning are practically
the same as for other kinds of poisoning, where the trouble is the pres-
ence of prussic acid. There is a very weak pulse, difficult breathing,
frightened expression to the eyes, with very prominent eye-balls, rapid
breathing, wth sudden death from paralysis of the respiratory organs.
The animal's breath generally has a noticeable peach odor.
Treatment: If the animai has eaten a large quantity of the leaves,
treatment is almost useless. It may be well to administer a cathartic as
mentioned in the above treatment.
Loco Poisoning ( Woolly Loco, Stemless Loco) : Under this class of
poisoning, we have two separate and distinct species. The Woolly Loco,
a plant that is found growing extensively over the northwestern plains
v^Duntry, is silvery white in color, grows 8 to 10 inches high, with an
abundance of soft foliage springing out in a cluster from a short central
POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES. 569
stem, close to the ground. The flowers are pea-shaped, and usually pur-
ple. The second species, known as the Stemless Loco, is found in prac-
tically the same section of the country that the Woolly Loco is found.
In appearance the two plants are very different. In the latter, the leaf-
lets are longer and the seed has but one cell instead of two. It grows very
erect with few branches.
Symptoms: The symptoms from poisoning by either one of the above
species are practically the same. The effect of this poisoning is quite
slow in making its appearance. In fact, the animal has acquired the
habit for the weed before any marked symptoms appear. During the
first stage of Loco poisoning, the horse seems to be a little out of balance
mentally, and the eyesight shows symptoms of being impaired. After a
while the horse becomes so fond of this plant that he seems to prefer it
to other food which he might easily obUiin. Care must always be exer-
cised in turning horses into a poor pasture that contains this weed. It is
generally when grass is short that the stock get to eating it. The second
stage in the disease is characterized by a long period of general wasting
away, both in strength and flesh, the animal becoming very thin and
weak, the hair is dull, and the expression is one of feebleness. The total
period of illness may last from a few months to two years.
Treatm^ent : As yet there is no medicinal treatment that gives satisfac-
tion. The only practical and satisfactory treatment is to remove the
affected animal from the pastures containing the plant. Generally this
is sufficient. However, if the animal has nm down in flesh very much
it may be necessary to give a tonic.
Rattle Box (Crofalaria Sagittalis) : This is an annual, growing 3 to
8 inches high. The plant itself is hairy, the leaves are oval or lance
shaped with very short stems. The flowers resemble those of the common
pea; the pods are very dark in color or nearly black, and about an inch in
length. When they become dry the seeds seem to loosen so that they
rattle when shaken. It is from this characteristic that the plant gets its
name. This plant grows in damp, sandy soils, and over a very large sec-
tion of the country, especially along the Missouri River. Some seasons it
causes a very serious loss. The poisonous principle has not been found
as yet but it is apparently contained in both the seeds and the leaves.
The greatest loss seems to occur when hay containing it is fed to the
stock. Seldom giving any trouble in the green state, as it is found in
pastures.
SymptoTYis: The symptoms of poisoning from this plant are rather
slow in developing, death coming only after several weeks of gradual de-
cline. The only two prominent symptoms to be observed are sleepiness
and loud and difficult breathing.
Treatment: The treatment for poisoning from this plant is very un-
satisfactory, aside from removing the cause, either by eliminating the
plants from the pasture or hayfield, or by feeding hay that is known not
to contain it. In handling cases of this kind it is advisable to give the
horse a; good tonic.
Wafer Hemlock, Wild Hemlock, Snake Weed, or Spotted Parsley : This
plant is an erect perennial growing 3 to 6 feet high. The stem is hollow,
with numerous branches and rather stiff or rigid. The flowers are white,
growing in clusters. This plant is found chiefly on damp soils all the
way from the Atlantic Coast to the Rocky Mountains. The poisonous
principle seems to be an oily fluid which is found mostly in the roots, but
570 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
other portions of the plant also contain the poison to some extent. It
should be remembered that the chief danger from poisoning comes from
the roots and not from the leaves or stem. It is generally when the
plant has been pulled up by the roots and stock gets at them, that the
great danger occurs.
Sym/ptoinu : The most evident symptoms are acute pains in the stomach
and intestines. The patient shows difficulty in walking, with a tendency
towards convulsions and vomiting. Poisoning from this pLant is fatal in
nearly every case. Great care should be exercised that stock is not allowed
to get at it.
Poison Heinlock: This plant Wfis brought to the United States from
Europe or Asia. It is now naturalized and quit€ common throughout the
entire Eastern and Middle States, but not very common in the Mississippi
Valley. In contrast with the Water Hemlock, the stems and leaves are
not hairy or mealy, but perfectly smooth. The stem is hollow, more or
less spotted with purple, and the plant is a biennial, growing from 2 to 7
feet high.
The leaves of this plant resemble the common parsley that grows in
our gardens, and the flowers that appear in July and August grow in
showy white clusters. When crushed, the leaves have a disagreeable flavor
and odor. The poisonous element in this variety of hemlock is a volatile
alkaloid known as Conine, found principally in the seeds and leaves. The
root itself is not very dangerous in March, April and IV'Iay, but becomes
verv' poisonous later in the season. It is seldom that many specimens of
this plant are found growing in the same field, but the very'fatal nature of
the poison makes even a few very dangerous.
Symptoms: The fii-st indication of poisoning from hemlock is a gradual
but steady weakening of the entire system, especially a loss of physical
strength. The sight of the animal seems to be affected, but the mind re-
mains perfectly clear. Death finally results from paralysis of the heart
and blood vessels. _ The difference between poisoning from Water Hem-
lock and from Poison Hemlock consists mainly in the fact that convul-
sions are usually noticeable in the case of the former, while in the latter
they never appear. In cattle the symptoms of poisoning from Poison
Hemlock consists principally in the profuse flow of saliva, bloating, lack
of appetite, feebleness and weak pulse, and severe pain.
Broad Leaf Laurel, Mountain Laurel, Poison Laurel, Sheep Laurel, .
Poison Ivy : This attractive shrub grows from 4 to 8 feet high, with thick,
shiny leaves and rather showy pink flowers ; appearing in May or June.
The plant seems to prefer the rough, stony hillsides and mountain slopes
of the Eastern States. The poisonous principle is in all portions of the
plantwith the exception of the wood. Horses are poisoned occasionally
by this plant but the main losses occur among cattle and sheep.
Symptoms: A mild, persistent vomiting, with a flow of saliva, irregu-
lar breathing, impaired sight, dizziness, and a difficulty in controlling the
limbs. Later in the course of the disevose the respiration becomes irregu-
lar, with marked symptoms of drowsiness which generally passes into
complete unconsciousness and finally death.
Treatment: The Department of Agriculture suggests as a treatment
the internal use of one per cent alkaline solution of permanganate of
potash.
Death Cama or Lobelia: In certain states, especially those of the North-
west^ a very serious loss of stock occurs from poisoning by this plant. It
POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES. 571
has been estimated that in Montana alone, over 3,000 sheep died in one
year from this cause. The Death 0am a prefers the moist, shallow basins
of the western mountain pastures and plains. The plant itself is smooth,
with la single stem, resembling the onion. In height it varies from 6
inches to 3 feet. Under ground there is an onion-like growth. The leaves
dry up about midsummer and after this the danger is very slight. The
flowers form a cluster and are yellow or yellowish white. The poisonous
principle of this plant apparently resides in the fresh stem or bulb. It is
owing to this that poisoning seldom occurs after the leaves are dry unless
the stock get at the bulb.
Larkspurs: There are quite a number of species of Larkspurs, the
majority of which are very serious when considering poisonous plants.
They are erect herbs, with elongated clusters of showy blue flowers. It is
from a peculiar projection on the flowers that the plant gets its name.
Symptoms: The symptoms from poisoning by this plant are practically
the same with all the difl'erent species. The symi)toiiis resemble aconite
poisoning. In fact, the characteristic alkaloid of the larkspurs is similar
in many respects to aconite. The effects on the system of larkspur poison-
ing and aconite poisoning are practically the same. The most noticeable
symptoms are muscular spasms and a stiff, irregular, straddling walk,
with persistent swallowing motions.
Treatment : Treatment for larkspur poisoning sliould be the same as for
aconite. Belladonna or Atropia (the alkaloid of belladonna) has given
very satisfactory results. The dose of atropia given with hypodermic
syringe should be % to 1 grain for cattle and hoi-ses and 1-10 to 1-3 grain
for sheep.
General Treatment: As it is sometimes difficult to determine just what
particular kind of plant the animal has been poisoned by, it will be ad-
visable to consider a general treatment for all kinds of plant poisonings.
Keej) on hand an ounce each of Permanganate of Potash and Alumi-
num Sulphate. When needed these should be dissolved in three quarts of
wat«r, care being exercised that all of the drugs are in solution, as other-
wise they will settle to the bottom and the last dose will be too strong. The
Alumiiuim Sulphate may be dissolved in the three quarts of water and
kept on hand, tightly corked, but the Permanganate of Potash should not
be added until needed, as itr deteriorates very rapidly.
Dose of the Above: For horses, a single dose of the above solution is
4 ounces ; cattle, 8 ounces ; and sheep, 1 ounce.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
INSTRUMENTS, APPARATUS, AND MEDICINES.
L, WHAT INSTRUMENTS TO KEEP, AND HOW TO USE THEM. II. SUR^^ICA^
APPARATUS AND APPLIANCES. HI. A CHEAP AND SERVICEABLE SUR-
GICAL OUTFIT. IV. VETERINARY MEDICINES AND DOSES. V. WHEN
AND HOW OFTEN MAY THE DOSE BE REPEATED? VI. SIMPLE DIREC-
TIONS FOR PREPARING AND USING MEDICINES. ^VII. WEIGHTS AND
MEASURES. ^VIII. STANDARD REMEDIES AND THEIR APPLICATION.
I. What Instruments to Keep, and How to Use Them.
Bistoury. — For making incisions. It consists of u handle to which is
attached a blade, variously shaped, according to the exact use intended,
and either fixed or movable.
Catheter. — Used to draw off the contents of the bladder when the
horse cannot make water in the natural way. Also used in treating deep
ulcers, liquid being injected through them by uicans of a syringe. In
veterinary practice, it is a round gutta pcrcha tube, of which one end is
open, and the other rounded with two openings at the side near by. Oil
well, and introduce cautiously; then slowly push it along the canal or
passage, taking care to occasion no unnecessary pain.
Firing-iron. — For making the actual cautery (burning with red-hot
iron), which, though less practiced than formerly, is still useful in certain
cases elsewhere specified. It is a heavy iron, with a blunt edge and a
nandle to hold it by.
Fleam. — Strictly speaking, one kind of lancet, and that which in old
times was alone used in veterinary practice. The manner of using it is
fully explained in the article on bleeding. The incision must always be
made lengthwise of the vein.
Forceps. — Used for extracting splinters, pieces of bone, etc., and in
the operation of lithotomy and lithotrity ; also, for seizing arteries in
order to tie them. They are simi:)ly pincers with long jaws. Those with
a spring are much lO be preferred.
Knives. — At least three or four different knives should be kept, and
always keen and bright, for surgical purposes — some rounded and others
pointed at the top. (See scalpel and shoeing-knife.)
Lancets. — There are two kinds, thumb and spring lancets, these
names being derived from the power that operates them . They are a great
improvement upon the fleam, which is their primitive form. We give
the preference to the thumb lancet.
572
INSTRUMENTS, APPARATUS, AND MEDICINE. 573
Needles {^surgical). — For sewing up wounds, etc. They are of different
shapes as well as different sizes. (See seton needles.)
Probang. — A straight, flexible rod, with a sponge on one end, for
pushing substances down the throat, in cases of strangulation. Two
kinds are shown in the cut on page 412.
Probe. — For exploring wounds. They are made of silver wire with
one end slightly knobbed, and of different sizes.
Scalpel. — A surgeon's knife, straight and keen edged. For veterinary
purposes, it should be broad and strong.
Scissors (curved). — Indispensable for trimming the edges of wounds,
clipping off the hair, etc.
Seton needles. — For drawing setons under the skin. Their blades are
broad and curved, with a round shaft eighteen inches long and one eye
at the blunt end.
Shoeing-knife. — Sometimes called the frog-knife or drawing knife,
being the knife used hy blacksmiths for cutting into and paring the hoof,
in horseshoeing. It is a thin blade with a sharply curved end, fixed in a
handle, and will be found quite useful in the care of the horse's feet, in
health, as well as in treating the same when diseased.
Syringe. — There are regular horse and cattle syringes now procurable.
For giving small doses of liquid medicines one that can be worked
with one hand is almost indispensable. The old-fashioned pail and india-
rubber pipe is a clumsy, yet in most cases, efficient substitute in giving
injections. A small syringe for injecting abscesses, cleaning wounds,
etc., will also be desirable.
Trocar. — A sim})le surgical instrument, resembling a pointed awl. It
is now generally provided with a cannula, which is a hollow tube enclos-
ing it. (See cut on page 860.) Its uses in puncturing the abdomen,
chest, &c.,have been repeatedly given elsewhere, the cannula, as a rule,
being allowed to remain in the orifice, as a channel for the escape of the
water, serum, or gas, as the case may be.
II. Surgical Apparatus and Appliances.
In addition to the instruments described in the last section, there are
various apparatus and appliances which the stock owner should always
keep on hand, or at least have at ready command in case of need. The
following list will, we think, be found sufficiently complete for all prac-
tical purposes.
Drenching bottle. — This is now generally used, instead of the old-time
drenching-horn. It should hold a quart at least, and have a long neck.
A champagne or ale bottle will be about the thing.
574 CrCTLOPEDIA OF MVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOB.
bobbles. — To prevent a horse from kicking ; more especially, for use
m casting. (See article on casting in cliui)ter XXII of this Part.)
They are two strong ropes, eacn aoout twenty-five feet long, with the
same number of strong leather straps, doubled, each with a two inch
seam between and a strong buckle. It requires three or four men to cast
ahorse. Put a loose collar on the horse, and fasten both ropes securely
to the bottom of it, or, better (if the rope is long enough), loop the mid-
dle to the collar. Buckle one of the two leather stnips tightly on each
hind pastern ; through the rings or D's of the straps pass the ends of the
rope, carrying the same forward through the collar, for the assistants,
(standing well ahead) to pull away at, while a good man manages the
animal's head. To prevent kicking (while standing), fasten the ends of
the rope to the collar, after drawing sufficiently tight.
Ligatures. — Cords or strings, most commonly silk thread, used for
tying arteries and thus preventing or stopping hemorrhage. Tie with a
surgeon's knot, made bypassing one end around the other twice and then
drawing tightly.
Ifose-bag. — This should be roomy, and be kept scrupulously clean.
Seton. — A cord or small roll of leather, tape or cloth, drawn under
the skin and then out again at a short distance, by means of the seton
needle. It is used to promote and keep up a discharge of pus, and thus
reduce inflammation, and, the better to secure this end, it is soaked with
turpentine or smeared with some other irritant, and daily turned or
drawn forward and backward through its channel. Setons have almost
entirely superseded the old-fashioned rowel, which is a ring of leather,
suitably prepared and pushed down into a pocket made in the skin.
jSUngs. — These are well illustrated on pages 294 and 338. They are
not so difficult to make as many imagine. Take, for the 'girdle which
passes under the horse's belly, a broad strip of leather or strong canvass
twenty-eight inches wnde and about seven feet long, stiffening the ends
by sewing thorn around smooth sticks or chunks of wood, to which fasten
very strong loops of rope. Double blocks and pulleys being attached
to these loops by strong ropes passing through fixed pulleys over-
head, the animal can be nearly or entirely lifted from his feet, as may
be desired. This girdle is kept in proper position by suitable breeching
and breast-straps attached to it, as shown on page 338.
Sponges. — From four to six of these should always be at hand, of
which at least one (a small one) should be very fine. Their sizes should
be graduated, the largest being such as are of ten used for washing car-
riages.
Tents. — Like setons, these are suppuratives, but are employed in the
dresein^ of wounds. They consist of pledgets of tow, lint, or the like,
moistened with turpentine.
INSTRUMENTS, APPARATUS, AND MEDICINES. 575
Twitch. — ^This has been described and illustrated in the chapter on
Operations. One should be kept hanging in the stable constantly, ready
for immediate use.
III. A cheap and serviceable Surgical Outfit.
The following convenient outfit will serve the purposes of the great
majority of horsemen, and can be selected, at very moderate cost, from
the stock of any surgical instrument dealer. Most of the instruments,
in fact, can be bought at the larger drug stores of cities. Everything
should be kept together, in a neat wooden box.
1. A thumb lancet, and, if wished, a fleam.
2. A pair of spring forceps.
3. A bistoury, blunt pointed. The slightly curved form, with the
sharp edge on the inside, is considered the best for most purposes.
4. An aneurismal (a long, blunt) needle, which is also very serviceable
for introducing small setons.
5. A silver probe.
6. A shoeing (or frog) knife.
7. A pair of curved scissors.
8. A broad scalpel, for which, however, any straight, broad-bladed
knife, with a keen edge, may be substituted.
9. A seton needle.
10. A few surgical needles, of different sizes and shapes ; some white
thread, and thin cat-gut or, instead of the latter, fine sewing silk. A
leather case or roll will be needed to keep these articles in.
rv. Veterinary Medicines and Doses.
The following list comprises the principal drugs used in veterinary
practice, those of them not among the farmer's own stores being easily
procurable at any drug store. Many of these it will be advisable to keep
always on hand, — say enough for ten doses, — everything in white bottles,
the latter well corked and carefully labeled. Corrosive subtances it will
not do to cork ; the stoppers must be ground glass. When medicines
have been kept so long that they have lost their strength, they should be
thrown away, and replaced with fresh. Old compounds not likely to be
used again soon, ought not to be kept with the other medicines. The best
plan is to throw them away, as they will only clutter up any cupboard
you may put them in, and ten to one, even if you want to use the same
prescription again, you will decide to compound it afresh.
576 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Aconite, tincture of. — Sedative, diaphoretic. Horse, 10 drops : ox, 30
to 40 drops ; sheep, 3 lo 5 drops.
Alcohol.— StimuVdnt, diuretic, narcotic. Horse, ^ ounce ; ox, 3 to 6
ounces ; sheep, ^ ounce. Locally, a cooling astringent.
Aloes, Barbadoes. — Purgative. Horse, 4 to 6 drachms
Alum. — Astringent. Horse, 2 to 3 drachms ; ox, 3 to 4 drachms;
sheep, ^ to 1 drachm.
Ammonia, liquid. — Diffusible stimulant, anti-spasmodic, antacid, diu-
retic. Horse, ^ ounce ; ox, ^ to 1 ounce ; shee^), ^ to 1 drachm. It
should be well diluted.
Ammonia, carbonate o/.— Diffusible stimulant, anti-spasmodic, ant-
acid, diuretic. Horse, 1 drachm ; ox, 4 to 6 drachms ; sheep, ^ to 1
drachm.
Anise seed, caraimy, cardamon, fennel seed. — Stomachic, carminative.
Horse, 1 ounce ; ox, 1 to 2 ounces ; sheep, 2 to 4 drachms.
Arnica, tincture of. — Stimulant, diuretic. Horse, 1 drachm ; ox, 1
drachm ; sheep, 1 scruple.
Asafoetida. — Diffusible stimulant, carminative, vermifuge. Horse, 2
drachms ; ox, 4 drachms ; sheep, ^ to 1 drachm.
Balsam of Peru. — Stimulant, antispasmodic, expectorant. Horse, 1
ounce ; ox, 1 to 1^ ounces ; sheep, 2 drachms.
Borax. — Nerve sedative, uterine stimulant. Horse, 2 to 6 drachms ;
ox, I to 1 ounce ; sheep, -^ to 1 drachm.
Blackberry root. — Astringent. Horse, 2 to 4 drachms ; ox, ^ ounce j
sheep, 2 scruples.
Camphor {gum). — Antispasmodic. Horse, 1 to 2 drachms ; ox, 2 to 4
drachms ; sheep, 1 scruple.
Carbolic acid — Sedative, anodyne, astringent, antiseptic, disinfectant.
Horse, 10 to 20 drops ; ox, 1 drachm ; sheep 10 drops.
Cherry bark, ivild. — Expectorant. Horse, 1 ounce ; ox, 1^ ounces ;
sheep, 3 drachms.
Copaiva. — Stimulant, diuretic, expectorant. Horse, 2 to 4 drachms ;
ox, 3 to 4 drachms ; sheep, ^ to 1 drachm.
Cream of tartar. — Diuretic. Horse, ^ ounce ; sheep, 4 to 6 drachms.
Laxative : horse, 5 ounces ; ox, 5 to 8 ounces ; sheep, 1 to 2 ounces.
Ergot. — Checks bleeding, parturient. Horse, | to 1 ounce ; ox, 1 ounce ;
sheep, 1 to 2 drachms.
Iron, peroxide. — Tonic. Horse, 2 drachms ; ox, 4 drachms ; sheep, 1
drachm. An antidote to arsenic.
Laudanum. — Narcotic, sedative, anodyne, antispasmodic. Horse, 1
to 2 ounces , ox, 2 ounces ; sheep, 2 to 3 drachms. The druggist calls
this tincture of opium.
INSTRUMENTS, APPARATUS, AND MEDICINES 577
Lime, chloride of. — Checks tympany, disinfectant. Horse, 2 drachms;
sheep, 1 to 2 drachms.
Linseed oil. — Laxative. Horse, 1 to 2 pints ; ox, 1 to 2 quarts ; sheep,
I pint.
Lobelia. — Sedative, antispasmodic, expectorant. Horse, 1 to 2
drachms ; ox, 1 to 3 drachms ; sheep, 15 grains ; swine, 5 to 15 grains.
Lunar caustic (^nitrate of silver). — Nerve tonic. Horse, 5 grains ; ox,
5 to 8 grains ; sheep, 1 to 2 grains.
Mallow. — Demulcent. Give freely of cold infusion.
Oak bark. — Astringent. Horse, 1 ounce ; ox, 2 to 4 ounces ; sheep, 4
drachms.
Olive oil. — Laxative. Horse, 1 to 2 pints ; ox, 2 to 3 pints ; sheep, 3
'» 6 ounces.
Opium. — Narcotic, sedative, anodyne, antispasmodic. Horse, ^ to 2
drachms ; ox, 2 to 4 drachms ; sheep, 10 to 20 grains.
Pepper, black. — Stomachic, stimulant. Horse, 2 diachms ; ox, 3
drachms ; sheep, 1 to 2 scruples.
Peppermint. — 30 to 60 drops.
Pumpkin seeds . — Vermifuge, taeniafuge (tape-worm medicine). Horse,
1 pint.
Rhubarb. — Laxative, tonic. Horse, 1 ounce; ox, 2 ounces; sheep, 1
drachm.
Rosin. — Diuretic. Horse, 2 drachms ; ox, ^ to 1 ounce ; sheep, 2 to
4 drachms.
Soap.- — Diuretic, antacid, laxative. Horse, ^ ounce ; sheep, 2 to 6
drachms.
Sweet spirits of nitre . — Stimulant, antispasmodic, diuretic, diaphoretic.
Horse, 1 to 2 ounces ; ox, 3 to 4 ounces ; sheep, 3 to G drachms.
Tobacco. — Sedative, antispasmodic, vermifuge. Horse, 4 drachms ;
ox, 4 to 6 drachms ; sheep, 1 drachm.
Tar. — Expectorant, antiseptic. Horse, |^ to 1 ounce ; ox, ^ to 2 ounces ;
iheep, ^ ounce.
Turpentine, oil of. — Stimulant, antispasmodic, diuretic. Horse, 1 to
2 ounces ; ox, 1 to 1^ ounces ; sheep, 1 to 2 drachms. Vermifuge :
Horse, 2 ounces ; ox, 2 to 3 ounces ; sheep, 4 drachms.
Valerian. — Diffusible stimulant, antispasmodic, vermifuge. Horse, 2
ounces ; ox, 2 to 4 ounces ; sheep, ^ ounce.
Zinc, sulphate of. — Astringent, tonic. Horse, ^ drachm ; ox, 2 to 3
drachms ; sheep, 15 to 30 grains.
V. When and How Often may the Dose be Repeated ?
The graduation of doses, according to age, condition, etc., has been
578 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
explained on page 278. We add the following general directions for the
reader's guidance in repeating the dose.
Alteratives. — Give twice or thrice daily.
Anodynes. — Four hours apart till they effect their object.
Antispasmodics. — Same as anodynes.
Diaphoretics. — Same as alteratives.
Diuretics. — Two to four hours apart, according to urgency of the case.
Emetics. — These are not given to the horse, his anatomy being such
that vomiting is not possible. For other animals, repeat every five or ten
minutes, assisting their action by opening the mouth and irritating the
throat with a feather.
Febrifuges. — Two to four times daily,
JSTarcotics. — Four hours apart till the desired effect is produced.
Purgatives. — As these are usually very powerful, overdosing must be
guarded against, by waiting till the first dose has had full time to operate.
This will be not less than thirty-six hours for the horse ; twelve to fifteen
hours for sheep and cattle ; and seven to ten hours for hogs. Draughts
of lukewarm water, or of warm gruel, hasten the action of purgatives.
Refrigerants. — Twice or thrice daily.
Sedatives. — Every four hours, as long as necessary.
Stimulants. — Four hours apart till the desired effect is produced.
Tomes.-— Twice or three times daily.
VI. Simple Directions for Preparing and Using Medicines.
Balls. — ^Made of drugs (in powdered form) mixed with honey or molas-
ses and linseed meal to about the stiffness of dough, and then wrapped in
tissue paper, oiled for greater ease in swallowing. Care must be taken
not to make it too large. A little tliicker than a man's thumb will be
rio-ht for horses and cattle. The ball must not be round, but cylindrical
in shape, as shown in the cuts given in Chapter XXI, of this Part.
Drenches. — Made, when the remedial agent is itself not a liquid, either
as decoctions or as infusions. The latter are made with either cold or
hot water. Small quanties of powdered drugs can be mixed with thick
gruel or mucilage, and given as a drench. Directions for giving drenches
will be found on pages 279 and 544. Care must be taken to thoroughly
dilute strong irritating liquids, so that if held in the animal's mouth for
as much as five minutes, it will do no harm. There are some liquids of
this class, as oil of turpentine, croton oil, etc., that will not mix with
water, and hence should be prepared with olive or linseed oil, or milk
'beaten with eggs ; or, in some cases, they may be given in mucilage.
Hypodermic injections. — From the rapidly increasing use of these
expedients by physicians, there seems to be a growing disposition to
INSTRUMENTS, APPARATUS, AND MEDICINES. 579
employ them in veterinary practice also. They can only be administered
with a hypodermic syringe, and, as a rule, ought not to be resorted to
without the advice of a competent surgeon.
Injections or Enemas. — These are not at all difficult to give, especially
if one has a regular horse syringe. Patent injectors that pump in the
liquid continuously are in the market. (See article "Syringe," in Section
I, this chapter,)
VH. Weights and Measures.
In compounding drugs it is necessary to be very exact as to weights
and measures. The druggist, with his delicate scales and expertness in
manipulation, is the best person to put up your veterinary prescription,
if it is otherwise convenient to have him do so. Frequently this is not
the case, however, and we therefore recommend farmers to provide them-
selves (as can be done at small expense) with a pair of scales and a meas^
uring glass for liquids. The weights for the former should be accords
ing to what is called apothecaries' weight, instead of avoirdupois, while
the glass will be already marked according to wine measure, so called.
TABLE OF APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT.
20 grains make one scruple,
3 scruples make one drachm,
8 drachms make one ounce,
12 ounces make one pound.
TABLE OF WINE MEAStJBE.
60 minims, or drops, make one drachm,
8 drachms make one ounce,
16 ounces make one pint,
2 pints make one quart,
4 quarts make olc gallon.
Sufficient accuracy in fluid measure for anything not violent in ith
action, will be the following:
60 drops, or 1 tea-spoonful, make 1 drachm,
4 tea-spoonfuls, or 1 table-spoonful, make }4 ounce,
2 table-spoonfuls make 1 ounce,
1 wine-glassful makes 2 ounces,
1 tea-cupful makes 5 ounces,
1 tumblerful makes y^ pint.
1 tin-cupful (commonest size") makes 1 pint.
A handful of flaxseed, or other seeds usually innocent in their nature,
will weigh about 2 ounces ; a handful of leaves or dried herbs will weigh
about 1 ounce.
VIII. Standard Remedies and their Application.
Ammonia, Aromutic Spirits of. — Preparation composed of Ammonium
Carbonate, Alcohol, Aqua Ammonia. It contains a perfume that kills the
odor of Ammonia. This is one of the best Ammonia preparations for in-
ternal use. Good in colics, indigestion, impactions, etc. Dose: Horse, ^/^
to 1 ounce ; cattle, 1 to 2 ounces ; sheep, 2 drachms ; hogs, 1 drachm. Dilute
with at least sixteen times its amount of water.
Ammonium Chloride, Sal Ammoniac. — Used as a mild stimulant, af-
fecting principally the mucous membrane, such as the linings of the
580 CYCLOPEDIA or LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
throat, nostril, and alimentary^ canal. Used in cases of coughs, colds, etc.
Dose: Horse, 2 to 3 drachms; cattle, 3 to 4 drachms; sheep, 1/2 to 1
drachm.
Anise Seed. — Stimulates digestion and sweetens the stomach. Also used
as a tonic when recovering from a weakening disease. Dose: Horse, 1
ounce; cattle, 1 to 2 ounces; sheep, 2 to 4 drachms; dogs and swine, 1 to
2 drachms.
Areca Nut. — Is made from the ground seed of a palm. Generally used
to destroy tapeworms. Best given in combination with Oil of Male
Fern. Diose: Horse, 1/2 to 1 ounce; sheep, V2 ounce; lambs, 2 drachms.
Arnica, Tincture of. — Causes sweating and reduces fever. Dose: Horse,
% to 1 ounce; cattle, 1 ounce; sheep, 2 drachms; swine, 1/2 drachm. Also
used externally as a liniment for sprains and bruises.
Arsenic. — Commonly called White Arsenic. Is a heavy white powder
and very poisonous. Extreme care should be used in giving it to ani-
mals. Use in chronic indigestion, lung disorders, such as heaves, and
skin disorders. Dose : for a horse, 2 to 5 grains ; cattle, 4 to 7 grains. In
the case of small animals it is best to use it in the form of Fowler's solution
as it is more safely handled.
Arsenic {Fowler's Solution). — A slightly milder form of the above, and
generally preferable as it is not quite as dangerous. Used as a tonic for
animals recovering from very weakening diseases, such as distemper.
Dose: Horse, 1/2 to 1 ounce; cattle 1/2 to 1 ounce; sheep, 1/2 to 1 drachm;
swine, 5 to 30 drops.
Asafetida, Gum. — Used for colic, indigestion, constipation, and worms.
Dose: Horse, 2 to 4 drachms; cattle, 4 drachms; sheep, 1 drachm. Can be
either given in a ball or dissolved in alcohol and then diluted in water.
Asafetida, Tincture of. — This is simply a solution in alcohol of the gum
and is used for the same diseases as the above. Dose: Horee, 2 ounces;
cattle, 3 to 4 ounces ; sheep, V2 ounce ; swine, 1 to 2 drachms.
Belladonna, Fluid Extract of. — Used in fevers, cramp colic, tetanus,
caked udder. Small doses are best, and full doses should never be given
often er than three or four times a day. Dose : Horse, 1/2 to 1 drachm ;
cattle, 1 drachm ; sheep, 20 drops ; swine, 3 to 8 drops.
Benzoin, Compound Tincture of, (Friar's Balsam.) Chiefly used for
healing wounds. Can be either painted over the wound with a feather,
twice a day, or mixed with lard or vaseline, forming an ointment, in pro-
portion of one part of Benzoin to four or five parts of lard or vaseline.
Biniodide of Mercury. — Is used chiefly as a blister, for bony enlarge-
ments, such as spavins, ringbones, sidebones, splints, etc. Should al-
ways be mixed with lard or vaseline to the proportion of 1 to 2 drachms of
%he drug to an ounce of vaseline.
INSTRUMENTS, APPARATUS, AND MEDICINES. 581
Blackberry Root. — Is an astringent, that is, it causes contraction of the
vital structures. Dose for the horse: 2 to 4 drachms; cattle, I/2 ounce;
sheep, 40 grains.
Borax. — A white powder sometimes used as a mild antiseptic. Can also
be used internally. Dose : Horse, 2 to 6 drachms ; cattle, I/2 to 1 ounce ;
sheep, % to 1 drachm.
Boric Acid. — A non-poisonous antiseptic. Used for sore mouth, sore
eyes, rupe, etc. Used in solution 1 ounce to a pint of water.
Bromide of Potash. — Chief use is to quiet the nerves in diseases like
lock-jaw, convulsions, chorea, etc. Dose: Horse, % to 1 ounce; cattle, 1
ounce ; sheep, 1 drachm ; swine or dogs, i/4 drachm.
Buckthorn — Cascara Sagrada. — Used mostly as a physic for dogs and
drachms.
Butter of Antimony. — Use pure as a caustic to burn out proud flesh, old
sores and fistulse. This drug is very powerful and must not be allowed
to come in contact with live flesh. The sore must be dry before it is ap-
plied. Never use internally.
Calibar Bean, Fluid Extract of. — Obtained from the seeds of a certain
plant. Used for colic, impaction, and bowel disorders. Generally com-
bined with Jaborandi. Dose: Horse, I/2 to 1 drachm; cattle, 1 to 2
drachms ; sheep, 20 to 30 drops.
Calomel. — Used internally as a physic to expel worms. Externally it
may be dusted on old sores to dry them up. Dose ; Horse, Vo to 1 drachm ;
cattle, 1 to 2 drachms ; sheep and swine, 5 to 20 grains.
Camphor, Gum. — Good in colic, diarrhea, coughs, and lessen pain.
Dose: Horse, 1 to 2 drachms; cattle, 2 to 4 drachms; sheep, 1-3 drachm.
Camphor, Spirits of. — This is a solution of the gum in alcohol in the
proportion of one part of the gum to ten parts alcohol. Dose: Horse,
V2 to 1 ounce; cattle, 1 to 2 ounces; sheep, 2 drachms; swine and dogs, 10
drops to 1/2 drachm. Generally given with water. Externally it is some-
times used to relieve pain in the case of sprain.
Cantharides. — See Spanish Flies.
Carbolic Acid. — One of the most common and efficient antiseptics. As
sold by druggists it is a colorless, oily liquid, and liable to turn pink on
exposure to light. In treating wounds it should be greatly diluted. A
good proportion will be one ounce of the acid to a quart of water. This
will make about a 3% solution. It is a very active poison and should
be used with care. Used occasionally internally. Dose: Horse, 10 to 30
drops; hogs, 3 to 10 drops. Must be well diluted with water.
Carrom Oil. — This is a mixture of Lime Water and Linseed Oil, in
equal parts. A very useful preparation in treating burns and wounds of
a similar nature.
582 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Castor Oil. — A most excellent purgative, and it can be used where
harsher ones would not be advisable. In small doses it may be combined
with laudanum, making an excellent remedy for scours. Dose: Horse,
1 to 2 pints; calves, 2 to 4 ounces; sheep, 4 ounces; swine, 2 ounces.
Caustic Potash. — This is a very strong alkali and can generally be pur-
chased in the form of sticks. Used for burning out warts and similar
growths, cauterizing poisonous wounds, and also for dehorning calves.
The sticks should be kept in well-corked bottles as they will deteriorate if
left in contact with the air. Wet the sticks before applying and hold with
a paper, as they will destroy the flesh. The burn from Caustic Potash is
as bad as an acid burn.
Charcoal. — Is a mild antiseptic. In a finely powdered form it is used for
dusting wounds and sores. It is used in a great many stock foods and
condition powders. Its active principle being to neutralize gases.
Cherry Bark, Wild. — The bark of the roots is preferable to that of the
tree proper. It is generally given in the form of an infusion or cold tea.
Very useful in all disea.ses of the digestive tract.
Chloral Hydrate. — This dnig is generally used to lessen pain and quiet
the nerves of the patient. Used principally in hysteria and other nervous
diseases. Dose: Horse, V2 to 1 ounce; cattle, 1 to 2 ounces; sheep, 1 to 2
drachms; hogs, I/2 to 1 drachm.
C^/oro/orm.— Stimulant, anodyne (relieves pain), anesthetic (produces
insensibility) . Its stimulating effect resembles that of alcohol but is less
pronounced and more temporary. Chloroform is very useful in colic and
other spasmodic conditions. Should be given internally with 6 to 8 times
its bulk of raw linseed oil, well shaken together. Dose : Horse, 4 to 8
drachms repeated every two or three hours ; sheep and hogs, take l^ to 1
drachm.
Chloride of Potash. — Is used internally for sore throat and like disord-
ers; if the animal cannot swallow the solution may be sprayed into the
throat with a syringe or placed on the tongue as a paste, mixed with flour
or molasses. Dose: Horse, 1 to 2 drachms; cattle, 2 to 4 drachms; sheep,
y2 drachm ; swine and dogs, V2 drachm.
Copaiva, or Copaiba. — This drug comes from a tree native to South
America. It is a stimulant and is also used in certain catarrhal condi-
tions of the system. Dose : Horse, 2 to 4 drachms ; cattle, 3 to 4 drachms ;
sheep 1/2 to 1 drachm.
Copperas, Sulphate of Iron. — One of the best of the mineral tonics.
Also used as a. wash for wounds. Excellent internally for diarrhea. One of
the principal ingredients in condition powders. Dose : Horse, 1 drachm ;
cattle, 2 drachms; sheep, 20 grains; swine, 10 grains.
Corrosive Sublimate — Bichloride of Mercury. — One of the most power-
ful antiseptics and disinfectants there is. The general proportion to be
used is about 1 part of the Corrosive Sublimate to 1,000 parts of water.
INSTRUMENTS, APPARATUS, AND MEDICINES.
583
One drachm of Corrosive Sublimate to 1 gallon of water will make about
the proper proportion. This is the best disinfectant for stables and farm
buildings, as well as one of the cheapest. Great care must be used in hand-
ling it as it is very poisonous.
Cream of Tartar. — Laxative and diuretic. Dose: Horse, 1/2 ounce;
sheep, 4 to 6 drachms. Not used as much as formerly.
Creolin. — Antiseptic and disinfectant. This is one of the cold tar prod-
ucts. Very valuable in treating wounds, scratches, grease, and diseases of
a like character. Is used also to destroy parasites of all kinds. A proper
proportion wall be 1 to 3 parts Creolin to 100 parts of water. It should be
bought pure and diluted only as needed.
Croton Oil — A powerful purgative that should only be used when
milder means have failed, as in impaction of the ruman and in diseases
of a like character. Dose : Horse, 15 to 30 drops ; cattle, 1/2 to 1 drachm ;
sheep, 5 to 10 drops; swine and dogs, 2 to 3 drops. For horses and cattle
it should be given in a pint of linseed oil ; for sheep, given in half a pint
of oil.
Crude Petroleum. — This is generally used in making hoof oils and a?
a remedy for ringworm on domestic animals. It is a very cheap and effect-
ive remedy.
Digitalis, Fluid Extract 0/.— Used in weakening diseases, such as in-
fluenza, distemper, lung troubles, and whenever the heart is weak. It
is a powerful heart and lung tonic. It is also sometimes used for heaves.
Dose: Horse, 20 drops to V2 drachm; cattle, 1/2 to 1 drachm; sheep, 5 tc
15 drops; swine, 1 to 3 drops.
Epsom Salts. — Used principally as a purgative for cattle and sheep.
Dose: cattle, 1 to 3 pounds; sheep, 2 to 4 ounces; horse, 1/2 to 1 pound;
hogs, 1 to 2 ounces. This should be administered in the form of a drench
by dissolving the salt in warm water. It generally acts in about 24 hours.
Ether, Sulphuric. — This drug is used about the same as Chloroform,
that is, it produces insensibility when inhaled. Ether may be given in-
ternally as a stimulant in cases of colic, indigestion, etc. Dose, intern-
ally: Horse, V2 to 1 ounce; cattle, 1 to 1^/2 ounces; sheep, 2 to 4 drachms;
hogs, 1 to 2 drachms.
Erect. — Checks bleeding and may also be used in parturition and in-
ternal bleeding. Dose : Horse, 1/2 to 1 ounce ; cattle 1 to 2 ounces ; sheep,
1 to 2 drachms.
Fowler's Solution. — See Arsenic.
Gamboge. — Is a very powerful physic. Used mostly for cattle where
milder remedies, such as Salts and Castor Oil, have failed. It is generally
given in combination with other medicines.
Gentian, Fluid Extract. — This is an alcoholic solution of Gentian root.
Used as a tonic during recovery from a debilitating disease. The dose is
the same as for the powder.
584 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Gentian Root Powder. — This is a bitter tonic that is used very exten-
sively in condition powders and patent stock foods. Dose: Horse, 2
drachms; cattle, 4 drachms; sheep, 1 drachm; swine, V^ drachm.
Ginger. — A mild stimulant; sweetens the stomach and neutralizes gases.
Is used in combination with physic drenches to prevent griping; also
good in colic, indigestion, and many other disorders of the alimentary
canal. Dose: Horse, ^/^ to 1 ounce; cattle, 1 to 2 ounces; sheep, 2 drachms;
pigs, 1 drachm.
Glauber's Salts (Sulphate of Soda). — This is an excellent purgative for
cattle and sheep. The action same as Epsom Salts, only not quite as cer-
tain. Dose: Cattle, 1 to l^/^ pounds; sheep, 2 to 4 ounces. Dissolve in
water and give as a drench.
Glycerine. — Used externally to soften the skin. Two to 4 ounces in
warm water makes an excellent injection.
Hyposulphite of Soda. — Antiseptic and deodorant. Especially valuable
for internal administration. Used to check fermentation in the stomach
and intestines, therefore valuable in conditions of diarrhea, indigestion,
and bloat. This drug is readily soluble in water and should be given as a^
drench. Dose: Horse, 2 to 4 ounces; cattle, 4 to 6 ounces; sheep, i/o to
1 ounce.
Iodide of Potash. — When given internally it acts a.s an absorbent. Used
in dropsy of the belly or chest to absorb the fluids that have accumulated
there. May also be used where there is a thickening about the throat, legs,
or milk glands. Care must be exercised in its use, as it will produce a con-
dition in the system known as iodism ; animal goes off feed, hair becomes
rough, skin harsh and wrinkled, and a discharge is seen in the eyes and
nose. If these symptoms appear, discontinue its use for a short time. Dose :
Horse, i/^ to 1 drachm twice a day ; cattle, 1 to 2 drachms.
Iodine, Tincture of. — Seldom used internally. Externally used as a
blister to reduce enlarged glands, wind puffs, etc. Paint the parts once a
day until a blister is formed, then grease and let it heal. When healed
wash the affected parts with soapy water and repeat the blister. Continue
this until cured. It may also be injected into old sores and fistulse once in
two or three days. Sometimes used to destroy ringworms.
Iodoform. — Used generally for local or external application. Is a de-
odorizer and prevents infection in wounds. As a local antiseptic it is very
useful in dressing wounds, especially after they have commenced to heal.
May be used alone or mixed with twice its bulk of boracic acid.
Iron Peroxide. — Used as a tonic in certain diseases, also as an antidote
for arsenic poisoning. Dose: Horse, 2 drachms; cattle, 4 drachms; sheep,
1 drachm.
Jaborandi, Fluid Extract. — This is a product of a certain plant. Its
use stimulates secretions of the glands of the stomach. Good for colic and
INSTRUMENTS, APPARATUS, AND MEDICINES. 585
impactions. Dose: Horse, 2 to 4 drachms; cattle, Y2 to 1 ounce; sheep,
1/2 to 1 drachm.
Kerosene. — Internally it is used for stomach worms. Externally it may
be made into an emulsion with soap and used to kill parasites, such as lice,
ticks, etc. Internal dose for lambs: 1 to 2 drachms in 4 ounces of oil or
milk.
Lard. — May be used in place of vaseline. When used fresh on irritated
skin it has a softening and soothing effect. It may be also given internally
as a purgative for small animals. Melt and give 1 to 8 ounces according
to size.
Laudanum — Tincture of Opiums — Used both internally and externally
to relieve pain. Dose: Horse, 1 ounce; cattle, 1 to 2 ounces; sheep, 2
drachms; swine and dogs, 5 to 20 drops. Care must always be exercised
in using this drug as it is very poisonous when used in large doses.
Lime Water. — Is made by slacking fresh lime, using as much as the
water will take up in solution. Allow to settle and use the clear liquid.
This preparation is useful in diarrhea in young animials. Dose: Calves,
1 to 6 ounces.
Lime. — Finely pulverized or air-slaked lime is valuable in drying up old
sores. The unslaked lime is valuable for disinfecting stables and buildings
that animals are kept in. Used in the form of whitewash makes one of
the best preventatives against lice and vermin in the poultry house.
Livxe, Chloride of. — Principal use is as a disinfectant. Also used in-
ternally in cases of bloat in horses and sheep. Dose: Horse, 2 drachms;
sheep, 1/2 to 1 drachm.
Linseed Oil, Raw. — Used as a mild physic or laxative. Commonly
used in connection with colic remedies, as it has a soothing action on the
stomach and intestines. Externally it may be applied with Carbolic Acid,
1 part of the acid to 25 parts Linseed Oil, for scratches. Dose (internally) :
Hoi-se, 1 to 2 pints ; cattle, 2 to 3 pints ; sheep, 14 pint ; calves 4 to 8 ounces ;
lambs, 2 ounces.
Lobelia. — This is one of the poisonous plants of the Northern
Hemisphere. Is used to counteract the action of certain vegetable poisons,
such as Poison Ivy. For this purpose it should be mixed with Whiskey
and applied externally.
Mercury. — See Calomel and Corrosive Sublimate.
Monsel's Solution of Iron. — This preparation is one of the very best for
stopping the flow of blood. It is very astringent. Is used in leaking of
the navel. Should be applied about three times a day with a feather.
Morphine, Sulphate of. — This is another of the drugs made from opium,
having the same action only much more powerful ; not so constipating as
opium and thus better to use in cases of colic and impactions. May con-
veniently be given hypodermically. Dose, by the mouth: Horse, 3
to 10 grains; cattle, 6 to 10 grains; sheep, % to 2 grains.
586 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Mustard. — Used chiefly for plasters in severe cases of colic, inflamma-
tion of the bowels, diseases of the chest and throat, and over the loins in
kidney affections. If mixed with warm water in the form of a paste it acts
as a mild blister. A plaster of ordinary strength may be made by using
l^ pound ground mustard, 2 tablespoons of flour, and tepid water or
vinegar, sufficient to make a paste. In severe cases omit the flour, using
only the mustard and vinegar. Apply by rubbing into the hair over the
part on which a blister is desired.
Niter. — See Sweet Spirits of Niter,
Nitro — Hydrochloric Acid. — This is a mixture of Nitric and Hydro-
chloric Acids. Used to stimulate the secretions of the glands in the intes-
tinal tract. This is very valuable in certain kinds of indigestion with
torpidity of the liver. Dose of the medicinal acid : Horse, 1 to 2 drachms ;
cattle, 2 to 4 drachms; sheep, 20 to 40 drops; hogs, 10 to 20 drops.
Nux Vomica — (Powdered Seed.) — This drug is used as a tonic in
paralysis and weak, debilitated conditions of the system in general. The
active principle in this drug is strychnine, and when twitching of the
muscles occurs its use should be discontinued. Poisonous. Dose: Horse,
^ to 1 drachm; cattle, 2 drachms; sheep, 20 grains; swine, 10 grains.
Nux Vomica, Fluid Extract of. — The action on the system of this drug
is the same as aboye. Generally used in connection with Gentian in cases
of impactions, constipation, etc. Dose, Same as the powder.
Nitrate of Silver — (Lunar Caustic). — This is simply a pencil form of
Silver Nitrate, much used for cauterizing warts, growths, snakebites, proud
flesh, etc. Sticks must be kept in tightly corked bottles to prevent dis-
solving. To use, simply wet and apply the same as Caustic Potash, A
solution of 2 to 5 grains in an ounce of water is sometimes used for in-
flammation of the eyes.
Nitrate of Potash — Salt Peter. — Its chief action is on the blood
and kidneys, causing the latter to secrete a large amount of urine. It
reduces fevers and dropsical swellings. Dose : Horse, 1 to 4 drachms ; cat-
tle, y2 to 1 ounce; sheep, V2 to 1 drachm.
Oak Bark Tea. — Good for diarrhea. If used externally it dries up sores
and toughens the skin. Dose : Colts and calves, 1 to 2 ounces ; lambs, 1/2
ounce. Best given in milk. To make : Boil an ounce of Oak Bark in a
pint of water.
Oil of Tar. — This is a principal constituent of cough syrups. For
chronic coughs it makes a very effectual remedy. Dose for the horse: 1
teaspoonful three times a day. May be either given in the feed, or placed
on the tongue with a spoon.
Oil of Male Shield Fern. — This is a very effectual remedy for tape-
worms. Dose : Horse, 3 to 4 drachms in a pint of raw Linseed Oil ; cattle,
ftame as the horse ; sheep and swine, 1 to 2 drachms in % pint of oil.
INSTRUMENTS^ APPARATUS^ AND MEDICINES. 587
Olive Oil. — Mild laxative. Externally it may be mixed with Car-
bolic Acid in the proportion of 1 drachm of Acid to 4 ounces of the oil,
and used as a dressing for wounds. Dose as a laxative : Horse, 1 to 2 pints ;
cattle, 2 to 3 pints; sheep, 3 to 6 ounces.
Opium. — This drug is made from the dried juice of a certain kind of
poppy. Can be purchased either in the gum or powdered form. It is the
basic principle in morphine and drugs of a similar nature. It is used to
lessen pain ; stops the activity of the bowels and thus should not be used in
colic, but is very valuable in diarrhea. Laudanum, which is simply an
alcoholic solution of opium, is the most convenient form in which to use
this drug. Dose of opium : Horse, ^/^ to 1 drachm ; cattle, 1 to 2 drachms ;
sheep, 5 to 20 grains ; hogs, 3 to 10 grains.
Pepper, Black. — Sometimes used in its ground form to warm the stom-
ach and bowels, in cases of colic, indigestion, etc. Dose: Horse, 1 table-
spoonful; cattle, 1 tablespoonful ; sheep and swine, % teaspoonful.
Peppermint, Essence of. — Sometimes used in indigestion and colic.
Give in sweetened w^ater. Dose for the horse : 40 drops to 1 drachm ; cat-
tle, 1 to 2 drachms; sheep, 10 drops.
Pumpkin Seeds. — This is one of the oldest and best known remedies
for tapeworms. Dose: Horse, 1 pint.
Quinine, Sulphate of. — In small doses Quinine is used as a bitter tonic.
In larger doses it reduces fever. Dose : Horse, Yz to 1 drachm ; cattle, 2 to
4 drachms ; sheep, i/o drachm ; pigs, 10 grains.
Rhubarb. — This is a laxative and tonic. Dose: Horse, 1 ounce; cattle,
2 ounces; sheep, 1 drachm.
Rosin. — Diuretic. Not used as much as formerly. Dose: Horse, 2
drachms ; cattle, % to 1 ounce ; sheep, 2 to 4 drachms.
Salol. — This drug is made from Salicylic Acid and Carbolic Acid. It
is one of the best known remedies for rheumatism. Dose : Horse, 1 to 3
drachms ; cattle, 3 to 5 drachms ; sheep, Vo to 1 drachm ; hogs, 20 to 40
grains.
Salts. — ^See Epsom and Glauver's Salts.
Salt, Common. — Useful as a food in small amounts. A solution of
1 ounce of the salt in a pint of water makes a good wash for sores and
wounds.
Saltpeter. — See Nitrate of Potash.
Soda, Bicarbonate of — (Baking Soda). — This is useful in indigestion
but should always be given before feeding. When wet with water it makes
a good paste to apply to bee stings. Dose : Horse, 2 drachms to 1 ounce ;
cattle, 1/2 to 11/2 ounces; sheep, 1 drachm to 1/2 ounce; swine, 2 drachms.
Spanish Fly, (Cantharides) — Seldom given internally. Principally
used in making blisters for reducing enlargements, such as curbs, tumors
and thickenings after wounds have healed. Generally used in connection
with lard or vaseline. A proper proportion being 1 to 3 drachms of Can-
588 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
tharides to 1 ounce of lard or vaseline, as the case may require. If to be
used on cattle the blister may be made a little stronger.
Strychnine. — This is a very poisonous drug, made from Nux Vomica.
It is a very powerful nerve tonic. Dose : Horse, 1 to 2 grains ; cattle, 2
to 3 grains; sheep, i/4 to 1/2 grain. If the drug is to be used hypo-
dermically the dose will be about one-half the above.
Sugar of Lead, {Acetate of Lead).— Should be used for external ap-
plication only, as it is very poisonous. Very good for healing sores and
wounds for which purpose dissolve 1 ounce in 11/2 pints of water.
Sulphate of Copper— Blue Vitriol— Blue Stone.— Is an astringent anti-
septic and mild caustic. Internally it is sometimes used for checking dis-
charges, such as nasal gleet, or chronic catarrh. Externally it is used to
burn out proud flesh in ulcers and old wounds. For this purpose it may
be either dusted on or applied in solution. Dose internally: Horse, V2
to 1 drachm; cattle, 1 drachm; sheep, 10 to 20 grains.
Sulphur — Internally it acts on the blood as a purifier. Externally it is
used for lice and to destroy parasites and germs on the skin. Dose : Horses
and cattle, 1/2 ounce ; sheep, 1 drachm ; swine, 20 grains. It may be mixed
with lard in a proportion of 1 ounce sulphur to 6 ounces of lard, forming
an ointment that is very good for all skin diseases.
Sweet Spirits of Niter — Spirits of Nitrous Ether. — Given in small doses
it acts on the kidneys and skin, reducing fever. In large doses it acts on the
stomach and bowels, relieving pain and neutralizing gases. Good in va-
rious forms of indigestion and colic. Dose : Horse, 1 to 2 ounces ; cattle, 2
to 3 ounces ; sheep, 3 to 6 drachms ; swine and dogs, 1 to 2 drachms.
Tincture of Chloride of Iron — Muriate of Iron. — Used as a tonic to stop
bleeding and also as a wash in sore throat, sore mouth, and various skin
diseases. Dose: Horse, ^/^ to 1 ounce; cattle, 1 ounce; sheep, 1/2 to 1
drachm ; swine, 10 to 30 drops. As an external application use Vo ounce
of the tincture to 8 ounces of water. The dose of the strong liquid Chlo-
ride of Iron is one-fourth as much as the tincture.
Turpentine — Spirits of Turpentine — Oil of Turpentine. — Used for colic,
bloating and intestinal worms. It also has a stimulating action on the
kidneys. Best given in oil, gruel or milk. Dose: Horse, V2 to 1 ounce;
cattle, 1 to 2 ounces; sheep, 1 to 3 drachms; swine, 1 drachm. Externally
is used in many blistering liniments.
Valerian. — Is a diffusible stimulant. Also used sometimes for worms.
Dose : Horse, 2 ounces ; cattle, 2 to 4 ounces ; sheep, 1/2 ounce.
Vaseline. — This is another of the coal tar products. Its only action on
the skin is to soften it. It is also used as a base for ointments and blisters.
Fresh lard may be substituted.
Vinegar. — Used externally as a cooling, stimulating lotion. Occasion-
ally used hot in poultices. Internally it may be given in small doses di-
luted with water for cooling fevers.
CHAPTER XXIX.
RECIPES FOR THE HORSE.
As a matter of convenience to the reader, to whom time will often be
j)recious in treating his sick stock, we add this chapter, resuming all our
prescriptions for the horse.
No. 1. LOTION FOR FISTULA.
Sulphate of copper, 2 dracliius.
Water, Yq, pint,
Mix.
Inject ouce or twice a day.
I No. 7. WHITE LOTION FOR FLESH WOUNDS.
Sulphate of zinc, 6 drachms.
Sugar of lead, 1 ounce,
Water, 1 pint.
Mix and shake.
Apply three times a day.
No. 2. LOTION FOR FISTULA.
Sulphate of zinc, 3 drachms,
Water, >2 Pi^^t,
Mix.
Inject once or twice a day.
"^. 3. LOTION FOR FISTULA.
Corrosive sublimate, 1 drachm.
Water, )4, pint,
Mix.
Inject once or twice a day.
No. 4. FEVER MIXTURE.
Sweet spirits nitre, 1 ounce,
Tincture aconite root, 1 drachm,
Nitrate of potash, 1 ounce,
Water, yi pint,
[Mix.
Give a tablespoonf ul every 2 hours.
No. 6. CARBOLIC LOTION.
Carbolic acid, 1 part,
Water, 30 parts.
Mix.
Inject three times a day.
No=
. CARBOLIC LOTION.
Carbolic acid, >^ ounce,
Water, 1 pint,
Mix.
Use three or four times a day.
No. 8. HOOF OINTMENT.
Pine tar, 4 fluid ounces,
"Whale oil, 4 ounces,
(If too thin in warm w^eather, add
mutton tallow, 2 ounces).
Mix.
Apply once a day.
No. 9. FLY BLISTER.
Powdered cantharides, % ounce,
Lard, 2 ounces.
Mix.
Rub well in.
No.
No.
10. RED MERCURIAL BLISTER.
Biniodide of mercury, 2 drachms
Lard, 2 ounces,
Mix.
Rub well in.
11. COMPOUND LINIMENT.
Tincture of iodine, 3 ounces.
Aqua ammonia, 1 ounce.
Oil of turpentine, 1 ounce.
Glycerine, 1 ounce.
Mix.
Rub well in twice a day.
589
590
CYCLOPEDIA OP LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
No. 12. COOLING LOTION.
Muriate of ammonia, 1 ounce,
Nitrate of potash, 1 ounce,
Water, 1 quart,
Mix.
Apply three times a day.
No.
13. COOLING LOTION.
Vinegar (strong), 1 pint,
Common salt, a handful.
Water, 1 pint.
Mix.
Apply three or four times a day.
No. 14. LINIMENT FOR SPRAINS.
Liquor ammonia, 1 ounce.
Tincture arnica, 1 ounce,
Tinctiire opium, 1 ounce.
Oil turpentine, 1 ounce.
Alcohol, 1 ounce.
Water to make 1 pint,
Mix.
Rub well in t^^^ce a day.
No. 15. LINIMENT FOR SPRAINS.
Tincture arnica, 1}^ ounces,
Tincture of opium, 1 ounce,
Liquor ammonia, 1)0 ounces.
Water to make 1 pint.
Mix.
Rub well in twice a day.
No. 16. DIURETIC POWDER.
Rosin, 2 ounces.
Nitrate of potash, 2 ounces.
Powder and mix.
Divide into twelve powders, and give
one night and morning in soft
feed.
No. 17. IODINE LOTION.
Iodine, 1 drachm.
Iodide of potash, 1 drachm.
Alcohol, 1 ounce.
Water to make 1 pint.
Mix.
Inject twice a day.
No. 18. FEVER MIXTURE.
Tincture aconite root, 1 drachm.
Fluid extract belladonna, 2 drachms,
Sweet spirits nitre, 2 ounces.
Carbonate of ammonia, 1 ounce.
Nitrate of potash, 1 ounce.
Water to make 1 pint.
Mix.
Give a tablespoonf ul every 2 hours.
No. 19. PASTE FOR OPEN JOINT
Carbolic acid, 1 drachm.
Glycerine, 2 drachms.
Flour, enough to make a paste.
Mix.
Make a paste, and apply to tlie cut
twice a day.
No. 20. TONIC POWDER.
Sulphate of iron, 2 ounces,
Cinchona bark, 2 ounces,
Powder and mix.
Divide into twelve powders, and give
one night and morning in the feed-
No. 21. FEVER MIXTURE.
Tincture aconite root, 1 drachm.
Sweet spirits nitre, 1% ounces.
Nitrate of potash, 1)4 ounces.
Water to make 1 pint.
Mix.
Give a tablespoonful every two
hours.
No. 22. TONIC POWDER.
Sulphate of iron, 1}£ ounces.
Nitrate of potash, 2 ounces,
Powder and mix.
Divide into twelve powders, and give
one night and morning in soft
feed.
No. 23. PURGATIVE BALL.
Barbadoes aloes, 5 drachms,
Ginger, 1 drachm.
Gentian root, 1 drachm.
Syrup or soap, enough to combine
foregoing,
Powder and mix.
Make a ball, and give as one dose.
RECIPES FOR THE nORSE.
691
No. 24. ASTRINGENT "WASH.
Sugar of lead, 1 ounce,
Water, 1 pint,
Mix.
Apply three times a day.
No. 25. LOTION FOR BRUISE.
Tincture of arnica, 1 ounce,
Laudanum, 1 ounce,
Water to make 1 pint.
Mix.
Apply three times a day, and band-
No. 26. ACID LOTION.
Hydrochloric acid, >^ ounce.
Water, 1 pint,
Mix.
Apply twice a day.
WO. 27. LOTION (anodyne.)
Tincture of arnica, 1 ounce,
Tinctiu-e of opium, 1 ounce,
Water to make 1 pint,
Mix.
Apply three times a day without a
bandage.
IJTO. 28. LOTION FOR ULCERATED BONE.
Hydrochloric acid, 2 drachms,
Water, % pint.
Mix.
Apply twice a day.
No. 29. STRONG CARBOLIC LOTION.
Carbolic acid, y^ ounce.
Linseed oil, % pint.
Mix.
Apply three times a day.
No. 30. FEVER MIXTURE.
Tincture aconite root, 1 drachm,
Fluid extract belladona, 2 drachms,
Water, 4 ounces,
Mix.
Give a tablespoonful every 2 hours.
No. 31. ABSORBING OINTMENT.
Iodide of potash, 2 drachms,
Lard, 2 ounces.
Mix.
Apply once a day with friction.
No. 32. TANNIC LOTION.
Tannic acid, %, ounce.
Vinegar, 1 ounce,
Water, 1 quart.
Mix.
Apply three times a day.
No. 33. DIURETIC POWDER.
Kosin, 2 ounces,
Nitrate of potash, 2 ounces,
Linseed meal, 2 ounces.
Powder and mix.
Give a tablespoouful morning and
night in the feed.
No. 34. TONIC POWDER.
Sulphate of iron, 1)^ ounces,
Nitrate of potash, 1 ounce,
Fcenugreekseed, 2 drachms.
Linseed meal, 2 ounces,
Powder and mix.
Give a tablespoonful morning and
night in the feed.
No. 35. TONIC MIXTURE.
Tincture of iron, 1 ounce.
Tincture of gentian, 1 ounce,
Water, 10 ounces.
Mix.
Give two tablespoonfuis three times :
day.
No. 36. POWDER FOR RHEUMATISM-
Colchicum seed (powdered) , 1 ounce,
Nitrate of potash, 1 ounce,
Fcenugreek seed, 2 drachms,
Mix.
Divide into twelve powders, and give
one night and morning in soft
feed.
No. 37. ALTERATIVE COMPOUND.
Epsom salts, 4 ounces.
Nitrate of potash, 2 ounces,
Linseed meal, 4 ounces,
Mix.
Give a tablespoonful twice a day ij)
soft feed.
592
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
No. 38. ALTERATIVE MIXTURE.
Potassium iodide, 2 ounces,
Water, 1 pint.
Mix.
Give a tablespoonfiil nioruin
night.
and
No. 39. CARBOLIC LOTION.
Carbolic acid, 2 drachms,
Water, 1 pint.
Mix.
Inject three times a day.
No. 4.0. FEVKH MIXTURE.
Sweet spirits nitre, 1>2 ounces.
Tincture aconite root, 1 drachm,
Fluid extract belladonna, 2 drachms.
Tincture gentian, 1 ounce.
Nitrate of potasli, 1 ounce,
Muriate of ammonia, 1 ounce,
Water to make 1 pint.
Mix.
Give a wineglassful every two hours
In bad cases, and three or four times
a day in mild cases.
No. 44. PROF. DICK'S COUGH RECIPE.
Gum camphor, 1 drachm.
Opium, 1 drachm,
Digitalis, 1 drachm,
Calomel, 1 drachm,
Mix.
Make a ball with syrup, and give as
one dose, repeating once a day for
a week ; wait a week, and repeat.
No. 4.5. COUGH MIXTUKK.
Prussic acid, dilute, 2 drachms.
Tincture of camphor. 1 ounce.
Fluid extract l)elladonna, :? drachms.
Tincture gentian, 1 ounce.
Chlorate of potash, 1 ounce.
^^''ater to make 1 pint.
Mix.
Give two tablespoonf uls three times
a day, with a syringe.
No
tl. AMMONIA BLISTER.
Liquor ammonia, 2 ounces,
Oil turpentine, 2 ounces,
Linseed oil, 2 ounces,
Mix.
Rub well in once a day till mildly
blistered.
No. 42. POWDER FOR HEAVES.
Powdered lobelia seed, 2 ounces.
Linseed meal, 2 ounces.
Mix.
Divide into eight powders, and give
one night and morning in softfeed ;
wait a week, and repeat.
No. 43. COUGH POVTDER.
Gum camphor, 1)4 ounces,
Powdered digitalis, 1 ounce,
Linseed meal, 2 ounces.
Mix.
Divide into twelve powders, and give
one pight and ipormng in soft feed,
No. 46. LOTION FOR SORE MOUTH.
Borax, 1 ounce.
Honey, 1 ounce.
Water to make 1 pint.
Mix.
Apply three times a day.
No. 47. MIXTURE FOR FLATULENCE.
Bi-carbonate soda, 1 teaspoonful.
Ginger, 1 ounce,
Water, )^ pint,
Mix.'
Give as one dose.
No. 48. A STRONG PURGATIVE.
Barbadoes aloes, 6 drachms,
Linseed oil, 1 pint.
Mix.
Give as one dose.
No. 49. STIMULATING MIXTURE.
Whiskey, 2 ounces.
Extract ginger, 1 ounce,
Water, 3^ pint,
Mix.
Give as one dose.
RECIPES FOR THE HORSE.
598
No. 50. MIXTURE FOR COLIC.
Sweet spirits nitre, 1)4 ounces,
Tincture opium, 1 ounce,
Extract ginger, >2 ounce,
Water, X pint,
3Iix.
Give as one dose.
No. 51. MIXTURE FOR WIND COLIC.
Chloroform, }4 ounce,
I^inseed oil, 1 quart.
Mix.
Give as one dose.
No. 52. ANODYNE MIXTURE.
Sulphate of morphia, 4 grains,
Water, }£ ounce.
Mix.
Give as one dose.
No. 5H. MIXTURE FOR WIND COLIC.
Bi-carbonate soda, a tablespoonful.
Water, a teacupful.
Mix.
Give as one dose.
No. 54. MIXTURE FOR WIND COLIC.
Oil turpentine, 1 ounce,
Linseed oil, j^ pint.
Tincture of opium, 1 ounce.
Mix.
Give as one dose.
No. 55. MIXTURE FOR WIND COLIC.
Chloroform, 1 ounce,
Linseed oil, 1 pint.
Mix.
Give as one dose.
No. 56. MIXTURE FOR CONSTIPATION.
Linseed oil, 1 quart.
Tincture uux vomica, 1 ounce,
Mix.
Give as one dose.
No. .57. CROTON OIL LINIMENT.
Croton oil, 1 ounce,
Linseed oil, 3 ounces,
Mix.
Bub in well to the belly.
No. 58. MIXTURE FOR DIARRHOEA.
Prepared chalk, 1 ounce.
Ginger, 1 ounce.
Opium, 1 drachm,
Starch gruel, 1 pint,
Mix.
Give as one dose.
No. 59. ASTRINGENT MIXTURE.
Linseed oil, }4 pint.
Opium, 1 drachm.
Tincture catechu, 1 ounce,
Mix.
Give as one dose.
No. (iO. ASTRINGENT MIXTURE.
Tincture catechu, 1 ounce,
Spirits of camphor, }4 outce,
Tincture opium, 1 ounce,
Starch gruel, 1 quart,
Mix.
Give as one dose.
No. 61. ANODYNE INJEC'ixON.
Tincture opium, 1 ounce,
Sulphuric ether, I ounce.
Starch, 1 quart.
Mix.
Give as injection.
No. 62. ANODYNE MIXTURE.
B' jmide potassium, 8 ounces,
^Yater, 1 pint.
Mix.
Give two tablespoonfuls three time?
a day.
No. 6:5. MIXTURE FOR TETANUS.
Fluid extract belladonna, 2 ounces,
Prus.sic acid (dilute) , 2 ounces.
Water to make 8 ounces,
Mix.
Give a tablespoonful three timtjs s>
day.
No. 64. NERVE TONIC.
Nux vomica, 1 drachm.
Gentian root, powdered, 2 drachms.
Linseed meal, }4 ounce.
Mix.
Give as one dose. Repeat morolng
ftjid pi^ht for a month*
594
CYCLOPEDIA OF LTVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
No. 65. MIXTURE FOR SUNSTROKE.
Whiskey, 2 ounces,
Sweet spirits of nitre, }4 ounce,
Nitrate of potash, 1 drachm.
Water, 4 ounces,
Mix.
Give as one dose, and repeat as the
case requires.
No. 66. ALTERATIVE AND TONIC.
Potassium iodide, 1 drachm,
Nux vomica, 1 drachm,
Foenugreek seed, 1 drachm,
Mix.
Give as one dose, and repeat morn-
ing and night for three or four
weeks.
No. 67. TONIC POWDER.
Nux vomica, 1 drachm.
Sulphate iron, 1 drachm,
Foenugreek seed, 1 drachm.
Mix.
Give as one dose, and repeat morn-
ing and night for three or four
weeks.
No. 71. BALL FOR DIABETES.
Iodine, 1 drachm.
Iodide jjotash, ^g drachm,
Linseed meal, enough to combine
the foregoing.
MLx.
Make a ball and give as one dose.
No.
72. LEAD LOTION.
Sugar of lead, }.^ ouni
Vinegar, 1 ounce.
Water to make 1 quart.
Mix.
Inject a little once a day.
No.
73. SILVER LOTION.
Nitrate of silver, 15 grains,
Water, )^ pint,
Mix.
Inject a little twice a day.
No. 68. TONIC FOR PURPURA.
Tincture muriate of iron, 1 ounce.
Tincture gentian, 1 ounce.
Water to make 4 ounces.
Mix.
Give a tablespoonful every 2 hours.
No. 69. MIXTURE FOR PURPURA.
Oil turpentine, 1 ounce.
Linseed oil to make 4 ounces.
Mix.
Give a tablespoonful every 2 hours.
No. 70. IRON LOTION.
Tincture muriate of iron, 1 ounce.
Water, _i^ pint.
Mix.
Apply locally.
74. IODINE LOTION.
Iodine, 1 drachm.
Potash iodide, 1 drachm.
Water, }£ pint.
Mix,
Inject a little twice a day.
No. 75. ZINC LOTION.
Sulphate of zinc, 2 drachms.
Water, 1 pint.
Mix.
Inject twice a day.
No. 76. LEAD LOTION.
Sugar of lead, 3 drachms.
Water, 1 pint.
Mix.
Inject twice a day.
No. 77. CAMPHORATED OIL.
Gum camphor, 1 ounce,
Olive oil, >2 pint,
3Iix.
Apply three times a day.
No. 78. COOLING MIXTURE.
Chlorate of potash, 2 ounces,
Water, 1 quart.
Mix.
Give four ounces three times a day.
RECIPES FOR THE HORSE.
595
No. 79. ALTERATIVE MIXTURE.
Iodide of potash, 1 drachm,
Water, Yz pint,
Mix.
Give as one dose, repeating three
times a day.
No. 80. EYE LOTION.
Atropin sulphate, 2 grains,
Water, 1 ounce.
Mix.
Apply four or six times a day.
No. 81. EYE LOTION.
Nitrate of silver, 5 grains,
Water, 1 ounce,
Mix.
Apply twice a day.
No. 87. OINTMENT FOR MANGE.
Sulphur, 4 ounces.
Oil of tar, 2 ounces.
Linseed oil, Yz pint,
Mix.
Rub well in once a day to all affected
spots.
No. 88. CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE WASH.
Corrosive sublimate, 40 grains,
Water, 1 pint,
Apply once a day till cured.
No. 82. EYE LOTION.
Nitrate of silver, 10 grains.
Water, 1 ounce,
Mix.
Apply twice a day.
NC'. 83. WORM POWDER.
Sulphate of iron, 1 drachm,
Tartar emetic, 1 drachm,
Linseed meal, 2 drachms,
Mix.
Give as one dose. Repeat morning
and night for a week, and follow
it with No. 84.
No. 84. WORM DRENCH.
Oil turpentine, 1 ounce,
Linseed oil, 1 pint.
Mix.
Give as one dose.
No. 85. LOTION FOR LICE.
Tobacco, 2 pounds.
Water, 3 gallons,
Mix.
Steep, and wash the animal.
No. 86. LOTION FOR LICE.
Quassia chips, 3 pounds.
Water, 1 gallon,
Mix.
Steep one hour, and wash the animal.
No. 89. ANTACID POWDER.
Bi-carbonate of soda, 2 ounces,
Powdered gentian, 1 ounce,
Linseed meal, 2 ounces,
Mix.
Give a tablespoonful morning and
night in soft feed.
No. 90. MIXTURE FOR SNAKE BITES, ETC.
Aqua ammonia, 1 teaspoonful,
Whiskey, 1 pint.
Water (warm), Y^ pint,
Give as one dose. Repeat every
hour, but reducing the quantity of
whiskey one-half, till the animal
is evidently out of danger.
No. 91. FEVER MIXTURE.
Sulphate of quinine, 4 drachms,
Whiskey, 1 pint,
Water, 1 pint.
Give a wineglassful every two hours
in bad cases, and every four hours
in milder ones.
No. 92. TONIC MIXTURE.
Tincture of nux vomica, 1 ounce.
Tincture of gentian, 1 ounce,
Water to make 1 pint,
Mix.
Give a wineglassful every two to
four hours.
596
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
BOOK II
PART 1
CATTLE
HISTORY. MANAGEMENT AND CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE VARIOUS BREEDS
598
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
CATTLE.
CHAPTER I.
EARLY HISTORY AND TYPICAL BREEDS OP CATTLE.
1. WILD AND SEMI -WILD HERDS. II. THE FIRST CHRONICLERS AND BREEDERS OF
CATTLE. III. THE ORIGINAL TYPE. IV. UNDOMESTICATED HERDS OF
EUROPE AND ASIA. V. SPANISH- AMERICAN BREEDS. VI. THE DEVONS.
VII. THE IIEREFORDS. VIII. THE DURHAM OR TEESWATER BREED. IX.
IRISH CATTLE. X. SCOTCH AND HIGHLAND CATTLE. XI. SWISS CATTLE.
XII. DUTCH CATTLE. XIII. FOSSIL CATTLE. XIV. THE WILD CATTLE
OF ENGLAND. XV. NATIVE DISTRICTS OF SOME BREEDS.
I. Wild and Semi-Wild Herds.
Where homed cattle first existed in a wild state is utterly unknown,
and their origin is equally uncertain. There are a number of species of
the same genus — the genus Bos — existing in a wild state ; such as the
Bison, misnamed Buffalo, of America, and the true Buffalo of Africa.
There are, also, so-called wild cattle which roam in vast herds in North
and South America, and in some parts of Europe and Asia. These,
however, as well as all others of the genus Bos Taurus, to which our
present domesticated cattle belong, are, when found wild, the descend-
ants of animals which escaped from the control of man at some period,
more or less remote.
II. The first Chroniclers and Breeders of Cattle.
Jubal, the son of Lamech, who lived in the time of Adam, is recorded
in Scripture as being "the father of such as have cattle." Still, it can-
not be assumed that Jubal' s cattle were in any way identical with the
domestic ox of later times, for the word "cattle" is used by the early
Scriptural writers to denote nearly all grazing animals, including sheep
and goats. Job, however, who lived more than two thousand years
before Christ, is distinctly spoken of as the possessor of one thousand
yokes of oxen. Homer, eighteen hundred years before the Christian era,
wrote celebrating the noble bullocks, with golden knobs on the tips o^
their horns, and he minutely describes the manner of fastening the knobs
Juno, among the pagan goddesses, is called ox-eyed, from the cleame?
and liquid expression of those features. Jeremiah, sixty-two years befor,
599
600 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE SrOCK ANT> COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Christ, speaks of a "fair heifer ;" and Virgil, about the time of the Chris-
tian era, wrote admiringly of the beautiful cattle of the Roman Campag-
nas, and of their value in husbandry.
The Egyptians worshipped the bull Apis, and, it is probable that they
were the first to domesticate the ox. T.'iat the domestication of horned
cattle was anterior to that of the horse is more than probable.
III. The Original Type.
What the first cattle were like is mainly a matter of conjecture. The
Egyptian hieroglyphics, the most ancient known, leave us entirely in the
dark as to what the cattle of that remote antiquity resembled. No
description of the original type has come down to us. The earliest draw-
ings, or pictures of cattle, represent them as being rugged in form, of
great length, gaunt, and with upright, spreading horns, somewhat like the
descendants of Spanish cattle now running wild in Central America.
rv. Undomesticated Herds of Eoirope and Asia.
The Steppes of Tartary still nourish vast droves of semi-wild cattle,
that are not regularly herded, and are wild to all intents and purposes.
In Hungary, also, and in Russia, and on the grassy plains of all the more
temperate climates of Asia, herds of cattle al^ound that are as wild as
neglect on the part of their owners can make them.
Cattle have been reared by every Celtic nation from the earliest period,
and have been regarded by all barbarians and pagan people as the greatest
of the divine gifts to man. The herds ran half -wild when ever these tribes
migrated, until, as civilization advanced, the least desirable breeds were
exterminated, while the fittest survived in a state of real domestication.
Descendontsof one of these ancient breeds, are still seen in the Chillinghani
eattle of England ; they are wild only because all possible means are used
to keep them so. The wHdest and least frequented tracts of two exten-
sive parks are set apart for their use. They are probably the descend-
ents of the best of the ancient cattle of Great Britian.
V. Spanish-American Breeds.
In Texas and on the plains of Mexico, in Central America, and in the
sub-tropical and more temperate regions of South America, there are
immense herds of cattle, the descendents of animals which escaped Irom
the early Spanish invaders. In Spain these fierce, almost untamable cattle
are still bred for the barbarous sport witnessed in their buii fightmg
arenas, where the animals are pitted against men on foot and on horse-
back, until they are tortured to death.
The cattle of Texas, and the Southwestern plains possess at least one
good quality in a high degree — they reproduce rapidly, and take care of
EARLY HISTORY AND TYPICAL BREEDS OF CATTLE.
601
themselves at small expense to their owners. When well-fattened, then-
beef is excellent, and its abundance furnishes an unfailing supply of
MEXICAN OXEN.
cheap food. They are fast being modified by crossing improved stock
upon them, and in a comparatively short time but few of the original
602
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
EARLY HISTORY AND TYPICAL BREEDS OF CATTLE. 603
type will be found, except in Central and South America, where modi-
fications of the ancient breed may be long postponed.
VI. The Devons.
Among the oldest of the distinct breeds of England, the Devons have
always been, as they now are, one of distinguished merit. They belong
to the class called Middle-Horns — Irish long-horned cattle, and the Tex-
ans furnishing good types of the long-horned breeds, while the old cattle
of Durham represent the Short-Horns. The Devons, as known 100 years
ago, are thus described by Youatt, whose writings are our best authority
on breeds of British cattle : "The north of Devon has been long cele-
brated for a breed of cattle beautiful in the highest degree, and, in activ-
ity at work and aptitude to fatten, unrivaled. The native country of the
Devons, and where they are found in a state of the greatest purity,
extends from the river Taw westward, skirting along the Bristol channel ;
the breed becoming more mixed, and at length comparatively lost before
we arrive at the Parrefet. Inland it extends by Barnstaple, South Mol-
ten, and Chunileigh, as far as Tiverton, and thence to Wellington, where
again the breed becomes unfrequent, or it is mixed before we reach Taun-
ton. More eastward the Somersets and the Welsh mingle with it, or
supersede it. To the south there prevails a larger variety, a cross prob-
ably of the Devon with the Somerset; and on the westthe Cornish cattle
are found, or contaminate the breed. The Devonshire man confines them
within a narrow district, and will scarcely allow them to be found with
purity beyond his native county. From Portlock to Biddeford, and a
little to the north and the south, is, in his mind, the peculiar and only
residence of the true Devon.
"From the earliest records the breed has here remained the same ; or
if not quite as perfect as at the present moment, yet altered in no essen-
tial point until within the last thirty years. This is not a little surprising
when it is rememl)ered that a considerable part of this district is not a
breeding country, and that even a proportion, and that not a small one,
of Devonshire cattle, are bred out of the county. On the borders of
Somerset and Dorset, and partly in both, extending southward from
Crewkern, the country assumes the form of an extensive valley, and prin-
cipally supplies the Exeter market with calves. Those that are dropped
in February and March, are kept until May, and then sold to the drovers,
who convey them to Exeter. They are there purchased by the Devon-
shire farmers, who keep them for two or three years, when they are sold
to the Somersetshire graziers, who fatten them for the London market;
so that a portion of the Devons, and of the very finest of the breed, come
from Somerset and Dorset."
004 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR,
The illustration on i)age 601 will give an idea of the excellence of these
cuttle, even fifty years ago. Since that time they have been much
imi)roved and only lack size to cause them to be more generally bred ir
the great grazing districts of the United States.
Vn. The Herefords.
The Herefords are Middle-Horns, and have many of the characteris-
tics of the Devons to which they are, without doubt, allied. They have
long been known and highly esteemed in England. Within the last thirty
years they have been bred to such perfection that they compete with the
Short-Horns in the prize fairs of England and the United States, and
carry off honors with the best of them. Of this breed, as they wer'.
known in the early ptvit of the century, Youatt says : "The Hereford
white-faced breed, with the exception of a very few Alderney and Dur-
ham cows, have almost exclusive possession of the county of Hereford.
The Hereford oxen are considerably larger than the Devons. They are^
usually of a darker red ; some of them are brown, and even yellow, and/
a few are brindled ; but they are principally distinguished by their whitd
faces, throats and bellies. In a few the white extends to the shoulders
The old Herefords were brown or red-brown, Avith not a spot of white
about them. It is only within the last fifty or sixty years that it has
been the fashion to breed for white faces. Whatever may be thought of
the change of color, the present breed is certainly far superior to the old
one. The hide is considerably thicker than that of the Devon. Com-
pared with the Devons, they are shorter in the leg, and also in the car-
cass ; higher, and broader and heavier in the chine ; rounder and wider
across the hips, and better covered with fat: the thigh fuller and more
muscular, and the shoulders larger and coarser.
"If it were not for the white face, and somewhat larger head and
thicker neck, it would not at all times be easy to distinguish between a
heavy Devon and a light Hereford. Their white faces may probably be
traced to a cross with their not distant relations, the Montgomeries.
"The Hereford cow is apparently a very inferior animal. Not only is
she no milker, but even her form has been sacrificed by the breeder.
Hence the Hereford cow is comparatively small and delicate, and some
would call her ill-made. She is very light-fleshed when in -'onimon con-
dition, and beyond that, while she is breeding, she is not suffered to pro-
'^eed ; but when she is actually put up for fattening, she spreads out, and
accumulates fat at a most extraordinary rate."
The illustration on page 605 is a good picture of the Hereford bull of
forty years ago. The reader Avould scarcely recognize the Hereford of
1907 as the same breed described by Youatt, so much have they been
improved.
EARLY HISTORY AND TYPICAL BREEDS OF CATTLE.
605
606 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR^
Vm. Tlie 0arham or Teeswater Breed.
This breed, which has become famous as the original of the celebrated
Short-Horn c;jttle of to-day, is a mixed race, though it has been a dis-
tinctive English breed of hundreds of years past. The Rev. Mr. Berry,
author of a much-criticized history of Shoii>Horn cattle, written in the
early part of the century, but undoubtedly correct in relation to their
early history, says :
"From the earliest periods as to which we have any accounts of our
breeds of cattle, the counties of Durham and York have been celebrated
for their Short-Horns, but principally, in the first instance, on account of
their reputation as extraordinary milkers. It may be the best evidence,
that, as a breed, they have never in this particular been equaled. They
were generally of large size, thin-skinned, sleek-haired, bad handlers,
rather delicate in constitution, coarse in the offal, and strikingly defective
in girth in the fore-quarters. When put to fatten, they were found slow
feeders ; producing an inferior meat, not marbled or mixed fat and lean,
and in some cases the lean was found a particularh^ dark hue.
'♦A period of more than one hundred years has now elapsed sines the
Short-Horns, on the banks of the river Tees, hence called the Teeswater
breed, assumed a very different character to the foregoing description.
In color, they resembled the Short-Horns of the present day, being occa-
sionally red, red and white, and roan, though the last not then so preva-
lent as now. They possessed a fine mellow skin and flesh, good hair,
and light offal, particularly wide carcasses, and fore-quarters of extraor-
dinary depth and capacity. When slaughtered, their proof was extaor-
dinary, and many instances are recorded of the wonderful weight of their
inside fat.
"The remarkable merit which existed in the Teeswater may, with pro-
priety, be ascribed to a spirit of improvement which had some time man-
ifested itself among the breeders on the banks of the Tees, whose laud-
able efforts were well seconded by the very superior land in the vicinity
of that river. No doubt can be entertained that they proceeded on a
judicious system of crossing with other breeds, because it was utterly im-
possible to raise such a stock as the Teeswater from pure Short-Horn
blood. One cross to which they referred was, in all probability, the
white wild breed ; and if tliis conjecture be well-founded, it will be ap-
parent whence the Short-Horns derived a color soprevalent among thorn.
"1": is also asserted that, about the period in question. Sir William St.
Quinim, of Scampston, imported bulls and cows from Holland, which
wers crossed with the stock of the country. It would tend to little
advantage to conjecture as to what other breeds were resorted to, if any ?
EAKLY HISTORY AND TYPICAL BREEDS OF CATTLE.
607
o
- 2
Is
a ►
^ K
60S CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOJK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
this much is certain, that great improvement \vt\!& soon manifested, and ?
valuable variety established."
An illustration of tliis valuable breed, as it was known fifty years ago,
is given on page 539. It is to be regretted that the fine milking quali-
ties of their descendants should have been almost entirely bred out, and
are now only found occasionally, through heredity, and this in but a very
few families.
IX. Irisli Cattle.
The cattle of Ireland are of two distinctive breeds, theLong-Homs and
the Middle-Horns. Whence the Long-Horns came seems not to be
known, since ancient records are silent upon the subject. Both in
England and Ireland they can be traced far back. By some excellent
authorities it is maintained that the Long-Horns originated in Ireland ;
but in Lancashire, England, also, long-horned cattle have existed since a
remote antiquity.
The Irish Middle-Horns seem to have been an original breed, since
they were found in all the hill and mountain regions, in almost every
district. Mr. Youatt says of them that they are small, light, active and
wild. The head is small, although there are exceptions to this in various
parts; and so numerous, indeed, are those exceptions, that some descrioe
the native Irish cattle as having thick heads and necks ; the horns are
short compared with the other breed, all of them fine, some of them rather
upright, and frequently, after projecting forward, then turning back-
ward. Although somewhat deficient in the hind-quarters, they are high-
boned, and wide over the hips, yet the bone generally is not heavy. The
hair is coarse and long ; they are black, brindled and black, or brindled
with white faces. Some are finer in the bone, and finer in the neck, wita
a good eye, a sharp muzzle, and great activity. They are exceedingly
Lardy ; they live through the winter, and sometimes fatten, on their
native mountains and moors ; and when removed to a better climate and
soil, they fatten with all the rapidity of the aboriginal cattle of the High-
lands and Wales. They are generally very good milkers, and many of
them are excellent. The cow of Kerry is said to be a favorable sped*
men of them.
X. Scotch and Highland Cattle.
Scotland has always been celebrated for its cattle, and for none more
than its polled or hornless cattle. The Highland breeds are of great
antiquity. The most celebrated of the polled breeds are the Galloways,
originally said to have been middle-horned cattle. They are widely dis-
seminated in England and the United States, and in their improved
forms are regarded with much favor. Many sub-families are now known.
EARLY HISTORY AND TYPICAL BREEDS OF CATTLE. 609
They are described as having been straight and broad in the back, and
nearly level from the head to the rump ; round in the ribs, and also,
between, the shoulders and ribs, and the ribs and loins. The loins were
broad, and without large projecting hip (hook) bones. In the early
part of the century they were described b'- the Eev. Mr. Smith, author of
a "Survey of Galloway," as being short the leg, and moderately fine in
the shank bones — the happy medium preserved in the leg, which secures
hardihood and disposition to fatten. With the sam^ cleanness and short-
ness of shanks, there was no breed so large and muscular above the knee.
Clean, not fine and slender, but well proportioned in the neck and chaps;
broad shoulders, deep chest, and close, compact form. The neck of the
Galloway bull was, and still is, thick almost to a fault. The head rather
heavy ; the eyes not prominent, and the ears large, rough, and full of long
hairs on the inside. The Galloway was covered with a loose mellow skin of
medium thickness, clothed with long, soft, silky hair. The skin is thinner
than that of the Leicestershire, but not so fine as the hide of the Short-
Horn, but handling soft and kindly. The prevailing and fashionable
color was black- -a few dark brindle-brown, and still fewer speckled with
white spots, and some jf them a dun or drab color. Dark colors were,
and are yet, uniformly preferred,, from the belief that they indicate
hardiness of constitution.
WEST IIIGHLAND FEEDING OX.
Highland Cattle. — The West Highland cattle are an ancient breed and
are found in all the mountain regions of Scotland and the Isles. Their
gj-eat value consists in the eminent superiority of their flesh. They are
hardy, and easily fed ; in that they will live, and sometimes thrive, on
the coarsest pastures • that they will frequently gain from a fourth to Jk
610 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOB.
third of their original weight in six months' good feeding ; that the pro-
portion of offal is not greater than in the most improved larger breeds.
They will lay their flesh and fat equably on the best parts ; and, when fat,
the beef is close and fine in the grain, highly flavored, and so well mixed
or marbled, that it commands a superior price in every market.
The principal old breeds of Scotland, as given by Youatt, may be sum-
marized as follows : Scotland contains several distinct and valuable breeds
of cattle, evidently belonging to our present division, the Middle-Horns.
The West Highlanders, whether we regard those that are found in the
Hebrides, or the county of Argyle, seem to retain the most of the
aboriginal character. They have remained unchanged, or improved
only by selection, for many generations ; indeed from the earliest
accounts that we possess of Scottish cattle. The North Highlanders
are a smaller, coarser, and in every way inferior race, and owe the greater
part of what is valuable about them to crosses from the Western breed.
The Northeastern cattle were derived from, and bear resemblance to the
West Highlander, but are of considerably larger size. The Ayrshire
breed is second to none for milking. The Galloways, which less than
two hundred years ago, were middle-horned, and with diflficulty distin-
guished from the West Highlanders, are now a polled breed — increased
in size, with more striking resemblance to their kindred, the Devons — >
with all their aptitude to fatten, and with a great hardiness of constitu-
tion.
XI. Swiss Cattle.
The Swiss have long had a valuable breed of milking cattle which of
late years has attracted some attention in the United States. In France
they are held in high repute. A careful and accurate observer describes
them as being robust, hardy animals, usually of a dun color or dun and
white, with medium heads, hanging dewlaps, rather coarse shoulders and
broad hips and quarters $ with well developed udders. Removed from
their native mountains they are said to manifest little im^Datience at the
change, and though kept in stables and soiled, they seemed to thrive and
carry fi good coat of flesh ; when dry, they fatten readil}:. In Switzer-
land they are wintered in the valleys, on the coarsest food , and as soon as
the snow melts from the southern slopes of the mountains are driven to
their pastures, which, as the season advances, are gradually changed for
the higher ranges. Por four months in the year they are kept on the
most elevated feeding grounds, and there, attended b}- a single man,
miiting in his person the offices of cowherd and dairyman, they feed on
the close, sweet herbage, often at the very edge of the snow fields, till
their short summer is over, and they are driven by the autumn stoniis to
tiie more sheltered pastures again. Cheese is the chief product, and its
612 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND
COMPLETK STOCK DOCTOR.
EARLY HISIORY AND TYPICAL BREEDS OF CATTLE. 613
manufacture i^ v^^onducted in the lonely chalet, jDerched on the mountain
side, ill the most primitive manner. The best cows yield from ton to
twenty quarts of milk daily, ana each cow produces by the end of the sea-
son of four months, on an average,. 225 pounds of cheese.
XII. Dutch Cattle.
The Low Countries of Europe, Holland and the neighboring States,
have, from a remote period, had a most valual)le milking breed, that is
now broken up into numerous varieties. The most noted of these are the
Holstein or Friesian cattle, celebrated for the immense quantities of milk
they give, and for their large frames, which take on fat and flesh kindly
when dry. On page 690 a young Holstein bull of the modern Chenery
milking stock is represented. The late Mr. Klippart, when Secretary
of the Ohio Board of Agriculture, wrote from personal observation
of Holstein cattle, as follows: "The native cattle of Holstein are the
A-ngle cattle, which are far more numerous than any other kind or race.
They are small animals, with fine bones, short-legged rather than other-
vise •• a very fine, small head, and delicately formed neck. Thepredom-
'Cctang color is red or brown, but there are many dun, black, or spotted
ones. According to the amount of food consumed, this race gives a more
abundant supply of milk than any other in the Duchies. It is a very
highly esteemed race and is much sought after for its milking qualities
and kindliness in taking on flesh. The flesh is very fine, tender and juicy.
"In the marshes is found a race of cattle much larger and heavier than
the Angles, larger-boned, and of a dark, reddish-brown, and known as
the Marsh race. This race seems to be adapted to the marshes, but does
not do well on the higher and dryer uplands. Upon the rich pastures of
the marshes, for a time after calving, the best cows will give from forty-
eight to sixty-four pounds, (from six to eight gallons) of milk daily.
But the milk is not near so rich as that of the Angles.
"In Schleswig, rather than in Holstein, are found many of the Jutland
race of cattle. These have very fine bones, and are long in proportion
to their height, and are, as a rule, short-legged. The prevailing color is
gray, black, or gray and black mixed with white, but very rarely red or
brown. This race is more highly esteemed for its early maturity and
readiness to fatten than for its milking qualities."
XIII. Fossil Cattle.
The original type of the modern ox is said to have been the Urus. An-
cient legends have thrown around him mysterious qualities. He was
described as being an animal of great fierceness and enormous size ;
but despite these fabled attributes, the Urus probably did not
614 CrCLOPEDlA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
compare better in size with the modem ox, than did the ancient
horse, or our modern semi-wild, horses, with the great draft horse of
to-day.
That there once existed species of cattle in some pre-historic age, mon,
strous as compared with ours, there is no doubt. Youatt, in his history
of British cattle, says that in nlmost every part of the Continent, and
in every district of England, skulls, evidently belonging to cattle, have
been found, far exceeding in bulk any now known. There is a fine spec-
imen in the British Museum : the peculiarity of the horns, resembles
smaller ones dug up in the mines of Cornwall. The two plates given
illustrate two remains of fossil skulls, of })rehistoric times, gigantic in
structure; that of Primagenius supposed to have been of a species from
which our modern cattle have descended.
XrV. The Wild Cattle of England.
Of the wild cattle Kept in Engiana on the estates of the Duke of Ham*
ilton, and the Earl of Tankerville, known in his day, the same authority
says :
"The wild breed, from being untamable, can only be kept within walls,
or good fences ; consequently, very few of them are now to be met with,
except in the parks of some gentlemen, who keep them for ornament,
and as a curiosity. Their color is invariably white, muzzle black; the
Avhole of the inside of the ear, and about one-third of the outside, from
the tips downward, red ; horns, white, Avith black tips, very fine, and
bent upward ; some of the bulls have a thin, upright mane, about an inch
and a half or two inches long. The weight of the oxen is from thirty-
five to forty-five stone, and the cows from twenty-five to thirty-five stone,
the four quarters (fourteen pound to the stone). The beef is finely
marbled and of excellent flavor. The six year old oxen are generally
very good beef ; whence it may be fairly supposed that, in proper situa-
tions, they would feed well.
"At the first appearance of any person they set off in full gallop, and,
at the distance of about two hundred yards, make a wheel rouud, and
come boldly up again in a menacing manner ; on a sudden they make a
full stop at the distance of forty or fifty yards, looking Avildly at the
object of their surprise ; but upon the least motion they all again turn
round, and fly off with equal speed, but not to the same distance, form-
ing a shorter circle, and again returning with a more threatening
aspect tlian before ; they approach probably within thirty yards, when
they again make another stand, and then fly off ; this they do several
times, shortening their distance, and advancing nearer and nearer, till they
come WMthin such a short distance that most people think it prudent to
leave them.
EARLY HISTORY AND TYPICAL BREEDS OF CATTLE. 615
When the cows calve, they hide their calves for a week or ten days in
some sequestered situation, and go and suckle them two or three times a
day. If any person comes near the calves, they clap their heads close to
the ground, to hide themselves ; this is a proof of their native wildness.
The dams allow no person to touch their calves, without attacking them
with impetuous ferocity. When any one happens to be wounded, or is
grown weak and feeble through age or sickness, the rest of the herd set
on it and gore it to death."
The breeds now found in Great Britain, are almost as various as the
Goils of the different districts, and are purely artificial in their breeding,
according to the several fancies of the originators, and successive
breeders.
XV. Native Districts of Some Breeds.
The same careful authority, heretofore quoted, has divided them into
Long-Horns, Short-Horns and Middle-Horns. Their history, which may
be taken as correct, their classification, and their habits, as known in
his day, are given as follows : "The Long-Horns were originally from
Lancashire, much improved by Bakewcll, and established through the
greater part of the midland counties ; the Short-Horns, mostly cultivated
in the northern counties, and in Lincolnshire, and many of them found in
every part of the kingdom where the farmer attends much to his dairy,
or a large supply of milk is wanted ; and the Middle-Horns, not derived
from a mixture of the two preceding, but a distinct and valuable and
beautiful breed, inhabiting principally the north of Devon, the east of
Sussex, Herefordshire, and Gloucestershire ; and, of diminished ])ulk,
and with somewhat different character, the cattle of the Scottish and the
Welsh mountains. The Aldcrney, with her crumpled horn, is found on
the southern coast, and, in smaller numbers, in gentlemen's parks and
pleasure-grounds every where ; while the polled, or hornless cattle, pre-
vail in Suffolk, and Norfolk, and in Galloway, whence they were first
derived.
"These, however, have been intermingled in eveiy possible way. They
are found pure only in their native districts, or on the estates of some
opulent and spirited individuals. Each county has its own mongrel breed,
ftften diflScult to be described, and not always to be traced — neglected
enough, yet suited to the soil and to the climate ; and, among little farmers,
maintaining their station, in spite of attempts at improvements by the
intermixture or the substitution of foreign varieties.
"The character of each important variety, and the relative value of
each foi breeding, grazing, the dairy, or the plough, will be considered
before wo inquire into the structure or general and medical treatment of
juttle. Much dispute has arisen as to the original breed of British cattle.
616 CTCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
The battle has been stoutly fought between the advocates of the Middle
and Long-Horns. The Short-Horns and the polls can have no claim;
the latter, although it has existed in certain districts from time immemo-
rial, was probably an accidental variety, ^ye are very much disposed to
adjudge the honor to the Middle-Horns. Tiie Long-Horns are evidently
of Irish extraction.
* 'Britain has shared the fate of other nations, and oftener than
they, has bcoa overrun and subjugated by invaders. As the native?
retreated, they carried with them some portion of their property, which
in those early times, consisted principally in cactle. They drove along
with them as many as they could, when they retired to the fortresses of
north Devon and Cornwall, or the mountainous regions of Wales, or
when they took refuge in the wealds of east Sussex ; and there, retaining
all their prejudices, customs and manners, were jealous of the preserva-
tion of that which reminded them of their native country before it yielded
to a foreign yoke.
"In this manner was preserved the ancient breed of British cattle.
Difference of climate wrought some change, particularly in their bull..
The rich pasture of Sussex fattened the ox into its superior size and
weight. The plentiful, but not so luxuriant, herbage of the north of
Devon, produced a smaller and more active animal, while the privations
of Wales lessened the bulk and thickened the hide of the Welsh runt.
As for Scotland, it set its invaders at defiance; or its inhabitants
retreated for a while, and soon turned again on their pursuers. They
were proud of their country, their cattle, their choicest possession; and
there, toe, the cattle were preserved, unmixed and undegenerated,
"Thence it resulted that in Devon, in Sussex, in Wales, and in Scot-
land, the cattle have been the same from time immemorial; while in aL
the eastern coast, and through every district of England, the breed of
cattle degenerated, or lost its original character; it consisted of animals
brought from every neighboring and some remote districts, mingled in
every possible variety, yet conforming itself to the soil and the climate.
"Observations will convince us that the cattle in Devonshire, Sussex,
Wales and Scotland, are essentially the same. They are middle-horned;
not extraordinary milkers, and remarkable for the quality rather than the
quantity of their milk; active at work, and with an unequaled aptitude
to fatten. They have all the characters of the same breed, changed by
soil, climate, and time, yet little changed by man. We may almost trace
the color, namely, the red of the Devon, the Sussex, and the Hereford;
and where the black alone are now found, the memory of the red pre-
vails. Every one who has compared the Devon cattle with the wild breed
of Chatelherault park, or Chillingham castle, has been struck with the
EARLY HISTORY AND TYPICAL BREEDS OF CATTLE. 617
618 CYCLOrEDIA OF LIVE STOfK AND ro>frLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
EARLY HISTORY AND TYPICAL BREEDS OF CATTLE.
619
gi'eat resenibhince in many points, notwithstanding the difference of color,
while they bear no likeness at all to the cattle of the neighboring coun-
try."
LONGHOKN BULL.
HEAD OF 1.0N<iH()UN COW.
The horns of this breed of cattle grow in siu h u ii.jinner as to be very distinctive.
They curve forward, and hang down toward the muzzle, somelinies curving inward
until they touch the cheek. The colors of the animal are generally dark red, brindled,
and pied, with white along tlie backs. The females are very broad in the hips and are
good milkers. One hundred years qgo these cattle were more highly esteenutl in En-
gland than a.iy other breeds, becnuse they were suiiposed to be the most desirable for
diiry purposes; but they h:ive been superseded by the shorthorns, although many of
the latter have a strain of their more ancient predecessors.
For these reasons Mr. Youatt considers the Middle-Horns to be the
native breed of Great Britain.
CHAPTER II.
STRUCTURE OF THE OX.
I. COMPARATIVE DESCRIPTION. II. A GOOD COW DESCRIBED IN VERSE. III.
SKELETON OF THE OX. IV. ANALYSING THE HEAD. V. EXTERNAL PARTS
OF A FAT OX. VI. TEETH OF THE OX. VII. AGE OF CATTLE TOLD BY THE
CHART.
I. Comparative Description.
The OX, like the horse, is made up of a bony structure, upon which
rests the muscular and fleshy covering, and over this again lies the skin.
The only means of defense possessed by cattle are their horns, which, in
breeds that have been running wild for generations, develop into long
sharp, and most formidable weapons. These are most securely fixed and
rendered effective by the expanse of the frontal bone, shown at numeral
6, skeleton of the ox, as represented in the cut accompanying this chapter.
The horse is long in the limbs and neck ; the ox is comparatively short
in these members. The body of the horse corresponds to the square ;
that of the ox to the rectangle. The illustrations showing outlines of fat
bullocks, as presented a few pages further on in this chapter — four forms
exhibited — are accurate representations. The ribs of the ox are both longer
and larger than those of the horse, since the several stomachs and the bow-
els of the ox are more capacious. The width of the bosom gives ample
space for the fore legs and for the viscera ; and this width is carried cor-
respondingly behind, giving, in the modern ox, a broad loin and massive
rump and hind quarters, where the choice parts of the beef lie.
II. A good Cow described in verse.
The physical proportions of the cow have l>cen so accurately described
in verse, by an old English writer, that we reproduce his stanzas as em-
bodying the general characteristics of what goes to make up a perfec^t
animal :
She's long in her face, she's fine in her horn,
She'll quickly get fat without cake or corn;
She's clean in her jaws, and full in her chine,
She's heavy in Hank, and wide in her loin.
She's broad in het ribs, and long in her rump;
A straiglit and Hat back, without e'er a hump;
She's wide in her hips, and calm in her eyes;
She's fine in her shoulders, and thin in her thighs.
She's light in her neck, and small in her tail;
yhe's wide in her breast, and good at the pail;
She's fine in her bone, and silky of skin —
She's a grazier's without, and a butcher's within.
620
STRUCTURE OF TUE OX.
m. Skeleton of the Ox.
621
If we look at the skeleton of the ox we shall there see the basis of
the immense but sluggish strength for which this animal is noted. It
will not be necessary to translate the names of the bones. They should
be called by the scientific names here given. The corresponding bones
found in the horse have been sufficiently explained.
SKELETON OF THE OX.
Names of the Bones. — ^l — Cervical Vertebrae. B B — Dorsal Verte-
bra. C — Lumbar Vertebrae. D — Sacrum. E E — Coccygeal Bones,
i^i^— Ribs. G — Costal Cartilages. ^— Scapuhi. /—Humerus. KK
Radius. L — Ulna. M — Carpus or Knee. 1 — Scaphoid. 2 — Semilu-
nar. 3 — Cuneiform. 4 — Trapezium. 5 — Trapezoid. G — Os Magnum.
7 — Unciform. 8 — Pisiform. iViV— Large Metacarpal or Cannon. O —
Small Metacarpal. P F — Sesamoid Bones. Q (^—Phalanges. 1— Os
Suffraginis or Pastern Bone. 2 — Os Coronae. 3- -Os Pedis. R — Pelvis.
1— Illium. 2— Pubis. 3— Ischium. xS'— Femur. T— Patella. U~
Tibia. F— Fibula. TF— Hocks. 1— Os Calcis. 2— Ostragalus. 3—
Cuneiform Magnum. 4 — Cuneiform Medium. 5 — Cuneiform Parvum.
6— Cuboid. A^— Large Metatarsal. 1, 2, 3— Phalanges. F—Small
Metatarsal. Z — Head. 1 — Inferior Maxilla. 2 — Superior Maxilla. 3 —
Anterior INLaxilla. 4— Nasal Bone. 5— Molar. 6— Frontal. 7— Parietal.
{^—Occipital. i> — Lachrymal. 10 — Squamous, 11 — Petrous.
322
CTCLOPJIDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Elegance, speed, and muscular activity are the qualities for which the
frame-work of the horse seem best suited. In the ox there is also the
beauty of symmetry as shown in smooth lines, when fat, and the devel-
opment of great strength with slow motion. Hence, the limbs are
straighter and more massive than in the horse.
OUTLINE OF FAT BULLOCKS.
In the OX we find the same two plates at the top of the head, that
were noticed in the horse. In the ox and other horned animals these
plates have a considerable space be-
tween them, as shown in the accom-
panying cut giving a vertical section
of the head. This space is filled with
cells having bony ridges passing from
the inner to the outer plate, or table,
securing firmness ; and these cells
form large and strong sockets for the
horns. The cavity of the brain is, in
VERTICAL SECTION OF THE HEAD. thc OX, about onc-fouith the size of the
skull— the other parts being occupied by the organs of smell, the teeth
and the jaws, which are exhibited in vertical sections here given.
STRUCTUllE OF THE OX. 623
rv. Analysing the Head.
The second cut representing a section Df the head of an ox, reveals a
portion of the upper jaw, showing the mohirs, or grinding teeth.
Explanation. — ^ — Molars or grinders. B — Superior maxillary bone
and its paUitine process. C — Cells of the palatine bone. D — Anterior
maxillary bone, destitute of incisor teeth.
The frontal bones shown at 6 in the skeleton of the ox, extend from
the nose to the superior ridge of the skull, presenting a flat, irregular sur-
face, quite bare of fleshy or muscu-
lar covering. The ox has the same
division in the center of the frontal
sinuses as the horse , but the divis-
ion between the nostrils is not per-
fect. There is a continuous cavity
from the muzzle to the horn. In
polled or horned cattle the frontal
bones reach from the nasal bones to section of head of ox.
the parietal ridge, but since thcreareno horns, these bones become narrower
towards the poll. In cattle the temporal bones are small, but deep in the
temporal fossa and have no squamous structure. The occipital bone has
little importance by comparison with its use in the horse. The sphcmoid
and ethmoid bones relatively occupy the same position in the two ani-
mals. A comparison of the skeletons of the horse and ox, will fuliy
illustrate this.
V. External Parts of a Fat Ox.
As beef is a universal article of food, the value of a very large pro-
portion of the cattle reared is determined by their capacity to develop
juicy, palatable meat. The illustration on the next page shows a Short-
Horn ox in prime condition, and the accompanying explanation points out
the several i)arts of the animal with reference, mainly, to their qualities
and use as Ixu^f.
Where the choice Beef lies. — The prime parts of the ox, as shown in
the cut, lie from N to i?, and from i? to S, and back to N. Between
P, Q and V arc the best pieces. The second best are between M, S, T^
F, W and K. Between S and U are valuable pieces for smoked or
dried meat. The ribs between M and S ; the flanks F, W, and thence
to the brisket TT are good corning pieces. The quarters of such an ox
will dress sixty-five per cent, of his gross weight. The loin above P
and from thence to the top of the shoulder above N will give superior
steak and roasting pieces. The shoulder-point or neck vein l)ack of 2
and thigh at 8 make the best smoking-pieces. The plates IF will mak^
624
CYCLOtEDIA or LIVE STOC& ANP COMFUBTE ttltjCH XKH7l>OU.
excellent corned beef, while R, S and L (the rump, round and brisket)
make the best pieces for oickling — good, thick, juicy meat, and in large
quantities.
Explanation. — A — Forehead. B — ^I'ace. C~- Cheek. /> — Muzzle.
E — Neck. /--Neck-vein. G — Shoulder-point. // — Ann. / — Gain-
brel or hock. K — Elbow. L ■ -Brisket, bosom or breast. X — Crops.
O — Loin. P — Hip. Q — Rum[ , J? -^— Pin-bone. S — Round-bone,
thurl or whirl. 7^— Buttock. i7---.rhigh, or gasket. T— Flank. W
--Plates. X -Back, or chine. T TV-oa"^
STRUCTURE OF THE OX. 625
VI. Teeth of the Ox.
The ox has 32 teeth. These are divided into 24 grinding or molar
teeth, six on each side of each upper and lower jaw, and 8 nippers or
cutting teeth (incisors) in the front lower jaw. The ox has no canine
teeth (tushes,) and no teeth in the front part of the upper jaw. In
place of the front upper incisors, those of the lower jaw meet against a
callosity above, thick, hard and, in old cattle, almost horny. Scientific-
ally the teeth are represented by the following Dental formula :
Genus Bos. Cattle ; incisors, ^, canines, g, molars, | |. = Total, 32 teeth.
But in order that the reader may judge accurately of the age of any
animal of the genus Bos, but especially the age of cattle, a chart is an-
nexed, showing the nippers, (incisors,) from birth up to the age of five
years past^ — that is, up to the sixth year ; and also the teeth as they appear
at ten years of age.
An ox at five years old, is past his prime for beef, and at six is past
his prime for economical farm labor, except at heavy, slow draft. The
cow will breed good calves from three years to the age of ten years, and
often up to fifteen years. The bull should be sure in his get, up to about
the age of eight years, after which he usually gets logy.
VTI. Age of Cattle told by the Chart.
The age of cattle is only told by the horns and the teeth. The horns
will show the age with reason-able accuracy up to the age of six years, by
means of the annual rings, and tolerably well up to the age of ten, un-
less they have been filed, sand-papered and oiled to deceive. As the
animal gets older, the annual rings, or wrinkles, of the horns become con-
fused by growing together.
Mr. Youatt, in his analysis of the teeth of the ox, gives six years as
the age at which the animal attains the full mouth, such as we have shown
at five years past. In his day, cattle were slower in maturing than now,
and they were certainly kept in service to a greater age. If the animal
is badly kept during the winter, and is turned upon insufficient pasture
in summer, development will, of course, be slower. After the teeth arc
mature, if the pasture is short and gritty, they will be worn away faster.
The rules we give for determining the ages of modern cattle apply to
well-kept, early-developing animals. Woods-cattle, those raised in the
timber on scant fare, might present the same appearance at six years old
that we have shown for five years past. In studying the chart, therefore,
allowance nmst be made for the contingencies we have named. A. refer-
ence to the chart will show that at birth there are but two central teethr
tigure 1 ; at two weeks the calf will have four teeth, figure 2 ; at three
weeks it will have six teeth, figure 3 ; at a month old the jaw will con*
626 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLET'E STOCK DOCTOR.
tain eight incisors, and present the appearance as in figure 4. The mouth
is then called full, as containing the ultimate number of incisors. These
are not permanent, but temporary, or milk teeth, as they are called.
At six to eight months old the central teeth begin to be worn, and show
smaller than the others, see figure 5. At ten months absorption and the
widening of the jaw will have carried the two central teeth still farther
away from each other, and two other teeth, one on each side, will have
begun to diminish, in fact will have distinct spaces between them, see
figure 6. At twelve months absorption will have continued to two more
teeth, leaving intact only the two outside teeth, see figure 7. At fifteen
months the whole of the teeth will present the appearance as seen in figure
8. At this time the true or permanent teeth will have been growing in
the jaw, between and back of the milk teeth. Figure 9 shows the
appearance at fifteen months of age, the two permanent central teeth
appearing in the place of the two first milk teeth which have disappeared,
and the other permanent teeth are shown in their several stages of
growth. Figures 10, 11 and 12 show the teeth at two, three and four
years past. At the age of five years the animal will have a full mouth,
as shown in figure 13, and at ten years the incisors will present the ap-
pearance as in figure 14.
Thus any person by the use of the chart, and by examination of the
teeth of cows, of ages known to correspond therewith, may easily
become an accurate judge of the age of cattle up to the age of four years.
In the four-year-old mouth, the two central pairs of teeth are beginning
to be worn down to the edges, and in aflat direction, or inclining slightly
to the inside ; yet the animal has not a full mouth — that is, the incisois
are not fully up until it is five years old. See figure 14.
At five years old the teeth are fully grown, and the peculiar mark on
the teeth, called the cup, is shown in all. At the same time all will have
become flattened, while on the two center ones there begins to be a dis-
tinct darker line in the middle, bounded by a line of harder bone. From
this time on we may depend both on the incisors and the grinders. At six
years old the animal will have accpiired the last grinding tooth. This is
the sixth molar and is, from the beginning, a permanent tooth. From
this time until the eighth year, and indeed thereafter, in determining the
age of the animal, the nature of the soil upon which it has been fed must
be taken into account. Gritty, close- fed pastures will wear them faster,
and flush pastures slower. Thus in all the pasture regions of the West,
and Southwest, the wear will be light. As a general rule, but admitting
of many exceptions, at seven years old this line is becoming broader and
more irregular in all of the teeth ; and a second and broader, and more
circular mark appears within the center of the former one, the most
STRUCTURE OF THE OX.
627
distinct in the central, or two central pairs — and which, at eight years, has
spread over the six central incisors.
At eight years, a change takes place which cannot be mistaken. The
process of absorption has again commenced in the central incisors ; it is
slow, and is never carried to the extent seen in the milk teeth, but is
sufficicnLy plain, and the two central teeth are evidently smaller than
their neighbors. A considerable change has also taken place on the
surface of the teeth ; the two dark marks are worn into one in all but the
corner teeth.
HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN COW, SEGIS L\KA.
At ten years old the four central incisors are diminished in size, and
the mark is becoming smaller and fainter, as shown in figure 14. At
eleven years the six central incisors are smaller, and, at twelve, all of
them are very considerably diminished ; but not to the same extent as in
the young animal. The mark is now nearly obliterated, except in the
corner teeth, and the inside edge is worn down to the gum.
From the age of twelve years and onward, the teeth diminish more and
more, so that the animal cannot properly gather or grind the food. There
are many instances, however, of cows breeding, and remaining good
;nilkers, up to twenty years of age and over. But in this day of early
development, no careful farmer will keep a cow breeding after the age of
twelve years, except, perhaps, in the case of some extraordinary milker,
or an exceptional cow, of great physical powers, and excellent breeding
♦lualities, whose stock it may be desirable to perpetuate.
CHAPTER 111.
DEVELOPMENT AND IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS.
it ANCIENT AND MODEUN BREEDING. II. CATTLE OF THE CAMPAGNAS. III. PIO
NEERS OF IMPROVED STOCK. IV. ILLUSTRATIONS OF NOTED ENGLISH BREEDS
V. DO NOT ATTEMPT TO FORM A BUEED. VI. HOW A BREED IS FORMED. VII.
BREEDING FOR CERTAIN USES. VIII. VARIATION IN TYPE. IX. IN-AND-IN
BREEDING AND BREEDING IN LINE. X. ALTERING THE CHARACTER BY CROSSING.
XI. INFLUENCE OF SHELTER AND FEEDING. XII. HEREDITY IN CATTLE.
Km. HEREDITARY INFLUENCE OF PARENTS. XIV. ATAVISM. XV. PECULI-
ARITIES OFANCESTORS PERPETUATED. XVI. HOW THE SHORT-HORNS WERE BRED
t'P. XVII. SHORT-HORNS DURING THE LAST FIFTY YEARS. XVIII. THREE
SHORT-HORN STRAINS. XIX. THE THREE PRINCIPAL TYPES OF CATTLE.
Ancient and Modem Breeding.
It might be curious to trace the history of cattle, step by step, in their
mprovement from the earliest times ; but the results of such a task would
DC largely composed of conjecture, neither valuable as history, nor inter-
esting-, except to a few. The aim of this work is to be practical, and its
object is to give only such valuable information as will be useful or inter-
esting to all readers engaged in the breeding, rearing or use of live-
stock.
While many aistinct breeds of cattle have been known from the begin-
nin"- of the historical era, it is only within the last 200 years that carefui
and systematic breeding has been resorted to. And it is probable, or.
rather, it is positively true, that during the last fifty years greater results
in the breeding of all farm animals have been accomplished, and greater
proo-ress towards perfection have been made, than in all the time before.
Jacob was the first systematic breeder of whom we have any record.
It is tolerably certain that he understood something of the principles of
matin<'- cattle, else he could not have procUiccd pied and other parti-colored
animals in such numbers as to have assured him large profits and increase
in the herds of his father-in-law. But Jacob's plan consisted simply in
brinf'int'- too^ether cows and bulls of certain different colors, with a view to
securing a commingling of these colors, in the offspring. It docs not
appear that he made any systematic attempt to improve, by breeding, the
qualities of his animals as milkers, draft oxen, or beef cattle. The results
of such efforts, if they had ever been made, would as certainh^ have been
noticed as the extensive production of "ring-streaked and speckled cattle."
II. Cattle of the Campagnas.
We have already spoken of the once-famous cattle of the Campagnas,
in the time of the Romans, Their excellence was probably due more to
628
DEVELOPMENT AND IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS.
029
ERSEV COW CAIL RIVERS.
,ABERDEEN-ANGUS DULL DELAMERE.
630
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK
DOCTOR.
DEVELOPMENT AND IMPROVEIMENT OF BREEDS. 631
the kindliness of the climate and the natural abundance of the pastures
around Rome, than to any systematic endeavors to perpetuate good qual-
ties, except by tlie simple rules of natural selection. The same is true
of other ancient peoples whose cattle were once held in high repute.
Abundant pasturage, extensive ranges and a genial climate were the
important factors in the production of their superior stock, which, in all
probability, was not much superior to the half-wild cattle herded upon
our great western plains.
During the dark ages which succeeded the fall of the Roman Empire,
agriculture degenerated with the arts, and, until about the sixteenth cen-
tury, little attention was paid to the breeding of cattle, except by a primi-
tive sort of selection, and by keeping certain strains of cattle confined
to given sections of country.
III. Pioneers of Improved Stock.
But little had been done in a systematic way to improve British cattle
until Bakewell improved the Long-Horns. Subsequently the Collings
bred up the Durhams or Tceswaters, and later breeders developed the
Devons, to which the Sussex and Hereford breeds owe some of their most
eminent qualities. The celebrity of the improved Leicesters ceased soon
after the death of Bakewell. But the Short-Horns had then already
become famous, and at the present day there is no other breed of
beef cattle that combines so many good qualities, except the Herefords.
And this noble breed, it must be confessed, is the peer of the Short-
Horns in every respect, except perhaps early maturity, while in butchers'
proof, it is probably superior to the Short-Horns. On the butchers'
block, however, both the Short-Horns and the Herefords must yield
precedence to the Devons, and the Devons again to the West Highland
cattle of Scotland.
rv. Illustrations of Noted English Breeds.
That the reader may become familiarized with noted English breeds
of cattle, for beef, for labor, and for milking, we give on page 720 a
model of the Sussex cow ; on page 632 a Short-Horn cow in outline ;
and on page 642 an improved Hereford Bull, allied to the Sussex. On
Page 715 a Norman cow is represented ; and on page 682 a Jersey
cow. On page 607 will be found a group of Derhams as
they were known fifty years ago. With the descriptions of the various
popular breeds, as they will be noticed hereafter, illustrations will bo
given showing their characteristics. The comparisons will l>c found a
valuable study to all who make the breeding of cattle a part of their
farm economy.
632
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Do not Attempt to Porm a Breed,
in the breeding of cattle do not attempt to form a new breed out cf
incongruous materials, such as ycu may happen to find near you. Good
feeding, good shelter, and careful selection, will do much for any bre^dj
but to undertake to form a new breed can only end in failure. itwiU
be found infinitely cheaper to take one of the breeds already formed, ac-
cording to the use for which *he animals are intended, than, by crossmg
and breeding up, to form one that at the end of one hundred years w ill
be no better than some of the now-existing herds, and, perhaps, not as good.
If there is any improvement to be made, make it on the model of the
best of the more reputable breeds. For instance, the Short-Horns can
DEVELOPMEMT AND IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS.
633
634 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
easily be bred back to the milking quality by selecting the proper fami-
lies ; for they once possessed this quality in an eminent degree. If you
wish to improve your common stock, do it by crossing upon the l)cst of
your common cows good, staunch, vigorous bulls, of the breed conform-
ing to the type of cattle you wish to attain. The first cross will give you
half-bloods ; the second three-cjuartcrs l)lood ; the third cross seven-
eighths blood, and the fourth cross — fiftccn-sixtccnths blood. These lat-
ter, and, even the seven-eighths bred cattle, are, for all practical puiposes,
of beef, labor or milk, essentially as good as those purely bred. But it is
necessary that pure and thoroughbred stock be kept intact, by every
possible precaution, since they are the source from which all excellence is
bred. Therefore, if you are able to breed the best, let all others alone.
And there are so many cattle of pure and thoroughbred stock now, that
such sires are not difficult to obtain, unless you wish to breed the very
highest caste, and this, too, from a purely fanciful standpoint.
VI. How a Breed is Formed.
A breed is a variety. In plants a new variety of a species is pro-
duced by crossing one variety on another. In the case of crossing two
species of the genus, to produce a hybrid, the fertility is generally de-
stroyed, and the hybrid cannot be perpetuated. In crossing two animals
or plants of the same species, but differing one from the other, the pro-
duct is fertile, though not in so great a degree as in animals or plants of a
like kind. The descendants will partake more strongly of one parent
than the other, and these variations, in some cases, crop out after genera-
tions.
This atavism or striking back to some remote ancestor is not infrequent
in the Short-Horns, notwithstanding the extreme care taken in breeding,
and the many years that have passed since the particular cross was made.
On the other hand, the Dcvons breed constant to type, or nearly so.
Hence, the Devons are called a pure breed, and the Short-Horns are
called thoroughbred. The Herefords also retain this constancy in gen-
eral character to a remarkable degree, for the reason that they are an
original breed, and not, like the Short-Horns, and racing horses, made up
of a mixed lineage, and developed within a comparatively short time.
Thus the reader will see the force of the advice, "Do not attempt to
form a new breed . ' '
VII. Breeding for certain uses.
For present practical purpose let your sires be the best you can aflford,
of some imi)roved breed, which should be chosen with reference to the
purpose for which the offsi)ring is intended. For beef and early maturity
choose a Short-Horn or Hereford bull. If you breed for beef and labor,
DEVELOrMENT AND IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS. 685
take the Hereford for heavy work, and the Devon for lighter and more
active work, such as ordinary farm labor. For cheese or quantity of
milk alone, take the Holsteins. For butter and cheese the Ayi-shires
are best, while for milk, exceedingly rich in cream, but, of course, not so
great in quantity, the Jerseys, Alderneys or Guernseys would be indi-
cated, according to the fancy of the breeder. In every case select the best
cows possible as dams, at least for the animals intended to continue the
cross.
vni. Variation in Type.
We have spoken of variation in type, even of cattle bred with a view
of perpetuating distinct characteristics. How common this is, any
person may satisfy himself by inspecting the animals of any given kind
at our animal fairs, especially horses and cattle. Among animals pro-
ducing twins, such as sheep, the type may be established sooner, since
there is a greater number of young to select from. In swine it may be
established in a still shorter time, for they not only have many young at
a birth, but they breed twice a year, and a sow has even been known to
produce five litters in less than two years. In the longest-established
breeds of swine, however, pigs of a litter will vary materially. Hence,
in breeding swine, while it is comparatively easy to perpetuate a particular
strain by careful selection, it is also as easy to destroy the effects of
previous good breeding by bad selections as it is to depreciate them by
neglect in feeding. For it is an axiom which should be more generally
understood than it is, that bad feeding will soon mar good breeding.
And as no success can be had with any breed, however ordinary it may
be, without good feeding, it is essential that the improved breeds be care-
fully and liberally provided for, especially since the better the breed the
better do the animals pay for their feeding.
IX. In-and-in Breeding and Breeding in Line.
The meaning of these terms has been defined in a previous part of
this volume. One is the breeding together of animals very closely re-
lated ; the other is the perpetuation of qualities, by continuing to breed
together animals having similar characteristics. From in-an-in and line
breeding we get, more often, what is called a "nick" — that is, the inheri-
tance of some essentially good quality — than by what is known as out-
crossing, or breeding to animals of dissimilar quality. The careful
breeder will hesitate long before he resorts to out-crossing, and should
only consent so to do where the family has become too fine, and con-
stitutionally weak, from being bred very closely together for a considera-
ble lenirth of time.
G36 CYCL01'Ei>lA OF LIVE STOCK AAD COMl'LKTE STOCJi DOCTOR.
UJ
I-
DEVELOPMENT AND IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS. 637
X. Altering the Character by Crossing.
When it becomes necessary to alter the form, do so through some animal
of the same breed. Never go out of the breed for improvement even in
constitutional vigor. If you do,you will always rue it. The K3doe cross,
made in the Short-Horns, nearly a hundred years ago, still crops out in
certain families, in the sloughing of the horns, or in defective horns.
Thirty years ago the outcrop of tliis peculiarity was quite common. If
the character of your cattle needs altering, select for the purpose a bull
possessing the characteristics desired, or as near thereto as may be possi-
ble. Once the effect is produced, return again to the practice of breed-
ing in line, never neglecting careful selection. So also in breeding up
common stock, by means of superior males, when once you have decided
what breed is best for your particular use, stick to it. If the result is
unsatisfactory, try another breed on certain cows, but not on those of
your best improved stock. If you are breeding pure or thoroughbred
stock, quit the business rather than take an out-cross upon some other
distinct breed. Once the blood is in your herd, you cannot breed it out
in your life time, nor can your successor l)reed it out in his life time.
XI. Influence of Shelter and Feeding.
In the breeding of all farm stock too many persons suppose that ani-
mals, especially cattle, ni;iy be ex[)osed to the storms of winter without
,'^3rious detriment, and that if tliey get very thin in winter, they will
lir'uperate in the succeding summer. No mistake could be more fatal
vi he stock raiser than this. An animal that barely survives the winter,
seldom more than regains the flesh lost, during the next summer. Those
that have to be "tailed up" in the spring never are good for much there-
after. The only profit there is in stock of any kind, is made by keeping
them steadily growing, until they reach maturity. This is especially true
in the case of improved stock of whiitever breed. They must have suf-
ficient warmth and feeding, for if disability arise from neglect, the loss
is serious by comparison with the loss from similar injury to ordinary,
cheap stock. It may be taken as an axiom, that no money was ever
•Tiade by neglecting or starving farm stock ; and no farmer ever will
make money from cattle if he lets them take the "warm side of a straw
stack" for food and shelter in winter.
XII. Heredity in Cattle.
We have already spoken of the hereditary influence of ancestors. In
cattle this is often plainly shown. The thirteenth axiom of Stonehege, and
one undoubtedly correct, is : The purer and less mixed the breed, the more
Vikely it is to be transmitted unaltered to the offspring. Hence, which-
638 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
ever parent is of the purest blood will l)e more generally represented in
the offspring; but, as the male is usually more carefully selected, and of
purer blood than the female, it generally follows that he exerts more
influence than she does ; the reverse being the case when she is of more
unmixed bJood than the sire.
That the relative ages and vigor of the parents have a decisive influence
on the offspring there is no doubt. Hence the necessity that animals be
mature before they are allowed to breed, since only mature animals can
be relied upon to produce offspring of the highest form and vigor. And
on the other hand, that excessive age in either male or female, will dimin-
ish potency is too well known to be denied. It is certain, also, that
where there is a marked prepotency in either the male or female parent,
the progeny will most closely resemble the prepotent progenitor. The
following case is reported by Mr. Talcot in the " Country Gentleman : "
" I had a nice cow with nice bag and teats, which I took to a bull in the
neighborhood, and the produce was a heifer-calf, which was raised be-
cause of the good milking-qualities of her dam ; but when she became a
cow, instead of the good qualities of her dam as Avas expected, her bag
and teats were more like those of a sheep than of a good dairy-cow. I
then began to investigate the cause, and found that the heifer was the
counterpart of the dam of the bull, she being an ordinary cow Mith a
small bag and still smaller teats, and from that time to this I have found
that too freq.uently that is the case, especially if the bull was from such
stock or family of light milkers that it was not desirable to perpetuate
them. I remember distinctly tht first pure-bred Short-Horn bull I ever
had, that the bag of his dam was the largest in the hind-quarters, conse-
quently that she gave the most milk from the hind-teats, and that quality
was transmitted to the majority of his heifers when they came to be
cows, their bags tending largely in the hind-quarters. And I think, from
such observations, that there can be no doubt that such is the case gen-
erally."
Mr. Sedgmck says, the supply of milk is hereditarily influenced by
the bull, 7-ather than by the cows from which the offspring is directly
descended. Of this there is no doubt ; but it is not so clear, as asserted
by him, that the character of the secretion, as regards both quantity and
quality of the milk, is derived chiefly from the paternal grand-mother by
atavic descent.
XIII. Hereditary Influence of Parents.
Mr. Walker, writing on intermarriage, and the physiology of breeding,
gives the following :
"It is a fact, established by my observations, that, in animals of the
same variety, either male or female parent may give either series of or-
DEVELOPIHENT AND IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS. 639
gans — that is, either forehead and organs of sense, together with the vital
and nutritive organs, or back-head, together with the locomotive organs.
"The second law, namely, that of crossing, operates where each parent
is of a different breed, and when, supposing both to be of equal age and
vigor, the male gives the back-head and locomotive organs, and the female
the face and nutritive organs.
"The third law, namely, that of in-and-in breeding, operates where both
parents are not only of the same variety, but of the same family in its
narrowest sense, and when the female gives the back-head and locomo-
tive organs, and the male the face and nutritive organs — precisely the
reverse of -"'^"at takes place in crossing."
XIV. Atavism.
The aj^i^earance, occasionally, of horns in the Galloway, Suffolk and
other breeds that have been hornless for many generations, but which
were originally a horned race, are remarkable instances of atavism. The
appearance, in a litter of Essex pigs, of two young ones showing the
Berkshire cross of twenty-eight years before, as cited by Mr. Sidney, is
also a remarkable case of the same kind. We have already noticed the
occasional appearance, through atavism, of deformed horns in Short-
Horn cattle. In calves, also, this race shows remarkably in this respect ;
the following case is given by the "Country Gentleman :"
"Mr. Wadsworth owns the twin Princess cows. Lady Mary seventh
and eighth ; they are both good roans, got by fourth Lord of Oxford
(5903 "American Herd-Book"), a roan bull; their dam, Lady Mary, a
red, got by Hotspur (31393), a roan ; their granddam, Baroness, a red
roan, got by Barrington (30501), a white ; their great-granddam, the im-
ported red Princess cow. Red Rose, second, got by Napier (6238), red
roan. These twin heifers, Lady Mary seventh and eighth, were both
served by the Princess bull. Earl of Seaham (8077 "American Herd-
Book"), a good roan, and each dropped a bull-calf; but the one from
Lady Mary seventh was a red, while the other, from Lady Mary eighth,
was white."
XV. Peculiarities of Ancestors Perpetuated.
In the breeding of animals of a pure and homogeneous breed, there
will be a perfect blending of characteristics, without marked peculiarities,
as a rule. In the offspring of dissimilar parents, as in crossing, there is
never complete fusion or blending of character, but the offspring in such
cases will follow, more or less closely, the prepotent parent. It is not
necessarv to cite authorities on this point. Instances are of such constant
occurrence, both in the human family and down through all the domestic
animals, that they have been noticed by all intelligent observers. In wild
640 CYCLOPEDIA OP LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
animals, being pure races, the rule is not so apparent ; for in them is
found the nicest blending of transmitted qualities. Yet it is observed
even in wild animals when bred in confinement. Devon cattle and other
pure breeds of domestic stock, also show peculiarities to a less extent
than more mixed races. Peculiarities of ancestors appear most frequently
in the common mixed stock of the farm, especially when ])red to sires of
improved blood.
XVI. How the Short-Horns were bred up.
The inheritance of the prepotent l)lood of sires, u[)()n an already valua*
ble breed, careful selection and at length the impress of a bull, (Hub-
back,) remarkable in every respect, merged what were known as Tees-
water, Durham or Yorkshire cattle, into what has come of late years to be
known, the world over, as Short-Horns. The name is an unfortunate
one in some respects, since it is used to designate one of the three dis-
tinct classifications of horned cattle.
Less than 200 years ago the first improvement was made in Short-
Horn cattle, according to Culley, Marshall, Bailey, and others of the last
century ; and it is only within the last 100 years that the great improve-
ment was made which causes this magnificent breed of cattle to be so
highly prized. The "Alloy," a Gallowa}^ or hornless, cross made by
Charles Colling was unfortunate, and breeders are careful that their stock
shall not trace back to this cross, which runs to Grandson of Bolingbroke
and Lady — to the "Alloy" as this progeny was called.
XVII. Short-Horns During the Past Fifty Years.
It is within the last fifty years that the Short-^Horns, once remarkable
for their milking qualities, have degenerated in this respect so that they
are now almost worthless for the dairy. They have been bred to emi-
nent fineness and elegance, but it is questionable if, as beef producers,
the less fashionable are not the better cattle. Originally the Short-Horns
ran much to white ; and roans also were very common. Of late years it
has been more fashionable to breed to self-colors, or to animals in which
the colors, whatever they may be, (red and white being the best,) are
distinct and well defined, one from the other.
Importations of Short-Horns from Great Britain were made to the
Eastern States m 1815, 1822, 1828, 1828, 1835, 1839, and 1849-50; to
Kentucky in 1817, and again in 1837-38, and in 1839. Large importa-
tions were made into Ohio in 1834, and in 1835-36. The first direct
importation to Illinois was made in 1858. Since 1835 Canadian breed-
ers have imported many fine animals, and within the last ten years their
herds have taken high rank in the world of Short-Horns. At the present
time there are no States of the West, the Northwest and Southwest, but
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DEVELOPMENT AND IMPROVEMENT OF BREEDS. 641
have most valuable herds of these remarkable beef cattle. When not
bred from a mere fanciful standpoint of fineness, it must be confessed
that they are unexcelled in stoutness, early maturity and great develop-
ment of lesh.
XVIII. Three Short-Horn Strains.
Among the lessons learned from these changes, we have seen the
Short-Horns gradually lose their great milking qualities, but they have
gained in early maturity, and in disposition to take on flesh. They
may now be divided into three classes :
First, are those combining good grazing qualities with fair milking
quahties, as may be seen in the descendants of the importation of 1817
into Kentucky, or the " Seventeens" as they are called. None are better
than these for the average farmer to breed from, and fortunately, when
found, they sell at prices comparative!}^ but little above those of the best
native cattle of mixed breeds.
The second strain is the Booth blood, eminent for large frames,
covered with great masses of flesh, but of small account as milkers.
The third principal strain is that of the Bates cattle, eminent for style
and early maturity, with sub-families, producing occasionally most
excellent milking cows.
The young breeder may rest assured that by studying carefully the
precepts laid down in this chapter, and by familiarizing himself with the
characteristics of the several strains, and also by studying carefully the
pedigrees as given in the herd l)ooks, he will be qualified to select animals
for the nucleus of his herd, that will breed constant to type, if he pos-
sess the judgment properly to mate them.
XrX. The Three Principal Types of Cattle.
It remains to close this chapter with a recapitulation of the three prin-
cipal types of cattle. These are the Long-Horns, the Middle-Horns and
the Short-Horns. Of the Long-Horns, sub-breeds remain worthy of per-
petuation in competition with the Middle-Horns, as represented by the
Herefords or Devons, or the Short-Horns, as represented by the Dur-
uams. The milking breeds are the Jerseys and other Channel Island
cattle, and the Ayrs hires and the Holsteins.
Among the traces of long-horned blood, characteristic of the old Shrop-
shire, with their horns dropping down forward and suddenly rising, the
Derby with their horns running sideways, and curving upwards and back-
wards, and the Cravens, with their "lopped horns," may all be found
occasionally in the ordinary mixed breeds of the country, showing how long
a time it takes to work out the blood from whence they originally cume.
642 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AKD COMPLETE STOCK DOdOR.
A": for the once-famous New Leicesters, of Bakevvell, their popularity
was short-lived, since they practically died out with the death of their
founder, Bakewell,
W---:"-^^!^Wl'' .^^-'^
FLEMISH cow.
The Flemish cow represented on this page is not such an abundant milker as some
other breeds, but her milk is very rich and fine iu flavor. In disposition this breed is
as gentle and kind as it is possible for cattle to be. A child can approach them any-
where or at any time, and lead them or play around them, without fear of harm.
The Short-Horns will be treated of in their appropriate chapter, the
Herefords and Devons in the chapter appropriated to the Middle-Horns,
and the polled cattle, also, in a separate chai)ter»
CHAPTER IV.
THE BREEDING OP CATTLE.
I. EARLY SYSTEMS OP BREEDING. II. BAKEWELL'S TEN RULES. -TIT. "WHAT
THE BREEDER MUST KNOW. IV. COMPARE RESULTS. V. THE ASSIMILA-
TION OF FOOD. VI. THE BREEDER MUST BE A GOOD FARMER. VII.
BREEDING FOR BEEF.— VIII. BREEDING FOR MILK. IX. BREEDING FOR
LABOR. X. THE BREEDS FOR BEEF AND MILK. XI. SOME FACTS ABOUT
BEKF. XII. VALUE OF SIRES IN DIFFERENT HERDS. XIII. KNOW WHAT
YOU BREED FOR. XIV. DEFINITION OF TERMS. XV. HOW TO START A
HERD. XVI. HOW THE HERD WILL GRADE. XVII. TAKING A LINE
CROSS. XVIII. SOME SPECIMENS OP CLOSE BREEDING. XIX. THE GESTA-
TION OF COWS.
I. Early Systems of Breeding.
Until within the last 200 years the whole art of breeding animals
might have been summed up in the aphorism, "Like produces like ;"
and hence that other proverb, "Breed from the best." Yet, simple as
these principles were, they seem to have been followed in a very feeble
way, as, indeed, they are to this day by a majority of farmers, or by
those who have not studied the principles of the art they practice.
Up to the time of Bake well, who, had he undertaken any other pro-
fession than that of breeding animals, would have been eminently suc-
cessful, the breeder's art consisted in mating those animals whose gen-
eral characteristics seemed the best, wholly disregarding the advantages
of breeding to animals pre-eminent for the possession of particular qual-
ities that it was essential to perpetuate. Bakewell believed not only that
like would produce like, in a general way, but seems to have known
that the rule extended to the minutest detail in the organization and
make up of the animal. Hence, his study of form, in the anatomy and phys-
iology of animals, was made with a view to the adoption of a standard,
or model, by which he sought to secure large proportions, early matu-
rity, superior flesh in the choicest parts, and uniformity in the transmission
of these qualities from the sire and dam to the young.
His eye seems to have been so well trained in detecting faults in the
development of animals, and the proper correlation of the parts, one to
the other, that the slightest variation of form never escaped him. No
breeder since his time seems to have used such nice judgment, or to have
possessed so critical and thoroughly trained an eye. None of his suc-
cessors have equaled him in the capacity to trace cause and effect, or to
fi43
644 crcLOPEDiA of live stock and complete stock doctor.
breed closely to a well-defined standard. In addition to his nice judg-
ment in selection, he was the most careful of feeders ; the object in view
being constant development from birth to the butcher's block. None
before or since his time have ever brought a breed up to the highest oos-
sible standard in a single lifetime, and what is more curious, none were
found able to maintain the standard he had fixed. The methods insti-
tuted by Bakewell have been i)racticed by others, and are undoubt-
edly the l)est in the breeding of live stock. They may be divided into
separate heads as in tlie following section.
II. Bakewell's Ten Rules.
1. — Correct training of the eyo and judgment in the anatomy and phys-
iolog}'^ of the animal.
2. — The correlation of the several parts one to the other.
3. — The selection and mating of animals with a view to the fullest
development of the most valual)le parts, according to the use intended.
4. — Selection with a view to the perpetuation of essential qualities to
mduce form, symmetry, high feeding qualities, and great vigor of consti-
tution.
5. — Feeding with reference to early maturity for giving development in
the least possible time.
6. — Shelter and warmth indispensable to perfect development.
7. — Variety of food is essential, and this according to the age of the
animal.
8. — A strain of blood once established, never go outside of it for a
new infusion.
9. — The most perfect care and regularity in all matters pertaining to
feeding and stable management.
10 — Kindness and careful training absolutely necessary with a view to
the inheritance of high courage combined with docility and tractability.
III. What the Breeder Must Know.
The animals which possess the qualities that are desired in the offspring,
whether for beef, labor, milk, butter or cheese, or for a combination of
these, are the ones to breed from. In the selection of parents the breeder
himself must of course be the judge of the fitness of certain animals of his
herd to transmit the desired qualities. We have endeavored to aid the non-
professional breeder in the performance of this delicate task, by carefully
describing the peculiarities of the different breeds and varieties, and by in-
dicating the best points of each of them. Nothing more is necessary to
enable the average farmer to breed his farm-stock profitably and success-
ittlly, except such personal experience with animals as every competent
THE BREEDING OF CATTIjE. 645
farmer possesses as a matter of course. Those who propose to go exclu-
sively and scientifically into the business of stock-breeding, must not only
pass through a careful course of reading in the best authorities on the
subject, but must also have a thorough practical training. The impor-
tant thing of all, however, is to possess the peculiar talent to make a
breeder — that is, a critical eye for form, symmetry, and the proportion
of the several parts of an animal, each to the others.
IV. Compare Results.
A careful comparison of the results obtained by others and by one's self,
is among the best means of training for all. The animal that will make the
most beef at three years old, and the cow that will give the most milk, and
the richest in butter or cheese during the season, on the least relative quan-
tity of food, are the best. These things can only be learned through
personal observation and from the statements of those whose word you
can trust.
V. The Assimilation of Pood.
It is an idea with many people that an animal, to be valuable, must be
a small eater. Nothing could be further from the truth. It is merely a
question of proper assimilation of the food eaten — an animal of perfect
digestive and assimilative organs being al)le to extract far more nutri-
ment from a given quantity of food than one in which these organs per-
form their functions but imperfectly. In this respect the improved
breeds of stock of any family stand pre-eminent. Their digestive and
assimilative organs are of the best and they give greater returns for the
food eaten than illy-bred animals.
The lungs and blood vessels of the ox are not required to l)e so capa-
cious, according to the weight of the animal, as those of the blood-horse ;
for they are not required to do fast work. The improved breeds of
other farm stock are not required to take more exercise than is necessary
to gather their food. Hence, with care and artificial feeding, the incli-
nation to active exercise is bred out of them, and a Short-Horn or Here-
ford will keep fat on what a Texan would run off in untamable muscular
efforts. Thus, for domestic use, the highly-bred Short-Horn or Here-
ford possesses two important advantages over the wild Texan, viz : early
maturity, and the tendency to fatten readily.
A raw-boned ox, or one with a hide like a board, will not fatten kindly.
Hence, the outlines should be square or round, with no undue bony
prominences, and the skin should be soft, but firm and supple to the
touch.
Restlessness, Avhich is only another term for wildness, should never
be tolerated in anv breeding animal. Such animals should be sent to
646 CYCLOPEDIA OP *JVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
the butcher's block without hesitation. A panic will throw a whole herd
off their feed for a week, sometimes, and a single wild brute is amply
sufficient to get up a stampede at the slightest provocation. The animal
that shows viciousness alone,, or in connection with restlessness, is not to
be tolerated anywhere, and least of all in the breeding stables or yards.
VI. The Breeder Must be a Good Farmer.
The best animals cannot be raised except on a variety of food. The
breeder should therefore be a good farmer, and should know what
grasses are most nutritious and best adapted to his locality. He needs,
also, to know the varieties of grasses which make the best hay, for all
farm animals — cattle and sheep especially — should be kept as much on
grass as possible. He should also have studied the important question
of winter feeding with a view to deciding what grains are best adapted to
his use.
An important matter, which nearly all American breeders and feeders
more or less neglect, is the use of succulent food in winter. It is seldom
one sees a sujjply of roots raised for winter feeding in this country. We
have deferred too much to English authorities, and because we could not
raise English white turnips we have ignored roots almost entirely. Yet,
there is no country better adapted to carrots and beets, for feeding, than
ours, nor one where they can be more cheaply raised. And carrots in
'kvintei', especially for breeding cows, and later on beets for all farm
stock except horses, are worth more than twice their bulk in turnips.
A peck of beets or carrots daily, to each cow or ox would assist in an
important manner the digestion and assimilation of dry food — and herein
lies their chief value. The writer has raised them in large fields at a
cost of three dollars a ton, including the expenses of hauling and pitting
for winter.
VII. Breeding for Beef.
If you breed for beef you will have the choice of, say, four breeds of
cattle — the Short-Horns, the Hcrefords, the Devons, and the Galloways.
The Short-Horns and Herefords are, by all odds, the best breeds
wherever the pastures are flush, and the feed plentiful. On short
pastures, and when the winter feeding is not ample, their great frames
cannot be supplied ; but when the feed is abundant they may be turned
off fat at an age at which native cattle are only just getting ready to be
fattened.
Upon all hill pastures, both North and South, the Devons are admira-
ble cattle, and their beef is of a quality superior to that of either of the
breeds just named.
Farther North, the Galloways or hornless cattle are much liked for
their good feeding qualities, for their hardmcss and for the superior
THE BREEItfNG OF CATTLE. 647
quality of their beef. In more Northern regions the Galloways may justly
be regarded as the best among our beef breeds. But they will never
compare with the Short-Horns or Heref ords in milder regions where feed
is abundant.
Vm. Breeding for Milk.
If milk be the sole object, the breeder will choose the Ayrshires, the
Jerseys or the Holsteins. Of these the Holsteins give the largest quan-
tity of milk, are the largest cattle and they make heavy beef when dry.
They are the best for cheese, and are, also, the most profitable when the
milk is to be sold directly to the consumer. The Ayrshires come next in
the quantity of milk given, and they are, also, excellent both for butter
and cheese. The Jerseys, Alderneys, and Guernseys are smaller cattle
than either the Holsteins or Ayrshires, but, for their size, they give large
quantities of milk that is extremely rich in cream and butter. But they
require more feed in proportion to their size than either the Ayrshires
or Holsteins.
rx. Breeding for Labor.
Where animals capable of performing labor are desired, either the
Herefords or the Devons should be selected. For heavy draft, such as
hauling great logs in the timber, the Herefords are excellent cattle.
For general utility on the farm, and on the road, the Devons arc supe-
rior to any other known breed, since they combine great activity with
muscular s*;rength, and the ability to go long distances at a quick j^ace,
without Qistress. The Holsteins also make excellent draft animals, and
to our thinking are among the best, where many purposes, milk being
the most important, are to be considered.
X. The Breeds for Beef and Milk.
For the two purposes of milk and beef combined, the milking strains of
the Short-Horn family are the best. It is a pity that the noble breed of
milking cattle, known formerly as the Patton stock, should hnve been
practically lost. Forty years ago they were the staunch, excellent Short-
Horns of the West, good at the pail, large, smooth-framed and Idndly
fatteners. The farmer who wishes to breed similar cattle, may easily do
so by selecting the better milkers of the importation of 1817 — the "old
Seventeens" as they are called. But be sure you do not get animals
of this race with "top crosses" of the now fashionable Short-Horns.
They will make beef but not milk.
The Holsteias should not be passed over in naming cattle for general
utility, especially in the West and Southwest. They are abundant and
uniform milkers, and good feeders. They make more than fait working
648 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
steers, and when fat they also turn out a heavy carcass of l^eef, of fully
as good quality as the Short-Horns. Yet, they lack early maturity.
XI. Some Pacts About Beef.
The breeder for utility, from a purely practical stand point, wants ani-
mals that will bring the largest return in dollars and cents. A steer that
loads with mere fat, instead of muscle, will not bring so much as the
one which turns out more meat and less fat. So, again, the steer whose
flesh is marbled throughout with fjitty tissue will bring a higher price for
beef than one all lean in the lean parts, and all fat in the fat parts.
Hence, m estimating the possible profits in breeding for beef, one must
know how the animal will cut up when killed. As a rule the smooth
steer Avill "kill better" than a patchy one, or one with lumps or patches
of fat over the surface. An animal will not marble Avith fat until it is
mature, neither will it take on fat largely, while in a growing state.
Hence, the value of early maturity, and the importance of knowing those
breeds, or families of a breed, which mature earliest. The Short-Horns
have somewhat the advantage of the Herefords in early maturity, while
the Herefords have the advantage of the Short-Horns in the quality of
their flesh. The Devons mature still later than either, but their "butch-
ers' proof" is better. The Galloways mature between the Hereford and
Devon in point of time, and their flesh is ccrtainl}^ excellent. Those ani-
mals which mature earliest are, as a rule, not so excellent in the quality
of the flesh as later-maturing ones. Hence, in England, the Highland
cattle bring the highest price per pound of any, and in the United States
the Devons ought to.
XII. Value of Sires in Different Herds.
The average farmer cannot pay the exti*avagant prices demanded for
the highest-caste animals of a pure breed. These, however necessary to
the special breeder, are not so to the general breeder, or to the farmer
who breeds simply for beef or for milk. The farmer wants animals hav-
ing thick flesh and good feeding qualities, with constitutional vigor, from
which to breed beef cattle ; and when milk is an object the animals from
which he breeds should also be known to possess high milking qualities.
Ir. ill one case it is the flesh that pays, in the other the udder.
To ra3 breeder of a particular strain, an animal containing certain val-
uable pc'nts might be worth many thousands of dollars in his herd, while
to the farmer the value of the same animal Avould be counted by hundreds
of dollars only. In fact, that particular animal might not be worth as
much to the farmer as another that might be bought for $100. In respect
to milking qualltieSj a certain bull might be worth $1,000 to the breeder
THE BREEDING OF CATTLE. 649
of a particular sub-family of milkers, while to the farmer, intending to
breed him upon a mixed herd, $100 would be his full value.
Across of " Seventeen" blood might be a good and sufficient reason for
the refusal by some special breeder to buy a particular Short-Horn, while
to the general breeder it would be no disadvantage ; and if the animal
were a pure " Seventeen" — descended in a direct line from that importa-
tion — the outcome might be richer in beef and milk then the other.
Hence it is seen that the farmer who breeds simply for milk or beef,
should possess as accurate information concerning what he wants as the
breeder of select animals of some particular strain of blood,
Xm. Know what You Breed For.
The breeder for general utility must possess as accurate knowledge as
the breeder for special utility, but this knowledge needs to be of a dif-
ferent kind from the other. The breeder for general utility cares not
so much that the blood be of some particular strain, as that it shall com-
bine certain points that will bring beef or milk into the produce of his
herd, and at the least expense.
What the general breeder is seeking for is such refinement in the head,
neck, lungs, digestive organs, blood vessels and limbs, as will tell in the
best manner upon his coarser stock. He would be guided by different
standards in buying a thoroughbred horse from those he would adopt in
buying a draft horse ; and in buying an animal solely for beef, the
breeder must choose from a different standpoint from that which he takes
in buying for milk, labor, or a combination of two or more of these quali-
ties. But in this day of special breeds for special purposes great excel-
lence in all points cannot be expected in one and the same animal. No
bull can be a getter of great milkers, great workers, and great beef
makers. All these qualities were never combined in one animcl and
never will be.
XIV. Definition of Terms.
Pure Bred. — The words "pure-bred," " full- blood," and "thorough-
bred" have often been stumbling blocks to the uninitiated. A pure race,
-or race of " pure-bred animals is one of unmixed lineage whose charac-
teristics are well defined, and which breeds pure to the type in every
essential particular, including form, color, temper, and of course power
to transmit the same. The Devons come nearer to filling all these
requirements than any other cattle, and are the best type of a pure breed.
Thoroughbred. — A thoroughbred is the descendant of animals origin-
ally of mixed lineage, but which have been inter-bred for so long a time
— without further admixture — that they come essentially true to the type
650 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
desired. Short-Horns and Herefords among cattle, and racing horses
are thoroughbred.
Full-Blood. — Full-blood is a term that should not be used to denote
either purity of blood or thorough-blood, though much confusion has
existed in the popular use of these three terms. High-grade animals are
the produce of pure stock upon common stock, and when pure stock is
repeatedly bred to the progtJnj of such unions the progeny in the course
of some generations nearly approaches the pure race in every character-
istic and is then called " full-blooded."
Grades- — This term was partly defined in the preceding paragraph.
It is used to denote the offspring of pure-blooded or highly-bred animals
with those of less breeding, and is generally applied to a cross of pure-
blood on common stock.
Cross-Breeding- — The breeding together of animals of different breeds
is called cross-breeding, as for instance the union of Hereford and Short-
Horn blood.- In the first cross, the progeny theoretically possess equal
proportions of the blood of sire and dam, but the 'blood of pure animals
being prepotent the progeny will possess more strongly the charateristics
of the Wghly-bred parent than of the other. Hence the advantage of
using a buil ojf pure blood on a herd of mixed blood.
XV. How to Start a Herd.
From among the best cows of the ordinary mixed farm stock, select
those possessing in the highest degree the characteristics desired in the
offspring. For ten two-year old heifers select a pure-blood yearling bull,
that has come of stock noted for getting uniform milkers, if this be the
object ; or, if beef be the object, he should be of excellent fineness, with
great loins, rump and thighs and round barrel-ribs well sprung out, and
ribbed close to the hips. The next season's produce should be ten calves,
half of which are likely to be heifers. Save these and geld the bulls at
the age of about three or four weeks. When these heifers are two
years old breed them to their sire, who will then be four years old.
The female produce of this union may again be bred to the same bull,
and this process may continue to the fourth generation, if the bull lasts so
long in the possession of vigor. H.s last get will thus inherit fifteen six-
teenths of the blood of the sire. Select from these the heifers that show
the strongest constitutional vigor, and follow this down through the inter-
mediate grades, keeping the families distinct. That is, record the breeding
of each animal separately in a book specially prepared for the purpose.
XVI. How the Herd will Grade.
-Your herd will grade as follows : The first generation will be half-blood
grades; the second three-quarters blood; the third, seven-eighths blood
THE BREEDING OF CATTLE. 651
and the fourth generation, fifteen-sixteenths blood, and will compare
favorably with pure-blooded animals, except among critical judges.
XVII. Taking a Line Cross,
In breeding so closely as we have recommended, the exercise of careful
judgment is necessary, so that you may cease breeding in-and-in when-
ever ii is found that the constitutional vigor, or feeding qualities of the
progeny are impaired. If it be found that the progeny is not im-
proving in all essential quailities 'select another sire, but one combining
the same essential qualities as the discarded sire. This departure will be
breeding in line. Breed again with this bull to certain select heifers for
tAvo generations, and then take another line cross. In this way a young
farmer, Avho is not able to attempt thoroughbreds, may soon establish a
herd that will give the best possible satisfaction as beef makers or milk-
ers, as the case may be. Do not listen to any sentimental talk about
incestuous breeding. Incest is not a crime among the4o:W€rlimmals ; it is
nature's plan with them. Among gregarious animals the strongest
males take the herd, to the second and tjiird generation. The object
is to throw the good qualities of the sire.wi a lump, and also to secure the
first impress, a most important point, upon the heifer, and to fix this impress
by concentration. For, the oftener the dam is bred to the same sire, the
more will she be imbued with the blood of the sire of her progeny,
through the intercirculation of blood between the dam and the foetus.
This intercirculation, though denied by some, is undoubtedly a physio-
logical fact, proven by many coincidences, if not by absolute demon-
stration, and fortified by striking resemblances.
XVTII. Some Specimens of Close Breeding.
As showing close in-an-in l)reeding the first volume of the American
Herd Book contains a diagram of the breeding of Comet, from Hub-
back and Lady Maynard, as follows :
1. Bull, IIubl)ack. 8. Cow, Lady Maynard.
2. Dam of Haughton. 9. Bull, Boling])roke.
3. Eichard Barker's Bull. 10. Cow, Lady Maynard.
4. Cow, Haughton. 11. Cow, Phoenix.
5. Bull, Foljambc. 12. Cow, Young Phoenix.
6. Cow, Young Strawberry. 13. Bull, Favorite.
7. Bull, Dalton Duke. ^ 14. Bull, Comet.
f^Ia^elation to Favorite or Lady Maynard, Mr. A. B. Allen says : "It
wasOonceded by a company of old breeders in 1812, in discussing the
question of the improvement of Short-Horns, that no stock of Mr. Col-
ling's ever equalled Lady Maynard, the dam of Phoenix, andgranddam of
652 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOB.
Favorite (by Foljaiube) and of young Pha?nix (by Favorite, her son,
upon his own mother,) the dam of Comet 155, so celebrated as having
been sold for 1000 guineas ($5000,) also by Favorite, a specimen of as
close in-and-in breeding as can perhaps be found on record."
As an example of wonderful depth of in breeding with continued
good results, the cow Clarissa may be mentioned. She possessed
sixty-three sixty-fourths of the blood of Favorite. Her pedigree runs
thus : " Cow Clarissa, roan, calved in 1814 ; bred l)y Mr. R. Colling, got
by Wellington (080) out of— by F'avorite, (852)— by Favorite,— by
F'avorite — by Favorite — by Favorite — by Favorite — l)y a son of Hui)-
back . ' '
Wellington, the sire of Clarissa, was also deei)ly in-bred with the blood
of Favorite. Taking the two ])edigrees — that of Clarissa and Welling-
ton together — they will read thus :
1. Bull, Hubback. 10. 6th cow ))y Favorite.
2. Son of Hub])ack. 11. Clarissa.
3. Cow, by son of Hubback. 12. Bull Wellington, sire of Clarissa.
4. Bull, F^avorite. 13. Bull, Comet.
5. 1st cow by Favorite. 14. Cow, AVildair.
6. 2nd cow by Favorite. 15. Cow, Young Phoenix.
7. 3rd cow by F^avorite. 16. Cow Phcenix.
8. 4th cow by Favorite. 4. Same bull Favorite on the side
of Clarissa's sire as on the
side of her dam.
9. 5th cow l)y Favorite. 17. Bull, Bolingbroke.
18. Granddaughter of Hubback.
There ought to be no fear of following where such results have been
attained by others, and these the most eminent and successful breeders
of their day. The best successes since their day have also been obtained
by continuing the same course to such a degree as intelligent observation
showed to be practical)le, and especially by breeding in line.
XIX. The Gestation of Cows.
Some years since the writer collected a number of facts in relation to
gestation and the influence of the varying times of gestation on the
young, to refute a prevalent idea that protracted gestation produced
males. Mr. Tessier, for forty years an accurate and acute observer of
various animals, gives results in the case of over 575 cows, and these
subsequently having been exi;ended to 1,131 cows the extremes were not
changed, but results as to averages are as stated below.
Earl Spencer also carefully tabulated the period of gestation of 766
cows, the least period being 220 days ; the mean 285 days ; and the long-
THE BREEDING OF CATTLE. 653
est 313 days. He was able to rear no calf produced at an earlier period
than 240 days. According to Tessier, a cow may carry a calf 321 days
and produce it sound ; and from the fact that Tessier and Earl Spencer
agree almost exactly as to the mean time of gestation, 285 days or nine
and a half months may oe taken as the average time of gestation of
cows, slight variations being allowed from this for different breeds.
\ USHIKE COWS.
This is emphatically the ^Mutcti dairy breed. No other breed of cattle in Scotland
will produce an equal amount of milk, butter and cheese. Six hundred gallons of
milk per year is considered an average yield for the cows on a well-kept farm. Their
color is generally of red and white in spots; sometimes white and black, or red or
brown. The horns are fine and twisted upward, and the face long, with a lively yet
docile expression.
It is quite safe to conclude, from the results of experiments with vari-
ous races of animals, that the period of gestation has no influence whatever
upon the sex of the offspring, nor is it probable that the sex of the foetus
has any influence upon the period of gestation. There is a strong prob-
ability, however, that heredity in sires and dams, early maturity, ages of
the dam and sire, and other causes, may result in longer or shorter periods
of gestation
SHORT-HORN UATTLB,
1. SHORT-HORNED BREEDS. II. THE OLD TEESWATERS. III. ORIGIN OF MOD-
ERN SHOUT-HORNS. IV. WHAT MADE THEM FAMOUS. V. THE BULL HUB-
BACK. VI. BEEP FIIOM THE OLD TEKSWATEKS. VII. SHORT-HOKNS IN
AMERICA. VIII. THE GREAT OHIO IMrOUTATION. IX. KENTUCKY AND
OTHER IMPORTATIONS. X. IMPORTATION OF BATES CATTI . XI. CANA-
DIAN SHORT-IIORNS XH. WESTWARD MARCH OF THE SHO. HORN. XIII.
SHORT-HORNS AS BEEF MAKERS. XIV. THE PATTON FAMILY OK SHORT-HORNS.
XV. GRADE COWS AND STEERS. XVI, SHORT-HORNS CRITICALLY DES-
CRIBED XVII. THE HEAD. XVIII. THE NECK. XIX. THE BODY. XX.
THE LEGS SHORT AND STRAIGHT. XXI. THE LOIN BROAD. XXII. WIDE IN
THE CROPS. XXIII. THE BACK STRAIGHT AND BROAD. XXIV. THE RIBS
BARREL-SHAPED. XXV. THE TOUCH. XXVI. THE HIDE. XXVII. THE
HAIR. XXVIII. THE COLOR. XXIX. BEEF POINTS ILLUSTRATED. XXX.
SCALE OF POINTS FOR SHORT-HORN BULLS. XXXI. SCALE OF POINTS FOR
SHORT-HORN COWS.
I. Short-Homed Breeds.
Of the short-horned breeds of England of 100 years ago, repre-
isented by the Durham or Tecswater, the Yorkshire, the Lincohishire and
the Holderness, all arc probably descended from a common origin. The
descendants of the old Durham and the Channel Islands cattle, (Jersey
and Alderney notably) are all that can now be distinctively recognized as
having attained special celebrity. The name Short-Horn is not now used
to designate any but the descendants of the Durham cattle, as improved,
and is now applied distinctively only to them.
The Jerseys will be treated of in their proper chapter as among the
breeds entitled to distinguished merit, the Short-Horns as standing at the
head of established beef breeds being under consideration here.
II. The Old Teeswaters.
There has existed from a remote period in the region of the Teeswater
(one of the small rivers of England), a race of short-horned cattle that
were possessed of good feeding qualities combined "vvith early maturity
and thick flesh, as weights were considered 200 years ago. Their origin
has been variously stated, but nothing is truly known of it and only
traditionary statements are extant.
III. Origin of Modern Short-Horns.
The origin of the modern Short-Horn is not fully agreed on, except
that they have descended directly from the Teeswaters or old Durhams on
one side, and that they were gradually improved by breeders who recog-
654
SHORT-HORN CATTLE. 655
nized their excellence. In the latter part of the last century, such breed-
ers as the CoUings (Charles and Robert), Sir Henry Vane, Col. Trotter
and Mr. Mason, and — early in the present century — Mr. John Stevenson,
Mr. Bates, and Mr. Booth proceeded scientifically and systematically to
improve them. Mr. Bates died in 1849, at which time the breed had
attained a world-wide celebrity, and this steadily grew, until the extrav-
agant sums of $20,000, $30,000 and even $40,000 were bid for single
animals. To-day there are none of the cow kind that bring such prices
for single animals.
IV. Wliat Made Them Famous.
Youatt and Martin say the circumstance which first brought these
wonderful cattle into special notice was the production of the '' Durham
ox," which was exhibited all over England, and at the age of eleven
years dislocated his hip and was killed, weighing 3,780 pounds, after
having been carried from place to place in a "jolting carriage" for
seven years, or since he was five years old. In Februarjs 1801, at five
years old he weighed 3,024 pounds. This extraodinary weight, our
authority says, did not arise from his superior size, but from the excess-
ive ripeness of his points.
V. The BuU Hubback.
Probably no single animal in the history of Shoi-t-Horns has exer-
cised so great an influence for good on this breed as the bull Hub-
back. Of him Mr. Youatt says : " The following account of Hubback
we had from Mr. Waistell, of Alihill, who, although his name does not
appear conspicuously in the Short-Horn Herd Book, deserves much credit
for his discrimination here. He used to admire this bull as he rode by
the meadow in which he grazed ; and at length att3mT)ted to purchase him.
The price asked, 81., seemed much, and the bargain was not struck.
Still he longed forthe beast ; nnd happening to meet Mr. Robert Colling near
the place, asked his opinion of the animal. Mr. Colling acknowledged
that there were good points about him ; but his manner induced Mr.
Waistell to suspect that Mr. Colling thought more highly of the bull
than his language expressed, and he hastened the next morning, concluded
the bargain, and paid the money. He had scarcely done so before Mr.
R. Colling arrived for the same purpose, and as the two farmers rode
home together they agreed that it should l)e a joint speculation.
" Some months passed by, and either Mr. AVaistell's admiration of the
bull cooled, or his partner did not express himself very warmly about the
excellences of the annual, and Messrs. Waistell and R. Colling transferred
Hubback to Mr. C. Colling, who, with the quick eye of an experienced
breeder, saw the value of the beast. Mr. Waistell expressed to us
656 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
(October, 1832) his regret at having been induced to part with him, and
his extreme disappointment that when Ilubback was so sold, Mr. Charles
Colling confined him to his own stock, and would not let him serve even
one of Mr. Waistell's cows."
VI. Beef from the Old Teeswaters.
That the original Teeswaters and their early descendants were good
cattle, and a most excellent foundation to work on, the following record
of weights from 1794 to 1822 will show: In 1794, of an ox four years
and ten months old, the four quarters weighed 145 stones, 3 lb. ; tallow,
24 stones, 7 lb., (2376 lbs. ) A steer, under four years old ; four quar-
ters, 106 stones; tallow, 19 stones, 7 lb., (1757 lbs.) 1814. — A steer,
three years and nine months old; four quarters, 101 stones; tallow. 15
stones, ( 1624 lbs. ) 1815. — A steer, three years eleven months old ; four
quarters, 112 stones, 7 lb.; tallow, 26 stones, (1939 lbs.) A heifer,
three years eight months old; four quarters, 89 stones, (1246 lbs.)
1817. — A steer, three years two months old; four quarters, 95 stones,
10 lb. ; tallow, 17 stones, 10 lb., (1528 lbs.) 1822.— An ox, four years
and a half old; four quarters, 135 stones; tallow, 21 stones, (2184 lbs.)
VII. Short-Horns in America.
Mr. Allen, the editor of the Short-Horn Herd Book, in his work on
American cattle, gives an exhaustive account of importations of Short-
horns into the United States, from which we gather the following record
of the more important importations :
Soon after the Revolutionary War, a few cattle supposed to be pure
Short-Horns, were brought into Virginia. These were said to be Avell-
fleshed aninuils, and the cows remarkable for milk, giving as high as
thirty-two quarts in a day. Some of the produce of these cattle, as
early as 1797, were taken into Kentucky by Mr. Patton, where they were
called the "Patton stock." They were well cared .-^or, and made a
decided improvement in the cattle of the Blue Grass country.
In 1815-16, Mr. Cox, an Englishman, imported a bull and two heifers
into Rensselaer county, New York. They were followed in 1822 by two
bulls, imported by another Englishman named Hayne. Descendants
from this Cox stock were said to be bred pure, and afterwards crossed by
Mr. Hayne's bulls. The stock now exists in considerable numbers and
of good quality, in that and adjoining counties.
In 1817, Coi. Lewis Sanders, of Lexington, Kentucky, made an impor-
tation of three bulls and three heifers from England. They were of
good quality and blood, and laid the foundation of many excellent herds
In that State. In 1818, Mr. Cornelius Cooledge, of Boston, Massa-
chusetts, imported a yearling heifer — "Flora" — and a bull — "Cicero"—
SHORT-HORN CATTLE.
657
into that city, from the herd of Mr. Mason, of Chilton, in the county of
Durham, England. These were carefully bred, and many of their de-
scendants are now scattered throughout several States.
''fH
>4
'5^
Shortly previous to 1821, the late John S. Skinner, of Baltimore,
Maryland, imported for Governor Lloyd, of that State, a bull — "Cham-
pion"-^nd two heifers— "White Rose" and "Shepherdess"— from the
6o8
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOB.
herd of Mr. Champion, a noted English breeder. From these, several
good animals descended, some of which are now known.
In 1823, Mr. Skinner also imported for the late Gen. Stephen Van
Rensselaer, of Albany, New York, a bull — "Washington" — and two
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Champion. Conquest did not breed; Pansey was a successful breeder,
and many of her descecdaots are now scattered over the coaotrv
8HOET-HOEN CATTLE.
659
During the years 1822 to 1830, Mr. Charles Eenry Hall, of New
York, imported several Short-Horn bulls and cows, from some of the
best English herds. Their descendants %ve now scattered through seT-
eral good herds.
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In 1S24 the late Col. John Hare Powell, of Philadelphia, Pa., com-
menced importations, and for several years continued them with much
660 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
spirit and judgment. He bred them assiduously at his fine estate at
Powelton, near the city, and sold many to neighboring breeders, and to
go into Ohio and Kentucky, where many of their descendants still
remain.
In the year 1833, the late Mr. AValter Dun, near Lexington, Ky., im-
ported a })ull and several valual)le cows from choice herds in Yorkshire,
England. He bred them with much care, and their descendants are now
found in many good western herds.
VIII. The Great Ohio Importation.
But the first enter})risc in importing Shoi-t-Horns upon a grand scale
was commenced in 1834, by an association of cattle breeders of the
Scioto Valley, and its adjoining counties, in Ohio, They formed a com-
pany with adequate capital, and sent out an agent who purchased the
best cattle to be found, without regard to price, and brought out nine-
teen animals in one ship, landed them at Philadelphia, and drove them to
Ohio. Further importations were made by the same company, in the
years 1835 and 1836. The cattle were kept and bred together in one
locality, for upwards of two years, and then sold l)y auction. They
brought large prices — $500 to $2,500 each.
IX. Kentucky and other Importations.
In 1837-8-9, importations were made into Kentucky, by Messrs. James
Shelby and Henry Clay, Jr., and some other parties, of several well-
selected Short-Horns, some of which were kept and bred by the import-
ers, and the others sold in their vicinity.
In 1837-8-9, Mr. Whitaker sent out to Philadelphia, on his own
account, upwards of a hundred Short-Horns, from his own and other
herds, and sold them at auction. They were purchased at good prices,
mostly by breeders from Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Kentucky, and dis-
tributed widely through those States.
About the year 1839, Mr. George Vail, of Troy, N. Y., made an im-
portation of a bull and heifer, purchased of INIr. Thomas Bates, of Kirk-
leavington, the first cattle from that particular herd which had been intro-
duced into the State. A few years later, he purchased and imported
several more cows from the herd of Mr. Bates, crosses of his "Duchess"
and other families. He bred them with success and widely distributed
their blood.
X. Importation of Bates Cattle.
Mr. Thomas Bates, a distinguished Short-Horn breeder in England,
died in 1849. His herd, fully equal in quality to any in England, was
SHORT-HORN CATTLE.
661
sold in 1850. The choicest of them— of the "Duchess" and "Oxford"
tribes — fell mostly into the hands of the late Lord Dacie. He was a
skillful breeder, and of most liberal spirit, and during the brief time he
DEVON BULL — MOXHEM 7564.
Specially photographed for this work.
JERSEY COW, HENBURY GENTLE.
held them the reputation of the Bates stock, if possible, increased. With-
in three years from the time of the sale of Mr. Bates' herd, Lord
662 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
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IMPORTED AYRSHIRE COW — FLORA Sd— A TYPICAL COW.
Speciall}' photographed for this work.
AYRSHIRE HEirER — LOLA OF ROSEWONT
Specially Clwtograplied *"' this work
SHORT-HORN CATTLE, 663
Dacie died. In 1853, peremptory sale of his stock was widely adver-
tised. Allured by the reputation of his herd, several American gen-
tlemen went over to witness it. The attendance of English breeders was
very large, and the sales averaged higher prices in individual animals
than had been reached since the famous sale of Charles Colling in 1<S10.
Mr. Samuel Tluanc, of Duchess county, N. Y., bought several of the best
and highest priced animals, of the "Duchess" and "Oxford" tribes, and
added to them several more choice ones, from different herds. Messi-s.
L. G. Morris, and the late Noel J. Beoar, of New York, bought others of
the "Duchess," and "Oxfords," to which they added more from other
664 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
choice herds. These "Bates" importations Lave since been bred so sue-
cessfuUy by their holders here, that several young bulls and heifers have
been purchased by English breeders, and sent over to them at good
prices, where they are highly valued.
In 1852-3-4, several spirited companies were formed in Clinton, Mad-
ison, and other counties in Ohio, and in Bourbon, Fayette, and some
other counties of Kentucky, and made importations of the best cattle to b'.
found in the English herds, and after their arrival here, distribute!
among their stockholders. Mr. R. A. Alexander, of Kentucky, also,
during those years, made extensive importations of choice blood for his
own breeding, so that in the year 185(5, it mny be said that the United
States possessed, according to their numbers, as valuable a selection of
Short-Horns as could be found in England itself.
XI. Canadian Short-Horns.
Keepmg pace with the States, a number of enterprising Canadians,
since the year 1835, among whom may be named the late Mr. Adam
Fergusson, Mr. Howitt, Mr. Wade, the Millers, near Toronto, Mr.
Frederick Wm. Stone, of Guelph, and Mr. David Christie, of Brantford,
ill Canada West, and Mr. M. H. Cochrane and others in Lower Canada,
have made sundry importations of excellent cattle, and bred them with
skill and spirit. Many cattle from these importations, and their descend-
ants, have been interchanged between the United States and Canada,
and all may now be classed, without distinction, as American Short-
Horns.
XTL Westward March of the Short-Homs,
In the West, the North-west and in the South-west, as fast as the set
tlement of the country allowed, the Short-Horns were every-where intro
duced, and within the last fifteen years, annual sales have been made at
important cities and on the farms of the wealthier breeders, whoj-e the
surplus stock is bid off at auction. These sales are attended by buyers
from all parts of the country, especially by breeders from the newer
settlements West, until now Minnesota, Ne))raska, Kansas, Colorado and
even the territory of Dakota, have most excellent herds of their own. In
addition to this, Short-Horn bulls arc shipped by the car-load to the
great herding grounds of the far western plains to improve the stock
there,
Xm. Short-Homs as Beef-Makers.
It is to be regretted that we no longer have the fine milking strains of
Short-Horns, that were so abundant thirty years ago. Nevertheless, their
places are amply supplied by the Jerseys, the Ayrshires and the Dutch
Friesian or Holstein cattle
SHORT-HORN CATTLE. 665
If the Short-Horns fail as milkers they have been wonderfully im-
proved as beef-makers, and as wonderfully developed in point of early
maturity, so that they are now produced ripe for the butcher at three
years old, and are quite lit for killing at any age from yearlings up.
While they are wonderful as beef -makers, they certainly are the hand-
somest cattle, to the eye, of any in the known world. They have great
thickness of carcass, and the prime points especially are full. The offal
is no more than in ordinary steers that will not attain more than half
their weight. They have been sneeringly called " the gentleman's steers.''
The breeding of them is certainly patronized by the wealthy, as objects
of beauty, and butchers seem to be especially anxious to get the ripe ones
for Christmas beef. In the older settled parts of the country there are
few cattle but show more or less of this almost universally admired blood.
XIV. The Patton Family of Short-Horns.
Soon after the Revolutionary war, as already stated, cattle, supposed
to have been pure-bred Short-Horns, were l)rought to Virginia. The
progeny of some of these cattle were taken to Kentucky by a gentleman
named Patton, from whence, in course of time, they became widely dis-
seminated as Patton stock — a name which was even corrupted into
"patent stock." This was not a misnomer however, since, as we knew
them over forty years ago, they were heavy cattle, that ripened at ai?
early age, for that day, and among them were many remarkable milkers.
They were somewhat coarse as compared with the Short-Horns of to-
day, but thick-mcated, broad-loined, round-barrelled animals, good at
the pail ; and, on the butcher's block, they gave large carcasses of excel-
lent beef.
XV. Grade Cows and Steers.
A report in the fifth volume of the "Transactions of Massachusetts,"
gives the well-authenticated statement of INIr. Robinson of Barre, from
which we gather the following interesting facts : The cows under trial
were half and three-quarters bred. Seven of them yielded, during the
first seven days in June, 2,207 pounds of milk, averaging forty-five
pounds per diem to each cow. From this milk 232 pounds of cheese was
made, averaging one pound of cheese to nine and a half pounds of milk.
The same cows gave during the three following da^'s 955 pounds of milk,
from which forty-one pounds nine ounces of ])utter were made, averaging
one pound of butter to twent3-chree pounds of milk. It will be seen
that the milk that makes one pound of butter will make two and a half
pounds of cheese. These cows had no extra feed during the trial, hav-
ing been turned to pasture on the 15th of May. This instance is selected
not as a very extraordinary performance, but as a well-authenticated
and carefully-conducted experiment.
666 CrOLOPEDIA OP LIVE STOCK AKD COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR,
So far as the grade steers are concerned they are well known to be
thrifty, easily-fed animals that mature fully a year in advance of the
native cattle, from which they arc in part descended.
XVI. Short-Horns Critically Described.
For a full an;5 graphic description of all the points which go to make
up a high-caste Short-Horn, there is no better authority than the
writings of Mr. Rotch of New York, and Mr. A. C. Stevenson, formerly
President of the Indiana Short-Horn Breeders' Association. By the aid
of the careful analysis made by these critical judges, the many excellent
and valuable qualities of the breed may be readily estimated. The ma-
jestic size, proud carriage and beautifully variegated colors of the Short-
Horn render him easily recognized by the merest tyro. But few who
thus admire and recognize them are aware how many qualifications go to
make up this splendid whole, or how carefully each point has been weighed
and discussed, and its relative value decided ; how the useful parts are
divided from the ornamental and fashionable, and how systematically the
whole has been carried out.
XVn. The Head.
The high-caste Short-Horn should have a small head, a broad, flat
forehead, with no projection of the frontal bones ; the face should be
well cut out below the eyes, tapering to a fine muzzle with open nostrils.
The nose must be flesh or chocolate colored ; any discoloration hinting
towards black or blue is very objectionable, though occasionally seen in
some of the highest bred families. The eye must be bright, prominent,
and yet placid ; a small, piggish or hollow eye, or one showing vicious-
ness or nervousness, is alike to be avoided, the latter indicating a bad
feeder almost invariably. The circle around the eyes should be of a
bright yellow or flesh color. As a very large ear indicates sluggishness,
one of medium size is preferable. The horns sliould be well set on,
curving forward, not too heavy, and of a clear, waxy yellow color at the
base, though this waxy color is not universally deemed essential — some
claim that the horns should be flat.
XVIII. The Neck.
The neck is moderately Idng, clean in the throat, and running neatly
into the shoulders, which should not be too prominent at the points, nor
too wide at the top, else the crops will be certain to seem defective ; they
should mould nicely into the fore-quarters, and be well covered with flesh
on the outside. The neck-vein should bo well filled up with flesh and
form on smoothly to the shoulder points. The chest must be broaif an.d
SHORT-HORN CATTLE.
667
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
SHORT-HORN CATTLE. 669
deep, and full back of the elbows, which secures a good girth and conse-
quent room for the most important vital organs. The brisket should be
full and broad rather than narrow and projecting ; it is of inferior quality
as beef, yet, as a point of beauty and as indicating a propensity to fatten,
must not be overlooked. A thin, broad neck is sure to indicate weakness
and poor feeding qualities. Animals having such may well be avoided as
breeders.
XIX. The Body.
The body should be square, massive and symmetrical. The line of the
back should l)e straight ; the line of the belly nearly so, swelling a little
behind the ribs ; the flank low ; the ribs barrel-shaped ; the loins wide,
and the rump long and wide. The back should be wide, and the thigh
should be long and wide ; the legs short and comparatively small, or at
least not coarse ; tail light ; hair soft and fine. The color should be red
or white, or a mixture of the two, as roan or pied. The body should be
nearly a square. A very lengthy bullock never fattens so readily as a short
one, for he does not possess all the elements of health and vigor in the
same degree as the shorter and more compact animal.
XX. The Legs Short and Straight.
The body should be set on short legs which should be straight and well
under the animal ; the fore legs should be small in the l)one below the
knee, whilst the forearm must be broad and tapering downwards, fitting
level into the girth ; the hind legs must be nearly straight. If the hocks
are too much bent, turn inward, or not well under the body, it not
only gives an awkward gait in walking, but is generally a sign of weakness.
XXI. The Loin Broad.
The loin must be broad and well carried forward into the crops, and
covered with thick flesh moulding nicely on to the hips, which though
wide must not be too prominent, but slope away gradually to the rump
or side bones at the tail. A quarter badly filled up between hips and
rumps or scooped-out, as it is termed, is very objectionable. The back
must be level from neck to tail, with no drops back of the shoulders, nor
any rise where the tail is set on ; the rumps must be well laid up but not
too high, else when the animal is fat we shall have those large masses of
fat aggregated about them so common among the breed some years since,
but now deservedly stigmatized as bad. The twist should be well filled
out in the seam, wide and deep, the outside thigh full, the flank deep,
and forming with the fore-flank and belly (the latter well supported by
its plates) a parallel line with the animal's back.
670 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AN1> COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
XXn. Wide in the Crops.
The animal broad in the crops has a better back ; but it is also evidence
of a better rib beneath the shoulder-blade, giving greater Avidth to the
chest within, and consequently greater play to the lungs. This position
of the shoulder-blade enables the legs to be brought more gracefully
under the chest beneath. There are some beasts whose fore legs stand so
wide apart that they very much resemble two sticks stuck into a large
pumpkin. Such animals are considered awkward and inconvenient at least.
XXIII. The Back Straight and Broad.
A broad back affords valuable roasting pieces, and will be the delight
of the butcher. The straight back affords a better spinal column, and gives
the proper space to the cavities beneath, which, as we have just seen, are
occupied by the most important organs. A straight line also gives to the
ribs a more graceful as well as a more convenient attachment.
XXIV. The Ribs Barrel-Shaped.
The ribs rising well from the spine, giving to the body a round or bar-
reled shape, gives much more room to the organs within — the heart and
lungs — than there would be if the ribs descended in such a manner as to
give a flat side. A beast with flat sides, and consequently a narro\^f
throat, will lack greatly in vigor and health, and all the essential quali-
ties that constitute a good bullock. A "bad rib gives poor space to the
abdominal organs which lie immediately behind those of the chest, unless
the belly is greatly sagged, which is generally the case.
XXV. The Touch.
By handling or the touch, butchers asceilain beforehand the quality of
the flesh. By it the breeder ascertains the aptitude to fatten as well as the
quality and quantity of flesh that the animal Mill carry. Of all the qual-
ities of the ox, this is probably the most difficult to understand. It is
the peculiar sensation of softness and elasticity that is produced by the
pressure of the hand on different parts of the body. This sensation de-
pends, in part, upon a large cellular development beneath the skin and
between the muscles, and in part upon the muscular structure, adapting
itself to the duties it has to perform. It is very common to find a soft-
ening of the muscular fibre as an accompaniment or a precursor of dis-
ease that may mislead. The same mayvbe observed in the aged of both
man and beast. What is 'touch,' or what is it to 'handle well?' How
is it to be distinguished from that which portends bad health and old age?
By its elasticity — its power to replace the parts when pressed — a springy
sensation.
SHOBT-HOKN CATTLE.
671
572 CYCIiOPEDlA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETK STOCK DOCTOR
o ^
133
p- r'
SHORT-HORN CATTLE. 673
It will require much practice to become an adept in this Knowledge.
Still, many useful lessons may be daily had by the examination and hand-
ling of one's own stock. Comparative handling will afford much assist-
ance. Take those animals that are known to accumulate fat readiiy and
largely, as the opossum or the bear, or any other known to take on
fat readily, and you will find a peculiarly soft and mellow 'touch.'
XXVI. The Hide.
The skin should be thick, soft and elastic — fitting alike either a poor
or fat ox. A lean animal, with an inelastic skin stretched upon him,
could not fatten for the want of space to exi)and in. But with an elastic
skin he may be swelled to great dimensions in what seemed to be but a
covering for his bones. The skin performs very important functions in
the animal economy. It is not only a covering for all the parts beneath
it, but it is the seat of a vast system of minute blood vessels and capil-
laries, of exhalents and absorbents. A vast nervous tissue centers here
(hat renders the skin sensitive in the highest degree. The great vitai
worth and importance of the skin may be readily appreciated by any
injuries done it. The rapidity with which extensive burns destroy life
may serve as a sufficient illustration. " Destroy my skin, and you shall
have my bones also."
XXVn. The Hair.
The hair should be thick, soft, mossy and fine, forming a protection
against inclemencies of weather. Fine hair is an evidence of a finely
organized skin, a skin exquisitely finished in its whole structure of minute
vessels and tissues. A skin thus delicately organized is also evidence
that other organs are alike constructed. Nature in all her parts undoubt-
edly produces a correspondence, so that if one part is of a peculiar
structure, either fine or coarse, other parts are apt to correspond. Parts
seen may be considered indicative of parts not seen. It may be per-
mitted to add that in all the scrub cattle that I have grazed and fed, I
have never found one with fine silky hair that did not fatten well and
make a desirable bullock.
XXVni. The Color.
As regards color, the latitude is very great, from deep blood-red
through all the intermediate shades and mixtures to pure white, but any
other colors, as brown, black or dun, are never met with in thorough-
breds. Fashion has vindicated the rich red and purple roan as the most
desirable colors, and after them red. White is sometimes objected to,
under the impression that it is apt to spread through a herd and over-
power the other colors ; but this fear is more common in this country
674
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE ST CK DOCTOR.
than in England, where white hulls aro often used. Red and Avhite, in
blotches, with defined edges not running into roan, is disliked, and the
term patchy is applied to it. This discriniinationj however, as regards
color, is entirely arbitrary, animals cf equal excellence anc* breeding
being fomid of all these colors.
XXIX. Beef Points Illustrated.
In the accompanying outline illustration of the points of a Short-Horn
bull tie .letters a, 6, c, (Z,/, A, wi, /, k, x, y, z, Fe^>resent the inferior
parts i from the girth j9, back, including r, s, t^UyZo ^^^ superior parts.
POINTS OF SnOKT-IIOKN BULL.
From this it will be easy to understand the points and the respective num-
bers given in the tabulated scale of points as authoritatively stated in the
American Herd Book
XXX. Scale of Points for Short-Horn Bulls.
POINTS.
Art. 1. — ^Purity of breed on male and female side; sire and dam
reputed for docility of disposition, early maturitj' and aptitude
to fatten ; sire a good stock-getter, dam a good breeder ; and
giving a large quantity of milk, or sucii as is superior for
making butter or cheese. - - - - - 7
Art. 2. — Head muscular and fine; the horns fine and gradually
diminishing to a point, of a flat rather than a round shape at
the base, short and inclined to turn up, those of a clear, waxy
color to be preferred, but such as are of a transparent white,
SHORT-HORN CATTLE. 675
and tinged with yellow, admissable ; ears small, thin and cov-
ered with soft hair, playing quick, moving freely ; forehead
short, broad, especially between the eyes, and slightly dished ;
eyes bright, placid and rather prominent than otherwise, wjth
a yellow rim around them ; lower part of the face clean, dished
and well developing the course of the veins ; muzzle small, nose
of a clear orange or light chocolate color ; nostrils wide and
open ; lower jaw thin ; teeth clean and sound. - - 5
Art. 3. — Neck fine and slightly arched, strongly and well set on the
head and shoulders, hsirmoniously widening, deepening and
rounding as it approaches the latter point ; no dewlap. - 2
A.RT. 4. — Chest broad, deep and projecting, the brisket on a lower
line than the belly. _______ -5
Art. 5. — Shoulders broad, strong, fine and well placed ; forelegs
short, straight, and standing rather wide apart than narrow ;
fore-arm muscular, broad and powerful, sliglitly swelling and
full above the knee ; the bone fine and fiat ; knees well knit and
strong; foot flat, and in shape an oblong semicircle; horn of
the hoof sound and of a clear waxy color. _ _ _ _ 2
Art. 6. — Barrel round and deep, and well ribbed up the hips. - 4
Art. 7. — Back short, straight and broad from the withers to the
setting on of the tail ; crops round and full ; loins broad ; buckle
bones on a level with the back ; tail well set, on a level with
the back, fine and gradually diniihishing to a point, and hang-
ing, without the brush, an inch or so below the hock, at right
angles with the back. __-___--4
Art- 8. — Hind quarters from the buckle to the point of the rump
well filled up ; tmst well let down and full ; hind legs short,
straight, and well spread apait, gradually swellii>g and rounding
above tvie hock ; the bone fine and flat below ; legs not to cross
each other in walking, nor to straddle behind. _ _ _ 3
Art. 9. — Skin of medium thickness, movable and mellow ; a white
color is admissable, but rich cream or orange much preferable ;
hair well covering the hide, soft and fine, and if undercoated
with soft, thick fur in winter, so much the better ; color, pure
white, red roan, bright red, or reddish yellow and white. (A
black or dark brown nose or a rim around the eye, black or
dark spots on the skin and hair decidedly objectionable, and
indicative of coarse meat and bad blood.) _ _ - - H
Art. 10. — Good handling. _-.---.4
Art. 11. — Sure stock-getter. - - -----4
676 CrCLOFEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND OOHFLBTE STOCK DOGTOB.
Art. 12. — Stock, when made steer, certain to feed kindly for beef-
ers at any age, and make prime beef. ----- 5
Art. 18. — General appearance. _--_-_ 2
Perfection. _________ 50
XXXI. Scale of Points for Short-Horn Cows.
POINTS.
Art. 1. — Purity of breed on male and female side; sire and dam
reputed for docility of disposition, early matuiity and aptitude
to fatten. Sire a good stock-getter. Dam a good breeder;
giving a large quantity of milk, or such superior for making
butter or cheese. - - - __--_
Art. 2. — Head small and tapering; long and narrower in propor-
tion than that of the bull. Horns fine and gradually diminish-
ing to a point ; of a flat rather than of a round shape at the
base ; short, and inclined to turn Jin s those of a clear waxy
color to be preferred ; but sucn as are X)f a transparent white,
slightly tinged with yellow, admissible. Ears small, thin, and
well covered with soft hair ; playing quick, moving freely.
Forehead of good breadth between the eyes, and slightly dished.
Eyes bright, placid, and rather prominent than otherwise, with
a yellow rim round them. The lower part of the face clean,
dished, and well developing the course of the veins. Muzzle
small ; nose of a clear bronze, or light chocolate color — the
former much preferred. Nostrils wide and well opened. Lower
jaw thin. Teeth clear and sound. - - - - - ^
Art. 3. — Neck fine and thin, straight, and well set on to the head
and shoulders, harmoniously widening, deepening, and slightly
rounding in a delicate feminine manner as it approaches the
latter point. No dewlap. --__ __.. 2
Art. 4. — Shoulders fine and well placed. Fore legs, short straight
and well spread apart. Fore-arm wide, muscular, slightly
swelling, and full above the knee ; the bone fine and flat below.
Knees well knit and strong. Foot flat and in shape of an
oblong semi-circle. Horn of the hoof sound, and of a clear
waxy color. -----__., __2
Art. 5. — Chest broad, deep and projecting — the brisket on a lower
line than the belly. - - - - - - ^ -ft
Art. 6. — Barrel round, deep and well ribbed up to the hips. - 5
Art. 7. — Back short, strong, straight from the withers to the set-
ting of the tail. Crop round and full. Loin broad. Huckle
bones on a level with the backo Tail well set, on a level with
SnORT-nORN CATTLE.
b77
the back or very slightly below it , fine and gradually diminish-
ing to a point ; and hanging, without the brush, an inch or so
below the hock, at right angles with the back.
Lrt. 8.— Hind quarters from the buckles to the point of the rump
lono- and well filled up. TNvist well letdown and full. Hind
le<rrshort, strai-htand well spread apart ; gradually swellmg
an'd rounding above the hock ; the bone fine and flat below.
Foot flat, and in shape of an oblong semi-circle. Horn of Ihe
hoof sound, and of a clear waxy color. Legs not to cross each-
other in walkins:, nor to straddle behmd. - - - -
/^RT 9 —Udder broad, full, extending well forward along the belly,
and well up behind. Teats of a good size for the hand ; squarely
placed with a slight oblique pointing out ; wide apart ; when
pressed by the hand the milk flowing from them freely. Extj-a
teats indicative of good milking qualities, but should never be
milked, as they draw the bag out of shape. Milk vems large
and swellinsi. - - - ~ ~ " '
Art. 10.— Skin^'of a medium tiiickness : movable and mellow ; a
white color is admissible, but a rich cream or orange nnich pref-
erable. Hair well cover-
ing the hide; soft and
fine, and if undercoated
with soft, thick fur in the
winter, so much the bet-
ter. Color pure Avhite,
red, roan, bright : ?d,
red and white, spotted
roan, or reddish and yel-
low and white. (A black
or dark brown nose, or
rim around the eye,
black or dark brown spots
on the skin and the hair,
decidedly objectionable,
and indicative of coarse
meat and bad blood.)
Art. 11. — Good handler. -
^jiT, 12. — Sure breeder. -
Art. 13. — General appear-
ance. - - - -
HOLLAND cow.
Tills cow is very large, docile In dispobi-
tion, iind a fiue milker. The buef is also of an
excellent qiialitv. In Holland it is generally
claimed that the shorthorns of England are
descended from this cow.
Perfectiono
2
.^0
678 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
FRIESIAN CALF "RASCAL." (Son of Palenstein IV.)
Age only four weeks when photographed. Bred by E. B. Moore, Esq., Rou.n
vaal, Africa. Specially photographed for this boolc.
FRIESIAN COW "PALENSTEIN IV."
Owned by E. B. Moore, Esq., Rouxville, Transvaal, Africa. She took 1st prize at Johannes-
burg Agricultural show for best Dairy Cow. — Specially photographed for this book.
CHAPTER VI.
THE JERSEYS, ALDERNEYS AND GUERNSEYS.
I A FASHIONABLE BREED. II. THE GUERNSEYS. III. THE ALDERNEY IN
YOUATT'S TIME. IV. THE JERSEY OF TO-DAY. V. CROSSING THE JERSEYS.
VI. THE JERSEY DESCRIBED. VII. MILK MIRRORS. VIII. GUENON'S
THEORY OF MILK MIRRORS. IX. THEIR PRACTICAL UTILITY. X THE
ESCUTCHEON MARKS. XI. GOOD MILKERS IN ALL BREEDS. XII. VALUE OF
HEREDITY. XIII. INFLUENCE OF GOOD DIGESTION AND ASSIMILATION. XIV.
THE MILK VEINS. XV. THE UDDER AND TWIST VEINS. XVI. MR. SHARP-
LESS' OPINION. XVII. SYMMETRY ESSENTIAL WHATEVER THE BREED. XVIII.
THF JERSEY NOT A DAIRY COW. XIX. SCALE OF POINTS FOR JERSEY COWS AND
HEIFERS XX. RULES IN AWARDING PRIZES. XXI. SCALE OF POINTS FOR
JERSEY BULLS. XXII. ESTIMATING THE VALUE OF POINTS. XXIII. COLOR
AND SIZE. XXIV. FROM A PRACTICAL STAND-POINT.
I. A Fashionable Breed.
Within the last fifteen years, the Jersey, Alderney and Guernsey cat-
lb, second in importance of the short-horned breeds of Great Britain,
have acquired great celebrity, not so much for thequanityof the milk
they p-ive, as for its exceeding richness in cream, and the excellence of
the b-itter made therefrom. Those originally brought from the islands
of Jersey and Alderney are now called Jerseys, just as all Dutch cattle
have been called Holsteins, while the Guernsey cattle are kept separate
and distinct, under the proper namo of the island from which they came.
H. The Guernseys.
While the Jerseys and Alderneys have the most admirers, especially
amono- fashionable breeders, from their deer-like forms and general air
of elegant lightness, the Guernseys are coming into prominence as being
laigerr better-built, (that is, not so angular,) and better feeders ; for it
mu°t be confessed that the Jersey cow, for its size, is a great consumer.
The Guernsey cow is also a larger producer of milk, though it is
aveiTed by the Jersey breeders that it is not so rich in quality. Jersey
cattle, however, vary much in this respect, and it is certain that the
Guernsey cows are growing more and more into favor every year as but-
ter and milk producing cows.
m. The Alderney in Youatt's Time.
Youatt says of this breed, which he classes with the cattle of Nor-
mandy, that they are from the French continent ; that the cattle of Nor-
numdv are larger and have a greater tendency to fatten ; that others are
679
680 CYCT-OPEDTA OF LTVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
THE JERSEYS, ALDERNEYS AND GUERNSEYS. 681
from the islands of the French coast, but that all of them, wnether from
the continent or islands, pass under the common name of Alderney.
Youatt also adds, on the authority of Mr. Parkinson, who seems to have
been a prejudiced observer, that, "The Alderney, considering its voracious
appetite — for it devours almost as much as a Short-Horn — 3ields very
little milk," but admits the milk to be rich in quality, though "itis not rich
enough, yielding the small quantity she does, to pay for what it costs."
If this be true, the Jersey has improved fully as much within the last
fifty years as any othe^ breed.
IV. The Jersey of To-Day.
Be the statements of the authorities quoted what they may, the Jersey
of to-day is a very different animal from that which they describe. That
the Jerseys are large feeders for their size there is no doul)t, and that they
give the richest milk of any known breed is quite as certain. That some
of them, at least, give large quantities of milk, the following extract from
the American Encyclopaedia of Agriculture will show :
" The butter from the cows is very rich in cream and deep yellow in
color, so much so that a few cows in a herd will decidedly change the
color of the butter of the whole herd. The percentage of cream to
milk varies from eighteen to twenty-live per cent., and the proportion of
butter to cream varies from 3.70 to 8.07 in 100 parts. Twenty-six quarts
per day has been recorded as the product of an individual cow, and four-
teen pounds of butter per week. Sixteen quarts per day may be re-
garded as a good yield, and when we take into consideration the light
weight of the cow, and the fact that the milk will yield fron? one-quarter
to one-sixth of the richest cream, we need not wonder that these gentle
and deer-like cattle have become universal favorites as family cows."
Our own observation is that twelve quarts a day may be considered a
good average yield of milk, from the pure-bred animals — an average
fully one-third more than that of good native herds.
V. Crossing The Jersey.
Crossing the Jerseys with other improved breeds has not resulted satis-
factorily. Their value, however, is priceless when crossed upon good
milkers from native herds. They have added largely to the quality of
the milk of the inferior stock ; and crosses of the Jersey bull upon the
ordinary native cows of a district, have not only imparted richness to the
milk, but have resulted in an increased ilow. Their sole use is amonaf
those who wish exceedingly rich milk, and, whatever the strain, we think
no advantage will be found in crossing them on any of the beef breeds.
They are milking cattle, and their legitmate use is to supply the demands
i)f people who want quality, and not quantity of milk.
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
The bulls may improve the native milking stock of the country, and
whatever variety is used, whether those from the line of Jersey, Alder-
ney or Guernsey, use only pure bulls. Do not take a grade bull at any
price; those purely bred are now sufficiently plenty, so that they can be
had at reasonable prices. The pure bulls are prepotent in perpetuating
rich milking qualities. The grades are not. If an additional reason
were wanted, please remember that the produce of a pure animal on one
not of improved blood is a half-blooded calf. The produce of a half-
blood on native cattle would be only one-quarter blood.
THE JEKSEYS, ALDERNEYS AND GUERNSEYS.
683
VI. The Jersey Described.
Mr. Lewis F. Allen, a conscientious and accurate historian of cattle,
but who, it must be confessed, has something of a prejudice in favor of
the (to him) favorite Short Horns, accurately describes the Jersey, as fol-
lows: "Beginning with the head — the most characteristic feature — the
muzzle is fine ; the nose either dark brown or black, and occasionally a
yellowish shade, with a peculiar mealy light-colored hair, running up
the face into a smoky hue, when it gradually takes the general color of
the body. The face is slightly dishing, clean of flesh, mild and gentle in
expression; the eye clear and full, and encircled with a distinct ring of
the color of the nose ; the forehead bold ; the horn short, curving inward
i.-
li
n
m .
^^^^^S^^SS^, wm, jiji iiiilj JMIlJJilAl;
ff
.'''■'■ " \-^ .
GROUP OF JERSEYS.
and waxy in color, with black tips; the ear sizable, thin, and quick in
movement. The whole head is original, and blood-like in appearance,
-more so than in almost any other of the cattle race, — reminding one
strongly of the head of our American elk. The neck is somewhat de-
pressed— would be called ewe-necked by soir<5 — but clean in the throat,
with moderate or little dewlap; the shouldei are wide and somewhat
ragged, with prominent points, running down to a delicate arm, and slen-
der legs beneath. The fore-quarters stand rather close together, with a
thinnish, yet well developed brisket between. The ribs are flat, yet
giving sufficient play for good lungs; the back depressed and somewhat
hollow ; the belly deep and large ; the hips tolerably wide ; the rump and
tail high ; the loin and quarter medium in length ; the thigh thin and
684 Cf CLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND OOMFLBTE STOCK DOCTOR.
deep ; the twist wide, to accommodate a clean, good-sized udder ; the
flanks medium; the hocks or gambrel joints crooked; the hind legs
omali ; the udder capacious, square, set well forward, and covered with
soft, silky hair ; the teats fine, standing well apart and nicely tapering ;
the milk veins prominent. On the whole she is a homely, blood-Hke,
gentle, useful little housekeeping body, with a most kindly temper, lov-
ing to be petted, and, like the pony with the children, readily becomes
a great favorite with those who have her about them, either in pasture,
paddock, stable or the lawn. The colors are usually light red or fawn,
occasionally smoky grey, and sometimes black, mixed or splashed more
or less with white."
Vn. Milk Mirrors.
To M. Francois Guenon, a farmer of Siboume, France, is due the
credit of having perfected a system for determining the value ct a cow
for milk, by the escutcheon or milk sign, (mirror as it is sc letimes
called) extending from the root of the tail, in the best animais, down
over the udder behind and between the thighs. The writer studied it
and Lrcd by it when engaged in active farming, and, while not willing to
accord full credit to the judgment of the French committee of agricul-
ture at Bordeaux, in 1828, he believes them conscientious in their report.
They used this strong language : " This system we do not fear to say is
infallible." My own ol)servation. leads me to regard it as being so essen-
tially correct, that a careful study of the "signs" will enable any person
to judge pretty correctly as to the quantity and quality of the milk
given and also as to the time of giving milk, after the cow is again in calf.
In breeding, ex'unine also the coiTcsi)onding escutcheon in the bull, for
we have always found that the bull showing the marks eminently will be
pretty sure to get calves that will grow up to be good milkers.
Vni. Guenon's Theory of Milk Mirrors.
In the Guenon system there are twenty-seven diagrams representing
the various grades of milking qualities, including what is called a bastard
escutcheon to each grade. These vary from the fullest development in
the growth of upward hair, and in the "scurf marks," down to the least
possible exhibit — the "bastard escutcheons" showing, by peculiar signs,
that the cow will not only give poor milk, but will fail early after again
coming to be with calf. The hair indicating a good milker turns upward,
is short and tine, and contains peculiar oval marks or scurf spots. The
skin over this whole surface is easily raised, and is especially soft and
fine in good milkers.
THE JERSEYS, ALDERNEY8 AND GUEENSEYS. 685
IX. Their Fractioal Utilily.
To illustrd,ce the value of the signs of a good milker, we give the re-
sults obtained by two close and intelligent observers, one a French
authority, Prof. Magne, V. S., of the Veterinary School at Aifort, the
other Mr. Charles Sharpless of Pennsylvania. In relation to the indica-
tions Prof. Magne, differing somewhat from Mr. Guenon, lays down the
following rules :
" The direction of the hair is subordinate to that of the arteries ; when
a large plate of hair is directed from below, upwards on the posterior
face of the udder, and on the twist, it proves that the arteries that sup-
ply the milky system are large, since they pass backwards beyond it,
convey much blood, and consequently give activity to its functions. Up-
per tufts, placed on the sides of the vulva, prove that the arteries of the
t»-enerative organs are strongly developed, reach even to the skin, and
irive great activity to those organs. The consequence is, that after a cow
is ao-ain with calf, it draws off the blood which was flowing to the milky
glands, lessens, and even stops the secretions of milk.
" In the bull, the arteries, corresponding to the mammary arteries ol
the cow, being intended only for coverings of the testicles, are very
slio-htly developed ; cmd there, accordingly, the escutcheons are of small
extent.
X. The Escutcheon Marks.
** This explanation, which accords very well with an tnat nas been ob-
served, renders it easy to comprehend the value of the escutcheon. The
more the lower ones are developed, the greater the quantity of milk ; but
shape is of consequence.
♦' But the quantity of milk, and its quality, do not depend solely on
the form and size of the escutcheon ; they depend on the food, the par-
ticular management, the climate, the season ^ the temperament, the size
and energy of the principal internal organs, the capacity of the chest, the
influence of the generative system, etc. All these circumstances cause
the quantity of milk to vary, without making any change on the extent
of the escutcheon ; consequently, it is impossible that the same relation
can always exist between the escutcheons and the quantities of milk. We
often see cows equally well shaped, having exactly the same escutcheon,
and placed under the same hygienic condition, yet not giving equal quan-
tities, or equal qualities of milk. It could not be otherwise. Assuming
that a given tuft has the same value at birth, it cannot be the same in
adult ao-e; since, during life, an infinite number of circumstances occur
to diversify the activity of the milky glands, without changing the figure
or size of the tuft.
686 CYCLOPEDIA 01 UVE STOCK aNO iAJa^Us;i.ti 6TUCii DOCTOB.
*'But the escutcheon has the advantage of furnishing a mark which can
be easily discerned and estimated, even by persons of no great expe-
rience in the selection of cows — a mark perceptible on very young ani-
mals, and on bulls as well as heifers — a mark which, when disencum-
bered of the complicated system in which it has been wrapped up, will be
in common use and facilitate the increase of good cows, by not allowing
any but those of good promise to be reared."
XI. Good Milkers in all Breeds.
Professor Magne also gives the following directions for choosing a good
cow, of any breed:
"We find good milkers in all breeds, but thej' are rare in some and very
common in others. It could not be otherwise. Milk properties, depend-
ing on the conditions which determine the formation of breeds, are due
partly to the climate, the soil, the air, and the plants of the countries
where the breeds have originated ; and must therefore vary with the con-
ditions peculiar to each locality. Milkers, and more especially animals
intended for breeding, must be selected among breeds celebrated for abund-
ance of milk. For as milking qualities are in a great measure dependent
on structure and temperament, which are more or less hereditary, de-
scent exercises a great influence.
XII. Value of Heredity.
*'In each breed, therefore, we should choose individuals belonging to
the best stock, and the offspring of parents remarkable for their milking
qualities ; for it is certain that good milch cows produce others which re-
semble them. A cow of a bad milking family, or even breed, may occa-
sionally be an excellent milker, and more than this is not wanted when it
is not meant to breed from her. The same cannot be said when breed-
ing is intended, because there would be little chance of her transmitting
the accidental or exceptional qualities possessed by her; whereas the
qualities forming the fixed and constant characters of the stock would al-
most to a certaint}^ be transmitted to descendants.
"These remarks, with regard to breed and parentage, apply to the se-
lection of the bull, which, as experience demonstrates, acts like the cow
in transmitting the milking qualities which distinguish the breed and
stock.
XIII. Influence ot Good Digestion and Assimilation.
"The digestive organs have a great influence on the exercise of all the
functions, and particularly on the secretion of the milk-glands. Where
the digestive organs are defective, good milch cows are rarely met with.
THE JERSEYS, ALDERNEYS AND GUERNSEYS. 687
Good digestive organs are known by a belly of moderate size, with
yielding sides, free from tightness, (in aged animals the belly is often
large, though the organs which it contains are in good condition) ; a large
mouth, thick and strong lips, a good appetite, easy and quick digestion,
glossy hair, supple skin, yet firm, and somewhat oily to the touch. Ani-
mals possessing these characteristics may be expected to feed and drink
heavily, and, if they are properly fed, make much blood and yield large
quantities of milk. The respiratory organs complete the system of nu-
trition. The lungs bring the air breathed into contact with the blood,
and render the system of nourishment complete. Hence, a good form,
quick digestion and a healthy condition of the lungs are necessary to the
production of a large flow of milk.
XrV. The Milk Veins.
"If the veins which surround the udder are large, winding, and varicose
(dilated at intervals), they show that the glands receive much blood,
and, consequently, that their functions are active, and that the milk is
abundant. The veins on the lateral parts of the belly are most easily
observed, and all authors decide them to be among the best tests for
ascertaining the activity of the glands. These veins issue from the udder,
in front, and at the outer angle, Avhere they form, in very good cows, a
considerable varicose swelling. They proceed toward the front part of
the body, forming angles, more or less distinct, often divide towards their
anterior extremity, and sink into the body by several openings. We can
make the size of the milk veins prominent by compressing them in their
passage, by pressing them at the place where they pen '""•ite into the
body. If we press the thunil) strongly into the opening through Avhich
the vein passes, the width of the opening represents the diameter of the
vein, and the thickness of the thumb which stops it represents the vol-
ume of blood whose place it occupies. Sometimes the veins are divided.
It is then necessary to examine all the openings by which they pass, in
order to form a correct estimate.
XV. The Udder and Twist Veins.
"The veins of the udder and twist are able to furnish valuable indica-
tions. They should, in both cases, be highly developed, large and vari-
cose ; that is, appear swollen and knotty. The veins of the udder have
no definite direction. They present themselves irregularly, with zigzag
lines, knotted and more or less oblique. They are never of very large
size, except in cows that give large quantities of milk.
'^The veins of the twist directed from above downward, forming a
winding line, interspersed with knots, resemble those of the udder in not
being visible either in heifers or in cows of only fair milking quality. We
688 CYCLOPEDIA OP lilTB STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR,
cannot ascertain their presence in any but very good cows. Of all the
iiiarks of abundant milk secretion, the best, and in fact the only infallible
marks, are furnished by the veins of the twist and of the udder. To
estimate them correctly it is necessary to take into account the state of
the cow in respect to flesh, the thickness of skin, food, ability to stand
fatigue, heat; all the circumstances, in fact, which cause variations in the
general state of the circulation, and in the dilation of the veins. It is nec-
essary, moreover, to recollect that in both sexes all the veins are larger in
the old than in the young ; that the veins which encircle the udder are
those which, if the cows are in milk, vary most according to the age of
GREAT MILK MIRROR ON HOLSTEIN COW.
the animal. Small when the animal is young, they continue to increase
in size until after the cow has had several calves, when they come to their
full development.
"This proportion between the size of the veins and the milk secreted,
/s observed in all females without exception. The size of the veins and
their varicose state being due to the blood attracted by the increased
activity of the milk-glands, is not only the sign, but also the measure,
of this activity — this connection. In fact, this connection is so close that,
if the glands do not give an equal quantity of milk, the larger veins are
on the side of the udder which gives the largest quantity.
2. cc
s H
1°
1§
P o
^ i
2 t?j
THE JERSEYS, ALDBRNEY8 ANT* GUERNSEYS 689
**The lengtli of time during which milk is given corresponds with the
activity of the organs which supply it. Cows which give most milk a
day, also give it the longest ; and hence, if no special mark is perceived.,
we can judge much of the duration of milk by the marks which deter-
mine its quantity. It may therefore be accepted that as a rule an
abundant milker may be expected to give a long continued flow of milk,"
In illustration of what Prof. Magne says of milk mirrors in all breeds^
we give an illustration of a wonderful milk mirror on a Holstein cow
corresponding to the best escutcheon of Mr. Guenon, which he namef?
the Flanders, and which as is well known is one of the Dutch breeds.
XVI. Mr. Sharpless' Opinion.
Mr. Charles L. Sharpless of Pennsylvania, a careful breeder of Jersey
cattle, and a close observer in relation to milk mirrors, holds the fbl-
lowing :
There is no point in judging a cow so little understood as the escutch'-
eon. The conclusion of almost every one is, that her escutcheon is good,
if there be a bxoad band of up-runnhig hair from ti-e udder to the vulva,
and around it. These cows with the broad vertical escutcheon are nearly
always parallel -^ows ; that is, with bodies long but not large, and with
the under line parallel with the back. Their thighs arj thin, and the
thigh escutcheon shows on the inside of the thigh rather than on its rear.
Next comes the wedge-shaped cow, with the body shorter but very
large, deep in the flank, and very capacious. This form does not usually
exhibit the vertical escutcheon running up to the vulva, but with a broader
thigh may exhibit a thigh escutcheon, which is preferable to the other;
see Fig. 2. — Milk Mirrors of Jersey Cows, on the next page.
In both vertical and thigh mirrors, where the hair runs down, intruding
on the udder (as low as above the dotted lines) as in Figs. 3 and 4, ii
damages the escutcheon. If you find a cow with the hair all running
down, and between the thighs — that is, with no up-running hair — stam??
her as a cipher for yielding milk.
There are times when the udder of a cow with an escutcheon like I'lg
4 will be enlarged by non-milking, for the purpose of deception. It is
always safer to judge by the escutcheon rather than by the large size o^
the udder.
The escutcheons of the best cows — those yielding the most ^nd con-
tinuing the longest — will be found to be those which conform to Fig. 2.
The vertical escutcheon of Fig. 1 would not injure it ; but if that orna-
mental feature has to be at the expense of the high escutcheon, Fig. 2
:8 best as it is.
Whenevei" an escutcheon is accompanied by u curl on each hind-qnartej
of the udder, it indicates a yield o^ the highest order.
690 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
So far, we have noticed only the rear escutcheon, or that which repre-
sents the two hind quarters of the udder. The two front quarters are
just as ini])ortant, and should be capacious and run well forward under
the body. If the udder in front be concave, or cut up, indicating small
capacity, it represents reduced yield.
This front or level escutcheon is distinctly marked in the young heifer
or bull, and can be seen by laying the animal on its back. The udder
v\r,. 1. ?IG. 2.
FIG. 3. FKi. 4.
MILK MIRRORS OF JERSEY COWS.
hair under the body all runs backward, commencing at the forward line
of the escutcheon. This dividing line is very perceptible, from the fact
that the hair in front of it all runs forward towards the head of the
animal, while the escutcheon, or udder hair, all runs backward, over the
forward quarters of the udder, around and beyond the teats, and ceases
at the markings of the rear escutcheon on and between the thighs.
THE JERSEYS, ALDERNEYS AND GUERNSEYS.
(391
The breadth and extent forward of this front escutcheon indicates the
capacity in the mature animal, of the front quarters of her udder. In
some cases .this front escutcheon vnW be found of twice the extent that
it is in others, and is evidence of that much more yield.
This examination enables one to see the size of the teats and their
distance apart, and to test the looseness and softness of the udder skin.
It is marked precisely the same in bulls, and can be easily examined at
any age between one and ten months.
Many think that the escutcheon of the bull is of little moment, so that
he has a good look. So far is this from being the.ca.se, that a bull with
a mirror like Fig. 4, or worse, will stamp his escutcheon on, and to that
extent damage, his daughters out of cows with escutcheons as choice as
w^)::/..^!mm^m^w -■^'^mi^^mm^smMm^^m
GUERNSEY COW, CASSIOPEIA.
Fig. 2. In this way the daughters of some of the best cows come very
ordinary, while, if you use a bull marked like Fig. 2, he will make a
poor escutcheon better, and will improve the best. His injury or benefit
will be doubled according to the escutcheon markings under the body m
front of his scrotum. Hence the importance of the dam of a bull being
unexceptionable in her udder and escutcheon. Her qualities inherited by
her son will be transmitted to his daughter.
While careful as to escutcheons, we must not neglect the other essential
features of a good cow — the back, skin, hide, the rich colored skin, and
the fine bone. Let the hair be soft and thickly set, and let the skin be
mellow. This latter quality is easily determined by gi^^ping l^etween the
thumb and forefinger the skin at the rear of the ribs, or the double thick-
ness at the base of the flank that joins the stifle-joint to the body, or that
692
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
on the inside of the rump-bone at the setting on of the tail. Let the teats
be well apart ; let them yield a free and full stream and be large enough
without the necessity, in milking, of pulling them between -the thumbs
and forefingers. And let us ever keep in mind that the large yielders
must be well fed.
XVII. Symmetry Essential Whatever the Breed.
In estimating the value of a breed its characteristics must be studied.
Each breed has its peculiar style and conformation, and thus, symmetry,
which is found in all good stock, will vary in different breeds. The Jer-
sey has a standard of symmetry peculiarly its own, which we illustrate by
JERSEY COW LASKA.
two engravings, one of a heifer, the other of a cow, which fairly exhibit
the characteristics of the breed.
The symmetry of the Jerseys is angular. They are essentially fine in
the head, with thin necks and rather light fore-quarters, but with large,
barrel-shaped bodies, inclined to be flat, rather than round, and swelling
behind into the deep but rather thin thighs. This same conformation will
be found measurably in all milking breeds, but modified, each having its
own peculiar symmetry.
The Jerseys are essentially milking cows and nothing else, although
they fatten rather kindly when past milking ; but the beef is neither supe-
rior in quality nor large in quantity.
THE JERSEYS, AJLDERNEYS AND GUERNSEYS. 693
XVm. The Jersey not a Dairy Cow.
In the strict sense of the word the Jersey is not a dairy cow. She is
essentially the cow for rich milk, but not a cheese-maker ; she lacks size
to give quantity in this respect. The butter globules are not only larger
than in other breeds, but the covering — the film enveloping the fat-globules,
is weaker. Hence the globules give up the butter easily in churning.
The cream is also high-colored from the excess of yellow pigment it con-
tains.
For the family reauiring milk rich in cream and butter, the Jerseys
will always be desirable, and, since they have taken kindly to our climate
in nearly every section of the union, and even in Canada, they have from
their docile and tractable dispositions become universal favorites where
kindly treated. The bulls are not always good-tempered, and hence re-
quire not only a firm hand, but careful management ; and the cows, if
abused, will by no means fail to resent the brutal treatment.
XrX. Scale of Points for Jersey Cows and Heifers.
The scale of points adopted by the Royal Agricultural and Horticul-
tural Society of Jersey, and by which all animals of the breed are now
judged is as follows. It will be the more readily understood if studied in
connection with the accompanying illustration of a model Jersey cow
figured for perfection. Here is the scale :
Ajiticle. Po
1. Head, — small, fine and tapering =
2. Cheek, — small
3. Thro AT,— clean
4. Muzzle, — fine, and encircled by a bright color
5. Nostrils, — high and open
6. Horns, — smooth, crnmpled, not too thick at the base, and tapering
7. Ears,— small and thin
8. Ears, — of a deep orange color within . . . ,
9. Eye,— full and placid
10. Neck, — straight, fine, and placed lightly on the shoulders
11. Chest, — broad and deep
12. Barrel,— hooped, broad and deep
13. Well ribbed home, having but little space between the last rib and the hip.
14. Back, — straight from the withers to the top ol the hip •
15. Back,— straight from the top of the hip to the setting on of the tail, and
the tail at right angles with the back
16. Tail,— fine
17. Tail, — Hanging down to the hocks
18. Hide, — thin and movable, but not too loose
19. Hide, — covered with fine, soft hair
20. Hide, — of good color
21. Fore-legs,— short, straight and fine
22. Fore-arm, — swelling, and full above the knee
23. Hind-QDAKTEKS,— from the hock to the point of the rump well filled up
(394 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVB STOCK ANB CXJMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR*
Articles.
POINTM.
24. Hind-legs,— short and straight, (below the hocks) and bones rather fine. 1
25. HiND-LE(;s,— squarely phu-ed, not too close together when viewed from
behind 2
21 ?? J5 n
26. IIixD-LEC.s, — not to cross in walking
27. Hooks,— small
28. UiiDKu. — full in form, i. e., well in line with the belly.
THE JERSEYS, ALDERNEYS AND GUERNSEYS 695
Article. Po
29. Udder,— well up behind ,
30. Teats, — large, squarely placed ; behind wide apart
31. Milk- VEINS, — very prominent
32. Growth
33. General appearance ,
34. Condition
Perfection 34
XX. Rules in Awarding Prizes.
No prize shall be awarded to cows having less than twenty-nine points.
No prize shall be awarded to heifers having less than twenty-six points.
Cows having obtained twenty-seven points, and heifers twenty-four
points, shall be allowed to be branded, but *^annot take a prize.
These points, namely, Nos. 28. 29, and 31, shall be deducted from
the number required for 5)erfection in heifers, as the'r udder and milk-
veins cannot bQ fully developed ; a heifer will, therefore, be considered
perfect at t,hirty-one points.
To which we add ;
One point must be added for pedigree on male side.
One point must be added for pedigree on femaie side.
Again, the size of the escutcheon, or milk-mirrors, is a point of especial
attention, for the escutcheon is now coming to be accepted as an indica-
tion of the milking qualities of a cow, and, whatever the breed may be,
.strongly relied upon. And those who discard it, that is, refuse a cow
with a strong escutcheon, will surely go estray,
XXI. Scale of Points for Jersey* BvlHh
In judging bulls a somewhat different standard is adopted, andthe same
rule will apply in all cattle with proper variations, according tr breed.
The illustration of a Jersey bull, figured for perfection, will assist in
understanding the scale of points. Here is the scale :
Article. Points.
1. Pedigree on male side 1
2. Pedigree on female side
3. Head. — fine and tapering
4. FOKEiiEAD,— broad ■ .
5. Cheek,— small
6. Throat,— clean
7. Muzzle,— fine and encircled with light color
8. Nostrils,— high and open
9. Horns,— smooth, crumpled, not think at tlie base and tapering, t:pped
with black
10. Ears, — small and thin
11. Ears,— of a deep orange color within
12. Eyes,- -full and lively , , . .
696 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVK STOCK AND
COMIM.KTK STOCK DOCTOR.
i'oiNTER.
Article. i
13. Neck,— arched, powerful, but not course or heavy 1
14. Chest,— broad and deep 1
15. Barrel, hooped, broad and deep 2
16. Well ribbed home, having but little space between the last rib and the
hip 1
17. Back, — Straight from the withers to the top of the hip 1
THE JERSEYS, ALDERNEYS AND GUERNSEYS. 6&7
Points.
18. Back,— straight from the top oi the aips to the setting on of the tail, and
the tail at right angles with the back
19. Tail,— fine -
20. Tail,— hanging down to the hocks »
21. Hide, — thin and movable..
22. Hide, — covered with fine and sot:t hair
23. HiDE,~ot a good color
24. Fore-legs,— short, straight ana fine •
25. Fore-arm, — large and powertul, swelling and fuM above the knee, and
fine below ft
26. Hind-quarters,— fronu the hock to the point of the rump long and well
filled up
27. Hind-legs,— short and straight, (below the hocks) and the bones rather
line
28. Hind-legs, — squarely placed, not too close together when viewed from
behind
29. Hind-legs, — not tc cross in walking. .,. = ... c.
30. Hoofs,— smaii
31. Growth
32. General appearance
33. Condition o »....«... « ., ...... ........... .
Perfection ..». v ..... .^ 33
XXH. Estimating tlio Value oi Points.
The proper estimation of the value of the several parts of an animal
has been publicly given by high authority in such matters, the Jersey
Herd Book. The gist of which is as follows :
The highest excellence of any milking cow lies in the udder. This
must not only be full in form, that is, in line with the belly, but it must
not be cut off square in front, like that of a goat. It should be rounded,
full, presenting great breadth behind, and carried weU up between the
thigh. The milk veins should be full and carried well forward toward
the fore legs. If knotted and with curves, so much the better.
The tail is another essential point. Whatever its size at the root, it
must be large and tapering, and have a good switch of hair.
The chest should be broad and deep ; this shows good respiration, essen-
tial to feeding and health. But in the dairy cow, especially when viewed
from before, there -will be no appearance of massiveness. On the con-
trary, she will give an appearance of delicate fineness, and will look large
behind, swelling gradually from behind the shoulders. She may not be
closely ribbed, in fact should not be close, only comparatively so. The
best milkers, every where, will be found to be rather loosely put together
between the last rib and the hips, and good milkers must be roomy in the
flank.
The hind quarters must be long from the point of the rump to the
hock, and well filled up ; yet this does not mean rounded and massive in
698 crcLOPEDiA of livb stock and complktk stock doctor.
flesh; on the contrary, the best milkers will be rather lean and perhaps
hiofh boned. Nevertheless, the same animal, when out of milk and fax,
may fill up ; and perhaps, present a fully rounded contour, while yet pos-
sessing all the delicacy of points characteristic of the high-bred dairy cow.
A cow may have large and heavy eav^ ; her back may not be fullv
straight from the withers to the top of the hips ; her rum[) may be slop-
ing ; her tail may not reach the hocks ; — all these are defects, the latter
a serious one, yet if the milKing organs are super-excellent it will out-
weigh all these.
A phenomenon may show absolute perfection in all the points : we
have never yet seen such an one. In judging, the essentials are to care-
fullv consider each point of excellence with reference to its bearing upon
the animal as a dairy cow.
XXIII. Color and Size.
Do not be too particular about color ; solid colors, and black points
look well in the show ring. The animal that will turn out well at the
pail, that is docile and gentle, be she what color she may, so long as she
adheres to the distinguishing color-marks of the race, is the one for the
milking yard. In relation to size, the Jerseys are a small race of cattle.
In no breed are overgrown animals the most valuable. With the Jersey
it is especially to be avoided. So, an undersized animal is not to be
countenanced. Fair size, however, is desirable. He who seeks to in-
crease the size of the Jersey unduly, will certainly go astray. They have
been carefully bred, for many generations, with especial reference to
milk. The Jersey is the product of islands peculiar in soil, climate, and
people. Transplanted to the flush pastures of the United States, with
good shelter in winter, they will necessarily increase in size. If you fancy
"solid colors," and can get plenty of rich milk, with solid colors, well and
good. If not, breed to whatever color, characteristic of the breed, which
will give you this desirable result.
We have chosen thus explicitly to state, from competent authorities,
the Jersey standard of perfection — first, for the reason that any breed
should be judged by the standard of its breeders, and secondly, because
these statements can only be found originally in the herd books, and like
authoritative publications which are not accessible to the majority o/
readers.
XXIV. Prom a Practical Stand-point.
From the practical stand-point of a person not a breeder of high-caste
animals, the writer has found that slight imperfections, in the make up
of farm animals, do not militate against them unless they are intended as
THE JERSEYS, ALDERNEYS AND GUERNSEYS.
6yy
breeders of pure stock of the highest type. In fact, few animals of a
breed attain perfection closely, and almost none absolutely, according to
the standard. As a milking cow, a Jersey or cow of other milking breed
might be of the best possible standard and yet fail essentially in some
other important points. Such a cow would be just as valuable for the
owe purpose of milk as tlje beft.
WELSH ox.
This is a very fine breed of longhorn cattle. Their color is generally black, with occaBionally a few
white hairs in the coat. The docility of the breed is remarkable. When no bull is present, a stranger
may go with perfect safety into the midst of any herd. The cows are very profitable as milkers and
butter-makers, yielding a net profit of $120 to $180 vet cow annually.
So in any other particular' the person, whether he be a breeder or simply
a fancier, must study the characteristics and the points of an animal, and
then make up his mind whether in the one case it is worth the money
asked for it, or in the other case whether it would be more profitable to
sell rather than to keep.
CHAPTER Vn.
MIDDLE-HOBJN^ED CATTLE-THE HEKEPORDS.
i. TBTE VALUABLE BREEDS OF MIDDLE-HORNS. II. THE HEREFORD COL DR.
III. THE HEREFORDS FIFTY YEARS AGO. IV. YOUATT'S TESTIMONY. V.
THE HEREFORDS IN AMERICA. VI. THE IMPORTATION OF 1840. VII. HERE-
FORD GRADES FORTY YEARS AGO. VIII. THE OHIO IMPORTATION. IX.
HEREFORD^ IN CANADA. X. EARLY IMPORTED HEREFORDS NOT FAIRLY TRIED
XI. THE HEREFORDS WEST. XII. THE HEREFORD AS A AVORK OX. XIII
THE HEREFORD COW. XIV. POINTS OF THE HEREFORD. XV. THE HERE
FORD OF TO-DAY IN ENGLAND. XVI. HIGH AND AUTHORITATIVE PRAISE.
XVII. DISTRIBUTION IN THE SOUTHWEST AND FAR WEST.
I. The Valuable Breeds of Middle-Homs.
The only valuable breeds of the Middle-Horns, in the United States,
are the Herefords and the Devons, which will be treated of in this chapter
and the next. They are essentially beef and working breeds. Their
milking qualities were never more than moderately developed, and these
qualities by continued breeding for beef, (for which they are unexcep-
tionable,) have been so bred out, that but little now remains in them val-
uable for milk.
The natural history of these breeds was noticed in Chapter I, and it will
not be necessary to refer to it, further than to say of the Herefords that,
originally named from the country of Hereford, England, where, and in
adjacent counties, similar cattle have been bred for hundreds of years,
few, if any, of the popular beef breeds have shown more wonderful im-
provement within the last fifty years.
n. The Hereford Color.
Originally red or brown without white, the Herefords bred to brown-
ish or yellowish red, and even brindled. Within about the last 100 years
their faces became white or mottled- white, until finally the distinctive
white of the face was made to extend along the top of the neck, and along
the throat, dewlap, brisket, belly, and flanks, and they are now fash-
ionably bred with the addition of white legs, and the switch of the tail
white, the rest of the animal benig of a uniform red color.
TTT. The Herefords fifty years ago.
Mr. Marshall writing of them as they existed in England fifty years
ao^o, and as then improved, describes tuem thus : "The countenance
pleasant, cheerful, open ; the forehead broad ; eye full and lively ;
700
MIDDLE-HORNED CATTLE—THE HEREFORDS. 701
horns bright, taper, and spreading ; head small ; chap lean ; neck long
and tapering ; chest deep ; bosom broad, and projecting forward ; shoul-
der-bone thin, flat, no way protuberant in bone, but full and mellow in
flesh ; chest full ; loin broad ; hips standing wide, and level with the
chine ; quarters long, and wide at the neck ; rump even with the level of
the back, and sharp above the quarters ; tail slender and neatly haired ;
barrel round and roomy ; the carcass throughout deep and well spread ;
ribs broad, standing flat and close on the outer surface, forming a smooth,
even barrel ; the hind parts large and full of strength ; neck bones snug,
not prominent; thigh clean, and regularly tapering; legs upright and
short ; bone below the knee and hock small ; feet of middle size ; flank
large; flesh every where mellow, soft, and yielding pleasantly to the
touch, especially on the chine, the shoulder and the ribs ; hide mellow,
supple, of a middle thickness, and loose on the neck and buckle ; coat
neatly haired, bright, and silky ; color, a middle red ; this, with a bald
face, is characteristic of the tiue Hereford breed."
IV. Youatt's Testimony.
In Youatt's day they were the peers of the Short-Horns, and to-day
they compare favorably with that famous breed, and take an equal share
of prizes with them in our best exhibitions and fairs. They fatten,
said Mr. Youatt, to a much greater weight than the Devons, and run from
fifty to seventy score ; a tolerable cow will average from thirty-five to
fifty score (1000 pounds) ; a cow belonging to the Duke of Bedford
weighed more than seventy ; an ox of Mr. Westcar's exceeded one hun-
dred and ten score (2,200 pounds). The Hereford ox fattens speedily
at an early age. They are not now much used for husbandry, although
their form adapts them for the heavier work, and they have all the hon-
esty and docility of the Devon ox, and greater strength, if not his activity.
The Hereford cows are worse milkers than those of Devon, but then they
will grow fat where a Devon would starve. The beef is sometimes ob-
jected to from the largeness of the bone and the coarseness of some ot
the inferior pieces, but the best sorts are generally excellent
V. The Herefords in America.
Since there has been so much controversy — sometimes acrimonious —
between some Hereford and Short-Horn breeders in the United States.
and especially in the West, where the Herefords have of late grown intc
the highest favor, we again quote, from Mr. L. F. Allen, the veteran
breeder of Short-Horns, and editor of the American Short-Horn Here
Book. Mr. Allen writes of the Herefords as follows :
702 CrCLOPEDIA OP LIVE 8TOCH. AND CK)HFLBTE STOCK DOCTOR.
"At what date they were first imported into this country, we have no accu-
rate account ; but that some Herefords came out among the early impor-
tations, is evide'it from the occasional marks of the breed among our
native cattle where late importations have not been known. In the
year 1816 or '17 the great Kentucky statesman, Henry Clay, imported
two pairs of them into his State, and put them on his farm at Ashland.
They were bred for a time with each other, and the bulls were crossed with
other cows ; but it is ceitain that they left no permanent impress on the
herds of that vicinity, as Mr. Clay himself became a breeder of Short-
Horns soon afterwards, and eventually discarded the blood from his
herds, if he had for any length of time retained it. No trace of them is
now seen in Kentucky.
VI. The Importation of 1840.
" The largest importation of Herefords into the United States, was made
about the year 1840, upwards of twenty in number, b}^ an Englishman
into the city of New York, and taken into Jefferson count}^ of that State.
A 3^ear or two afterwards the l)ulk of the herd Avere removed to the farm
Mr. Erastus Corning, near Albany, N. Y., and some of them went
into Vermont, where they were for some years bred, sold and scattered-
While the stock were at his farm, Mr. Corning, with his accustomed lib-
erality and enterprise, sent out again to England to purchase more
animals, which safely arrived, and were added to the herd. They were
then successfully bred for several years, many sales made into different
and distant parts of the United States, and they acquired considerable
popularity. The herd was subesequently divided, Mr. Corning retaining
his share, and his partner taking his, some twenty or more in number,
to a farm three or four miles from Buffalo, on the banks of the
Niagara. Here they were bred, and several sales made, to go to different
parts of the countr}^ during the four or five years they remained ; but the
herd gradually waned, mainly from want of proper care and system in
their keeping.
" Mr. Corning retained his herd at his farm, where he has successfully
bred, and made sales from them since, and in the hands of his son,
Mr. E. Corning, Jr., who is more an amateur than a professed cattle
breeder, £idded to by occasional importations from England, they remam
fine specimens of their race.
VII. Hereford Grades Fifty Years Ago.
"Mr. George Clark, at Springfield, Otsego county, N. Y., obtained
several Herefords from this herd, and, we believe, made an importation
or two from England. He bred them successfully, distributed his bulls
MIDDLE-HORNED CATTLE ^THE HEREFORDS. 703
on to several of his farms, and bred many excellent grade Herefords from
the common cows. His bullocks have, in past years, been highly
approved in the New York cattle markets.
VHI. The Ohio Importation.
" About the year 1852-3, Messrs. Thomas Aston, and John Humphries,
two English farmers in Elyria, Ohio, near Lake Erie, imi)ortcd several
tine Herefords. They bred them well and successfully, as seen in the
specimens we have several times met, but with what success in their sales
we have no intimate knowledge.
IX. Herefords in Canada.
"In the years 1860 and '61, Mr. Frederick Wm. Stone, of Guelph,
Canada West, made two importations of superior Herefords from the
herds of Lord Batenian, in Herefordshire, and the late Lord Berwick, in
the adjoining county of Shropshire, England, numl)ering, together, two
bulls and eleven cows and heifers. These were remarkable for their
high breeding, and generally good points. From them down to January,
1867, there were bred about sixty, and about half the number have been
sold at satisfactory prices, and distributed, mostly into the United States.
Some of the cows have proved excellent milkers, and all, together with
the crosses of the bulls with common cows, have proved profitable graz-
ing animals.
X. Early Imported Herefords Not Fairly Tried.
" On the whole, the Herefords have not had a fair trial in the United
States, in the hands of veteran cattle breeders who had the means and
opportunity to properly test them by a thorough and persistent course of
breeding. Had the fine herd which was for several years on Mr. Com-
ing's farm, been taken to good grazing lands in New York, or some of
the Western States, and properly cared for, their history, we fancy,
would have been far different from that which is here recorded."
XI. The Herefords West.
Since Mr. Allen wrote, the Hereford.s have been tried in many West-
ern States, and in no respect either in kindly fattening, early maturity or
heavy weights have they failed fairly to comjDete with the best Short-
Horns in the principal prize fairs of the West, often carrying off the
highest honors. Besides the breeders already mentioned, none have done
more for the Herefords in the United States than Mr. Miller and Mr.
Culbertson, of Illinois, each of whose large herds is composed of the
very highest-caste animals to be found anywhere.
704 CYCLOPEDIA OP LIVE STOCK AND OOMPLETifi a TOOK DOCTOB.
CO
C M
■s o
S-?°
MIDDLE- HORNED CATTLE — -THE HEREFORI>S. 705
XII. The Hereford as a Work-Ox.
As work oxen the Herefords are inferior to the Devons, when activity
is wanted, but for heavy draft they have no superior, being muscular,
steady and patient at the yoke. Their capacity for standing fatigue, and
their constitutional hardihood and resistance to coid are indeed remarka-
ble, and of late years they have become great favorites with the rdnch*
men in the far Western States and Territories. .
XTTT. The Hereford Cow.
Two years ago, in collecting information about this valuable beef breed,
we wrote, and now repeat:
The Hereford cow compared with the ox is small and delicate, and not
always handsomely made, to the superficial observer.
Here again this breed would seem to show its relationship to the
Devon. She carries but little flesh :n breeding condition, and when
breeding, should not be fed sufficiently to accumulate much fat, for, in
order that the young be superior, the dam should have plenty of room
inside.
With the Herefords, experience has shown that the dam may not be
too large or coarse but she should be roomy. Then the breeder will get,
even from apparently inferior cows, large, handsome steers, that will
fatten early, and kindly, and to great weights.
When the cow is done breeding, and ready for fatting, it will please
the owner to see how she will spread out, and accumulate flesh and fat,
and this to a greater degree than if not allowed to breed.
The Herefords are a hardy, gentle race, maturing eariy, and are long-
lived. The flesh is superior, handsomely marbled, heavy in the prime
parts, and they fatten to weights fully as heavy as any known breed.
Their massive strength, honesty and gentleness make them the best
working oxen known, and the potency of the bulls, when crossed upon
red or nearly red cows of the country, renders the steers easily matched
in color, as they will be easily matched in general characteristics of the
progeny.
Xrv. Points of the Hereford.
In judging the Herefords as beef animals the same scale of points may
be adopted as for Short-Horns, except that the Herefords are, if any-
thing, more placid, closer to the ground, heavier in appearance, better
grazers, and thicker meated than many strains of Short-Horns.
XV. The Hereford of To-day in England.
It has been claimed, and we think with truth, that in some show rings
in the West the Herefords were discriminated against. Be this as it may,
706 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOE.
in England there is no such feeling against them, and, besides, the Eng-
lish system of judging precludes, to as great an extent as possible, any
shadow of favoritism.
Speaking of one of the great show rings there in 1878, the Bath and
West of England, the Mark Lane Express says of the Hereford exhibit :
" They are not so numerous as the more fashionable breed, but the
quality throughout is excellent. In the aged bull class there are five
animals of which the Hereford men need not be ashamed.
" The heifers in milk or in calf numbered only three, but two of them
were such animals as it was worth while coming to Oxford on purpose to
see. Leonora (first premium) is one of the most perfect animals that
has been shown for years. It was first last year as a yearling at Liver-
pool, and will likely be first wherever it goes. The champion prize given
by the Oxfordshire Agricultural Society was awarded to this heifer as the
best female horned animal in the yard. The companion heifer, Beatrice,
is also very handsome, and took second to Leonora's first at the Royal
last year, as it did last week at Oxford. If Leonora had been a Grand
Duchess Short-Horn a poem would have been composed in her honor,
and translated into several languages by this time. But no Short-Horn
that we have ever seen was cast in such a mould."
XVI. High and Authoritative Praise.
The following is high praise, and authoritative, as coming from an Eng-
lish agricultural paper of the highest class. The Agricultural Journal ^
of London, says :
*'This breed enjoyed the remarkable distinction of producing both the
champion animals at Oxford, Grateful being declared to be the best bull,
and Beatrice (a two year old heifer) being declared to be the best cow or
heifer in the yard. Both, as may be supposed, were very good, the
heifer pre-eminently so. She is a daughter of the famous bull, Winter
De Cote, and another instance of hereditary merit.
" The yearling heifers and calves indicate that this breed is, as beef
makers at an early age, (juite up to the highest Short-Horn standard.
The Teeswatcr may inilk better, and be more ready in adapting itself to
local circumstances ; but where the pasture is good, it is hard to beat the
white-faces for grazing. '
Again, the Chamber of Agriculture Journal, tlie organ of the Royal
Agricultural Society, gives the following testimony :
" The old bull Hereford class produced an extraordinary animal in
Graceful, who secured the reserve at the Hereford show in 1876. He
has made wonderful development since appearing as a two-year old, as
is proved by the fact that Thougntful, who was then placed above him,
MIDDLE-HORNED CATTLE THE HEREFORDS. 707
and has since taken firsts at Birmingham, Liverpool and Bath, has now
been put second to him ; and that not only was he selected by the judges as
the best Hereford bull on the ground, but in the contest for the cham-
pionship succeeded in caiTyingit off against such a Short-Horn competitor
as Sir Arthur Ingram. Grateful, at four years old, has capital loins and
chines, with great thickness and depth of frame, and is very level all over ;
but his grand feature is the astounding mass of flosh Avith which his frame
is covered. His girth is eight feet ten and one-half inches.
"In the cow class, Lady Blanche, which took second prize at Bath, now
came to the front position. She is marvelous at her fore flank, and dis-
plays a great mass of flesh on a well-shaped, grand frame, which, however,
fell off slightly at the rump. The second prize cow, Little Beauty, was
highly commendedat Bath, and wonderfully retains her show-yard merit at
eleven years old. The two-year old heifers, Leonora and Beatrice, were,
of course, sure to win. Beatrice has recently reared a calf, which is
slightly against her for showing; but Leonora is in full bloom with her
beautiful head, symmetrical form, and all that loveliness which is so tak-
ing to the eye. After being selected as the best Hereford female on the
ground, she carried off the champion prize against a remarkably shapely
Short-Horn heifer, and one of the bestDevons that has appeared for years,
so that both cups were awarded to Herefords."
JERSEY BULL PEDRO'S PRETTY POGIS.
XVII. Distribution in the South-west and Far West.
Since neither pains nor money has been spared in bringing the best
English animals to this countr}^ there is no doubt but that the West to-
day possesses Herefords, both bulls and cows, as good as there are in the
world. Hereford bulls are being sent off and distributed in the far West,
and South-west, where they arc regarded with fully as much favor as the
Short-Horns. Why should they not? There is plenty of territory left
CHAPTER Vm.
MIDDLE-HORNED CATTLE
THE DEVON— THE SUSSEX— DUTCH BELTED CATTLE
AND THE HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN.
I ANTIQUITY OF THE DEVONS. II. THE DEVONS COMPARATIVELY SMALL CAT-
TLE. III. NATURAL GRAZING GROUNDS OF THE DEVONS. IV. WORKING
QUALITIES OF THE DEVONS. V. THEIR DECEIVING APPEARANCE. VI,
POINTS OP THE DEVON. -VII. NOTABLE CHARACTERISTICS. VIII. THE LEGS
OF THE DEVON. IX. THE BODY AND TAIL. X. THE DEVON COW. XI.
MR. ALLEN'S TESTIMONY. XII. THEY ARE ACTIVE AND HARDY. XIII. IN
THE FIRST CLASS FOR BEEF. Xllla. POLLED DURHAM CATTLE. XIV.
WEIGHTS OF THE DEVONS. XV. SUSSEX CATTLE. XVI. THE SUSSEX COLOR.
XVIL DISTINGUISHING MARKS OF THE SUSSEX. XVIII. THE SUSSEX COW.
XIX. GLAMORGAN CATTLE. XX. DUTCH BELTED CATTLE. XXI. HOLSTEIN-
FRIESIAN. XXII. CHARACTERISTICS. XXIII. MILK AND BUTTER RECORDS.
XXIV. TYPES.
I. Antiquity of the Devons.
In Chapter I, the general history of this ancient and superior race of
cattle is given. They are the only breed of niiddlc-horned cattle, ex-
cept the Herefords, that has attained celebrity in the United States. In
England, where they have been known from the earliest times, they have
been bred pure. In certain sections, and especially in North Devon, par-
ticular pains was long ago taken in raising them. There the Devon
unites all the characteristics of the tribe, including medium size, dark
color, eminent working qualities and great excellence of beef. The pecu-
liarities in color and substance about the eyes, nose and ears, have caused
them to be known as North Devons, in contradistinction to the lighter-
colored, larger and coarser cattle of other districts, but which combine
some of the better qualities of the true Devon.
II. The Devons Comparatively Small Cattle.
The chief objection to the Devons, in the West, is that they lack size to
prove profitable on the flush and comparatively level pastures of the prai-
rie region. They are, also, somewhat slow in maturing ; in fact it used to
be the practice in England to put the steers to Avork at three years old,
and fatten them at five or six years old. Then, fully matured and spread,
they wholly or partially paid for their keeping, and the quality of their
flesh was only surpassed by that other slow-maturing, but wonderfu).
cattle in the quality of their beef — the West Highland cattle of Scotland.
III. Natural Grazing Grounds of the Devons.
To-day in all our hill country, or where the labor of the steers can be
utilized, they are the most valuable of any of the known breeds of cattle,
in all the hill country. North and South, they will be found among the
708
MIDDLE-HORNED CATTl.E THE DEVON.
709
710 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
If ■
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MIDDLE-HORNED CATTLE — THE DEVON AND THE SUSSEX.
711
best, if not the very best, of domesticated cattle, when we consider the
ease with which they are kept, their powers of withstanding extreme heat
and cold, and their valuable working qualities ; for they are able to per-
form fully as much work as the horse in plowing, especially in small
fields where there is much turning.
IV. Working Qualities of the Devons.
We have known them to keep fully up with horses, day after day, in
heavy plowing — a yoke of Devon steers at the beam, and a pair of horses
ahead. So, in stubble plowing ; a single yoke of Devon steers, Aveek in
and week out, would do fully as much work on small lands as a good
pair of horses ; and they turn the furrows quite as steadily as the horse
team. The horses would gain something in going straight ahead, but in
cominc: about the Devon steers always made it up. This was when the
GUERNSEY BULL, DOLLY'S DUKE.
steers were fed grain the same as the horses. Wh(m both are kept on
grass, the Devons will do more work than any pair of hjorscs of the same
weight.
In catching times, in hauling hay and grain to the stack, we have
driven Devon steers at a six-mile trot in going back light ; and their
wonderful tractability, under kind but firm training, certainly makes
them most admirable teams for new or thinly-settled districts. For log-
ging in the woods, or hauling logs to the mill, there are no better or
quicker teams, and it is surprising, under good keeping, the load they
will start, and the power with which they will move it along the road.
V. Their Deceiving Appearance.
The Devons are essentially muscular cattle. They are far heavier than
they look. This is owing to their fine bone — nearly as hard as that of a
blood horse — their round, compact form, and the full flesh they carry.
712 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVl. STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
The cows are small ; and the bulls are smaller than the steers. When
properly developed by two years of work, the oxen are splendidly filled
out, and are certainly the most beautiful of all the domesticated ox tribe.
The illustration we give will show the Devon ox in good working con-
dition. The cut of a high-caste bull, illustrating especially the full, soft,
mossy coat of hair, as given in Chapter I, is a most excellent and life-
hke drawing.
VI. Points of the Devon.
Youatt describes the points of the Devon of his day most minutely.
Except that they have now, through better feeding in America, been in-
creased in size and early maturity, the description is as applicable to-day
as when it was written. It is as follows :
" The horn of the bull ought to ])e neither too low nor too high, taper-
ing at the points, not too thick at the tip.
The eye should be clear,' bright, and prominent, showing much of the
white, and have around it a circle of dark orange color.
The forehead should be flat, indented, and small, for, by the smallness
of the forehead, the purity of the breed is very much estimated.
The cheek should be small, and the muzzle fine ; the nose must be of a
clear yellow.
The nostril should be high and open ; the hair curled about the head.
The neck should be thick, and that sometimes almost to a fault.
Excepting in the head and neck, the form of the bull does not mate-
rially differ from that of the ox, but he is considerably smaller. There
are exceptions, however, to this rule.
The head of the ox is small, very singularly so, relatively to his bulk ;
yet it has a striking breadth of forehead ; it is clean and free from flesh
about the jaws.
The eye is very prominent, and the animal has a pleasing vivacity of
countenance, distinguishing it from the heavy aspect of many other
breeds.
Its neck is long and thin, admirably adapting it for the collar, or the
more common and ruder yoke.
It is accounted one of the characteristics of good cattle, that the line of
the neck, from the horns to the withers, should scarcely deviate from that
of the back.
VII. Notable Characteristics.
"In the Devon ox, however, there is a peculiar rising at the shoulder,
reminding us of the blood-horse, and essentially connected with the free
and quick action by which this breed has ever been distinguished.
It has little or no dewlap depending from the throat.
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MIDDLE-HOR>rED CATTLE THE DEVON AND THE SUSSEX. 713
The horns are longer than those of the bull, smaller, and fine even to
the base, and of a lighter color, arid tipped with yellow.
The animal is light in the withers ; the shoulders a little oblique ; the
breast deep, and the bosom open and wide, particularly as contrasted
with the fineness of the withers.
The fore legs are ^vide apart, looking like pillars that have to support
a great weight.
The point of the shoulder is rarely or never seen. There is no pro-
jection of bone, but there is a kind of level line running on to the neck.
Angular bony projections are never found in a beast that carries much
flesh and fat.
The fineness of the withers, the slanting direction of the shoulder, and
the broad and open breast, imply strength, speed, and aptitude to fatten.
A narrow-chested animal can never be useful either for working or
grazing.
With all the lightness of the Devon ox, there is a jDoint about him,
disliked in the blood or riding horse, and not approved in the horse of
light draught — the legs are far under the chest, or rather the breast pro-
jects far and wide before the legs. We see the advantage of this
in the beast of slow draught, who rarely breaks into a trot, except
when he is goaded on in catching times, and the division of whose foot
prevents him from stumbling.
The lightness of the other parts of his form, however, counterbal-
ances heaviness there.
VIII. The Legs of the Devon.
The legs are straight, at least in the best herds. If they are in-kneed
or crooked in the fore legs, it argues a deficiency in blood, and compara-
tive incapacity for work, and for grazing, too ; for they w'U be hollow
behind the withers, a point for which nothing can compensate, because it
takes away so much from the place where good flesh and fat should be
thickly laid on, and diminishes the capacity of the chest and the power
of creating arterial and nutritious blood.
The fore-arm is particularly large and powerful. It swells out sud-
denly above the knee, but is soon lost in the substance of the shoulder.
Below the knee the bone is small to a very extraordinary degree, indi-
cating a seeming want of strength ; but this impression immediately
ceases, for the smallness is only in front — it is only in the bone ; the leg
is deep, and the sinews are far removed from the bone, promising both
strength and speed.
It may be objected that the leg is a little too long. It would be so in
an animal destined only to graze ; but this is a working animal, and some
length of leg is necessary to get him actively over the ground.
714 CYCLOPEDIA OF LJ-VTE STOCK ANT) COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
EX. ThG Body and Tail.
"There is some trifiing fall behind the withers, out no hollowness, and
the line of the back is straight from thence to the setting on of the taik
if there is any seeming fault in the breast, it is that the sides are a little
too flat. It will appear, however, that this does not mterfere with feed-
hig, while a deep, altiiough somewhat flat chest is best adapted for speed.
The two last ribs are particular!}^ bold and prominent, leaving room for
the stomach and other parts concerned in digestion to be fully de-
veloped.
The hips, or buckles, are high up, and on a level with the bacii.
whether the beast is fat or lean.
The hind qunrters, or the space from the hip to the point of the rump,
are particulaily long and well fibed up — a i)oint of importance both for
irrazinr and working. It leaves room for flesh in the most valual)lc jiart,
and indicates much power behind, equally connected with strength and
speed. This is an improvement (juitc of modern date. The fullness
here, and the swelling of the thigh below, are of much more consequence
than the prominence of fat which is so much admired on the rump of
many prize cattle.
The setting on o." the tail is high, on a level with the back, rareljMuuch
elevated or depressed. This is another great Doint, as connected with
the perfection of the hind quarters.
The tail is long and small, and taper, with a round l)unch of hair at the
bottom."
X. The Devon Cow.
We have stated that the bulls are smaller than the oxen. All steers
when mature, may be fatted to greater weights than the bulls, whatever
the breed. In the Devons, the increased size of the steers is esp(>cially
noticeable. The Devon cows are also naturally smaller than the bulls,
but especially elegant in their compact, rounded forms, constancy and
beauty of color, and are noted for docility of temper when kindly
treated and for their active, ardent temperaments. They will resent
abuse, for they have the courage of the blooded horse. There is no
more beautiful picture than a herd of Devon cows in the pasture, for
there is no animal more elegant in form. Yet small as the cows seem,
put them on the scale, and the person not used to judge them will be
surprised at their weight.
All Devons are noted for their round, full, clear eyes, the golden circlet
about the eyes, and the yelloAV skin of the inside of the ears, as well as
for the orange or yellow-colored muzzle. The cow is particularly notice-
anie in these characteristics. Add to this their cheerful and intelliirent
MIDDLE-HORNED CATTLE THE DEVON AND THE SUSSEX.
15
countenance; the clean jaws, throat and dewlap; the magnificent loin; the
round barrel; the muscular hind quarter, quite free from angles of any
kind ; the long, tapering tail ; and for elegance, fine flesh and great work-
ing powers, the Devons have no superiors among cattle.
THE NORMAN COW.
The claim is made for this breed, and especially those denominated "Cottentine,"
that thev are the tirst milkers in the world. There are cows all over Normandy that
will produce more than eiirht gallons of milk per day, and they have been known to
produce over twelve gallons. Their average yield of milk per year is about 750 gal-
lons. The milk is not rich in butter, as that of some other races, but its abundance
more than compensates for the difference. The animals are very large and "raw-
boned," frequently weighing over 4000 pounds. On account of the large bones, they
are not so desirable for beef as some other breeds.
XI. Mr. Allen's Testimony.
Let us see what the venerable editor of the Short-Horn Herd-Book
says of them as working oxen :
They are, among cattle, what the thoroughbred is among horses. Ac-
cording to their size, they combine more fineness of l)one, more muscular
716 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
power, more intelligence, activity, and " bottom," than any other breed.
They have the slanting shoulder of the horse, better fitted to receive the
yoke, and carry it easier to themselves than any others, except the Here-
fords.
With all workers of oxen, the nearer the beast approaches in shape,
appearance, and action to the Devon, tlic more valuable he is considered,
according to weight. For ordinary farm labor, either at the plow, liie
wagon, or the cart, he is equal to all common duties, and on the road his
speed and endurance are unrivalled. It is in these qualities that the
New England oxen excel others of the country generally, and why the
people of that section often call their red oxen " Devonshires," when
they cannot, to a certainty, trace any, or but a small portion of that
blood in them, only by a general appearance and somewhat like action.
XH. They are Active and Handy.
For active, handy, labor on the farm, or highway, under the careful
hand of one who likes and properly tends him, the Devon is every-
thing that is required of an ox, in docility, intelligence, and readiness, foi
any reasonable task demanded of him. Their uniformity in stjie, shape,
and color, render them easily matched, and their activity in movement,
particularly on rough and hilly grounds, gives them, for farm labor, almost
equal value to the horse, with easier keep, cheaper food, and less care.
The presence of a well conditioned yoke of Devon cattle in the market
place at once attests their value, and twenty-five to fifty dollars, and even
higher prices over others of the common stock, are freely given by the
purchaser.
The Devon, in his lack of great size, is not so strong a draught ox as
some of the other breeds — the Herefords, for instance — or perhaps some
of the larger of the common cattle ; but, " for his niches/' no horned
beast can outwork him. On light soils, and on billy roads, none othei
equals him, although we intend to give all their due share of merit.
Xni. In The First Class for Beef
We must place the Devon in the first class, for fineness of flesh and deli,
cacy of flavor. Its compact bone gives it the one, and its rapid and thor-
ough development under good feeding gives it the other. In growth and
size it matures almost, equal to the Short-Horn, and its meat is finer
grained, juicy, and nicely marbled, (the lean and fat intermixed. ) In
the London markets, Devon beef bears the highest price of any, except
the Highland Scot — usually a penny a pound over that of larger breeds,
and our American butchers quickly pick the Devons from a drove,
when they can find them, before most others. They feed well, take on
flesh rapidly, and in the quality of their flesh are all that can be desired.
MIDDLE-HORNED CATTLE — THE DEVON, THE SUSSEX & POLLED DURHAM. 717
Xllla. POLLED DUKHAM CATTLE.
Among the several distinctive breeds of improved domesticated cattle,
we know of but one originated in the United States, that has become cele-
brated, under the specific name of Polled Durhanis— an offshoot of the
famous Short Horn family. In this connection it is remarkable that two
distinct origins should have occurred at about the same time, wthout
either party knowing of the Avork of the other, until these "sports" had
for some time been perpetuated.
One of these was in a herd of high grade Short Horns; the other in a
herd of the highest bred pedigreed Short Horns in the United States.
There is in these no taint even of the far away Collins Galloway Cross.
The writer of this had been conversant with the offshoot of the Short
Horns for some time i)revious to its appearance before the public, and
assisted in organizing the Polled Durham Society and had the honor of
suggesting the specific name adopted by the Society, November 14th, 1889.
The Polled Durhams were and are not only specifically like Short Horns
in color and characteristics generally, but besides being eminent in flesh,
are also deep milkers, and eligible to entrance in the American Short Horn
Herd Book.
The stock holders and breeders of this j^olled family of the Short Horn
race now comprise nearly three hundred — in sixteen States, principally in
the Middle- AV est and South— the home of the great breeding grounds of all
the superior breeds of domestic cattle of the Avorld.
The breeders of Polled Durhams have had to contend with misrepresen-
tation, of course, relating to this now well fixed breed of hornles.s cattk'.
The American Short Horn Herd Book welcomed the purely bred to its herd
book, and the eminent breeders of the other classes of pedigreed cattle Avel-
comed them. But the farming Avorld, of England, alone, sought to cast
reproach in the following words, as collated from the "Prairie Farmer"
soon after the organization of the Polled Durham Society.
"Our enterprising cousins on the other side of the Atlantic arc ever
hunting after improvements. There is no limit to their inventive genius.
Not satisfied Avith the pure breeds of cattle which we send them from this
country, they have now resolved to found a breed of their own. By mating
Aberdeen-Angus sires with Short Horn cows, they have succeeded in form-
ing a class of cross (bred?) without horns, but in regard to color and other
cattle characteristics strongly resembling the Short Horns. ' '
So much for this tirade which fell still born.
During the life of the great Dr. Johnson, soon after he had compiled his
dictionary, he received a visit from the then Duke of Argyle, surnamed the
Great. The Doctor had the habit of keeping notable people Avaiting before
he received them. The Duke amused himself Avhile waiting in looking over
the then new dictionary. The Doctor saluted him and observed, "Oh, my
lord, I see you have my dictionary. How do you like it ? "
The Duke replied, sarcastically, "They are braw stories but unko short.
By the way. Doctor, I see here the word Aits (Scotch for oats) food for
horses in England and men in Scotland, and where, mon, will you find
such horses and such men?" The Polled Durham breeders can aptly reply
to cavillers, "Where will you find such a combination of milk and beef as
in the Polled Durhams?"
CYCT.OPEDTA OF LIVE STOCK AXD COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
MIDDLE-HORNED CATTLE THE DEVON AND THE SUSSEX. 719
XIV. Weights of the Devons.
While the Devons are called small cattle, they are only relatively so in
comparison with Short-Horns and Herefords. A full-grown ox in good
condition will weigh from 1,400 to 1,600 pounds, and when well-fatteneu
they will reach 2,000 pounds. The cows will weigh from 800 to 1,100
pounds, and the bulls 1,200 to 1,400. We bred one that at 8 years old
weighed 1,819 pounds, and he was as extraordinary in his fineness and
style, as a premium taker, as he was in weight ; not large to look at, but
weighing like a lump of lead.
XV. Sussex Cattle.
Sussex also has long been noted for a breed of middle-horned cattle —
all red, but lighter in color than the Devons, larger and in every way
coarser. Still they are better milkers than the Devons and fatten kindly.
There are a number of breeds allied to the Devons or descended from
them in England. The Sussex is one of these breeds.
XVI. The Sussex Color.
The color is a light chestnut or blood hay, much lighter than the true
North Devon, but fully as uniform. The cut of a Sussex cow will, with
the description given below, serve to explain the i)oints of difference.
They are mentioned here mainly, if not solely, for the reason that they
have been sold as Devons. If you buy Devons, or any other highly-bred
stock, be sure there is no stain in the pedigree. It is a matter of the
utmost importance to the breeder of high-caste cattle.
XVEI. Distinguishing Marks of the Sussex.
On this subject Youatt says : " The horns are more tapering, pushing
farther forward, and turning up more. The head is small and well formed,
the eye full, large and mild in the ox, but rather wild and unquiet in the cow.
The throat is clean and the neck long and thin, but coarser than in the
Devon. The shoulder is wider and rounder on the withers ; straighter
from the top of the withers towards the back, and carries much flesh,
giving too much weight to unprofitable parts. On the other hand, the
barrel is round and deep, the back straight, and the back-bone entirely
hidden by the muscles on each side. The heart and lungs are full and
large, and the belly and flank capacious. The barrel is well-ribbed home.
The loins are wide, the hip-bone low, free from raggedness, large, and
well spread, and the space between the hips well filled up. The tail,
which is fine and thin, is set on lower than in the Devon, yet the rump is
nearly as staight, for the deficiency is supplied by a mass of flesh and fat
swelling above. The hind quarters are cleanly made, and if the thighs
appear to be straight without, there ia ulenty of fullness withh..
720 CrCLOPiSDIA of live stock and OOMFLETE stock i/OCTOB.
XVm. The Sussex Cow.
«* The cows have fine hair, a mellow, rather than thin skin ; a small te?t;
horns fine, clean, and transparent, which reach forward from the head
and turn up at the tips ; the neck is thin and clean ; back and belly
straight ; ribs round and springing out well ; shoulder flat, but projecting
at the point.
Hips and rump wide ; the tail set on level with the rump, and the car-
cass large ; the legs are rather short and fine.
MIDDLE-HORNED CATTLE THE DEVON AND THE SUSSEX.
■21
The cows are not good milkers; they are often uneasy in the pasture,
and often unquiet in temper."
They have been exhibited and sold a.s Devons in the United States, a
thing which, of course, none but the most unprincipled of men would at-
tempt. Give them a wide berth. They have little or no value in this
country among better cattle.
XIX. Glamorgan Cattle.
The cattle of Glamorgan, Wales, are noted for good messes of milk, for
docility, ability to forage for themselves on their native hills, and for
722
CYCLorEDlA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
taking on flesh kindly Avhen dry. They arc undoubtedly of Devon origin
and belong to the Middle-Horns. They are an ancient race, and have
been preserved pure in their native region, but are little known away
from there. Occasional specimens have been imported to the United
States, more as curiosities than for intrinsic value, either for milk or
beef, when there are so many superior breeds in either direction. The
illustration shows their characteristics perfectly.
MIDDLE-HORNED CxVTTLE DUTCH BELTED. 723.
XX. Dutch Belted Cattle.
The origin of this breed of cattle dates back nearly three centuries.
They are natives of Holland where they are known as Lakenfeld Cattle —
the name being descriptive, as ''laken" means a blanket or sheet about the
body. The characteristic color of this breed has been established by
scientific breeding, the white belt being now always a characteristic which
pertains to every true blood of that breed.
There is little written historical data concerning the breed, bilt it is
known that their introduction into America dates back to 1838 when the
first importation to New York was made by D, H. Haight of that state,
and which was followed ten years later by a second large importation. We
are advised that P. T. Barnum, the famous show man, who had a genius
for advertising, imported a herd to gratify his ruling passion of doing
unusual things, and that other importations were made by R. W. Coleman.
They became well known and popular in southern New York and ulti-
mately found their way into New Jersey, Pennsylvania, New Hampshire,
Indiana, Illinois, and south to a considerable extent, especially in South
Carolina and Mississippi. There are a few herds in the Pacific coast states.
They are smaller in size than the Holstein-Friesian, which corresponds in
weight more nearly to the Ayrshire. The cows w^eigh from 900 to 1,250
pounds, while the bulls sometimes reach the weight of 2,000 pounds.
Some of the more noted animals have reached 1,200 pounds at three years
and a weight of 1,500 pounds of the bull should prevail. A number of
prize winning milch cows of this breed have weighed from 1,150 to 1,300
pounds.
In color the cattle are invariably black, wdth a white band of varying
width about the body in front of the hips and behind the shoulders. This
band has in instances narrowed to a foot in width and again it has been
three feet wide, and has been transmitted from one generation to another
in that width for the full grown animal. The udder of the cow in its
fore part is often white. In udder formation and development these
cows are rather inferior, the size being comparatively small, the fore udder
being somewhat abbreviated and the tits too close together.
Aside from being ornamental the principal value of this breed is its
dairy importance. The actual monetary importance of the breed aside
from its beauty does not really justify high praise. The record of one
premium winner, Lady Aldine, 124, is that of a production of 32 quarts
of milk a day on grass alone. Another similar record is that of Lady
Daird, 82. The best test record made by the breed was that at the Pan-
American Model Dairy in 1901 in which ten breeds participated. In this
trial the five Dutch Belted cows made the following record in 120 days:
724 CYCLOrEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Yield of milk 24,893.5 lbs Breed rank eighth
Churned butter 977.1 lbs lireed rank tenth
Net prolit on butter $111.9G Breed rank tenth
Total solids ;>, 1)6(147 • lbs Breed rank ninth
Value solids $275.98 Breed rank ninth
This is in no sense an extraordinary record.
As beef producers the Dutch Belted cannot be regarded as superior to
the dairy breeds and will not compare with the Holstein-Friesian favor-
ably. They do not produce flesh so characteristic of some Holstein-
Friesian and they lack the size of the latter. There are few steere on
the market of this breed because of the general scarcity of the breed.
The fertile meadows of the ]\Iississi})pi Valley will provide more favor-
able conditions for the best development of the breed and the general
adaptdbility of the Dutch Belted is quite comparable with the Dutch type
if bred to thrive on abundant food under favorable conditions. A well
known herd in America is in New Hampshire where it thrives in a rough,
mountainous section where the winters are severe and long.
One of the special characteristics is the tendency to transmit the white
belt even when crossed with other breeds. Crossed on cattle of any solid
color they almost invariably produce the belt. If the dam be a Devon,
however, the calf may be red at the ends instead of black. If the dam
is a Short-horn the calf will sometimes be either red or roan. The belt,
however, will be there and of pure white.
An interesting example cf this intensity of Dutch Belted prepotency is
that of a herd of the Ohio State Univei'sity. A cow of this breed was bred
to a pure Jersey bull and dropped a cross bred calf ^\^th a white blanket
about the body similar to that of the dam but had in addition one small
black spot on the white covering. The inferior value practically to this
breed as compared with others is responsible for the fact that their dis-
tribution is still confined in the main to Holland, the United States,
Canada and Mexico, and in the United States they are confined to New
York, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Mississippi
and California.
XXI. Holstein-Friesians.
Origin and Development. — The strongly marked black-and-white cattle
of North Holland and Friesland constitute one of the very oldest and most
notable of the dairy breeds. The historians of this race claim that it can
be traced back for two thousand years, continuously occupying the terri-
tory named and always famous for dairy purposes. Tradition has it that
two ancient tribes located upon the shores of the North Sea before the
beginning of the Christian era; one possessed a race of cattle pure white
and the other a kind all black. Men and cattle then became amalgamated,
forming the people and herds which for centuries have occupied that
MIDDLE-HORNED CATTLE— HOLSTEIN FRIESTANS. 725
LADY STIRLING 3RD — No. 623c
SILVER PRINCE — No. 7939-
'fMe handsome head of the Dentonia Ayrshire Herd and a well-known pnze-wiimet.
'26
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
MIDDLE-HORNED CATTLE HOLSTEIX FRIESIANS. 727
region. Holland has been noted for dairy products for at least a thousand
years, and the great bicolored beasts upon which this reputation has been
gained have been slowly but surely developing their present form of dairy
excellence.
These cattle have been know^n by several different names in both
Europe and America. "Holland cattle," "North Hollanders," "Dutch
cattle," "Holsteins," "Dutch-Friesians," "Nietherland cattle," and
"Holstein-Friesians" are all the same. There was sharp contention in
this country before the last name was agreed upon and generally accepted.
It seems unfortunate that the simpler and sufficiently descriptive and
accurate name of "Dutch cattle" was not adopted.
The large frame, strong bone, abundance of flesh, silken coat, extreme
docility, and enormous milk yield of the Holstein-Friesians result from
the rich and luxuriant herbage of the very fertile and moist reclaimed
lands upon which the breed has been perfected, the uncommonly good
oare received from their owners and the close association of people and
cattle. The Roman dominion brought improvements in draining and
diking, in methods of cultivation and of cattle breeding, but no mixture
of blood occurred with the inhabitants or in their herds. The preserva-
tion of the Friesian people and their continued adhesion to cattle breeding
for more than two thousand years is one of the marvels of history. Always
few in number, the conflicts of war and commerce have raged over and
around them, yet they have remained in or near their original home, con-
tinuously following their original pursuits. Their farmhouses are
fashioned after the same general model; the one immense roof covers
everything that requires protection. Here the cattle find shelter during
the long and rigorous winter months. Here they are fed and groomed
and watched for months without being turned from the door. Here the
family is also sheltered, sometimes wnth only a single partition between
the cattle stalls and the kitchen and living room. Evervthing is kept
with a degree of neatness marvelous to those not accustomed to such sys-
tem. The cattle become the pets of the household. At the opening of
spring or when grass is sufficiently grown they are taken to the fields and
cared for in the most quiet manner. Oanvas covers protect their bodies
from sun and storm and insects. The grasses upon which they feed are
rich and luxurious, and the animals have to move about very little to
gather sufficient food. On the first appearance of winter they are returned
to the stable and the simple round of the year is completed. This round
is repeated until the cattle are 6 or 7 years of age, when they are usually
considered as pa.st the period of dairy profit and are sent to the shambles.
The object is always to produce as much milk and beef as possible from
the same animal. With this twofold object in view, selection, breeding,
and feeding have been continued for ages."
728 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
This condensed description of the origin, development, and home treat-
ment of this breed of cattle goes far toward explaining the characteristics
of the breed as seen in this country.
The early Dutch settlers in America undoubtedly brought their favorite
cattle with them during the seventeenth century, and there are definite
records of three or four importations prior to 1850 ; but the credit of first
introducing this breed to America and maintaining it« purity here is due
to Winthrop W. Chenery, of Massachusetts. He made three importations
between 1857 and 1862. The Messrs. Gerrit S. and Dudley Miller, of New
York, followed in 1867, and soon thereafter numerous others brought
animals of this breed in considerable numbers to the United States. They
have increased rapidly by importations and by breeding, and are now to
be found in nearly all parts of this country,
XXII. Characteristics.
The striking features in the appearance of this breed are the color mark-
ings of black and white and the large size of the animals of both sexes.
The shining jet black contrasts vividly with the pure white, the fine, silky
hair being upon a soft and mellow skin of medium thickness. In some
animals the black predominates, and the white in others. Black has been
rather preferred among American breeders, to the almost entire exclusion
of white in some cases, yet a few very noted animals have been mainly
white. The average animal carries rather more black than white, and the
distribution and outlines of the markings are extremely irregular. The
black and white are never mixed, the lines of demarcation being usually
sharply drawn. In Europe there are still some red cattle in this breed,
and occasionally a purely bred calf is dropped in this country with bright
red instead of black, showing the influence of some remote ancestor; but
none are admitted to the American Herd Book except those black and
white. In size the Holsteins are the largest of all the dairy breeds. The
big, bony frames are usually well filled out, and the chest, abdomen, and
pelvic region are fully developed. It is difficult to prevent the males from
becoming too fleshy for breeding animals, and the females, when not in
milk, take on flesh rapidly and soon become full in form. The cows range
in weight from 1,000 to 1,500 pounds, most of them being between 1,100
and 1,400 with an average of about 1,250 pounds. The bulls at maturity
are very large and heavy, often above 2,500 pounds in weight. The head
is long, rather narrow and bony, with bright yet quiet eyes and large
mouth and nostrils. The horns are small and fine, often incurving, and
frequently white with black tips. The ears are large, thin, and quick in
movement. The neck is long, slender, and tapered in the cows, its upper
line often quite concave. The back line is usually level, particularly with
the males, and the hips broad and prominent; some have well-rounded
15
6 X
^^
•c
c
o
a;
Cfi
MIDDLE-HORNED CATTLE IIOLSTEIN-FRIESIANS. i Z)J
buttocks, but a drooping rump is not uncommon. The legs appear small
for the weight carried and are quite long ; the tail is long and fine and a
white brush is required. The udder is often of extraordinary size, filling
the space between legs set well apart, extending high behind and fairly
well forward, with teats of large size and well placed. Teats are sometimes
cone-shaped and uncomfortably large and puffy where attached to the
udder. The milk veins are usually prominent and sometimes remarkably
developed. There is a more marked inclination toward the beef form
among the bulls than among the cows ; the latter are generally of the true
dairy type.
XXIII. Milk and Butter Records.
These great black-and-white cows yield milk in proportion to their size.
The breed is famous for enormous milk producers. Records are abundant
of cows giving an average above their own live weight in milk monthly
for ten or twelve consecutive months, and there are numerous authentic
instances of daily yields of 100 pounds or more for several days in succes-
sion and 20,000 to 30,000 pounds of milk in one year. Cows giving 40
to 60 pounds (or 5 to 7 gallons) per day are regarded as average animals;
7,500 to 8,000 pounds per year is depended upon as a herd average. A
known record of 11 cows from 3 to 8 years old is 11,286 pounds (or 5,250
quarts per cow), the average milking period being three hundred and
forty-one days. Another herd of 12 cows averaged 8,805 pounds a year
(or 4,064 quarts) for four years. The milk of these very large producers
is generally pretty thin, low in percentage of total solids, and deficient in
fat. The cows have been favorites for dairymen doing a milk-supply
business, but in numerous cases their product has been below the standards
fixed by State and municipal laws. On the other hand, there arc some
families of Holsteins, and single animals are numerous, which give milk
of more than average richness and show themselves to be profitable butter
producers. Cows have frequently made from 15 to 25 pounds of butter
a week, and 30 pounds in a few cases. Entire herds of good size have
averaged over 17 pounds a week; a few cows have records of 90 pounds,
and one almost 100 pounds, in a month. One of the herds already referred'
to averaged 308 pounds of butter per cow annually for four years, and there
are several yearly herd records of over 400 pounds per head ; also single
records of 500 and 600 pounds, and one is claimed of 1,153 pounds of
butter in three hundred and sixty-five consecutive days. A cow bred and
raised in Texas made a remarkable record there, when five years old and
weighing 1,350 pounds; she gave 707^2 pounds of milk in seven days,
which produced 22 pounds of butter, and in one month 2,958 pounds of
milk containing fat equivalent to 86 pounds of butter. Holstein milk is
characterized by fat globules of small and uniform size, separating slowly
by tb gravity method of creaming, and carrying very little color.
730 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
XXIV. Types.
. It happens that both the selections for ilhistrating this breed represent
imported animals, and consequently comparatively little can be told about
them and their immediate ancestoi-s. It would be easy, however, to find
many equally good types among American-bred Ilolsteins. Indeed, it is
believed that in respect to size and dairy quality the best animals of this
breed in the United States are superior to those of their native country.
De Brave Hendrik 230, H.-F. II. B., was dropped in North Holland in
March, 1880, and during the years 1882, 1883, and 1884 won high prizes
at Alkmaar, Gouda, and (first) at the great International Exhibition at
Amsterdam. In March, 1883, he was designated by an official committee
as the best bull in north Holland. He was imported in 188-4 and owned
in Pennsylvania. The likeness shows him as 4 years old, and he then
weighed 2,300 pounds. This bull came from a great milking family, and
the females sired by him proved uniformly excellent as dairy animals.
Jamaica 1336, II. H. B., was dropped in Friesland in 1880, and im-
ported the same year to Orange County, N. Y. She had her first calf in
December, 1882, and during a milking period of three hundred days gave
7,450 pounds of milk. Her second calf was dropped in December, 1883,
and W'hen one month in milk she had exceeded all known records for her
age, and this upon the ordinary ration for milkers in the herd. Her feed
was then carefully increased until she gave 73 pounds of milk a day, in
January (1884), and a total amount of 2,020 pounds during that month.
The milk yield continued to increase during Fobniary, notwithstanding
unusually cold, rough weather, until she reached the maximum of 112
pounds 2 ounces of milk on the 2d of March, when she was 4 years
old. She gave 535 pounds of milk in five days, 1,034 pounds in ten days,
2,102 pounds in twenty-one days, and almost attained an average of 100
pounds a day for a month. In four months Jamaica gave almost 10,000
pounds of milk, and about 20,000 pounds during this her second milking
period. From her milk for a week 23y2 pounds of butter were made.
The average of grain fed to the cow during her greatest yield was 28
pounds, costing 30 cents, with an abundance of cut beets and good hay,
and she had access to spring water in the stable yard five or six times a
day. She received no silage, slops, stimulating food, or drugs. Jamaica
was of medium size for her race, handsomely marked, vigorous, and very
stylish, as shown by her likeness. This was made about the time of her
famous test; she then weighed 1192 pounds. Her owner was off"ered
$15,000 for this cow and her heifer calf, shown in the picture, before her
milk yield reached 100 pounds a day. After her great performance this
offer w^as increased to $25,000, and $10,000 was refused for the calf alone.
CHAPTER IX.
POLLED CATTLE.
ANGUS COMPARED WITH THE GALLOWAI .
I. PoUed Cattle in General.
Of the various breeds of p<,lled or Irornless eattle, however good in
England, „o„e have proved valu.hle in the United States and C=m,^a,
except the Galloways and the Polled Angus. Of these only the Gallo-
way have l.een at all widely dissen>inated. Docility of temper even
among old bulls •, the little space taken up in the feeding stalls, on account
of their mild disposition and absence of horns ; the.r l>-d-- ' f^l^f^
with which they take on flesh, and the thickness and hue quality of he
beef are some of the principal characteristics of excellence n. polled
cattle.
II. The Galloways.
For the colder and hilly districts, when all cattle must be protected in
winter, and in all regions where the Short-Horn proves ^o '«"' <■'' t^"
Galloway cattle are steadily gaining in favor, /'-y 7 --!*''"?^ '^
cattle, it being unusual f,>r the cows, even under good keepmg, to g.ve
ml than twdve quarts of n.ilk a day, and the average rs g.ven a mx or
ei.rht quarts. But the milk is rich, yielding a pound of butter, aoco.d
;tl English authorities, to eight or ten quarts of nnlk. The cows, a
a rule, go dry for two or three months in the year, even under the best
of nianaofenicnt. ^ i i * ^offio
It has been said of them that there is, perhaps, no breed of cattle
which can be more truly said to be indigenous to the eountiT, and mcapa-
:,e of improvement by any foreign cross, than the GaUoway. T e
Short-Horns almost everywhere else have unproved the cattle of the d.s
trXto which they have traveled; at least in the first cross produced
rMflrtLprovemL : but even in the first cross the Short-H°r,.s have
done little -ood in Galloway, and, as a pe.manent mixture, the choicest
short-hlbuUshavemanifeftly failed. The intelligent Galloway breeder
tilv perfectly satisfied that his stock can only be rmproved by adher-
ence to the pure breed, and by care in the selection.
731
732 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
III. Points of the Galloway.
Mr. L. B. Allen gives, on the autnonty of an eminent judge and
breeder, the characteristics of this breed, as follows :
The Galloway cattle are straight and broad in the back, and nearly
level from the head to the rump. They are round in the ribs, and also
between the shoulders and the ribs, and the ribs and the loins. They
are broad in the loin, without any large projecting hook bones. In round-
ness of barrel, and fullness of ribs, they will compare Avith any breed, and
also in the proportion which the loins bear to the hook bones, or protu-
berances of the ribs. When viewed from above, the whole body appears
beautifully rounded, like the longitudinal section of a roller. They are
long in the quarters and ribs, and deep in the chest, but not broad in the
twist. The slightest inspection will show that there is less space between
the hook or hip bones and the ribs than in most other breeds, a consider-
ation of much importance, for the advantage of length of carcass consists
in the animal being well ribbed home, or as little as possible lost in the
flank.
IV. The Limbs and the Head.
The Galloway is short in the leg, and moderately fine in the shank
bones, — the happy medium seems to be preserved in the leg, which
secures hardihood and a disposition to fatten. With the same cleanness
and shortness of shank, there is no breed so large and muscular above the
knee, while there is more room for the deep, broad and capacious chest.
He is clean, not fine and slender, l)ut well proportioned in the neck and
chaps ; a thin and delicate neck would not correspond with the broad
shoulders, deep chest, and close, compact form of the breed. The neck
of the Galloway bull is thick, almost to a fault. The head is rather
heavy ; the eyes are not prominent, and the ears are large, rough, and full
of long hairs on the inside.
V. The Skin.
The Galloway is covered with a loose, mellow skii. of medium
thickness, which is clothed with long, soft, silky hair. The skin is
thinner than that of the Leicestershire, but not so fine as the hide of the
improved Durham breed, but it handles soft and kindly. Even on the
moorland farms, where the cattle, during the greater part of the year,
are fed on the scantiest fare, it is remarkable how little their hides in-
dicate the privations they endure.
VI. The Color.
The prevailing and fashionable color is black — a few are of a dark
fcindle brown, and still fewer are speckled with white spots, and some
POLLED CATTLE.
733
734 crcLoi'KDiA of i^ive stock and complete stock doctor.
of them are of a dun or drab color, perhaps acquired from a cross with
the Suffolk breed of cattle. Dark colors are uniformly preferred, from
the belief that they indicate hardiness of constitution.
VII. The Galloways in America.
The Galloways are said to have been first introduced into Canada about
the year 1850. Since that time they have steadily increased by breeding
and subsequent importations, and of late years a good many have been
bred in the Northwestern States, where they are greatly liked for their
many good qualities, and now have a regular series of prizes offered for
them at all our principal fairs. They arc also attracting attention in the
Southwest as a means of improving the Texan cattle. To our mind, they
should prove valua])le in reducing the horn, refining the bone, and thick-
ening the body of the Southwestern cattle, and, especially, in breeding
out the wildness and viciousness of the Texans.
VIII. Polled Angus Cattle.
This is a breed yet rare in America, though much thought of in Scot-
land. Finer in their make up than the Galloways, of which they are
relatives, they have many admirable qualities to commend them in hilly
districts. There have always been some polled cattle in Angus ; the
country people call them humlies or dodded cattle. Youatt says that
their origin is so remote, that no account of their introduction into Ens^-
land can be obtained from the oldest farmers or breeders. The attention
of some enterprising agriculturists appears to have been first directed to
them about sixty years ago, and particularly on the eastern coast, and on
the borders of Kincardineshire. Some of the first qualities which seem
to have attracted the attention of these l)reeders were the peculiar quiet-
ness and docility of the doddies, the easiness with which they were
managed, the few losses that were incurred from their injuring each other
in their stalls, and the power of disposing of a greater number of them in
the same space.
A few experiments upon them developed another valuable quality —
their natural fitness for stall-feeding, and the rapidity with which they
fattened. This brought them into repute.
They have much of the Galloway form, and by those unaccustomed to
cattle would be often mistaken for the Galloways. A good judge, how-
ever, would perceive that they are larger, somewhat longer in the leg,
thinner in the shoulder, and flatter in the side.
Climate and management have caused another difference between the
Angus doddies and the Galloways. The Galloways have a moist climate ;
they have a more robust appearance, a much thicker skin, and a rougher
POLLED CATTLE. 735
coat of hair than the Angus oxen. The Angus cattle are regularly
kept in straw yards during six months of the year, receiving turnips
with their fodder every day, and in summer are grazed on dry and
warm pastures. By this treatment they look and feel more kindly
than the Galloways.
ABERDEEN-ANGUS BULL— HE'S A STAK.
ABERDEEN-ANGUS IIKIFKK-ABBESS McHENRY.
IX. Color of the Polled Angus.
The greater part of them are black, or with a few white spots.
The next general color is yellow, comprehending the brindle, dark red,
and silver-colored yellow. They are a valuable breed, and have rapidly
gained ground on the horned cattle, and become far more numerous,
particularly in the Lowlands; and when the agriculturist now speaka
if the Angus breed, he refers to the polled species.
736
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOB.
X. Angus Cows as Milkers.
The quantity of milk yielded by the dairy cows is various. lu the
hilly districts from two to three gallons are given per day, but that is
very rich. In the lowlands th(; cows will give five gallons during the best
of the season. The cows of this district were formerly regarded as some
of the best dairy-cows in Scotland, but since the breed has been more im-
proved, and greater attention paid to the fattening qualities, they have
fallen off in their character for the pail.
ENGLISH GROUP OF RED POLLED CATTLE.
These cattle beloug principally to the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk, in England.
They are a very old race, and though quite small (seldom weighing over 720 pounds),
the superior quality of their flesh, and their fattening freely at an early age, do away
with all objections to their size.
XI. The Angus Compared with the Galloway.
Thus while Angus cattle have great value in their native climate, they
would seem to possess no value in this country over the Galloway. When
removed to a warmer latitude, in England, they degenerate, and the
probability is, that in this country they will not prove so good as the
Galloways, though it is probable that they will find admirers on account
of the greater excellence of their flesh.
uri AFTER X.
DAIRY CATTLE— THE AYRSHIRES.
r. THE ANTIQUITY OP AYRSHIRE CATTLE. II. AYRSHIRE ANCESTRY. III. THE
AYRSHIRE AS A MILKER. IV. QUALITY OP THE MILK. V. MR. YOUATT'S
OPINION. VI. QUALITY OF THE FLESH. VII. THE AYRSHIRES IN AMERICA.
VIII. AYRSHIRE POINTS EIGHTY YEARS AGO. IX. THE AYRSHIRE OF TO-
DAY. X. POINTS OF AYRSHIRE CATTLE. XI. ESCUTCHEON OR MILK MIRROR.
XII. THE POINTS SUMMED UP. XIII. THE BODY. XIV. THE SKIN. XV.
MILK POINTS. XVI. THE HEAD. XVII. THE NECK, BODY AND LIMBS. >■
XVIII. IMPORTANCE OF GOOD TEATS. XIX. COLOR, STYLE AND CONDITION.
I. The Antiquity of Ayrshire Cattle.
There are few climates better adapted to dairying than Ayrshire, in
Scotland, and no other part of Great Britain has so long been noted for
its superior milking cows. The climate is moist, with frequent soft rains
■'nd no severely cold weather in winter. The grasses therefore are natu-
rally succulent and sweet.
The origin of the Ayrshire cow is in doubt. In 1733 it is recorded
that no such breed existed in Scotland. -Mr. Ro])ertson, writing in
1703, credits the introduction of Ayrshire eattle into Scotland, on the
authority of Mr. Bruce Campbell, to that Earl of Marchmont who suc-
ceeded his title in 1724, and died in 1740,
II. Ayrshire Ancestry.
In relation to their origin Mr. Robertson says : From what particular
part of the country they came, there a})pears no evidence. My own con-
jecture is, that they are either of the Holderness breed, or derived from
it ; judging from the varied color, or from somewhat better evidence, the
small head and slender neck, in which they bear a striking resemblance to
them. These cattle, from which, by crosses with the native breed, the
present improved Ayrshire arose, were first introduced on Lord March-
mont's estate in Berwickshire. A bull of the new stock was sold to Mr.
Hamilton of Sundrum ; then Mr. Dunlop, in Cunningham, imported
some of the Dutch cattle, and their progeny was long aftenvards distin-
guished by the name of the Dunlop cows. These were the first of the
improved, or stranger breed, that reached the bailleryof Cunningham.
Mr. Orr, about the year 1767, brought to his estate of Grongar, near
Kilmarnock, some fine milch cows of a larger size than any which had
737
'38
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLKTE STOCK DOCTOR-
been on the farm. It was not, however, until about 1780, that this
improved breed might be said to be duly estimated, or generally estab-
lished in that part of Ayrshire^ although they had begun to extend be-
yond the Irvine, into Kyle.
About 1790, according to Mr. Alton, Mr. Fulton from Blith, carried
them first into Carrick, and Mr. Wilson, of Kilpatrick, was the first who
took them to the southern parts of +hat district. So late as 1804, they
weie introduced on the estate of Penmore, on the Stonchar, and they are
DAIRY CATTLE THE AYRSHIRES. 739
the established cattle of Ayrshire ; they are increasing in the neighbor-
ing counties, and have found their way to most parts of Britain.
III. The Ayrshire as a Milker.
The quantity of milk yielded hy the Ayrshire cow is, considering her
size, very great. Five gallons daily, for two or three months after calv-
ing, may be considered as not more than an average quantity. Three
gallons daily will be given for the next thi'ee months, and one gallon and
a half during the succeeding four months. This would amount to more
than 850 gallons ; but, allowing for some unproductive cows, ()0() gallons
per year may be considered as the average quantity obtained annually
from each cow.
IV. Quality of the Milk.
The quality of the milk is estimated by the quantity of butter or
^cheese that it will yield. Three gallons and a half of this milk will
yield about a pound and a half avoirdupois, of butter. An Ayrshi?e
cow may be reckoned to yield 257 English pounds of butter per annum,
or about tive pounds per week all the year round, besides the value of tiie
buttermilk and her calf.
V. Mr. Youatt's Opinion.
Mr. Youatt, writing in the early part of the century says : They will
feed kindly and protitably, and their meat will be good. They will fatten
on farms and in districts where others could not, except supported by
artificial food. They unite, perhaps, to a greater degree than any other
breed, the supposed incompatible properties of yielding a great deal of
milk and beef. It is, however, on the inferior soil and the moist climate
of Ayrshire, and the west of Scotland, that their superiority as milkers is
most remarkable. On their natural food of poor quality they give milk
abundantly and long, and often until within a few days of calving ; but
when they are moved to richer pasture, their constitution changes, and
they convert their food more into beef. It cannot be denied that even in
this tendency to fatten when their milk begins to fail, or which often causes
it to fail, the Ayrshires must yield to their forefathers, the Highlanders,
and to their neighbors, the Galloways, when put on a poor soil ; and they
will be left considerably behind their Short-Horn sires when transplanted
to luxuriant pasture. It will be long, perhaps, before they will be
favorites with the butchers, for the fifth quarter will not usually weigh
well in them.
VI. Quality of the Flesh.
Their fat is mingled with the flesh rather than separated in the form of
tallow ; yet this would give a more beautiful appearance to the meat, and
740 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTO'^
should enhance its price to the consumer. This fact of their flesh being
so fully marbled with fat, would be an important consideration at the
present time, if not when Mr. Youatt wrote, for tallow is not so valuable
now as formerly, since the disuse of tallow candles, and this marbled flesh
is much sought by butchers.
VII. The Ayrshires in America.
Mr. Allen, writing in 18fi7 in relation to their importation into America
says : The Ayrshires first began to be imported into the United States
about the year 1831. They were somewhat different in appearance
from the latter importations, being in color usually deep red, or brown,
flecked with white, of rather plain look, and having mostly black noses.
In recent importations, or those within the last fifteen years, many of
them have assumed more the Short-Horn colors, the red in them being of
a lighter shade, and less of it — white being the prevailing color in many
— -and soijie of them a lively patched roan, with yellow noses, and hand-
some, and more symmetrical forms, but alike bearing the marks of good
milkers.
VIII. Ajrrshire Points Eighty Years Ago.
According to Mr. Alton, the Ayrshire as it was found in its native
country and in its improved form, in the beginning of the present cent-
uiy had I hese characteristics : Head small, l)ut rather long and narrow
at the muzzle ; the eye small, but smart and lively ; the horns small, clear,
crooked, and their roots at a considerable distance from each other ; neck
long and slender, tapering toward the head, with no loose skin below ;
shoulders thin ; fore-quarters light ; hind-quarters large ; back straight,
broad behind, the joints rather loose and open ; carcass deep, and pelvis
capacious, and wide over the hips, with round fleshy buttocks ; tail long,
and small ; legs small and short, with firm joints ; udder capacious, broad
and square, stretching forward, and neither fleshv, low hung, nor loose ;
the milk-veins large and prominent ; teats short, all pointing outward,
and at considerable distance from each other ; skin thin and loose ;
hair soft and woolly. The head, bones, horns, and all parts of least value,
small ; and the general figure compact and well proportioned.
IX. The Asrrshire of To-Day.
The Ayrshire of to-day is noted for giving a large quantity of milk,
rich in both butter and cheese ; and also for the wonderful development oi
the thighs, the bulls being selected with reference to their feminine ap-
pearance. They are docile in temper, hardy, sound-constitutioued ■ the
bulls broad in the hook bones and hips, and full in the flanks. Of iate
years there have been a number of herds introduced into the West, and
DAIRY CATTLE THE AYRSHIRES.
741
742 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
wherever used they have been greatly liked. CaretuI selection has done
much to keep down their fattening qualities on full feed, and it is prob-
able that there is no strictly dairy cow that to-day combines so many
good qualities as the Ayrshire cow.
X. Points of Ayrshire Cattle.
Dr. G. Lewis Sturtevant, of Massachusetts, a scientific investigator,
and careful farmer, who has given particular attention to the characteris-
tics and breeding of Ayrshire cattle in New England, minutely describes
the points of Ayrshire cattle. With slight variations the same rules will
apply to the Dutch or Holstcin cattle to be hereafter noticed :
The usefulness of the dairy cow is in her udder, and toward the udder,
its shape and its yield, all the capabilities of the cow should be directed.
We may first view it as a reseiwoir for the milk. As such, it must be
large and capacious, with broad foundations, extending well behind and
well forward, with distinct attachments ; broad and square, viewed from
behind, the sole level and broad, the lobes even-sized, and teats evenly
distributed ; the whole udder firmly attached, with skin loose and elastic.
Such a form gives great space for the secreted milk, and for the lodgment
of the glands, while allowing the changes from an empty to a full vessel.
The glands should be free from lumps of fat and muscle, well set up in
the body when the cow is dry, and loosely covered with the soft and elastic
skin, without trace of flabbiness. Such a covering allows for extension
when the animal is in milk, while the glands are kept in proximity with
the blood-vessels that supply them.
XI. Escutcheon or Milk Mirror.
1 think a broad escutcheon is fully as good a sign as a long one ; tha
quantity or quality mean more than shape, j^et I would not discard th
shape entirely. The udder and its dependencies, the milk veins, and the
escutcheon mark, may be considered the foundation of the Ayrshire cow.
These influence profit, and also the shapes of the body and the form of
the animal. The milk vessel as placed in the pubic region of the cow,
ind is protected on either side by the hind limbs. The breadth of its
attachments secures breadth of body, and the weight requires also a depth
of quartei and of flanks. The breadth below requires breadth of hip
above, and length of loin here appears related to length of pelvis. So
much for the physical portion. The physical function of milk-producing
demaads a great and continuous flow of blood, for it must not be for-
gotten that milk is blood, so to speak. This flow is dependent on the
supply of food, and on the facilities of digestion. To gain this, a large
body is required m order to hold the suitable digestive organs. To gain
the most of our blood after it has absorbed the chyle from the digestive
DAIRY CATTLE — THE AYRSHIRES. 743
organs, reason shows that it should find its way freely and speedily
through the system on its labors of supply and removal, cleanse itself in
the lungs, and again pass on to its duties. All this points to a healthy
heart, ivot cramped, and lungs of sufficient capacity ; for the yield of milk
drains much nutriment from the system, and the constitution must needs
have the vigor given l)y healthy and active heart and lungs. In this way
the chest is correlated with the udder.
The reproductive functions require hook Ijoncs of good size, and a
broad pelvis is desirable, as underlying within arc the generative organs.
Defects here are to be shunned.
Xn. The Points Summed Up.
The points of the Ayrshii-c cow, as given by the Ayrshire Agricultural
Society, and the New York State Agricultural Society, have been summed
up as follows :
XIII. The Body.
The whole fore-quarters thin in front, and gradually increasing in
depth and width l)ackward, yet of sufficient breadth and roundness to in-
sure constitution ; back should be straight and the loins wide, the hips
rather high and well spread ; pelvis roomy, long, broad and straight, hook
bones wide apart, quarters long, tolerably muscular, and full in theii
upper portion, but moulding into the thighs below, which should have a
degree of flatness, thus affording more space for a full udder ; the flanks
well let down, but not heavy ; ribs, behind, springing out very round and
full, affording space for a large udder — the whole carcass thus acquiring
increased volume toward its posterior portion.
Xrv. The Skin.
In connection with the body and the udder, the skin is of great value in
assisting our judgment. Between the portion of the external covering
used for leather, and the nmscle, there occurs a layer of cellular tissue,
which contains a larger or smaller amount of fat cells, and the mellow
handling caused by these cells indicates a free circulation throughout this
mesh work.
The skin varies from a thin, papery hide, covered with silky hair, to
a thick, supple, elastic hide, well coated with hair, on the one hand, and
a similar variation, with harsh hair and coarseness, on the other. The
thin, papery hide indicates quick fattening and a delicate constitution;
thick, elastic hide, cushioned on fat, and which on the flank comes
into the hand almost without grasping, indicates the height of vigor,
accompanied b}"^ the fattening tendency, and the possessor of this hand-
ling endures climatic changes, low <iuality in his food, and neglect, with
744 CrCLOfEDlA of live stock and complete troCK DOCTOR.
remarkable hardihood, and quickly responds to full feed and good care.
The harsh handler is a dull feeder, consumes much food, and generally
contains more than a just proportion of offal or waste. In the Ayrshire
cow we desire neither of these extremes, for it is in the milk product
that we wish the food to l)e utilized, and it is almost an unchanging law
of nature, that deticiericy in one direction must be compensated for by
excess in another direction, and vice versa. At any rate, the cow that
lays on fat too quickly is seldom a first class milker ; and how well known
is it that the cow of large yield milks down her condition. A cow that
has a moderately thin, loose skin, of sufficient elasticity and suppleness of
touch, without being fat-cushioned, as it were, with hair soft and mossy
or woolly, if of correct form otherwise, will usually milk a large quantity^
and when she becomes drj', will rapidly come into condition. In truth,
the handling of the Ayershire cow must be good ; it cannot be too good r
but it must not be of exactly that quality sought for in the grazing breeds.
There, as everywhere, the dairyman must keep to his line ; milk, not
fat, is his profit ; and in seeking excess of both, he will be liable to fall
below the average of either.
XV. Milk Points.
It is an axiom of breeders to diminish the useless parts of an animal
as much as possible, or, in other words, to reduce the proportion of those
parts not conducive to profit to as great extent as possible. Applying
this rule to a dairy breed, w^e should desire a small neck, sharp shoulders,
sma'l brisket and small bone. Moreover, small bone usually accompa-
nies thrift, and is universally found in improved breeds. We thus have a
reason for these other Ayrshire points :
Shoulders lying snugly to the ])ody, thin at their tops, small at their
points, not long in the blade, nor loaded with muscle ; brisket light ;
neck of medium length, clean in the throat, very light throughout, and
tapering to the head ; tail long and slender ; legs short, bones fine,
joints firm.
XVI. The Head.
The head should be small, in shape either long and narrow, or broad
in the forehead and short, according to the type of animal preferred by
the breeder, generally preferred somewhat dishing ; the nose tapering to
an expanded nmzzle, with good clean nostrils. Opinions differ as to the
general shape ot the head. A broad forehead and short face occurs
more frequently in bulls, and are generally esteemed a masculine charac-
teristic ; a more elongated face is called feminine. Yet some families of
well-bred and good milking Ayrshire cows have the broad and short
head, and such were, at one time, if not now, the favorites in the show-
vard Id Scotland.
DAIKY CATTLE THE AYRSHIRES. 745
The eye should be moderately full, lively yet placid lookinj^. The eye
is a mirror of the disposition, and interprets the character of Ihe cow; a
fretful, irritable animal is seldom a quick fattener, and usually disap-
points at the pail. It also gives expression to the features, and physiog-
nomy aids our judgment.
The ears should be of a good size, but thin, and their skin of rich
yellow color. Coarse ears are usually found on ill-bred animals, and
these may be considered, to a certain extent, indicative of general coarse-
ness. The color of the skin, as shown inside the ear, is usually considered
indicative of the richness of the milk in butter.
The horns should be of medium size, of fine texture, with an outward
and upward turn, or inclining upwards and curving slightly inwards, ac-
cording to the taste of the breeder. They should be set on rather
widely apart. A coarse horn may indicate a coarse and thick hide, as
there seems an intimate relation between the composition of the horn, hair,
and hide, and the influence of climate on horn and hair gives an appear-
ance oftentimes of correlation between the tv;o.
XVII. The Neck, Body and Limbs.
The neck should be of medium length throughout, and tapering to the
throat, which should be clean or free from loose, hanging skin. Yet too
thin a neck is not desirable, as it usually indicates a delicate animal. A
fhick-set neck, well covered, j^et not overladen Avith muscle, accompanies
hardiness and vigor of constitution.
The junction of the neck with the body and over the shoulders is
called the crops ; on a horse it would be called the withers. A hollow
behind this point ic a never-failing sign of weakness. The crops should
blend in easily witii a thin shoulder, lying snugly to the body. This
shoulder and a well defined spine produce the sharpness of shoulder so
much admired. The back should be straight, with spine well defined,
espccialh' forward. The tail long, firm in the bone, and set on a level
with the back, without depression or notch. A fine tail usually accom-
panies fine bone, and the fine bone is not only decrease of offal over
heavy limbs, but accompanies early maturity, and a. tendency to thrift.
The limbs should be fine-boned, flat-boned, and with joints of moderate
size. On the forward liml)S the cow should stand low. Large joints and
round bones are found very frequently on dull feeders, and on animals of
little profit.
XVIII. Importance of Good Teats.
The teats should be of medium length, evenly set, and project
slightly outward when the l):ig is full, of even thickness throughout, and
of fine texture. They should be placed about one-third of the length oi
746 CVCLOI'EDIA Ol- LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETK STOCK DOCTOR.
the "vessel" apart in one direction, and about one-half the other.
When the udder is not distended, they should hang perpendicularly.
Large teats, however desirable to the milker, are usually accompanied b^
coarseness of build in the cow. They are seldom found on well-bred
animals, yet exceptionally they occur, and are much liked. A teat should
be large enough to gras[), say from two to two and a half inches in
length. A shorter one would be an objection ; with larger, I should feai
coarseness.
XIX. Color Style and Condition.
In color the Ayrshiro.s vary greatly. Brown, red, and white appears
to good advantage, and is fashionable. A good quantity of white, well
distributed, adds style and showincss to the animal. Yellow and white is
frequently seen, yet while this color is sometimes stated as indicating lack
of hardiness, I am not aware of any proofs or argument having been
brought forward to support this view. Color is as yet a matter of taste,
for its correlations are hardly guessed at; and from almost pure black,
through the reds to almostpure white, are colors found on the best cows.
Black spots on the skin, barely perceptible through the hair, often occur
on the best cattle. Strawl)erry blotched and red and white are perhaps
the more common colors. A self-colored animal, or a roan, or animal
with white on the ears, the writer has never yet seen among the Ayr-
shires in Scotland or in this country, when the pedigree was unques-
tionable.
The carriage should be light and active, the head well up, and the hind
legs should not cross in walking. The condition should be neither fat
nor lean, but that average which a good cow holds when in good flesh at
calving, liberally fed while in milk.
In selecting Ayrshires, if these points are attended to, and if the
breeder has carefully studied what we have previously Avritten m relation
to raising cattle in general, there will be no ditiiculty about the selection
of superior animals.
DRINKING APPARATUS FOR CALVES RUBBER TEAT,
CHAPTER XI.
DAIRY CATTLE— THE DUTCH BREEDS.
I. ANTIQUITY OF DUTCH CATTLE AS A DISTINCT RACE. II. FRIESIAN AND BA.TAVIAK
CATTLE. HI. DUTCH CATTLE OLDER THAN THOSE OK HOLSTEIN. IV. ESl'AB-
LISHMLNT OF REGULAR CATTLE MARKETS. V. IMPORTATION OF DANISH CATTLE
IN:0 FRIESLAND. VI. facts about dutch CATTLE. VII. VARIETIES DES-
CijiBED. VIII. RACES OF DUTCH CATTLE. IX. DR. SEORGE MAV"S TESTI-
MONY. X. BREEDS OF NORTH AND SOUTH HOLLAND AND WEST FRIESLAND.
XI. THElltCOLOR AND FORM. XII. YIELDS OF MI LK. XIII. FEEDING QUAL^
ITIKS. XIV. DUTCH CATTLE AN ARTIFICIAL BREED. XV. THE EARLIEST
IMI-OIITATIONS. XVI. THE LEROY IMPORTATION. XVII. THE CHENERY IM-
PORTATION. XVIII. WHAT PROF. ROBERTS SAYS. XIX. MEASUREMENT8
ADOPTED FOR DUTCH FRIESIAN CATTLE. XX. HOW TO SELECT DAIRY OOWS.
I. Antiquity of the Dutch Cattle as a Distinct Race.
The cattle now called Dutch undoubtedly trace, in an iinln-oken line,
further l)ack than any other race in repute among breeders. The Fries-
ians and Batavians long ago inhabited Holhmd. The history of the
Friesians dates back to 300 years before Christ, and they were known
more than 2,000 years ago as herdsmen, hunters and fishermen. The Ba-
tavians are said to have come some 200 years later, or 100 years before
Clirist. Prof. G. J. Hengerveid, of tiie Royal Veterinary Institute at
Utrecht, Netherlands, in an exhaustive letter to the United States Consul
in 1872, goes over the whole history, and without other preface we ex-
tract such portions as seem pertinent to the matter iki hand :
The lands of the Friesians comprised the whole country to the north of
the Rhine as far as the shore of the North Sea, to which West and East
Friesland belonged, composing the present Dutch provinces of Gronin-
iren, Friesland, Dreuthe, and North Holhmd, l)esides the provinces of
Utrecht, Overyssell, and a part of Guldcrhnid and South Holland. Of
all these provinces Groningen alone appertained to East Friesland.
II. Priesian and Batavian Cattle.
Tacitus savs of the Friesians and Batavians that they owned cattle, not
excelling ii/beauty, but in number. He furtlier states, as does also
Julius Csesar, that^the Friesians and Batavians paid each other in cows,
sheep and -oats, and gave likewise to their children as dowry, oxen
adapted to ^the yoke and plough, cattle and horses. When they were
subdued by the Romans in the first century of our era, the conquerors
imposed upon the Friesians an annual tribute, consisting of cow-hides and
meat. The Friesians and Batavians applied themselves to the drannng
747
748 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
of their marshy lands and their islands, and created meadows on the re-
claimed soil. Something is even known regarding the color of their cat-
tle, namely, that they held those of a white color in religious veneration
The Friesians, from Oldenburg and the country near the mouth of the
Elbe, were compelled, through the inclemency of those regions — then in
their original condition of low alluvial swamps, inundated at every tide —
to desert them. It can also be shown that the inhabitants of this terri-
tory were unable to make sure provision for their own wants, because of
the robberies and piracies conmiitted by the Normans, ]>y dwellers on the
west coast of Denmark, people from Holstein and Schleswig, Jutes and
Angles. This was between the eighth and eleventh centuries. Giving
due weight to these statements, it cannot be doubted that the cultivation
of cattle in the Netherlands existed a long time before such a thing
could be thought of in Holstein. It is also quite as certain that the col-
onies from Friesland, Holland and Westphalia, carried with them their
cattle to Holstein.
m. Dutch Cattle Older than those of Holstein.
Hence we see that, first, the Dutch race of cattle date from an older
descent than those of Holstein ; while, probably, second, the Holstein
cattle orginated from the Friesian breed and from that of the Dutch and
Westphalia emigrants. After this colonization, we have our attenticm
directed to another remarkable particular in the history of Dutch cattle.
rv. Establishment of Regular Markets.
From the fourteenth on till the eighteenth centur}', a large number of
Danish oxen were annually turned for pasture into the grassv meadows
of North Holland, and sold at the weekly North Holland cattle market.
The oldest of these cattle markets is that of the city of Hoorn. This
market was already established in 1311, and in 1339 the Danes and the
inhabitants of the Eyder, were allowed by Albrecht, duke of Bavaria, to
hold a weekly market there. In 1605, the Danish cattle market was re-
moved from Hoorn and transferred to Enkhujzen, when, in 1624, the
number of 1,179 oxen were sold. There was also in Amsterdam a lean-
cattle market, beginning in the Spring, in the month of April, l)ut held
at irregular periods, depending upon wind and weather, when cattle were
allowed to be conveyed thither from Denmark and Holstein to graze.
These were mostly brought by vessel.
v. Importation of Danish Cattle into Friesland.
In the middle of the eighteenth century, it is mentioned that, owingto the
cattle-plague, the people were compelled to import from abroad all kinds
of small cattle, chiefly Danish. But, what was remarkable, however
DAIRY CATTLE THE DUTCH BREEDS.
749
lint CYCLOl'I-JDIA <>l" LIVK STocK \M' (omii
)(K' DOCTOR
DMRY CArXLE lllE DUTCH IJKEEDS. 751
small and ill-favored these animals might be when compared Avith the
handsome Friesian horned cattle, an im[)rovement of food induced a
favorable development of body, and, from the mixtm-e of the two breeds,
good and choice milch-kine were attained Avithiu two or three generations
after the introduction of the foreign blood, no matter how much the race
had in the beginning deteriorated through the process, and, eventually^
the type of Danish and German cattle was quite lost.
VI. Pacts about Dutch Cattle.
The chief characteristics of this Friesian breed — its eminent milk-
givnig and fattening qualities — we find in all the districts mentioned,
and extending still farther southward; v/ith this difference, however,
that wherever the land is more fertile, the climate milder, and the tend-
ing, feeding and breeding of the cattle observed with more care, in that
measure, they are more developed, attain larger size, and are of a finer
texture.
If the intention be to convey a correct understanding of the true
qualities of the several varieties or breeds mentioned in their own dwellMi*'-
places, it is better that each breed should retain the name by which it is
known, and that no collective name, though a historical one, should be
given them.
Vn. Varieties Described.
In order to be able to readily classify a group of cattle of great
extent, possessing the same chief qualities in form and productiveness,
Sturm proposed, so long as fifty years ago, to give to a group, subject
to the same conditions of soil and climate, a name indicating those con-
ditions, and thus originated Mountain Cattle, Highland Cattle and Low-
land Cattle. He also heads each of these divisions by the breed best repre-
=entmg the distinctive feature of its class, as Us type. It is under the
denomination of Lowland Cattle that he places the different breeds of
the coast lands along the North Sea. Schmalz, Pabst and many subse-
(juent Avriters, adopt this classification, some with a few modifications.
According to Schmal//s statement, cattle, adopting Stui-m's clussitication,
may be distinguished in the following manner:
VHI. Races of Dutch Cattle.
A. Lowland Race. — Primitive cow ; Dutch-Friesian cow.
B. Mountain Race. — Degenerate, quite the contrary of A ; Swiss cow.
C. Middle Race. — Highland race ; forms the transition from A to B ;
Frankish cow.
To the race A belong- the Dutch, as representatives, the Friesian, the
Oldenburg, and chiefly all l^owland laces bearing the peculiar character-
istics which identify it with the place of its sojourn.
752 CYCLorKDiA or live stock and complete stock doctor.
This is a purely natural division, and there is not the least arrogance
m assertiiiir, what history points out, that the Dutch cattle constitute thy
type of the oldest, purest, and best breed. All other varieties are of less
intrinsic value ; they are coarser or smaller, possess less productive quali-
ties, though of local excellence in their native places.
One hears in Europe of " Lowland cattle," but purchases of them for
the i)urpose of improving other breeds have, for the last hundred years,
only been made in the chief Neiherland provinces, where the choicest
cattle of the Lowlands are found. Thus, thousands of Dutch and Friesian
cattle are annually sent abroad under the name of Dutch cattle.
IX Dr. George May's Testimony.
Dr. George May, director of the agricultural establishment at Weihen-
stephan, says : The Dutch cattle constitute the type of the properly so-
called Lowland race, which extends throughout Netherlands, Flanders,
Normandy, Oldenburg, and Denmark. The Oldenburg cattle descended
from the Dutch race, and are likewise distinguished as East Friesian
cattle, as still partially found in Hanoverian Friesland. In the adja-
cent parts of Bremen it is called Bremen cattle.
In the transactions of the Ohio Board of Agriculture, 1872, in an article
on Dutch cattle, by Professor Furstenburg, we find the following:
The breeds of cattle in Holland maybe divided according to their locality
as follows : 1. The breeds in the provinces North and South Holland and
West Friesland. 2. The breeds in the provinces Groningen, Guelderhind,
Utrecht, and OverysSel. 3. The breeds in the provuices of Seeland.
Although these breeds are closely related, still they show differences
resulting from keeping and the various [)ui poses for which thi-y are bred.
X. Breeds of North and South Holland and "West Friesland.
The breed most renowned in the kingdom for its milk-producing quali-
ties is found in these three provinces. But North Holland in particulai
is noted for the manner of keeping catth% which are known by the name
of Amsterdam race, being no less remarkable on account of size than for
the great production of milk. The pastures of North Holland are said to
contain 100,000 morgen (58-100 morgen to an acre) ; every acre furnishes
nourishment for 49-100 head of cattle. The peasants are engaged almost
solely in cattle breeding, and the keeping and care which these animals
veccive here has almost become proverbial on account of its perfection
XI. Their Color and Form.
The cattle here are mostly spotted black and white ; however, brown and
blue or gray mixed are found. The height is considerable, being not
UAIUY CATTLE THE DUTCH BREEDS. 753
under two Amsterdam ells, (4 51-100 feet) ; the length of the body in pro-
portion to the height, the middle part of which is particularly developed,
the quarters fleshy, neck rather short than long, with a strong dewlap ;
head narrow and long, with the forehead slightly depressed ; fine horns
crooked forward, and large projecting ears. The withers arc often nar-
row ; the back, on the other hand, broad across the hips, which are not
very prominent ; the tail tine and long, with a good tuft of hair ; the posi-
tion of the hind legs strong and straight (not knock-kneed), the hind-(|uar-
tcrs broad and roomy, and the bag Avell developed. The lower part of the
legs above the hoofs is invariably white, which is regarded as a sign of
the pure unmixed breed. The live weight of the cows is 1.200 to 1,400
pounds; th;it of bulls reaches 2,000 i)ounds when full grown and fatted.
The cows are usually productive of milk, and give an average of 3,000
quarts and over per annum.
A very excellent milch cow of the Amsterdam race, from the royal
cow stable in Eldena, which was brought with a few ethers to the Inter-
national Exhibition, took the first premium for milch cows of the
Netherland race at the International Exhibition of live stock at Stettin m
1865. This cow, fed in the stall only, gave in one year the great quan-
tity of (),142 quarts of milk, and kept up afterwards to 4,000 quarts in an
equal length of time.
To the breed of North Holland are nearly related those of South Hol-
land and West Friesland, and differ perhaps only in that the latter are
larger-boned, and in general of not so pleasing a form. In regard to
their milk-producing qualities they are about equal. The manner of
keeping the stock, and the use of the milk, is also the same. viz. : the
manufacture of cheese, while the calves are raised and sold as young
stock at high prices. From these three provinces, the former two of
which suffered so much lately from rinderpest, milch cows are bouglil
for the best dairies in Germany.
Holland cattle are well adapted to soiling, although at home they arc
accustomed to pasturage. They are kept profitably on the latter only
when its abundance facilitates grazing and makes corporal exertion unnec-
essary. Therefore a great error would be made in placing these animals
on a scant pasturage, and they are not at all adapted to the pasturage of
a light soil. The result of stall-feeding is more favorable, because proper
care and fodder can be given to the stock without its exertion. We have
received from no other race an equal quantity of milk with the same feed,
as years of observation in the cow stal)le of the Academy at Eldena has
shown.
754 CYCLOI'KOIA OK LIVK STOCK AND COMPLIOTK STOCK DOCTOR.
XII. Yields of Milk.
The yield of milk of these races was:
1. Four Toudeni cows gave Sl,3o7 (juarts, or an average of 2,334
quarts, or (i 3-10 quarts per day for the year. The largest inilker gave
2,345 (juarts, the smallest, 2,020 quarts.
2. Three Breitenl)urg cows gave 8,594 quarts, or an average of 2,8(54
2-3 quarts, or 7 85-100 quarts per day for the year. The largest milker
gave 2,94(5 quarts, the smallest, 2,820 quarts.
3. Three Ayrshire cows gave 5,38(J quarts, or an average of 1,795 1-3
quarts, or 4 92-100 quarts per day for the year. The largest milker gave
2,249 quarts, the smallest 1,415 quarts.
4. Twenty-two Holland cows gave 78, 100 quarts, or an average of 3,550
quarts, or 9 73-100 quarts per day for the year. The largest milker gave
6,142 quarts, the smallest 2,526 quarts.
The average feed per head in the Winter was daily — 10 pounds Sum-
mer straw, cut fine ; 2 1-2 rounds oat and wheat chaff ; 25 pounds beets ,
10 pounds hay ; 8 pound reaise malt from beer brewery; 3 pounds rye
bran. This food is considered about equal lo 42 9-10 pounds hay.
During the Summer the cows Avere fed daily per head 135 pounds green
fodder, viz., clover and vetches (of the latter very little was used), and
three times a day 8 pounds of hay.
XIII. Feeding Qualities.
Although there is no doubt that the Holland cows eat more, generally,
than the smaller Ayrshire and Toudern, this is of minor importance in
conqjarison with the greater amount of milk given bj^ the former. The
greater amount of feed consumed by the Holland cows can be estimated,
viz : Nine of them stood at one crib, while ten of the smaller stood at
another of equal size ; the fodder was, however, divided the same in each.
The proportion is as nine to ten, or when the smaller cows cat 45 pounds
of hay, the larger ones eat 50 pounds.
From the quantity- of milk given, the Holland cows used a tritlc over
5 imunds weight of hay to produce one (juart of milk ; Breitenl)urg used
6 25-100 pounds of hay ; Toudcrn 7 pounds of hay; Ayrshire 9 pounds
of hay. By 'these results it cannot remain doubtful which race is preferable.
XIV. Dutch Cattle an Artificial Breed.
It seems unfortunate that there should have been nmch feeling over
the name of a breed of cattle, really the most wonderful as milkers of
any known race. In the Eastern United States they are known as Dutch,
Holstein, and Dutch-Friesian cattle. In the West they are almost uni-
versally known as Holstein cattle. The probability is that the name
DAIRY CATTLE THE DUTCH BREEDS.
755
o >
o w
S W
^ W
o >
756 CYCT.OPFDTA OF LTVK STOCK AND COMPLK'T'E STOCK DOCTOR.
DANISH COW.
DANISH BULL, "FAURHOLM."
CroBB Breeding with the Danish Cow originated the Holsteln Breed.
DAIRY CATTLE THE DUTCH BREEDS.
75?
Friesian is moi e nearly correct than any other. Nevertheless, the modern
Dutch cow is as purely an artificially-bred animal as the Short-Horn, the
Hereford or the Ayrshire. They have been bred and selected with
scientific care so long that their character is constant and uniform in
capabilities for milk, and they are bred to color almost purely at the
whim of the breeder, one thing alone being constant. Where they are
white they are pure white, and where black they are pure black. Of late
years the name, Hoi stein -Friesian, has ))ecn authoritatively adopted.
XV. The Earliest Importations.
It is more than probable that Dutch cattle were among the first im-
ported to this continent, since the Dutch in their settlement of New York
undoubtedly brought with them the best representatives of their breeds.
It is recorded that in 1625 cattle were brought into the Dutch colony.
These were undoubtedly the true Dutch cattle, since milk and labor were
the two prime requisites with the colonists, and even so long ago as that
date, the Dutch cattle united these points in a high degree. For as long
ago as the early part of the seventeenth century (early in 1600) both
Holland and England were noted for breeds of superior and deep-milking
cattle. After these early importations of the Dutch and up to the early
part of the present century there were probably no more Dutch cattle
imported.
XVI. The Le Roy Importation.
It is stated that somewhere between 1820 and 1825, Mr. Herman Le
Roy, a public spirited merchant of New York city, imported some in.-
proved Dutch cattle which were sent to his farm near the city. Between
1827 and 1829, some of the produce of this herd were sent to the farm of
his son, Edward Le Hoy, on the Genesee river. Mr. L. F. Allen de-
scribes this herd m 1833, as he then saw them, as being large, well-spread
cattle, black and white in color, and remarkable for their uncommon
yield of milk, and of great value as dairy animals ; their qualities in that
line were universally acknowledged wherever known.
It seems unfortunate that the Le Roys, father and son, should not have
retained their herd pure, but such seems to have been the fact, for it is
known that at the sale of the farms of these gentlemen, none but grades
were found in the herd or in the adjacent country.
XV IL. The Chenery Importation.
According to the record it seems that the first imported animals tha
have been retained pure, were those of Mr. W. C. Chenery, near Boston,
m 1861. This was a bull and four cows, which were successfully bred
and kept pure. Mr. Chenery, previous to that time, in 1852, imported
'58
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMl'LETE STOCK DOCTOR.
a single cow. In 1857 he made importations of a Ijull and two
COWS, and in 1859 a further importation of four more cows.
With this latter importation he was so unfortunate as to import
pleuro-pneumonia. The ravages of this dread disease extended to
the entire herd, and with the exception of a single young bull,
DAIRY CATTLE — THE DUTCH BREEDS. 759
they were entirely destroyed. In 1861 Mr. Chenery made another
importation of a bull and four cows, which canie over sound. These and
their descendants were the only pure-bred herd in America for years. '
That they were the best representatives of their breed is certain from the
fact that they were selected with care from the best dairy herds of North
Holland, and were so certified to by the official authorities of the districts
where they were bred.
Later, as they gained a foothold in the West and showed their eminent
adaptability to the climate, and their wonderful yields of milk became
known, sagacious breeders undertook the importation as a business spec-
ulation. These cattle are now pretty well distributed from Ohio west,
and, with full summer and Avinter feeding, are regarded by many dairy-
men, especially cheese-makers, as superior to an}^ other known milking
breed.
XVIII. What Prof. Roberts Says.
Prof. Roberts, in an address before the New York Dairyman's Associa-
tion, gives the following in relation to breeding and care in North Hol-
land and Frieslana, from actual ol)servation there :
In the first place, but few ])ulls are kept, and these but for two or three
years at most, when they are sold in the market for beef. These bulls
are selected with the utmost care, invariably being the calves of the
choicest milkers. But little attention is paid to fancy points or color,
though dark spotted is preferred to light spotted, and more attention
is now being i)aid to color in order to suit American customers. All
Other bull calves with scarce an exception are sold as veals, bringing
about one and a half times as much as Avith us. In like manner the
heifer calves are sold except about twenty per cent, which are also select-
ed with care and raised on skimmed milk. The age of the cow is usually
denoted l)y the nunil)er of her calves, and in no case did I find a cow that
had had more than six calves, usually only four or five. 'I'lieirrule is to
breed so that the cow's first calf is dropped in the stable before the dam
is two years old, in order that extra care and attention may be given.
There are other objects gained by this method ; for should the heifer fall
below their high standard she goes to the butcher's market before another
wintering, and though she brought little profit to the dairy she will more
than i)ay for \\er keeping at the block. Here we find a three fold method
of selection. First in the sire ; second, in the young calf , judged largely
by the milking qualities of the dam ; and lastly is applied the greatest of
all tests, perforinanee at the pail ; and not till she answers this satisfac-
torily IS she accorded a permanent place in the dairy.
'60
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
XIX. Measurements Adopted for Dutch Friesian Cattle.
The measurements adopted by the Dutch-Friesian Association of Amer-
ica in estimating value, with a view to tabulated records in future, includ-
ing milk records, are as follows: 1 — Length from point of shoulder to
point of pelvis. 2 — Length from forward jjoint of hips to point of pelvis.
3 — A\idth of hips. 4 — Width at the thurl. 5 — Height at shoulders.
G — Height at hips. 7 — Girth at the smallest circumference immediately
back of shoulders.
XX. Hovi^ to Select Dairy Cows.
To sum up the whole matter of dairy breeds in a few words: If rich
milk, without regard to quantity, is desired, select the little Jerseys.
ONE-YEAR-OLD GALLOWAY HEIFER.
Specially photographed for this work.
They mil certainly satisfy the most difficult to please. If both butter
and milk are wanted, our preference would lie with the Ayrshires. But
if great quantities of milk excellently adapted to the manufacture of
cheese were the object, we should have no hesitation in saying, the Dutch
cattle will quite fill the most sanguine expectations
o H
DAIRY CATTLE— THE DUTCH BEEEDS.
761
v>V.'
BEST GROUP AFRICANDER BREED (One Bull and Three Cows)
Champion Prize, Ladybrand Show, Also Special Prize presented by His Grace the
Duke of Westminster for Best Family Cattle, "any breed."
The property of Tobias van Reenan.— Photographed expressly for this work.
i!i:sT AFIMUAXDER COW.
First Prize, Ladybrand Show, The property of Tobias van Reenan.
Photograohed expressly for this work.
7G2
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
CHAPTER XII.
DAIRY CATTLE AND DAIRYING.
By W. D. Hoard, Editor Hoard's Dairyman.
I. A PROPER FOUNDATION FOR THE INDUSTRY. II. CARE, HOUSING AND
FEEDING. III. THE SOIL. -IV. ORGANIZATION. V. THE GROWING OF
CROPS. VI. THE MAN BEHIND THE COW.
The title of this article puiposely places dairy cattle as the foundation
of the most successful prosecution of the industry of dairying. There is
nothing like having a proper foundation for all human enterprises. The
same may be said of the mind and judgment of the dairyman himself. If
the foundation ideas he has of his business are unsound and faulty the
outcome is sure to be unsatisfactory.
The development of dairy qualities in cattle is for the purpose of having
an animal that will produce milk economically. But few farmers, we
think, give this phase of the subject the attention they should. They have
never seriously considered the wonderful modifying influence of breed
over feed in the production of any given product or the economy of any
animal function. To illustrate — the famous trotting horse, Jay-I-See,
trotted a mile in two minutes and ten seconds on grain ration of 12 quarts
of oats a day. Put a draft horse on the track and feed him four times
that amount of oats and yet he could not very likely, trot a mile in eight
minutes. Reverse the situation and put the trotting horse in the collar
against a heavy load, will extra feeding make him equal to the draft horse
In a class of work that he was not bred to perform ? Of course not.
I. A Proper Foundation for the Industry.
So we sec that breeding an animal to the work of a certain function in-
creased very greatly the economic effect of that feed that must be used in
support of that function. This is the reason why a well-bred dairy cow
will produce from six to ten thousand pounds of milk on no more feed
than a beef-bred cow would consume in the production of two or three
thousand pounds. When the great body of farmers in this country clearly
understands the influence of breed over feed, then will be seen much less
waste of labor and feed. As the case now stands, there is an enormous
waste in this direction of using ill bred and unfit cows for the work of
dairying. There is a clearly seen principle — if men would look for it —
running all through nature in this respect. In Mechanics we see that
every machine has a form well fitted to its function. If the builder of a
763
764
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
niadiiiie violates that principle he is at once punished for it. This is jnst
as true of the living Machines we employ in converting our feed into ani-
mal products.
Dairy farming may be considered under the following heads: (1)
Dairy cattle, their breeding, care, housing and feeding; (2) Birildings,
stables, etc., and their proper construction and sanitation; (3) A knowl-
edge of the soil and the up-keep of fertility; (4) The proper organizfition
of all these forces into an economic relation to each other so as to insure
the highest profit; (5) The growing of proper crops and how to cure and
preserve them in their highest nutritive condition for the production of
milk; (6) Last, but not least, how to make an intelligent man of the far-
mer who shall take all these considerations and administer them to theii
best purpose and profit.
As will be seen from the foregoing, dairy farming is not the place for a
narrow or ignorant man. It is emphatically a work of brains and wide
comprehension. It is for that reason so nmny men make a poor success
of it. They will not give it the thought and judgment it must have if it
answers back in a profitable manner.
There are four distinct breeds of cattle which have been developed in
their milking functions by long years of breeding and evolution. These
are the Holstein-Friesian and Dutch Belted, which are somewhat closely
allied; the Jersey, the Guernsey and the Ayrshire. All of these breeds
have been specially bred for milk. The Brown Swiss are coming into notice
but as yet have not been extensively bred in this country. They are as yet
of rather a beefy build but some of the cows show most excellent milk-
ing qualities. The Holstein-Friesian, Dutch Belted and Ayrshire breeds
are noted for the production of a large amount of milk of a lower percent-
age of butter fat and a smaller butter fat globule. These characteristics
have led very greatly to their adoption for the purpose of supplying milk
to the cities where only a moderately rich milk is wanted. They are also
extensively used in this country and Europe for cheese making. Some
of the cows of the Holstein breed have been phenomenal producers of milk
and butter fat when considered from the standpoint of a year's production.
The Ayrshire cow yields a milk of fair average richness. She is an animal
of great hardihood and average healthfulness, and is rapidly claiming in-
creased attention as a cow of decided merit and desirability. One peculiar
feature of the Ayrshire is the harmonious "nick" with the Jersey or
Guernsey. We have known of several very fine business herds that have
been built u\) by taking grade Ayrshire cows and breeding them to pure
bred Jersey or Guernsey bulls. The heifei-s from this combination proved
to be cows of high merit. As a rule we do not advocate cross breeding,
but we must make an exception in the case of the grade Ayrshire cow and
Jersey or Guernsey sires. It is evident that the two currents of blood and
DAIRY CATTLE AND DAIRYING. 765
temperament do not meet at right angles as in the case of a cross between
the Holstein and Jersey or Guernsey and thus set up a conflicting tendency
in the resulting heifers.
The Jersey and Guernsey families are distinctly butter breeds, their
milk averaging nearly five per cent and more, in some herds. They have
the constitutional power to take grain and forage and return for it butler
fat at the lowest economic cost of any of the breeds. The Guernsey also
enjoys the distinction of producing milk and butter of a high color as well
as very desirable flavor. Both breeds are of a distinctive dairy tempera-
ment having never been weakened in their dairy tendencies by dual-pur-
pose or beef breeding crosses.
It is not the purpose of this article to enter into a discussion of how to
breed dairy cattle but rather to enumerate general principles for guidance.
The logic of breeding remains about the same in all breeds. The sire is
the fountain head. From him comes the seed. It must be of the right
strain and stamp and strongly prepotent of dairy tendencies. The cow
is the seed-bed. This must be harmonious and well fitted to nourish the
seed and start it on its way in the direction we desire. It may be said
that all noted producers 'of great dairy cattle have placed their chief reli-
ance on the sire. The average farmer pays but little attention to the sire.
A look at the cattle he generally breeds shows how thoroughly wrong he
is in his notions of breeding.
II. Care, Housing and Feeding.
The secretion of milk is a maternal function. The cow must be con-
structed for it in the first place. Then she must have kind and gentle
treatment and her stable home must be fashioned in obedience to the one
word COMFORT. The stable must be well lighted to insure her health
through the antiseptic effect of sunlight. It must be well supplied con-
stantly with fresh air that she may have the means to oxygenate her blood
from which is secreted the milk. The circulation of blood from heart to
lungs; lungs to the udder and back again to heart in a cow that gives
twenty-five to forty pounds of milk a day is enormous. Think of a farmer
who will shut up a herd of cows in a close, dark, unsanitary stable, leaving
them to poison themselves with foul breathed-over air, and then expect
good, profitable results from such blind folly. A cow lives on what she
eats, drinks and breathes. If the food or drink is poisoned, foul or unfit,
she feels it, and so if the air she breathes is poisoned, the effect is the same.
Remember that oxygen is food. The blood is purified and nutritioned
from the air. Poisoned air means a poisoned animal. The only satis-
factory system of ventilation is what is known as the King System.
Stables for northern latitudes should be constructed with two to three dead
air spaces in the walls with plenty of windows and equipped with the King
766 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
ventilation. They should be thoroughly cleaned and swept each day,
whitewashed once or twice a year and frequently disinfected. The
manure should be taken to the field each day if possible. The water
supply must be pure and the ration properly balanced so the cow can find
in the food sufficient milk elements to enable her to do her most natural
and perfect work. There is such a thing as feeding a cow according to
dairy knowledge and the farmer that hath it not and will not seek it fails
of his purpose.
III. The Soil.
The dairy farmer must be a good soil manager. He should know some-
thing of the chemistry of soil. He should know what nitrogen, phosphate
and potash mean and their effect on crops. Because of a lack of this
knowledge, vast areas of farm lands in the United States have been robbed
of their producing power. Every farm should be so farmed as to con-
stantly increase its producing power. Every farmer should be an earnest
student of his soil. He should hail with a warm welcome all that science
and scientific men have to give on this subject. The old dairy districts of
New York, New England, Pennsylvania and Ohio have gone down in
producing power because the men who owned and managed those farms
did not know enough to keep up the fertility of their farms. There is
no escape from this indictment. Soil robbing comes from soil ignorance.
We must face our responsibility to the soil, to coming generations and to
the state with less flinching and less self excusing.
IV. Organization.
Every dairy farm should be intelligently arranged as to the relation
of field to field, house and out-buildings to each other so that the whole
may, like some w^ell arranged factory, be carried on at the least expenditure
of labor and the greatest degree of efficiency. A great many dairy farms
look as if the several parts had been thrown together. Farm architecture
and arrangement is an important part of our study and efforts are being
made in Agricultural Colleges to express the best thought of the day.
This includes farm machinery and provision made for its shelter when
not in use. Here as well as at every other point thought and eff"ort nuist
be had to stop waste and thus add to profits.
V. The Grovi^ing of Crops.
Corn, both for the silo and the crib, clover and alfalfa, oats and barley,
as well as the up-keep of pastures, constitute in the main the crops of the
dairy farm. To the end that these crops may be abundant and stable and
the soil constantly made more productive, there must be a wise care of
manure, a right system of rotation and the expenditure every year of a
DAIRY CATTLE AND DAIRYING.
767
certain amount of money for phosphate and lime and, if needed, nitrogen
and potash. Unless we vigorously look after the productive power of our
soil we cannot successfully grow the crops we need. Corn, clover and
alfalfa are the sheet anchors of the dairy farmer. He must see to it that
the necessary elements of the soil are supplied by purchase. To be nig-
gardly here is to punish himself all the more. Still more he must keep
up the hunras of the soil. To this end he must occasionally plow under
a second crop of clover or the fourth crop of alfalfa. A liberal spirit here
will bring him a liberal reward. Most of our old soils have become sour
POINTS OBSERVED IN JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE.
1.
Head.
12.
Withers.
23.
Shoulder.
34.
Fore udder.
2.
Muzzle.
13.
Back.
24.
Elbow.
35.
Hind udder.
3.
Nostril.
14.
Loins.
25.
Forearm.
36.
Teats.
4.
Face.
15.
Hip bone.
26.
Knee.
37.
Upper thigh.
5.
Eye.
16.
Pelvic arch.
27.
Ankle.
38.
Stifle.
6.
Forehead.
17.
Rump.
28.
Hoof.
39.
Twist.
7.
Horn.
18.
Tail.
29.
Heart girth.
40.
Leg or gaskln.
8.
Ear.
19.
Switch.
30.
Side or barrel.
41.
Hock.
9.
Cheek.
20.
Chest.
31.
Belly.
42.
Shank.
10.
Throat.
21.
Brisket.
32.
Flank.
43.
Dew claw.
11.
Neck.
22.
Dewlap.
33.
Milk vein.
They need occasional applications of lime in the form of ground lime
stone, ground marl or the refuse lime from sugar factories. Quick lime
f<hould not be used as it will burn out the humus and thus destroy the
nitrogen of the soil.
VI. The Man Behind the Cow.
Last but not least we may consider the equation of brains in the business
of dairying. At each point it is the determining factor. Too large a
768 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
proportion of the men who keep cows, supposedly for profit, show but little
real dairy intelligence in their work. There is a lack of intelligence in
the breeding of the cow; the same lack of understanding in her care and
feeding; a decided lack of knowledge and judgment in farm management.
Everywhere are we confronted with men trying to win profit out of this
business with too low a grade of intelligence.
It is not enough that a farmer wants to make money in dairying. That
will not make him an intelligent man capable of seeing where good profit
lies. The touchstone to it all lies in the fact whether he takes a mental
interest in dairying or only a sordid one. If it be a mental interest you
will see him calling to his aid the books and papers that constitute the
literature of his business for it does have a literature. Science has con-
tributed so much to this industry in the way of cattle breeding; the analysis
of feeds ; the bacteriology of milk and the relation of bacteria to the diseases
of cattle; the sanitary construction of stables and care of the cow; and
finally the question of maintaining the feed-producing power of the farm,
that the truly successful dairyman must be a broadly intelligent man. He
cannot be that kind of a man unless he is a reader and student. He must
devote some time and money to his own dairy education. He cannot
exercise good discerning judgment upon all the problems of dairy farming
unless he has a w^ell-stored mind. The home of the true dairy farmer
should be a place of culture and mental grasp as much so as the home of
the lawyer or physician. They will find that the dairy farm will challenge
all the brain power they can bring to bear upon it. It is the seat of deep
problems in vegetable and animal life. There has come a great intel-
lectual awakening on this thing we call dairy farming. Our crowded
Agricultural Colleges and dairy schools ; the greatly increased demand for
thoroughly practical dairy papers and books; the massing of the best
scientific minds of the day in research and study concerning the discovery
of dairy truth ; all these show conclusively that the dairy farm is no place
for the ignorant, unthinking and non-reading farmer. The young men
of today see this. True financial success awaits him only who will wel-
come knowledge with an open hospitable mind.
"MISSOURI CHIEF JOSEPHINE."
The Champion Dairy Cow of all the World.
A PRACTICAL, LE6SON IN THE TREATMENT. FEEDING. WATERING AND MAN-
AGEMENT OF MILK COWS.
The College of Agriculture in the University of Missouri, at Columbia,
has raised and developed the Champion Dairy Cow of all the World —
"Missouri Chief Josephine," a Holstein-Friesian. Her record in the
production of milk for six months is 17,008.8 pounds, which exceeds the
previous world's record for six months by 1,458 pounds.
It is believed that without doubt Josephine will make a further great
record in the production of butter as well as milk. Her butter produc-
tion for six months amounts to 529 pounds, or nearly three per cent.
As she gets further along in her test the butter fat increases. On an
average test for one week it came to 4.1 per cent. A little more than a
half pound is the amount of butter available from the average dairy
cow's daily production. Josephine's butter production is between three
and four pounds daily.
The 17,008.8 pounds of milk which she gave in six months gives her
an average of 93.4 pounds of milk daily for 182 days. This is equiva-
lent to 46.7 quarts or 11.6 gallons every day. Her highest record for
one day is 110.2 pounds, about 56 quarts or 14 gallons of milk, more
than the average healthy dairy cow gives in one week. She gives more
milk in two months than most cows give in a year. One can better
comprehend the enormity of the bulk of this cow's production when he
realizes that, as large as she is — weighing 1,370 pounds at the end of
her six months' test — Josephine produces more pounds of milk in six
months than twelve times her own weight, more than twice her weight
in milk each month; or, if you please, her own weight in milk every
two weeks.
Another way to get at this is to compare her production to the nutri-
tion obtained from beef. According to a bulletin issued by the Uni-
versity of Missouri, Josephine's milk production for six months is
equivalent to "More human food than is contained in the carcasses of
three steers weighing 1,250 pounds each. This amount of milk is more
than equivalent to the nutrition obtained from 5,000 pounds of round
steak."
At the rate of 15c per pound for round steak, Josephine's milk for
six months is worth more than $750.00, or more than $1,500.00 for a
year. Since the average man's yearry income, according to the yearly
769
m
f'YCLOI'EDIA OF LIVE STUCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
"MISSOURI CHIEF JOSEPHINE." 771
statistics, has been estimated at $500.00, Josephine annually produces
more in actual valuation than the earnings of three average men. If
the average man, however, were as well cared for as Josephine is, he
would unquestionably produce more Uian he does. The same fact is
true of the average cow. "Chief Josephine" receives the constant care
and attention of experts. The foreman at the dairy farms at the College
of Agriculture in the University of Missouri is her chief attendant. He
lives on the farm close to where Josephine's stall is located and during
the test here noted he is said to have practically slept with one eye upon
her. He is qualitied for the work by long experience and has made
much reputation for producing dairy cows — perhaps more than any
other dairyman in the world. In the management of "Chief Jose-
phine," he has economized her strength and force, and in order that she
may waste no enegry in digestion, her food is ground into powder and
soaked in water before being served to her. Although she consumes
daily 132 pounds of this wet feed, besides the alfalfa hay and corn silage,
she never gets enough. The feed pan in which she is fed four times
every day is exhausted each time. Water is the only thing of which
she gets enough. She is allowed to drink water as long and as much as
she wants. Her thirst is quenched every day by at least 270 pounds
of water, or about 30 gallons. The water she drinks is warmed to a
temperature of about 70 degrees, the condition best suited to milk pro-
duction.
It costs about 77c a day to keep Josephine and her daily production
is worth over $4.00 at prevailing prices. On being asked if that cost
included the manager's labor and the cost of the electric fans in her
stall, the reply wa.s "No, that is the cost of her feed alone; but I did not
include a $3,000.00 calf in her production either." The calf is worth
$3,000.00 now, and will be worth more when its mother completes her
year's test. Josephine's value estimated on her six months' record is
$20,000.00. When she has completed her year's test with the world's
champion record for the full year, as well as for the six months, she
will be worth two or three times as much as she is now.
The box stall in which Josephine is kept is screened and white-
washed on all sides. A large electric fan suspended above her from the
ceiling keeps the few flies that get in from annoying her. Another
smaller fan sits in the corner next to a window furnishing a cooler breeze
of fresh air from the outside. She is kept in her stall all day, except
when taken out for her shower baths and exercises. At 4 :30 o'clock in
the morning she is bnished off and given exercises in the lot. At 5
o'clock she receives her breakfa-st of six pounds of pulverized grains,
bran, corn-chop, ground oats, gluten, linseed meal and cottonseed meal,
with about three ounces of salt mixed with each twelve pounds of beet
772 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
pulp, soaked with 25 pounds of water. She is fed 40 pounds of green
hay and silage and about 10 pounds of dry alfalfa.
She is watered at 8 o'clock in the morning, 2 o'clock in the afternoon
and 10 o'clock at night, drinkin'g all she wants each time. During the
warm weather she is given shower baths daily, the number varying ac-
cording to the intensity of the heat. In clear weather she is allowed to
spend a part of the night exercising in the lot, but if a rain comes up
during the night she is hurried back into her stall.
She spends most of her time lying on the sawdust-covered floor of her
stall, yet Josephine is a hard working animal according to statement of
one of her attendants. "See how fast she chews her cud," this attendant
said one day. "That is the way all hard working cows do. You cani
always tell a good milk producer by the way she chews her cud. Joe,,
as she is called around the barn, chews about two or three times as fast
as the ordinary cow."
Josephine is never struck or allowed to be excited in any manner,
because any nervous shock causes a decrease in her milk production.
For example: On one occasion when the electricity which furnished
the power for her fans was shut off, leaving her to fight flies and suffer
the intense summer heat of Central Missouri, her milk flow decreased
from 96 pounds daily to 74 pounds daily — a decrease of 18 pounds or
2l^ gallons — which is as much as the average dairy cow's production.
Her keepers claim that this championship race is a commercial, not
a fancy test. To prove this, it is shown that the former world's cham-
pion dairy cow had made her record after a rest of three years, while
Josephine's record is being made after doing her full duty as a dairy
cow in the University herd during the last 5i/2 years in raising five
calves.
"Chief Josephine" is now eight years old. She is of the breed called
Holstein, otherwise known as Friesian or Holland. She is only about
three generations removed from the rich lowlands of Dykes and Wind-
mills in North Holland and Friesland, her ancestors having been
brought to the United States about thirty-six years ago.
In color, she is black and white like the rest of her breed, the white
predominating in her particular case. Her udder is unusually large,
being long and extending well behind. Her teats and milk-veins are
very large and prominent.
HEGELUND METHOD OF MILKING.
773
Methods of Milking.
Milking the cow is such a simple operation and one that occupies in the
aggregate so much time, that it is easy to become careless about it and to
look upon the operation as one not requiring skill nor demanding scien-
Fig. 1. — First manipulation in the Hegelund method of milking.
tific investigation. The feeding has received careful attention, both by
investigators and farmers, until it is now probably correct to say that the
cow in the hands of the progressives is more scientifically fed and nour-
ished than most children. The ventilation and sanitation of stables has
Fig. 2. — Second manipulation in the Hegelund method of milking.
also been the subject of much discussion, but it is certainly a fact that the
art of milking has not received the attention it deserves, at least not until
very recently.
774
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
The Hegeliind method of milking, which is really a series of manipu-
lations of the udder, is described as follows:
First Manipulation. — The right quarters of the udder are pressed
against each other (if the udder is very large, only one quarter at a time
is taken) with the left hand on the hind quarter and the right hand in
front on the fore quarter, the thumbs being placed on the outside of the
udder and the four fingers in the division between the two halves of the
udder. The hands are now pressed toward each other and at the same
time lifted toward the body of the cow. This pressing and lifting is
repeated three times, the milk collected in the milk cistern is then milked
out, and the manipulation repeated until no more milk is obtained in this
way, when the left quartei-s are treated in the same manner, (Fig, 1.)
Second Manipulation. — The glands are pressed together from the side.
The fore quarters are milked each by itself by placing one hand, with
fingers spread, on the outside of the quarter and the other hand in the
division between the right and left fore quarters; the hands are pressed
against each other and the teat then milked. When no more milk is ob-
tained by this manipulation, the hind quarters are milked by placing a
hand on the outside of each quarter, likewise with fingers spread and
turned upward, but with the thumb just in front of the hind quarter. The
hands are lifted and gra.^p into the gland from behind and from the side,
after which they are lowered to draw the milk. The manipulation is re-
peated until no more milk is obtained, (Fig. 2.)
Third Manipulation.— The fore teats are grasped with partly closed
hands and lifted with a push toward
the body of the cow, both at the
same time, by which method the
glands are pressed between the
hands and the body; the milk is
drawn after each three pushes.
When the fore teats are emptied
the hind teats are milked in the
same manner. (Fig. 3.)
In trials of this method on 142
cows the average amount of residual
milk oljtained was about 1 pound
per head daily, the average butter
fat in the milk. The average fat
content of the herd milk obtained
in the regular milking was 4.29 per
cent, of the residual milk 10.32 per cent, or 2.4 times as large as the
former. The time required for after-milking by the method was from
two to three minutes.
Fig. 3. — Third manipulation in the
Hegelund method of milking.
CHAPTER XIII.
THE RAISING AND ECONOMICAL FEEDING OF CATTLE.
I. IMPORTANCE OF PROPER CARE WHILE YOUNG. II. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
GOOD AND BAD CARE.— III. THE STARVED CALVES AT GRASS. IV. THE
OTHER SIDE.— -V. GOOD WINTER KEEPING FOR CALVES. VI. WHEN AND
HOW TO CASTRATE. VII. GENERAL CLASSES OF CATTLE. VIII. SPECIAL
CLASSES. IX. FULL FEEDING AND EARLY MATURITY. X. ECONOMY IN
FEEDING. XI. THE TRUE POLICY WITH YOUNG STOCK. XIL FEEDING THE
YOUNG CALVES. XIII. FEED GRASS AND OATS EARLY. XIV. WHERE THE
PROFIT COMES IN. XV. FEEDING FOR BEEF AND FOR LABOR. XVI. REACH-
ING RESULTS. XVII. WHEN AND HOW TO FEED. XVIII. OUT-DOOR FEED-
ING WHERE CORN IS CHEAP. XIX. A GOOD CONDIMENT. XX. SO-CALLED
PERFECT FOODS.
I. Importance of Proper Care while Young.
There is no more important factor in the management of cattle than
proper care while young. Those who imagine that they are doing the
correct thing if they can manage to keep life in a calf until it is three
months old, and then have it get fat on grass before winter comes, al-
ways have a set of "scrawiis," with tjcir digestive organs destroyed liy
improper food, and which never make either healthy steers or cows. They
are always runts — contemptuously called "scalawags," by the l)utchers
in our markets — and sell for one and a half to two cents a pound,
when good cattle are worth from four and a half to six cents.
II. Difference between Good and Bad Care.
A single illustration will suffice. One man will give calves new milk
until they are six weeks old, and then gradually reduce the quantity,
substituting oat-meal porridge or fine coni-nieal mush, with a very little
linseed added, or mixing equal parts of oat-nieal and corn-meal in the
milk, until the calf is four months old. Then it will do well on soft
grass and oats.
The other man takes the calf from the cow at one day old. and feeds
it skim-milk until the age of three weeks, when half-cooked, coarse
meal — husks and all — is mixed with the milk ; and finally at six weeks or
two months old, the calf is turned out to grass, receiving, perhaps, an
occasional ration of sour whey. It is poor, does not gi'ow, takes "the
scours," which is only another name for indigestion, and if the animal
gets through the first winter with what such a man calls special nursing,
and occasional greasings with "anguintum, " to kill lice, he finds himself
the possessor of a scrubby yearling, ready (?) for grass, that will weigh,
skin and bones, from seventy to ninety pounds.
776
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
III. The Starved Calves at Grass.
He expects his calves to get on their feed the next summer. Calves are
endowed with great vitality, and if their stomachs recover something of
tone, thev will have shed their old hair, (what has not been eaten out by
vermin) by the first of July, and by fall, if it be a good year for grass,
they will be in half-decent store condition, and perhaps weigh 150 to 170
pounds each. That is, they will have gained from sixty to eighty pounds
of flesh, each, to cover their bones. They are at the end of eighteen
months, just where a good calf should have been at weaning time the fall
BADLY WINTERED. WELL WINTERED.
before, but with constitutions ruined so far as profitable feeding is
concerned.
Thus, this kind of feeding goes on ; starved in winter and allowed to
shift for themselves in summer, at the age of three years they will aver-
ao-e 800 pounds, gross weight, if no epidemic seizes them.
IV. The Other Side.
The common-sense feeder keeps his calves growing right along, with
plenty of new milk until their stomachs are capable of digesting solid
food, when meal mush is added, and the cream taken from the milk. As
soon as they will eat oats and grass, they are given as much of these as
they want; and in the autumn, when ready for wintering, it would not
be strange if they should average 200 pounds each.
V. Good Winter Keeping for Calves.
They are given warm shelter and the best and softest hay, with a gen-
erous allowance of meal daily. So they grow right along, and may be
made to gain a hundred pounds during the winter. The next summer
they are kept on flush pasture, or, if grass is bad, they get some corn,
with plenty of pure water, and a place is provided where they may es-
cape flies. Thus at three years old the steers are heavy beeves, and the
heifers will have produced a fine calf, each, and be ready to do justice to
them in the way of nourishment.
THE RAISING AND ECONOMICAL FEEDING OF CATTLE. 777
VI. When and How to Castrate.
Many persons put off gelding their calves until they are six months old,
and often until they are a year old. This will do if " stags " are wanted :
dut stags, however fat, sell for one or two cents a pound less in the mar-
ket than steers. The proper time to geld bull calves is not later than the
age of four weeks.
When the calves are about three weeks old, drive tliem into a close
pen. Secure a calf so it may stand at ease, but not struggle severely ;
or, it may be thrown on the left side for the operation.
Seize the scrotum with the left hand, and press the testicles rather
firmly to the bottom ; with a keen blade, rounded at the point, cut at a
smgle stroke down through the scrotum and into the testicles, first one
and then the other. Separate the membrane carefully, but quickly, when
it unites, and draw out the testicles until about six inches of the cords
are visible. Cut the cords, first one and then the other, with a pair of dull
shears (this prevents much bleeding), and let them pass back. If severe
bleeding ensues, inject a little muriate of iron into the cavity, and wet a
soft rag with the same and pass it gently into the cavity. Some use salt
and lard, but this is painful. So proceed until all are castrated, and then
turn them into a place where strange cattle or flies will not molest them.
It IS as little dangerous, this mode of castration, almost, as cutting
one's finger. The parts should heal in a week. Castration often comes
awkward to the beginner, but it soon becomes easy, if fearlessly and care-
fully practiced.
VII. General Classes of Cattle.
(1) Beef cattle. — This class includes all grades of fat steers and heifers;
also everything from common to prime and from light to heavy. It is
finished condition that brings animals into this ck\ss.
(2) Butcher stock. — This class includes animals that have not fattened
well ; also animals that have not been fed long enough to become properly
fattened. It seldom includes steers of really good quality, as such will
usually be sold as feedei-s. The bulk of butcher stock is made up of
cows and heifers.
(3) Cutters and canners. — In this class are included old, thin cows
and very thin bulls, steers, and heifers. The cutters must carry sufficient
flesh to permit of the loin or rib or both being used for cutting on the
block. Those animals which are so thin that no part of the carcass can
be used for block purposes constitute the canners.
(4) Stockers and feeders. — This class includes calves, yearlings, two-
year-olds, and older cattle. Cattle 18 months old or older which are ready
for immediate use in the feed lot are called feeders. Those which are
younger are referred to as stockers.
(5) Veal calves. — This includes all calves which are sold for immediate
slaughter.
7/0 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
VIII. Special Classes.
The above general classes really comprise everything in the way of
cattle sent to the markets. But there are a number of special classes
generally recognized which require to be named and defined.
(1) Texas and Western range cattle. — A few years ago the typical
Texas steer had very long horns and long legs, was thin and narrow-
bodied, and carried a large deep brand ; and most of the cattle which came
from Texas were of this description. But this type is rapidly disappear-
ing. Animals of the best beef breeds have been imported into the State
and used for breeding purposes, especially for crossing with the native
stock, so that now many of the Texas cattle compare favorably with those
from other sections of the country. There is, however, a very wide range
between the best and the poorest.
The Western range cattle are classed with the Texas cattle, because
formerly they were made up largely of Southern cattle which were driven
northward to winter on the ranges north of the quarantine line. Now,
however, a large jjercentage of the animals in this class are bred on the
ranges of the West and Northwest.
All the cattle in this class are branded.
(2) Distillers. — These are cattle that have been fattened on the by-
products of distilleries. Formerly only inferior grades of cattle were
purchased for feeding on distillery residues, but at present many feeders
of better grades are used. When sent to market these cattle are preferred
to others of the same grade, because they dress out a higher percentage
of beef.
(3) Baby beef. — This term is applied to choice or prime fat steers be-
tween 1 and 2 years old, weighing from 800 to 1,000 pounds.
(4) Export cattle. — The cattle exported are in the main good to choice
steers, weighing from 1,200 to 1,500 pounds. Comparatively few prime
beef steers are bought for export, because of the high price they bring in
the home market.
(5) Shipping steers. — This term applies to the animals purchased in
the western markets for shipment to the large eastern markets of the
United States. They are mainly of medium and good grades and range
in weight from 1,150 to 1,600 pounds.
(6) Dressed beef cattle. — This class includes such cattle as are pur-
chased by the large packing concerns of the Middle West. The packers
prefer medium to choice steers, weighing from 1,200 to 1,400 pounds, to
make up the bulk of their purchases, but conditions of supply and de-
mand cause them to purchase animals of a much wider range in grade
and weight, the extreme range in weight being from 800 to 1,700 pounds.
(7) Stags. — This class includes such animals as have reached or at
least approached maturity before castration, and hence have the general
conformation of bulls. Comparatively few of these come to the general
markets, and they are of a wide range in quality, condition, and weight.
THE RAISING AND ECONOMICAL FEEDING OF CATTLE. 779
In the foregoing we find a steer one year old and under two, weighing
1,193 pounds— as much as could be expected from a fairly-fattened four
year old fed as the average farmer feeds. Does any one suppose the
feeder spent as much on that yearling as the farmer ordinarily does on
his four year olds ?
EX. Full Feeding and Early Maturity.
By studying the foregoing it will be seen that the best gain was in the
steer one year old and under two, the next best is a steer two years old
and under three, and the third best gain is another steer two years old
and under three. The four-year old steer made the least average gain,
and the older the steer the less was the daily gain.
Every observing farmer knowG that a calf allowed to run out during
the winter and shift for himself with the other cattle, if fed on hay, with
perhaps a nubbin of corn now and then, will weigh less in the spring than
it did the fall before. And those who have tried both systems of feeding
(full feeding from birth, with proper shelter, and allowing young stock
only hay with such shelter as they may be able to find) know there is
no profit in the latter, but absolute loss.
There are, indeed, places where hay may be had simply for the making,
whore the grazing is ample and where cattle may be raised at a minimum"
cost, if good shelter is provided. But year by year such sections are
being more and more contracted, through the settlement of the country.
As a rule, the best profits are now made by the seeding of meadows and
pastures, by providing good shelter, and by the cultivation of corn enough
to carry the stock in good condition through the winter. This is really
the basis of profitable feeding in the West and South-west.
X. Economy in Feeding.
We have striven throughout this work to show that in the rearing of
stock, the same strict attention to business principles should prevail that
is necessary to success in any other calling. There must be a strict ac-
counting of profit and loss, else no man can know, excep*. m a haphazard
way, whether he is making money or not. The feeder should know, in
a general way, what food containing the elements of growth and possess-
ing fattening qualities is cheapest. This, of course, will vary with dif-
ferent sections of the country.
An exi)erience of forty years in the West has taught us to rely princi-
pally on corn for all kinds of stock. For cattle, when the price was forty
cents a bushel or less, unground corn has been found the best ; while for
horses, sheep and swine, our experience has been that it does not pay to
grind when the price is below sixty cents, for these animals masticate oi
780 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
grind their food pretty thoroughly. For fattening cattle we prefer, first,
shocked corn, next snapped corn — that is, corn snapped from the stalk
with the husk remaining — and next, husked corn in the ear, the waste to
be gathered by store hogs. We have found that, with good shelter, five
pounds of corn and ten pounds of good sweet hay per day was a good
fattening ration to each 1000 pounds weight of steers fed.
When feeding shock corn, give all the animals will eat clean as to the
ears. They will take what blades are needed, and stock steers may fol-
low to glean, with stock hogs after, to pick up what grain is Avasted or
left in the droppings. Sheltered from winds and storms the stock may
thus be economically fed to heavy weights.
For 3^oung and growing cattle there is nothing better than equal weights
of corn and oats, or corn and barley ground together, whichever may be
cheapest, with plenty of good hay or corn fodder that has been shocked
before frost. In the South cotton-seed meal, and mill stuff may take
the place of corn and oats, or corn and barley, while pea vines, or other
good fodder natural to the climate, may be used instead of hay. The
economy of feeding, may thus be summed up : First, good shelter ;
second, plenty of food to keep the animals constantly improving, and
third, feed whatever substantial and nutritious food may be cheapest.
XI. The True Policy with Young Stock.
We may be allowed to repeat nearly verbatim what we have before
written upon the subject of raising young cattle. The breeder and
feeder must exercise sound and careful judgment. It will not pay
to starve even the commonest stock. A calf, to use a common
expression, "knocked in the head with a pail of skimmed milk,"
will never make a first class steer or cow. Neither is it nec-
essary that they suck the cow. In fact, in the case of the dairy cows
or heifers intended for the daiiy, they should not suck, for it surely tends
to diminish the flow of milk, except the calf is turned with the cow at
stated intervals, and the cow milked clean at the same time. In the case
of heifers, they should be milked as soon as the calf has drawn the first
milk, both as a means of training and to develop the flow of milk as
nmch as possible ; besides this, a calf taken at two or three days old is
easily taught to suck the finger or an artincial teat attached to a reser-
voir.
XII. Feeding the Young Calves.
For the first two or three weeks they should have nothing but new
milk. It should be as warm as it conies from .the cow, and the calf
should be fed four times a day. Then they may have milk twelve hours
THE RAISING AND ECONOMICAL FEEDING OF CATTLE. 781
old, from which the cream has been taken, adding four ounces of finely
ground meal made into thoroughly cooked mush, to each meal, for strong,
hearty calves. Thus they may be fed for two weeks more, changing to
oat-meal or wheat flour if the calf is inclined to scour. Some feeder.^
add a teaspoonful of linseed meal once a day ; it is not a bad plan.
When the calf is four weeks old it need be fed but twice a day, giving
milk warmed to about ninety or ninety-five degrees, which last is the
natural animal heat. From this time on, more and more mush, or its
equivalent, may be added as the calf increases in size and strength, until it
begins to eat grass and threshed oats, which it should be encouraged to do.
XIII. Peed Grass and Oats Early.
At ten weeks old the calf should eat freely, and at three months old it
may be gradually weaned from milk and taught to subsist on grass and
oats. During all this time the calf should be sheltered from the hot sun
and rain, by providing a shelter to which it may retire, well ventilated,
dry and clean, and sufficiently dark to keep out green-head and other bit-
ing flies. In the autumn its rations of grain should be increased, and as
grass fails the finest meadow hay should be sulistituted — whatever it will
eat clean of both. Offer it water occasionally after it is a month old,
and when weaned see that it never lacks for water.
Xrv. Where the Profit Comes In.
If during the winter you have kept the calves in the warmest quarters
possible, and fed liberally with grain and hay, in the spring you will have
received the best profit that you will ever reap from the animal at any subse-
quent age ; but upon comparing debit and credit with your neighbor who
has fed skim-milk alone in summer and poor hay in winter, you will find
that the loss on his calves has gone in the shape of profit in yours.
From this time on feed liberally of grain in the winter, and give a little
all summer when they will eat it. Let them be so warm in winter that
they never become chilled. So continue until the animal is within six
months of being ripe for the butcher. Then feed the best you can, and
you ^v'ill find that you will get two to three cents a jjound, gross weight,
more than your neighbor who has only half fed and has turned off his
cattle totally unfit for the butcher.
The same rule will hold good for those calves intended for cows. To
make a good cow, she must- be fed well to bring early development and
maturity. She may thus be brought forward strong and lusty, and in
better condition at two years past to bring you a perfect calf, than those
of your neighbor at twice that age, whose policj has been to grudge them
feed and allow them to shift for themselves.
782 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR,
XV. Feeding for Beef and for Labor.
The following, originally written for the American Encyclopaedia of
Agriculture, contains in the extracts given the gist of our conclusions on
the subject of feeding :
The time is long since passed Avhen it is considered true economy to
allow young stock to shift for themselves without the intelligent care of
the master and proper feeding. The most successful feeders of to-day
feed all stock liberally, and such as are destined for human food, are
fed fully from birth, and until ready for the butcher's block. But the
system of forcing is carefully avoided with all stock intended for either
labor or breeding. The object here is to develop strong constitutions
and ample bone and muscle, that a long and useful life may result. Hence
u different class of foods are used from those intended for mere fat-
tening. In this, again, the question of the proper foods to be used be-
comes important.
XVI. Reaching Results.
The food must be perfect food ; that is, adapted to the special require-
ments of the animal. Young animals ; those required for labor ; those to
be used for fast driving, and those ready for feeding ripe (fully fat) each
require different food, and, indeed, different care.
In the fattening of animals, the sooner they can be brought up to a
fully fat weight, the greater will be the profit: a Aveight of, say 1,500
pounds for cattle, 300 pounds for the large breeds of swine, 200 pounds
for the small breeds, and from 100 to 150 pounds for sheep, according to
the breed. To do this they must be pressed forward from birth, by
means of the food best adapted to the animal, and marketed before they
become fully grown. In summer a pasture containing a variety of good
grasses will furnish this perfect food. If anything is needed more, it may
measurably be found, for fattening, in Indian corn, or meal as a supple-
mentary food, to be given at night.
For young animals, working and fast driving stock, oats are proper.
The two first, however, may have any kind of mill stuff, with profit, if
cheaper than oats. In the winter all stock, in addition to good, sweet hay,
should receive daily such grain as will best answer the end, except that
corn meal, or corn, may constitute a part of the daily ration for all classes
of stock, since more fat is required for the animal waste than in summer.
For dairy stock the young animals should be fed identically as for
working stock, but not forced, since sufficient frame- work for continued
usefulness must be provided. Milking stock may receive largely of
corn meal, in winter, and ground rye, oats, barley, or mill feed, accord-
ing to relative prices.
THE RAISING AND ECONOMICAL FEEDING OF CATTLE. 783
Another important matter is the necessity of changing their diet. An-
imals will live on one particular food . They will even thrive for a time ; but
the best results, economically considered, have always been gained by
varying the food, according to the appetite of the animal. The change
from green to dry, and dry to green food, however, should not be made too
suddenly.
XVII. When and How to Peed.
Hay, in the West, is one of the most expensive of the stock foods raised in
all that great region known as the corn belt. In the more central portions of
the corn zone, a ton of corn and fodder can be produced for less money than
a ton of the best meadow hay. Hence, feeders use as largely of corn as
possible, and when finishing off cattle fat, it is given almost exclusively,
or with only enough rough fodder to properly divide it. Regularity in
the amount of the ration fed is of particular importance. All animals
should be fed at exactly regular hours, and just what they will eat clean.
If any is left, it should be removed and given to other hungrier animals.
As to the time of feeding, three times a day is sufficient for all except
horses and swine. In fattening swine the best results are obtained by
giving them what they will eat clean four times a day. There will always
be some animals that will be delicate and indifferent feeders. These
should always be separated from the hearty ones and given special care
and food. Get rid of them at the first possible opportunity ; certainly as
soon as they are in passably salable condition. There is no money either
in trying to raise or fatten such.
When cattle are kept in a stable there should be a room, frost proof,
where the morning's food may be prepared over night, if mixed food or
wet food is given. If meal or other grain food is given without mixing
with hay or straw — and in our opinion this is better for cattle — it should
be given only moist enough so it will not be dry. A little experience ^vill
soon enable the feeder to so prepare the meal for the whole stock over
night, that it will be in proper condition in the morning. If it be mixed
with cut food, use clear bright oat straw if possible, and not cut shorter
than two inches.
XVIII. Out-Door Feeding where Corn is Cheap.
In the milder latitudes of the West it has been found economical to
feed in the o[)en air where the shelter of timber or artificial plantings may
be had. Careful experiments made some years since at the Illinois Indus-
trial University, as between feeding in stables with ground and unground
corn, showed a decided profit in the latter way of feeding. This we have
also found to be the case. Under this system of feeding, whether the
stock are fed snapped corn, or fed with husked corn, very little is lost.
784 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
The cattle are fed plentifully. What they leave and that which passes
undigested is picked up l)y swine, two hogs being usually allowed to each
steer to be fattened, and at the end of the day the hogs are given sonic
corn additional, if they need it. Thus, except in very inclement weather,
steers may be made fat on al)out fifty bushels of corn in al)out three to
four months' feeding, and the shoats require but little additional food to
bring them up to heavy weights.
The best plan we have ever tried for out-door fattening is to feed corn
cut at the roots and shocked. This is hauled daily on truck wagons,
when the ground is hard, or on sleds when there is snow, and fed, corn
and fodder together. The cattle are not expected to eat the fodder clean,
but usually they may be expected to consume the blades, which with the
ears are the valuable part. The feeding is twice a day, in feeding lots —
a lot for the morning feed and one for the evening feed. The cattle
being about done with the ears, hogs are turned in to glean the scattered
corn and droppings. Thus, whatever the system of feeding, if cattle
have shelter from stormy and inclement weather, they may be made very
fat, and healthfully so, and, where labor is scarce and corn cheap, at a
minimum expense.
XIX. A Good Condiment.
We do not believe in condimental food for animals as a rule, but when
it is deemed necessary, the following will be found to be a good condi-
ment for special feeding, to be given one pound with each feed of meal :
Twenty-five pounds ground linseed oil cake, ten pounds ground flaxseed,
forty pounds corn-meal, t\venty-f our ounces ground turmeric root, two
ounces ginger, two ounces caraway seed, eight ounces gentian, two ounces
cream of tartar, one pound sulphur, one pound common salt and ten oun-
ces coriander seed. Mix the whole together, and when fed use a quarter
of a pound of molasses to each feed, the molasses to be used in the water
for wetting the food in whii^h the condiment is given. Where sorghum
molasses is made, this will not be found to be expensive.
XX. So-Called Perfect Poods.
So much has been said by theorists about perfect foods, and the
danger from feeding corn , that many persons have been brought to be-
lieve that corn is almost a dangerous food for growing animals ; that thus
fed, they will lack bone and muscle, and cannot be expected to grow up
healthy. If an animal were to be raised exclusively on corn this might
be true, but the same would be true of other grain. Neither horses,
cattle, nor sheep can be properly raised exclusively on grain. Oats are
THE RAISING AND ECONOMICAL FEEDING OF CATTLE.
785
andoubtedly the best grain that can be fed to growing stock in connec-
tion with hay. Oats, however, cannot be afforded. Good hay is a per-
fect food, so far as the distension of the stomach is concerned. The an-
imal cannot eat enough to fatten upon. Our pastures make a perfect
tood, so far as muscular development is concerned. For cattle, whole
r.TMOT'SINK I'.F.F.y CATTLE — (FRENCH).
These cattle are siuall, line-boned, aud greatly esteemed for their beef. The jar;
»xen will weigh about 2200 pounds, and a pair like these will bring $240 to $280.
A itALLoway bull.
An observant gentleman who has traveled much, declares that well-bred animalspos-
sess national characteristics as distinctly marked as the different races of men. And
there is much truth in his statement. Any one could tell at a glance that this rugged
and good-natured little bull was a native of the famous Emerald Isle.
com, that is, ears, husks, and leaves, forms a perfect food either for
growing or fattening stock in winter, so soon as they get strength of jaw
sufficient to crush the corn. Therefore, no breeder need be afraid that
cattle from calf hood up will fail to develop, with plenty of good hay and
colli, or corn-meal in winter, and plenty of good, flush pasture in summer,
with pure water at all times.
CHAPTER XIV.
PASTURAGE AND FEEDING FOR PROFIT.
f. STUDY THE CONDITIONS. II. PROVIDE AGAINST DROUGHTS. III. KINDS OK
FEED TO RAISE. IV. PASTURE THE POOR MAN'S WEALTH. V. THE VALUABLE
CLOVERS. VI. ALFALFA OR LUZERNE. VII. CLOVERS NOT GENERALLY VAL-
UABLE. VIII. FORAGE AND FEEDING PLANTS. IX. GRASS IS THE MOST VALr
UABLE. X. GRASSES OF SPECIAL VALUE. XI. THE COMING GRASSES FOB
THE WEST. XII. THE TIME TO PASTURE. XIII. FEEDING IN WINTER. XIV.
WATERING. XV. FEEDING IN SUMMER. XVI. ECONOMY OF FULL SUMMEB
AND WINTER FEEDING. XVII. SUMMING UP. ^XVIII. FINISHING A STEEE.
XIX. WHEN TO SELL.
I. Study the Conditions.
In every country, and, indeed, in every district of a country, the cir-
cum stances attending the rearing, and especially the feeding and fatten-
ing of stock are so varying and diversified, that the aggregate cost of a
comparatively insignificant group of items is what makes the difference
between profit and loss in feeding. For instance, a few cents a bushel more
or less in the price of corn, an extra month of winter, or greater cost of
watering in one case than in another may give one man profit and an-
other man it may carry into loss Insufficient shelter, imperfect conve-
niences and little wastes, here and there will often turn the scale both in
summer and in winter feeding.
n. Provide against Droughts.
In summer, a drought which finds the feeder unprepared with grsen
food, other than grass, will destroy profits, as also will a failure of water.
The reason is simple. Every case of this kind which stops or retards
fattening, is not only a loss through the shrinkage of flesh, but after the
animals again begin to improve, it takes some time before they really be-
gin to thrive again when the pastures become flush. Not so with the
farmer who provides against a lack of water during droughts, and has
sufficient green fodder to supply deficiencies arising from bare or partly
bare pastures.
m. Kinds of Feed to Raise.
The question of feeding-material is an important one, and here the
feeder must be guided by soil, climate and such other natural contingen-
cies as he may have to encounter. Any fodder crop does best on a rather
786
PASTURAGE AND FEEDING FOR PROFIT. 787
porous but rich soil. Hence, if the soil is stiff, it may be opened by
plowing under long manure deeply. If already too light, give it cow
manure, ashes, and such special manures .as you may be in the habit of
using.
Corn is the great soiling crop for farm animals North and South. Next
come sorghum, and the many varieties of Doura corn or East Indian millet.
In the South, cow-peas are valuable. Alfalfa, once it is established, gives
heavy cuttings of fodder. In the North this plant has not, as a rule,
proved valuable, but some varieties of the cow-pea can be grown and
matured in from seven to eight weeks. It is worthy of experiment.
Sown after the nights become warm, this crop is a most valuable one to
turn under as a fertilizer if not wanted for feeding.
With proper cure in seeding thick on rich soil, any forage crop may
be cut with a mowing machine, so that the labor of gathering is compara-
tively light, and it may be fed occasionally in the field or in the yards,
night and morning, or only at night, as circumstances may dictate.
It must be remembered as a first principle in feeding, whether for
growth or for fattening, that animals must not be allowed to shrink,
since every time they do so it is at a loss (jf flesh to themselves and of
profit to the owner.
IV. Pasture the Poor Man's Wealth.
Upon plenty of good pasture depends success in summer feeding ;
with the majority of farmers the pasture provides the sole summer feed.
Hence the necessity that it be strong and vigorous. Nothing is gained
by overstocking a pasture. It is better to get rid of some of the stock
than to feed the pasture too close, for animals that have to busy them-
selves all day to satisfy the cravings of their stomachs never come out fat.
If you have i)rovided for contingencies, by means of fodder, you may,
of course, stock your pastures closer than otherwise. If not, stock them
only so the cattle can easily supply their wants.
V. The Valuable Clovers.
The best clovers, or those which do well generally, are practically in-
cluded in three species, viz : The Red clover, the White or Dutch
clover, and the Alsike clover. The soils best adapted to Red clover are
such as will bring good crojjs of winter grain, though Red clover does
well on all soils which do not heave badly in winter.
White clover will grow on any land adapted to Blue grass, and also
on many rather moist soils. It favors a firm, not a spongy soil. It must
be confessed that cattle do not like it, but it makes rich feed, and if
mixed with Blue grass, or other soft grass, cattle will take both together
788 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Alsike clover — often called Swedish clover — does well on most soils.
and will hear considerahle flooding, if the flooding is not too long contin-
ued. We consider it as altogether superior to White cU)ver for pasture,
and on soils too wet for Red clover it makes good hay for cattle.
VI. Alfalfa or Luzerne.
Alfalfa or Luzerne — its tnie name — is a valuable barn forage; it should
be cut and fed fresh or partly wilted. It thrives on deep, dry soils, which
are not subject to hard freezing in winter. It has become thoroughly
naturalized in California, does exceedingly well on the Western plains
in Texas and in New Mexico, as it has done in some of the Southern
States east of the Mississippi. It is no longer an experiment.
Vn. Clovers Not Generally Valuable.
What we have previoush'^ written under this head, we have since seen
no reason to change. There are many other species of clovers, some of
them indigenous to the West, which we only mention as a caution against
their being sown. These two species of so called Buffalo clover — the
upright and the running Buffalo clovers — the upright or yellow clover,
and the low hop clover, a half-creeping variety. There is only one more
variety worth mentioning, and this simply as a warning to farmers not to
sow it, except for bee pasturage, and then only when it may not become a
troublesome weed. We have reference to the tree clover or Bokhara clo-
ver, specifically the white-flowered melliotus. It has been recommended
as valuable for soiling, that is, for cutting green for feeding to stock in
stables. We give the same advice about sowing this clover that the
crabbed lawyer did to a young client who asked his advice about getting
married — Don't.
If there are bee men near, your hedge rows and waste places will be
well seeded with this Bokhara clover. At least such seems to be the
case, much to the disgust of the general farming community. It does
make good bee pasture — no doubt of it — but it is a nuisance in every
other respect.
VIII. Forage and Feeding Plants.
We have already spoken of the value of forage plants, and, in a pre-
ceding chapter of root crops. Turnips, rape and mustard, so valuable in
England and some other parts of Europe, belong to what botanists call
cruciferous plants. The ruta-baga, the kohl-rabi and the cabbage are the
principal plants of this tribe that are valuable to the farmers in the United
States ; and, in the West, these are not especially valuable for feeding.
Of the other special fruit and root crops, the gourd family includes
PASTURAGE AND FEEDING FOR PROFIT- 789
pumpkins and squashes, which find a large place in feeding stock in many
portions of the United States. The composite family, the largest of the
natural families, furnishes artichokes and a few others seldom used ; but
it is remarkable in its lack of useful species although wonderful in orna-
mental ones. The night-shade family gives us the potato. The parsley
family gives us the carrot, the parsnip and some others of value, and the
goosefoot family furnishes the sugar beet and mangelwurzel , valuable for
feeding in the West.
IX. Grass is the Most Valuable.
All these plants placed together are of minor account in comparison
with the great grass family, which includes our cereal grains.
We do not use botanical names usually in speaking of grasses. We
only introduce them below in connection with the common names, be
cause in some cases the same grass goes by different names in different
parts of the country. The feeder may select from the following list :
Timothy, (Phleum pratense) a better name for which would be Cat's-
tail grass, and, for the reason that in some sections of the country it is
called Timothy, as in Pennsylvania, and Herd's grass in New England
and New York. Neither of these names gives an indication of its char-
acteristic flower-head, while the former names do. In Blue grass, {Poa
pratensis) ; Wire grass, (^Poa compressa) ; Red-top, (Agrostis vulgaris)
confusion of names again comes in. In Pennsylvania, Blue grass is
called Green grass, and Eed4op is called Herd's grass. Orchard grass,
(Dactyhs glomerata) ; Fowl-meadow grass, {Poa sei^otina), and Meadow
fescue, {^Festuca pratensis^ ^ are also most valuable grasses.
X. Grasses of Special Value.
For feeding during droughts, Indian corn, sown at the rate of two
bushels per acre, in drills two feet apart, cultivated thoroughly once or
twice, and cut when in blossom will make a good reliance, as also will
German millet (Panicum Gei-manicum), and common millet (P. rnili-
aceum). Here we have nine varieties of grass that do well generally.
The first, second, third and fourth, with the clovers heretofore named,
constitute the bulk of the grasses cultivated for pasture. Orchard grass
is one of the most valuable in the whole list, and should be tried every-
where, on land not wet. Fowl-meadow is also well worthy of trial.
Fowl-meadow grass especially has been found to take the place of Blue
grass in those sections of the Northwest where Blue grass does not suc-
ceed. Especially has this been the case in Wisconsin. It is hoped ii
may be found so in the Southwest, where Blue grass is not natural to
the soil.
790 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
XI. The Coming Grasses for the West.
W(^ believe Orchard grass and Fowl-meadow will be found to be two
of the most valuable grasses for the West, the Northwest, and perhaps for
the Southwest, when they come to be better known. Orchard grass, also,
gives good satisfaction in the middle region of the South, and we think
that Fowl-meadow will also prove most valuable there. Mr. Frank E.
Hoyt, a careful farmer of Wisconsin, in relation to this grass, sajs he
knows of no grass in the Northwest that will compare with it, either for
pasturage or the production of hay. It has never been winter or sum-
mer killed, and he has found one acre of marsh well set in Fowl-meadow
equal for pasturage to three acres of upland, set in Blue grass, and the
hay produced the second year after seeding has never failed to pay the
entire expense of cultivating and seeding the land. Fowl-meadow
hay is especially valuable for horses, having all the advantages of vn\d
hay, being free from dust, that infests timothy and clover, while it pos-
sesses all the nutriment of the best tame hay ; and those dairymen whc
are acquainted with it, pronounce it valuable hay for milch cows.
Xn. Time to Pasture.
The time to pasture is when the dew is on, the earlier in the morning
the better. Our plan has always been to allow cattle to lie in the pasture
all night ; and this rule is good even in the spring and fall, if shelter is
provided against cold storms, and the pasture is not too remote from the
house. In that case the milch cows must lie in the yard, but should have
some food they like, early in the morning, unless milked at day-break.
Xni. Feeding in Winter.
Whatever the stock, or the place of feeding, give the first meal as soon
after day-light as possible in winter — just what they will fully eat. If
eaten pretty dean, give a little more feed again at noon, and again at
night, so that the animals may lie down on fairly full stomachs before
dark. If only one feed of grain is given daily, it should be given at
night.
Stock should be graded in the feeding yard as to age and strength.
The weak and the strong should never be fed together, else the strong
will get better feeding than the weak ones, even when the fullest allow-
ance is given. Special attention should be paid to the allowance of salt.
Cattle should have it where they can take it at will. They will consume
less than if it be given them at regular intervals. Salt taken in large
doses is cathartic, but in such quantities as animals naturally crave daily
it aids digestion and is necessary to all herbiverous animals.
PASTURAGE AND FEEDING FOR PROFIT. 791
In feeding in stables observe the same rule — full feeding of good prov-
ender, early and late and at noon. This is what keeps animals growing
continuously and insures profits ; for thus the feeder secures the greatest
possible gain, with the least loss, to the animal system.
It is poor policy, when grain is cheaper than hay — and it is so in many
portions of the West — to feed largely with hay. Corn and good bright
straw, with, say, five pounds of good hay daily per steer will keep them
growing right along. Dry corn with little fodder tends to unnatural
heat and fever. Therefore keep the stomach distended with a proper
quantity of fodder of some kind, and if the corn can be fed after being
soaked so much the better.
XIV. Watering.
Cattle should have water offered them twice a day in winter, and in
summer it is desirable that they get it whenever they happen to want it.
People sometimes need but little water and at other times a great deal.
It is the same with stock of all kinds. If the water is in pools, do not
cut holes in the ice for stock to drink through, unless precautions have
been taken to prevent their slipping on the ice. This hint may seem
needless ; and yet, there is more loss on stock, every year, from this
cause, than would provide suitable pumps and troughs, and also pay for
the labor of pumping.
XV. Feeding in Summer,
In fattening cattle it often happens that the grass is not sufficient, or if
it be sufficient to keep them full, they do not fatten fast enough. It is
just as cheap for the farmer who only fattens a few head yearly to make
prime cattle, as it is for one who fattens hundreds. In fact a man who
fattens but a few head should make better cattle than one who feeds
many.
In England when grain is high, the most of it being imported, summer
feeding of grain ^\^th grass has been practiced for years. Why should it
not be so here in the West, where the grain is grown that the English
feeders buy? The pastures during July and August will not graze as
many head of cattle as in spring and autumn. Hence, the English farm-
ers can fully stock their pastures by supplying what meal the cattle will
eat while the grass is scant. When pastures are flush and in full succu-
lence but little if any of the meal will be taken. What meal they do
eat is so much clear gain in fattening. Animals, when on succulent
pasture, require some dry food. They will even eat a little hay daily at
«uch times. Thus meal, or if the cattle are used to it, soaked corn, not
only modifies the succulence of green grass and clover, which contains
792 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
from eighty to eighty-five per cent, of water, but it promotes the growth
of young cattle, and brings well-matured steers fully fat at midsummei,
and at other seasons when prime beef l>rings the best prices.
XVI. Economy of Full Summer and Winter Feeding.
From what has been written the reader will have become convinced
that we l)elieve in the economy of full summer and wii.^er feeding, and
this from calfhood up until the animal is sold to the bu-tcher. The same
rule will a[)ply to stock intended for breeding and also to cows raised for
their milk product. In the two latter cases, however, the feeding must
be more diversified ; for breeding and milking animals need to have fully-
developed frames. This is not so necessary for stock that is to be sold
as soon as fit for the butcher. We have shown that three years from
birth is ample time in which to prepare cattle for the butcher's block.
The principal economy in feeding grain to fattening animals the year
round is, that thereby your pastures may be more fully stocked than
otherwise, and thus may he fed more evenly. By this course, also, you
will have more land left for the production of corn for winter feeding.
We have cultivated over sixty acres of corn to the hand in afield of 1,500
acres, the outlay being only one-third of a day's work per man per acre
up to, but not including, the Ifibor of husking. The average yield was
within a fraction of forty bushels per acre for the whole area, and the
final result was of corn put into the crib, over seventeen bushels
for every day's work of each hand employed. The same may be done by
any farmer on measurably clean land in any season.
The first proposition in relation to full feeding, winter and summer, is,
that your pastures will thereby carry more cattle. The second is, tha;
animals, going into winter quarters fat, will waste less flesh during the
winter, since the animal heat is more easily kept up in a fat than in a half-
fat or lean one. The third and not the least important point is, that you
hasten maturity and thus save interest on capital, insurance, and other
items of cost.
XVII. Stunming Up.
The whole matter may be summed up as follows : The pasture grasses
mixed make a [)crfect food. Therefore make the most of them. Clover
Timothy, Red-top, Orchard grass, and Fowl-meadow grass also make a
perfect food. When they can be economically raised (and where in a
grass country can they not?) make the most of them. Eaise all the
roots you can, (in the West carrots and beets) to supplement your grasses
with. But do not expect to fatten stock without grain. It cannot be
done unless extra warmth is provided, and this is not economical. Never
PASTUEAGE AND FEEDING FOR PROFIT. 793
attempt to fatten stock of any kind without due attention to comfortable
shelter. For this, exi^ensive structures are not necessary. We have fat-
tened cattle in Restructure of posts and poles covered with hay and em-
banked at the sides, and with no flooring but the natural earth, but with
a thick bedding of straw. Yet, if the means of the farmer will allow, a
good frame structure will pay, simply in the lessened cost of labor in care,
feeding and cleaning. Once you begin to fatten, never allow the stock
to lose, but keep them going right along, and increase the richness of the
food as the animal progresses to ripeness.
Hay will bring a steer into tolerable condition for fattening. Then he
will stop. Good pasture will carry him still farther. He will make good,
succulent, healthy beef, but cannot be made fully fat on grass. Hence,
he must at least be finished off with grain. Indeed, to make him '* ripe "
(fully fat) meal and even oil-cake must be used.
XVIII. Finishing a Steer.
If the steer has been liberally fed from a calf, he will be ready to begin
fattening the spring he is three or four years old, according to the breed
—if a Short-Horn or Hereford, at two years old perhaps. Turn him on
pasture and add what soaked corn or meal he will eat ; give him shelter
from the heat and flies. If the aftermath is good add pumpkins, or corn
in the husk, as soon as it begins to glaze ; and continue increasing the
corn as the grass fails.
Do not let 3^our steers suffer for want of shelter from storms, and when
the grass gives out put them in a warm stable, and finish them with meal,
or meal and oil-cake, allowing of the best hay not over ten pounds a day,
with a peck, daily, of roots or the equivalent in pumpkins, as long as they
last. If the steers are to be continued in the fields — where the climate
and shelter will admit — feed shocked corn, and let store cattle and hogs
consume the leavings. Thus you may always have them in condition to
sell when the price suits.
XrX. When to SeU.
Sell in the fall or early winter if the demand will warrant it- If not,
keep the steers until the price coincides with your views. Your ))ooks
should tell you just how much your cattle have cost, and just what the
profits would be at any time, if you weigh them on your home scales, or
those nearest you; you will have cattle that buyers Avill always come to
you for in either case. And if they are stall-fed — as we have shown how
to stall-feed — they will always bring the price of fancy beef; and two to
three cents advance over the price of half -fattened beef is just where the
profit of feeding lies.
CHAPTER XV.
DAIRYING AND BUTTER MAKING— DAIRY BUILDINGS.
L CAUSES OF CHANGES IX MILK. II. MTLKI.NG TITE COW. III. THE BARN. IV. jnXK
UTENSILS AND THBIK CAKE. V. HANDLING OF MILK AFTER IT IS DRAWN. VI. THE
CREAM SEPARATOR AND ITS OPERATION. VII. SEPARATING THE MILK. VII. RIPEN-
ING THE CREA.Nf. IX. THE CHURN. X. CHURNING. XI. WORKING TEtE BUTTER.
XIL CARE OF UTENSILS.
The principles of making butter are easily understood. When studied
from the standpoint of present knowledge, most of the mystery that for-
merly surrounded the work of the butter maker di.sappears. The making
of good butter is not a system of ''rule of thumb," but certain well-defined
laws can be laid down, which, if followed, will insure success.
On the farm the maker has control of every step in the process of
making butter. Beginning with the supposition that the cows are normal
and healthy, he starts Avith one ideal condition, namely, a source of pure
milk. As the milk is drawn from the udder it should be free from any
element that would cause its decomposition, but the fact that it will in a
few hours become sour or show evidence that other changes have taken
place proves that a foreign element is present to produce these changes.
A study of these changes and their cause is the first and most important
lesson for the butter maker.
I. Cause of Changes in Milk.
Everyone is familiar with the changes that often take place in milk
and those which occur in the spoiling of fresh meats and vegetables,
though the causas that produce these changes may not be apparent to the
observer. It is also a matter of common experience that in hot moist
weather these changes take place with much greater rapidity than in cold
or dry weather. Everyone who has handled milk has learned that cleanli-
nass in everything that comes in contact with it is one of the essential
factors to success. Cold storage, such as may be supplied by the common
household refrigerator, is also necessary for the keeping of milk and other
perishable products in hot weather.
The cause of the spoiling of fruit, vegetabl&s, meats, and milk was
found to be minute plant life, or germs, called bacteria. It was discovered
that these minute forms of life — so small that it takas a powerful magnify-
ing gla.ss to see them — were the cause of all decomposition. A study of
their life, habits of growth, the food on which they lived, the kind of sub-
stance on which they could develop, and the temperatures most favorable
to their growth revealed the scientific necassity for observing perfect clean-
liness in all dairy utensils and for keeping the milk cold. It wds found
that bacterial life is in evidence everywhere, and only awaits the proper
food, moisture, and warmth to cause the bacteria to multiply very rapidly.
Just as a grain of corn grows when given proper moisture and warmth, so
the germ life that finds its way into milk utilizes the food and warmth
found there to grow and multiply, causing decomposition,
794
DAIRYING AND BUTTER MAKING DAIRY BUILDINGS. 795
It has been found that when milk or other perishable foods are kept
free from bacteria they will not spoil; and, further, that foods of this
nature when kept at low temperatures are very much longer in spoiling,
although they may contain great numbers of germs. When milk and
other products are heated to a high temperature the bacterial life is de-
stroyed, and the products will keep for a long time if no additional bacteria
gain access to them.
II. Milking the Cow.
Things for Milkers to Think About. — Too many milkers regard the
work of milking as a dirty, disagreeable task. The work has r&solved itself
into nothing more than the manipulation of the udder, and is to be
hurried through with as quickly as possible. The element that takes from
all drudgery its unpleasantness is wanting. That element is thinking
along lines tending to improve the work. In the processes that attend the
milking of a cow there is enough to cause the milker to study seriously
the work that leads up to the making of a perfect pound of butter. Milk
as it is drawn from the udder is nearly free from bacteria. Could it be
kept in this condition it would keep for many hours before any perceptible
change would take place.
The first bacteria enter during the time of milking and are naturally
from the cow and her surroundings. The manipulation of the udder
works off hair, particles of skin, and in many instances particles of manure
that adhere to the hair and udder. All of this material finds its way into
the milk pail and carries with it great numbers of bacteria. The warm
temperature and the presence of a congenial food supply that is in just
the right physical condition cause these bacteria to multiply very rapidly,
and unless something is done to check their growth souring or other
evidence of decomposition will take place in a few houi-s. The rapidity
with which these changas occur will depend almost entirely upon the
temperature at which the milk is allowed to stand and the number of
bacteria that find entrance to it. These facts are constantly in the mind of
the careful dairyman. He knows that the first step is that of prevention.
The work of milking should be performed in such a way that few bacteria
will find their way into the milk. The milk should be cooled quickly and
thoroughly immediately after it is drawn, in order to check the growth
of those bacteria that will, under the best conditions, find their way into it.
Cleaning the Cow. — All this leads to the conclusion that the cow must
be carefully cleaned. This is as good for her general physical well-being
as for the protection and purity of the milk. The card or the currycomb
thoroughly but gently applied will remove all cojirse dirt, straw, or other
matter clinging to the animal that would eventually find its way into the
pail. Aside from carefully cleaning the cow with the card or currycomb,
the parts immediately surrounding the udder and the udder itself should
be wiped with a damp cloth. This had best be done just before the milking
begins, as it will remove most of the dust which may still remain after
carding and dampen that which is not removed, so that it will not fall
into the milk pail. If the milking is to be done in the barn there are some
796 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Other important things that need attention. The air in the milking place
mii^it be free from dust— it matters not whether the dust comes from the
floor as a result of its recent cleaning, or whether the animals have stirred
up the du.'^t in coming into the stalls, or whether it is caused by the distri-
bution of feed in the racks and boxes. Dust in the air will find its way
into the milk, bringing with it great numbers of bacteria. If the floors
are du.*ty they should be lightly sprinkled, so as to prevent the stirring of
the dust! Feed should not be distributed just before or during the milking
hour.
Clean Milkers. — Another thing of importance in connection w'ith
milking is the condition of the hands and clothes of the milker. He
should be clean personally, and should be required to go about his work
in clean clothes. The milking should be done with dry hands. The habit
of some milkers of wetting their hands with milk just as they begin is a
filthy practice and the cause of much bad milk and poor butter. There
is something in the presence of a milker in a white suit that calls for clean
work, particularly if he is required to keep the suit clean while about his
work. For this reason, as well as for the esthetic effect, many dairymen
require their milkers to be dressed in white. The same principle is true
in regard to whitewash on the interior of the barn. A carefully white-
washed wall shows off cobwebs to their disadvantage, and they will usually
be removed. There is something out of place if part of a builduig is kept
clean and fresh — as a whitewashed wall, for instance — and other parts are
a mire of filth. "Whitewashed walls go with clean floors, and the two with
a white-clad milker will usually insure clean milk.
HI. The Barn.
Construction and Care. — It will be seen from the preceding paragraph
that the barn and its care have an important influence in the production
of pure milk. As it is impossible to secure pure milk in a dirty dark barn
reeking with odors of manure, its construction must be taken into account.
Plenty of air space must be provided in order to insure pure air, from
900 to 1,000 cubic feet being needed for each animal. An abundance of
window space must be provided. Enough light should enter to enable one
to read a newspaper in the darkest places. The ventilation should be such
that the air is changed every few minutes. Anyone contemplating a new
barn or a reconstruction of an old barn to conform with the ideas here
mentioned should secure some good treatise on barn construction and
ventilation. It is evident to any observer that one of the difficulties in
securing good milk is the dark, poorly ventilated and constricted barns,
containing rotten wooden floors that can not be cleaned. Concrete is the
best material for floors. It is economical and can be easily kept clean. If
wood is used in floor construction, it should be closely laid in pitch and
kept in perfect repair. The interior of the barn should be kept well cov-
ered with whitewa.sh, which acts as a purifier and makes the rooms much
lighter. Stalls and feed boxes should be simple in construction and easily
cleaned.
DAIRYING AND BUTTER MAKING DAIRY BUILDINGS. 797
IV. Milk Utensils and Their Care.
Character of Utensils. — Not all of the bacteria that find their way
into milk come from the cow or the barn. Often milk pails, strainers, cans,
and other utensils used for handling milk are the source of such trouble.
Faulty construction of these vessels is very common. There should be no
hidden, inaccessible places in milk vessels. The seams should be soldered
over smoothly, inside and out. Cheap tinware is not usually well soldered,
and if such is purchased it should be taken to the tinner to have all seams
carefully gone over, closing up all that are open and can not easily be
cleaned. Galvanized iron is sometimes used for milk pails and other dairy
vessels, but it should not be, as the galvanizing is rough on the surface .
and affords hiding places for innumerable bacteria. Wooden vassels should
not be tolerated, under any condition, for holding milk, for it is impos-
sible to keep them clean. Rusty tinware, besides its effect in imparting
rusty or metallic flavor to the milk, is objectionable for the same reason.
Good tin is the only practicable material for milk vessels, and this must
be kept shining and bright.
Cleaning the Utensils. — The proper Avashing of milk utensils is some-
thing that is often misundei-stood. All milk should be rinsed from the
surface of the tin before it comes in contact with boiling water, as the heat
will cook the milk onto the surface, forming a coating very difficult to
remove. If this coating is not removed, it furnishes food and place for
bacterial growth. This is especially true around places liable to remain
moist. After rinsing the vessel free from milk, it may then be washed in
hot water. There should be added to the water some good cleansing com-
pound. Some of the so-called washing po\xders are very objectionable, as
grease of some kind is used principally in their make-up. When such
powders are used a coating of thick grease will be formed around the edges
of the sink or pan containing the wash water. All such compounds should
be discarded. Powders can be procured that are guaranteed to contain no
grease, and they are usually excellent cleansers. If these are not obtain-
able, the best thing to use is ordinary commercial sal soda and a little borax,
which are cheap and effective.
For scrubbing the surfaces of milk vessels a good brush should be used.
There is nothing more objectionable for this purpose than a cloth, particu-
larly the cloth that has been used for washing the dinner dishes, or the pots
and pans. A good hand brush can be purchased for a few cents. It is the
most effective and can easily be kept clean.
Drying and Sunning Utensils. — The final rinsing of dairy vessels
should be in boiling hot water. If they are allowed io remain a few min-
utes in the hot water, all the better. The heat will reach every part, and
be continued long enough to destroy all bacterial life. After the rinsing
in boiling wat^r, the surface will quickly dry and should be allowed to do
so naturally. Turn the vessel so that it will drain, and in a few moments
the heat in the metal will dry the surface. A cloth for drying can rarely
be kept clean, and for this reason does more harm than good. It is an
798 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
excellent pmctice to stand the paiLs and other milk v&ssels in the sun so
that the rays will reach every part of the inside. Most species of bacteria
can not live in the direct rays of the sun. For thLs reason milk rooms and
similar rooms for handling milk products, except cold-storage rooms,
should be built so that the sunlight can enter in abundance. Dairy rooms
are iLsually damp, and if dark will permit the growth of molds and the
development of bacteria, and will speedily become unfit as places to keep
milk. The troubles with stringy, or ropy, milk usually occur in places of
this kind, and can be overcome by a thorough cleansing and the admis-
sion of plenty of air and sunlight.
V. Handling of Milk After It Is Drawn.
Milk is often spoiled by allowing it to stand in the barn too long after
it is drawn. It readily absorbs odors from the air, and odors of the barn
are usually very much in evidence. For this reason the milk should be
quickly removed to a jilace free from odors.
The Milk Room. — If milk is placed in a cellar or cave where there
are decaying vegetables or fruits it will quickly absorb the odors from
them. Such places are entirely unfit for the storing of milk. The dairy-
man should have a building set apart from the barns or other places from
which objectionable odors might come, for the exclusive use of the dairy.
This building need not be very large, but must be constructed so that it
can be easily kept clean and cool. A cement floor should be laid, as it is
the easiest to clean, is cool, and does not rot from moisture. If the walls
are built of stone, brick, or concrete, so much the better, for such walls keep
out the heat.
The roof construction should be such that it will effectually turn the
heat of the sun. If the roof is not of concrete, it should be built double
so that an air current will pass between the upper and lower part. Walls
and ceilings should be covered with cement plaster, whether wood or stone
is used in their construction. This finish, if properly put on, is easy to
clean and does not readily become affected with mold or decay.
The Water Supply. — Provision must be made for an abundance of
water and the pumping arrangement must be such that the fresh water
from the well or spring will flow through the dairy house. It should run
into a tank built deep enough to allow the complete submerging of the
milk and cream cans. The tank should have sufficient width and length
to hold all that it may be necessary to use. A tank built up of concrete
and finished with a cement surface is the most economical in the long mn
and is much more satisfactory. Provision must be made for draining it
out for purposes of cleaning. Wooden tanks are usually a source of trouble
from leaks and decay. Iron tanks do not last long, because they become
rusty.
Cooling Arrangements. — If the dairyman has ice, the problem of cool-
ing is very simple. Broken ice can be placed in the tank about the cans.
There are plans for building ice houses with refrigerators connected, bui,
DAIRYING AND BUTTER MAKING DAIRY BUILDINGS. 799
all purposes considered, the refrigerator can be built with most economy
and with better sanitary arrangement if it is constructed separate from the
ice house. The common ice chest in which the products to be cooled are
placed in the box with the ice is a very satisfactory way for handling cans
of milk or cream. For other products it is not so satisfactory, as it is not
dry enough, and if the articles are small does not afford shelf room for
them. •
Use of Steam. — In a moderate-sized dairy there should be added to
the equipment a small steam boiler which should be in a room separate
from the dairy. There is always need of steam, and the additional cost
involved is but little compared with the benefits obtained. If steam can
not be provided, a small hot-water heater of some kind should be used. It
is essential to have plenty of boiling water for puiposes of washing and
scalding milk vessels and the floors and walls of the building.
It is not within the province of this bulletin to go into details of con-
struction in the matter of dairv' building's. The ideas here given are gen-
eral in nature and involve principles that should be followed in any con-
struction.
VI. The Cream Separator and Its Operation.
Advantages of Mechanical Separation. — There are two general methods
in practice for creaming the milk. One is to place the milk in shallmv
pans or deep cans and allow the cream to rise by gravity. The other is
the use of the centrifugal separator. As the separator is fast displacing the
old method, space will be given here for a discussion of separation by
centrifugal force only.
The dairyman can not afford to be without a separator. It removes
practically all of the butter fat from the milk, while the old method of
gravity skimming will leave from one-eighth to one-fourth of the butter
fat in the milk. The cream from the centrifugal machine is of finer
quality, and a much better j)roduct can be made from it. The skim milk
is fresh and sweet for feeding and is far superior to that from the gravity
system.
There are numerous kinds of mechanical .separators on the market,
but they differ in detiiils of construction rather than in the principles on
which they work. The dairyman should thoroughly understand these
principles. In selecting a separator one should first determine its value
for good work, and then examine its mechanical construction to see if it
will stand long use.
The Principles of Separation. — The force that is used to separate the
milk is known as centrifugal force. This force may be described as
the pull that is felt when a weight attached to a string is whirled about
the hand. It is the pull outward, and the faster the weight is whirled the
stronger the pull becom&s. In the old system of creaming, the separation
is caused by the action of gravity. The fat globules, being lighter than
the other portions of the milk, are forced to the top; that is, gravity acts
etronger or pulls harder on the heavier portions than it does on the lighter,
800 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
and the milk is gmdually arranged in layers, the lighter portion at the
top and the heavier portion at the bottom. The force acting in the sepa-
rator has precisely the same action on the milk, but acts outward from the
center of the bowl the same as gravity acts downward from the surface,
only many thousand times stronger, accomplishing in a few moments and
far more completely what it takes gravity several hours to do.
As the milk goe» into the bowl it is at once thrown to the outermost
parts and fills the bowl completely until an opening is reached where it
will flow out again. The surface of the milk is on a line parallel with the
center, or axis, of the \yo\\\, and is exactly in line with the cream outlet.
A cross section througli the bowl from this surface to the outside presents
much the same appearance as would a pan of milk after the cream has
raised by gravity. The cream is on the surface, which might be called the
top, and the heavier portions of the milk at the point farthest from the
center, which would represent the bottom.
With this understanding of the arrangement of the milk in the bowl
there are a number of things to be observed which influence the separa-
tion. The difference in length of time it takes to separate cream by
gravity and by centrifugal force shows plainly that the time varies with
the amount of force applied. The shorter the time the greater the force
must be. Skim milk from the separator contains less fat than that secured
by the gravity system, showing that the greater force causes more perfect
separation.
From the above statements the following conclusions regarding the
ues of the separator may be drawn : (1) If the amount of milk that passes
through the separator in a given time is a fixed quantity, any increase in
the speed of the machine will tend to cause closer skimming because of
the greater force exerted; (2) if the amount of milk that passes through
in a given time is increased and the speed remains the same the skimming
will not be so perfect, for the centrifugal force is not exerted on the milk
so long a time. It is evident, therefore, that the closeness of skimming
is the result of two factors — time and force. If either of these is de-
creased, the result will be poorer work. If either is increased, better work
will result.
Common Errors in Operating Separators. — Two errors are made in
operating separators because of ignorance of the facts just stated. The
f'rst consists in allowing too nmch milk to pass through the machine. As
theie is a limit to the practical speed at which the machine can be safely
run, it is not good practice to try to overcome the error referred to by
increasing the speed bej'Ond the safe point. The feed outlet is usually
fixed so that too much milk will not run through, but cases have been
known where operators, anxious to shorten the time of separation, have
enlarged the opening, allowing too much milk to pa=s. This error is not
so conmion as the second, which is to allow the speed of the machine to
become too slow. The slow speed does not generate enough force to skim
properly, and the result is loss of butter fat in the skim milk. The number
of revolutions per minute required by a machine is usually indicated on
DAIRYING AND BUTTER MAKING DAIRY BUILDINGS. 801
the machine or in the instruction book belonging to it, and this should be
ritrictly followed.
Best Temperature of Milk for Separating. — All liquids flow more
readily when warm than cold. This is not as noticeable with milk as it
may be with molasses, but the principle holds just as true and is readily
shown in the separation of milk. Everyone has observed that cold cream
does not flow as readily as warm cream. As cream is one of the products
of separation and has to flow from the machine through a small opening
or outlet, it is seen that the warmer it is the more readily it will flow. If
the flow of cream is checked, more milk will be forced out of the skim-
milk outlet, and if the obstruction to the flow becomes too great, butter fat
will go out with the skim milk, because it can not move fast enough
through the cream outlet. For this reason the nearer the temperature of
the milk approaches the animal heat the better will be the separation.
While some machines are supposed to skim milk as cold as 60° to 65° F.,
it is not good practice, because the skimming will not be so close. The
milk should be at a temperature of 80° or higher. It will be seen, there-
fore, that a third factor, in addition to rate of feed and speed of machine
— namely, the temperature of the milk — has a direct bearing on separa-
tion, and it may be accepted as true that the warmer the milk the better
the work.
Summary of Points to Be Observed. — To sunnnarize, the points in
the operation of a separator, given in their order of importance its bearing
on the quality of the work, are as follows:
First. The speed of the separator must be uniform and up lo Llie
standard required by the makers of that particular machine.
Second. The temperature of the milk should be such as will make it
How readily; the warmer it is the more perfect will be the separation.
Third. The amount of milk that is run through the machine shuuld
remain constant, and should not be incre"ased over that which is intended
for the machine.
Fourth. The machine should be set on a solid base or foundation, so
that there will be no jar or shaking about as it is turned, such as would
tend to interfere with the even flow of the milk through the bowl and
thus destroy its efficiency in skimming.
Fifth. The separator must be kept thoroughly and scrupulously clean,
particular care being taken that none of the tubes through which the milk
flows become obstructed in any way.
Sixth. The test of the cream can be readily changed by changing
either the cream outlet or the skim-milk outlet.
In the mechanical operation of a machine none but the best oil should
be used, and this should not be allowed to gum or become dirty on the
bearings. It is good practice to flush the bearings with kerosene occa-
sionally by making a run with kerosene in the oil cups. This will serve
802 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMrLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
to cut out any gum or dust that has accumulated in the bearings and ^^'ill
make the machine run nuich freer and easier, thus greatly increasing the
length of time that it will last and do perfect work.
VII. Separating the Milk.
The milk should be separated as soon as possible after milking, while it
still contains the animal heat.
Use of Strainers. — If milk has been handled in a cleanly way during
milking it can be poured directly into the supply can of the separator
without straining. The dairyman who depends upon the strainer to clean
the milk rather than using cleanly methods of milking is the one who
makes the poorer butter. If it is necessary to strain the milk a very fine
wire strainer should be used. It is very difficult to keep a cloth strainer
in good condition, and if not kept in good condition it is a seed bed for
trouble. When a strainer cloth becomes yellow it rarely ever smells clean,
indicating that decomposition is going on and that it is not fit to use.
For this reason it is best to discard strainer cloths entirely. If a strainer
other than wire is used, it is best to employ some material such as absorb-
ent cotton that can be thrown away at the end of each njilking.
Operating the Machine. — Before starting the separator the operator
should look carefully after the bearings or wearing parts, putting a drop
or two of oil on each and noting whether the oil cups are dropping prop-
erly. Instructions for care and oiling come with each machine and they
should be heeded. The makers have studied this problem and are bound
for their own protection to give proper instructions for operation. In the
winter time when the separator bowl and i)arts are cold it is best to pour
a quart or so of hot water through the machine just as it is started. This
warms up the surfaces and prevents the milk from sticking as it would
if cold. It also makes the cleaning of the separator much easier and pre-
vents its clogging up at the start.
Bring the machine gradually up to its normal speed and then turn
the milk in .slowly until the valve is wide open. Keep a constantly uni-
form motion of the handle during the entire run. When all of the milk
has passed from the supply can -d quart or so of the skim milk should be
caught and poured through to flush out the cream that will remain in the
bowl. Unlass this is done some of the butter fat will adhere to the surface
and a small amount remain in the center of the bowl, not being able to get
out of the machine because there is no more milk flowing in to force it
through. Pouring in the skim milk forces it all out. Warm water may
be used for this purpo.se but usually it is not so convenient.
Care of Cream After Separation. — The first work on completion of
the separation should be the care of the cream. It is the product for which
all of the previous work has been performed and it is woi-se than folly to
neglect it now it is secured. The cream must be cooled at once to check
the growth of bacteria. The best method for doing this is to place it in
a deep, narrow pail immersed in cold water just punii)ed from the well,
DAIRYING AND BUTTER MAKING DAIRY BUILDINGS. 803
and then stir it gently until it is brought down to nearly the temperature
of the water. A good dairy thermometer must be a part of the equipment
of every dairy, and all temperatures should be taken with it — not by
guess. It will take but a few minutes to cool the cream down in the man-
ner described. As soon as it is cooled cover the pail in such a way that it
can be entirely submerged in the water. The ordinary shotgun can, as it
is commonly called, having a cover that fits over the outside coming down
about two inches, with catches to hold it in place, is the best kind of a
vessel for cooling and holding cream. When a can is entirely submerged
it is protected from the heat of summer, the cold of winter, and the con-
taminating odors that may he in the air; and the surface is effectually
kept from drying, leaving the cream in as fine physical condition as when
separated.
Warm cream should never be mixed with cold. The result of mixing
is always quick souring. The bacteria in the cold cream are dormant or
inactive and will remain so if kept chilled. Just as soon as the tempera-
lure of the cream is raised a little it quickens the life of the bacteria and
they increase at a rapid rate, causing .souring in a very short time. Too
much emphasis can not be given to the two points above mentioned —
namely, the quick and thorough cooling immediately after separating
and the caution in regard to the mixing of the warm and cold cream. It
is of more importance to attend to the cream at once after the separating
is finished than anything else at that particular time. The calves and pigs
can wait for their skim milk, but bacteria in the cream wait for nothing
until the temperature favorable to theit growth is reduced.
In hot dry climates, where evaporation is excessive, another method for
keeping milk or cream cool may be adopted. After the cream has been
cooled as described, instead of submerging the can in a water tank it can be
set out in the open under anything that will protect it from the sun. A pail
of water should be set on the lid. A cloth stitched along the edges to form
a sack must then be dipped in the water and slipi)ed down over the pail
and can, bringing it clear to the floor, with the upper end turned down
into the water. This cloth or sack serves as a siphon and will gradually
empty the pail, the water moving up the edge and down to the floor.
From a cloth thus kept wet the evaporation will be very great, and the can
and its contents under the cloth will be kept cool even in the hottest
weather. In fact, the hotter and drier the air the greater the cooling eft'ect,
as there will be more rapid evaporation.
In using the tank for keeping cream cool, it must not be forgotten that
the water must be kept fresh. If a constant stream is not running through
the tank the water should be changed at least twice or three times during
the day. The frequency should depend upon the coolness of the room in
which the tank is kept.
Cleaning the Separator.— Yerj soon after the separation has been
completed the separator should be cleaned. It is imperative that it be
washed every time after it is used, and the sooner it is washed the easier
will be the operation. The general directions for washing dairy tinware
804 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
apply to the parts of the separator that come in contact with the milk. In
cleaning the machine the frame should not be neglected. Sometimes an
operator thinks it is useless to spend time to keep it clean, as it does not
come in direct contact with the milk. In most cases where a machine is
found to be dirty and grimy, it will be found out of repair in other ways.
The bearings will usually be gummy, and if examined the machine will
be found to be out of level, and more often than otherwise the parts that
come in contact with the milk will not have been properly cleaned.
VIII. Ripening the Cream.
Up to the point of ripening the cream the dairyman has been trying to
keep his cream as free as possible from bacteria and to check the gro\\i;h
of all that may get into it, but from this point on the work w411 be quite
different. Cream prepared as described in the foregoing paragraphs
should be perfectly sweet, and if cooled properly will remain so for a
number of hours. In fact it can be preserved four or five days if kept at
a temperature below 50° F. It might be churned in this condition and
a quality of butter made that is in demand in a limited way, but, prac-
tically speaking, all butter used in this country is churned from rour
cream. Sweet-cream butter to most users tastes flat and insipid.
IX. The Churn.
Barrel Churn the Best. — Taking the barrel churn as best for the farm
butter maker, he should know how to get the most out of it. In this form
of churn the concussion of the cream necessary to do the churning is
secured by the fall of the cream as the churn is revolved. The faster the
churn is revolved the greater number of concussions per minute will be
secured. But if the churn is whirled so fast that the centrifugal force cre-
ated holds the cream from falling no churning will take place.
Cleaning the Churn. — Churns are usually made of wood, and their
care is an important factor. When ready to clean, the churn should be
rinsed out with cold water to remove all buttermilk, salt, etc. ; it should
then be partially filled with boiling water, the lid put on and fastened
loosely, so steam can escape, the draining plug withdrawn, and the churn
whirled. The pressure on the inside caused by the creation of steam from
the hot water will force water into every nook and crevice of the churn.
After a few revolutions the water should be drawn off and another lot,
boiling hot, added, and the whirling repeated. Empty this out and let the
churn stand so it will drain a few minutes, and then turn the opening up
and let it dry. The heat in the wood will dry it out rapidly, and there
will be no chance for mold to grow. An occasional rinsing out wath lime
water will help to keep a churn sweet.
All other wooden daii*y utensils should be rinsed, scalded, and dried
w'ith the same care.
X. Churning.
The process of churning is the gathering into a mass of the butter fat
in the cream. The butter fat exists in the cream in minute globules, each
DAIRYING AND BUTTER MAKING DAIRY BUILDINGS. 805
independent of the others, and any agitation tends to bring them together,
the force of the impact causing them to adhere to each other. As the
agitation is continued these small particles of butter grow larger by addi-
tion of other particles until a stage is reached where they become visible
to the eye, and if the churning is continued long enough all will be united
in one lump of butter in the churn.
Temperature. — The time that it takes to churn depends largely on
the temperature of the cream at the beginning. If the cream is quite
warm, the butter will come very quickly; if it is too cold, the churning
may have to be prolonged, in some instances for houre, before the butter
granules will become large enough to free themselves from the buttermilk.
The temperature at the beginning should be regulated accordingly. It is
usually considered that about thirty to thirty-five minutes' churning
should bring the butter. With different seasons of the year the tempera-
tures will have to be varied somewhat in order to have the butter come in
this length of time. It is necessary in hot weather to churn at a tempera-
ture as low as 50° or 55° F., while in the winter months, when the cows
are on dry feed and the weather is cold, it is often nec&ssary to raise the
churning temperature to 60° or 65°. Cases have been known where under
some peculiar feed condition the temperature had to be raised to as high as
80° F., in order to make the butter gather at all. Trouble of this kind
rarely ever occurs when the cows have succulent feed in winter, such as
silage or roots. Occasionally some peculiar fermentation takes place in
the cream, causing difficult churning, but this is a result of carelessness
somewhere, and can be remedied by a thorough cleaning up of the
premises.
Washing arid Saltmg the Butter. — It is important to know at just
what point to stop churning. For best results in freeing the granules from
the buttermilk and incorporating the salt it is considered that the butter
granules should be about the size of beans or grains of corn, possibly a
little larger. The churn is then stopped, and the buttermilk allowed to
drain. After the buttermilk is well drained from the butter granules an
amount of water about equal in volume and of the same temperature as
the buttermilk should be added, and the churn given four or five revolu-
tions, slowly, so that the water will come in contact with every particle of
butter and wash out the remaining buttermilk.
As soon as the wash water has drained well from the butter granules,
salt .should be added. The amount of salt used wall depend entirely on
the demands of the consumer. Usually about one ounce of salt for each
pound of butter will be necessary. If the ordinary barrel churn is used,
which is perhaps the best form made, the salt may be added in the churn.
By giving the churn a few revolutions the salt will be quite thoroughly
incorporated with the butter. It should stand in this condition for a few
minutes, until the salt becomes more or less dissolved, before the working
of the butter is begun.
806 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
XI. Working the Butter.
Table Workers. — For working the butter some form of table worker
is best to use. The butter bowl and paddle never give as good results be-
cause the butter will almost invariably be greasy, owing to the sliding
motion of the jiaddle over the butter. The table workers commonly used
are of two kinds — one having a stationary bed and a roller, either corru-
gated or smooth, arranged so that it can be passed back and forth over the
surface of the butter; the other having a movable bed, revolving on a
center, usually under two corrugated rollers. Both of these forms will do
good work if the operator undci-staiids their use.
Suggestions as to Working. — If the salt and butter have been mixed
in the churn the butter can be placed on the working table and the work-
ing begun at once. After the butter has been pressed out with the roller it
should be divided in the center, one part being laid over onto the other
and the rollers passed over again. The process should be repeated until
the butter assumes what is termed a waxy condition. If the working is
continued for too long a time the butter will become salvy, having the
appearance of lard, and will lose its granular structure, becoming weak-
bodied. The firmness of the butter must be taken into account in deter-
mining how long it should be Avorked. Usually the firmer the butter the
more working it will stand and the more time it will need to thoroughly
incorporate the salt and bring out the waxy condition.
Testing Saltiness While Working. — During the process of working,
the butter should be tested frequently to determine its saltiness, and if by
mistake too much salt has been added it can readily be removed from the
butter by pouring a little cold water over it as the working continues. The
water washes out the excess of salt.
XII. Care of Utensils.
Care of Utensils. — The worker, paddles, and prints that come in con-
tact with the butter need special preparation before the Avork is begun.
They should first be thoroughly scalded, and the scalding should continue
long enough to make the surface of the wood hot, after which it should
immediately be rinsed with cold water. This operation opens up the pores
of the wood and then causes them to contract and form a smooth surface
to which the butter will not stick. It also thoroughly Avets the surface,
which probably has a tendency to prevent the butter sticking.
BOOK II
PART II
Diseases of Cattle
HOW TO KNOW THEM; THliiR CAUSES, PRE-
VENTION AND CURE
808 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOU.
Ft^ . qualnr g^=--^ Second v"-^r
lnUrmeO,HU: cute 6p(»«n I" S ^"'^«lme.' ^^M tnUr^d,ou- cuU, bet.^^ >"'« j-?ual.0e,
l-:».''^;^'.-Sa Third guflli^-
FIGURE 1
ll!r|:"^'ilii!!!l!l i>^ quoLty
FIGURE 2.
The difference in the appreciation and value of the various cuts of meat in London
and Paris is very great; and as these rules have been introduced also in the large
cities of America, our stocii-breeders are vitally interested, and should study this
question, so they may know what portions of tiie body to develop by a judicious choice
of breeding animals. For instance, a pound of the fillet represented by Nos. 4 and 5
in figure 1. and No. 1 in figure 2, is worth 44 cents in Paris, while the portions 13, 14
and 15 in figure 2, bring only 123^ to 14 cents. Nothing pays better than judicious
and intelligent breeding of our meat supplies; and as the demand grows with tlie in-
crease of population, the question assumes greater importance with each succeeding
year.
Diseases of Cattle.
CHAPTER I.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
I. IMPORTANCE OF THIS DEPARTMENT OF PRACTICE. II. PATHOLOGY OF CATTLE
AND OF THE HORSE COMPARED. III. ACTION OF REMEDIES IN CATTLE. IV.
THE ONLY SAFE PRINCIPLES FOR MOST CATTLE OWNERS. V. FAMILIARIZE
YOURSELF WITH THE PHENOMENA OF HEALTH. VI. THE PULSE, RESPIRATION
AND TEMPERATURE. VII. OTHER SPECIAL SIGNS OF DISEASE.
As cattle occupy a foremost place in the wealth and resources of the
country, furnishing its beef, milk, butter and cheese, and, as secondary
products, its hides, tallow, glue, animal charcoal, etc., the prevention of
disease among thorn — especially of contagious diseases — and their treat-
ment when sick become very important, not only from a financial
standpoint, but also from considerations of the public health and com-
fort.
II. Pathology of Cattle and of the Horse Compared.
Cattle are a phlegmatic, plethoric race of animals, intended by nature
to eat large quantities of bulky food, to be prepared for digestion while
quietly lying down, by the process of rumination, and to take but little
exi^rcise. This f:it, plethoric condition of the system renders them more
susceptible to certain classes of diseases than the horse, especially to the
blood poisons, that witli them are so rapidly and certainly fatal, such as
rinderpest, anthrax and Texa:^ fever. On the other hand, their nervous
organization being much less sensitive, they are not nearly so liable to
attacks of such disorders r.s tetanus, r.aralysis, etCo
Cattle not being fed to produce muscle without fat, are not subject to
lameness and disease of the :ur=-pa8Sc.ges to the same extent as the horse,
with whom speed and endurance arc the main points. In fact, soundness
or unsoundness, as the terms arc used by horsemen, is of little importance
to tho cattle owner, so long as the animal ca:^ move w th any degree of
comfort at all; while such affections of wind-pr\csages as roaring,
whist'ing anl heaves are to him nnknowno Still, that distressing, .ncur-
able diseas:, so common in the human rf.ce, pulmonary consumption
809
810 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
is very prevalent among cattle, especially milch cows, probably on account
of the drain on them of giving milk; this weakens the system, making
them more susceptible to the infection. It is thought by many to be pri-
marily a bovine disease, the horse seeming to possess an almost totai
immunity to it.
On account of their lower grade of vitality, they are more susceptible
to influences that develop local diseases, as, for example, the miasma ol
low, marshy ground, especially that Avhich has been overflowed ; and also
to poor fodder, from must, or being affected with ergot, etc.
There is a peculiar sympathy in disease among cattle, as is illustrated in
regard to abortion. It is a familiar experience that if one cow aborts
through accident, one or more of the others will abort through sympathy.
Owing to theirnatural tendency to plethora, cattle seem peculiarly pre-
disposed to malignant ulcers, swellings, glandular enlargements and even
gangrene. To these they are more subject than any other of the domes-
tic animals.
The nostrils, pharynx, larynx and trachea (wind-pipe) are much smaller
than in the horse, which is one reason why they cannot travel so fast nor
so long as the latter, — the wind fails. This also explains why suffocation
is a more imminent danger in cases of throat inflammation in cattle than
in horses, needing specially prompt and active treatment, even to the op-
eration of tracheotomy.
The different arrangement of the digestive apparatus in cattle as com-
pared with the horse, is very marked, the former having four distinct
stomachs, while the latter has only one stomach, but a greater length of
intestines, which are also much more sensitive. Inflammation of the
bowels, so common with the horse, is quite rare with the ox.
Cattle are less tolerant of disease and pain than the horse. They give up
in discouragement, after one or two attempts, and pine away under pain
very fast. They soon become indifferent to life, often refusing ta make
one effort to rise when perfectly able to do so ; and, as weakness follows
more rapidly in inflammatory diseases, these require more energetic
measures and an earlier administration of tonics and stimulants than when
treating the horse.
III. Action of Remedies in Cattle.
Eemembering the phlegmatic nature of cattle, remedies work very dif-
ferently with them than with the horse. Medicines should always be
given them in liquid form, and more bulky than for the horse ; and
they should contain something in the nature of a mild stimulant to
hasten their passage through the first three stomachs, and onto the fourth
stomach and intestines, where they can be taken up into the system by
the absorbents.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. ^H
Aloes, though so excellent a purgative for horses, is of no use with
cattle ; while epsom suits, that are so drastic and cold for horses, on
cattle work like a charm. Calomel and other forms of mercury act
violently on cattle, salivating them very soon, and is excreted through
the milk, often affecting sucking calves seriously. Oils, used as purga-
tives, act Avell on cattle, and especially melted lard. Mustard, as a blister,
acts with more vigor on cattle than on the horse, but turpentine less.
IV. The Only Safe Principles for Most Cattle Owners.
But few outside of the more common diseases of cattle will be treated
of in this work, the better to adapt it for its ready use, as a book for
reference, by the average stock owner ; and the recipes will ho as few and
simple as they can be made without detracting from their value. It is a
mistake to suppose that any great variety of A'iolent drugs can be used
with advantage l)y the public general l3^ The public would, no doubt,
learn by experience, but it would be at the cost of losing many valuable
animals. What we advocate and would like to instil into the minds of
our readers, in conjunction with the importance of thorough preventive
measures, is to treat the ordinary diseases as early and vigorously as pos-
sible, with the simplest efficient remedies, and when any extraordinary
case arises requiring more violent means, to employ an educated, well
qualiii e d ve t e r i n a ry s u rge o n .
V. Familiarize Yourself with the Phenomena of Health.
As it is obvious that no person is fitted to treat disease who is unable
to distinguish at least its prominent symptoms, every stock owner
should familiarize himself with the ordinary phenomena of health, espe-
cially with the pulse, respiration and temperature. Scarcely less im-
portant than these, in many forms of disease, are the appearance of the
hair and skin, and that of the e^^e ; the jmsture and movements ; and the
character and frequency of the appetite, and also of the discharges.
VI. The Pulse, Respiration and Temperature.
The normal pulse in cattle ranges from lifty to fifty-five per minute ;
in old animals, but especially in calves, it is somewhat more. The pulse
is the most conveniently taken from the artery passing up along the lower
part of the neck on either side just under the cervical vertebra?, or else that
beneath the tail. In health it is softer and less tense than it is in the horse
The breathing it requires no special skill to diagnose — only a moderate
amount of practice. The soft, rustling sound of the healthful " respira-
tory murmur," when the ear is placed to the chest, is altogether changed
when there is any ailment affecting the lungs or air passages. The num-
ber of respirations per minute (ordinarily ten to fifteen in cattle) can b?
812 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
easily counted by the heaving of the chest. Some practice, however,
will be required to make one a first-rate judge of the sound obtained by
percussion, which, in health, is always clear and resonant. Percussion
consists in placing the foretinger of the left hand upon the chest, and
striking it smartly with the ends of the first three fingers of the right
hand.
The temperature, in all animals, is a vital index of unsurpassed value.
It can be approximately measured by feeling the skin, ears and legs, — in
cattle the horns also, at their root. But what is termed the "clinical
thermometer," which is so shaped that its bulb can be conveniently inser-
ted into the rectum, (to remain two or three minutes), is infinitely better,
as it gives results so much more exact. Its use has established the im-
portant fact that different febrile disea.-^es have different ranges or tem-
perature, each having its own "dead-line," beyond which recovery is im-
possible. Thus, a horse with cerebro-spinal meningitis will certainly diti
soon after reaching a temperature of 104 ® ; yet 108 ° or even 109 ^
by no means indicate a fatal termination, in a case of pneumonia.
VH. Other Special Signs of Disease.
A "staring coat," as it is termed, in which the hairs stand out like
bristles, is an obvious symptom, and sometimes the only one, of a low
state of health. Shivering, when the animal is exposed to only modeiv
ate cold or to none at all, challenges immediate attention ; for it is, infal-
libly, the ushering in of an attack of some disease, usually severe. Cold
sweat coming out on the skin of an animal severely ill indicates a desper-
ate, if not fatal, condition. The posture when standing, the method of
lying down or getting up, the action in moving around, — these are all
significant, and should be noted carefully.
The countenance, and especially the eye, if observed closely, will betray
the distress and pain which the dumb sufferer cannot express in words.
The muzzle, which in health is moist, (or covered with "dew," as many
call it), in disease, especially in fever, becomes unnaturally hot and dry
or cold, and sometimes changed in color — sometimes paler, but more
commonly injected with blood. One of the earliest signs of serious con-
stitutional disturbance, as well as of certain special disorders, in the case
of cattle, IS the suspension of rumination, — that is, ceasing to chew the
cud. A nearly coincident general symptom, in cows, is the drying up of
the milk.
CHAPTER II.
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES.
I. CONTAGIOUS PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. II. RINDERPEST OR CATTLE PLAGUE.
IIL TEXAS FEVER, SPANISH OR SPLENIC FEVER. IV. CONTAGIOUS ECZEMA,
FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE OR EPIZOOTIC APHTHA. V. ANTHRAX. VL VA-
RIOLA VACCINAE OR COW-POX. VIL TUBERCULOSIS. VIII. CANCEROUS
ULCERS AND OSTEO SARCOMA. IX. LUMPY JAW. X CONTAGIOUS ABOR-
TION OF CATTLE.
I. Contagious Pleuro-Pneumonia.
This is the most fatal and contagious of the diseases to which cattle are
subject, except rinderpest (a contagious enteric fever), which has never yet
gotten a hold in America, and Texas or Spanish fever (si)lenic fever). It
was first introduced into the United States in 1843, at Brooklyn, Loner
Island, by a cow that was purchased from the caj^tain of an English vessel,
and several times since then, at various other ports, in the bodies of im-
ported cattle. It spread more or less slowly through parts of New York,
Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia,
District of Columbia, Ohio, Illinois, Kentucky and Missouri. Through the
combined efforts of the Federal government, exerted through the Bureau
of Animal Industry, and the various state governments, it has been effectu-
ally stamped out by quarantining and slaughtering all cattle in infected
districts. This was done at an enormous expense, but it is the only way
of radically ridding the country of this most insidious disease.
It is a contagious fever of cattle, with local inflammation of the pleura,
(the thin membrane lining the thorax and investing the lungs), and the
lungs, accompanied by great prostration, and in its more malignant forms
ending in death in a few days. It is, however, often slow in its develop-
ment, weeks, or even months elapsing during which the contagion works
in the system, before finally revealing its fatal symptoms.
So terribly contagious is this disease, and so insidious in its spread, that
exposed cattle may be transported long distances before it breaks out. The
period of incubation is Very indefinite, ranging from eighteen days to two
months. It develops in different cattle in all degrees of severity from a small
focus of pneumonia, the size of a walnut, or a patch of pleurisy two inches in
diameter, to a complete consolidation of both lungs, or a pleurisy involving
every square inch of the lining of the chest. Mild cases appear to recover;
they will show all the signs of good health, will feed well, fatten fast, cows
will breed and give milk, as usual, but they do not recover; they simply
813
814
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
become chronic, and the focus of the disease is liable to break through the
capsule that surrounds it, and reinfect that animal at any time, and thus
form a new focus from which the disease may spread to other animals.
Hence, the farmer suspecting it in his herd
should at once apply to a competent veterinary
surgeon, if there is one within reach, to verify
the disease. If such expert authority be not at
hand; kill the animal or animals at once, slash
the skin to prevent any person from digging the
animal up for the sake of the hide, and bury
deeply; if quick lime can be gotten, use it freely
over the carcass. Then disinfect carefully all
stables and outhouses, and in case other animals
are suspected, isolate and quarantine them and
await developments.
How to know it. — The earlier symptoms are
apt to pass unnoticed. The first is a rise in
temperature to 103° or 106° F., shown by intro-
ducing a clinical thermometer into the rectum,
the normal temperature being on an average of
101.5° F. ; there will be loss of appetite; a star-
ing coat; slight shiverings; a hard, dry cough;
a loss of milk; scanty urine, higher or darker
colored than usual. Then will follow tenderness
upon pressure between the ribs over the lungs;
the cough will increase; and the breathing
quicken; the nose will extend, the back be
arched; the hind legs will be drawn under the
body, and the elbows will be turned out. Later,
there will be a watery or a more pronounced dis-
charge of matter from the eyes and nose; obstin-
ate constipation, or a watery foetid diarrhoea; a
rapid weakening of the system, ending in death.
Upon percussion (striking) over the lungs,
there will be given back, in the earlier stages, a
clear resonant sound; later, it will be dull and
heavy. So, in the first stage, there will be a
dry crackling sound; later, it will be a whistling
Any of these may be easily distinguished Irom
the sound occasioned by percussion upon an animal in health.
In America pleuro-pneumonia does not show the most violent symptoms
except in warm weather. Yet this very slow incubation shows the extreme
PLEURO-PNEUMONIA.
Section of affected lung in conta-
gious pleuro-pneumonia. The
thin end shows black hepatiza-
tion; the center, red. At the
thick end interlobular infiltra-
tion and several blocked vessels
are shown.
or rough breathing sound
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 815
care that should be exercised in watchfulness. The seeds of the disease
once in the system, the incubation is only a question of time, and warm
weather will bring out the disease in all its intensity. But none of the
above symptoms are conclusive of contagious pleuro-pneumonia, for all of
them are seen in the non-contagious form of it. The history of the cases,
one after another coming down with the same disease without any apparent
reason for it in the way of exposure, the failure of the disease to respond
to treatment, and the peculiar post mortem lesions found in it are the
points to be relied upon in making a diagnosis. The characteristic post
mortem lesions can be determined only by a competent veterinarian of
experience with the disease.
What to do. — As to remedial measures, it seems useless for the farmer
to resort to them, since this is a disease that the veterinarian alone can
cope with, and then only when perfect isolation may be had. The safest
and also the cheapest plan, is prompt killing and burial of infected animals,
thorough isolation of the rest of the herd, which should l)e fattened and
marketed for beef under veterinary inspection at the time of slaughter, to
determine what is fit or unfit for human food, and perfect disinfection of
the premises. In the matter of disinfection, the easiest, cheapest and best
way is to remove all animals from the barn or shed, and close it up tightly
and burn sulphur in it for a couple of hours; then open and air it, and
whitewash it thoroughly with lime.
Prevention. — Proper quarantines of stock imported into this country,
for a period of time sufficiently long to decide for a certainty that no latent
contagion is hanging around them, say two months; destruction of all
affected animals; and isolation of those that have been exposed to the con-
tagion. Some very high authorities in Europe recommend inoculation of
those that have been exposed, and even of whole herds and dairies. It is
a disease, the occurence of which in an animal once, confers immunity from
subsequent attacks. It is found that inoculation does not always produce
the same disease, at least the disease produced by inoculation is not always
located in the same place, but the constitutional effect is produced with the
same result of immunity from subsequent attacks as the original disease;
and the proportion of deaths among inoculated animals is small as compared
with those who take the disease in its regular course.
The conclusions arrived at by the Belgian Commission in regard to
inoculation, as stated by Prof. Gamgee, are as follows:
"1. The inoculation of the liquid extracted from the lungs of an animal
affected with pleuro-pneumonia does not transmit to healthy animals of the
same species the same disease, at all events so far as its seat is concerned.
2. The appreciable phenomena which follow the inoculation are those of
816 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOB.
local inflammation which is circumscribed and slight on a certain number
of animals inoculated; extensive and difl'use, with general reaction propor-
tioned to the local disease, and complicated by gangrenous accidents on
another number of inoculated animals, so that even death may result.
3. The inoculation of the liquid from the lungs of an animal affected with
pleuro- pneumonia exerts a preservative influence, and invests the economy
of the larger number of animals subjected to its influence with an immunity
which protects them from the contagion of this malady, during a period
which has yet to be determined."
The losses sustained during the experiments of the Commission amounted
to 11.11 per cent. The number of animals on which the effect of inocula-
tion was benignant, was 61.11 per cent.; the proportion in which there
was gangrene and loss of a portion of the tail, 27. 77 per cent. ; in twenty-
one subjects the inflammation was very severe, and complicated by gan-
grenous phenomena, causing the death of six; and, lastly, the recoveries
amounted to 88.88 per cent.
The place recommended to insert the virus is on the end of the tail, it
being less liable to work violently, and terminate fatally from gangrene,
when inserted there than at any other part.
n. Rinderpest, or ContagiouB Enteric Fever.
General Description. — Whatever may be said to the contrary, this
terrible plague has never yet been introduced into any of the countries of
the American hemisphere. At least, there is no well authenticated record
of any case. Its ravages have been mostly confined to the herds of Europe
and Asia, and especially to those of the southern portion of European
Russia and adjacent districts. It is devoutly to be hoped it never will find
its way to America, for it is terribly contagious, desperately fatal, and
swift in its work of death. Where it originally started is not known. In
Southern Russia, on the Asiatic steppes, in various parts of India, in
Southern and Southwestern China, Cochin China, in Mongolia, Burmah,
Hindostan, Persia, Thibet and Ceylon, it has long been known, and has
been carried thence to various European States.
The principle of contagion has not yet been discovered, but when once
an animal is affected, it extends to every tissue and secretion. It is, how-
ever, mostly contained in the secretions of the mucous membranes, and
healthy animals will be infected by coming near infected animals, or near
anything contaminated by their secretions and exhalations, and without
actual contact. So, any object may be infected, and carry the disease
indefinitely, as clothing, wool, hay, straw, litter, wood- work, for it may
remain latent in any of these objects for a long time. Fortunately, air is
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES, 817
said to be the most potent and effective means of destroying the virus; and
hence, through aeration by a direct and continuous current of air is one of
the best ways of diluting, and at length destroying, the seeds of this dread
So quick is the development of the disease that death sometimes occurs
after the second day, though usually after the fifth day; and an average of
from seventy to eighty per cent, of the animals attacked die. Goats,
sheep and deer are also attacked, and the probability is that all ruminating
animals are subject to the contagion; but sheep and goats are not liable to
so large a percentage of mortality as are neat cattle.
Many of the symptoms of rinderpest occur in pleuro-pneumonia in its
contagious form; also, in malignant catarrhal fever, and in foot-and-mouth
disease. But pleuro-pneumonia is distinguished from rinderpest by the
absence of the characteristic eruptions upon the mucous membranes.
Malignant catarrhal fever is distinguished therefrom by the dimness of the
transparent cornea of the eye, which in rinderpest remains clear. The
foot-and-mouth disease differs from rinderpest by ulceration of the feet,
and the less degree of fever.
The alteration of the mucous membrane in rinderpest, heretofore spoken
of, may very soon be observed in the vagina of cows, which becoii^es
spotted or striped with red, and, in about twenty-four hours after, small
yellowish white or gray specks are clearly distinguished on the red spots
and stripes. These are formed by the loosening of the cuticle which may
be rubbed off, leaving in its place a dark red depression.
There is no known remedy for this disease, and hence the only security
against its spread is in the enactment of the most stringent laws, first, for
its prevention; second, for its extinction, by isolation of all suspected
animals, and the prompt killing and burial of all infected ones. In this
respect the laws of the German Empire are taQ most perfect, and our
State and general governments might take a hsson therefrom, in dealing
with pleuro-pneumonia and other malignant contagious diseases of animals,
if the machinery of politics could be succi ssfully dissociated from the
appointment of oflicers for the investigations sought
When an animal has this disease and recc vers, he is rendered insus-
ceptible to another attack.
How to know it. — A perceptible rise in cie temperature of the body
occurs about two days before any other symptoms present themselves;
and it has been shown that the virus exists in the blood at the time a rise
in temperature is first noticed. Inoculation with serum of the blood taken
from an animal at this time, wiF pr jduce the disease. The temperature
in the course of two days rises c> 104° or 105° F., when the following
818
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
symptoms will be noticed: Shiveiin
colicky pains; sometimes a hiiskv
coiu
muscular twitching; restlessness;
h; yawning; great dullness, with
drooi)ing of the ears; occasional tits of delirium; the appetite is soon lost;
the milk of cows is suddenly and entirely stopped, more so than in any
other disease. In the later stages, the animal grinds its teeth; arches its
back; draws its legs together; moans and grunts with each expiration, at
which time the breath is held for an instant and then expelled with a grunt.
At first the bowels are constipated, but fhis condition is soon followed by
violent purging; the dry, hot, red condition of the eyes, nose and mouth,
which exist in the early stage, is followed by a discharge of a glairy, watery
character, soon running into an
opaque and turbid form, which
is very typical of the disease.
In some cases the visible mucous
membranes become altered in ap-
pearance, by assuming a salmon-
red appearance over t'le wnole
extent, with deep crimson red
patches dotted over the surface.
When lying down, the head is
usually turned upon the upper
flank; the twitching of the mus-
cles will b§ noticed more about
the neck, shoulders and hind quarters. The discharges from the bowels
are at first black, but soon change to a pale greenish brown; they are very
foetid and are voided with much straining. The urine is scanty and high
colored, and sometimes albuminous. The pulse rises to 120° to 140° per
minute; the surface of the body gets deathly cold; weakness increases, the
animal lying most of the time; the areolar tissue becomes, in most cases,
bloated with air; the animal becomes drowsy, and soon after unconscious-
ness sets in; the nostrils flap; the mucous membranes become lead-colored,
with purple patches; flatulence supervenes, with involuntary evacuation of
fceces, and death soon follows.
Sometimes the eruption covers the entire body, and, again, it may be
wholly wanting.
III. Texas Fever, Spanish or Splenic Fever.
This disease is indigenous to the lowlands of Mexico, Texas and other
Southern States. It is due to a germ (micrococcus) that takes up its hab-
itat in the red blood corpuscles, causing death by destroying them. These
genns are carried from place to place and from animal to animal by Texas
RINDERPEST.
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 819
ticks that infest the cattle in the South in large numbers. Southern native
cattle become immune to the disease, but Northern cattle taken South take
the disease and die. Southern cattle taken North, in warm weather, carry
the ticks wdth them, from which the disease spreads by their biting the
Northern cattle, or by the cattle eating the ticks that drop onto the grass,
or by eating the excrement of the ticks. Frost kills the ticks; on this
account it is considered sato to drive Southern cattle North during the
winter, but fatal to Northern cittle during the summer. Southern cattle
wintered in the North lose their immunity and then are susceptible to it,
the same as Northern cattle. On acco';.ii • of the tremendous losses from
this disease, the Western States have enc^Kied laws preventing Southern
cattle from being driven North, except durmg the winter, and Illinois
requires them to be shipped in special cars, into a special section of the
Union Stock Yards, and driven to slaughter through special roads to avoid
any danger of infecting Northern cattle that might be taken back to the
country as feeders. The mortality runs from VO per cent, upwards.
It has long been desired to take fancy Northern bulls South to improve
the grade of Southern catcle, but until now it has been impossible to do so
on account of their almost certain death from Texas fever, but now (1898)
vaccination of such bulls, with an antitoxin got from the cultivation of the
germs of it, is being quite extensively used with good success. The anti-
toxin can be got from most of the Agricultural Experimental Stations, with
directions how to use it.
Incubation. — The stage of incubation is from seven to thirty-five daySo
The blood undergoes a material change, and some of its elements escape
into the various tissues of the body and into the urine, giving the latter a
bloody appearance.
How to know it. — As in pleuro-pneumonia, a marked symptom is an
increase of heat, to 104° to 106°; the pulse rises from 40 beats a minute
(the average for healthy steers) up to 120 a minute. The fever is generally
preceded by a chill; the dung and urine become scanty, high colored, or
bloody; the milk fails rapidly; yellow matter is discharged from the nos-
trils and mouth; the animal assumes a peculiarly dejected look; the back
is arched; the flanks become hollow; the gait unsteady or staggering, and
the hair rough; the cough is more or less frequent; the urine coagulates on
boiling; the mucous membranes are deep yellow or brown color, and that
of the rectum dark red. There is but little trace of disease in the first
thi-ee stomachs, but the fourth stomach shows congestion, and the intestines
are still more gorged and blood-stained. The liver is not seriously affected,
but the gall bladder is filled with thick, dark colored bile; the kidneys are
also congested, and the secretion in the bladder is bloody or blood-stained;
820 CrCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
the spleen is much affected and enlarged. In a healthy animal the spleen
should weigh a pound or a pound and a half; in cattle dying of Texas fever
it has been known to reach a weight of eight pounds; hence, the specitic
name of splenic fever.
What to do,— Treatment for this disease, like that for pleuro-pneumonia
and rinderpest, is not satisfactory in the majority of cases. There is this
point, however, in the treatment — since cattle infested from Texans do not
give it to others, and since isolation is a security against contagion, the
animals should at once be put into comfortable quarters and receive good
nursing.
IV. ContagiouB Eczema, Foot and Mouth Disease, or Epizootic Aphtha.
This disease is known in America, but it is very common in the older
countries. Owing to its very short period of incubation — twenty-four
hours to three or four days — there is very little danger of its importation;
and quarantining any affected herds before allowing them to land, will
effectually prevent its introduction.
It is an eczematous or skin disease affecting the mouth, tongue, lips, feet,
legs and udder. The contagion lies in the discharges from the mouth and
feet, and the virus is strewn along the road
and over the pastures by the droppings from
the mouth, and the matter running from the
feet, and is conveyed from field to field by
small vermin, dogs, cats, etc.
It is contagious to nearly all the lower
animals and to man. It is not often fatal,
EPIZOOTIC APHTHA OR FOOT , i •. i i . ,1 . ,
_,,_.^^ but it causes much loss to the stock owner,
AND MOUTH DISEASE. '
through the loss of flesh in cattle that are
being fattened, and the failure in milk, the supply being lessened by from
one to two-thirds of the usual yield.
The milk is affected not only in quantity, but contains much of the
poison of the disease, and affects young animals to Avhich it is given warm,
causing cramps, violent diarrhcea, intestinal irritation, which often prove
fatal. It is considered by good authorities to be equally injurious to
infants. By the aid of the microscope vibrioues, bacteria and monads are
found, which appear to be more injurious to the consumer when the milk
)s drank warm, fresh from the cow. Some authorities say to boil it
before using, and others that this makes no difference, but it is certainly
'ess injiu'ious when it has stood a few hours and g(jt thoroughly cold.
How to know it. — The usual symptoms are rough, staring coat; shiver-
ing fits, dry, hot mouth and muzzle; pulse and temperature raised; the
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 821
mouth, tongue, lips, teats, udder and interdigital spaces become red, swollen
and sore; on the second or third day little pustules break and discharo-e;
saliva drolls from the mouth; the animal keeps working the tono-ne in
great uneasiness; lameness in the feet is seen, the fever in them beino-
sometimes such as to cause the
hoofs to drop off, the joints to
become opened, and extensive
sloughing to take place. There
is great inclination to lie down.
The greatest damage to the feet ^,^^^
is seen among sheep and swine. "~ *^^ ^"^^'i^zm —
The latter sometimes lose some epizootic aphtha.
jj . , T -i 1 1 ladicatiousof the feet being affected.
or the digital bones.
What to do. — The treatment is of little consequence, as the disease
runs a definite course, and usually tel-minates in recovery in aijout fifteen
days. Give soft food to eat and a bountiful supply of clear cold water to
drink; an ounce of saltpeter dissolved in each pail is an advantage. Pay
the most attention to the feet, wash them clean and remove any horn that
may be detached; if the inflammation and swelling are great, ai)ply a lin-
seed poultice till there are raw surfaces, then change them to the followino-
lotion :
No. 1. 1 Ounce sugar of lead,
2 Drachms carbolic acid,
1 Ounce laudanum,
Water to make one pint,
Mix.
Apply three times a day. When suppuration ceases, bind the feet up
in tar bandages. If great weakness follows, Avith prostration and loss of
appetite, give whiskey, brandy, etc., in oatmeal gruel. Give no purgatives,
not even a laxative; for the bowels, although constipated at first, soon
become loose and should not be interfered with, as that is one of the efforts
of nature to expel the poison from the system; and never bleed. If
extensive sloughing around the feet takes place, apply the following lotion:
No. 2. One part carbolic acid,
Eight parts olive oil.
Mix.
A-ppiy three times a day.
V. Anthrax.
This is known by many different names, according to the part attacked.
and the impression made upon the mind of the person aescribing it—
822 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Black Leg, Black Quarter, Quarter III, Charbo?i, Chancre a la Langue,
Sang de Rate, Mai de Sang, Splenic Apoplexy and Braxy in Sheep, Bloody
Murrain, etc. Under the above names are included a group of diseases
very virulent, malignant and contagious, appearing under different forms,
externally and internally, and attacking the different species of lower
animals and man, in an epizootic, enzootic or sporadic manner, according
to the influences that produce it, or whether it is got by inoculation. It
arises spontaneously in low, damp, rich pastures, and along the banks of
overflowed rivers, or where ponds have ])een drained off or dried up, the
soil containing a great amount of organic matter, and when cattle are fat-
tened too fast, by feeding on rich, succulent food, especially clover. Long
continued warm, dry weather, favoring the emanations of organic matter
and miasmatic gases, with great changes in temperature between day and
night, especially in a still atmosphere, favor its development.
The main characteristic of the disease is black, tarry blood, that will
not coagulate, and containing rod-like bodies {bacilli) containing spores,
which are the active part of the virus. Blood containing these spores has
been dried, reduced to dust, and kept four years, and found to be as active
as ever in producing the fatal disease. (Koch.) The spores do not con-
tinue to increase after death, and are not found in any great quantity.
The rods are found in greatest quantity in the spleen. The spleen, liver
and lymphatic glands enlarge and become soft. The bloody flux may lo-
cate in any part of the body, with the tendency to gangrene, death and
decomposition of the part affected, and the formation of gases that distend
the tissues, making a crackling noise when the hand is passed over it.
When it commences on one point of the surface, a small blister forms,
gathers, breaks and dries up, and others form around it, and so on in con-
secutive rings it spreads. This constitutes malignant pustule, and is the
form it usually takes in man, got by inoculation, from handling carcasses
and skinning animals dead from anthrax, handling dirty rags, etc.
Anthrax has two distinct ways of manifesting itself, with external lesions
and without them. To the former belong the black leg, black quarter, or
bloody murrain, black tongue, Siberian boil plague, and carbuncular ery-
sipelas of sheep and swme, and malignant sore throat of the latter; to the
latter, all those having specific changes in the blood, with engorgement of
of the spleen, exudations and blood-stained spots in the internal organs,
and sudden death.
The Siberian Boil Plagjie attacks horses, cattle, sheep, goats and pigs,
and manifests itself in swellings on the sheath, udder, throat, breast, dew-
lap, etc., which are hard, yellowish, and streaked with red, and sometimes
spotted. The animals die in from twelve to twenty-four hours. This,
inoculated into man, produces malignant pustule or charbon.
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES.
823
Bkck leg or bloody murrain is not typical anthrax, but is anthracoid,
with a special germ as the aetive principle of the virus, cheracterized by
engorgment of a quarter or a leg, shoulder or a side. It usually occurs
<tmong yonng, fast growing, thriving cattle, and is so sudden in its attack,
short in its duration, and fatal in its
effect, that one or two of a herd may
be found dead in the morning, when
nothing whatever was wrong with them
the night before. There is a stiffness
in the affected quarter, with some dif-
CARBUNCULAR ERYSIPELAS-
LEG OR QUARTER ILL
fuse swelling and heat, fever, and an
appearance of plethora; the swollen quarter soon mortifies, becomes cold,
gas forms under the skin and crackles if rubbed, and death soon follows.
Sometimes there is an effusion of yellow looking lymph from the swelling.
Recovery is very rare, and is slow and tedious, and the swelling is apt to
slough extensively and form sluggish, unsightly sores.
The black tongue is seen in cattle; and sometimes in horses, and is known
by red purple or black blisters on the tongue, palate and cheeks, some-
times attaining the size of a hen's egg; they burst and run an ichorous,
scalding matter, and the sore becomes unhealthy and ulcer-like, with more
or less swelling; the discharge, as it runs from the mouth, is bloody; the
fever runs very high, the system becomes poisoned throughout, and death
ensues in twenty to forty-eight hours.
Carbuncular erysipelas or braxy in sheep corresponds to black leg in
cattle, and, like it, always attacks the finest, fattest and most thriving one
in the flock. The symptoms are the
same as in black leg, and death follows
in from ten to sixty hours.
Swine have the carbuncular erysipe-
las the same as sheep; also, black tongue,
tumors about the throat, and pharyn-
geal anthrax; the latter is the most
common form, and is probably caused
by eating the carcass of some anthrax
animal. There is fever, swelling about
the throat, neck and breast, which is
red, shining, tender, and soon becomes purple, cold and insensible, and
pits upon pressure; nausea, vomiting, retching, and loss of appetite; pur-
ple patches form around the eyes and on the snout; breathing becomes dif-
ficult, and the month livid; the temperature falls, and death follows in
from one to two days.
Dogs, cats and other small animals die from anthrax, developed in th**
GLOSS-ANTHRAX OR BLACK TONGUE.
824 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE 8TC»CK DOCTOB.
same manner as it is in pigs, and coming from their eating anthrax car-
casses. They are affected in the mouth, throat and digestive organs,
giving rise to vomiting, fever and death.
Birds and poultry die of anthrax, from eating bits of anthrax victims.
It develops in them in fever and swelling on the head, comb, breast and
feet, which turn black from mortification.
In man, malignant pustule or charbon develops by inoculation; a small
red spot shows itself with itching, and increases in size. In the course of
twelve hours, a blister forms, breaks, dries, and a new crop springs up
around the old one, and so it spreads. The affected parts run through al]
the shades of color from red to black, when gangrene sets in, and sloughs
in case of recovery, but, alas, it is too often fatal, the same as in the lower
animals.
Anthrax without external swelling is known as anthrax fever, splenic
apoplexy, braxy, etc. , according to the animals attacked. Horses, cattle,
sheep, swine and fowls are liable to attacks of anthrax fever. This is
characterized by high fever, plethora, engorgement of the spleen and other
internal organs, and colicky pain; redness, and often purple spots, are
seen on the mucous membranes; bloody, frothy mucous comes from the
nose and eyes; the dung is streaked with blood; great weakness follows,
and death in from twelve hours to four or five days.
What to do. — Treatment is of no avail in the first cases, owing to the
rapid fatality of the disease, and is usually unavailing in milder ones, but
liberal administration of whiskey, quinine and hyposulphite of soda may
do good. Mix an ounce of quinine in a quart of whiskey, and give half of
a teacupful every four hours "to horses, twice as much to cattle, half as
much to sheep and hogs. This dose should be diluted with as much water.
Give of the hyposulphite of soda four ounces in half a pint of water to
horses three times a day, twice as much to cattle, half as much to sheep
and hogs. If they will eat, the soda may be given in their food. If one
animal in a herd remains lying in the morning when the rest have got up
and gone to feeding, suspect black leg at once, get him up and start him
walking. Exercise, if pushed in the early stage of this trouble will often save
them. Sponge off the body with cold water and rub dry ; cauterize all wounds,
if the disease comes through inoculation, with clear carbolic acid, sulphuric
or nitric acid, or with chloride of zinc, but the whole of the diseased tissue
must be reached. After cauterizing them, and also the tumors that may
follow, apply poultices to them to encourage suppuration. In case of dif-
fuse swellings, bathe them with vinegar, cold water and weak lotions of
carbolic acid, etc. — say one part to sixty of water; and inject beneath the
skin, in several places, weak dilutions of carbolic acid — one part of acid
to one hundred of water.
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 825
Prevention — Drain the soil in the pastures; either confine the stock to
smaller pastures or increase the stock to feed the pasture more closely;
when cattle, especially young ones, are thriving very fast on a rich succu-
lent pasture or aftermath, confine them in a barn-yard four to six hours a
day. Shelter the stock at night during late summer and fall, when the
days are hot and nights cool, or rather cold, — when the dews are heavy
and the air gets quite chilly towards morning; it is at this time that inter-
nal congestions are apt to occur. In dry, hot weather, remove the stock
to high ground, where miasmatic gases exist to a less extent. Secure clear,
pure water to drink; avoid too sudden fattening; see that barns and sheds
are well ventillated and not overcrowded. The diseased animals should
be separated from the healthy; carcasses should be burned without being
skinned. Pour kerosene over them and set fire to them, also to all litter
they had used, and to their excrement. The buildings where deaths have
occured or sick animals been, should be thoroughly disinfected. Avoid
touching them, so far as possible, and wash the hands both before and
after doing so, in carbolic acid, one to one hundred of water. Prevent
dogs, cats, etc., from coming in contact with them, and never allow meat
that is affected, or suspected of being affected, to be eaten. Prevention
by vaccination with an antitoxin is successfully done now (1900) in all civ-
ilized countries, where veterinary science is recognized and encouraged.
The material is injected underneath the skin of all exposed animals, horses,
cattle and sheep, which renders immunity to them to the contagion. The
vaccine for anthrax and black leg can be gotten from the various agricul-
tural experiment stations, and from the Pasteur Vaccine Company in
Chicago, 111. , with full directions for use. Some sections of the country
are sadly afflicted annually with these diseases. In such localities vaccina-
tion should be resorted to every spring.
VI. Variola Vaccinae, or Cow Pox.
This is a contagious disease, and has been proven to be identical with
small-pox of the human family ; either can be produced in either men or
cattle by inoculation from the other species. A heifer inoculated with
virus of small-pox, will have a disease identical with the cow-pox ; and
men inoculated with cow-pox will have a disease that may be considered
either cow-pox or a very mild form of small-pox. To have either, secures
immunity from a subsequent attack at least to a great extent, or for
a longer or shorter period, sometimes only for a year or two, and some-
times for a lifetime. Cow or kine-pox is a specific blood poison that has
a period of incubation of three to nine days, shows itself by a slight
fever for a couple of days, then breaks out in pimples on the teats, udder
flanks, escutcheon, and around the vulva, nose, mouth and eyes. These
826 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
pimples, red at first; enlarge from day to day, till they attain a diam-
3ter of about half an inch to an inch, and become yellow. A distinct vesi-
sle forms, breaks, runs a yellowish lymph, which is the active virus of
the disease, dries up, a scab forms over it, and the whole trouble disap-
pears as gently as it came.
The only trouble to be had from the disease, is in milch cows, from the
teats getting sore. These are sometimes absolutely covered with the
vesicles, and even confluent, rendering milking a very painful operation.
It runs a definite course, and heals up and disappears of itself, in from
ten to twenty days. No treatment is necessary, except to avoid taking
cold, and give a little extra
care in the way of nursing. __^_^^^^^^^^^^^^^^m^b^^^^^^
If the teats are so sore as ^^^^^^ '^ ■ ■■ ■""' ^~/H^
to be very painful in milk- ^ ^ ^^
•^ 1 THE TEAT SYPHON.
ing, the teat S}qihon may be
used ; if it is cold weather, warm the syphon ; oil it with olive oil, and
pass it up the teat very carefully, and draw off the milk. Anoint the
sores on the teats and udder nicely, twice a day, with carbolic salve or other
healing and softening ointment. If the udder swells very much, fre-
quent bathing with hot water and supporting with a bandage, as recom-
mended for mammitis, will be a benefit.
VII. Tuberculosis.
This disease is distinctly infectious, being due to the introduction into
the system of a microbe, the bacillus tuberculosis, discovered by Koch in
1882. It affects all warm blooded animals, including people. Cattle and
people suffer the most from it, and horses the least, in fact the latter are
almost exempt, but it can be produced in them by inoculation. The germ
is a rod shaped vegetable organism, im of an inch in length. When intro-
duced into any tissue of the body it multiplies, causing slight local inflam-
mation that is inclined to degenerate into caseous (cheesy) matter, that
becomes gritty by the deposition of calcareous (limey) matter, giving it the
appearance of being mixed with sand. The germs usually divide into
colonies, making separate foci of the disease. When the number of germs
is small and the deposition of the lime rapid, a fibrous capsule often
forms around the little center of disease, fencing it in and rendering it
harmless, and the animal is none the worse for the attack; but on the other
hand, if the number of germs is great and the deposition of lime slow or
wanting, which it is in some cases, the tissue affected is destroyed, breaks
down and liquifies more or less, leading on to a debilitated, antemic condi-
tion of the whole system, resulting in extensive blood poisoning (cachexia)
and death. The latter course is the usual one for it to take in man or
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 827
beast. No tissue of the body is exempt from its ravages, the lungs and
thoracic lymphatic glands being most often affected. The first appearance of
this disease is in the form of miliary tubercles, which may become fenced
in as described above, or by ulceration the germs are liberated and invade
surrounding tissues, sometimes forming malignant tumors and sometimes
leading on to complete destruction of the organ attacked. Miliary tuber-
cles are about the size of a small pea, and are usually seen in the great-
est number on the peritoneum and pleura lining the chest. In all severe
cases the disease overcomes nature's efforts to confine it and becomes gen-
eralized, causing cachexia, when the flesh and milk are unlit for food.
Inasmuch as it is difficult to determine when it is becoming generalized,
and as it is decidedly dangerous for people to eat meat and drink milk
that contain bacilli tuberculosis, it is proper to condemn all carcasses
that show more than slight localized infection, and those to be passed
should show the diseased parts well advanced in the calcareous stage.
It is no longer considered hereditary, but due in all cases to infection,
usually, we think, by inhaling the germs that are flying in dust, or by
eating or drinking them with the food and water.
How to know it. — It is impossible to recognize it till it is far advanced
and cachexia is developing, the earliest symptoms being a general unthrifty
condition, the milk becoming poor in quality, thin and watery, although not
much less in quantity. The appetite is capricious; the hair looks dull, and
where it is white, there is a yellow skin; a dry, dull cough will be noticed;
the animal no longer licks itself; if the cow is with calf, she is apt to abort.
Emaciation ushers in the second stage, and progresses rapidly; the cough
gets worse; indigestion, tympanitis and diarrhoea follow, and soon reduce
the sufferer to skin and bones. Auscultation, and percussion of the lungs
may or may not detect a fullness and muffled breathing and other signs of
disease, but nearly always some pain will be evinced when the sides are
struck, or the fingers pushed forcibly in between the ribs. The tubercles
increase, sometimes breaking out on the surface of the body; the blood gets
thin and watery, wanting in red corpuscles; and, often, fatal diarrhoea sets in.
To test an animal or herd suspected of tuberculosis, tuberculin is used.
It can be got from the Bureau of Animal Industry at Washington, D. C,
or from the State Experimental Stations. The animal's temperature is
taken morning, noon, and night, before the injection, to get the average
temperature, then inject the tuberculin about 11 o'clock at night, and be-
gin taking the temperature next morning at 6 o'clock, and take it every
two hours till 6 at night. If the injection causes a rise of temperature to
104° Fahrenheit at any time during the day the animal should be condemned
and slaughtered, subject to veterinary inspection. If an animal reacts or shows
a rise of temperature between 103° and 103.9°, he should be tested again
after a week. This test is very delicate and remarkably certain, there be-
828 CrCLOFEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
ing but few exceptions to the rule that tuberculosis will be found post
mortem in all that react to 104*' F. Usually those far advanced in the
disease will not react, but they can be recognized b}^ physical examination.
To avoid mistakes, do not test an animal that has a fever, nor cows just
before nor just after calving, nor when in heat, but rather wait a few days.
What to do. — All affected animals should be killed, and the carcasses
burned or rendered. All suspects should be isolated and tested, bearing in
mind that it is bound to spread, and that the first loss is usually the small-
est. The stable should be thoroughly cleaned by first sprinkling to lay
the dust, then sweep, scrape, wash, and whitewash it. The treatment of
affected ones, if it is desired, consists in counter -irritation to the chest by
applying mustard paste or fly blister repeatedly, and giving oleaginous
foods, as oil-cake, cocoanut oil, etc., in liberal quantities, which will some-
times keep them along a good while. Avoid roots and grasses, since, in
the weak condition of the digestive organs, these tend to produce tympan-
itis; but by suitable fattening food, supplemented by the use of cod-liver
oil to the amount of half a pint a day, they may be fattened fast, if taken
during the first stage. This secured, they might as well be slaughtered by
the butcher; in later stages, nothing can be done to prevent gradual pining
and death. The oil is best given with lime water; a little oil of turpentine
may be added, if there is a tendency to tympanitis and diarrhoea.
The following recipe may be of service along with the generous diet:
No. 11. 2 Di'achms saccharized carbonate of iron,
2 Drachms powdered cinchona bark,
Mix.
orive as one dose in soft feed, twice a day.
VIII. Cancerous Ulcers and Osteo Sarcoma.
Tuberculosis sometimes shows externally, attacking the glands, especi-
ally the parotid and sub-maxillary, or the bones, in the latter case being
known as cancer of the bone, or more strictly, Osteo Sarcoma. This
enlargement of the bones may come on the jaws, ribs or any part of the
body. The tubercular deposits usually start in small, loose nodules, M'hich
increase in size till inflammation sets in, and nutrition being cut off from
the skin, the latter sloughs off, leaving a large raw sore that defies all
treatment and, instead of getting better, grows worse continually. Larger
and more angry-looking becomes the sore; an ulcerous, saneous discharge
flows from it; other ulcers are likely to form around it; and the enlarge-
ment beneath increases till, if the trouble is in the glands above-mentioned,
it presses upon the pharynx and larnyx, thus interfering with the breath'
ing and swallowing.
Tubercles sometimes locate around ioints. causing lameness, which is
aggravated by strong liniments and blisters.
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES.
829
Treatment is of no avail, further than to afford a suitably generous
diet, but it is best to deal with these as prescribed for tuberculosis.
IX. Lumpy Jaw (Actinomycosis).
This is an infectious disease affecting cattle very commonly in the
■Western States of this country, especially Illinois, Iowa, Kansas and
Nebraska. Its spread is gradual and continuous. If an affected ar^mal is
taken into a herd of healthy cattle, it will surely break out among them,
and from five to fifty per cent, will get it in the course of six to twelve
months. The cause lies in the presence of a ray shaped fungus germ called
actinomyces, hence the name actinomycocis, by which scientific term the
disease is known. This germ is taken in with the food in most cases, and
may locate in any part of the body. The parts most often affected are the
jaw bones, tongue, glands around the head and throat, lungs, liver and in
the walls of the small iiittstines. The oerm enters the jaw bone through
ACTINOMYCOSIS OF THE
_ LOWER JAW.
LUMP JAW.
a si)lit or decayed tooth, or an abrasion of the gum, then it grows, increases
in numbers rapidly, and invades and destroys the bone in every direction.
It enters the tongue and glands about the throat and various parts of the
digestive tract and liver through abrasions of the mucous membrane or
through ducts. It enters the lungs probably by being inhaled with dust.
When it has become located in any part of the body in one of these ways,
small portions or sprouts, as it were, may be carried to and infect any
other part of the body through the blood. This disease also occasionally
affects hogs, horses, rabbits, elephants and people; the latter rather fre-
quently and always seriously, proving fatal in most cases in the course of
six weeks to eighteen months. It runs a mild course in cattle, not causing
death except as a result of interference with mastication or swallowing,
then they become emaciated and weak and die from want of nutrition.
How to know it. — In all cases tumors form at the seat of infection.
When the jaw bones are affected they swell, sometimes to an enormous
size, the teeth get loose, the tumor softens in one or more places, bursts
830
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
and discharges a gelatinous yellowish white matter, containing little yellow
masses or clusters of the fungus about the size of grains of sand, which are
cheesy in consistency. When the swollen bone is cut across, it is found to
be softened in spots with hard bony matter surrounding them like a honey-
comb. The tongue usually swells and becomes very hard, hence the name
woody tongue, w^hich is often applied to this condition. This makes it very
difficult for the animal to eat or drink. The glands around the throat,
when affected, swell, burst and discharge, the same as the jaw bones, and
present somewhat the same honey -comb condition when cut into, but are
often seen to contain one or more large abscesses instead of many small
ones.
What to do. — The treatment is of three kinds, viz. : preventive, surgi-
cal and medicinal. Prevention is effected by keeping affected animals away
from the healthy ones, not allowing them to go into the fields, yards or
stables used for other stock for any purpose. Never take an affected
ACTINOMYCOSIS OF THE
UPPER JAW.
BAD EFFECTS OF EXCESSIVE
USE OF CAUSTICS.
A large hole through the cheek into the
mouth from excessive use of caustics.
animal into a healthy herd. This has been done in some cases without
apparently bad results, but many cases have been seen by the writer and
others to have developed and spread extensively from one introduced from
a distance with a nonsuppurating tumor under the jaw the size a hen's %^'g
at the time of purchase, which grew, burst and discharged a little later,
and which was followed in four to six weeks by the disease in many others
of the herd.
Surgical treatment consists in opening the tumors freely with a knife,
emptying the sacks, and packing them thoroughly with cotton di})ped in
tincture of iodine. The packing needs to be removed once every two
days, till the tumor begins to shrivel; or the tumor may be dissected
completely out, but this is often a dangerous operation, owing to the size
or location of it. If the jaw bone is involved it is more serious and the
treatment is often a failure, but many successes will follow heroic surgery.
Gouge and chisel out the diseased bone as completely as possible and pack
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 831
the caviiy with iodine the same as in the soft tumors, or a twenty-five per
cent, solution of hydrochloric acid might be used for a few days instead.
When the disease seems to be under control stop the packing and dress the
wounds with a solution of carbolic acid — a tablespoonf ul to a pint of tepid
water, two or three times a day.
Medicinal treatment consists in giving to each affected animal one dram
of iodide of potash three times a day in solution in soft feed till the effects
of the drug are visible in the production of slavering at the mouth, loss of
appetite or scurfiness of the skin, then stop it for a week or ten days and
repeat. This condition will develop so as to be seen usually in ten or
twenty days. A couple of months or so of this dosing will usually cure
all of those affected in the soft tissues. The above dose is proper for
a three year old steer weighing fourteen hundred pounds; smaller and
younger ones should get proportionate doses. As soon as an animal shows
signs of having the disease he should be isolated and kept there till cured
or destroyed.
The meat of cattle affected with this disease should not be used for
food.
X. Contagious Abortion of Cattle.
This is a disease with which every cattle raiser and dairyman should
be acquainted, as it is liable to be introduced into his herd, and a failure
to recognize and deal with it intelligently may result in considerable loss.
Such loss occurs not only through the death of the offspring but through
a diminished milk production.
Abortion, sometimes known as ''slinking," "casting," or "losing" the
calf, is the term given to the expulsion of the fetus at any time before
the completion of the full term of normal pregnancy. While it may be
produced in many ways, as by an injury, improper food or treatment,
etc., by far the greater number of cases is due to one of several germs and
are known as contagious abortions. Nocard in France and Bang in Den-
mark have found bacteria, and the Scottish commission found as many
as five separate kinds which produce the disease. In this country V. A.
Moore, of the New York Cornell Station, and F. D. Chester, formerly
of the Delaware Station, have found organisms differing somewhat in the
two States, but evidently of the same group with the colon bacillus. Dr.
James Law concludes that any micro-organism which can live in or on
the lining of the membrane of the womb, producing a catarrhal inflam-
mation, and which can be transferred from animal to animal without
losing its vitality or potency, is of necessity a cause of contagious abortion.
The disease is transmitted from one animal to another by contact, by
means of the discharge from the cow that has aborted, the afterbirth,
dead calf, and from buPs that have served cows affected with the disease.
832 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
It appears to be more or less prevalent throughout the country. Dr.
Leonard Pearson, state veterinarian of Pennsylvania, in his report for
1908 states that abortion was never so prevalent as it is to-day. Doctor
Barnes, of the Kansas Station, reported the disease to be quite common
in Kansas in 1906, and Professor Wilson, of the Arizona Station, reports
it to be present in a number of herds in that State.
The disease occurs more frequently in dairy herds than in any others,
although beef cattle, sheep, horses, and goats may become infected. The
prevalence of this disease in dairy herds is probably due to the weakened
condition of dairy cows caused by the continuous drain of giving milk.
Recent reports from the Storrs and New Mexico stations discuss its occur-
rence and eradication from the station herds.
At the Storrs Station the disease was introduced into the herd through
the purchase of six pure-bred pregnant animals, two of which aborted
shortly afterward. During the next three years 24 of the 79 calvings
were premature births. This indicates that the contagion was not ex-
tremely virulent or that the treatment delayed to some extent the progress
of the disease.
The premature births occurred at from 145 days to 262 days from time
of conception, and the average of the 24 cases was 211 days. The bull
was not the sole means of spreading the disease in this instance. The 24
conceptions that terminated in premature births were the result of the
matings of 15 different sires, eight of which were owned by parties remote
from the affected herd.
At the Arizona Station the disease appears to have been originally
communicated by the herd bull. Five cows aborted in the farm herd,
of which four were sold for beef and one retained for experimental pur-
poses. Under strict sanitary conditions this cow was served by the herd
bull and in due time dropped a living calf. A number of cows have
since been served by this bull without signs of abortion.
At the Storrs Station, in order to determine the value of aborting cows
as milk producers, the milk and fat yields of ten cows following a normal
calving are compared with the milk and fat yields during the period of
abortion.
These cows, following a normal calving, averaged 5,892 pounds of milk
and 282.8 pounds of fat in one year. During the next 2.1 years, or from
one normal calving to the next normal calving, which included the abort-
ing period, these cows averaged 5,196 pounds of milk and 268.4 pounds
of fat per year. The milk was 696 pounds, or 12 per cent less per year
during the aborting period. These ten cows aborted seven months
(averaged 211 days) after conception. The satisfactory yields are at-
tributed in part to the complete removal of the afterbirth and the
thorough disinfection of the animals after abortion.
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 833
In regard to the potency of animals which have aborted, Professor
Beach reports as follows :
Only one of the twenty-four animals that experienced a premature
birth failed to breed after aborting. This animal was killed and the
post-mortem examination showed the presence of an ovarian tumor which
may or may not have been caused by the treatment administered to in-
duce conception. Twenty-three of these cows produced a normal calf
461 days subsequent to abortion. * * * Experience indicates that
it is useless to attempt to breed a cow for four or five months subsequent
to aborting. Time must be given to recuperate. The success in getting
these cows in calf after the premature delivery is attributed in part to the
use of the yeast treatment. A yeast cake dissolved for twenty-four hours
in a pint of warm water was injected into the vagina several days in
succession previous to the time of mating.
The following advice as to preventive treatment and remedial measures
is given by Professor Wilson :
It is well to call some competent veterinarian, in a case of contagious
abortion, so that the farmer may learn the need of careful work in clean-
ing all infected places, and, also, the technique regarding the use of the
syringe. After a few trials this manipulation becomes easy and he will
soon learn to employ the necessary care in keeping this disease in check.
* * * All cows that have aborted or that are suspected should be
isolated from healthy animals. Just as soon as a cow aborts the offspring
and afterbirth should be destroyed by burning and the immediate sur-
roundings treated with lime after the trash has been removed and burned ;
all woodwork should be thoroughly disinfected by the use of corrosive
sublimate. This can be obtained, with directions for use, at any drug
store. A second disinfection with corrosive sublimate should take place
ten days later. * * * Cows that have aborted should be washed out
daily with a 1 per cent solution of creolin or lysol until all discharge is
stopped. It is somewhat risky to use this treatment with pregnant cows,
but in this case a tablespoonful of sodium hyposulphite, once in twenty-
four hours, should be given as a drench. All of these, with directions for
using, may be obtained at nearly any drug store.
During thapast few years Prof. Bernard Bang, of Denmark, has carried
on experiments in attempting to immunize cows, sheep, and goats against
the disease. He has observed that aborting cows acquire a certain degree
of immunity. His treatment produced abscesses and other symptoms of
reaction, but considerable immunity resulted, and he hopes that this
method of vaccination will ultimately give a means of controlling the
disease.
CHAPTER III.
NON-CONTAGIOUS BLOOD DISEASES.
I. PLETHORA. II. ANAEMIA. III. RHEUMATISM. IV. URAEMIA. V. SEP-
TICAEMIA AND PYAEMIA. VI. PURPURA HEMORRHAGICA. VII. HAEMATU-
RIA. OR RED WATER IN CATTLE. VIII. MALIGNANT CATARRH. IX MA-
LIGNANT SORE THROAT.
I. Plethora.
This, which may be described us an over fat condition of the blood, is
conducive to many very serious results liy interfering with the circulation,
especially that through the vital organs, rendering them inert and unable to
eliminate from the system the effete material which, at such a time, ex-
ists in increased quantities. These impurities, left in the system, lead to
blood poisoning, and to excessive congestions and inflammations in case
of disease, thus greatly enhancing the dangers attending disorders of all
kinds.
Causes. — It is caused hy rich, stimulating food, such as oil-cake, corn
and other grain, roots, and too succulent green food and pastures, — in
fact, anything that fattens very fast.
How to know it. — Unusually rapid improvement, exuberant spirits,
sleek hair, loose skin, and tendency to fatten very fast. Occasionally,
sliglit fever may be seen, at first of short duration, but increasing with
each attack till violent congestion occurs, followed by inflammation ; and
death supervenes after a run of very high fever, or suddenly during the
congestive stage.
What to do. — Deplete either by bleeding or purging. Take from two
to six quarts of blood, or give a few doses of salts, in quantities of a
single handful, morning and night for a week, at tlie same time remov-
ing to less luxuriant pasture, or curtailing the meal. The restricted diet
and salts are preferable to bleeding.
II. Ansemia.
Causes. — This condition, the reverse of plethora, is seen when the
animal is thin in flesh from lack of suflScient or proper kinds of food,
especially when this is accompanied by exposure to the weather or im-
poverishment by parasites. It is apt to lead to purpura hemorrhagica,
rheumatism, etc., and always predisposes to lice or other vermin.
NON-CONTAGIOUS BLOOD DISEASES. 835
What to do. — Destroy any existing vermin, and give the following
recipe in the feed :
No. 4. % Ounce copperas,
1 Handful oil-cake,
Powder and mix.
Give as one dose. Repeat it morning and night, and let the diet be a
nourishing, generous one.
III. Rheumatism.
Causes and forms. — The immediate cause of rheumatism is the accu-
muhition in the S3'stem of a peculiar kind of acid, which has a tendency
to settle around the joints, along the sheaths of tendons, and in the syn-
ovial membranes. In the acute form, Avhich is that which it generally
assumes, the affected parts swell, and often suppurate, discharging con-
siderable quantities of pus, and with it more or less synovial fluid. It
often extends to the bones and the membranes covering them, when it
generally becomes chronic, and more or less exostosis is thrown out, which
may anchylose (stiffen) the joint. Rheumatism frequently extends to the
chest, and settles in the pleura, heart, etc., and sometimes causes diseases
of the latter organ and death.
The exciting causes are poverty of the system, thinness in flesh, and
exposure to cold and dampness, — to the two last-named either from want
of shelter or from dampness in the stable caused by poor drainage.
How to know it. — There is lameness, stiffness, and disinclination to
move, with a staring coat. After this has run on for a few hours, (or, it
may be a day or two, ) a joint — perhaps, two or three joints — will begin to
swell, and is found to be quite hot, hard and pamful ; next morning
the swelling will very likely be noticed in some other joint or in another
leg, as the disease has a great tendency to fly from joint to joint and leg
to leg. There is considerable fever, with high pulse, increased temper-
ature, reddened mucous membranes, and a marked inclination to remain
lying down all the time. The bowels are apt to be constipated, and the
urine scanty and high colored. Abscesses form and discharge pus. The
animal l)ecomes emaciated, and frequently dies in a state of hectic.
What to do. — Put the animal in a dry, warm place to lie in, with
plenty of bedding. Give generous diet and the following recipe ;
No. 5. 2 Drachms colchicum, '
2 Drachms nitrate of potash,
Mix.
Give as one dose, and repeat it morning and night in soft feed, for a
week ; then give No. 4 for a week, and change back to No. 5. Alter
836 CTCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOB.
nate them in this manner for a month. As local treatment, apply the
t'ollowing to the joints :
"N^o. 6. 1 Ounce laudanum,
1 Ounce spirits of camphor,
1 Ounce turpentine,
Water to make one pint,
Mix.
Apply three times a day, with friction, and bandage. If great weak-
ness ensues, give the following :
No. 7. 1 Ounce gentian root,
3^2 Ounce ginger,
1 Quart oat meal gruel.
Mix.
Give as one dose, and repeat three times a day for two weeks.
IV. Ureemia.
In this disease, in consequence of the kidneys and bladder being our
of order, the urine is absorbed back into the system, causing a peculiat
poisoning of the blood, from an excessive accumulation of urea.
How to know it. — Dullness, loss of appetite and failure to secrete
urine ; the mouth and nose are dry, and the former is foetid ; rumination
ceases, the coat stares, and a smell of urine is detected on the skin ; pulse
and respirations become slow, and the former is also soft ; the pupils are
dilated, and, too often, delirium, coma and death close the scene.
What to do. — Examine all parts carefully, in order to ascertain the
cause, and then treat vigorously to remove it. Give large quantities of
linseed tea to drink and, as a mild purgative, the following:
No. 8. 12 Ounces epsom salts,
1 Ounce ginger,
1 Ounce gentian,
4 Ounces S}''rup,
Water to make two quarts.
Mix.
Give as one dose. After it has operated, give a tablespoonful of salt-
petre, three times a day, for two days.
V. Septicsemla and Pysemia.
This IS a condition resulting from the absorption into the system
of putrid, poisonous matter, or pus, especially that from an ulcer or
suppurating surface.
How to know it. — There will be a high fever, with increased tempera-
ture ; pulse is fast and hard, and breathing quickened ; the breath is
foetid ; rumination is suspended ; there is loss of appetite, staring coat,
and emaciation, and in fatal cases, delirium.
NON-CONTAGIOUS BLOOD DISEASES.
837
What to do. — Discover the cause if possible, and if it is a sore of any
kind containing pent up pus, (the most common cause), liberate it and
dress the wound with the following lotion :
No. 9. ^ Ounce carbolic acid.
1 Pint water,
Mix.
Apply two or three times a day with a syringe, if there are passages ;
if the sore is on the surface, bind on a sponge wet with the lotion. If
there is an ulcer, treat it as prescribed in the next article. Give the fol-
lowing mixture :
No. 10. 2 Drachms iodide of potash,
2 Ounces whiskey,
1 Ounce powdered cinchona,
1 Pint gruel,
Mix.
Give as one dose, repeating same three times a day, and feed liberally.
HEAD OF COW WITH FOOT
AND MOUTH DISEASE.
VI. Purpura Hemorrhagica.
This is a specific blood disease quite common in the horse and pig, but
rare in cattle. It originates in an impoverished condition of the system,
more especially the blood, which becomes deficient in red corpuscles,
fibrin, etc., and oozing through the coats of the vessels, falls by gravita-
tion to the more dependent portions of the body, causing swellings of the
legs and belly, and also of the head, beginning with the muzzle and grad-
ually working up till it reaches the brain. For an extended description
838 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
of this disease the reader is referred to the account given in the Horse
department of this work, — Chapter XIII., of Part II.
What to do. — ^The system needs to be
toned up, the blood improved, and swellings
fomented in hot water. Foment the head
especially, as continuously as possible, and
give the following recipes:
No. 12. 1 Ounce oil of turpentine,
%, Pint linseed oil,
Mix.
^. , i.xi X' 1 SWELLING OF THE JAWS,
Give as one dose; repeat three times a day, cheeks and muzzle, in
for two or three days. purpura hemorrhagica.
No. 13. K Ounce tincture muriate of iron,
1 Ounce tincture of cinchona,
2 Ounces water,
Mix.
Give as one dose ; repeat three times a day, giving it in between the
doses of No. 12. As to food, give whatever the animal will eat.
VII. Haematuria, or Red Water in Cattle.
As the name implies, this is a blood disease. Large quantities of albumen
and some iron are secreted by the kidneys and excreted with the urine,
which looks as though it were colored by blood, beginning, as it does, in a
pale pink color, and running through the different shades till it becomes
a dark brown. Really, there is no blood in it; the appearance in ques-
tion is due to the presence, in excessive quantities, of albumen and iron
and the coloring matter of the blood. As the secretion of the two
former increases, the color darkens. There are also discharged numer-
ous epithelial cells from the mucous membrane of the kidneys and
bladder. The blood undergoes a change ; the cells or corpuscles break,
and lot their contents escape into the liquor sanguinis, and hence the
commingling of the coloring matter of the blood with the urine.
Causes. — These are obscure, but seem to depend in some way upon
the food. Most commonly seen in cattle pastured in low, swampy lands,
the disease disappears in such cases wheu the land is drained.
How to know it. — In addition to the eolor of the urine, a characteristic
feature is the great increase in its quantity. It may run on fov two or
three weeks without apparent damage; then the milk will fal' otf both in
quantity and quality; emaciation sets in; the bowels at the outset may
be loose, but soon become obstinately constipated; the pulse gets quick
and weak; the cow blows more and more, from increasing weakness; at
the left side the heart may be heard to palpitate with quite a perceptible
noise, owing to the watery condition of the blood; the debility and ansemia
rapidly increase, and death soon follows.
NON-CONTAGIOUS BLOOD DISEASES.
839
What to do. — Give a purgative recipe, No. 8, and follow it with
recipe No. 4. Continue the latter for three or four weeks. Make a
complete change of food, and feed liberally on oil-cake, etc.
VIII. Malignajit Catarrh.
In this malignant blood disease, the sinuses of the head are affected,
causing offensive discharges from the nose. These, at first, are watery,
but further along become purulent, and in the last stage are accompa-
nied with extensive sloughing.
How to know it. — It is ushered in with a shivering fit, with all the
attending symptoms of fever ; the muzzle is hot and dry ; the animal hangs
his head and isolates himself in the pasture ; the membranes are of a bluish
color ;the eyes are closed and swollen ; soon the nose and eyes begin to run a
watery fluid, and saliva drools from the mouth. The pulse is quick and not
over strong ; a dry, hard cough ensues ; the bowels are usually costive,
the f CBces being black and hard, but diarrhoea is liable to set in at any time.
There is great thirst, but no appetite, and the urine is scanty and high
colored. In the course of twenty-four hours, the discharges become
purulent, taking off the hair wherever
they touch ; the sinuses of the head
become so much inflamed, and so
filled up with pus, that when the head
is tapped on the outside with the
fingers, a dull heavy sound is heard.
The breath becomes foetid, and the
temperature rises to 104 '^ or 105 ° .
Cows with calf are apt to abort.
The last stage is marked by exten-
sive sloughing, so much so that some-
times the feet and horns come off.
The prostration is very great ; the
pulse becomes imperceptible ; convul-
sions follow, and a great fall in tem-
perature, sometimes to 95 <^ , or even
to 90 ® ; in some cases, ulceration of the cornea takes place, letting out
the humors of the eye. Death follows in the course of nine to eleven days.
On post mortem examination, the blood is found to be black and not
coagulated.
What to do. — Remove to a cool isolated place, if in summer; to a warm
place, if in winter. Give recipe No. 8, and follow it with Nos. 10, 11
and 4, alternating them. Foment the head with hot water liberally, and
rub the following liniment well in once or twice a day:
MALIGNANT CATARKH LAST STAGE.
Showing extensive ploucliinK. and discliarKe of
the huraors of the eye, from ulceration of the
840 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
No. 14. 1 Ounce linseed oil, 1 Ounce oil of turpentine,
1 Ounce liguor ammonia, Mix.
Apply the following lotion to the eyes, if not eaten through:
No. 15. 10 Grains nitrate of silver, I Ounce water, Mix.
Apply twice a day to the cornea with a camel's hair brush. If the
cornea is punctured, touch it once a day with a stick of lunar caustic, in
addition to using lotion No 15. Touch the caustic directly to the hole
in the cornea.
IX. Malignant Sore Throat.
This is a disease that centers itself in the throat, in the form of acute
inflammation, followed by an effusion that is
apt to cause suffocation by pressure on the lar
ynx. Its scientific designation is (xdema glot
tidis. It is fatal to cattle; also to swine, ir^
which it is known as quinsy. The malignant
sore throat of anthrax is a different thing, though
many of the symptoms are similar.
How to know it. — It starts like a common
MALIGNANT SORE THROAT. cold, — somc f cvcr, injectcd mucous membranes,
cough, etc. ; the throat swells enormously ; the
tongue becomes spotted with purple, and is protruded : the animal gasps
for ])reath, until at length he falls suffocated, struggles a little, and dies.
What to do. — It usually attains its height in three or four days. Ap-
ply recipe No. 14 to the throat, externally, and inject a little of the fol-
lowing well back into the throat, several times a day ;
No. 13. 1 Ounce chlorate of potash,
1 Pint water,
Mix.
If speedy suffocation is threatened, tracheotomy must be performed.
(See "Operations.")
The flesh of cattle affected with this disease is very poisonous, causing
putrid fever in those eating it. The carcass should be buried deep, with-
out removing the skin.
Cornstalk Disease: — This is a disease peculiar to parts of the United
States, particularly in the west central pait. It conies on without appar-
ent warning and no .satisfactory treatment is at hand. Prevention is
the main thing and recommendations are made here. Stilt the cattle reg-
ularly and have plenty of good water to drink. Do not let them depend
exclusively upon the stalks, but give them a run to alfalfa or some other
kind of hay. If the disease is at all suspected give to each one in his
drinking water, once a day, a tcaspoonful^ of hyposulphite of soda and
sulphate of quinine in the proportion of eighteen parts of the former to
one of the latter. Provide a shed for them to sleep under, especially
when there is great extremes of temperature between the night and the
day.
Sorghum poisoning: — Give modaisses, milk and fresh air.
CHAPTER IV.
DISEASES OP THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS.
1. SIMPLE CATARRH OR COLD. II. LARYNGITIS, OR COMMON SORE THROAT---
m BRONCHITIS.— IV. PNEUMONIA.— V. PLEURISY.— VI. HYDROTHORAX
VII. EMPHYSEMA OF THE LUNGS.
I. Simple Catarrh or Cold.
Simple cold or coryza, is inflammation, more or less acute, of the
mucous membrane lining the nostrils and sinuses of the head usually
implicating the eyes and throat. If neglected, it is apt to run down to
the lungs, and cause bronchitis and pneumonia.
Cause.— Damp, badly drained stables, and those built so as to allow
drafts ; exposure to storms and winds; sleeping on the ground in cold
weather, etc.
APPLICATION OF STEAM TO THE NOSTRILS WITH THE JET.
How to know it.— There is more or less fever, with fits of shivering;
hot mouth, dry nose, and horns hot at the head and cold at the tips ;
cars and extremities cold ; sneezing, and sometimes a cough. At first,
watery mucus discharges from the nose ; the eyes are red and inclmed
to weep, with the eyelids swollen ; and the bones of the forehead are
hot and tender when tapped. After a day or two, the discharge from
the nose becomes purulent, and the tears begin to scald the cheek ; the
841
842 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
coat stares ; the pulse is rapid and rather hard ; the appetite fails, and
rumination ceases ; the urine is scanty and high colored, the bowels very
likely being constipated. All these symptoms will be aggravated, should
the fever run very high and the inflammation tend decidedly to run
down the air passages.
What to do. — Remove the cause, by putting the animal in a comforta-
ble, dry place. Give a pint of melted lard, if the bowels are constipated ;
No. 17. 1 Pint infusion of quassia,
1 Ounce laudanum.
y^ Ounce sulphuric ether,
1 Pint thin gruel, cold,
Mix,
Give with a bottle as one dose; repeat it after six or eight hours, if
necessary. But begin on a fever mixture, as follows :
No. 18. 3 Ounces spirits of nitre,
2 Drachms tincture aconite root,
^ Ounce fluid extract of belladonna,
2 Ounces nitrate of potash,
2 Ounces muriate of ammonia.
Water to make one quart,
Mix.
Give half a teaspoonful every two or three hours till better. Rub
mustard paste well in to the throat and over the forehead between the
eyes. If the breathing is interfered with,
steam the head in a nose-bag, or with a
hose from the snout of a kettle, or over
a tub with a blanket thrown over the
head to confine the steam, the object
l)eing to soften the discharge and make
it run off. This may be repeated sev-
eral times a day if necessary, taking care,
in using the steam jet, to avoid scalding
or suffocation. Let the animal have all
the water he desires, placing it before
him, so that he may help himself. Feed
NOSE-BAG FOR STEAMING. ^"^ s"^<^' ^^^PPJ ^^od. When the fcvcr is
broken, the appetite being good, give the
following recipe in the food :
No. 19. 2 Dractmis niti-ate of potash,
2 Drachms gentian root, powdered,
1 Drachm ginger,
Mix.
Give as one dose, repeating it morning and night for about a week
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 843
If the appetite is too poor to take it thus, give the following from a
bottle :
No. '^0. % Pint infusion of gentian,
1 Drachm ginger,
1 Drachm carbonate of ammonia,
2 Ounces syi-up,
% Pint water,
Mix.
Give as one dose. Repeat it three times a day, till the appetite is gooc
enough to take No. 19 in the feed. When the fever has left entirely ,
give the following in soft feed, a bran mash or oat meal, morning ancj
night :
ISTo. 21. 3 Drachms sulphate of iron (copperas),
2 Drachms gentian,
i Drachm ginger,
1 Drachm fcenugreek seed.
Powder and mix.
Give as one dose, twice a day for a week or two.
II. Laryngitis, or Common Sore Throat.
This is, as the name indicates, an inflammation of the larynx or upper
part of the windpipe. It is dangerous on account of the interference to
the ])rcathing which is caused by the swelling, and also its tendency to
run down to the lungs.
Cause. — It is usually brought on by the same influences as a common
cold. Some animals appear predisposed to it, almost every slight exposure
being sufficient to induce an attack.
How to know it. — There is inability to eat, and the cud is not chewed ;
the head is hung, the ears droop, and saliva drools from the mouth ; upon
examination, the throat is found to be much swollen, and if the finger be
inserted under the tongue, the mouth is
hot. The pulse is raised and breathing
quickened ; if the tumefaction is very
great, especially on the inside, the
breathing may also be labored. There
is more or less fever, and when water is
drunk some of it is likely to come back
through the nose, owing to the difficulty
of swalh)wing.
What to do. — Rub mustard paste in
well on the throat ; after an hour wash this
off and rub in more ; if after two days
the swelling does not come down, apply
to it a linseed poultice, hot and soft, to
^ . T-v- 1 LARYNGITIS OR SORE THROAT.
encourage suppuration. Disolve a table-
spoonful of saltpetre in the water di'uuk morning and night, and with a
844 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
syringe shoot a little of the following mixture well back into the throat,
as a gargle, several times a day ;
No. 22. 2 Ounces chlorate of potash,
1 Quart water.
Mix.
As additional treatment, a severe case might require tracheotomy. (See
"Operations.") Any of the mixtures prescribed for catarrh in Section
I, might also be used.
m. Bronchitis.
This is inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the bronchial tubes,
which extend from the lower end of the windpipe to the lungs.
Causes. — It may develope as the immediate consequence of exposure,
accompanying a common cold, or it may arise from the extension of the
inflammation in laryngitis or catarrh; from medicine or food going down
the windpipe; from inhaling hot air or smoke.
Hew to know it. — ^There will be rapid, painfal breathing, with a slight
grunt at each expiration ; a deep, hard, distressing cough ; after it has run
a few hours, considerable fever (vill be noticed ; tlie pulse will be soft and
full, ranging in different cases iron", flfty to eighty per minute ; the tem-
perature from 103 ® to 106 *^ , as indicated by a thermometer inserted in
the rectum ; and while the surfuce of the body, nose, horns near the head,
and mouth will be hot, the tips of tlie horns, ears and legs are very likely
to be cold. The sufferer will not lie down. When the ear is placed to the
sides and front of the chest, a dry, grating sound can be heard. After two
or four days, the height of the disease will be reached, when the cough will
get softer, the pulse softer and weaker, the temperature of the body more
even, and when the ear is applied to the chest a mucous ral© is heard, like
air gurgling through water. Considerable mucus and phlegm are now
raised with the cough , and when the sides are tapped a resonant sound is
got, but not quite so distinct as in health. In a favorable case (which is
what we are considering), at the end of five to eight days the fever sub-
sides, the pulse gets fuller and' stronger, the respirations are less rapid
and painful, the cough diminishes, the mucus in the bronchial tubes is
absorbed, and the appetite and normal discharge of the functions gener-
ally are restored, when he may be pronounced safely convalescent. If,
however, it goes against him, the temperature increases, and all the symp-
toms are aggravated ; before long, the inflammation extends to the lungs
and pleura, and then we have a case of pneumonia or pleurisy and hydro-
thorax on hand.
What to do. — Put him in a warm place with good ventilation, and if
the disease is in the first stage, that of congestion, give the following:
No. 23. 2 Ounces Mindererus' spirit (acetate of aiuinonia),
20 Drojjs tincture of aconite root,
% Pint of water,
Mix.
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 040
Give as one dose. Repeat it every two hours till the chill is over and
the pulse reduced to soft, instead of being hard ; then change to No. 18,
which should be continued till convalescence is well established. Then
change to No. 20, and after a few days to No. 21. Early and vigorous
application of mustard paste to the sides is very important. Allow all
the water to drink he will take, and feed on soft food.
rv. Pnexunonia.
This is inflammation of the lung tissue — that is, of the lung itself.
A severe cold (catarrh) may develop rapidly into this form, but it is
oftener the sequel of laryngitis, bronchitis, etc., from their inflam-
matory conditions extending to the lungs. It is more common among
cattle than any other domestic animals, and may affect one or both
lungs.
How to know it. — The animal shows obvious preliminary symptoms,
such as a severe shivering fit, staring coat, loss of appetite, cessation of
rumination, and, if a milch cow, loss of i'uilk. She is very averse to
lying down, owing to the increased pressure it would cause upon the
chest, thus augmenting the pain and difiiculty in breathing. The pulse is
full, soft and quick, ranging from 60 to 80 pei minute ; respirations from
30 to 40 per minute ; and the temperature about 104 ® to 106 ° . When
the sides are tapped, a dull, heavy, full sound is heard, and on placing
the ear to the side there will be noticed an absence of the respiratory
murmur in all affected parts; the expired air is hot; the ribs are fixed,
the breathing being done by the abdominal muscles ; the flanks heave,
the nostrils are dilated, and the countenance has an anxious look. The
lung becomes more or less hepatized (solid like liver), and this may
terminate in resolution by absorption of the infiltration, and complete
recovery follow, or it may go on to suppuration, with discharges of pus
through the nose, which soon carries the patient off. Death may take
place in any of the stages, viz : congestion, or first stage ; hepatization,
or second ; or in suppuration, or third stage.
When the lung becomes solid, the cow braces herself and pants
furiously, heaving the flanks as though each breath would be the last.
If the head is raised quickly, she will fall backwards. When she has to
fall finally, she drops first upon her knees and chest, and then down, and
dies in a few minutes. On post mortem examination the diseased lung
will be found to be solid from the exudations within the interlobular
will be found to be solid and marbled in color.
When gangrene has taken place, which may occur before death, that
part of the lung will be of a bluish black color, while the rest of th§
organ will be more of a dark brownish purple
846
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
In case of abscess of the lung, there is a slow pining away, and death
in an emaciated condition.
What to do. — The same treatment prescribed for bronchitis will
answer in this case. Bleeding is not to be thought of, except in the very
first stage, that of congestion, as, later, its weakening effects render it
decidedly objectionable. If a fair chance is given the patient, recovery
is probal)le in most cases, and although it sometimes leaves the wind
hurt by the permanent solidification of a lung or part of a lung, this, in
cattle, is a matter of small consequence.
V. Pleurisy.
Pleurisy is inflammation of the pleura, which is the serous membrane
lining the cavity of the chest and investing the lungs. Of itself it is not
fatal, but inflammations of all serous membranes are prone to abundant
eifusions, and the effusion following pleurisy is excessively great. It is
called hydrothorax (water in the chest), and always indicates a very criti-
cal case.
Cause. — It is caused by exposure to cold storms, winds, etc., the same
as other diseases of the breathing apparatus. Cattle seem to be particu-
larly subject to it.
How to know it. — There is more or less fever; the pulse is quick,
small and hard, and inclined to be wiry ; the breathing is quick and pain-
ful ; the elbows are turned out ; the ribs are fixed, and the breathing done
by the abdominal muscles ; there is a crease, running from the elbows
along the ribs towards the flanks, where the ribs join the cartilages of the
chest. The inspirations are short and imperfect, but the expirations
are prolonged and more easily effected. Pressure between the ribs
causes intense pain and a grunt, and on applying the ear to the sides a
grating, rasping sound is heard, like rubbing dry sheep skin together.
The head is hung low, the ears droop, the nose is dry, and though the
eyes are partly closed, the
countenance wears an anx-
ious look. Rumination stops,
the appetite is lost, the flanks
are tucked up, there is a hack-
ing, painful cough, and the
animal remains standing, with
evidentdisinclination to move.
There are sharp, shooting
pains through the chest, that make the animal turn his head around to
his sides. Unlike pneumonia, percussion on the ribs produces a clear,
ACUTE PLEURISY.
DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 847
resonant sound, the expired breath is not hot, the nostrils are not dilated,
and there is no mucous rale. Pleurisy may terminate in resolution by
absorption, etc., the patient getting well very quickly, without any ill
effects, or it may go on to the stage of great effusion, and terminate in
hydrothorax.
What to do. — If taken right at the start, give recipe No. 23, but if the
fever is far advanced give No. 18. When the fever is subdued, give
No. 20, if the appetite is poor ; if it is good, give No. 19. During con-
valescence give No. 21. Apply mustard paste to the sides assiduously.
VI. Hydrothorax.
As explained in the last section, when the chest fills with water from
the excessive effusion of pleurisy, it is called Hydrothorax.
How to know it. — As soon as the effusion begins, all pain ceases, res-
piration is deeper, longer, and less painful, the belly drops, the elbows
no longer turn in, the appetite returns, the eyes get bright, and to a
casual observer, the animal appears to have taken a decided turn for the
better ; but in a -very short time the practiced eye discovers unfavorable
symptoms, such as flapping of the nostrils, a quick, labored breathing,
and heaving of the flanks. The legs and chest become dropsical, the
eyes sparkle, and the countenance resumes its anxious look. No respira-
tory murmur or other sound is heard by the car, when placed to the side
— none at least at the bottom — though, later, a splashing may be heard
when the water reaches the heart ; percussion on the ribs elicits a full,
dull sound ; the pulse becomes rapid but small, and gradually fades away
until imperceptible. Death occurs from suffocation. Post-mortem
examination reveals the chest filled with water, and shreds of lymph
clinging to both the lungs and ribs.
What to do. — If the sides are not thoroughly blistered from the mus-
tard previously applied, apply fly blisters energetically, to get up a great
amount of vesication (skin blistering), and give the following recipe :
No. 24. 2 Drachms gum camphor,
4 Drachms saltpetre,
1 Ounce spirits nitre,
1 Pint water or gruel,
Mix as directed below.
The camphor must be dissolved in the nitre, and then the saltpetre and
water (or gruel) added. Give as one dose, and repeat it every four or
six hours. Give ale, porter, etc., in liberal quantities. It is advisable to
tap the chest early, repeating it if necessary. (See chapter on opera-
tions.)
848
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Vn. Emphysema of the Ltrngs.
there being few signs other than necrative ones.
This is a condition of the lungs very apt to mislead the inexperienced,
The milk is noticed to
be diminishing, and tlie cow fall-
ing off in flesh ; the coat is star-
ing and dirty, and hide-bound
exists ; the bowels are irregular,
and the appetite poor; still, the
mouth and nose are cool and
moist, and the breath is sweet.
The head is carried low ; the back
is arched, and tender on pres-
sure ; and there is weakness in
walking. The temperature falls below the normal standard, and so does
the pulse. Later, the ears and extremities become deathly cold, rumination
ceases, and an uncontrollable, offensive diarrhoea sets in; the back arches
more and more ; the belly is tucked up ; milk entirely stopped, the udder
and teats being soft and flabby ; the legs are spread to avoid falling ; the
pulse gets smaller and weaker, though not much faster ; the appetite all
gone, weakness becomes excessive ; and death follows, after progressive
symptoms running over a period of two months or more.
EMPHYSEMA OF THE LUNGS.
DEVICE FOR CASTING CATTLE.
ANOTHER DEVICE FOR CASTING CATTLE.
The post-mortem reveals ruptured air-cells, and extensive emphysema
of the lungs. A^ei-y few blood vessels are found owing to so many having
been absorbed when the circulation became so weak as to allow the smaller
vessels to collapse and become obliterated. The right ventricle of the
heart is weak and thin, and contains a portion of a clot.
CHAPTER V.
TUBERCULOSIS, CONSUMPTION OR WHITE PLAGUE.
I. ANIMALS SUSCEPTIBLE TO TUBERCULOSIS. II. ANIMALS EXEMPT EX-
CEPT BY INOCULATION. III. PREDISPOSING CAUSE OF TUBERCULOSIS.
IV. TUBERCULOSIS IN CATTLE. V. TUBERCULOSIS IN ADVANCED
STAGE. VI. SIGNS OF GENERALIZATION OF THE TUBERCLE. VII.
GENERATIVE TUBERCULOSIS.
This is an infectious disease common to man and to a large number of
animals caused by the bacillus tuberculosis. This disease prevails to an
extent which may be said to apply almost to everything having life or
vital energy. It is characterized by productive inflammation giving rise
to small rounded bodies called tubercles.
I. Animals Susceptible to Tuberculosis.
Among animals susceptible to tuberculosis are reptiles, fishes, birds,
rats, dogs, apes, monkeys, deer, elk, antelope, gazelle, camel, dromedary,
giraffe, kangaroo, lion, tiger, jackal, jaguar, bear, arctic-fox, common
cage birds, as well as birds of the farmyard, hens, turkeys, ducks, pigeons,
cats, goats, sheep, swine, cattle and horses. It is one of the universal
plagues; but modern science has discovered practical elimination by
prevention where it does not exist and cure where it has not made too
much progress.
II. Animals Exempt Except by Inoculation.
The horse, the ass and the mule rarely contract tuberculosis except
by inoculation. By inoculation the horse readily succumbs to infection.
Generalization with the horse takes place more certainly than with the
ox. The spacious stall of the horse, his outdoor life, his hard, muscular
exercise, the relatively small tonsils, the exclusive nasal respiration and
the paucity of connective tissue lymph plexuses, and the abundance of
red globules combine to favor immunity from this disease. Yet the
horse is susceptible to it and the disease once established is liable to
advance more rapidly to a diffuse generalization. The lesions in the
lungs and abdominal cavity resemble those of cattle both in nature
and abundance where infection exists; tubercles polypi, ulcers are more
common, the visceral lymph glands are early and severely attacked; the
liver and spleen suffer extensively, the serosse somewhat less so; lesions
have been noted in the vertebrse, skin and muscles. In rare instances
tubercles have been seen in the heart.
849
850
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Man has long been recognized as standing in the front rank of sus-
ceptibihty to tuberculosis. Yet, even in his case, the prevalence of the
affection bears an intimate relation to his outdoor life. What is true^
of man is equally true of horses. The horse in his wild state is free
from tuberculosis.
III. Predisposing Cause of Tuberculosis.
A predisposing cause is close buildings, a lack of ventilation. Air
rendered impure by being breathed again and again predisposes strongly
to tuberculosis, and has been even looked upon as the primary cause.
Dark stables are usually close, dirty and damp, and all these conditions
conduce to tuberculosis. Darkness hinders the development of organic
coloring matter in living bodies, whether chlorophy in plants or hcemo-
globin in the blood of animals. Haemoglobin is the main oxygen
carrier in the blood, and in case of its deficiency the tissues are not prop-
erly aerated. The result is as if the inhaled air contained little oxygen,
so that darkness further intensifies the evil of rebreathing deoxygen-
ated air. The extraordinary mortality from tuberculosis among pris-
oners, monks, nuns and miners, serves to further accentuate this con-
clusion.
Insufficient feeding, indigestion, or in-nutritious food, contribute to
dibility and lessen the power of resistance. Hence, in poor, half starved
animals when once introduced it makes rapid and extensive ravages.
Conversely, over-feeding will act in the same way, developing indigestion
and thereby robbing the tissues of their proper nourishment.
How to know. — Loss of condition — the coat loses its luster somewhat,
the hair becomes dry and the skin loses its mobility and mellowness.
The cough may become more frequent and paroxysmal under excite-
ment. The appetite fails somewhat and the breathing either dry or
husky or moist and gurgling, with a succeeding deep inspiration with
perhaps a sound distinct from the respiratory murmur which reveals the
diseased state ; or there is obstruction in the breathing organs or passages.
When these symptoms occur a skilled veterinarian should be called
and his treatment and directions implicitly observed. Unprofessional
curative treatment is not practical,
IV. Tuberculosis in Cattle.
Cow. — Tuberculosis is acute or chronic. In cattle it usually comes on
very slowly and assiduously and follows the chronic course. The symp-
toms vary according to the organs involved. It may exist in the cow
for months, even for years, without any suspicion on the part of the
owner of anything amiss. There may be an occasional cough, short,
weak, dry, wheezy, and aroused and repeated by opening the stable door
TUBERCULOSIS^ CONSUMPTION OR WHITE PLAGUE. 851
in cold weather — by leaving the stable suddenly for the cold outer air,
by rising suddenly in the stall or by being driven in a run, or by drink-
ing cold water or by eating dusty food. With oxen when put suddenly
to draft work he blows more than the unaffected animals. The disease
may exist and yet the spirits may be as good, the eye as clear and full,
the coat as smooth and slick, and the skin as soft and mellow as in health.
Some such animals give as much milk of as rich a quality, or when put
to fatten lay on flesh as well as healthy cattle in the same herd. In the
more favorable cases percussion will, however, elicit circumscribed areas
of dullness or wincing, or other sign of tenderness and auscultation, or
when the ear is directly applied to the part, may detect crepitation or
wheezing over the same points. By covering the nose and mouth with
a sack or blanket the breathing is rendered more labored and the morbid
sounds become clear and more definite. A departure from the natural
respiratory murmur is significant of tuberculosis. Much stands in the
way of successful treatment even in this early stage. The heavy muscu-
lar and bony mass of the shoulder covers the anterior lobe and partially
muffles the auscultation sound while it renders percussion useless. The
thick covering of the ribs in fat animals proves a barrier to successful
auscultation or percussion. In this early stage there is usually no ap-
preciable elevation of temperature, a slight rise of one degree takes place
so as to render it useless for purposes of diagnosis.
V. Tuberculosis in Advanced Stage.
When the disease is more advanced and the pulmonary lesions more
extensive, the animals usually appear less thrifty on the same feed, yet
fat animals are habitually killed for food that show quite extensive
pulmonary tuberculosis.
With loss of condition, the coat loses its luster somewhat, the hair be-
comes dry and stares in patches, and the skin loses its mobility and
mellowness. The cough becomes more frequent, more paroxysmal
under excitement, harsher, more broken, and either dry or husky or
moist and gurgling, with a succeeding deep respiration. When the skin
on the last ribs is pinched up between the finger and thumb it is slower
in flattening doAvn to its normal smoothness, pinching of the spine at
the shoulder or back, or it may be of the sternum, may cause wincing
or even moaning, and the same may come of percussing the ribs smartly
with the closed fist. As a far more decided evidence of flatness on
percussion on the various affected parts and of abolition or lessening of
the respiratory murmur, which is replaced by wheezing or by bronchial
blowing sound, heart beats and abdominal crepitation or gurgling convey
to the ear more clearly through intervening consolidated tissue. The
852 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
breathing is slightly more accelerated on exertion. The appetite fails
somewhat, the secretion of milk lessens or becomes more pale and watery.
VI. Signs of Generalization of the Tubercle.
In connection with this there come on signs of generalization of the
tubercle, such as irregularity of the bowels or enlargement or nodular
induration of some of the superficial lymph glands. Expectoration is
usually abundant. In the most advanced stages the symptoms are very
characteristic. The subject becomes thin and wastes visibly from day
to day. The hair is dry and erect which is most marked along the
spine, the skin is scurfy, rigid, and clings firmly to the bones, the eyes
are pale, deeply sunken in their sockets and bleary, the tears run over
the cheeks, while a yellowish, granular, fetid, and often gritty discharge
flows from the nose and drys in masses around the nostrils. The cough
is weak, painful, paroxysmal and is easily aroused by pinching the back
or the ribs. The breathing is liable to be hurried, even panting, and
the animal may stand most of the time with nose extended to obviate
the oppression that comes of recumbency. The visible mucosae is pale
and blanched and the pulse is weak and rapid. The temperature varies
from 103 to 105 degrees and the milk secretion is completely arrested.
In generalized tuberculosis the glands are enlarged, diarrha?a, and
clouded or blood stained urine. The morbid sound in the lungs has
become a complex variety in accordance with the nature of the lesion,
blowing, wheezing, amphoric, friction, creaking, mucous, with all con-
veyances from adjacent organs. Death usually occurs in a state of com-
plete marasmus, after months, or even years, of illness.
Tuberculosis of the abdomen affects the intestines, mesenteric glands,
peritoneum, liver, spleen and pancreas. The generative organs some-
times suffer, in which case a persistent symptom is sterility.
VII. Generative Tuberculosis.
Generative tuberculosis in the bull is associated with an obvious swell-
ing. Veterinarians classify tuberculosis of the cow into Genital Tuber-
culosis, Mammary Tuberculosis, Pharyngeal Tuberculosis, Cutaneous
Tuberculosis, Glandular Tuberculosis, Tuberculosis of the Brain and
Meninges, Tuberculosis of the Eye, Tuberculosis of the Heart, Pericar-
dium or Pleura, and Tuberculosis of the Bones and Joints. The latter is
more common in calves and gromng cattle, but may be present at any
age. The essential for the unprofessional stock owner is to know the
causes, the prevention, the methods of amelioration, and how to know
the disease when it exists as here outlined. With this knowledge he
must promptly secure the services of a competent veterinary surgeon. -
CHAPTER VI.
THE TUBERCULIN TEST OF CATTLE FOR TUBERCULOSIS.
I. THE DIAGNOSIS OF TUBERCULOSIS. II. THE ORIGIN OF THE TUBERCU-
LIN TEST. III. THE NATURE AND APPLICATION OF TUBERCULIN.
IV. THE VALUE AND RELIABILITY OF THE TUBERCULIN TEST.
V. THE HARMLESSNESS OF TUBERCULIN. VI. CONCLUSIONS REGARD-
ING THE TUBERCULIN TEST. VII. SUMMARY OF DIRECTIONS FOR MAK-
ING THE TUBERCULIN TEST.
I. The Diagnosis of Tuberculosis.
The symptoms of tuberculosis in cattle are not sufficiently prominent,
except in advanced stages or when superficially located, to enable one to
A COW AFFECTED WITH ADVANCED TUBERCULOSIS.
The disease is partly located in the lymph glands of the throat, as shown
by the position of the head. The glands are so much enlarged that, through
pressure on the larynx, they greatly narrow the orifice through which air
reaches the lung; and yet the visible bodily condition of the cow has re-
mained very good, and is better than that of most dairy cows.
diagnose this disease by the ordinary methods of physical examination.
And the cattle may, without showing any clinical symptoms, be in such
a stage of tuberculosis as to render them capable of spreading disease.
Indeed, an animal may be fat and sleek, eat and milk well, have a bright,
glossy coat, and be apparently in the pink of condition, and still be
858
854 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
passing tubercle bacilli through the feces or by an occasional cough,
and thus endanger all the healthy cattle in the herd. Consequently such
aids to diagnosis as animal inoculation, biological test, serum reaction,
and the tuberculin test are made use of in arriving at a definite opinion
relative to the presence or absence of this disease. The value of all but the
last of these is discounted by the technique required and by their im-
practicability, while the tuberculin test is most satisfactory and is the best
diagnostic agent known for the disease.
II. The Origin of the Tuberculin Test.
Tuberculin was invented by Koch in 1890, and was first used experi-
mentally in treating tuberculosis in man. In these cases it was observed
that its injection w^as followed by a rise of temperature, which led veter-
inarians to apply tuberculin to suspected animals to see if a similar
reaction resulted. I'iumcrous experiments showed this to be the case,
and since 1891 the use of tuberculin as a diagnostic ageni for tuberculosis
of cattle has been almost universally adopted in all parts of the civilized
world. No one thinks of accepting tuberculin as an absolutely infallible
agent, but it is immeasurably more dependable than any other method
that has ever been used.
III. The Nature and Application of Tuberculin.
Tuberculin is the sterilized and filtered glycerin extract of cultures of
tubercle bacilli. It contains the cooked products of the growth of these
bacilli, but not the bacilli themselves. Consequently, when this sub-
stance is injected under the skin of an animal it is absolutely unable to
produce the disease, cause abortion, or otherwise injure the animal. In
case the injected animal is normal there is no more effect upon the system
than would be expected from the injection of sterile water. However,
if the animal is tuberculous, a decided rise of temperature will follow
the use of tuberculin.
In practice the tuberculin test is applied by first taking a sufficient
number of temperatures, usually three, at intervals of two hours to ascer-
tain the normal variation of temperature of the animal to be tested. The
dose of tuberculin (which should always be specified on the label) is
then injected hypodermically between 8 and 10 p. m. on the day of
taking the preliminary temperatures. On the following day "after"
temperatures are recorded every two hours, beginning at 6 a. m. and
continuing until twenty hours following the injection.
IV. The Value and Reliability of the Tuberculin Test.
As a result of this method an a<'curate diagnosis may be established
in over 97 per cent of the cases tested. The relatively few failures in
THE TUBERCULIN TEST OF CATTLE FOR TUBERCULOSIS. 855
diagnosis are included among two classes of cattle. The first class con-
tains those that are tuberculous, but which do not react either because
of the slight effect of an ordinary-sized dose of tuberculin on an advanced
case of the disease with so much natural tuberculin already in the sys-
tem, or on account of a previous test with tuberculin which produces
a tolerance to this material lasting for about six wrecks. The second class
includes those that are not tuberculous, but which show an elevation of
temperature as a result of (a) advanced pregnancy; (6) the excitement
of oestrum; (c) concurrent diseases, as inflammation of the lungs, intes-
tines, uterus, udder, or other parts, abortion, retention of afterbirth,
indigestion, etc.; (d) inclosure in a hot, stuffy stable, especially in sum-
mer, or exposure to cold drafts or rains; or (e) any change in the method
of feeding, watering, or stabling of the animal during the test.
Notwithstanding all these possibilities of error, the results of thousands
of tests show that in less than 3 per sent of the cases tested do these
failures actually occur. In the first class the chances of error are de-
cidedly reduced by the skilled veterinarian by making careful physical
examination and diagnosing these advanced cases, and by the injection
of double or triple doses into all recently tested cattle, with the taking
of the after temperatures beginning two hours following the injection
and continuing hourly for twenty hours. In the second class errors are
avoided by eliminating those cases from the test that are nearing parturi-
tion or are in heat, or show evidence of the previously mentioned dis-
eases, or exhibit temperatures sufficiently high to make them unreliable
for use as normal. Then, in reading after temperatures it is advisable
not to recognize as a reaction an elevation of temperature less than 2° F.,
or one which at the same time does not go above 103.8° F., and the tem-
perature reaction must likewise have the characteristic rainbow curve.
(Those cases which approximate but do not reach this standard should be
considered as suspicious and held for a retest six weeks later.) In addi-
tion, a satisfactory tuberculin must be used, also an accurate thermom-
eter and a reliable syringe in order that a sufficient dose of tuberculin
may be given. Finally, the number of apparent errors of the tuberculin
test will be greatly diminished if a careful post-mortem examination is
made, giving special attention to the lymph glands.
This low percentage of failures being the case, cattle owners should
welcome the tuberculin test not only for their own interest, but for the
welfare of the public as well. Where this method of diagnosing the
disease has been adopted tuberculosis is gradually being eradicated, while
it is spreading rapidly and becoming widely disseminated in those dis-
tricts where the tuberculin test has not been employed. Without its
use the disease can not be controlled, and the cattle owner is confronted
with serious and continuous losses; with its use the disease can be erad-
856 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
icated from the herd, a clean herd established, and the danger of its
spread to man removed. Tuberculin may, therefore, be considered a
most beneficial discovery for the stock raiser. Strange to say, many of
these men have been incredulous, antagonistic, or prejudi-ced against
the tuberculin test by misinterpreting published statements, by incor-
rect, unsubstantiated, or exaggerated reports, and by alleged injurious
effects to healthy cattle.
Law has clearly stated the question when he says:
Many stock owners still entertain an ignorant and unwarranted dread
of the tuberculin test. It is true that when recklessly used by ignorant
and careless people it may be made a root of evil, yet as employed by the in-
telligent and careful expert it is not only perfectly safe, but it is the only
known means of ascertaining approximately the actual number affected
in- a given herd. In most infected herds, living under what are in other
respects good hygienic conditions, two-thirds or three-fourths are not to
be detected without its aid, so that in clearing a herd from tuberculosis,
and placing both herd and products above suspicion, the test becomes
essential.
*********
In skilled hands the tuberculin test will show at least nine-tenths of
all cases of tuberculosis when other methods of diagnosis will not detect
one-tenth.
It is perfectly natural that there should be objection to its use among
those who are not acquainted with its method of preparation or its prop-
erties; but it. is difficult to explain the antagonism of farmers who are
familiar with the facts connected with the manufacture and use of
tuberculin. Probably the most popular objection to tuberculin is that
it is too searching, since it discovers cases in which the lesions are small
and obscure. While this fact is admitted, it should also be borne in mind
that such a small lesion to-day may break down and become widely dis-
seminated in a relatively short period. Therefore any cow affected with
tuberculosis, even to a slight degree, must be considered as probably
dangerous not only to the other animals in the herd, but also to the
consumer of her products.
V. The Harmlessness of Tuberculin.
Furthermore, tuberculin must be considered as harmless for healthy
animals in view of the results revealed by numerous tests covering vast
numbers of animals. And it has also been clearly demonstrated that
tuberculin interferes in no way with the milking function in healthy
cattle; neither in the quantity of milk nor in butterfat value has any
variation been detected.
Nocard and Leclainche state:
THE TUBERCULIN TEST OF CATTLE FOR TUBERCULOSIS.
857
Direct experiments and observations collected by thousands show that
the tuberculin injections have no unfavorable effect. With healthy animals
the system is indifferent to the inoculation; with tuberculous animals it
causes only slight changes, which are not at all serious.
Most of the objections to tuberculin would probably be removed if
some method of compensation for the reacting animals could be devised.
Thus, in Pennsylvania, where tuberculosis is being eradicated with more
success than in any other State, and where there are usually three times
as many voluntary requests on file for the application of the test as can
be made, all reacting animals are paid for by the State. As the suppres-
sion of tuberculosis is a public health measure, it would appear perfectly
A VISIBLY TUBERCULOUS DAIRY COW.
Such cattle expel tubercle bacilli almost without exception with tiitjir feces
and with a material that is drolled, slobbered and sprayed from their mouths.
logical for the State governments to reimburse cattle owners appropri-
ately for the animals condemned and slaughtered. Provision could be
made to pay 70 per cent of the appraised value of the condemned animals,
not to exceed $30 a head for common stock or $60 for registered stock.
Such legislation should also include a requirement for the testing of all
dairy and breeding cattle coming into the State.
VI. Conclusions Regarding the Tuberculin Test.
As a result of the careful study of the tuberculin test, Salmon draws
the following conclusions:
858 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
1. That the tuberculin test is a wonderfully accurate method of deter-
mining whether an animal is affected with tuberculosis.
2. That by the use of tuberculin the animals diseased with tuberculosis
may be detected and removed from the herd, thereby eradicating the
3. That tuberculin has no injurious effect upon healthy cattle,
4. That the comparatively small number of cattle which have aborted,
suffered in health, or fallen off in condition after the tuberculin test were
either diseased before the test was made or were affected by some cause
other than the tuberculin.
VII. Summary of Directions for Making the Tuberculin Test.
1. Stable cattle under usual conditions and among usual surround-
ings, feeding and watering in the customary manner.
2. Make a physical examination of each animal, and give to each
one some designation by which the animal will be known throughout
the test.
3. Take each animal's temperature at least three times at two or three
hour intervals on the day of injection; for instance, at 2, 5, and 8 p. m.
4. At 8 or 10 p. m. inject a dose of tuberculin under the skin in the
region of the shoulder, using a sterile hypodermic syringe after dis-
infecting the skin at the seat of injection with a 5 per cent solution of
carbolic acid or a similar antiseptic solution.
5. Tuberculin is not ahvays concentrated to the same degree, and
therefore the dose, which should always appear on the label, varies con-
siderably. The dose of imported tuberculin is 0.25 c. c. for an adult
cow, and before injection is diluted with sterile water to 2 c. c. The
tuberculin made by the Bureau of Animal Industry is prepared so that
it will not be necessary to dilute it, and the dose is 2 c. c. for an adult
animal. Yearlings and 2-year-olds, according to size, should receive
from 1 to li/> c. c, while bulls and very large animals may receive 3 c. c.
6. At 6 a. m. on the day following the injection of tuberculin com-
mence taking temperatures, and continue every two or three hours until
the twentieth hour after injection, at which time if there is no tendency
for the temperature to rise the test may cease.
7. A rise of 2° F. or more above the maximum temperature observed
on the previous day, providing the temperature after injection exceeds
103.8° F., should be regarded as an indication of tuberculosis. Those
cavses which approximate but do not reach this standard should be con-
sidered as suspicious and held for a re test six weeks later, giving double
the original dose.
CHAPTER VII.
DISEASES OP THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.
I OLOSSITIS OK INFLAMMATION OF THE TONGUE ; AND PARALYSIS OF THE TONGUE.
J, HOVEN OR TYMPANITIS. III. IMPACTION OP THE RUMEN, OR MAW-
ROiiND IV IMPACTION OF THE OMASUM, OR FAKDLE-BOUND. V. DYSPEP-
^,. Lyi CONSTIPATION. VII. DIARKHCEA, OR SCOURS. VIII. DYSEN-
TERv. IX. ENTERITIS. X. PERITONITIS. XI. HERNIA. XII. STRAN-
GULATION, OR GUT-TIE.
It will be readily seen by the annexed cut, that the stomachs of nimi-
nants are very complicated, and hence when out of order, serious results
often follow. By noticing the relative positions of the compartments.
COMPARTMENTS OF THE STOMACH OF RUMINANTS.
Rumen, or first compartment-
Keticulum, or second do.
Omasum, or third do.
d- Abomasum, or fourth compartment.
e. CEsophagus, or gullet.
/. Entrance to the intestines, or pylorus.
the following pages will be more readily understood. The four com«
partments (or, as they arc often termed, the four stomachs) all float
loosely in the cavity of the trunk, excepting the paunch (rumen), ^^^^h
grows to the side in the lef* flank.
859
860
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
I. Glossitis, oj Inflammation of the Tongue ; and ParaJysis of the Tongue.
The mouth and tongue are frequently wounded from drenching in
careless manner, or by foreign bodies in the fodder, thorns, etc
Ik
The
TROCHAB AND CANNULA.
swelling is sometimes very great, especially if it is the tongue that is in-
jured. Temporary paralysis of that organ occasionally ensues, in which
case it hangs from the mouth, like some lifeless appendage.
What to do. — Examine the mouth care-
fully, and remove all offending substances.
If the tongue hangs pendulous, foment it
with hot water ; if very bad, a few scari-
fications, to make it bleed a little, will do it
good. Apply the following lotion three or
four times a day, with a swab :
No. 25.
1 Ounce vinegar,
2 Ounces honey,
^ Pint Avater,
Mix.
POSITION OP THE INTESTINES
OF THE COW.
Left spot where the Trokar must be
pierced. By piercing on the right -p^fU
side, the intestmes would be injured, vvitu
n. Hoven, or Tympanitis.
This is distension of the rumen or pauncfa
gas, the product of fermentation
accompanying acute indigestion. It com-
monly follows a hearty feed on clover or
other succulent diet, or is one of the sequelcx, in a case of choking.
How to know it. — The paunch is terribly distended with gas, so much
so that the space between the last ribs and the points of the hips is
puffed up above the surface, and
when tapped, is elastic and resonant,
Uke a drum, ' especially on the left
side. The breathing is difficult and
painful, becoming more so as the gas
increases ; the nostrils are dilated, the
eyes look wild, and gas and food are
belched up from the stomach, and
dribble from the mouth. The animal
moves slowly and uneasily about,
moaning with each expired breath. If not relieved, death follows from
Buffocation, rupture of the stomach, or blood poisoning by the gases.
ox SUFFERING FROM HOVEN,
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.
861
What to do. — If it is a very urgent case, plunge the trochar and can-
nula into the region of greatest distension on the left side, at a'ooint
midway between the spines of the loins, last rib and point of the hip,
pointing the trochar in and downward, and letting it pass in obliquely
WRONG POSITION OF THE ANIMAL FOR USING THROAT TUBE TO RELIEVE
IT OF GAS.
The throat tube (c) comes with Its end piece (d) in the food gruet (6) and clogs the tube, (a) Gas
over stomach contents. (6) Contents of stomach, (c) throat tube, (d) Button dipping into
the contents of the stomach.
to avoid the kidney. When food
gets over the end of the tube (can-
nula), pass in a piece of whalebone
and push it off. If the measures
above directed are not practicable,
and a probang is handy, insert the
gag oi the balling iron in the mouth,
and with one man to steady the head,
pass in the proI)ang, which will evacu-
ate the gas from the stomach. After
the acute symptoms are over, give a
brisk purgative. No. 8 will be found
effectual. Feed light for several days
m. Impaction of the Rumen, or Maw-Bound.
After an unusually full meal, the grain often becomes impacted in the
animal's stomach, causing its temporary paralysis, the whole mass lying
there like so much soggy stuff in a leather bag. Great distress necessa-
rily follows, which is aggravated when fermentation sets in, death often
resulting from suffocation, or in a more protracted case from nervous
prostration and blood poisoning.
DIAGRAM, SHOWING WHERE TO TAP THB
RUMEN FOR IIOVEN.
Imsert trochar at point where the lines cross.
862
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
How to know it.— It will have the same outward appearance of tre-
mendous distension as tympanitis, but when the bloated section is touched
it is found to be soft and pitty, so that when dented the dent remains or
rises slowly.
CORRECT POSITION OF THE ANIMAL FOR USING THROAT TUBE TO RELIEVE
GAS IN THE STOMACH.
Throat tube (r) comes with its end piece (d) not in tlie food gruet (&) but in the gas area (a).
What to do. — When paralysis of the stomach has actually taken place
from engorgement, there is nothing of any avail but to empty the umen
with the hand. This operation, which is termed rumenotomy, will be
found described in the chapter on operations. When the stomach is emp-
tied, and before sewing up the wound, pour in carefully the purgative
No. 8, with half a pint of ale added as a stimulant. Restrict the diet for
a few days, giving only easily digested food — grass, sloppy mashes, etc.
IV. Impaction of the Omasum, Fardle-bound, Dry Bible, or Dry Murrain.
The omasum, or third stomach, is a sack of a great many leaves, arranged
so as to rub constantly on one another, keeping up a grinding action
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.
863
on the food. This stomach is apt to suffer from want of moisture,
whereupon the food becomes impacted between the leaves, leading to
inflammation. This condition is variously known as fardle-bound, bake
of the many-plies, bake of the manifolds, etc.
RUMEN EXPOSED FOR MECHANICAL REMOVAL OF ITS CONTENTS.
How to know it. — It comes on gradually as an ordinary case of con-
stipation, with a))dominal pain, a looking around to the right side, and
disinclination lo move ; fever sets in, and slowly increases as the disease
makes progress ; there is great tenderness in the right side just below the
ribs, at which point a hard round substance can be felt ; the colic pains
and fever grow more intense ; the animal makes constant attempts to pass
faices ; delirium and vertigo set in, and death soon follows.
What to do. — The treatment must be prompt and persistent. Give a
full cathartic as follows :
No. 26. l}i Pounds epsom salts,
2 Ounces ginger,
2 Ounces gentian,
2 Drachms calomel,
20 Drops croton oil,
1 Pint syrup,
2 Quarts warm water.
Mix.
Give as one dose, and encourage the drinking of as much water after-
wards, from time to time, as jiossible. Give injections of warm water
and soap every half hour. If it is cold weather, blanket the patient
864 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
learmly. To insure the action of the purgative, give every two hours S"-
stimulating dose composed as follows :
No. 27. 1 Ounce liquor ammonia,
1 Quart warm ale,
}4. Ounce essence of ginger,
Mix.
It is not safe to repeat the cathartic, nor would it be of any use ; for if
it remains inoperative, in spite of the stimulants, double the dose would
not be more likely to effect a passage, but in the persistence to accomplish
this end a quart of melted lard may be given night and morning, oftentimes
with satisfactory results. During convalesence give recipe No. 7 or No. 20.
When a passage is despaired of, and as a last resort, tepid water ii.ay
be injected into the jugular vein, or galvanism applied to the region of the
stomach ; but the case is well-nigh hopeless.
V. Dyspepsia.
The lower animals are not supposed by the great majority of people
ever to be troubled with dyspepsia, but they are, nevertheless. All the
domestic animals are liable to suffer from chronic indi<restion from irregu-
lar or improper feeding, especially if to this is added exposure to the
cold storms and winds of the straw yard, without housing, etc.
How to know it. — A capricious appetite is noticed. Dainty at first,
the animal may shortly be seen licking walls, dirt, or lime, and chewing
sticks, etc. ; he is inclined to eat the bedding, or take up coal, stones,
etc., to chew, showing a depraved appetite for something he has not
got. After a while, there will be a staring coat, eruptions, belchings
from the stomach, and emission of gas from the rectum ; the manure is
small m quantity, dry and glazed ; the llanks drop in, except when dis-
tended with gas ; the skin and hair feel dry and coarse ; and there is a
rapid loss of flesh. It is not often a very serious condition in itself, but
it weakens the animal and lowers the tone of the vital functions, so that
he is unable to resist other diseases ; and it especially predisposes to
attacks of tympanitis, constipation or diarrhcea, tuberculosis, cancerous
ulcers, and purpura hsemorrhagica.
What to do. — Give phosphate of lime in the form of ground bones, and
a little lime water — about half a teacupful — morning and night in a bran
mash, or Ihe following recipe :
No. 28. 3 Drachms bi-carbonate of soda,
2 Drachms gentian,
2 Drachms gingex-.
Mix.
Give as one dose, repeating it morning and night. Give a complete
•hange of food, including some green ^rass, roots, eto.
DISEASES OP THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 865
VI. Constipation.
This is the condition which exists when there is not sufficient moisture
in the stomach and bowels, and the faeces are passed tardily and in hard,
dry lumps. It is always aggravated, and often caused, by too dry food,
insufficient or impure water and too little exercise. It is often symptom-
atic of other diseases, especially of liver complaints.
How to know it. — It is recognized by the hard, dry manure, which ie
also sometimes glazed. It is apt to run into inflammation of the bowelsj
colic, etc., and when existing as a symptom of other diseases, nearly always
indicates serious derangement of the system.
What to do. — If it is in the winter or late in the fall, give from one to
two quarts of melted lard ; if in the spring or summer, give recipe No.
8. Give laxative food with more bulk, and plenty of good, pure water
to drink. Salt the cattle at least twice a week in winter, and three times
in summer. If a mild case, it is quite possible that laxative food, with a
handful of salt and plenty of water, will be all that is needed. Injections
of warm water and soap are valuable adjuncts to either laxatives or
purgatives.
VH. Diarrhoea, or Scours.
This is caused by improper and inferior food, irregularity in feeding,
etc., and like its opposite, constipation, often accompanies other dis-
eases, particularly indigestion and dyspepsia, especially if dependent upon
an acid condition of the system.
How to know it. — The manure is passed much too often, and in 4
thin, watery condition, at times with considerable straining. If it runs
on long, there is a feverish condition of the stomach and bowels, with
great thirst, but little or no appetite ; rumination is suspended ; the milb
dries up ; the belly is tucked up and the back arched ; tlie coat stares ;
in some cases there is consideral)le flatulence. The further progress ot
the disease is marked by rapid loss of flesh and animal heat, the temper-
ature falling more and more below the normal ; the pulse rises as the
weakness increases, and at length becomes imperceptible; and death fol-
lows, as a result of the cessation of
the digestive functions, and conse-
quent lack of nutrition. It is further
hastened by the weakening effects
of the excessive discharges. It is
particularly fatal to young calves,
among whom it is quite common.
What to do. — Usually, the best
plan is to give alkalines along with
astringents, with anodyne enemas. chronic dysentery.
It Is often the case, however, that laxatives, or even purgatives, are
866 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
u. eded, to restore a healthy condition to the stomach and bowels. For
young calves that are fed on milk, — with whom an acid condition of the
stomach is common, — give one or two tablespoonfuls of lime water, in
the milk, night and morning ; and a teacupf ul of gentian infusion, with
a quart of starch gruel, may be added to the milk and limewater. Any
of the following mixtures may be given :
No. 29. 1 Ounce prepared chalk,
}4 Ounce powdered catechu,
2 Drachms powdered ginger,
3^ Drachm powdered opium,
)4 Pint peppermint water,
Mix.
Give, morning and night, from two to four tablespoonfuls, according
to the size of the calf.
No. 30. 2 Ounces tincture of catechu,
2 Ounces tincture of cardamoms,
2 Drachms carbonate of soda,
Mix.
Divide into two to four doses, according to age of calf, and give one
of them morning and night.
No. 31. 1^ Drachm powdered opium,
1 Ounce tincture of cardamoms,
3 Drachms sulphuric ether,
1 Pint linseed tea, (or starch gruel) ,
Mix.
Divide into six doses, and give one of them night and morning. If
astringent mixtures and the limewater do no good, give from two to four
tablespoonfuls of castor oil, or, instead, the following mixture:
No. 32. 4 Ounces tincture of rhubarb,
2 Draclims powdered ginger,
4 Ounces warm gruel.
Mix.
Give as one dose, and follow it with some doses of No. 30 or 31. The
four recii)es above given, it must be remembered, are all for calves.
For f ul
No. 33. IX Ounces prepared chalk,
2 Drachms powdered catechu,
}^ Drachm powdered opium,
2 Drachms powdered gentian,
1 Pint starch gruel,
Mix.
Give as one dose^ and repeat in twenty-four hours if necessary.
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 867
No. 34. 2 Drachms powdered opium,
4 Ounces powdered starch,
1 Ounce sulphuric ether,
1 Pint cold ale.
Mix.
Give as one dose. By substituting tepid water for the ale, this recipe
may also be used with advantage as an injection.
No. 35. % Drachm tamiic acid,
1 Drachm powdered opium,
1 Ounce powdered gentian,
1 Pint warm ale,
Mix.
Give as one dose.
If hixatives are required, give half a pint of melted lard, or, instead,
the following mixture ;
No. 36. 1 Drachm calomel,
2 D»-achms powdered opium,
1 Quart gruel.
Mix.
Give as one dose.
In all cases, restrict the quantity of drinking water, allowing it often
but only a little at a time, and dissolving an ounce of chlorate of potash
in each pailful of water. Feed ou light, easily digested food, and keep
the animal perfectly quiet for a few days.
Vm. Dysentery.
How to know it. — The inflammation of the mucous lining of the
stomach and bowels which characterizes this disease, causes severe strain-,
ing, and watery, offensive, bloody discharges, and high fever, with exces-
sive thirst ; there is loss of appetite ; the secretion of milk ceases, as does
rumination also ; emaciation begins early and rapidly increases ; dis-
charges from the eyes are seen ; colicky pains occur frequently, the back
being arched, and tail elevated ; the general prostration is very great,
and often proves fatal. If too much water is drauk, tympanitis is liable
to ensue and cause death suddenly from suffocation.
Causes. — Dysentery may follow the ingestion of acid, poifeonous plants,
or it may come on as the sequel of neglected diarrhcea, or of almost any
other debilitating disease.
What to do. — Give a laxative as follows :
No. 37. 7 Ounces epsom salts,
2 Drachms powdered opium,
2 Drachms powdered gentian,
1 Pint gruel,
Mix,
868 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Give as one dose. Or, instead, No. 36 may be given. Dissolve
chlorate of pota.sli in the drinking water, as prescribed for diarrhoea.
Give frequent injections of starch gruel, with an ounce of tincture of
opium in each one. If the foeces are very offensive, give the following,
half of it by the mouth, and the rest as an injection :
No. 38. % Ounce chloride of lime,
>-2 Ounce tincture arnica,
1 Ounce sulphuric ether,
2 Quarts starch gruel,
Mix.
Any of the astringent recipes given for diarrhoea are applicable, follow-
ing the administration of laxatives. Feed lightly, and nurse carefully.
IX. Enteritis.
This is inflammation of the digestive apparatus, and especially (as its
name implies) of the intestines, but is quite different from the inflam-
matory state of dysentery.
Causes. — It may come from eating various poisonous substances, either
vegetable or mineral ; or it may follow the too sudden checking of diar-
rhoea. Injuries to the abdomen sometimes cause it.
How to know it. — There is constipation, such fceces as are passed
being hard, dry, and coated with mucus, and sometimes offensive and
bloody ; high fever and quick, hard pulse ; dry mouth, with an offensive
fur over the tongue and cheeks ; the tliirst is insatiable ; the appetite
fails, and so does the milk ; rumination is suspended ; colicky pains may
occur, though the pain is more likely to be constant ; breathing becomes*
labored, and more or less tympanitis may be noticed ; the urine is scanty
and high colored ; the back is arched ; the animal moans, grinds his
teeth, and refuses to move ; the pulse gradually becomes imperceptible,
and the extremities cold ; and death soon follows, after an illness lastin'g
from one to two A\eeks.
Post mortem appearances arc usually as follows : The first and third
stomachs are filled with food, dry and impacted — almost baked, and
when this is taken out, the epithelium of the stomachs comes off with it ;
the fourth stomach and bowels are inflamed ; and more or less lymph, in
shreds, is found, as also some ulcers, in the large intestines. The liver
is generally softened, and all other internal parts very much bleached,
indicating great wasting.
What to do. — Give a purgative as promptly as possible. No. 26,
omitting the croton oil, will be the thing. Encourage the animal to drink
large quantities of water and other fluids, and supplement the purgative
with the following injection ;
DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 869
No. 39. 1 Pint linseed oil, No. 40. 4 Grains strychnine,
4 Ounces oil turpentine, 1 Ounce spirits of wine,
30 Drops croton oil, 6 Drops sulphuric acid,
1 Quart warm water, Mix.
1 Ounce soft soap.
Mix.
Repeat No. 39 three times a day till a full purgative action is secured.
If the constipation does not yield, give hypodermic injections of No. 40.
When dissolved, inject from ten to twenty drops under the skin with a
syringe suitable for the purpose. Ten drops of this solution contain one-
twelfth of a grain of strychnine. If prostration follows, give the fol-
lowing ;
No. 41. 2 Drachms camphor,
J-2 Ounce sulphuric ether,
4 Ounces acetate of ammonia (as directed below),
Mix.
The camphor is to be dissolved in the sulphuric ether, and the other
ingredient added afterwards. Give as one dose in ale or gruel.
If violent purgation takes place, it can be controlled with flour and
water, — a double handful of flour to four or nve quarts of water ; or
linseed tea may be given to drink. The prescriptions for diarrhoea will
be found convenient in cases of superpurgation.
X. Peritonitis.
This is inflammation of the peritoneum, a serous membrane lining the
cavity of the belly, and covering the bowels and other abdominal viscera.
Cause. — It is always the result of injury, or of secondary inflammation
following the operation of rumcnotomy.
How to know it. — The animal stands dejectedly, and has fits of
shivering, which are especially noticeable around the flanks and hind
parts ; all the symptoms of fever arc present, the pulse, urine, tem[)era-
ture, rumination, etc., all being affected ; the breathing is labored and
done mostly with the chest, the ribs i)cing fixed ; the sufferer looks around
to her flanks, and paws or crouches with pain ; all the symptoms become
aggravated, and the temperature suddenly falls below the normal ; the
belly fills with water, and death speedily follows.
If a post mortem is had, large quantities of reddish water will flow from
the belly, as soon as the membranes are cut, and unmistakable signs of
inflammation will be seen around the injury ; and sometimes there are
adhesions between the intestines.
What to do. — Give recipe No. 8, following it six or eight hours after
with No. 36; also, frequent injections of soap and water. No. 18 may
also be given with advantage. If prostration follows the action of the
puBgative, give No. 41. During convalescence, give No. 21.
870 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
XI. Rupture or Hernia.
This is familiarly known as rupture. The investing membrane of the
abdomen is torn, as a result of external injury or of severe strain, thus
letting out the intestines into the adjacent spaces. The swelling or
enlargement of the hernia is sometimes seen as large as a half bushel.
It is soft, and is easily pushed back if not very large. Sometimes, when
a great quantity of the intestines is protruded, vvhatis called strangulated
hernia results, Avliich is always dangerous, and unless reduced, causes
death from inflammation and mortification. Umbilical hernia (at the
navel) is sometimes seen at birth in calves.
What to do. — For calves, a compress ortruss is put on, as shown in the
annexed cut, adjusting it so as to make considerable pressure. If this
fails, wooden clamps, applied so as to include the skin over the rupture,
and just tight enough to set up a certain amount of adhesive inflamma-
tion, will be effectual, the compress being applied over the clamps.
In ventral (belly) hernia, little can be done, unless the rupture
is small, in which case the
same appliances may be
used. In a case of strangu-
lated hernia, when the gut
cannot be pushed back, the
skin may be opened and
the parts put back and the
wound sewed up again, —
first that in the abdominal
wall, and then the skin, —
and a compress applied.
TKUss Fou UMBILICAL HERNIA. Scrotal hcmia is very
difficult to reduce. The
animal must be castrated by what is called the covered operation, for
which a qualified veterinary surgeon will be required.
XII. Strangulation, or Gut-tie.
This is a passage of the intestines into the abdominal ring. It is only
seen in steers and oxen. The contraction of the spermatic cord foUow-
ino- castration leaves the abdominal rings open, and during severe exer'
tion, as in hard work, the intestines are forced through.
How to know it. — All the symptoms of abdominal difficulty are seen,
together with pain and soreness in the flank affected.
What to do. — The ox must be cast, an opening made in the flank, the
gut replaced, and the opening sewed up again, and a compress applied,
most of which are difficult and delicate operations, that require the serv-
ices of a qualified veterinary surgeon.^
CHAPTER VIII.
DISEASES OP THE URINARY ORGANS.
I. NEPHRITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. 11. RETENTION OF THE URIXE,
OR DYSURIA. III. INCONTINENCE OF URINE, OR ENURESIS iV ALBUMI-
NURIA, OR ALBUMINOUS URINE. V. II^EMATURIA, OR BLOODY URINE. VI.
CYSTITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER. VII. LITUIASIS, OR GRAVEL.
VIII. CALCULI.
I. Nephritis, or Inflai anation of the Kidneys.
Causes. — External violence, wounds, strains, etc. ; eating acrid, diu-
retic iilants ; and too free use of diuretic medicines
How to know it. — It is rather rare in cattle. When it occurs, there
are colicky pains, with great uneasiness ; the
urine is thick and dark colored, and voided
often, in small quantities and with much
straining and pain : there is tenderness over
the loins, especially at the sides, immediately
below the transverse spines of the lumbar
vertebrae ; the gait is straddling, and lame-
ness iS noticeable, — sometimes in one leg,
sometimes in both ; the appetite is poor :
ox SUFFERING FROM INFLAM- / ^ f '
MATioN OF THE KIDNEYS. fcvcr ruus high ; rumination ceases : some-
times blood, and in the later stages pus, is
evacuated with the urine ; the nose becomes hot and dry, the horns and
extremities cold, and the breathing labored. Diarrhoea often sets in, and
sometimes dysentery ; and this state is usually followed by constipation.
There is profuse sweating, great pain, and arching of the back ; the pulse
becomes small and weak ; and stupor and death soon follow.
Post mortem shows the affected kidney or kidneys enlarged and con-
gested— usually, with an abscess also.
What to do. — Avoid purgatives, especially salines, but give the follow-
ing recipe in preference :
No. 42. 3 Ounces Minderenis' spirit,
20 Drops tincture aconite root,
1 Pint linseed tea,
Mix.
Give as one dose Repeat it every two hours till better, tnen drop
off in frequency as the case will admit. Give large quantities of linseed
tea or slippery elm water to drink, with warm water injections. Api)ly
871
872 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK T)OCl^R,
hot water rugs to the loins. Feed on sloppy food, and keep the patient
perfectly quiet.
If the animal recovers, he had better be fed ici the butcher, for the
trouble is liable to recur, and unremitting care woiildi be required to guard
against the effect of storms, extremes of tcmperatme, etc.
II. Retention of the Urine, or Dysuria.
Cause. — It may be brought on by eating acrid herbs, causing inflamma-
tion of the urinary organs, irritability and spasms of the neck of the
bladder. Most commonly, however, it is a symptom of some other dis-
ease, the pressure upon the neck of the bladder resulting from inversion
of the rectum, calculi, or other visceral trouble.
How to know it. — Frequent but ineffectual attempts to pass the urine,
straining, and colicky pains ; the hind legs arc raised and moved about
restlessly, and the animal looks around towards the flank.
What to do. — Give hot water injections by the rectum, (and in the
female by the vagina also) ; add to the injection one ounce of opium, or
three drachms of fluid extract of belladonna. Repeat these in fifteen min-
utes. If there is still no relief, the urine must be drawn off with a
catheter. With the female this is very easily done, the catheter being
inserted through the opening to the bladder, Avhich will be found on the
floor of the vagina, and about three inches from the external orifice.
With the male it is a far more serious operation, and, unfortunately,
retention of the urhie is far more common in the male than in the female,
owing to the peculiar formation of the urethra, a slight pressure on one
URETHRAL CANAL, ETC., OF THE OX.
a. The bladder.
b. The urethral canal.
c. Curves of the urethral canal.
d. The retractor muscle of the penis.
of the curves being sufficient to cause the difficulty. The operation nec-
essary to draw off the urine from the ox will be found described in the
chapter on operations. After using the catheter, give the injections pre-
scribed above, with a light diet and some linseed tea. for a few days.
DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANb. 873
m. Incontinence of Urine, or Enuresis.
This difficulty may be considered the opposite of that just considered :
the urine dribbles away involuntarily.
Cause. — Paralysis of the muscular coat of the bladder and sphincter
vesietB ; calculi ; or pervious urachus after l)irth.
What to do. — Give purgative No. 8, and follov/ it with one and a half
drachm doses of nux vomica, morning and night, in soft feed. If there
are calculi, remove them. If the case is a bad one, inject cold water into
the rectum, and give ten grains of powdered cantharides in soft food,
morning and night.
IV. Albuminviria, or Albuminous Urine.
This is the same as Bright' s disease in the human subject, and, in
strictness, is probably a blood disease.
Cause. — The blood is impoverished, to a certain extent, by too much
and too long continued sameness of diet, in consequence of which there
is a deficiency of blood forming constituents, Avith a low, unas.siniilable
quality of albumen, which is excreted by the kidneys. This leads in time
to a degeneration of those important organs in two different forms, — the
large, white kidney, and the small, red kidney. The former secretes
very little urine, the latter great quantities of it.
Albuminuria is most common in sections where turnips are the almost
exclusive diet. They cannot, alone, support the system in a healthv
condition, and the impairment of the vital functions thus resulting,
seems to affect the kidneys more than other organs, and in this peculiar
way. It is generally regarded as the effect of bad management and
injudicious feeding.
How to know it. — In those rare cases where the trouble arises from an
injury, the l)ack will be arched and the feet drawn together, indicating
injury to the loins ; but in ordinary cases, the most common and charac-
teristic symptom is the stretching at full length, getting the hind and
fore feet as far apart as possible. Generally, there is constipation, a
straddling gait, stiffness, and disinclination to move. The urine, which
is thick, mucilaginous and dark colored, often fails to produce albumen
on the application of heat (a common test), but with tincture of galls,
solution of bi-chloride of mercury and alcohol, will always separate some.
Death often results from paralysis of the hind parts, blood poisoning and
coma.
What to do. — Examine the bladder ; if full, evacuate it as described
for retention. Give recipe No. 8, and injections, to overcome the con-
stipation, and afford a complete change of diet, cutting short on green
food, except grass, which should be from, uplands, but allowing more
874 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOBc
grain. Also, give milk, eggs, etc. If it still continues, give the follow-
ing recipe :
No. 43. 2 Drachms sulphuric acid,
1 Ounce tincture of cardamoms,
1 Pint water,
Mix.
Give as one dose.
V. Hsematuria, or Bloody Urine.
Of this there are two kinds. Traumatic hoematuria is the effect of
external violence, by which the loins and kidneys are injured, and may
be recognized without difficulty, by the blood passing in clots distinct
from the urine which contains them.
Idiopathic hoematuria follows active congestion of the kidneys from
calculi, eating acrid herbage, excessive use of diuretics, and the like
causes. It may be distinguished by the red appearance of the urine.
There are also signs of fever, and, upon suitable tests, the urine will be
found to contain albumen. Inflammation of the kidneys (nephritis) is
apt to follow.
What to do. — The traumatic form is best treated by injections of cold
water into the rectum, and by cold cloths laid over the loins. The idio-
pathic kind treat the same as albuminuria, (see preceding section), and
rub mustard paste well into the loins.
VI. Cystitis, of Inflammation of the Bladder.
This is inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the bladder.
Causes. — Any derangement of the digestive organs is apt to change
the character of the urine, making it acid and irritating, instead of alkaline,
as it is in health. In other instances, cystitis is caused by eating poi-
sonous plants, by calculi, and incautious use of diuretic medicines.
Cantharides is peculiarly apt to cause it, either by being absorbed when
spread over too large a surface of the skin, or by being given internally
in too large doses.
How to know it. — By colicliy pains, nose turned towards the flank,
effort* to vomit, and, if a male, by the testicles being drawn up towards
the body ; the urine is passed with pain, and is all)uminous ; its flow may
be either retarded or accelerated ; there is evident constitutional disturb-
ance and prostration ; the faeces are often covered with blood ; there is
profuse perspiration ; gastro-enteritis or nephritis may ensue ; and death
results from either rupture of the bladder or prostration.
The main feature on post mortem examination, is the inflammation of
the lining of the bladder. There are signs of blood poisoning also.
DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS.
875
usually in the puiple spots, and the odor of urine is present throogliout
the entire body.
What to do. — Avoid oleaginous purgatives, resorting, in preference, to
large quantities of linseed tea, or gum arable water. Give recipe No. 8,
and feoothing injections. In short, adopt the same treatment as for
nephritis. (See Section I.)
VTI. Lithiasis, or Gravel.
Abnormal conditions of the urine, in which either an acid or alkaline
condition exists to an excessive degree, predispose to the formation of
aand-like deposits in the bladder, from the union of the acids or alkalies
with the urea in a changed condition. The presence of these deposits
excites the bladder to contract, and hence may be noticed the inclination
to void the urine often, though in small quantities and slowly. The uri-
nation IS, of course, quite painful. Sometimes particles of the deposit
may be seen hanging to the long hairs around the external organ.
Gravel is always more prevalent among males than females.
What to do. — Wash out the bladder with tepid water, which is easily
done in case of the female. For the male it will be necessary to cut
through the penis, as described for retention of urine. (See chapter on
operations.) In order to dissolve the deposit, inject into the bladder a
weak solution of hydrochloric acid, as follows :
No. 44. 1 Drachm hydrochloric acid, No. 45. 20 Drops hydrochloric acid,
y^ Pint water, 3 Drachms gentian,
Mix. 1 Pint oat meal gruel.
Mix.
Give as one dose internally No. 45. Repeat it morning and night for
a few days, and then change to No. 46.
No. 46. % Pound bi-carbonate soda,
4 Ounces gentian,
2 Pounds linseed meal,
Mix.
Give two tablespoonfuls No. 46 morning and night. Continue this
for two or three weeks.
VIII. Calculi, or Stones in the Bladder.
Calculi, like gravel, are the product of a mechanical union of small
particles of phosphates, etc., that accumulate in the bladder and other
parts of the urinary apparatus. They are most common in localities
where the water is hard, as it always is on a limestone formation.
How to know it. — The symptoms are almost exactly identical with
gravel. To verify the diagnosis, make a manual examination by the
rectum ; the stone can be felt in the bladder.
What to do. — The stone or stones must first be removed by the
method described in the chapter on operations. The subsequent treat-
ment will be the same as for gravel.
CHAPTER IX.
DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OP GENERATION.
I. MALPRESENTATIONS, ETC., IN PARTURITION. II. PROLONGED AFTER-PAINS.
III. RETENTION OP THE AFTKK-BIRTH. IV. ABORTION AND MISCARRIAGE.
V. UTERINE HEMORRHAGE, OR FLOODING. VI. INVERSION OF THE VTOMB.
VII. METRITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE WOMB. VIII. PUERPERAL FEVER,
OR METRO-PERITONITIS. IX. PARTURIENT APOPLEXY. X. LEUCORRHCEA, OR
WHITES. XI. GONORRHCEA. XII. MAMMITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE
UDDER. XIII. SORE TEATS. XIV. NYMPHOMANIA AND STERILITY.
I. Malpresentations, etc., in Parturition.
This, to the breeder at least, is the most important part of cattle
pathology, aside from the contagious diseases. Oftentimes a valuable
cow or calf, or both, are lost, when a knowledge of the subject would
save them. A little timely aid, properly given, in a difficult case of par-
turition is invaluable, but if the assistance comes tardily, or is rendered
in a bungling manner, the damage done may be irremediable and fatal.
In order to be able to recognize a malpresentation, some degree of
familiarity with the natural presentation, and its attendant phenomena, is
necessary.
The period of gestation in cows is about nine months, sometimes a few
days (or even weeks) more or less than this, but usually a few days
more. The first calf, especially, is generally carried a few days longer.
When the time for delivery approaches, the udder increases in size and
fills, the vulva enlarges and thickens, the hips spread, and the space be-
tween the root of the tail and the joints of the haunch drops. The time
being up, the cow endeavors to seclude herself and hide away from the
others ; the labor pains or throes come on gradually, increasing in force
from time to time ; in most cases, the cow lies down, — sometimes on one
side, and sometimes on the other, — and occasionally stretches right out.
The first object expelled is the water bag, which is usually about the size
of a man's head ; sometimes it breaks in the passage, at others it hangs
unbroken, as low even as the hocks. The two fore feet next present,
and then the nose lying between the feet. Three quarters of the labor is
requli-ed to expel the head ; the remainder, to pass the shoulders, after
which the delivery is accomplished without further effort. The cow
usually rises, and commencing immediately to lick the calf, in a very few
mioutcs has him all licked off, when he dries quickly without chilling.
870
DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF GENERATION.
877
A
<m>
k, Q
v^->
jNSTRUMeNTS V?§P IN DISEASES FOLLOWING PARTURITION.
878 CYCLOrEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
SUPPORT No. 1 FOR PROLAPSED UTERUS.
r
t.
SUPPORT No, 2 FOR PROLAPSED UTERUa
DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 879
Unaided by the maternal instinct in this manner, the calf would be a
much longer time in drying off, and in cold weather would become seri-
ously chilled. The foregoing, as before intimated, is an outline of a
natural case of labor, when "everything is right."
If the labor is severe and is prolonged more than half an hour, the cow
should have help. The assistant should be the man whom the cow is
accustomed to see ; he should be very quiet and gentle in his movements, and
have no spectators, neither human nor cattle. If in any case, a sec-
ond person is present, there should be as little talking as possible.
When the feet are properly presented, catch hold of them, one in each
hand, and pull — not with anything approaching a jerk, but with a firm,
even traction — at exactly the same time that the cow strains, and only
at that time, relaxing the traction entirely during the intervals of quiet
between the throes. Judgment and good common sense are required to
manage a case well, and these must be the operator's main reliance ; no
printed directions can take their place.
In a case of malpresentation, the first thing to be done is to push the
foetus back out of the passage, in order to introduce the hand and arm
1=
JOINTED HOOKS,
far enough to get hold of the parts that ought to come first, and so
bring about a natural presentation. This is always a difficult task. If
the cow is standing, the calf can be push d back readily, but if she is
lying down, the more fussing there is done the more the womb contracts,
and the more difficult it becomes to i)ush the foetus in against the throws.
The simplest, quickest, and easiest way is to fix a pulley and tackle around
the cow's legs above the hocks and to something overhead, and by these
STRAIGHT HOOK.
means to elevate the hind parts so that the operator can get at the case,
and push back and "turn" the calf. When all the arrangements for
delivery have been completed, let her down, and she will soon return tc
880
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
the labor pains. Work as lively as possible while the cow is elevated ; it
is an unnatural position, anl under very unfortunate circumstances, and
if she is kept in it long at a time very bad results might follow.
The instruments necessary are a piece of soft rope, (the size of a man's
little tinger and about ten feet long), a jointed hook, straight hook, con-
cealed knife, and erabriotomy knife.
The last named, is a small curved blade
fastened to a ring that fits over the
big finger, so as to carry the knife in
the palm of the hand.
First Malpresentalion . — If one fore foot and the nose are entered in
the passage and the other foot bent back, the calf cannot be delivered
without first bringing up the retracted foot into its proper position, on
account of the obstruction which the shoulder would offer. Tie a small
rope around the foot presented, in order not to lose it ; then push the
CONCEALED KNIFE.
FIRST MALPRESENTATION.
One fore foot and the nose entered, the other foot bent back.
calf back, to allow the arm to be introduced and find the other foot ; take
in a noose of the rope, and jiut it over the foot as shown in the annexed
cut ; then — with the hand jjlaced over the foot, so as to cover the toes,
and thus prevent them from lacerating the womb — draw it up with the
other hand. This accomplished, delivery will soon be effected.
Second MaJprcsentation. — When one foot is presented, the other foot
and the nose being turned down, proceed in a manner similar to that just
DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF OENERATION. 881
described. Tie the rope to the foot presented, so as not to lose it, and
SECOND MALPRESENTATION.
One lore foot presented, the other foot, and also the nose, turned down.
push the calf back so as to catch the nose and raise it into the passage ;
then get the other foot in the way directed for the first nialprcsentation.
Third Malpresentation. — ^When the nose is presented and both feet bent
THIRD MALPRESENTATION.
The nose presented, and both fore feet bent back.
back, the head may be entirely expelled, the neck being in the passage
and the shoulders against the rim of the nelvis. If the foetus remainp
882
CYCLOPEDIA OP LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
long in this condition, the head swells so as to render it utterly impos-
sible to push it back, and the calf dies of course, — he is choked to death.
In this extreme, the only feasible plan is to cut the head off, then push
the body back and get the feet as directed for the first mjlpresentation.
Such a case once occurred in the practice of the writer ; it was managed
in this way, securing delivery without trouble, and saving the cow.
The forosroiiig applies only when the head is swollen. When this is not
the case, push the head back and bring up the feet as before described.
Fourth 3IaIpresentatW7i. — In this the fore feet are both presented,
but the head is turned back against the side. Tie the rope to the feet,
iind carry a piece of it in, with a view of getting it into the mouth and
FOURTH MALPRESENTATION.
The fore feet in the passage, the head turned back on the side.
around one of the jaws. Failing in the latter effort, hook the straight
hook into the eye socket, and then push the feet back, till the head can
be brought into the passage.
Fifth MaJpreseniation, — Here, the foetus is lying on his back, with the
poll presented and the feet bent back upon the belly. Delivery may be
made in this position, but the nose and feet must be brought into the
passage fii'st. To do this, pass in a noose for each foot, and another for
the upper jaw, putting it in the mouth ; then push the calf back, so those
parts can be liberated and brought "up. Carefully gujrird the womb from
laceration by the toes, in all cases. When in a favorable presentation,
let an assistant pull, while the main operator raises the withers of the
fostus over the rim of the pelvis.
DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF GENERATION.
883
Sixth Malpresentation. — Both hind feet are in the passage, the calf's
back beinoj against the loins of the mother. Delivery is not necessarily
FIFTH MALPRESENTATION.
The fcetus on his back, with the poll presented, and both fore feet bent back.
difficult, but when once well started, it is very desirable to hasten it to
the utmost limit of prudence, as there is danger of the calf suffocating.
SIXTH MALPRESENTATION.
The hind feet both in the passage.
Seventh Malpresentation. — The breech is presented, and the hind feet
are n^ ao-ainst the cow's bacV.. The feet must be drawn back into the
884 CrCLOPEDlA of live stock and complete SfOCK DOCTOB.
passage. Pass in the rope, take a noose around the hocks, and pull the
foetus down so as to get the noose around the feet and draw them back :
SEVENTH MALPKKSKNTATION.
The calf lying- on his back, the hind feet up against the cow's back, and the breech presented.
this done, and the points of the buttocks being raised over the rim of ttie
pelvis at the proper time, the calf may perhaps come without further
EIGHTH MALPUESENTATION
The breech presented, with tlic back up against Uie loins o< the mother, und the feet bent downward©
trouble c But if otherwise, persevere, and tuid it into the position seen
in the cut for the sixth malpresentation. Failing in this, and as a last
DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 885
resort, it may be necessary to cut the calf up, and take him away piece
by piece, with the concealed knife. The latter operation requires con-
siderable skill, in order to avoid wounding the womb and vagina. It
cannot safely be attempted, except by an expert.
Eighth Malpresentalion. — This is a breech presentation in which the
calf's back is up against the mother's loins, and the feet are bent down-
wards. This is considered to be the hardest position of all to rectify.
Pass m the ropes, and take a noose around the hocks, and then around
the feet ; then, by elevating the cow very high behind and pushing back
the foetus, and drawing up the legs and feet into the passage, it can be
delivered.
Ninth Malpresentati^ya. — The neck is presented in the passage, the
head being bent around to one side and the legs down against the belly.
First, get the feet up as directed for the first three malpresentations ;
then turn the head into the passage, as directed for the fourth.
We need hardly say that before introducing the hand and arm, in any
of the cases we have mentioned, they should be thoroughly anointed with
lard or oil. The exact position of the foetus should be determined beyond
a doubt before attempting to change or "turn" it.
These nine malpresentations do not comprise all the difficulties attend-
ing parturition ; for there may be abnormal dovelopements of the foetus.
NINTn MALPRRSENTATION.
Neck presented, with the head turned against the side, and both feet down.
rendering it a mechanical impossibility to effect its delivery alive. Bj
far the most common phenomena under this head are hydrocephalic
Cdrcpsy of the brain) and ascites (dropsy of the belly. )
886
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AN© COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOB.
Hydrocephalus. — This occurs mostly in old, thin cows, but sometimes
also in excessively fine-bred ones. The head must be tapped with the
HYDROCEPHALUS, \YITH MALPRESENTATION.
trochar and cannula, thus evacuating the water ; then crush in the skull,
and deliver.
Ascites — Carry in the concealed knife, and with it tap the belly and
ASCITES, OR DROPSY OP THE BELLY.
The presentation is natural.
let the water out into the mother's womb If this is not successful, use
a long trochar and cannula, as shown in the cut.
DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 887
The cow, dying, to save the calf. — In case of serious malformation of
the cow, when all hope of saving her is given up, and the calf is still alive
but cannot be delivered, resort should be had to the Csesarian operation.
(See chapter on operations.)
Some treatment, — or, rather, special care — is very necessary both be-
fore and after parturition. If the delivery is easy, a warm bran mash with
a little salt in it is soothing and slightly nutritious. The cow should be
dieted for a few days before calving, to loosen the bowels; if on hay, give
roots and bran. Avoid having breeders too fat, the other extreme being
just as bad. If too fat, puerperal fever is much more apt to follow ;
if too thin and weakly, the placenta is sure to be retained. Avoiding
both these extremes, have them in middling flesh up to within a month
of calving; then increase the feed up to within two days of that time, so
as to have them in a thriving condition. If the cow is fat, it is a good
plan to give, two weeks before calving, and repeat a week before, half a
pound of epsom salts in a quart of water, to loosen the bowels.
If delivery is long and exhausting, give a pint of warm ale during its
progress, and again afterwards. If the udder fills very full before calving
it is well to milk a little to relieve its painful tension. In all cases, milk
the cow immediately after calving, while she is drinking her slop, and
feed the calf, before he gets up, about a pint of the milk, giving the rest
to the cow. It will act upon her as a healthful laxative. Inasmuch as
the milk at this time is very different from what she ordinarily gives,
there is a very little danger of begetting the habit of milking herself.
The milk, at first, is rather thick and yellow, and is not fit to use for
family purposes under three or four milkings. Some people indeed have
a prejudice against using it under two weeks; nevertheless, except for
drinking, it is good for all purposes after the third milking, provided
there is no disease in the cow.
II. Prolonged After-pains.
These sometimes occur after protracted and painful delivery, from fail-
ure of the womb to contract, or from retention of the after-birth, — most
commonly in weak, thin, old cows. For treatment, injections of cold water
thrown up the vagina will usually suffice. They should not be allowed
to continue, as they are apt to lead to inversion of the womb.
III. Retention of the After-birth.
When the placenta or after-birth is retained, mechanical means are
necessary to remove it ; for it becomes a foreign body as soon as the foetus
is delivered, and begins at once to decompose, and the impure matter
being absorbed into the circulation, the general health of the animal suf-
fers decidedly.
It is best to let the placenta remain till the end of the second day, or
888 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
beginning of the third, to soften a little. It may then, perhaps, come
away of its own weight ; if not, it is easily removed by inserting the hand
and arm to the shoulder, and then with the other hand, applying gentle
traction to the hanging niembiane ; at the same time take each cotyledon
or button by which the placenta is attached to the womb, in turn, and
by pinching it a little between the thumb and fore finger, it will detach
from it, much as iu unbuttoning a garment. Great care is required not
to pull off one of these cotyledons, or the resulting hemorrhage might
prove fatal. If, however, this should be done by mischance, cold water
thrown over the loins will be the proper treatment.
IV. Abortion and Miscarriage.
Premature expulsion of the foetus is called abortion in the earlier
periods of gestation, and miscarriage or premature labor in the later
ones. It not infrequently takes on an enzootic character, and by running
through a whole herd entails enormous loss on the stock owner. This
tendency, as was remarked in Chapter I of this Part, is stronger among
cows than any other of the domestic animals. It is usually explained by
attributing it to sympathy, using the words pathologically, but it in reality
occurs from three distinct sources, viz. : Habit, accident, and infecticm.
In the latter case it is very often enzootic.
Causes. — The most common causes are accidents, or violence of some
kind, — being hooked and pushed a])out by other cattle, or kicked and
clubbed by brutal herdsmen; jumping, leaping, falling, etc.; ergot in the
hay or other fodder, such as has been badly harvested or grown in a wet
season, especially on low, swampy ground. From habit a cow that has
aborted once is apt to repeat it at about the same stage of gestation, due
probably to a weakened condition of the genital organs and an unnaturally
sensitive nervous system. Enzootic abortion is always due to infection,
the cause being bacterial. Two different germs are thought by the best
authorities to be the active agents, viz. ; Leptothrix vaginalis and the
penicillinm glancum. These germs may be carried to a stable in many
ways, and being raised in dust and falling or lodging on the external gen-
itals of a pregnant cow, set up sufficient irritation in the vagina and uterus
to interfere with the nutrition of the fcetus, causing it to perish, then
abortion is inevitable.
How to know it. — There will ])e dullness, suspension of rumination,
anxiety in the countenance, separation from companions; at length, a Sinall
water bag will be passed, and a little later a fcetus. Or, perhaps, all that
may be noticed, to indicate something w^rong will be a tiny fcetus founcL
somewhere. More or less discharge will follow. It will be of a bloody,
mucous character, and is likely to become })urulent after a few days.
Treatment. — For the original case (in which the mischief is nearly al-
ways completed before discovered), nothing special can be done, except tr
DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF GENERATION, 889
syringe the parts out well with tepid water, and follow this with a carbolic
lotion, viz. :
No. 47. %, Ounce carbolic acid,
Yz Gallon water, Mix.
Inject a little twice a day. Continue it a week or more.
Prevention. — This is really the important part. Isolate the cow tnat
has aborted immediately, burn the afterbirth, all soiled litter and scald any
blankets that have been used around her. Now, not knowing where the
germs may have lodged, waiting for something to stir them up and infect
others, it is proper to remove the cattle, sweep and scrape the stable thor-
oughly, floors, walls and ceilings, then shower them with formaldehyde and
water — one of the former to one thousand of the latter, then whitewash
the ceiling and walls. Keep the cow that has aborted separated from
pregnant ones for several weeks. Otherwise, some of her companions
would probably abort from two to six weeks later. As general precau-
tions, prevent violent commotions among the cows when out of the stable,
and never allow them to be run by boys or dogs, but drive them as quietly
as possible. Always shut up a cow when bulling; her jumping on the
others, or, instead, being ridden by them is apt to injure them and her alike.
The feeding of hemp seed deserves considerate attention, oAving to the
experience of recognized authorities on breeding. It is given in jDint
feeds once a day, with other food, from the time immediately preceding
the bulling season through four or five months. As to the general diet,
feed well so as to keep cows in good, strong condition, but avoid obesity.
V. Uterine Hemorrhage or Plooding.
Bleeding from the womb or vagina sometimes follows protracted labor,
from injuries to those parts by carelessness or accident during parturi-
tion ; or it may result from unskillful removal of the placenta. The con-
tinuance of bleeding is due to the failure of the womb to contract, as it
should do, after delivery. It is called flooding on account of its coming
away in such large quantities, the womb-full being evacuated at a time.
What to do. — Throw cold water, by the bucketful, over the loins;
cool the hand and insert it into the
womb, which will sometimes cause
the latter to contract upon it. If
these means prove insufficient, in-
ject cold water into the womb, with
a suitable syringe.
VI. Inversion of the Womb.
Following immediately upon par- exaggerated it.ltistration of uter-
turition, after-pains sometimes come '^'^ hejiorrhage.
on so nolently that the womb is forced right out through the vagina,
and IS turned inside out, and lies or hangs behind the cow a pink, bag-
890
CYCXOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
INVERSION OF THE WOMB.
like substance covered with cotyledonous (miilberry-like) excrescences all
over the snrfuce.
What to do. — If dirty, take it up on a clean sheet, and wash it with
tepid W'ater with a little alcohol in it — a wineglassful to a pint of water.
(If the placenta is still attached,
remove it as directed in Section
III.) Sponge it over with lauda-
num, and carefully return it.
This is an exceedingly delicate
task, though not difficult other-
wise; the utmost care is neces-
sary to avoid punching the fingers
right through the membranes,
which w^ould cause death. Find
the most dependent portion, then place the clenched fist beneath it, and let
the womb fall down over the hand and arm as it is raised; and, with the
parts in this position, promptly insert the arm at full length into the body
of the cow, being very
careful not to use undue
violence. The uterus will
generally suck down into
its proper place without
any difficulty, but if nec-
essary to manipulate the
walls of the vagina some-
what, this may be done —
always with extreme care
and the minimum amount
of force that will accom-
plish the object. Then
place the cow in a stall
where the hind feet will be at least six inches higher than the forward, and
apply a harness and compress over the external opening, as shown in the
annexed cut. Or a rope, twisted as shown in the smaller cut, may be used,
the object in either case being to prevent a recurrence of the displacement.
jS' If straining is violent and continues any
>^^\ /^^ *^ ^^v^'^^^^ length of time, give internally the following
! jK mixture:
No. 48. 1 Ounce chloral hydrate,
1 Pint water,
Mix.
Give as one dose; if necessary, repeat »t
in half an hour.
TO PREVENT INVERSION OP THE VAGINA.
3^
TWISTED ROPE.
Vo tie over the vulva, and thus prevent
inversion ot the womb.
DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 891
VII. Metritis, or Inflammation of the "Womb.
This affection is not very often seen in the cow, owing to her phleg-
matic temperament, and her proneness to other complications, arising at
an earlier stage, in connection with parturition. It is the result of in-
juries to the womb during difficult parturition ; it may developealso from
a cold caught at that time. The inflammation soon extends and involves
other parts, making a very serious condition indeed. See further in the
next section.
VTII. Puerperal Fever, or Metro-Peritonitis.
This disease is often confounded with parturient apoplexy, so that,
notwithstanding the difference between the two conditions, they are mis-
taken one for the other. Puerperal fever is erysipelatous inflammation
of the uterus and peritoneum, and may affect cows of all ages. The
antecedent facts will usually be found to be difficult parturition, exposure
to cold storms or extremes of temperature, retention of the placenta, or
overdriving prior to calving, and the like circumstances. Thin, poor
cows that have been changed suddenly from a dry, short pasture to rich
succulent feed at or near the time of calving, are especially apt to have it.
It may come on at any time from a few hours after calving up to the third
or fourth day.
How to know it. — High fever, with all of its attendant symptoms, such
as dry, hot nose, horns and extremities hot or cold ; capricious appetite,
with rumination suspended ; colicky pains ; kicking at the belly ; getting
up and lying down frequently, — sometimes, remaining on the knees sev-
eral minutes. The head is turned towards the flanks ; the pulse is quick,
bard and wiry ; the respirations are accelerated, short and confined to the
thorax, so as to avoid moving the abdomen as much as possible ; the
belly is tucked up, the urine is scanty and high colored, and usually
there is constipation. All the symptoms, and especially the belly pains,
increase; prostration comes on ; finally, stupor (coma) sets in. Death
soon follows.
Post mortem examination shows all the evidences of inflammation of
the womb and peritoneum, with purple spots here and there ; and the
brain is visibly affected, showing ecchymosed spots, etc.
What to do. — Give recipe No. 2G, and supplement its action with injec-
tions of soap and water. Give No. 42 every two hours, till the pulse is
improved. If in the very early stages, a little blood may be drawn, but
this is not allowable after the first day. If the stupor comes on before
the purgative can be gotten down, give the latter through the stomach
pump, to avoid the danger of letting it run down into the lungs. Apply
892
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
blisters — mustard paste or flies — to the belly. If no symptoms of pur.
gation show themselves in eight or ten hours, inject No. 40 under the
skin every half hour till the bowels have moved. If constipation is still
obstinate, a pint of tepid water may be injected into a vein.
USING THE STOMACH PUMP.
Manner ot giving medicine or food during stupor.
Convalescence will be indicated by a return to sensibility, cessation ot
pain, purgation, copious secretion of urine of a good color, and a return
of strength. When these symptoms are noticed, give No. 19, repeating
it three or four times a day.
IX. Parturient Apoplexy.
This is a blood disease affecting cows of a plethoric habit at time of
calving. It is never seen following difficult or protracted labor, uterine
hemorrhage (flooding), abortion, nor the retention of the placenta. There
must be a constitutional tendency to congestion of the brain, coma and
apoplexy. The first attack is usually fatal : even if not so, the trouble
is very likely to recur at the next or some subsequent calving.
How to know it. — There is at first a staring, wild look about the eyes,
disinclination to move, loss of milk, and increased temperature ; but these
symptoms are seldom so marked as to attract special notice. They are
followed by a staggering gait and weakness across the loins, till suddenly
the animal falls, when the ej^es are found to be bloodshot and glassy, the
pupils dilated and the lids twitching. The mucous membranes become
purple; she gets perfectly blind and comatose (stupid); the head is
usually turned back to the side ; the pulse gets gradually slower, fading
into imperceptibility ; the breathing is slow and stertorous. In this stage
the pupils contract, the temperature falls decidedly, sometimes as low a<»
95^, The udder becomes hard and unyielding; the paunch 6lls witb
DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 893.
gas, causing marked interference with the breathing ; convulsions set in,
and death soon follows.
The post-mortem shows a fat, full body, blood vessels full of fluid,
black blood, and purple spots on the brain and spinal column and in other
parts of the body. There are many other abnormal appearances in th©
brain, most of which can only be distinguished by an expert
What to do. — Prevention is the main thing. If the cow is manifestly
plethoric, give light, soft diet, with laxatives (No. 8 is excellent) once or
twice a week for three weeks before calving. When the attack comes, if
the cow is seen in the first stage, when the pulse is always full, bleed
freely, and give recipe No. 26 ; after two hours give No. 20, repeating the
latter every two or three hours as long as necessary. Give injections also
every few minutes. Apply cold water and i©e to the head, and heat in
PARTU11IE>.T APOPLEXT.
the form of hot rugs, hot smoothing irons, etc., to the body. If the
purgative does not work, give a hypodermic injection of No. 40, repeat-
ing it every two hours. If these means fail, open the jugular vein, and
inject a pint of clean, tepid water. During convalescence, treat the same
as for puerperal fever. If she recovers, do not breed her again, but sell
her to the butcher ; for, as before mentioned, it is almost certain to occur
again, and at no distant day to end in death.
If it is necessary to give any drenches during the coma, use the stomach
pump, to guard against turning them in upon the lungs.
PARTURIENT PARESIS OR MILK FEVER.
Inflate the udder with pure air using an instrument especially made
for the purpose, or in the absence of this use a bicycle pump by append-
ing a reducer so that entrance may be made into the end of the teat.
Disinfect adjacent air with carbolic acid and water. Give the cow No. 26.
X. LeucorrliCBa, or Whites.
This is catarrh of the vagina and womb, with a chronic discharge of a
muco-purulent, white fluid that hangs around the vulva and tail, and has
a very offensive odor. It is not attended with serious constitutional dis-
turbance, but sometimes causes nymphomania or "bullers." Such cows
rarely breed, and even if they do so, are apt to abort. Sometimes the
discharge is so profuse as to keep the cow poor.
894 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
What to do. — ^Syringe out the parts with tepid water, and inject lotion
No. 47, repeating this twice a day. Feed on nutritious but light diet,
and give No. 21 in the feed.
XI. GonorrhOBa.
This is catarrh of the generative parts of the bull, — little ulcers or
chancres in the sheath and on the penis, with a whitish discharge, which
IS chrouico
How to know it.— Painful urination is the most characteristic symptom ,
with all his frequent efforts, only a few drops are passed, and those not
without great uneasiness, which is further manifested by his stepping for-
ward and back or from side to side, and by raising the hind feet, lashing
the tail, etc.
What to do. — Suspend all service, and give him the laxative recipe No.
8, and when the bowels return to their normal condition give No. 21 in
the feed, repeating the latter morning and night, for three or four weeks.
Draw out the yard with soft linen cloth, and bathe all affected parts with
the following lotion :
No. 49. 4 Ounces spirits of camphor,
1 Ounce sugar of lead,
2 Drachms sulphate of zinc,
1 Quart soft water,
Mix.
Continue the application, once a day, till cured, and do not let him
serve a cow, for the reason that it is contagious. If any chancres are
seen, touch them once a day with lunar caustic. Feed on green food, if
possible.
Xn. Mammitis, or Inflammation of the Udder.
This is most common after a parturition which occurs before the secre-
tion of milk has assumed a normal condition, especially in the case of
heifers at the first calving. Sometimes, it has no connection with calv-
ing, but is contracted by Ij^ing on cold, damp ground, or in the case
of middle-aged and old cows, develops in hot weather, taking on the form
of garget or curdled milk. Cows in high condition are the most subject
to it, the attack being usually induced by driving them until overheated.
The inflammation, in some cases, will subside and go away, and the milk-
ing function go on as before with very little loss ; in others, it goes on to
suppuration in one or more quarters of the bag, or even to mortification.
How to know it. — The type of mammitis that takes on the active in-
flammatory character is ushered in with a shivering fit, which is succeeded
In a short time by fever and dullness. The bag becomes hot and hard^
red, swollen and sore. It being so painful to the touch, the cow is very
DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF GENERATION. 895
Averse to being milked. The milk is often curdled, and sometimes
bloody. The trouble may stop here and terminate in resolution, or it
may go on to suppuration, the pus in some cases discharging inside and
coming away with the milk, and in others through an opening on the out-
side. Again, it may not suppurate at all, but become indurated and re-
main permanently enlarged, or gangrenous and slough off.
The milder type of mammitis, that which is not connected with par-
turition, but is simply curdled milk or garget, yields readily to treatment.
What to do. — If dependent upon calving, and the cow is fat and fever-
ish, give recipe No. 8. Foment the bag with hot water several times a
day, and as often as three or four times a day remove the milk that does
form and apply the following lotion :
No. 50. 4 Ounces gum camphor,
1 Pint olive oil.
Mix.
Rub well in three times a day. If the inflammation does not go out by
the time purgation ceases, give No. 19, repeating it morning and night
for a week or two. If the case goes on to
suppuration, and it breaks on the outside,
foment the bag, and inject recipe No. 9, two
or three times a day. In all cases where there
is much swelling, support the bag by a ban- .^^^^^
dage passed around the body over the loins.
If a quarter sloughs off, dress the wound with
,. „ J • • i. n ii i! n • METHOD OF SUPPORTING
No. 9, and give mternally the foUowmg : the udder.
No. 51. 1 Ounce sulphate of soda,
2 Drachms nitrate of potash.
Mix.
Give as one dose in a bran mash, and repeat it morning and night for
a week or two. Isolate the patient, on account of the smell.
When it is merely a case of curdled milk (garget), give atablespoon-
ful of saltpetre night and morning in a bran mash, and milk her with
special care, to make sure of getting all the milk away.
Xin. Sore Teats.
Cows' teats are very apt to become chapped, cracked and very sore,
rendering the milking exceedingly painful to the cow and very annoying
to the milker. Unfortunately, the latter is often so thoughtless as to fly
mto a passion and abuse the cow. Great patience and kindness should
always be exercised in such cases, the milker taking plenty of time to
soften the sore teats well with the milk before attempting to squeeze them.
J3
896 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
When done milking, anoint them nicely with the following mixture :
No. 52. 1 Ounce alum,
1 Drachm carbolic acid,
4 Ounces lard,
Powder the alum and mix.
Or, instead, this may be used :
No. 53. y^ Ounce tannic acid,
1 Drachm carbolic acid,
4 Ounces lard,
Mix.
Little pea-like tumors sometimes grow in the milk passage, in the teat,
eventuating, in some cases, in its complete obstruction, and the subse-
quent loss of that quarter. Many expedients have been tried for the cure
of this troublesome condition — such as teat siphons, probes, bistouries,
needles, etc. — but all to no a\ A\ , for the teat very soon gets sore, and
milking becomes dangerous, if not well-nigh impossible. The only feasible
way of managing the case is just to let it go till the cow goeti dry, milking
that quarter as well as possible without any instrumental aid ; and then
to cut into the teat, remove the excrescences, and let the wound heal over
a silver probe. If this is properly done, the teat will be as good as ever.
XIV. Nymphoinania and Sterility.
Nymphomania is chronic inflammation of the clitoris, giving rise to a
constant desire for the male. Such cows take the bull at any time, but
rarely conceive, and even when they do so, are almost sure to abort.
They are called "buUers." It often happens that they are barren nat-
urally, twins being especially prone to that condition. Sometimes, high
bred cows will not breed to a high bred bull, yet will do so to a mongrel,
especially a young bull.
What to do. — For cows naturally barren nothing can be done. For
others the difficulty can often be overcome by reducing them in flesh
(for they are nearly always fat), and b}' judicious management. Keep
them in a short pasture for a few weeks, and give them a handful of
Glauber's salts every second day. At the proper time, put them to a
young, vigorous bull, one or two leaps being sufficient. If this does not
succeed, try a mongrel bull. If the cow is continually riding the other
cows, keep her to herself, if possible, and feed from half a pint to a pint
of hemp seed once a day for two months. In some cases hemp seed
seems to have a magic effect. Feed it both before and after the service
— beo-inning say three weeks before coining in heat, and continuing it
right along till she conceives. If the cow is thin in flesh, fatten her up
a little, even if she has to be shut up to do this.
CIT AFTER X.
MILK FEVER— ITS SIMPLE AND SUCCESSFUL TREATMENT.
I, PRELIMINARY STATEMENT. II. NAME AND SYNONYMS. III. DESCRIP-
TION OF DISEASE. IV. CAUSES. V. HOW TO KNOW IT. VI. THE
NEW AIR TREATMENT. VII. PREVENTION.
I. Preliminary Statement.
Milk fever is a very common, and until recently a frequently fatal,
disease affecting cows in all the large dairy districts of this and other
countries. As it usually attacks the best milking members of the herd
and at a time when the milk flow is the heaviest, the malady is one which
Apparatus for Treatment of Milk Fever, for the injection of sterile atmospheric
air into the udder.
has caused very severe losses to our dairy industry. It is therefore of the
greatest economic importance that every milk producer acquaint himself
with the present extremely successful methods of treating this disease, es-
pecially the injection of filtered atmospheric air into the udder. This
form of treatment has been adopted within a comparatively recent time,
and, in view of the uniform success that has followed, every dairyman
should become familiar with its use and should provide himself with a
suitable apparatus for its application, especially if he is located where the
services of a competent veterinarian can not be secured. This method of
dealing with the disease does not make the assistance of the veterinarian
897
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
MILK FEVER— FIRST STAGE.
undesirable, in case it is obtainable, as the professional man may fre-
quently be of the greatest assistance in treating complicated symptoms,
should they arise.
II. Name and Synonyms.
The common name for this malady — milk fever — is an erroneous and
misleading one, as in reality
fever is usually absent; instead,
there is generally an actual re-
duction in body temperature.
A far better and more dis-
tinctive term and one that de-
scribes the actual condition
much more precisely is partu-
rient paresis. The disease has
also several other names in
various parts of the country,
such as calving fever, parturi-
tion fever, parturient apoplexy,
parturient collapse, puerperal
fever, vitulary fever, and drop-
ping after calving.
III. Description of Disease.
Milk fever is a disease of well-nourished, plethoric, heavy-milking
cows; it occurs during the most active period of life (fourth to sixth
calf), and is characterized
by its sudden onset, and
the complete paralysis of
the animal with loss of sen-
sation, and by following
closely the act of calving,
or parturition, terminat-
ing in a short time in re-
covery or death. One at-
tack predisposes the ani-
mal to a recurrence of the
trouble. While this disease
may occur at any time
during the whole year, it
is seen principally during
the warm summer sea.son. The affection is almost entirely confined to
the cow, although a few cases have been reported in the sow and goat.
Sheep are entirely free from the disease.
MILK FEVER— SECOND STAGE.
MILK FEVER ITS SIMPLE AND SUCCESSFUL TREATMENT. 899
IV. Causes.
There are few diseases among our domesticated animals regarding the
exact cause of which more widely different theories have been advanced
than that- of milk fever. The causes may properly be divided into two
kinds — predisposing and direct. Experience shows one of the most
prominent predisposing causes to be the great activity of the milk-secret-
ing structure, namely, the udder. This organ is most active after the
fourth, fifth, and sixth parturition, and this is the time of life when the
vast majority of cases occur. The disease is almost unknown in heifers
with the first calf and decreases in frequency steadily after the most active
milking period is past. It is rarely, if ever, met with in pure beef breeds,
such as the Shorthorn, Angus, and Hereford, while its main inroads are
made into the heavy-milking breeds, such as the Holstein, Jersey, and
Guernsey.
Regarding the direct cause of milk fever numerous theories have been
advanced by various investigators, but only to be abandoned as further
discoveries in pathology were made. Thus Schmidt, of Miihlheim, basing
his theory upon the striking resemblance of the symptoms of milk fever
to those of sausage poisoning, claimed that the former was due to an
aiuto-intoxioation, produced. by the absorption of toxins from the uterus.
V. How to Know It.
This disease in its typical and most common form is comparatively
easy to diagnose and one which almost every dairyman knows immedi-
ately before the arrival of the veterinarian. It usually comes on within
two days after the birth of the calf and is practically never seen after
the second week. In isolated instances it has been observed a few days
before calving. At the commencement of the attack there is usually
excitement; the cow is restless, treads with the hind feet, switches the
tail, stares anxiously around the stall or walks about uneasily. She may
bellow occasionally, show slight colicky symptoms, and make ineffectual
attempts at relieving the bowels. These symptoms are rarely recog-
nized by the owner, but they are followed within a few hours by begin-
ning paralysis, indicated by a staggering gait, especially in the hind legs,
and by weakening of the knees and fetlocks in front. The patient now
becomes quieter, the gait more staggering and weak, and finally the
animal goes down and is unable to rise. The paralysis by this time is
general, the calf is unnoticed, and the cow lies perfectly quiet with the
eyes partly closed and staring and showing a complete absence of winking
when the eyeball is touched. She is absolutely unheedful of her sur-
roundings and flies may alight with impunity on all parts of the body
without causing the slightest movement to dislodge them. While down
the patient assumes a very characteristic position, which is of great
900 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
aid in diagnosis. The head is turned around to the side (usually
the left) and rests on the chest, causing a peculiar arching of the neck.
If the head is drawn out straight, it immediately flops around to the
side again when the force is removed. The body usually rests slightly
to one side, with the hind legs extended forward and outward and the
fore legs doubled up in their normal position. There is paralysis of the
muscles of the throat, so that swallowing is impossible, and in case
drenching is attempted there is great danger of the fluids going into the
lungs and setting up traumatic pneumonia. In fatal cases the animal
may remain perfectly quiet and die in a comatose condition from com-
plete paralysis of the nervous system, but more frequently there is some
IINAL STAGE COMATOSE CONDITION
agitation and excitement prior to death with tossing about of the head.
Death, like recovery, usually occurs in from 3ighteeu to seventy-two hours
after the onset of the malady.
VI. What to Do.
To Andersen, of Skanderborg, belongs the credit for first having made
use of plain atmospheric air, although Schmidt had previously recom-
mended the admittance of air with the potassium iodide solution for
the purpose of obtaining greater diffusion of the liquid. Andersen first
injected air along with sterile water and then by itself. The results were
astonishingly successful. Thus Schmidt reports that our of 914 cases
treated in Denmark, 884, or 96.7 per cent, were restored to health. The
record of 140 of these animals shows that recovery occurred in the aver-
MILK FEVER ITS SIMPLE AND SUCCESSFUL TREATMENT. 901
age time of 6 2-3 hours. Of this number 25 cases required a second
injection, while in 3 of the latter number it was necessary to give a third
treatment before they were able to get upon their feet. The treatment
is also practically harmless, as the statistics of the above-mentioned 914
patients show that only 1 cow was affected with a severe attack of caked
bag after this treatment, while in 4 other cows a milder inflammation of
the udder was apparent.
Previous to making the air injection, the hands of the operator should
be thoroughly cleansed and the udder should receive the same careful
antiseptic treatment as has been recommended in discussing the injec-
tion of potassium iodide. Soap and water should be applied to the teats
and udder, after which they should be carefully disinfected with a 5
per cent solution of carbolic acid (3 tablespoonfuls of pure carbolic -acid
to 1 quart of water). A clean towel should then be placed under the
udder to prevent the teats from coming in contact with dirt or filth of
any kind. The milking tube, before it is placed in the teat, should have
been perfectly sterilized by boiling for fifteen minutes, with the lower
hose and cap of the cylinder attached, and the apparatus should be
wrapped in a clean towel, without touching the milking tube, to prevent
contamination before use. If the apparatus has been subjected to this
treatment shortly before, and it is desired to disinfect only the milking
tube, the latter may be placed in a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid
for five minutes. It is then carefully inserted into the milk duct of the
teat without emptying the udder of milk. Air is now pumped into the ud-
der. Slight massage or kneading of the udder will cause the innermost re-
cesses of the milk tubules to become distended with the injected air. After
one-quarter of the udder is well distended the milking tube is removed,
care being taken to prevent the outflow of air by having an assistant tie a
broad piece of tape about the teat at the time the milking tube is with-
drawn. The same treatment is repeated with the other three teats until the
udder is' satisfactorily distended. In case the air becomes absorbed and no
improvement is noted within five hours, a repetition of this treatment
should be made under the same antiseptic precautions as at first. The tape
should be removed from the teats two or three hours after the cow gets on
her feet, the constricting muscles at the tip of the teats being now depended
on for retaining the air. In this manner the air may be left in the udder
for twenty-four hours, and when recovery is assured, it should be grad-
ually milked out. It is needless to say that the calf should not be per-
mitted to suck during this period.
Inflammation of the udder (caked bag) is avoided if the milking tube
is thoroughly disinfected before each application, and if the cow's teats
and bag and the hands of the operator have been properly cleansed.
While this method of treating milk fever is a comparatively easy one
for a farmer or dairyman to adopt, he can not expect to have the same
902 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
successful results as those obtained by a skilled veterinarian, and it is
therefore advisable Ihat the services of such a veterinarian should always
be obtained in those districts where it is possible. In many cases it will
be found that the injection of air into the udder will be sufficient to
combat the disease without any other treatment, but it is always advisable
to study the symptoms of each individual case and administer in a
rational manner the indicated medicines.
VII. Prevention.
The most recent preventive treatment suggested is in line with the
favorable results obtained by the injection of air into the udder. It con-
sists in allowing the susceptible cow to retain in the udder for 24 hours
after calving all the milk except the small quantity required by the calf,
which should be taken if possible from each quarter. The distention
of the udder naturally follows as in the air treatment and acts as a
preventive against milk fever. In the Island of Jersey and at the Bilt-
more Farms, N. C, where this practice is common, the number of milk
fever cases has been greatly lessened. General sanitary conditions should
also be looked "after, such as the supply of pure air and clean stabling,
with plenty of clear cool water and laxative foods, such as grasses and
roots. Some observers who believe in the microbic origin of the disease
have recommended the cleaning of the manure and dirt from the animal
and spraying the hind quarters and genitals with a 4 to 5 per cent solu-
tion of carbolic acid, lysol, or creolin, just prior to calving. From our
present knowledge of the disease, however, this is probably unnecessary.
CHAPTER XI.
DISEASES OP THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.
I. PHRENITIS, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIX. II. APOPLEXY. III. EPILEPc
SY. IV. PARALYSIS. V. TETANUS. VI. RABIES OR HYDROPHOBIA.
VII. NERVOUS DEBILITY AT PARTURITION.
I. Phrenitis, or Inflammation of the Brain.
This distressing disease, which is most common during the summer
months, may be either idiopathic (i)rimary disease) or symptomatic. It
may result from fever, or from inflammation in some other part, its im-
mediate cause being too great a flow of blood which presses on the tem-
poral arteries, and causes increased action in all the circulatory vessels.
How to know it. — There will be strong pulsation in the temporal arter-
ies, constant watchfulness, and finally raving. The eyes are inflamed ;
the animal will fall suddenly, soon rising again, however; there will be
trembling and starting of the tendons ; the skin will be harsh and the
urine suppressed. In a more unfavorable stage, there will also be grind-
ing of the teeth, and total want of rest. Really idiopathic phrenitis is
rare. It is generally caused by acute indigestion, impaction of the
omentum, and other local troubles.
What to do. — The treatment consists of a good cathartic, as, for in-
stance. No. 8, the effect of which should be assisted by injections of warm
water and soap.
Bleed from the jugular vein ; keep the head cool by means of ice or
very cold water ; and if the limbs are cold, use mustard or strong embro-
cations of ammonia. Aconite is also considered beneficial, but it should
never be used except under the direction of a veterinarian. During re-
covery, the animal should be kept quiet, and have good nourishing and
easily digested food.
II. Apoplexy.
In true apoplexy, the animal drops suddenly, and death ensues very
soon, unless immediate relief is given. The means to be used are bleed-
ing from the jugular vein, and the administration of a purgative, such as
No. 8, with injections of soap and water. Give a change of food.
m. Epilepsjr
Epilepsy is rare, except in the case of y<mng animals. There will be
severe convulsions, followed by stupor, with foaming at the mouth. The
903
904 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
heart beats are strong and violent. The visible membranes are height-
ened in color, and either dangerous letharg}'' supervenes, or the animal
quickly recovers. Recovery is seldom so perfect, however, that the ani-
mal will not be subject to other attacks.
What to do. — Dash cold water over the head and face, and when the
attack subsides, give good food and special care, with such remedial meas-
ures as may be indicated by the general state of the system, as, for ex-
ample, indigestion or constipation.
IV. Paralysis.
In those rare cases where jjaralysis exists as a distinct affection, death
usually occurs very soon. Its most common forms are those known as
paraplegia ixwA hemiplegia. The former is when the Avhole fore or hind
parts are affected ; the latter, when one side of the body only is so.
Paralysis is a loss of voluntary movement, and usually occurs as a symp-v
tom of other diseases, as softening of the brain, effusions of fluid
thereon, etc.
What to do. — Give recipe No. 8, supplementing it with the following:
No. 54. 2 Drachms nux vomica,
>^ Ounce saltpetre,
Mix,
Give as one dose ; repeat morning and night for a month.
V. Tetanus or Lockjaw.
Tetanus is a general and continued spasm (or, more strictly, contrac-
tion) of the muscles of the body, both voluntary and involuntary. When
the muscles of the jaw are principally affected it is called trismus, or
in popular language, lockjaw, the term tetanus being more properly lim-
ited to tlie general form.
Causes. — This is now known to be an infectious disease due to the intro-
duction through a wound of a microbe called the bacillus tetani. This
germ works best in a small M'ound, in which the air is excluded by closure
of the wound by swelling, or crusting over with a scab. Under these con-
ditions the germs grow, increase in numbers, and produce chemical poisons
called pto7nai7ies that are absorbed into the blood and poison the nervous
system, producing cramps of the muscular tissues of the body. The
germs exist naturally in the soil, especially in rich garden soil, consequently,
tetanus occurs most often through wounds in the feet, especially nail pricks.
The wounds may be so small as to preclude detection on account of the
hair covering the body and legs, or they may be in the alimentary tract
from punctures by sharp particles in the food, but for tetanus to develop
there must be a wound and the bacilli must gain entrance through it. It
DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 905
may follow castration. The case may be mild or severe; the mild one will
recover by the system outliving the poison, and the severe one will prcve
fatal by the muscular cramps interfering with circulation of the blood and
respiration
How to know it. ^The disease is insidious in its operations, until the
danc^erous stage comes on. The animal may be dull, off its feed, and
generally disinclined to move. Then the whole body may l^ecome affected,
with the hind legs wide apart, the nose protruding, head and tail elevated,
breathing quickened, and the pulse frequent and corded. The bowels are
strongly bound. Sometimes the back is depressed downward, and some-
times^rched up; and sometimes the spasm , throws the head to one side.
There are different technical names for the several manifestations.
What to do.— Little can be done, except to remove all irritating objects,
give calming medicines, and operate on the bowels as soon as possible.
The nervous excitement will be lessened by keeping the patient in a dark
place. Search for the wound, clip off the hair, enlarge the wound by slit-
ting it up with a knife, then wash it with warm water and soap, and bathe
and inject it with recipe No. 9; bind on a pack of oakum wet with this
lotion. Dress it two or three times a day. Give plenty of linseed gruel
to drink.
VI. Rabies or Hydrophobia.
It seems needless to repeat the general statements respecting this disease
given in Part II of this work, pages 452 and 453. It is, of course, incur-
able, and from its exceedingly dangerous nature, the suspected animal
should be immediately confined, and killed as soon as ever the symptoms
become pronounced.
VII. Nervous Debility at Parturition.
This disease must not be mistaken for parturient apoplexy or peritonitis.
It is readily distinguished from these by the total absence of any tendency
to either high fever or lethargy. It is not confined to animals in high
condition, but is found quite as often among those that are lean.
How to know it.— The pulse may be somewhat fast, but will be com-
pressi])le and often weak. The udder remains soft, and the milk is plenti-
ful and easily drawn; and though there may be constipation, the appetite
will be good.
What to do.— Keep the animal warm and in good quarters, with plenty
of bedding. Evacuate the bowels by warm injections, at the same time
giving a mild purgative No. 8. Give stimulants, sloppy but nutritious
food,\ay tea, etc., and remove the milk frequently from the udder.
CHAPTER XII.
DISEASES OP THE SKIN.
I. SIMPLE ECZEMA.
-II. CHRONIC ECZEMA, OR PSORIASIS. III. ERYSIPELAS.
I. Simple Eczema.
This is ji skill disease in which crops of vesicles come up, burst, run
a little watery matter, dry up and heal, but while these are healing an-
other crop breaks out in another place. It is attended with intense itch-
ing, which worries the animal exceedingly.
What to do. — Give a purgative, No. 8, repeating it after a week ; also,
a change of food and good care. Let the cattle have salt at least twice
a. week. Bathe the affected parts frequently with lotion No. 47.
n. Chronic Eczema, or Psoriasis.
When simple eczema is neglected the disease becomes chronic. The
skin thickens, gets hard, dry and sore, and cracks into fissures or fur-
rows ; the discharge continues and be-
comes greasy, offensive and ichorous ;
and the hair gets thin and stands
straight out, or perhaps turns the
wrong way, giving the parts the ap-.
pearance of rat tails, by which name
the disease is often known. It is very
troublesome, frequently causing lame-
ness, and always proving hard to cure.
What to do. — Apply hot linseed
meal poultices to the affected parts till
all inflammation and soreness are
gone ; then embrocate freely with lo-
tion No. 9, using a cotton bandage
wet in the lotion and applying it loosely. If there are any points of
proud flesh, burn them down daily with lunar caustic. When all sore-
ness is gone and the disease appears to be under entire control, apply
either of the ointments Nos. 52 and 58.
CHRONIC ECZEMA, OR 'UlAT TAILS,"
III. Erysipelas
This is a diffuse inflammation of the whole th
sometimes extending to the subcellular tissue, ai
(kness of the true skin,
il causmg much pam and
irritative fever.
906
DISEASES OF THE SKIN.
907
How to know it. — It is indicated by an intensely red skin, there being,
moreover, no disappearance of color under pressure. The parts are hard
and internally red, but not severely swelled, but the cellular tissue is in-
jected and infiltrated, often inclining to a pustular state. The disease
terminates in resolution, suppuration or ulceration — sometimes even in
mortification and gangrene. If the head is attacked, there is danger
of a fatal termination.
THE POLISH cow.
This race is bred for the meat alone, being unfit for draft purposes aud yielding but
little milk. It was originally imported from southern Russia, and is regarded with
distrust in Germany from the fact that it brought the disease known ns '^Rinderpest"
into that country. But its meat is so desirable that it is much sought after, and the
prejudice is dying out.
What to do. — If there is sjmiptomatic fever and the animal is fat, deple-
tion is necessary, — give No. 8 ; but if the animal's condition is the reverse
of this, give No. 13. Follow this with nitre, in half ounce doses, twice
a day. In connection with the above constitutional treatment, there
should be local applications to the inflamed part, such as lotions of lead
or zinc. A strong solution of nitrate of silver is sometimes applied, and
with decided benefit, to the outer edge of the inflamed parts. A poul-
tice of ripe cranberries is probably one of the best remedies for reduc-
ing the inflammation, if ai)plied early. It is to be followed with glycer.
ine in which a small quantity of ammonia has been dissolved, or with
recij>e No. 1.
CHAPTER XIII.
PARASITIC DISEASES OF CATTLE.
I. HOOSE OR HUSK (VERMINOUS BRONCHITIS). II. THE GADFLY AND GRUB
(OESTRUS BOVIS). III. LICE. IV. TAPEWORM. V. MANGE. VI.
RINGWORM. VII. HOOK-WORM DISEASE OF CATTLE.
I. Hoose or Husk (Verminous Bronchitis.)
The symptoms of this disease are similar to those of bronchitis. The
difficulty is caused by a species of strongulus — worms — (filaria bron-
chitis) the eggs of which are swallowed in grazing. Calves, and especially
sheep, are the most likely to be affected, for the reason that they bite
closer than cattle.
How to know it. — There will be a slight, husky cough, recurring at
irregular intervals. The coat will soon become staring, and the breath-
ing more and more embarrassed. The cough becomes more frequent,
and in character more suffocating and mucous; worms, either singly or
rolled together, will also be coughed up.
What to do. — Feed liberally with the soundest and most nutritious diet
possible, including linseed or cotton cake, and roots, mixing in the food
some good tonic, such as recipe ISJo. 4. For calves, make four doses of
the recipe. Burn turpentine on pine shavings in the pen with the calves,
and let them breath the fumes, and give them a tablespoonful of sulphur
in the food once a day for two weeks.
Prevention. — This is better than cure. The forms from which //ana
bronchitis emanate are found In low, wet, undrained pastures. Hence,
keep the stock off such pastures when the trouble is found, especially
when wet with dew or rain. Do not allow animals to drink from stag-
nant ponds or pools, and look to the proper drainage of the pastures,
II. The Gadfly and Grub (CEiStrus Bovis).
Little rounded tumors will often be found along the backs of cattle,
during late winter and spring.
These are called warbles, and
are the lairs of the larvae of the
ox gadfly (^cestrus bovis). Each
tumor contains a grub, which may
ox GADFLY (cES- ^^ squcczcd out by pressure,some- ^^^^ ^^ gadfly.
TRus BOVIS.) times escaping with such force as
to fly several feet. Sometimes it is necessary to enlarge the orifice with
908
PARASITIC DISEASES OF CATTLE.
909
the lancet, for the more easy ex|iulsion of the grubs. The cuts show the
two forms of the insect, — the perfect fly and the grub.
III. Lice.
Vrrious species of lice infest the ox, the principal being the ox louse
proper, the calf louse, (both of which are species of Jloematopinus, or
blood suckers), and a certain kind of bird louse, one of the tribe of
CALF LOUSE.
BIRD LOUSE.
APPEARANCE OP A COW AFFECTED
WITH LICE.
Trichodecies, having no sucking tul)e, but with strong biting jaws. The
cixts show all these parasites, of course very much enlarged.
There are also ticks infesting
cattle at certain seasons, and espec-
ially plentiful on Texas cattle. Of
the several varieties founci, the one
known as the Texas tick {Boophihis
Bovis) is the most important, it
being the cause, at least of the
transmission, of Texas fever. The
-emale attaches herself to the animal where the skin is thin and soft — on
the insides of the thighs, along up to the anus, just back of the elbows and
.>n the neck back of the ears — by burying her head into the skin, is fecunda-
ted by the male, which dies immediately after, and remains there till mature
if not pulled or rubbed off, then she drops off
and hides under a crust, where she lays her eggs
and dies. The young ticks hatch out in a few
days, and, being very active, get on to the cattle
as opportunity offers, and so the round is con-
tinued. These ticks contain the germs of Texas
fever, and they spread the disease through their
bites. The accompanying cut shows the Texas
tlOlF o TRXAf TICK.
9i0
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR,
What to do. — The remedy for Hcks consists in careful currying and
picking them off. This can be dene if the herd is small, but to avoid over-
looking the small ones, which are just as injurious as the large ones, sponge
them thoroughly once a week with No. 55, or i)arafiin oil, till all ticks are
killed. All ticks that are pulled or curried off should be burned. For
lice on cattle, the following will be found among the best remedies in use:
No. 55.
Yi Pound of tobacco,
1 Gallon of "water,
Steep for cwo hours.
HEAD OF TAPE-
WORM GOT BY
EATING BEEF.
Wash the affected animal with this infusion thoroughly, using it warm.
rV. Tapeworm.
It is not necessary here to ge hito a dissertation on the tapeworm.
The microscopic eggs (a single worm is estinrated to lay as high as 25,-
000,000) are passed with the exuviae of dogs, and are taken up by graz-
ing stock.
One of the forms in which it exists in cattle is the cystic, found in
the muscles. The parasite which is the mature tape-
worm is found in the bowels of the human family, and
in animals, especially dogs. The cut shows the head of
a tapeworm of the species known as taenia mediocan-
ellata.
Prevention. — .Prevention of the parasites in the imma-
ture form in stock consists in destroying all exuvice of
dogs in pastures, wherever found. Once encysted in
animals, there is no remedy. For prevention of tape*
worm in the human family, eat no meat, not even
smoked meat, without thorough cooking.
V. Mange.
There are a number of j^aiasitic insects which attach themselves to ill-
conditioned cattle, producing itching. The latter is intensely aggravated
in hot weather. A species of dermatoco'ptes^ similar to the itch or scab
insect, is the most prolific cause of this class
of affections. There is also a microscopic
insect, the gamasus of mustyhay, which
sometimes infests the skin of animals feed-
ing thp^'oon. The cut shows the last named
insect 'ligl/Jj' magnified. Treat about the
same as for mange in the horse. (See page
530).
VI. Ringworm.
Tbif IS somewhat common in cattle, show-
GAMASUS OF MUSTY FODDER. jj;,g ^g ^ greater or less number of round bald
spots, coveied with white scales, and surrounded with bristly or split hairs
^hica dre scabbed around the root8» with some eruption o» ^h& t^biiL
PARASITIC DISEASES OF CATTLE. 911
spots covered with white scales, and surrounded with bristly or split hairg
which are scabbed around the roots, with some eruption on the skin.
The microscope shows it to be a vegetable parasite. It is readily trans-
mitted from one animal to another.
What to do. — Clip off the hair, and wash the part with soap and water,
to remove all scabs ; when dry, rub in well a little of the following :
No. 56. 2 Ounces tincture of iodine,
1 Ounce oil of tar,
2 Ounces glycerine.
Mix.
Repeat the application once a day until cured. Or, instead, the follow-
ing may be used in the same way :
No. 57. 1 Ounce solution iodo-bromide of calcium compound,
3 Ounces water,
Mix.
Rub well in once a day.
VII. Hook- Worm Disease of Cattle.
This disease, also referred to as bovine uncinariasis and salt sickness,
has been reported from Texas, Florida, and South Carolina, and is prob-
ably widely distributed throughout the Southern States. C. F. Dawson,
of the Florida Station, reports it as the most common disease of cattle.
Investigations by A, F. Conradi and E. Barnett, at the South Carolina
Station, have shown cattle to be seriously infested with the hook worm,
which is frequently associated with other intestinal parasites, including
the twisted wireworm or stomach worm, the inflated bowel worm, and the
hair worm. The disease as described by Doctor Dawson is "an acute or
chronic parasitic disease manifested at first by low fever, diarrhea, loss of
appetite, soon becoming chronic, with continuance of low fever, constipa-
tion, loss of appetite, progressive emaciation, and pronounced anemia,
which, in many cases, terminates fatally."
Young animals are more susceptible than older ones, but all ages may
be affected. The nematode or round worm, formerly described as Un-
cinaria radiata, is the exciting cause of the disease. These worms, found
principally in the duodenum or first division of the small intestine, are
provided with an armature of sharp teeth, by means of which they pierce
the lining of the intestines and suck blood, moving from place to place.
Other species of hook worm which affect sheep, dogs, cats, foxes, man, and
other animals should not be confounded vnih the species that affects cattle.
How to know. — The adult worm is from one-half to five-eighths inch in
length and of the thickness of an ordinary pin. The eggs are deposited
in the intestinal tract and are discharged in the feces, through an examina-
tion of which the extent of infestation can be determined. Conradi and
Barnett have observed a gorged female whose oviduct contained more than
1,500 eggs, 17 of which were deposited in one hour. At a temperature
912 CYCLOPiCDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
ranging from 48 degrees to 60 degrees F. forty-one days are required
for the eggs to hatch. The hfe history and habits of the worm have been
studied by Conradi and Barnett.
Upon hatching, the young hook worms are very minute, but can easily
be seen with the aid of a hand lens when crawling on the glass walls of
the breeding' jars. They have a tendency to congregate, and these clusters
can be easily recognized with the unaided eye. In this stage, as well as
in the egg stage, they are very susceptible to heat or cold, being easily
killed. Drought is also fatal, the worms dying in a few minutes. They
feed on the fecal matter about them. In the second stage they are but
slightly hardier. After several days the body wall becomes thicker and
more rigid, and soon they pass to the final larval stage.
The larvae that were hatched from eggs, gathered from fresh feces on
February 26, and hatched February 28, had mostly passed to the final
larval stage on March 15. ' In this stage they are protected by a resistant
covering called ''sheath." Worms kept in the laboratory during January
and February, the temperature varying from 48 to 60 degrees F., passed
to the final larval stage in forty-one days. While active they were able
to continue feeding through the aperture in the front end of the sheath.
They move up and down on any near-by moist object, whether it is earth,
grass, leaves, or weeds. They finally become quiescent in some elevated
position, discontinue feeding, and are then greatly resistant to heat, cold,
and drought. This habit of rising appears to be advantageous, as we be-
'lieve, the principal method of host infestation is through the mouth.
That part of life history from egg to larval stage is very probably com-
pleted in a few days during the warm weather of summer.
The eggs and young worms require moisture. It seems quite probable
that little development takes place in feces dropped on a hill during the
drought of summer. There is said to be little danger from infestation in
running water.
At present the outlook for a cure for this disease is not very encouraging.
Thymol has given good results in the treatment of the disease in man, and
has been recommended by some authorities for the disease in cattle and
sheep, but we believe it is far from being a specific. Certainly, in the
case above referred to, with a dose of 150 grains, it could not be noticed
that the worms had been in the legist affected three days later. How-
ever, further experiments with this drug will be made as opportunity pre-
sents itself. Even if drugs such as thymol were effective in expelling the
worms, the animal, if still pasturing on infested land, would continue to
reinfcst itself, so that the problem resolves itself into a question of pre-
vention rather than treatment, the outlook for which is more encouraging.
What to do. — When it is remembered that the disease occurs chiefly, or
altogether, on low, wet lands, and that in dry seasons it is less severe, it
would appear that much could be done by avoiding such places as pastures
PARASITIC DISEASE OF CATTLE. 913
for at least one year. The land should be thoroughly drained, and it
would be well to liberally apply air-slaked lime to accelerate drying. If
in hook-worm infested lots the droppings are gathered every day, it will
decrease the infestation.
Plowing, undoubtedly, also reduces the dangei-s of infestation, as heavily
infested material buried 3 inches in loose, pulvenilent, moist soil in the
laboratory showed that a little over one-third as many larvae ascended on
the glass wall of the breeding jar as in the jar used as a check where an
equal amount of material from the same droppings was left on the surface
of the moist soil.
It is recommended that on hook-worm infested farms annual crop rota-
tion be practiced as far as possible. The manure should be removed from
stables occupied by infested animals daily and air-slaked lime used liber-
ally to dry up the floors. The greatest precaution should be exercised to
prevent the spread of this parasite into localities where it does not yet
occur, either by shipments of infested cattle or otherwise.
Where it is desirable to eradicate this pest from a lot previous to putting
in animals that are not infested, it may be accomplished by burning.
Dipping Cattle and Hogs.
Cattle are dipped for miange (scab) which is prevalent on the large
cattle ranges of this country. It is highly contagious, being due to a
microscopical animal mite that burrows in the skin, causing the animal to
rub furiously on any post, tree or other object that he can get to. The
hair falls out, the skin becomes thickened, scabby and wrinkled over large
surfaces in bad cases. They become quite thin in flesh, thus entailing
great loss. On the farm the cattle can be treated successfully by the
means prescribed for mange in the horse, but on the range dipping has to
be resorted to. A tank four feet wide, six feet deep and twelve feet long
is built, M-ater tight. The last six feet of the tank towards the outlet k
sloped upwards with cross cleats on the floor for the cattle to walk out on.
A chute is built leading up to the tank, and then on a level for about
twelve feet leading on to a trap that falls with the animal's weight and
plunges him into the dip. A man stands on each side of the tank to help
him through it and safely on to the incline leading out of it. They
should go through the dipping process slowly so as to be in the dip two
or three minutes. In this manner a large number can be dipped in a
day. The dip mey be composed of various substances, but the dip that
is most commonly used is a one per cent solution of any of the coal tax
emulsions. The liquid in the tank should be of sufficient quantity to com-
pletely cover the animal when he plunges into it. " The dipping should bo
repeated after a week.
Hogs are usually dipped for lice. A tank and chute similar to the one
above described, but, of course, very much smaller, is used for large herds,
but for small herds a good method is to spray them with a force pump
with a rose nozzle on the hose. A one per cent solution of a coal tar
emulsion is the best for lice. The application should be repeated after a
week. The sty and other enclosures where the hogs congregate should be
cleaned and sprayed with the same solution.
CHAPTER XIV.
SCABIES OF CATTLE, OR MANGE.
», ITS CAUSE. II. FORM AND LIFE HISTORY OF THE SCAB PARASITE.
III. TRANSMISSION OF MANGE. IV. DISINFECTION. V. TREATMENT.
VI. GENERAL DIRECTIONS.
I. Its Cause.
This disease has prevailed to a considerable extent among the range
oattle of the West and Northwest, and has been heard of in other portions
of the country. We quote from government report :
Scabies, or mange, of the ox is a contagious disease caused by a para-
sitic mite. Cattle are chiefly affected with but two varieties of these
parasites, or mites, which belong to the class Arachnoidea. These are,
first, the Psoroptes; second, the Symbiotes. The fii-st is the one which
most frequently affects them. It lives on the surface of the skin and by
its biting gives rise to great irritatioi: and itching. It is most frequent
upon the sides of the neck and shoulders, at the base of the horns, and
at the root of the tail. From these points it spreads to the back and sides,
and may invade nearly the entire body. Its principal manifestations are
more or less numerous pimples, exudation, and abundant scaling off of
the skin, falling out of the hair, and the formation of dry, gray-brown-
ish scabs. In the course of time the skin becomes thickened, stiff,
wrinkled, and acquires the consistence of leather. When mange has
spread over a large surface of the body, the animals lose flesh and become
weak and anemic, rendering them constitutionally less able to with-
stand or combat the effects of the mites. At the same time the decreased
vigor and lessened vitality of the affected animals favor more rapid mul-
tiplication of the mites and the further extension and intensification of
the disease. Thus w^e have cause and effect working together, with the
result that scabies, or mange, of cattle may in some cases prove fatal;
especially are fatal terminations likely to occur in the latter part of a
severe winter among immature and growing animals, or those of adult
and full age when in an unthrifty condition at the time of becoming
infected. Variations in the progress of the disease have been noticed de-
pending upon the season of the year, ag.gravation in winter alternating
wath improvement in summer.
The mite which causes cattle itch, or mange, is closely related to the
mite which causes sheep scab; both belong to the same genus and species,
but are different varieties. The sheep-scab mite will not attack cattle, nor
914
SCABIES OF CATTLE, OR MANGE. 915
are
will the cattle mite attack sheep or other animals. The itch mites
found to be very numerous upon affected cattle, and a very small quantity
of debris from an actively infested area of the skin will often reveal a
surprisingly large number of the parasites. These mites may be removed
from an animal and retain their vitality for a long time. Specimens have
been collected and kept in small glass bottles in the laboratory at the
ordinary temperature of the room during the winter months, varying
from 45° F. during the night to 80° F. during the day, which would live
and remain active from eight to eleven days. Exposure to bright sun-
light, however, would kill most of the mites in a few hours.
Sckbies does not appear to affect cattle while they are doing well on
grass, nor to attack those in good condition over three years old. The
animals which suffer most are calves, yeariings, and two-year-olds, and
those in poor condition. The first symptom of the disease is usually
an intense itching of the skin about the neck or shoulders, which ex-
tends more or less rapidly, depending largely upon the health and vigor
of the animal, along the back and sides and down the outside of the legs,
but does not usually affect the inside of the legs nor the skin of the
abdomen.
The other variety of this parasite which produces mange in cattle is
the Symbiotes. This is known as Symbiotic mange, or tail mange. It
remains generally localized upon the depressions on the back part of the
croup and at the base of the tail. It may, however, extend over the
whole surface of the body if the treatment of the disease and care of the
affected animal are neglected. These cases, however, are rare. Foot mange
is also exceptional in cattle. Tail mange has almost no spreading ten-
dency, and its contagiousness is hardly noticeable. It yields readily to
treatment, and any remedy that will destroy the activity of the parasite
producing the Psoroptic, or common form of mange, will readily kill
that causing the Symbiotic, or tail mange. It is possible for the different
morbid conditions produced by these two varieties of parasites to exist
in the same animal at the same time.
II. Form and Life History of the Scab Parasite.
The Psoroptes, the first variety referred to, live upon the surface of
the skin, adhere to it, and suck the blood and lymph of the skin by means
of their mouth organs, producing a more or less intense inflammation
through the numerous stings which they inflict. This species is character-
ized by its relatively greater size. Its general form is rounded or egg-
shaped. It can be seen with the naked eye upon dark surfaces, and is
very easily seen with the help of a magnifying glass. The head is elon-
gated and pointed. The jaws are long, straight, and stinging. The legs
are very long. The sucking cups, which are tulip or trumpet-shaped, are
916 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
carried on the legs. In the male they are seen on the four pairs of legs ;
in the female, upon the first, second, ,and fourth pairs only. In their
immature form the Psoroptes or common mange mites have three pairs of
legs, while in the adult state they possess four. The latter with five joints
are fitted with suction cups covered with fine hair and armed with claws or
hooks. The head, thorax, and abdomen are not separated. The mouth
parts are represented by mandibles or jaws. The skin surface is covered
with scales, hair, spikes, or silky hair, etc.
Females, which are larger than males, lay from 20 to 24 eggs; at the
end of 4 to 7 days the larvse come out and, after having undergone 3 or
4 changes, arrive at the stage of reproduction from the fourteenth to the
seventeenth day. If exposed to damp air, or placed upon wet manure, the
mange mites continue to live from 6 to 8 weeks. Upon damp ground the
eggs remain alive from 2 to 4 weeks. In a dry place they lose their
vitality after 4 to 6 days. Moderate heat is favorable to their vitality and
to the hatching of the mites.
In warm places under cover, and during the summer, their move-
ments are more active and they multiply more rapidly than under the
opposite condition. It has been estimated that one female alone may
produce 1,500,000 individuals in 90 days.
Each animal species has its specific mange parasites, or mites; conse-
quently the expression "mange" must necessarily be incomplete unless
the variety of the parasite is indicated. Thus, of the Psoroptic variety,
we have the ox mange mites, the horse mange mites, and the sheep mange
mites.
In each of these animals we also have the Symbiotic, or tail mange,
and in each the variety would be designated as in the case of the Pso-
roptic or common form; but in neither variety is the contagion trans-
mitted from one species of animal to the other. The tail-mange mites
live especially upon the surface of the skin of the extremities, and exist in
scabs in the outer layer of the skin. Their outlines are visible to the
naked eye. The head is short and wider than it is long. The body is
slightly egg-shaped and notched upon the outer edge. The legs are long
and the sucking cups are shaped like a Roman shield, and are distributed
in both the male and female, as in the case of the same organs on the legs
of the common mange mites.
Sarcoptic mange is a more serious disease than either of those already
described, but is not common to cattle. It would not, therefore, seem im-
portant to refer to this form of mange parasite and occupy space in this
bulletin except by a reference to the serious disease which is produced by
this variety of mite through certain characteristics natural to it. We find
Sarcoptic mange in the following dornesticated animals: Horse, sheep,
goat, dog, cat and pig.
SCABIES OF CATTLE, OR MANGE. 917
This variety dig galleries under the outer layer of the skin and live on
the cells of the middle layer of the skin. They multiply in these galleries
and occasion a very intense inflammation of the skin. Because of the
depth to which the Sar copies burrow Sarcoptic mange is exceedingly hard
to eradicate. It would, therefore, seem fortunate that this form of the dis-
ease is not common to cattle. It is rebellious to all medication, and very
frequently recurrences of the disease are seen after treatment which has
been prolonged for months.
III. Transmissibility of Mange.
Concerning the transmissibility of the different manges to animals and
man, we find that all Sar copies may live for a considerable period upon
man's skin, but the common mange mites, the first variety described, and
the tail-mange mites, the second variety described, die very rapidly and
occasion but slight irritations. The horse may contract Sarcoptic mange
of the sheep, pig, dog, and cat. The ox takes the Sar copies of the horse,
sheep, goat, and cat. The sheep contracts Sarcoptic mange of the goat.
The dog takes the Sarcopies of man, pig, cat, sheep, and goat. The pig
contracts Sarcoptic mange of the goat. From this it will be seer; the Sar-
coptic mange, unlike the common and tail manges, is transmissible from
one species of animal to another.
IV. Disinfection.
"What has already been said with regard to the contagious character of
scabies in cattle — of the number of scab mites which may be found in a
small quantity of the debris of the skin and their ability to live and remain
active for a considerable length of time under unfavorable conditions —
will indicate the importance of the thorough disinfection of corrals, sheds,
or other buildings in which affected cattle may have been kept. It is
therefore necessary, in order to attain success in the treatment of this dis-
ease, to destroy parasites which have fallen off or have been dislodged from
the animals, as well as those that are upon them ; otherwise there is danger
of their becoming reinfected from the premises after the effects of the rem-
edy applied to the animals have disappeared.
V. Treatment.
Methods in operation for the treatment of scabies in sheep have become
more or less familiar to all people interested in sheep husbandry, and it
may be said that the same treatment so successfully applied in ridding
sheep of scabies has been found equally efficacious in the treatment of
scabies of cattle.
During the past few years many thousands of cattle have been success-
fully treated for mange in different States of the Middle West and Middle
918 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Northwest under the observation and supervision of inspectors of this
Bureau ; Dr. A. D. Melvin, Assistant Chief of the Bureau, and Dr. Robert
H. Treacy, Inspecter, having submitted plans and specifications, which
will be found further on.
The dip previously used contained an excess of lime, and frequently
proved quite irritating to the eyes and tender parts of the skin ; hence the
lime-and-sulphur dip now adopted and recommended for the treatment of
scabies of cattle is made with the following ingredients :
Flowers of sulphur pounds. . 24
Unslaked lime do ... . 12
"Water gallons . . 100
Place the unslaked lime in a mortar box or some suitable vessel and add
enough water to slake it and form a lime paste or lime putty. Sift into
this lime paste the flowers of sulphur and stir the mixture well. Be sure
to weigh both the lime and the sulphur, and do not trust to measure them
in a bucket or guess at the weight. Place the sulphur and lime paste in
a kettle or boiler with about 25 or 30 gallons of boiling water, and boil the
mixture for two hours at least, stirring the liquid and sediment. The
boiling should be continued until the sulphur disappears, or almost dis-
appears, from the surface. The solution is then of a chocolate or liver
color. The longer the solution boils the more the sulphur is dissolved,
and the less caustic the ooze becomes. Some writers advise boiling from
thirty to forty minutes, but this is not sufficient ; a good ooze can be ob-
tained only by boiling from two to three hours, adding water when neces-
sary. Pour the mixture and sediment into a large tub or barrel, placed
near the dipping vat and provided with a bunghole about 4 inches from
the bottom, and allow it ample time (from two to three hours or more if
necessary) to settle.
The use of some kind of a settling tank provided with a bunghole is
an absolute necessity, unless the boiler is so arranged that it may be used
for both boiling and settling. An ordinary kerosene oil barrel will answer
very well as a small settling tank. To insert a spigot about 3 to 4 inches
from the bottom is an easy matter. Draining off the liquid through a
spigot has a great advantage over dipping it out because less commotion
occurs in the liquid, which therefore remains freer from sediment. When
fully settled, draw off the clear liquid into the dipping vat and add enough
warm water to make lOO gallons. But under no circumstances should
the sediment in the barrel be used for dipping purposes. A double pre-
caution against allowing the sediment to enter the vat is to strain the liquid
through ordinary bagging as it is drawn from the barrel or settling tank.
The above directions are for the quantity of dip given in the preceding
formula. Any multiple of the constituents may be used, depending upon
SCABIES OF CATTLE, OR MANGE. 919
the capacity of the boiler, vessels, and tank to be filled, but let it be repeated
that there should be no guessing about the proportions ; that the directions
for the preparation of the dip as here given should be closely followed,
care being taken that boiling be continued for the full time recommended.
Another good method for making this dip, highly recommended by
experienced inspectors, is to mix the lime and sulphur in a mortar box,
then slake the lime thoroughly and put the mixture in the cooking tank
(which should contain one-fifth the total quantity of water required for
the dip), after the water in the cooking tank is nearly boiling. If the
mortar box is not at hand the lime and sulphur may be mixed and slaked
in the cooking vat and the water then added for cooking. The mixture
must be boiled for at least two hours, stirring often. Then add enough
water to replace that which has boiled away, so as to have the original
proportion of water. Allow to settle two hours, or longer if possible, and
draw off the clear liquid for use in dipping.
The liquid obtained by these processes contains calcium sulphides in
solution and now only requires the addition, of sufficient clear water to
reduce to the proper strength for dipping. Flowers of sulphur must be
used'and the lime must be of good quality.
VI. General Directions.
Soft water is better than hard water for dipping, but if it can not be
obtained the hard water may be softened by adding potash or lye, but no
more should be added than sufficient to cut the water.
The average depth of the liquid used in a dipping vat is from 5Mj to 6
feet, and the amount of dip necessary to obtain that depth should be ascer-
tained before preparing the dip, in order that the requisite amount of the
liquid may be prepared.
In 1 gallon there are 231 cubic inches. In order to find the number
of gallons contained in a dipping vat multiply together, in inches, the
average length, the average breadth, and the depth, and divide by 231,
and the result will be the number of gallons. To obtain the average length
of vat, add the length at the bottom to the length at the top of dip — or
water line — and divide by 2 ; obtain the average width in the same manner.
The depth should be taken at the center of vat, and should be from the
bottom to water or dip line.
Be sure to measure only the space filled by the dip, and not above that
line. The cooking vat should also be measured. It is convenient to have
rods marked, showing the number of gallons at various depths.
Mix the dip thoroiio;hly in the dipping vat by stirring lengthwise in the
vat, also from top to bottom. A large hoe is a good instrument to use in
stirring. After the dip is thoroughly mixed, take the temperature at
different parts of the vat ; see that it is uniform, and, if too hot or too cold,
920 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
add hot or cold water with proper proportion of dip until the right tem-
perature is obtained ; be careful to have all well mixed. The temperature
of the dip when used should be from 102° to 110' F.
To ascertain the temperature, take some of the dip out of the vat in a
bucket, hold the thermometer in it, and read the temperature while it is
in the fluid. The dip nmst be changed as soon as it becomes filthy, re-
gardless of the number of cattle dipped in it, and in no case should it be
used when more than ten days old. "When there is any doubt as to the
good quality and proper strength of the dip, or if it seems to have deter-
iorated by standing, by freezing, or by being fouled by use, do not depend
upon it, but throw it away, clean out the dipping vat, and make new dip.
In emptying the vat the entire contents must be removed, including all
sediment and droppings and other foreign matter.
In order to attain success in the treatment of mange, care and thorough-
ness of method must be observed. Animals that have been exposed should
be dipped as well as those that show distinct evidences of the disease.
After the lapse of ten days or two weeks following the first dipping, the
animals should be subjected to a second dipping, in order that parasites
which may have survived the first treatment, or which may have gotten
on the animals from corrals, sheds, buildings, or elsewhere, may be
destroyed. Careful examinations of thousands of cattle, thirty to forty
days after being put through the dip for the second time, have failed to
reveal evidence of scabies on any of them.
The dip liquid in the tanks during the whole dipping process should
be kept at the temperature before stated — from 102° to 110° F. Each
animal should be kept two minutes in the dip, and be put completely
under twice during that time. All bad cases should be hand-rubbed and
kept in the dip four minutes.
Pregnant cows have been treated, as well as cattle of all ages, from
calves to full-grown steers, with the loss of but one animal in one of the
-swimming tanks. This was a steer which for some unknown reason
seemed to be unable to swim and was drowned. It would appear that the
dipping of cows, when proper care is taken — especially to prevent crowding
in the chutes — has no appreciable effect upon abortions, as a comparison
with previous years showed that the dipping had not increased the average
number of abortions regularly occurring among these herds before dips
were used.
CHAPTER XV
DISEASES OF THE EYE.
I. OPHTHALMIA OR CONJUNCTIVITIS. II. FUNGUS H^MATOD«:S, OR BLEEDING CAN-
CER. III. TORN EYELIDS. IV. INVERSION AND EVERS1->N OF THE EYELIDS
V. FOREIGN SUBSTANCES IN THE EYE.
I. Ophthalmia or Conjunctivitis.
As a rule, cattle are subject to but few diseases of the eye, the most
common being simple soreness or inflammation of the conjunctiva (lining
of the lids), from the introduction of foreign bodies, exposure to cold
winds, scratching of thorns, or blows from horns of other cattle, or else
from kicks or some similar violence on the part of the attendants.
How to know it. — There is swelling and congestion of the lids ; weep-
ing, the tears running down over the cheek ; shaking and hanging of the
head ; refusal of food ; suspension of rumination, etc. On examination, it
will be found that the eye is kept closed or nearly so, and is very red ; and
the small blood-vessels of the eye-ball are enlarged and injected. The in-
flammation may extend to the iTiternal parts of the eye, and pus may gather
and fall to the bottom of the anterior chamber, forming a whitish yellow
spot. Cataract may result from this, or, at least, opacity from the for-
mation of a Avhite film over the surface of the eyeball (cornea).
What to do. — Give a mild purgative, No. 8. Bathe the eye with warm
milk and water, half and half, several times a day, and apply the follow-
ing lotion with a camel's hair brush directly to the eyeball and all other
parts, several times a day.
No 58. 2 Grains sulphate ot atropla,
1 Ounce water,
Mix.
After the active inflammation is subdued, apply the following lotion in
addition to the other treatment, which should still be continued :
No, 59. 10 Grains nitrate of silver,
1 Ounce water,
Mix.
Apply directly to the eyeball, morning and night, with a camel's hair
brush. Continue this till all opacity is gone, that is, till the white half-
moon spot at the bottom of the anterior chamber is absorbed
921
922 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
n. Fungus Heematodes, or Bleeding Cancer.
This is a cancerous growth that may develop on any part of the body
but is especially apt to come in the eye, destroying that organ, and form-
ijig a large, spongy, fungus-like excres--
ence that bleeds upon the slightest in- ^
jury, in fact almost upon a mere touch.
What to do. — When the exact nature
of the disease is recognized, the eye
should be dissected out, and the animal
fitted for the butcher as speedily as pos-
sible. The operation is the same as
that described under " Extirpation of fungus h^matodes.
the Eye" in the Horse department.
m. Torn Eyelids.
As in everything of the nature of a " blemish," an injury to the eye is
of less consequence in cattle than in the horse. Still, both humanity and
self-interest dictate that it should not be neglected. In a case of torn
eyelids, — an accident that may happen in various ways, — bring the edges
neatly together, and sev/ them with fine silk. Dress them afterwards
'with a weak carbolic or other healing lotion, applying the same two or
three times a day as long as necessary.
rv. Inversion and Eversion of the Eyelids.
These are more of an annoj'ance than a serious ailment, and are not of
very frequent occurrence in cattle. Their technical names are entropium
and ectropium, respectively, under which they have been described in the
Horse department, on page 524, to w^hich the reader is referred. They
are identical wita what oculists are often called on to treat in the human
subject.
V. Foreign Substances in the Eye.
Hayseed, hair, or other foreign particles in the eye always occasion
great annoyance, and often real suffering, which the animal will manifest
by keeping the eye partly closed, and perhaps by turning the head slightly
awry. Anything of this kind should be removed at once, the head being
well secured, so that the operator will run no risk of injury from the
horns. The method of procedure, as also the subsequent treatment, will
be similar to that described on page 520 for the horse.
Pink eye in cattle: — This disease resembles epizootic catarrh in
that the eyes become red and tears stream down the cheeks. Those af-
fected usually become blind by a film growing over the ball. If an abscess
form, mix powdered calomel and starch in equal parts and blow into the
eye. Otherwise, dissolve 20 gr. of boracic acid in an oz. of water and
apply to the eye once or twice per day. Isolate the animal affected and
put in a dark stable in the dav time.
CHAPTER XVI.
ACCIDENTS, ETC.
I. CHOKING. II. FRACTURES. III. WOUNDS. IV. DISLOCATIONS. — 1= — V.
SPRAINS. VI. WENS. VII. BLOAT IN CATTLE.
In this chapter we shall treat of the more common accidents, such as
every stock-man is called on to face more or less frequently every year.
They often require immediate attention, and even if a veterinary sur-
geon is Avithin reach it will in many cases be very desirable to take a half
dozen stitches or so, while waiting for him.
I. Choking.
This is a common accident where roots are fed, and it may happen on
any farm in the fall, if the cattle have access to apples, etc. The im-
perfectly chewed turnip or apple sticks in the gullet, (which in cattle is
small), and resists all the animal's efforts to dislodge it.
How to know it. — There is always tympanitis ; the head is extended
and neck stretched out ; saliva drools from the mouth ; the animal mani-
fests restlessness and pain ; she keeps chewing and making frequent
efforts to swallow ; and an anxious expression is seen on the countenance.
Death may follow, either from suffocation or from rupture of the dia-
phragm .
What to do. — Ascertain if the object is in the throat or neck, and if
it is, place a balling iron in the mouth, (or a plow clevis may be used, pro-
vided it will open the mouth wide enough to allow the hand to be inserted ) ;
have the head steadied, and insert your hand and take it out. An assist-
ant to manipulate the obstruction on the outside, and push it up against
you, will facilitate its removal wonderfully. If it cannot be reached, tap
the paunch with the trochar and cannula, to evacuate the gas ; (see cuts
on pages 861 and 862) ; then pass down the probang, and with steady,
gentle force push it through into the stomach. In the absence of a pro-
bang, a strong, three-quarter inch rope may be used. Dip it in hot water
and oil it ; then pass it down, twisting occasionally with the twist of the
rope. Even, gentle pressure on the probang will make the obstruction
yield in a few minutes.
n. Fractures.
As a rule, a broken bone is more easily repaired in the case of cattle
than in horses, owing to their being more auiet. Fractures are classified
923
924 CYCLOPEDIA or LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
9B transverse, oblique, "green-stick," simple, compound, comminuted and
complex. In transverse fracture, the bone is broken square off; in oblique,
it is broken obliquely across; in "green-stick," it is bent and split, but not
broken clear off. In simple fractures, only the bone is broken without any
complications; in compound, the endo ol the broken bones punch through
the flesh, and protrude; in conuninuted, the bone is shattered into many
small pieces; in complex, the bone is not only ])roken, ])ut there is serious
damage also done to important soft tissues, such as lacerations of blood
vessels, nerves, ligaments and other tissues of joints.
How to know It. — ^The only reliable tests, when there is displacement,
is the unnatural position of the parts and the crepitation (grating of one
bone upon another) that may be heard when the parts are moved.
TRANSVERSE AND OBLIQUE FRACTURES OF BONE.
What to do. — In case of a broken leg (by far the most common frac-
ture in cattle), phice the bones in position as nearly as possible, and put
on a plaster of Paris bandage, to enclose the leg and maintain the parts
in place. In the absence of plaster of Paris, sole leather, softened with
water and fitted to the leg may be used ; bind it on with a bandage. Keep
the animal as quiet as possible. Compound and complex fractures are
generally fatal, on account of the inflammation that follows.
III. Wounds.
Wounds on the body may be sewed up with any of the different su-
tures described in the Horse department, on page 556. Wounds on the
MANY-TAILED BANDAGE FOR LARGE LACERATED AND OPEN WOr>n)S.
legs are best held together with bandages. The many-tailed bandage Is
oarticularly haudy to draw the edges together and bold them io place
ACCIDENTS, ETC.
925
Bandages should be kept scrupulously clean, by vvashnig them once or
twice a day and bathing them with recipe No. 9. When the wound is
well filled up, apply No 1, with No. 2 occasionally.
IV. Dislocations.
Cattle are peculiarly liable to dislocation of the patella. It slips off on
the outside when the leg is back of a perpendicular position, and the ani-
mal IS unable to bring it forward. This is well shown ni the accompany-
DISLOCATION Or THE PA.TELLA
ing illustration.
It IS best reduced by pulling the foot forward Mnth a
rope passed around the pastern, and pushmg inwards on the stifle bone
(patella), when it will snap in, and locomotion can be resumed at once.
SIMPLE METHOU OF PREVEKTING A RECURRENCE OF DISLOCATION OF THE PATELLA.
In the first few instances, the joint is injured, so that considerable
swelling takes place and causes great lameness, but after a few disloca-
tions it slips in and out easily.
What to do. — Fasten the leg forward with the rcpe passed around the
neck as seen in the annexed cut. Foment the joint with hot water
926 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
several times a day, and when the inflammation is gone, blister thoroughly
with the following blister :
No. 60. 1 Ounce powdered cantharides,
4 Ounces lard.
Mix.
Rub well in.
V. Sprains.
The best treatment for sprains is to foment them with hot water or
hot vinegar three times a day, and apply the following liniment, rubbing
it in thoroughly :
No. 61. 2 Ounces tincture arnica,
1 Ounce alcohol,
1 Ounce turpentine,
1 Ounce laudanum,
1 Ounce liquor ammonia.
Water to make one pint.
Mix.
If practicable, bandage tolerably tight. Give rest till the lameness is
all gone.
VI. Wens.
These are hard, fibrous tumors resulting, usually, from a blow or other
external violence. They are frequently seen on the ribs, legs and jaws of
oxen.
What to do.— If noticed when first started, when they are sore, foment
them with hot water several times a day; after a few days, the soreness
being partially gone, paint them Avith tincture of iodine once a day. If,
however, they become large and hard, nothing will be of any use short of
dissecting them out. This may be done without any danger. Afterwards
dress the wound with recipe No. 9, two or three times a day.
VII. Bloat in Cattle.
Internal treatment for Bloat in Cattle:— Cattle bloat when turned into
luxurious, succulent feed, when not accustomed to it, or are fed too many
roots, apples or potatoes at a time, especially if not accustomed to them.
They also bloat when choked. If it is severe, with great distress in breath-
ing, they must be tapped with a trocar and eanula. After tapping, or in
cases not requiring it, give a purgative of Epsom Salts one pound, ginger
one ounce, oil of turpentine two ounces, warm water to make two quarts,
mix and give as one dose.
CHAPTER XVII.
OPERA.TIONS.
£. TAPPING THE CHEST, AND TAPPING THE BELLY. II, TRACHEOTOMY. III. TAP-
PING THE KUMEN (PAUNCH) FOU HOVEN. IV. KUMENOTOMY. V. CASTRATION.
• VI. SPAYING. VII. TAPPING THE BLADDER OF THE OX OR BULL. VIII.
SUTURES AND BANDAGES. IX. C^SARIAN OPERATION. X. BLEEDING.
I. Tapping the Chest, and Tapping the Belly.
The first of these operations (^paracentesis thoracis^ lias for its object
the removal of Avater f I'om tlie chest ia hydrothorax. Clip off the hair
from a spot about three inches back
of the joint of the elbow, and on a
level with it. Make an incision
through the skin and muscles to a
depth of about two inches, being
careful to locate it so that it shall
pass between two ribs, and not too
close to the posterior aspect of the
anterior one of the two — about midway if possible. Then pass in the
trochar and cannula, withdraw the trochar, and leave the cannula to
act as a spout for the water. If lymph or other substance clogs the hole.
MAKING THE INCISION VTITH THE KNIFE
THE FLUID FLOWING FROM THE CHEST THROUGH THE CANNULA.
push it away with a whalebone probe. The other side may l)c tapped in
the same way. The trochar for this operation should be about a quarter
of an inch m diameter.
927
928 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Paracentesis Abdomenis is the same operation, to empty the belly in
peritonitis. Make the incision in the center line of the belly just back of
the navel. Use the same trochar, but do not insert it deeper than two
inches. In either of these operations, when the instrument is withdrawn
the hole will close without any aid,
n. Tracheotomy.
This is the insertion of a tube in the windpipe, in case of threatened
suffocation. It is identical with the same operation on the horse, de-
scribed on page 558.
m. Tapping the Rmnen (Patmch) for Hoven.
Insert the trochar, which may be a large one (f of an inch in diame-
ter), in the center of a triangle made by the last rib, the anterior point
of the hip and the ends of the transverse processes of the lumbar spines
on the left side. Point it downward and inward obliquely, and it will
pass directly into the paunch, which grows to the left side only, and only
in this vicinity. Pull out the trochar, and the gas will escape through
the cannula. (See the article, with cuts, on Hoven.)
IV. Rumenotomy.
This is an operation to empty the paunch in case of engorgement, when
a passage cannot be effected m the regular way. Clip off the hair from
the triangle described in the last article, on the left side, (see cuts on
pages 862 and 863) ; and make an opening, running up and down, large
enough to insert the hand ; open first the skin, next the muscles, then the
wall of the paunch. Insert a towel, and arrange it to cover the lower
edge of the wound, to keep the latter clean. Then empty the paunch
with the hand. When nearly empty, pour in recipe No. 26, wash the
wound, and sew it up with cat-gut sutures. First sew the paunch, leav-
ing the ends hanging inside ; then draw the muscles together, the ends of
the ligatures hanging outside ; then sew up the skin. Dress the whole
with lotion No. 9, keeping the parts wet with it nearly all the time.
V. Castration.
This may be done to calves by laying them down on their backs, open-
ing the scrotum and cutting through the tunics to the testicle, letting it
out, when the tunics may be cut from their attachment at the end of the
testicle, and the testicle pulled out, tearing away the spermatic cord.
Pour a little cold water into the scrotum, and let the calf u}). Old bulls
may be castrated standing. Make a separate opening for each testicle,
and let the testicle out of the tunics ; cut off the cord with the ecraseur
well up towards the body ; if no ecraseur is procurable, apply clamps,
•«bich may be removed after two days.
OPERATIONS. 929
VT. Spaying.
This is an operation on the female to remove the ovaries, and corres-
ponds to castraiion of the male. In young, small heifers it is best done
in the flank. Lay the heifer on her left side with the legs stretched back.
Clip off the hair from the angle between the point of the hip and last rib ;
make an incision, running up and down, large enough to admit the hand ;
pass the hand into the abdominal cavity and find the womb ; follow up
a horn of the womb till the ovary is reached, pull the ovary out, and
either cut or twist it off, — preferably the latter, to avoid bleeding. If
cut off, the artery should bo twisted, to arrest the hemorrhiige. The
parts arc put back, and the other ovary is brought up and operated on
similarly. This one may bo more difficult to bring out, but gentle trac-
tion will accomplish it. Select warm pleasant weather for this operation,
to avoid chilling the intestines. Great care should be taken to keep
everything as clean as possible, as hair or other foreign particles, intro-
duced into the belly, might cause fatal peritonitis. Stitch up the walls of
the belly first ; then the skin with cat-gut, interrupted sutures. Dress
the wound with lotion No. 9.
Cov.-s are best operated on standing. Make the incision throuo-h the
upper wall of the vagina close to the os uteri, large enough to introduce two
fingers, by which the ovaries are pulled out and excised with an ecra-
seur. No stitches are needed in this wound. Dress it afterwards with
lotion No. 47, twice a day. Feed lightly for a day or two before the oper-
ation, and give bran mashes for a few days after. If peritonitis sets in,
(which, however, it is not very likely to do), treat it according to the
directions for that disease.
Vn. Tapping the Bladder of the Ox or Bull.
When it is necessary to draw off the urine of the male, an opening
must be made at the point where the penis turns over the angle of the
pelvis, and the catheter introduced as seen in the annexed cut. The in-
cision should be made very carefully, and no larger than really neces-
sary to introduce ^he instrument. Dress the wound with No. 9, twice a
day. It will oe advisable to take a stitch in it, of course. The curve in
the urethral canal (see cut on page 872) is what makes this operation
necessary, as it renders the introduction of a catheter by the penis
impossible.
Vni. Sutures and Bandages.
Sutures are used in sewing wounds, whenever they are longer than half
an inch. The material generally used is silk, doubled once or twice, to
make the cord large enough to prevent it from jiulling out. Silver wire
930
CYCI,OPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPT,r:TE STOCK DOCTOR.
may be used, l)ut has no special advantages over the silk. Pass the needle
through the skin al)out half an inch hack from the edge and tie loosely,
leavin": the ends about half an inch lonij^.
i*^?!^^*^^^^^
^"^^"•y^.
OPKKATION KOR HEMOVIN(} URINE FROM THE OX.
Bandages arc particularly useful in cases of wounds on the legs, since
there the stitches will almost invariably pull out, unless thus reinforced.
The many-tailed l)andage shown on page 924 is verj^ useful. For further
details see the corresponding article iu the Horse department.
IX. The Caesarian Operation.
This is resorted to for tlic delivery of the calf, in the extremity men-
tioned on page 887. The belly is opened high up in the flank on the
right side, and an incision made in the uterus, and the calf taken out. It
is seldom resorted to, for obvious reasons.
X. Bleeding.
A cord is passed around the neck, and
tied tight enough to raise the vein, over
which a fleam is held and struck with the
blood-stick. AVhen sufficient blood has been
taken, remove the cord and close the wound
with a twisted ("figure 8" ) suture.
The article on Bleeding, in the Horse de-
partment, should be read in connection with
the foregoing directioiis.
Dehorning cattle: — The best way to do this is to breed them off. To
get rid of the horn,< from those passed beyond the "button" stage use a
saw or a pair of clippers. Under this age, moisten a small piece of caustic
l)ota&h and apply gently over the coming horn until the skin Alps from
the tip and the job is done.
Bloody Milk:— Mix a pound of epsom salts and a teaspoonful of salt-
peter in a quart of warm water and give as a drench. Give a teaspoon-
fi;! of .=altpeter in a 'bran mash every night, bathe the bag with warm
ual! r md rub in lard and camphor.
ox I'KEPAREl) FOR 15LEl,l>ING.
CHAPTER XVIIl.
RECIPES FOR CATTLE.
As a matter of convenience to the render, to whom time will often be
precious in treating his sick stock, we add this chapter, rccapitulatiug all
our prescriptions for cattle.
No. 1.
No.
HEALING LOTION.
Sugar of lead, 1 ounce,
Carbolic acid, 2 drachmS;
Laudaimni, 1 ounce.
Water to make 1 pint,
Mix.
Apply three limes a day.
ANTISEPTIC LOTION.
Carbolic acid, 1 part,
Olive oil, 8 parts,
Mix.
Apply three times a day
ANTISEPTIC DRENCH.
Nitro-muriatic acid, 1 drachm,
Bi-chroniate potash, 3 grains.
Chlorate potash, 2 drachms.
Water, y^ pint.
Mix.
Give as one dose two or three times
a dav.
No. G.
No.
No.
NO. 4. TONIC POWDER.
Copperas, % ounce.
Oil-cake, a handful,
Powder and mix.
Give as one dose, and repeat morn-
ing and night.
No. 5.
POWDER FOR RHEUMATISM.
Colchicum, 2 drachms.
Nitrate of potash, 2 drachms,
Mix.
Give as one dose, and repeat night
and morniug for a week.
931
No 9.
LINIMENT FOR RHEUMATISM.
Laudanum, 1 ounce.
Spirits camphor, 1 ounce.
Turpentine, 1 ounce.
Water to make 1 pint,
Mix.
Apply tln-ee times a day with fric=
tion, and bandage.
TONIC DRENCH.
Gentian root, 1 ounce.
Ginger, % ounce.
Oatmeal gruel, 1 quart.
Mix.
Give as one dose, and repeat three
times a day for two weeks.
MILD PURGATIVE.
Epsom salts, 12 ounces.
Ginger, 1 ounce.
Gentian, 1 ounce.
Syrup, 4 ounces.
Water to make 2 quarts,
Mix.
Give as one dose.
CARBOLIC LOTION.
Carbolic acid, ^^ ounce,
Water, 1 pint.
Mix.
Apply two or three times a day; in
case of a surface sore, bind on a
sponge wet with the lotion.
932
CYCLOrEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
No. 10. ALTERATIVE AND STIMULATING
DRENCH.
Iodide potash, 2 drachms,
AVTiiskey, 2 ounces.
Powdered cinchona, 1 ounce,
Gruel, 1 pint.
Mix.
Give as one dose, and repeat three
times a day.
No. 11. TONIC POWDER.
Saccliarized carbonate of iron, 2(lis.
Powdered cinchona bark, 2 (hs..
Mix.
Give as one dose; repeat nioriiin^-
and iiisht.
No. 12. TURPENTINE DRENCH.
Oil turpentine, 1 ounce,
Linseed oil, >^ pint,
Mix.
Give as one dose, repeat three
times a day.
iVo. l:{. .ONIC DRENCH.
Tincture nniriate of iron, )^ ounce,
'J'incture cinchona, 1 ounce,
Water, 2 ounces,
Mix.
Give as one dose; repeat three
times a day, between the doses
of No. 12.
No. 14. AMMONIA LINIMENT.
T/iqnor of ammonia, 1 ounce.
Oil of turpentine, 1 ounce,
Ijinseed oil, 1 ounce.
Mix.
Rub well in to the face and head
once a day.
No. 16. A GARGLE.
Chlorate of potasYi, 1 ounce,
Water, 1 pint,
Mix.
Inject a little into the throat as a
gargle several times a day.
No.
MIXTURE FOR DIAKKIIOCA.
Infusion of quassia. 1 pint.
Laudanum, 1 ounce,
Sulphuric ether, )^ ounce,
Cold, thin gruel, 1 pint,
Mix.
Give as one dose. Repeat, if nec-
essary.
No. 18. FEVER MIXTURE.
Spirits nitre, 3 ounces.
Tincture aconite root, 2 drachms.
Fluid extract belladonna, }.i oz.,
Nitrate potash, 2 ounces.
Muriate of ammonia, 2 orinces.
Water to make 1 quart.
Mix.
Give half a teacupful every two or
three hours till better.
No. 15. SILVER LOTION.
Nitrate of silver, 10 grains,
Water, 1 ounce.
Mix.
Apply twice a day with a camel's
hair brush.
No. 19. TONIC AND ALTERATIVE POWDER.
Nitrate of potash, 2 drachms.
Gentian root (powdered), 2 drs..
Ginger, 1 drachm.
Mix.
Give as one dose; repeat morning
and night for a week.
XO. 20. STIMULATING DRENCH.
Infusion of gentian, >2 pint.
Ginger, 1 drachm,
Carbonate of ammonia, 1 draclun.
Syrup, 2 ounces,
Watei , Yi pint,
Mix.
Give as one dose, and repeat three
times a day.
No. 21. TONIC POWDER.
Sulphate of ii'on (copperas), 3 drs.,
Gentian, 2 drachms.
Ginger, 1 drachm,
Foenugreek seed, 1 drachjti.
Powder and mix.
Give as one dose, and repeat morn-
ing and night for a week or two.
RECIPES FOR CATTLE.
933
No. 22.
A GARGLE.
Chlorate of potash, 2 ounces.
Water, 1 quart,
Mix. •
Shoot back into the throat, as a
gargle, several times a day with
a syringe.
No. 23. FEVER MIXTURE.
Mindererus' spirit (acetate of am-
monia) , 2 ounces,
Tincture aconite root, 20 drops,
Water, >^ pint.
Mix.
Give as one dose, and repeat every
two hours till better.
No. 28. ANTACID ?OWDER.
Bi-carbonate of soda, 3 drachms
Gentian, 2 drachms,
Ginger, 2 drachms.
Mix.
Give as one dose, and repeat morn'
ing and night.
No. 29.
No. 24. COUGH MIXTURE.
<ium camphor, 2 drachms.
Saltpetre, 4 drachms.
Spirits of nitre, 1 ounce.
Water (or gruel), 1 pint,
Mix as directed below.
Dissolve the camphor in tlie nitre,
and add the water (or gruel) and
saltpetre, and give as one doso,
Eepeat eveiy four or six hours.
ASTRINGENT DRENCH.
Prepared chalk, 1 ounce.
Powdered catechu, }4 ounce
Powdered ginger, 2 drachms.
Powdered opium, }4 drachai.
Peppermint water, >^ pin ,,
Mix.
Give from two to four tablespoon-
fuls, according to tlie size of the
calf, morninj!: and nijjht.
No. 30.
No. 2;"). HEALING LOTION.
Vinegar, 1 ounce.
Honey, 2 ounces,
Water, 3^ pint.
Mix.
Apply three or four times a day.
No. 26. POWERFUL PURGATIVE.
Epsom salts, 1)^ pounds.
Ginger, 2 ounces,
Gentian, 2 ounces,
Calomel, 2 drachms,
Croton oil, 20 drops,
Syruji, I pint.
Warm water, 2 quarts,
Mix.
Give as one dose.
No. 27.
STIMULATING DRENCH,
Liquor ammonia, 1 ounce.
Warm ale, 1 quart.
Essence of ginger, 3^ ounce,
Mix.
Give as one dose.
ASTRINGENT DRENCH.
Tincture of catechu, 2 ounces.
Tincture of cardamoms, 2 ounces,
Carbonate of soda, 2 drachms.
Mix.
Divide into two to four doses, ac-
cording to age of animal, and give
one of them morning and night-
No. 31.
ASTRINGENT DRENCH.
Powdered opium, y^ drachm,
Tincture of cardamoms, 1 ounce.
Sulphuric ether, 3 drachms.
Linseed tea (or starch gruel) 1 pint
Mix.
Divide into six doses; give one
niffht and morninsr.
No. 32. ALTERATIVE DRENCH.
Tincture of rluibarb, 4 ounces,
Powdered ginger, 2 drachms.
Warm gruel, 4 ounces,
Mix.
Give as one dose, and follow it with
some doses of No. 30 or 31.
No. 33. ASTRINGENT DRENCH.
Prepared chalk, \% ounces.
Powdered catechu, 2 drachms,
Powdered opium, % drachm,
Powdered gentian, 2 drachms.
Starch gruel, 1 pint.
Mix.
Give as one dose ; repeat in twenty?
four hours, if necessary.
934
CYCLOrEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AXD CO>[PLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
No. 34. ASTRINGENT DRENCH.
Powdered opium, 2 drachms,
Powdered starch, 4 ounces,
Sulphuric ether, 1 ounce
Cold ale, 1 pint,
Mix.
Give as one dose. B)> substituting
tepid water for the ale. it may be
advantageously used as an injec-
tion.
No, 35 ASTRINGENT DRENCH.
Tannic acid, % drachm,
Powdered opium, 1 drachm,
Powdered gentian, 1 ounce,
Warm ale, 1 pint,
Mix.
Giv? :.; one dose.
No. 36. ALTERATIVE DRENCH.
Calomel, 1 drachm.
Powdered opium, 2 drachms,
, Gruel, 1 quart,
Mix.
Give as one dose.
No. 37. ALTERATIVE DRENCH.
Epsom salts, 7 ounces,
Powdered opium, 2 drachms,
Powdered gentian, 2 drachms.
Gruel, 1 pint.
Mix.
Give as one dose.
No. 38. ANTISEPTIC MIXTURE.
Chloride of lime, % ounce,
Tincture of arnica, ^ ounce.
Sulphuric ether, 1 ounce,
Starch gruel, 2 quarts,
Mix.
Give half by the mouth and half
by injection.
No. 39.
STRONG INJECTION.
Linseed oil, 1 pint.
Oil turpentine, 4 ounces,
Croton oil, 30 drops,
Warm water, 1 quart.
Soft soap, 1 ounce,
Mix.
Repeat three times a day as an in-
jection, till a full purgative ac-
tion is got.
No. 40. STIMULATING SUBCUTANEOUS
INJECTION.
Strychnine, 4 grains.
Spirits of wine, 1 ounce.
Sulphuric acid, 6 drops.
Mix.
When dissolved, inject from ten to
twenty drops under the skin.
No. 41. ANODYNE FEVER MIXTURE,
Camphor, 2 drachms.
Sulphuric ether, % ounce,
Acetate of ammonia, 4 ounces, (a.-
directed below).
Mix.
Dissolve the camphor in the su;-
phurie ether, and then add %hv.
acetate of ammonia. Give at-
one dose in ale or gruel.
No. 42. FEVER MIXTURE.
Mindererus' spirit, 3 ounces,
Tincture aconite root, 20 drops
Linseed tea, 1 pint.
Mix.
Give as one dose, and repeat ever^'
two hours till better.
No. 43. STIMULATING DRENCH.
Sulphuric acid, 2 drachms,
Tincture of cardamoms, 1 ounce
Water, 1 pint.
Mix.
Give as one dose.
No. 44. ANTILITIIIC INJECTION.
Hydrochloric acid, 1 drachm,
Water, ^o pint.
Mix,"
Inject into the bladder.
No. 45. ACID DRENCH.
Hydrochloric acid, 20 drops,
Gentian, 3 drachms.
Oat meal gruel, 1 pint.
Mix.
Give as one dose, and repeat it
moruingand niebt for a few days
RECIPES FOR CATTLE.
935
No. 46. ANTACID POWDER.
Bi-carbonate soda, ^ pound,
Gentian, 4 ounces,
Linseed meal, 2 pounds,
Mix.
Give two tablespoonfuls morning
and night for two or three weeks.
No. 47. ANTISEPTIC INJECTION.
Carbolic acid, % ounce,
Water, >^ gallon,
Mix.
Use as injection twice a day
No. 48. ANODYNE DRENCH.
Chloral hydrate, 1 ounce,
Water, 1 pint,
Mix.
Give as one dose ; repeat, if neces-
sary, in half an hour.
No. 49. HEALING LOTION.
Spirits of camphor, 4 ounces,
Sugar of lead, 1 ounce.
Sulphate of zinc, 2 drachms.
Soft water, 1 quart.
Mix.
Bathe the parts once a day.
No. 50. SOKTENINO LOTION.
Gum cau)phor, 4 ounces,
Olive oil, 1 pint.
Mix.
Rub well in three times a day.
No. 51. ANTISEPTIC POWDER.
Sulphite soda, 1 ounce,
Nitrate potash, 2 drachms.
Mix.
Give as one dose in a bran mash;
repeat morning and night for a
week.
No. 53. ASTRINGENT OINTMENT.
Tannic acid, >^ounce,
Carbolic acid, 1 drachm,
Lard, 4 ounces.
Mix.
Apply twice a day.
No. 54. NERVINE AND ALTERATIVE.
Nux vomica, 2 drachms.
Saltpetre, % ounce,
Mix.
Give as one dose, repeating it mor-a.
ina: and night for a month.
No.
LOTION FOR LICE.
Tobacco, % Pound,
Water, 1 gallon,
Steep for two hours.
Apply warm.
No.
No.
5(5. MIXTURE FOR RINGWORM,
Tincture of iodine, 2 ounces,
Oil of tar, 1 ounce,
Glycerine, 2 ounces.
Mix.
Kub well in once a day.
57. MIXTURE FOR RINGWORM,
Solution iodo-bromide of calci«-m
compound, 1 ounce.
Water, 3 ounces,
Mix.
Kub well in once a day.
No. 52. ASTRINGENT OINTMENT.
Alum, 1 ounce.
Carbolic acid, 1 drachm.
Lard, 4 ounces,
Powder the alum and mix.
Apply twice a day.
No. 58. EYE WASH.
Sulphate of atropia, 2 grains.
Water, 1 ounce.
Mix.
Apply several times a day with c
camel's hair brush.
No. 59. EYE WASH.
Nitrate of silver, 10 grains,
Water, 1 ounce.
Mix.
Apply directly to the eyeball, morn-
ing and night, with a came)'^
hair brush.
936
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
No. 60. FLT BLISTER.
Powdered cantharides, 1 ounce,
Lard, 4 ounces,
Mix.
Rub well in.
XO. 61. LINIMENT FOR SPRAINS.
Tincture arnica, 2 ounces,
Ak'uiiul, i ounce,
Turpentine, 1 ounce,
Laudanum, 1 ounce.
Liquor ammonia, 1 ounce,
Water to make one pint,
Mix.
If practicable, bandage tolerably
tight. Give rest till the lameness
is all gone.
■
^m
^
\i.ijid
1
^-^ - -'-'•■■■■'
^^*
..^
A DUTCH COW.
This cow belongs by nature to lowlands of a moist and marshy character where
there is much green vegetation. They are not beautiful, but produce large quantities
of milk, and are greatly esteemed for their excellent beef.
THE LIMBUKGER COW OF GERMANY.
This race is found in the Belgian province of Limbourg, and a part of Wurtemberg,
The color is silvery-yellow, with now and then a white spot In the forehead. Tbef
arH 8m:ill. but very fine milkers,
O I
-J a;
BOOK III
PART I
SWINE
HISTORY, MANAGEMENT AND CHARACTERISTIC;
OF THE VARIOUS BREEDS
938 CYCLOPEDIA OP LIVE STOCK AND Co\n-T ptf •<Tn("K DOCTOT^.
SWINE.
CHAPTER I,
HISTORY AND STATISTICS OP SWINE.
1. ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF THE HOG. II. THE NATIVE AMERICAN SPECIES
III. SWINE OF EUROPE, ASIA ANU AFRICA. IV. THE WILD HOGS OF
EUROPE. V. TEETH OF THE HOG. VI. BROUGHT TO AMERICA BY COLUM-
BUS. VII. LOCATION OF PRINCIPAL MARKETS.
I. Origin and Antiquity ol the Hog.
The original country of the hog, like that of the other domesticated
tinimals of the farm, is lost in the obscurity of the past. Yet, ever since
history began, the hog has bo^n known in a wild state in Asia, Africa and
in Europe. That the hogs < f all these countries have a common origin is
shown by the fact that they all belong to the same scientific classification,
nus scrofa, and also by the more important fact that they are all fertile
tcgether, and continue to produce fertile offspring, from generation to
ofeneration.
The great antiquity of swine is shown by the fact that fossil remains
have been found in the tertiary and diluvial deposits of Europe ; and fos-
sils of a species closely allied to them have been found in as ancient de-
posits in India. Whatever their oiigin may have been, their aptitude for
taking care of themselves in a wild state — for they are both fiesh and
vegetable feeders — and their great fecundity would soon have enabled
ibem to overrun large territories.
XL The Native American Species.
While the original of the domesticated hog was only found in Asia,
Africa and Europe, yet allied native species are found m America- In
Australia, the Polynesian groups, and the other Pacific islands, swine wwe
unknown until introduced there by civilized people. The same is true of
America. The allied species here are not, we believe, continuouoly fertU*
with the domesticat>ed bo^
939
940
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
m. SwineofEiirope, Asia and Africa.
While it is a fact, as i)reviously stated, that the swine of Europe, Asia
and Africa have a conimoii origin, there is no means of knowing how or
when they were first introduced. The probability, however, is that they
spread si)ontaneously over these countries ; for the original forest cover-
nig rendered the means of migration easy to them, since thiclv timber and
all the lands along streams furnish their natural feeding grounds.
IV. The Wild Hogs of Europe.
It matters little, practically, how any of the farm animals originated,
or how they were naturally disseminated over the earth ; though to
savants, of course, the question is curious and interesting. It is worthy
of remark, that of all domestic animals used as food by man, the hog is
the only one that has preserved his native characteristics unmoditied in a
wild state.
GROUP OV CHESTER WHITES.
The hunting of wild hogs has formed an exciting chase in ail ages of
Lhe world, both on account of their fleetness and their savage courage
when brought to bay. In the southern portions of the United States, in
sparsely settled districts, swine are found escaped from domestication, and
showing all their natural savage traits, including dangerous fiercenesa
when brought to bay. Forty years ago the writer hunted wild hogs, —
the descendants of Indian breeds, — in the swamps and morasses of north-
ern Indiana and the timbered river bottoms of the Calumet. The hai-d
winter of 1844, howev(;r, destroyed the last remnant of these wild hogs,
they having all died in their lairs, from exposure and want of food. Wild
hogs are now rarely found in Europe, and this when preserved in royal
forests as in Denmark, Italy and Greece. In France and Germany they
have become extremely rare, and in Great. Britain the wild species has
long been extinct
CO
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HISTORY AND STATISTICS OF SWIXE. 941
V, Teeth of the Hog.
The teeth of swine are 44 in number, as follows: Incisors, six upper
and six lower, (12); canines or tusks, two upper and two lower, (4);
molars, or grinding teeth, fourteen upper and fourteen lower, (28) ; mak-
ing 44, inrlnding what were formerly called wolf teeth, but are now.
classed with the molars. They are represented scientiticilly by the den-
ial formula : | — | — || — 44. Furstenburg, a careful German author-
ity, gives the manner of determining the age of swine as follows :
Born with eight teeth, four corner incisors and four tusks, on the
eighth or tenth day the second or third temporary molars appear. The
four ni})pers, two on the upper and two on the under jaw, appear at four
weeks old.
At the fifth or sixth week the first temporary molars appear in the
upper and lower jaw.
At the age of three months the intermediary incisors aj)pear.
At the sixth, the so-called wolf teeth arc seen, and also the third per-
manent molars.
At the ninth month the permanent corner incisors, the permanent
tusks, and the second permanent molars will be seen.
At twelve months the permanent nippers will have appeared, and by
the thirteenth month, the three temporary molars will have been shed,
and the permanent ones will be seen ; at fifteen months these will be
fully up.
At the age of eighteen months the permanent intermediary incisors and
the permanent rear molars will show, and at the twenty-first month these
will be fully developed, thus completely finishing the permanent denti*
tion.
From this time on, the means for determining the age is by the wear
of the permanent teeth, and also by the increasing length of the tushes,
which at from four to ten years, attain such size and become such formid-
able weapons that it is said that hogs have been known to cope success-
fully with the lion. Certain it is that no beast dares attack tiiem when
herded together, and it is only by the strategy of man that they may be
successfully hunted and killed. And so dangerous has this pastime always
been considered, that a hoar's head has been counted as one of the most
valuable trophies of the chase.
VI. Brought to America by Columbus.
The history of the introduction of swine into America is that they were
brought by Columbus to Hispaniola in 1493, and to Florida in 1538 by
De Soto ; they were brought to Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland in 1553
by the French, and into Canada in J ^08, In 1609 they were brought
y42 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
into Virginia by the English adventurers, and eighteen years thereafter it
is recorded that their numbers had so increased that the settlement at
Jamest-own had to be surrounded with palisades to keep them away.
VII. Location of Principal Markets.
The ten leading hog producing states are a.s follows :
Iowa, Illinois, Nebraska, Missouri, Indiana, Texas, Ohio, Kansas,
Georgia, Oklahoma — in the order named.
Markets naturally are located in places that are best suited for the pur-
pose— places where the largest number of hogs can be bought at the lowest
prices, and where the means of distributing the output of the i)acking-
houses are the best. The two factors are not of equal weight. The dressed
carcass can be transported with less expense than can the live animal ;
therefore the principal markets are located in proximity to the country
where most hogs are produced. This is in the corn belt. The following
are the principal hog-raising states, with the round number of hogs pro-
duced annually: Iowa, 7,000,000; Illinois, 4,000,000; Missouri, 3,000,-
000; Indiana, 3,000,000; Nebraska, 3,000,000; Ohio, 3,000,000; Texas,
2,000,000; Wisconsin, 2,000,000, and Kansas, 2,000,000.
The principal hog markets in the United States, with the approximate
number of hogs slaughtered annually, are as follows: Chicago, 7,000,000;
Kansas City, 4,000,000; Omaha. 2,000,000; St. Joseph, 2,000,000; St.
Louis, 2,000,000; Indianapolis, 1.000,000; Buffalo, 1,000,000; Sioux City,
1,000,000, and Cleveland, 500,000. New York takes about 500,000, and
Boston 1,500,000, annually, but these can hardly be considered markets
from the farmers' standpoint, as this supply is principally bought in other
markets and shipped to these places. This takes some of the hogs shipped
from the Western markets of the United States. In the above figures, only
the hogs that are slaughtered are taken into consideration, not those that
are shipped out alive. Chicago annually ships out one million live hogs,
making the total handled at that place annually about eight million.
"HISTORY AND ST \
944 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK
AND
COMPLETE
STOCK DOCTOR.
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CHAPTER 11.
BREEDS OF SWINE.
SIRES OF IMPKUVKI) UKKLDf. II. CHINESE SWINE. III. NEAPOiaXAN
SVVINE IV. THE HOG OF INDIA. V. ENGLISH BREEDS— THE BERKSHIRE.
VI THE ESSEX. VII. THE BLACK DORSET. VIII. THE SUFFOLK.
IX THE YORKSHIRE. X. LANCASHIRE BREEDS. X r. AMERICAN BREEDS.
XII THE CHESTER WHITE. XIII. THE POLAND-CHIN.\. XIV. THE
CHESHIRES. XV. JERSEY RED SWINE. XVI. DUROC SWINE.— —XVII. THIN
RIND, OR HAMPSHIRE HOG. XVIII. SUMMARY OF BREEDS.
I. Sires of Improved Breeds.
The swine used iu the iini)roveineiit of the breeds (tf Enghmd and the
United States, are: First, the China hog; second, the Neapolitan hog,
and third, the hog of India. The first has given remarkable aptitude in
fattening, while the second and third have imparted style, beauty of form
and excellence of flesh.
II. Chinese Swine.
The first iiiii)rovement in modern swine is undoubtedly due to import?,
tions of lious from China. They are remarkable for prepotency of blood,
DUROC— JERSEY BOAR.
duo to their careful breeding for centuries in China with special refer-
ence to early maturity and aptitude for fattening; and these hogs were
the basis upon which all English and American breeds were originally
945
946 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
built. The infusion of tliis Chinese hlood long since converted the orig-
inal raw-boned, hard-feeding, long-nosed and long-legged hogs of England
of 100 years ago, into compact, deep-bodied, broad-backed, short-nosed
and early maturing hogs of fifty years ago, known in the earlier crosses
YORKSHIRE BOAR.
as Grass-breed, Irish Graziers, etc. Then came in the India hog, reducing
the l)one, hair, and coarseness of flesh still more ; and afterwards the
improved form of the India hog — the Neapolitan — still further refined
them, giving us the splendid Berkshire, the Essex, and various other black
and spotted breeds.
m. Neapolitan Swine.
Neapolitan swine are marked for the excellence of their flesh, their el-
egant style, little hair and fine bone. In relation to them Sidney says it is
Droba])le that the Neapolitans are the descendants of the dark Eastern
swine imported by early Italian voyagers and cultivated to perfection by
the favorable climate and welcome food. Martin is of the opinion that
to this breed and to the Chinese is duo the improvement of all English
swine, and, in this connection mentions particularly the Berkshire, Essex,
Hampshire and Yorkshire. Youatt, while accepting the authority of
Martin, adds also the swine of Wiltshire. Of these breeds only the
Berkshire, Essex and Yorkshire have held their ground with the other
improved breeds of to-day, and these are among the finest and most gen^
erally liked of any of the now fashionable breeds. The first importation
BREEDS OF SWINE.
947
of Neapolitan swine into the United States, is said to have been made
about 1840 ; but in 1850 fine specimens were imported into New York by
a Mr. Chamberlain. They are described as having been of a dark slate
color, and as having brought their pigs true to color and characteristics.
ESSEX SOW.
CHESTER WHITE SOW.
The Neapolitans are well described by a committee of the American
Swine Breeders Association as follows: ITead small; forehead bony and
flat; face slightly dishing; snout rather long and very slender; ears
small, thin, standing forward nearly horizontally, and quite lively; jowls
very full; neck short, broad and heavy above; trunk long, cylmdrical
and well ribbed back; back flat, and ribs arching, even in low flesh;
948 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
belly horizontal on the lower line; hind-quarters higher than the fore,
but not very much so; legs very fine, the bones and joints being smaller
than those of any other breed; hams and shoulders well developed and
GROUP BERKSHIRE SWINE.
meaty; tail fine, eurled, flat at the extremity, and fringed with hair on
each side ; general color slaty, or bluish plum color, with a cast of cop-
pery red ; skin soft and fine, nearly free from hair, which, when found
upon the sides of the head and behind the forelegs, is black and soft, and
rather long ; flesh firm and elastic to the touch.
IV. The Hog of India.
These swine hold the same relation to the Neapolitan that the Chinese
do to the improved breeds of white swine. They are undoubtedly an-
cestors of the Neapolitan breed. The hog of India, of which the Sia-
mese hog may be said to have been a representative, Avas in color from a
jet black to a dark slate, or rich plum color, of medium size, quick to ma-
ture ; very fine in all points, with short, small legs and head ; thin jowls, a
dished face, slender, erect ears; broad, deep, compact body, well rib
bed, heavy hams and shoulders ; slender tail, skin thin, but firm and
elastic to the touch.
V. English Breeds—The Berkshire.
The Berkshire is among swine what the thoroughbred is among horses — a
type of perfect breeding. The Berkshircs are noted for their fine bone,
great muscularity, firm flesh, and excellent hams and shoulders. Their
conutitutions are most excellent, and they are among the best of the im-
proved breeds as gleaners after fattening cattle. They require some-
what more feed in proportion to their weight than some of the breeds
abounding in lard and other fat ; but this is compensated for in the greater
proportion of lean meat and its excellent distribution.
BREEDS OF SWINE.
949
The fashionable color now is, black all over except the dish of the face,
the feet and the end of the tail, which are white. If there is white, no
CHAMPION BERKSHIRE SOW.
TOLA NT) CHINA
matter how small, on the body, discard such animas; a bluish spot or
tinge is not objectionable, but rather shows a strengthening of the blood
by revei-sion to the original cross. The points of the pure Berkshire
950
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR,
are ; Face short, fine and well dished ; generally broad between the eyes ;
ears almost erect, sometimes inclined forward with advancing age, always
smaP., thin, soft and showing veins; jowl full; neck short and thick;
shoulder short from neck, but moderately deep from back down ; back
broad and straight, or very little arched; ribs long and well sprung,
TAMWORTH BOAR.
giving rotundity of body; short ribs of good length, giving breadth and
levelness of loin ; hips good length from joint of hips to rump ; hams
thick, round and deep, holding their thickness well back and down to the
hocks ; tail fine and small, set on high up ; legs short and fine, but straight
and very strong, with hoofs erect and legs set wide apart ; size medium ;
length medium, since extremes are to be avoided; bone fine and compact;
offal very light; hair fine and soft; no bristles; skin pliable.
BREEDS OF SWINE.
951
VI. The Essex.
Thi^ ineainm to light weight English hreod is, to our nnnd, ono of the
^rv hcst of the hreeds ever introduced into the United States. They com-
bine great stamina and vigor of constitntion. They make excellent pork,
not too fat. The sows are prolific and are good nui-ses; and the barrows
fatten easily and kindly at any age. When mature they weigh about 300
pounds. They make excellent crosses on coarse swine, the pro-
duce being fine-boned, quiet, and easily fattened hog-s. The Essex, in
952 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE bTOCK DOCTOR.
shape and color, is not unlike the Berkshire, but larger proportionally.
The color is a pure, deep black ; face short and dished ; ears small, soft
and erect while young, but falling over somewhat with age ; the bone is
KSSEX SOW.
3ne, hair thin ; the carcass long, broad, straight and deep, with excellent
tjams, carrying meat fully down ne:ir the hock. Their great delicacy of
Torm is due to their crossing with the Neapolitan ; and except that (hey
ire better haired the cuts we give would not be bad rep'-esentations of
j&e breed.
BLACK DORSET SOW.
Vn. The Black Dorset.
The black swine of Dorsetshire, England, are a breed in high repute,
locally. They are represented na being strons-constitutioned, attaiaJD^
BREEDS OF SWINE. 953
heavy weights and fattening kindly. If the illi stration, reproduced from
an English cut, showing the hog in breeding f^esh is a good representation
of the breed, they ought to be valuable in the West. The great trouble
with our breeders is that they are working tfteir stock too fine. Many of
them have not head and jaw enough to perfectly grind corn. They have
too little hair, and their constitutions have suffered from too close breed-
ing, rendering them liable to disease. We believe the coming hog will be
the reverse of this.
Vm. The Suffolks.
The Suffolk is now regarded as only a variety of the Yorkshire, one of
the best of the English white breeds. The Manchesters, the Middlesex,
the Suffolk, the so-called Windsor, the Calehill and the Cheshire of New
York State have all been formed on the Yorkshire-Cumberland stock,
and the differences in all these breeds are trifling.
The characteristics of the Suffolks are given in the Swine Register as
follows: Head small, very short; cheeks prominent and f uL ; faco
dished ; snout small and very short ; jowl fine ; ears small, thin, upright,
soft and silky ; neck very short and thick, the head appearing almost a'^
if set on front of shoulders ; no arching of crest ; crest wide and deep ;
elbows standing out ; brisket wide, but not deep ; shoulders and crop-
shoulders thick, rather upright, rounding outward from top to elbows;
crops wide and full. Sides and flanks — ribs well arched out from back,
good length between shoulder and ham ; flank well filled out and coming
well down at ham. Back broad, level and straight from crest to tail, not
falling off or down at tail ; hams wide and full, well rounded out ; twist
very wide and full all the way down. Legs and feet — legs small and very
short, standing wide apart, in sows just keeping the belly from the ground •
bone fine; feet small, hoofs rather spreading; tail small, long and
tapering. Skin, hair, and color — skin thin, of a pinkish shade, free from
color ; hair fine and silky, not too thick ; color of hair pale yellowish
white, perfectly free from any spots or other color. Size small to
medium.
The principal objections to the Suffolk are ; They have too nmch fat ;
they are bad nurses ; the i)igs arc weak-, and they are subject to scrofula.
rx. The Yorkshire.
The Yorkshire is, to our mind, one of the very best of the English white
breeds. They are hardy, vigorous, and well-haired ; they arc prolific
and good nurses ; they are uniform in shape and color, and of any size
requisite, from 200 pound hogs up to heavy weights, according as you
select the small, the middle, or the large breed. The middle br^ed ie
y54 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
produced between the small York and the Cumberland. The large York-
shire attains heavy weights, while the middle breed is about the size and
weight of the Berkshire.
X. Lancashire Breeds.
This remarkable English breed is divided into three sub-families : The
short-faced, the middle breed and the large Lancashire ; the character-
GKUl P 1^(JLAND-CHIXA S\Vii\E
GROUP DLKOC-JEKSEY SWINE
istics and color (pure white) of each being constant. Over one hundred
years ago the large breed were cultivated in England, and are represented
as being of immense size, large-limbed and coarse-boned.
Short Faced Lancashire.— This breed is remarkable for the shortness
of the face from the eyes to the end of the snout ; prick ears ; small
bones ; a good coat of white hair ; cubic in form, with broad back and
BREEDS OF SWINE. 955
broad hams, well let down. The skin, as well as the hair, is white, al-
though !iu occasional one may De found having a few dark-blae spots on
the skin, but never dark or black hairs.
Lancashire Middle-Breed. — This breed is one which partakes of the
quality of the small breed and the size of the large breed. Middle bred
hogs are got by crossing large bred sows with small bred boars, but all
attempts to attain the same results by reversing this operation, and putting
large bred boars to small bred sows have proved failures. The largest of
the middle bred sows are used to improve the large breed. Their char-
acteristics are : The small bred hog must have small bones ; a short face ;
silky hair ; fine, small, upright ears ; a comparatively square form ; must
have good square hams, the most valuable part of the hog; must carry
the meat near tlic ground ; flat on the back ; straight and cubic in form.
Lancasllire Large Breed. — These hogs have large bones, are of great
height and length, and are the largest breed of swine known. They are
a true breed, and breed constant to color and characteristics. These are :
Large size, great length ; flat back, with large square hams when fattened ;
must carry tlicir width of back along over the hams ; must have deep and
tolerably straight sides, large feet and leg bones ; hair short ; may have
a long face, but it had better be short, as tliey fatten better ; may have
a large, drooping ear, but, other qualities and size being eciual, an
upright, smaller ear preferred. They usually have a long, thick, strong
tail ; must be of great weight when fattened, and above all must be des-
cended from a hog having the foregoing qualities, and, if a breeder, must
ptoduce them. They are short of hair, but still are hearty. A middle
bred hog must have a short face, and all other good (jualities of the small
breed, except tiiat they may be longer in proportion to their width ; must
have thicker legs and longer bones to carry the greater size ; should be
well haired.
XI. American Breeds.
The American breeds in best repute are: The Chester White, which
originated in rcnnsylvania ; the Poland-China, which originated in Ohio;
Jersey Reds, originated in New Jersey ; the Duroc, originated in New
York ; and Cheshire, originated in New York. These, however, as
previously stated, are only modified Yorkshires. Of those breeds the
Chester- VYhite and Poland-China have been most widely disseminated.
XH. The Chester White.
This breed originated in Chester County, Pa., and is recorded to have
been brought about as follows ; The first impulse to the improvement
of swine in that county vras given by the mtroduction of a pair of fine
pigs;, brought from Bedfordshire, England, by Capt. James Jeffries, and
956
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTORc
placed upon nis farm near the county seat, in 1818. Some of the enter-
prising farmers of the neighborhood were encouraged to commence the
improvement of their swine ; and by crossing tliese pigs upon the native
white hog of the county, their progeny with the best specimens attainable,
and by a course of careful and judicious crossing and selection for many
years, the present valuable breed of well formed, good sized, easily fat-
tened hogs, known as Chester Whites, was produced and made an estab-
lished breed.
The following are the characteristics of these hogs : Head, short and
broad between the eyes ; ears thin, projecting forward and k)i)ping at the
point ; neck short and thick ; jowl large ; body lengthy and deep ; back
BREEDS OF SWINE. 957
^Toad ; hams full and deep ; legs short, and well set under the body for
bearing the weight ; coat thin, white, and straight ; (if a little wavy it is
no objection) ; small tail and no bristles.
XIII. The Poland China.
There has been much controversy over the origin and improvement of
this breed of swine, and in some instances much acrimony. They have
nevertheless held their own among the reputable breeds of the West,
have been largely improved within the last fifteen years by infusion of
Berkshire blood, and are now probably more widely disseminated west
of the AUeghanies than any other breed except the Berkshires. The
American Swine Breeders' Association give their history and character-
istics as follows :
In 181G, the Shakers of Union Village, Warren county, O., purchased
at Philadelphia one boar and three sows, of what was, at the time, be-
lieved to be pure China. They were called Big China hogs. Subse-
quently other China hogs were introduced and extensively used. The
Shakers and other judicious breeders in Warren and Butler counties con-
tiimed to cross them with the Russian and Byfield blood, that had long
been in use there, and produced, by repeated crosses, a hog of exceedingly
fine qualities for that period, which was generally known as the Warren
county hog.
This condition of the breed continued until about the year 1835 or 1836,
when the Berkshires were introduced. Other lots of Berkshires contin-
ued to come into the Miami Valley until about 1841. The Berkshire
blood was liberally infused into the stock existing not only in Southwest-
ern Ohio, but in Kentucky also.
Crossing with the Berkshires was ahnost exclusively done until about
1838 or 1839, when Mr. William Neff, of Cincinnati, imported some
choice specimens of the Irish Grazier. This breed soon grew into high
favor, and, as a consequence, was liberally used in making crosses with the
best specimens of the crosses previously made. This crossing of breeds
continued for some time. In a few years, however, the use of the pure
l)looded Berkshire was entirely discontinued, and there were no further
importations made of the Irish Grazier.
For more than thirty years no new blood has been introduced into this
broed, and no effort made to obtain a new supply of the blood of either
breed previously used. While this is true, the breeders have net been in-
different to the further improvement of the breed.
The best specimens have good length ; short legs ; broad, straight backs :
deep sides, flanking well down on the leg ; very broad, full, square hams
ind shoulders ; drooping ears ; short heads, wide between the eyes, of
958
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
spotted or dark color; are hardy, vigorous, and prolific, and when fat
are models, combining the excellences of both large and small breeds.
DUROC JERSEY SOW.
It should be added, that the representation we give is that of a Poland-
China, combining the characteristics of both the white and black crosses.
The more fashionable color now is pure black, with minute white spots
BREEDS OF SWINE.
959
scattered more or less over the body,
with white fetlocks and hoofs.
The best strains now are pure black
XIV. The Cheshire.
This variety, undoubtedly only a modified Yorkshire, is said to have
originuted in Jefferson county, N. Y. They are pure white in color, with
little hair and a pink skin, thin and pliable, but not quite uniform, marked
distinctions sometimes being noticed ; and, like the Suffolks, the tails of
the 3 oung pigs often drop off. The snout is often long, but very slender
and fine. The jowls are plump, and the ear erect, fine, and thin. The
POLAND CHINA BOAR.
shoulders are wide and the hams full. The flesh of these hogs is fine-
grained, and they are commended on account of the extra amount of
mess-pork in proportion to the amount of offal. The probability is they
will never be very popular among the breeders in the West and South.
Yet, for fattening exclusively in the pen, there are few of the white
breeds that excel them.
XV. Jersey Red Swine.
The origin of this breed is not positively known. In some portions of
New Jersey they have been bred for over fifty years, and are there con^
sidered valuable. Their size is immense, a weight of 500 or 600 pounds
being not unusual. They are also hardy, strong in constitution, and
free from disease : and they are said not to be subject to mange. They
960
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
rary in color, in some neighborhoods being of a dark red, and in others
:^uite sandy patched with white. A good specimen of a Jersey Red
should be red in color with a snout of moderate length, large Jop-ears,
small head in proportion to the size and length of the body. They should
be long in the body, standing high and rangy on their legs ; bones coarse,
hairy tail and brush, and hair coarse, inclining to bristle on the back.
XVI Duroc Swine.
There is another breed of Red Swine named Durocs, which have been
bred rather extensively in Saratoga county, K. Y., and have been known
there for twenty-five years. They are finer in every respect than thft
Jersey Reds, and when mature attain great weights. They have been
hred in some sections of the West with satisfaction, are more uniform in
their make up, quite as good in their constitutir)ns. and much finer in
BREEDS OF SWINE. 961
their substance than the Jersey Reds. The origin of both the Jersey-
Reds and the Diirocs was undoubtedly in the old-fashioned Berkshire, a
sandy hog with more or less black. This was not unusual with the Berk-
shires as we knew them and bred them over fifty years ago — a hog in
every respect different from the elegant and finished swine of the last
quarter of a century.
XVII. Thin Rind or Hampshire Hog.
The propriety of this name, "Thin Rind," is due to the fact that the
hog has a mellow, thin skin and soft, silky hair. In this respect it differs
materially from the Jersey Red, the Tamworth, and other popular breeds.
The name ''Hampshire" is due to the fact that the hog was a native of
Hampshire, England, early in the last century. Their first importation
to this country dates back to about 1825, when a sea captain living near
Boston, Mass., brought some of the pigs from England to Massachusetts
where they became popularly known as "Thin Rinds." By this name
it has long been known in Kentucky and it has been assumed that it
came from the same source as the McKay pigs imported to M^issachusetts.
Major Joel Garnett, a wealthy and highly intelligent farmer in Kentucky,
in 1835 purchased in the East and carried tc^ Kentucky a small herd
which increased, and it became popular in that agricultural state. It is
a fact that authorities differ in reference to the ancestry of this pig —
some claiming that the original importation was from Tonquin, China,
and that this importation was made by a noted New Orleans merchant.
It is a singular fact that the early English writings make no mention of
this breed,
Descriptionally, the head of the Thin Rind is of the straight faced
type of medium size and with light jowl. The ears are erect but inclined
slightly forward. The back is of only medium width — not thick but
fairly well supported. The shoulders are light and well set in, and have
fair width. The body has only moderate depth and length as a whole,
but produces a fair side for bacon. The hams do not possess the thick-
ness and depth of the more popular Ainerican breeds, as they are lacking
in fullness. They are somewhat long of leg, but the bone is of good
quality and the pasterns and toes are usually well placed. The color of
the Thin Rind is usually black with always the white belt about the body.
The width of this white band is from 4 to 12 inches wide, encircling the
body just back of the fore legs and front of the hind legs.
While the list will long be retained by many of the breeders as the most
fashionable color, there are also those who try to run their herds pure
black. The breeding of the blacks is thought to be a necessity. Other-
wise, a list of hogs would begin to show too much white, and the breeding
of the blacks is to avoid narrowing the belt. The Thin Rind pig is only
962 CYCLOPEDIA OP LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
about medium size and, hence, cannot be placed among the largest breeds.
A weight of 500 pounds is sometimes attained by the boars, though they
are usually smaller. In ordinary condition, the full-grown sow will
weigh about 300 pounds. Barrows often weigh 300 to 400 pounds in
high flesh. In a recent International Live Stock Exposition in Chicago,
the first prize, five Thin Rinds, averaged 493 pounds each at 18 months
of age, and one of these won the championship in the slaughter test.
A superior characteristic of the Thin Rind pig, is its fecundity. The
sows under favorable conditions, will usually farrow litters of ten or
twelve pigs, and they make excellent mothers and nurses. In this respect
they rank well up with the most prolific breeds of American ancestry.
The use of the pure-bred boar on good sows will result in a most prolific
stock, with a decided leaning toward the bacon type. Thin Rind boars
of superior quality should add vigor and killing quality to the off-spring
of a certain class of high-classed sows of pronounced chunky type.
In Kentucky and elsewhere, the Thin Rind as a grazer ranks high,
where pigs range more or less for mast, and seek for feed in field and
forest. It is this quality, together with that of fecundity, which add
to the popularity of the breed where known.
It is an admitted fact that the quality of the Thin Rind meat is dis-
tinctively superior. The. breed belongs to the bacon cldss. When per-
sistently fed corn for generations it, however, loses some of its bacon-
producing character. Still, in the slaughter test, these pigs have made a
good showing. At a recent International Live Stock Exhibit in Chicago,
the second prize, for both pens of five barrows of bacon type, and for
carcass, weighing 300 pounds or over, was awarded Thin Rind Barrows,
exhibited by Mr. Goodwine of Illinois. Two years later, Mr. E. C. Stone
won the Championship in barrow class, over all breeds.
The Thin Rind meat is of most excellent grain, and has a desirable
proportion of lean to fat.
In Boon county, Kentucky, six farmers organized a farming organiza-
tion to promote the Thin Rind interest, under the name of "The Ameri-
can Thin Rind Record Association." They have produced about twelve
herds of this breed that are eligible for registration, and these are located
mainly in Kentucky and Indiana. The distribution of the Thin Rind
breed is not extensive. The popularity of the breed has gained percepti-
bly in recent years.
XVIII. Summary of Breeds.
The English breeds of to-day that have been received with the most
general favor in the United States are: First, the Berkshire, next the
Essex, and third the Yorkshire. The Berkshire will weigh at full matu-
rity 500 pounds, and the Essex 400 pounds. In exceptional cases they
BREEDS OF SWINE. 963
will average these weights. 350 pounds for Berkshire and 250 for Essex
may be taken as good weights.
The Yorkshires in their three classes — small, medium and large — will
weigh 250 pounds for the small, 350 pounds for the medium and up to 450
pounds for the large breed. They may, of course, be made to weigh much
heavier at maturity if fully fat, and so may the other breeds mentioned.
The so-called Prince Albert Suffolks are simply modified small Yorkshires,
and the same may be said of the other sub-families called Suffolks. All
these sub-breeds, including the Yorkshires, are pure white, and dark hair
is not allowable, but bluish flesh marks or spots are not objectionable ; on
the contrary, they are an indication of purity of blood.
The most widely distributed of American breeds are: First, the Poland-
China, and second the Chester county hogs. Well to the North the latter
have been more widely disseminated than the former. In all the great
corn growing region of the West, it may be safely said the Polands are
the favorite of American breeds. The Jefferson county, the Jersey Reds
and the Durocs, have never become widely known. We do not think the
first has anything to recommend it over the small Yorkshire. They seem
to have been too closely interbred, like particular families of Suffolks, a
thing that should be especially guarded against in swine, since they are
inclined more or less to scrofula and other cutaneous and sub-cutaneous
diseases. For this reason, the Jersey Reds and Durocs, as being especially
free from those taints, have been received with favor, growing year by
year, and stand to-day the peer of any of the superior breeds of swine.
CHAPTER m.
THE BREEDING AND CARE OF HOQ8.
I. PRACTICAL VALUE OP IMPROVED BREEDS. II. CARE IN SELECTION. III. AGE
OF BREEDING SWINE. IV. HOW TO SELECT BREEDING ANIMALS. V. FORM
AND FEEDING QUALITIES. VI. THE CARE OP BREEDING STOCK. VII. FAR-
ROWING. VIII. WEANING THE PIGS. IX. CASTRATION. X. GESTATION
OF SOWS. XI. NECESSITY OF GOOD CARE. XII. RINGING A HOG.
I. Practical Value of Improved Breeds.
In no department of stock breeding has the value of superior breeds
been more fully asserted than in the breeding of swine. Cheap food and
the improvement of breeds have already made the West and Southwest the
great s\vine-breeding and swine-feeding regions of the world, and eventually
the Northwest and the South will share equalW in the profits of these great
industries. In all the West and Northwest, it is now difficult to find a f armei
who has not swine of some one of the improved breeds. When the South,
also, shall have taken hold of the business, in the extension of a di-
versified agriculture, millions of dollars will have been added to the wealth
of that section. From what Ave have said in the preceding chapter, it
should not be difficult for the young breeder to work undcrstandingl}' and
profitably. Nor can success be achieved by selecting a good breed,
and starving the hogs, or allowing them to shift for themselves.
Hogs of the improved breeds are not so well able to take care of
themselves as those of a half-wild breed, but well cared for they
will pay fifty per cent, in profit over the other breed, for the grain
fed. Why ? They are more quiet, and assimilate their food more
perfectly. This is all there is to any superior breed of any farm
stock, if we add that the flesh is better laid on in the prime parts.
n. Care in Selection.
However good the breed, if care is not taken in the selection, or coup-
ling of animals, degeneration of the offspring will inevitably result.
This is true of all animals. But care in .selection is even more clearly
shown to be necessary in planting grains and vegetables, for the reason
that weeds, poverty of soil, and the sowing of imperfect seed, react at
once on the product. Hence the reason why seedsmen make fortunes io
964
2.0
THE BREEDmO AND CARE OF HOGS.
gelling improved seed that have been grown on rich soil, carefully selected,
aud all undersized seed screened out. Exactly the same care is necessary
with breeding stock. . Keep this up to the mark at any cost; those ani-
mals that do not come up to the standard can be used for food. Never
sell the best seeds, nor the best animals, whatever may be offered ; they
are worth as much to you as any one else.
m. Age of Breeding Swine.
The boar is capable of coupling at from six to eight months old, but it
IS better that he be at least ten months of age before being allowed to
serve. The sow is capable of breeding at seven or eight months old, but
TAMWORTH SOW.
it Is better that she shall not drop her first litter until she is thirteen to
fifteen months old.
Two litters of pigs each year is till the sow should be allowed to raise,
and the best breeders are content with one litter a year. If the sow has
a warm place for farrowing, the earlier in the season the pigs are pro-
duced, the greater is the profit from them. If they come the first of
March, and are well fed until the new year, there is little difficulty in
making them average 250 pounds each, and such pigs should bring fully
one cent a pound more than hogs wintered once and weighing perhaps
fifty pounds more. The profitable plan with swine of any breed is to push
their fattening from the time they are born until they are killed, fcr with
swine, as with other farm stock, the daily increase in flesh becomes less
and less as the animal increases in age.
966 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AXD COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
IV. How to Select Breeding Animals.
In the selection of stock for breeding, look first to constitutional vigor.
Without this, no matter what the beauty of form may be, disaster will be
brought to the herd. Next examine the form with reference to what you
require. Then the question of early maturity and aptitude to fatten will
be important. Then constancy of characteristics as shown in the pro-
geny must be attended to, since this shows a perfect line of superior breed-
ing, most valuable in any kind of farm animals. In all farm animals
tractability and quietness of disposition are essential. In swine this is
especially so. The subject of uniformity in the progeny is referred to
in cattle under the title "heredity." It is worth reading again in con-
nection with swine.
V. Form and Feeding Qualities.
Once you have secured an improved breed, or if you have made one by
judicious crossing and selection, not only hold it so, but continue to im-
prove it. Careful selection of animals that show the best points, is the
important integer here, and the fixing them by breeding such animals
A GROUP OF CHESTER WHITE BOARS.
together in connection with good shelter and feeding is another. The
best breed that ever existed, if they do not die in the degenerating pro-
cess, will, if they must shift for themselves half the year, with barely
enough to keep life in them the other half, soon come to look like the
picture of "a back-Avoods hog," or that of the "prairie ranger." We see
THE BREEDING AND CARE OF HOQS.
967
them every aay even in the best farming regions, among that class -"vho
have "no luck" in raising "critters." Why should they? They are de-
generating, themselves, every day in the effort to get "something for
nothing," or else for less than its value.
VI. The Care of Breeding Stock.
In a general way the same principles laid down for the care of other
farm stock will apply to swine. There is one thing of special importance,
however, in l)rccding swine, that must not he overlooked. That is the
care that must be taken in not breeding too closely in-and-in. We have
lUOKKSIilKK
shown in another part of this work that the tendency of this close breed-
ing is to render the constitution delicate, and hence the vigor of the ani-
mal must suffer. Swine are especially susceptible to scrofula and other
blood diseases, and also to inflammatory diseases. In-and-in breeding is
apt to exaggerate these constitutional disabilities. For this reason special
care must be taken, not only in the breeding, but in selecting for breed-
ing purposes only those that show superior constitutional vigor. If you
see a pig in a litter free from cough, that is superior in growth, and shows
great constitutional vigor, save him or her by all means, for further
examination. Save all such, and you will soon have stock superior to that
oiigiuaily bought ; for the breeder of pure stock sells all indiscriminately,
968 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
except such as are actually? deformed, or so far from the type that even
the ignoraot wiJl notice the fault. They must do so, or else sell at such
prices as to place stock out of the reacb of all but the most wealthy.
Once a breeder finds an animal right in every respect, some hundreds, or
even a thousand, dollars over the usual price of a/erage specimens of a
breed is readily paid. Hence, in starting out, if your stock is not perfect
you can easily improve it by selection ar^d care in breeding. It is the
object of this book to give the mass of fani:ers definite information on
these points. The best breeders are already informed, and fully alive to
their value.
Vn. Parrowing.
In regard to farrowing, the farmer must be guided by circumstances. If
the sows are expected to produce two litters of pigs a year, the tirst Lit-
ter must come as early as March, so that the ner.* I'Kver may come early
enough in the autumn for the pigs to be wear d aiid feeding before cold
weather sets in.
When farrowing is expected in cold v. eat her, a place warmed by tire
heat must Ue. provided, and the sow, espv'-^.iily if it be a yczif/. or^e, I'L'jM
be allowed perfect quiet. A temperature of not less than fzisty-^ve de-
grees is necessaiy unil?. the pigs are properly dried and take the teats.
After that, they \Till do we?l under a temperature at night of s'^out fifty
degrees, yet sixty .vill be found better, for there is nothing more tender,
or more susceptible to cold than a i;8wly bom pig, unless it be a young
lamb. The sow having farrowed all right, she will generally take
the boar again when the pigs are three or four days old. if aou
she will not come in heat until after the pigs are ?reaned.
VUL Weaning the Pigsi
The pig is bom with teeth that will be ready to grind its food by the time
It is two months old. We have always weaned at sis weeks old, so far as
spring pigs were concerned, allowing plenty of skimmed milk and butter
milk, mixing, at seven or eight weeks old, a fair proportion of corn meal
mush, or, better, light wheat and rye screenings ground together. Give
them grass, also, as soon as they will eat it, and at three months old they
may be put on clover and whole, or, better, soaked com.
IX. Castration.
Pigs should be castrated at from two to three weeks old j never delay
it longer than the age of four weeks ; since they require fully three weelis
to recover from its effects before being weaned.
THE BREEDING AND CASE OP HOfSS. 969
Castration h a simple operation. Let an a^stant hold the pig on its
back, with its head and shoulders between his knees and with tiio legs
spread apart. With a sharp knife, cut down into the scrotum and tiiroagh
th:; tesJcle, press it out from the integuments, separate this from the tcs-
ticl and with a jerk break the ooi"d j or the cord may be cut with a dull
p.lr of shears to prevent bleeding. The pigs will generally do well enough,
t^iough there is no objection to introducing a little melted h:rd and salt
into the wound. If there is a-welUng the second day, inject into the cavity
tt Jiale tincture of myrrh.
7L Gestation of Sows.
Gestation in the sow is accomplished in three months, three weeks and
three days, as the average time. There is a vanation sometin co ai twenty
and even thirty days. Young or weak sows carry their young i^ shorter
period than older and stronger ones. Once you get a good breeding sow,
keep her as long as possible, since young sows are often bad mothers. A
sow will remain prolific for about eight years, unless she becomes over-
ioaded with fat, and this must be guarded against.
XI. Necessity of Qood Care.
Swine have naturally but little hair, aiid artificial breeding has nearly
destroyed what little they originally had. To supply this lack, nature has
given them a thick layer of fat next the skin, when in good condition.
Hence the necessity, not only of good feeding, but also of warm quarters
and a good bed to lie in. Mature has also given them the instinct to
curry together plenty of material for maidng their own beds, and also
to lie together in families for mutual warmth. Knowing these facts, it
should not be difficult for the sagacious farmer so to provide them with
food and quarters, that they may be comfortable. If this is not done,
and considerable numbers are kept together, they will *'pne up" in cold
nights so that in the morning the owner may have a chance to dx&g out
some hogs dead from smothering. For when swine are piled up two or
three thick, the under layer have no longer the power to move if they
should try.
Xn. BiGging a Hog.
We do not believe in ringing swine, except fattening stock and those
fed in the fields with a view to fattening. We believe it one of the most
prolitic causes of disease and contagion, especially in preventing them from
getting their natural food. Breeding stock should never have rings in their
noses, at least until tbey are ready to be turned out for fattening.
970 CYCLOrEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Nevertheless, we suppose many will not think so. We have reference to
the old fashioned way of hampering a hog for ringing, and also the ring;
now-a-(lays jiatcnt I'ings and riiiLi,iii,u- [>incers render the process more easy.
¥^MJ^/M
n
HH
^f .W^^^^^^v
t^-^ —
*s,..V- .-.:_-
■ -i
)i;i:OC JERSEY sow^-
The old method wa.s both clumsy and cruel; and excc})t when necessary
rings of every kind should be discarded.
('UKSTKU wniTK noATl.
A hog that is turned out to fora.ge in the woods on mast and roots
should not, of course, be ringed; for he then needs free use of his snout
which is the means nature provides him with for getting food. The reason
why breeding swine should not be ringed is, that the natural exercise of
rooting, and the food they get in this way, are necessary to develop consti-
tutional vigor and perfect health, so important in all breeding stock. This
point is touched upon more fully elsewhere.
CHAPTER IV.
THE FEEDING AND SHELTERING OF SWINE.
I. FEED THE BREEDERS FOR HEALTH.- — — II. THE PROPER FOOD FOR SWINE.
III. SUMMER FEEDING FOR PORK. IV. GRASSES AND CLOVERS. V. ROOTS.
VI. GRAIN THE MAIN RELIANCE. VII. FEEDING IN THE FIELDS. VIII.
GLEANING IN THE FIELDS AND AFTER CATTLE. IX. VALUE OF MAST FOR
HOGS. X. HOG-FEEDING IN THE SOUTH. XL FEEDING IN CLOSE PENS.
XIL HOG- BARNS. XIIL THE BEST FORM OF HOG BARN. XIV. COMPARATIVE
VALUE OF LIGHT AND HEAVY HOGS. XV. ECONOMY OF FULL FEEDING FROM
BIRTH. XVL MIXED RATIONS FOR HOGS. XVII. GRAIN SHOULD BE GROUND.
XVIIL WET FEED BETTER THAN DRY. XIX. COOKING FOOD. XX. FEED-
ING POTATOES. XXL PUMPKINS FOR HOGS. XXIL CONCLUSION.
I. Peed the Breeders for Health.
The only profit that can accrue from the care and management of swine
lies in the vahie of their flesh as food, and in the offal for grease and in
the arts. Hence the greatest profit — except in rare cases, where they
have an unlimited forest range — lies in forcing their feeding to fatness,
from birth until they are slaughtered. True economy will dictate that
they have the warmest possible shelter in winter, and that they be
kept cool in summer, with some place where they may escape from in-
sect enemies, and with range suflScient for them to exercise their instinct
of rooting for such underground vegetation as their natures may require.
This promotes health and strengthens their constitutions.
The above applies especially to the breeding stock. Those animals
which are intended for fattening — and whose lives should not extend be-
yond fifteen months at most — do not require all this. If the breeding
stock have been kept healthy they will transmit health to their offspring.
I lielieve that the purely artificial breeding and feeding of breeding stock,
the indiscriminate ringing, the absence of roots, and the feeding of breedino-
animals almost exclusively on corn, have, in many cases, so enfeebled the
constitution of swine that they have Ijecome an easy pre}'- to the various epi-
demic and contagious diseases that, of late years, have carried off so
many. And I believe, also, that the utmost care will be necessary in the fu-
ture to guard against this disability. And any common-sense man may see
that the breeding animals are so few in proportion to the slaughtering
swine, that it is true economy for every breeder to spare no pains in pro-
viding for this class of stock diversified food Avhich they crave, and which,
is necessary to make sound and vigorous constitutions.
Remember that swine — like man — are universal feeders, and that if
allowed to be so, few animals are more cleanly in their habits. They wal-
971
972 CYCLOPEDIA OF IIVE STOCK AND COMFjLETE STOCK DOCTOB.
low ill the mud, at times, it is true, but a mud bath is nature's specifio
for scurvy and other skin diseases. Svvmc, also, take a mud bath as
refui!:e fi-oni insects ; nevertheless they are cai-eful, if allowed, to thor-
oughly (!lean themselves, when drj- , against the rubbing post.
II, The Proper Pood for Swine.
Swine eat fewer varieties of ncrbs and grass than any other animal. Pig-
weed (^amaranth), pursley [portulacca ) and various other succulent plants,
with the common pasture grasses, and red and white clover are about
the only ones swine Avill feed on. Artichokes and various tuberous and
bulbous roots, many insects — especially the larvoa of the May beetle, and
the white grub of our pastures — frogs, and such small animals as they i an
kill, together with all the edible grains, and culinary vegetables, consti-
tute their natural food. In fact, they eat few substances that would be
injurious to man. Such, then, is their proper food — so far as it may be
obtained — if the highest constitutional vigor is to be preserved in the
breeding stock. If they are allowed a fair range on clover, including the
gleaning of grain fields in summer; and if a good supply of pumpkins,
and the refuse fruit of the farm be allowed them in autumn ; and if in
the winter they be allowed daily rations of artichokes, small potatoes,
parsnips or carrots, they may have, in addition, what grain they need to
keep them in full flesh — not fat. If this course of feeding were gener-
ally adopted for the breeding stock, we should in a few ^^ears hear but
little of the epidemics which periodically sweep the s^ine away by thous-
ands. But as long as there are so many breeders who never look beyond
present profits, these epidemics will probably continue to be bred among
the herds of this class to scatter the germs far and wide.
m. Smmner Feeding for Pork.
We now come to the care of fattening stock. The pigs having been
weaned, as already directed, give them the run of a clover pasture ; and,
while we object to the ringing of breeding stock, with those intended for
fattening it is, perhaps, less objectionable than the tearing up of the graz-
ing fields. But if the grazing fields are infested with the larvse of the
May beetle or similar insects, the fattening hogs may as well be allowed to
root as much as they want to. There is no cheaper way of ridding the
land of these pests.
In addition to clover, give the young pigs all the milk and other slops
of the house, and also give what corn they will eat ; older pigs will do
well enough on clover and corn, without the slops. Whether the grain
shall be ground, or ground and cooked, will depend entirely on the price,
We have always found whole grain the cheapest, except for finishing off.
THE FEEDING AND SHELTERING OF SWINE. 973
when the price of corn was fifty cents per bushel or less ; and here again
economy will depend more or less upon the facilities for grinding and for
cooking.
rv. Grasses and Clovers.
The main aependence for grazing will be blue grass, orchard grass,
and red and white clover. Alfalfa — wherever it will grow — cut
green, makes an excellent supplementary food, when swine get used to
it ; and field peas cut just before they shell are excellent for hogs.
V. Roots.
Artichokes, potatoes, ruta-bagas, parsnips, carrots, and beets, are
readily eaten by swine, and are preferred in the order named. We have
successfully wintered store hogs entirely on ruta-bagas with the addition
of a little meal. Artichokes are a cheap and excellent root food, if the
swine are allowed to gather them themselves in the autumn and spring.
VI. Grain the Main Reliance.
Grain, however, is, in the West, the cheapest food and the main de-
pendence of the farmer. The other foods are useful mainly for keeping
the animal in good health and digestion ; for, without sound health and good
digestion, no animal can be made fully fat. In the fall there is no better
food than pumpkins and grain boiled together ; and if the pumpkins are
protected from frost, swine may be carried in this way until Christmas
and made fully fat.
VII. Feeding in th.e Fields.
In all the great com region of the West and South, field-feeding wil^
lon«- continue to be the favorite way of fattening hogs. It is cleanly, and,
where grain is cheap, economical. It is only necessary to see that the
ho^-s are made comfortable by shelter from storms and cold weather, and
that they have plenty of pure water. This is so easy to do that the mere
mention of it will suffice.
vm. Gleaning in the Fields and after Cattle.
Swine should always have the run of the grain fields after harvest, if
possible. In this way they save all the grain dropped in harvesting, and,
most important, they get a variety of herbage, which they could not other-
wise obtain. It should, of course, not interfere with their getting full
rations of grain, and plenty of pure water for drinking must be provided,
for swine are thirsty animals ; and attention to providing a dark place
where they may escape msects must not be forgotten.
974 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE 8TOCK DOCTOR.
So, in feeding cattle, swine should glean what is left. One or two
hogs should follow each steer or cow, according to how much grain is fed
to the hogs in addition. Our plan always was, to allow two hogs to each
steer, and then at night to give the hogs what extra corn they would eat.
rX. Value of Mast for Hogs.
This will depend upon the range and the number of nut^producing trees.
When a suitable range is to be had it should always be used, especially for
breeding hogs, and young swine. For fattening, it will only be available
in extensive forest districts, and for half-wild swine. In any event, hogs
fed on mast should be allowed full feeds of grain for at least three weeks
before slaughtering.
X. Hog Feeding in the South.
Swine-feeding can be prohtably conducted on a large scale at the South,
only in the more temperate regions where corn may be economically
grown. There is, however, still so much forest area there, that it should
be made use of to the fullest extent for hog pasture, on account of the
natural roots, the wild fruit and the mast. The supplementary food
must depend, as it does everywhere else, on the cost. If it has to be
bought, corn and mill feed will be found the cheapest. Every planter
should raise and cure enough hogs to furnish pork, bacon ard hams
for his home use. I. will be found, in nearly every instance, cheaper than
to buy the bacon and pork already prepared.
XI. Feeding in Close Pens.
In all cases, where few pigs are kept, or where only the family supplies
of pork are fattened — especially when the fattening pigs are bought in the
spring — it is cheapest to feed in close pens. These should always be in
two apartments, one closed in for sleeping, and the other an open plat-
form for feeding. A pen twelve by sixteen Avill accommodate six large
hogs ; and this will allow the sleeping room to be 8 by 12, and the feed
room the same size. In every case where hogs are to be kept and fattened
in cold weather, warm sleeping places must be provided ; and evei where
large numbers of hogs were kept to be fed fully fat, we have found the
plan of close pens to be most economical in the end.
XII. Hog Bams.
When many hogs are kept, a permanent structure should be built for
fattening and wintering them. The simplest form of a hog barn is alow
buildino", with ranges of pens on each side of a four-foot passage way,
the sides being divided into pens eight feet square. This would give
twenty feet for the width of the building. In the middle, a twenty-foot
room should be left for the boiler, and for the storage of feed. The
THE FEEDING AND SHELTERING OF SWINE. 975
sleeping apartments may be lean-to structures, back of the feeding rooms,
and with a door to each, hung on hinges at the top, so it may easily
swing either way when a hog pushes it. The pens must be cleaned into
a wheelbarrow, rolled along the passage on a running way laid for dump-
ing directly upon the compost heap.
Xm. The Best Form of Hog Bam.
The best form of hog burn we have ever used was a central building,
twenty-four feet square and two stories high ; the upper stories arranged
with bins for meal, and a corn crib, with chutes running below. The
twelve-foot square in the center of the lower story is used exclusively for
the cooking apparatus, the first range of pens adjonnng being for breeding
sows and the younger pigs, since it is the warmest part of the building.
Thence wings extend on each of the four sides, as in the plan of a hog
barn first described, except that this being intended for both winter and
summer feeding, a door communicating from the sleeping pens to a
yard beyond should be added.
In this way we have kept five hundred hogs, and, by proper attention
to their feeding and sanitary condition, alwavs breeding our own stock
with but slight loss from epidemics. The water supply was ample and
pure. The pens were kept regularly washed; the offal was carried, to
the compost heap and covered regularly with earth ; and the hogs had
always by them ashes and salt, and also a supply of bituminous coal
slack. For cut of hog barn, see page 980.
XIV. Comparative Value of. Light and Heavy Hogs.
We have heretofore shown that an animal, if allowed to lose flesh when
growing, does so at the ex}3ense of ultimate profits. This is especially
true of swine. No feeder can afford to winter pigs with a view of gettincr
heavy weights, unless under exceptional circumstances. It costs too
much. Hogs weighing from 400 to 600 pounds will not bring so much
per pound as lighter fat hogs, and with hogs as with other stock, every
year they are kept their daily gain becomes less and less.
Hogs weighing 200 pounds, or theresbout, will bring more money in any
market than those of any other weight ; for hogs of this weight cut up
better into hams, bacon, and family side pork, than heavier ones. No
one wants a ham, for instance, tliat will weigh twenty-five to thirty
pounds ; there is too much fat on it for the lean. Thick bacon does not
sell well, for very fat bacon is not liked. Hogs if properly fed may be
turned off weighing 200 to 250 pounds at nine months old; and under
ordinary good feeding, at ten or eleven months old. We have
976 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
raised pigs, farrowed in March, that in the succeeding January killed to
dress up to 380 pounds, and have turned them off several times, that, at
ten months old, would average 300 pounds alive.
To put the thing in a nut-shell, it is altogether cheaper to feed three
pigs to 200 pounds each at nine months old, than it is to feed a hogthree
years to make him weigh 600 pounds ; and again, if the pigs are worth
six cents a pound alive, it is $3(5 ; the 600 pound hog will not then bring
more than five cents, or $30, and has eaten more corn than the three
lighter hogs.
XV. Economy of Pull Feeding from Birth.
It should be remembered that it takes a certain percentage of the
food to supply daily animal waste. The young animal converts into flesh
more of the food given than a full grown one ; no matter how long the
animal is kept the daily waste goes on constantly. Hence, it should re-
quire no argument to show that. the true economy is to feed stroLg from
birth, if the object be simply to sell the animal when fat. When
fat, sell at once, unless the state of the market is such that it wil'j pay to
hold for a time. Above all, do not allow the animal to fall away at any
stage of growth, since it must be brought '.vi,ck at an increased cost of
food over that originally given, to bring it '.o tLfc condition at which it be-
gan to fail.
XVI. Mixed Rations for Hogs.
To determine the feeding value of a mixed grain ration as comj. ired
with one of a single kind of grain, numerous experiments have been con-
ducted, and in every case the results favor a mixed ration. This is one
strong reason why a superior quality of pork can be produced in the
Northwest, where such a large variety of grains and forage plants can be
grown.
In corn-growing sections there is a disposition to feed corn almost ex-
chisively on account of its cheapness, its fattening qualities, and the relish
with which it is eaten. While in many sections we can not grow corn
successfully as a grain crop, we can grow a long list of other cereals, such
as oats, barley, wheat, millet and rye; and we can grow them cheaply
with very little danger of failure. As no artificial fertilizer is needed to
grow these crops in the Northwest, the cost of production is low enough
to make them cheap stock foods. A mixture of chopped wheat, oats, and
shorts will give better results than a single grain of any sort, not excepting
corn. A mixture of this kind is usually cheaper than wheat alone, and
will produce better gains. Chopped oats should not be fed alone. The
hulls interfere verv^ materially with its value as food for hogs. They do
not enjoy the hulls, and will refuse to eat the oats quicker than any other
THE FEEDING AND SHELTERING OF SWINE. 97(7
grain except bran, which they do not relish, principally for the same
reason. Chopped bai'ley and shorts make a good combination for feeding.
A small amount of bran can be used to good advantage when mixed with
other grains. Shorts alone will not furnish mineral matter enough for
growing pigs.
XVII. Grain Should be Ground.
Small grain should be crushed or ground for hogs. When fed whole
there is less gain to amount of food consumed, and the total gain in a
given time will be less. It is a too common practice among farmers in
this section to follow slovenly methods in feeding stock. Instead of
getting a few feet of cheap lumber for a floor on which to feed, or making
a few troughs, whole grain is strewn on the ground for the hogs to gather
up as best they may. Often the rainy season begins before the hogs are
sold ; then the feed yard becomes a slough of mud, out of which the ani-
mals work very assiduously to gather their daily food. This may be an
extreme picture, but who has not seen it many times in this Western
country ?
In feeding experiments it was found that it required 1.2 pounds more
of whole wheat and oats to produce a pound of gain in live weight than
it did with ground grain fed under the same conditions. In many cases
the excreta were examined to determine the amount of undigested whole
wheat present, and it was found that as much as 50 per cent passed off
unmasticated. This condition was more marked when the grain was fed
dry, but at all times there was a very great loss.
XVIIT. Wet Feed Better than Dry.
Hogs relish a moist diet better than a dry one, and will give better
returns for the same food ted after soyking a few hours than when fed
dry. Soaking grain from twelve to twenty-four hours pays well for the
extra trouble in preparing the food. The old practice of permitting the
feed to ferment and become a source of great annoyance, on account of
the offensive odor it gives off, is no longer followed by the intelligent
feeder.
XIX. Cooking Food.
The practice of cooking grain for hogs has long since been discouraged
as of doubtful economical value. Pound for pound, the raw grain will
give the best results, and when the extra cost of cooking is taken into
account, the results are very much in favor of feeding the grain raw. In
case of vegetables it is quite different ; for the feeding value as well as the
palatability of most vegetables is improved by cooking.
978 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
XX. Feeding Potatoes.
Very often potatoes become so cheap, on account of an increased supply,
that it would pay better to feed them to hogs than to sell them on the
market. Hogs can be made to gain rapidly on a ration of cooked potatoes
to which is added shorts, chopped wheat, oats or barley. In experiments
conducted at the Oregon station, pigs made a daily gain of 1.3 pounds
on an average ration of 12.4 pounds of potatoes, and 2.8 poimds
of chopped oats and shorts mixed half and half. The results of experi-
ments indicate that the value of potatoes for feeding to hogs is about 10
cents per bushel. This value will vary, however, under varying condi-
tions of market and methods of feeding.
XXI. Pumpkins for Hogs.
Not much has been done in an experimental way in feeding pumpkins
to hogs, but in practice many farmers in the West feed pumpkins very
successfully. Experiments were carried on at the government station
to determine the value of pumpkins as a part ration for hogs, with the
following results: They were fed from October 10 to December 25.
The pumpkins were cooked and shorts were added to make the food
palatable. The hogs gained 499 pounds, and consumed 7,523 pounds
of pumpkins and 924 pounds of shorts. Placing the pumpkins at $2.50
per ton, and the shorts at $12 per ton, the total cost would be $14.94.
This makes the cost of 100 pounds of gain in live weight $2. This is the
cheapest pork produced from any combination of food materials tested
at the Oregon station. The pumpkins were valued at the estimated cost
of production. The pork produced by this feed was pronounced first-
class for bacon purposes. The hogs were healthy and were never off
their feed throughout the feeding period.
XXII. Conclusion.
Hogs free from disease. — Hogs in the Northwest are generally very
free from disease. Hog cholera is practically unknown in Oregon, Wash-
ington, and Idaho. No well-defined cases have, so far as we are aware,
developed within this region, although cases have been reported where
hogs were imported from cholera-infected districts in the Eastern States.
Our methods of feeding, together with a greater variety of food material,
is conducive to the health of the animals. The comparatively small
proportion of com fed is an advantage to health. Corn, being a highly
carbonaceous food, induces more animal heat, and should be mixed with
some food rich in protein to give the best results, both as affecting the
health of the animals and the quality of the product. Where wheat,
THE FEEDING AND SHELTERING OF SWINE.
979
oats, barley, peas, alfalfa, and clover, constitute the chief food supply,
there is little danger of disease.
ProspGCt of the industry. — In conclusion it may be said that there is a
broad field for the farmers of the Pacific Northwest to occupy in pro-
ducing a superior article of bacon and other pork products. The climatic
and feed conditions are the very best that can be found for producing a
grade of pork which can not be excelled in the world.
VICTORIA BOAR.
There is not a day in the year, over large areas in this section, when
hogs can not have some form of green succulent food. Pastures of clover,
grasses, and annual plants can be provided that furnish a large amount
of food which, supplemented with a small ration of grain, will produce a
superior article of meat products. The foreign as well as the domestic
market demands a better pork product, especially in the hams and bacon.
With good blood in the herd as the first essential, and then a proper
food supply, the results will be wholly satisfactory.
980
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Paralysis behind, "downers": — Pour a tablespoonful of turpentine
across the loins once a day for several days. Give coperas and sulphur, a
tea^poonful of each for three successive days and repeat in a few days if
necessary. Prevention : Give all of the soft coal, charcoal, etc., that they
A^ant to eat.
Sows Eating their Pigs:— This is due to a depraved appetite while in a
delirious condition brought on by parturition. All sows are apt to do it
during the first few hours following delivery. The only remedy is to
watch her during delivery and remove them as fast as they come, and put
them in to her to nurse at intervals of two hours, watching them closely,
then remove them. Conthuie this for three or four days, when the danger
of eating them will have passed.
21 .
L
22 _
23 .
24
®
A
25
26
17
28
12
10
T 35
J6
i 34
f J f--
i 33
29
1
30
31
32
4
3 1
r
2
;• 1
Hon HOUSE.
For description see page 975
Thumps in Pigs:— Separate from the rest, feed liquid food and give
about five gr. of tinct. of digitalis twice a day.
Black Teeth:— These are found upon the inside of the pig's mouth,
often cutting the tongue so as to interfere with eating. Pull them out.
BOOK III
PART II
Diseases of Swine
HOW TO KNOW THEM; THEIR CAUSES, PRE-
VENTION AND CURE
982 cYCLorEbiA oi-' live stock axd complete stock doctor.
Diseases of Swine.
CHAPTER I.
MALIGNANT AND EPIDEMIC DISEASES.
'. THE PREVENTION OK DISEASE. II. MALIGNANT EPIZOOTIC CATARRH. III
CONTAGIOUS FEVEH OP SWINE. IV. CONTAGIOUS PNEUMO-ENTERITIS. V.
SPLENIC FEVER, OR MALIGNANT ANTHRAX. VI. SUMMARY OF TREATMENT FOR
MALIGNANT DISEASES. VII. RULES FOR DISINFECTION. VIII. DIFFICULTY
IN GIVING MEDICINE TO SWINE. IX. WATCH SYMPTOMS EARLY, AND USE
PREVENTIVES.
I. The Prevention of Diseases.
In the care of swine the prevention of disease is of the ntraost impoi-t-
ance. They are, indeed, subject to comparatively few aihnents ; but
these few are, generally, in the shape of malignant, epidemic or contcV
gious diseases of the most serious kind. In such cases the difficulty iij
administering medicine (they being too sick to take it with food) is very
great. To prevent disease in swine, the most important thing is so to
care for the animals that they shall be kept in general good health. The
admission of other swine among the herd should, also, be prohibited until
you are well assured that the new comers are free from disease. The
herd should be perfectly isolated during the prevalence of epidemic or
contagious diseases, and disinfectants should be freely used ; when once
serious disease makes its appearance in the herd, the sick animals should
be carefully separated from the well o;.es. There is only one economical
way to treat so-called hog cholera, which may appear in any of the follow-
ing forms, viz : malignant epizootic catarrh ; intestinal "hog cholera," a
specific contagious fever, attended by congestion, exudation, blood ex-
travasation, ulceration of the membranes of the stomach and bowels, and
foetid discharges ; contagious pneumo-enteritis or purples, a contagious
inflammation of the stomach and bowels, with red or purple blotches of tbe
skin ; or the erysipelatous form of pneumo-enteritis, or that attended
with malignant sore throat. When either of these forms of disease at-
tacks swine, the cheapest way to treat it is to send the animals at once to
the rendering tanks, and convert them into "grease," or kill and burv
them at once, and thoroughly disinfect every possible place where con-
tagion may lurk. If a competent veterinarian be near, apply to him at
984 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
once ; but beware of quacks who go about doctoring hogs with so-called
specifics ; they are a dehision and a snare for the unwary.
II. Malignant Epizootic Catarrh.
Causes. — This disease, if not actually generated in filthy yards and
pens, is quickly and fatally developed in such places, and the poison
germs quickly find their way to the mucous membranes of the animals.
Anything that suddenly checks the insensible perspiration, as a cold, will
quickly predispose to the disease „
How to know it.— There will be difficulty in breathing ; panting ; lift-
ing of the flanks, and a short hoarse cough. There is fever; the head
will be stretched out and drooping ; sometimes running at the nose ;
efforts to vomit; generally constipation, but sometimes diarrhoea; and
the annual will show a stiff tottering gait. After death, if the animal is
opened, there will be found inflammation of the nasal passages of the
upper part of the throat, and of the windpipe and lungs, which latter
will be found more or less solidified.
A second form of the disease shows less cough ; less difficulty in
b: eathing, but decided paralysis, and tottering in the gait ; there is con-
ivtipation, followed by profuse and foetid diarrhoea ; the back arched ;
partial or total blmdness ; enlarged glands and scrofulous ulcers. After
death the lining membrane of the intestines will be enlarged and degen-
erated ; the spleen enlarged, soft and dark ; the liver is also affected, and
there may be water exudations in the chest and belly. The duration of
either form will be about fifteen days.
What to do. — If the disease shows clearly the symptoms described, kill
the animal and bury it deep. Separate all animals showing the slightest
ailment, and give the following emetic :
No. 1. 15 to 20 Grains, powdered white hellebore
}4 Pint milV'
Mix and let the animal drink it, if it will; if not, turn it down with a
horn, as described under Article VIII, in this chapter. When the dose
has vomited the animal, if the symptoms are as first described or in the
lungs, give
No. 2. 2 or 3 Grains tartar emetic.
If the symptoms are as described in one second form of the disease, or
if the bowels are implicated rather than the lungs, give, instead, the
following :
No. 3. 2 or 3 Grains calomel.
Either dose may be administered in the half of a roasted potato if the
animal will eat. If not, envelop the dose in lard and place it well back
MALIGNANT AND EPIDEanC DISEASES. 985
mthe mouth on the root of the tongue. Apply over the sore spot, lungs
or bowels, as the case may be, the following blistering ointment :
No. 4. 1 Ounce powdered cantharides,
4 Ounces olive oil.
Efeat the two over a moderate fire for half an hour, stirring constantly,
?nd rub it in well, repeating if it does not blister on the first application.
So soon as the animal gets relief, if the disease is in the lungs, p-ivethc
following, every day for a few days ; but if the trouble is in the bowels,
omit the carbonate of potash :
No. 5. 20 Grains sulphate of iron,
30 Grains carbonate of potash.
If there are copious, dark discharges from the bowels, give
No. G. 20 Grains podophyllin,
2 Drachms bi-carbonate of soda,
Mix in a pint of milk.
But, if there be constipation, give the following instead of No. 6 :
No. 7. 1 Ounce castor oil.
1 Drachm oil of turpentine.
Mix in a pint of milk.
III. Contagious Fever of Swine.
This is sometimes called intestinal hog cholera.
Causes. — It is contagious and the infection is virulent, so much so that
tiie germs arc carried to considerable distances, supposablyin the air. If
not generated in foul pens and yards, they, together witi: bad care and
management, cause it to develop quickly when the germs are once intro-
duced.
How to know it. — Succeeding the incubation, which lasts from three
days to two weeks, according to the season and temperature, there will
be shivering ; prostration ; the nose hot and dry ; the animal mhU not
feed, but will lie under the litter ; the eyes will be sunken ; the gait weak
and unsteady. There will be great thirst, and a clinical thermometer in-
s:'erted into the rectum will show a temperature of 103 ^ to 105 <^ F.
There will be heat and soreness of the skin, with red patches and black
spots, the redness disappearing under pressure. The pulse will be weak
but rapid ; the tongue much furred ; a hard dry cough, and quick breath-
ing ; the belly is sore and the animal will flinch and scream if it is
handled ; the l)owels are costive sometimes throughout the disease, but
generally as the disease progresses, or about the third day, diarrhoea,
foetid and exhausting, will supervene, and slime and blood may be passed,
showing ulceration of the bowels. The last stage occasions stupor, par-
alysis of the hind limbs, with tremblings, jerking of the limbs and invol-
untary motions of the bowels.
986 CYCLOPEDIA OP LIVE STOCK Aim COMPLETE STOCK DOCTORo
What to do.— Bdll and bury deeply all infected animals, unless they
can be treated in a place where the atmosphere is constantly disinfected.
Disinfect, also, all animals that may be near. Separate all animals in
which the clinical thermometer, inserted into the rectum, shows a tem-
perature of 100 "^ F. or more. Give them charcoal, bi-sulphate of soda, 20
grains at a dose, mixed with the same quantity of nitrate of pot-assa ; give
also sulphate of iron (copperas), or the following:
No. 8. 2 Pounds flowers of sulphur,
2 Pounds sulphate of iron,
J^ Pound nitrate of potash,
14 Pound black antimony.
This mixed in twelve gallons of slop will be enough for 100 hogs ; or
give each hog 1 pint at a dose, repeating every day.
Be sure the water used has not run through the premises of a diseased
herd ; use only pure well water, and be sure, also, that the food has not
been contaminated ; and if you have lately bought strange hogs, isolate
them in a safe quarantine until assured they are all right.
Treatment of the sick. — Give cool pure well water, just acidulated with
sulphuric acid, to drink. If there is constipation, give a mild dose of
castor oil, say two ounces, and also give injections of warm water to
assist the operation. Then give the following dose, repeat-ed two or three
times a day.
N'o. 9. 20 Grains nitrate of potassa.
20 Grains bi-sulphate of soda.
Mix ID a pint of gruel, and ^ve as one dose.
If the belly becomes tender, and bloody dung is passed, showing ulcer-
ation of the bowels, give tifteen or twenty drops of oil of turpentine, in a
little gruel, night and morning. When the worst cases show signs of
improving, give tonics, say 5-grain doses of quinine twice a day; or
4 drachm doses of sulphate of iron (copperas). This with nourishing,
soft food, such as boiled or scalded oats ai.d bran in eqiuil parts, no corn,
good nursing, and a most thorough disinfection (see Article VII), may
bring them out.
IV, Contagious Pneumo-Enteritis.
This is a form of so-called "hog cholera," or purples. It is a conta-
gious inflammation of the lungs and bowels with red or purple blotches
on the skin, according to the relative form of the disease.
Causes. — Bad water, and malaria from filthy pens or swampy grounds,
are prolific causes in hot or warm, wet seasons. A minute organism
(bacillus) is found in the serous fluids and tissues of the body.
How to know it. — Charbon or malignant anthrax, also called hog
cholera by those who want a better name, is sometimes confounded with
MALIGNANT AND EPIDEMIC DISEASES. 987
this disease. In some respects, indeed, the ignorant may easily confound
them. Hence we give the symptomatic distinction of each, side by side,
as stated by Dr. Klein :
CONTAGIOUS PNEUMO-ENTERITIR. TRUE CHARBON. — Period of in-
—Period of incubation from two cubation, or latency, from a few
to five days and more, hours to three days.
Rarely and with difficulty trans- Easily transmissible to other
mitted to other species. species of animals.
Spleen rarely enlarged or other- Spleen always enlarged, and
wise changed. often broken down.
Blood after death of ordinary Blood after death dark and fluid,
appearance.
No bacillus anlhracis in the Bacillus anthrads in the blood,
blood, but numberless bacilly m the
serum of the thorax and abdomen.
Lungs and bowels always both
mflamed. Cough always present. Lungs and bowels frequently not
The red or purple color diffused implicated. Cough may be present,
over the surface, and of an ery. The discoloration local, and of
sipelatous appearance. a true carbuncular appearance.
There are two forms of pneumo-enteritis, one the erysipelatous form,
the other with malignant sore throat.
The Erysipelatous Form. — The animal is dull; will not eat; is un-
\\illing to move ; tries to vomit ; there is cough ; difficulty in urination -,
the bowels are constipated ; the dung hard and black. Then dark red or
l^urple blotches passing into bluish -black will appear about the ears,
throat, neck, breast and between the fore-legs. There may be a dis-
charge of dark or purple fluid from the nose ; the breathing becomes
labored, even to panting ; there is pai-alysis of the hind Limbs ; if the
animal is forced up, his head will drop to the ground, and he walks with
a reeling gait behind, Fcetid diarrhoea sets in, and the animal dies in
from one to three days.
With Malignant Sore Throat. — The symptoms in the commence-
ment are the same as in the erysipelatous form, Avith a red and purple
line about the throat ; there are attempts to vomit ; difficulty in swallow-
ing ; and the sensation of choking in breathmg is so intense that the
animal will sic on his haunches, gasping for breath with livid, protruded
and swollen tongue. The symptoms so increase, sometimes, that the
swelling of the larynx will kill, by choking, in an hour.
What to do. — Foment the swoileh parts with hot water, saturated with
sulphate of iron (copperas). If there are signs of gangrene, saturate the
988 CYCLOPEDIA OP LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
surrounding parts with equal parts of turpentine and sweet oil. Give at
once two ounces of castor oil, and when it operates, give the following
two or three times a day :
No. 10. 20 Grains nitrate of soda,
20 Grains nitrate of potash.
Mix in a little gruel.
If the bowels are swollen and tender, give twenty drops of turpentine
in a little gruel, as may be needed, and let the ammal have pjwdered
charcoal in the water it drinks.
Another valuable remedy is that of M. Lubin, to be given in gruel three
times a day, omitting the calomel after the third dose. It is as follows :
No. 11. 5 Grains calomel,
1 Drachm nitrate of potash,
10 Grains powdered camphor.
This is a good dose for the swine not yet affected, and it may be used
in any of the preceding diseases, as a preventive. The following has
been found useful by Prof. J. B. Turner of Illinois. It will bo sufficient
for 100 hogs, the dose being one pint for each hog i
No. 12. 2 Pounds flowers of sulphur,
2 Pounds sulphate of iron,
2 Pounds madder.
^ Pound black antimony,
}/^ Pound nitrate of potash,
2 Ounces arsenic.
Mix the whole in twelve gallons of gruel for 100 swine, or give one-
pint doses to each.
V. Splenic Fever or Malignant Antlirax.
This disease is rare, and has even been asserted as not occurring in the
United States. Yet, since charbon or malignant anthrax of cattle may
be easily communicated to other animals and man, there is no reason why
swine should not become victims.
The common form of Anthrax. — In pigs the most common form is a
carbuncular swelling of the throat, extending inwards to the windpipe and
gullet, causing difficulty in breathing and swallowing, and terminating in
convulsions and death by strangling. It has been popularly known as
white-bristle, from the peculiar appearance of the bristles about the parts.
The treatment should be similar to that advised for pneumo-enteritis
with malignant sore throat. (See article IV. )
The apoplectic or splenic form. — If this form of the disease should
appear, it will be known by malignant inflammation of the internal organs,
such as are noticed in bloody murrain in cattle. It is malignant blood
poisoning, and so virulent is the infection that every tissue of the animal
IGNANT AND EPIDEMIC DISEASES. 989
is affected, and is poisonous to both man and beast, producing what is
iinown as malignant pustule, if serum or blood or the flesh of the in-
fected animal comes in contact with any abrasion of the skin.
Prevention. — Perhaps as good a preventive as any is prescription No.
12. But every animal infected had better be killed at once and buried
deeply, and covered with quick lime.
VI. Summary of Treatment for Malignant Diseases.
As a last word, however, we repeat: Do not waste time in doctoring
any but blooded hogs that are valuable enough to warrant perfect isola-
Nion and the necessary care in curing. The best precaution to take in all
the diseases named, and which go under the general name "hog cholera,"
is disinfection, and the most thorough isolation of the sick from the
well. If the sanitary conditions of the hospital are not strictly attended
to, all other treatment is thrown awjiy ; and the attendants must
thoroughly disinfect themselves before going about other swine. In fact,
it is better that the attendants keep away from the well hogs altogether.
Hence our advice : Thoroughly isolate all swine upon the first indicatioui
of disease, and if it does not give way quickly to treatment, kill and bury
deeply at once.
VTI. Rules for Disinfection.
The rules we give for disinfection, will apply to any structure, includ-
ing barns, stables, sheds, and outhouses of every kind. Fumigants are
not always disinfectants, and simply deodorizing or destroying odors, is
not disinfection in any sense of the word.
The disinfection of all barns, stables, sheds, or other places where ani-
mals having malignant or contagious diseases have been kept, should re-
ceive strict attention. Every part should be stopped tight, and flowers
of sulphur and wood tar, in the proportion of one pound of the former
to two quarts of the latter, mixed with tow, should be burned and allowed
to smoke thoroughh', until the whole building is thick with smoke. So
the hospital should be fumigated with the same, two or three times a
week, but not sufficiently to set the animals coughing. Every part of the
building should also be thoroughly washed with dilute carbolic acid, and
the clothing also wet with it. If pure carbolic acid is used for sprinkling
floors or washing walls, 100 parts of soft water may be added to one pint
of acid. The impure carbolic acid of gas works may be used undiluted.
All discharges should be treated with chloride of -^inc, dissolved in water,
in the proportion of one ounce to one or two gallons of water. The at-
tendants taking care of animals with malignant diseases should never
approach or handle the well ones.
990 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
A disinfectant that has no smell and is not poisonous, Known as
chloralum, is made by dissolving three pounds of chloride of aluminum
in two gallons of water, or in like proportions*. Another oheap and pow-
erful disinfectant, but poisonous, if taken, is made of eight ounces of
chloride of zinc, sixteen ounces of sulphate of iron, and one gallon of
water. Dissolve, and to each pint used add one gallon of water. Among
disinfecting substances may be named chlorine. This is set free by add-
ing oil of vitriol and a little black manganese to common salt, as a disin-
fectant of the air, but must be used in vacated buildings, and is better if
used in the full light of day. So flowers of sulphur, burned by a heat
only suflScient to produce smoke, will accomplish the same purpose, and
if used carefully, it will not injure stock. A disinfectant that may be
used in occupied buildings is formed by adding a little chlorate of
potassa, at short intervals, to half a pint of strong jnuriatic acid, in a
strong V3ssel of glass, or heavily glazed stoneware.
VIII. Difficulty in giving Medicine to Swina
The diiiiculty in administering medicine to swine is well known. The
usual way is to fix a slip noose about the upper jaw and draw up the
head, the obstinacy of ^he hog prompting him to pull steadily back,
bringing the hinder parts to the floor. In this position liquids may be
administered from a horn. The diflBculty is the struggles of the animal
frequently do injury. In most cases if the hog is placed in a chute whete
he cannot turn around and he be given an old shoe to bite on, having a
hole in the end, the medicine may be poured in the shoe and it will be
taken in champing the end. Another device lately recommended is to
take a pine board three and one-half inches wide and ten or twelve inches
long, including a handle whittled down at one end. At about three
inches from the end cut a notch one and three-fourths inches deep and
three inches wide. On the other edge of the board, about opposite the
middle of the first notch, cut another notch about one inch square, then
cut down the end of the board for a handle. Let one hold the hog while
the other drenches him. Catch the hog by the ears and set him back on
his hind parts. Place the board in the front part of the mouth, small
notch down; pour the medicine in the front part of the. mouth, on the
end of the tongue, from a strong bottle. Pour slowly, and give time to
swallow. Be careful not to strangle him. The size of the stick must
vary according to the size of the hog. In case doses in the form of pills
or paste are to be given, place them well back on the root of the tongue.
IX. Watch Symptoms early and use Preventives.
The «*ounce of prevention" in the case of swine, is worth many times
more than the "pound of cure." Good nursing, isolation and thorough
disinfection are really thechief, as they are the comnion-sense treatment.
This has always been our practice, in connection with prompt killing and
deep burial of those which did not yield to simple treatment. Any per-
son by carefully studying what we have written, may pretty accurately
Oidge when killing becomes necessary*^ ^
CHAPTER n.
THE COMMON DISEASES OP SWINE.
1. CNFLAMMATORY DISEASES. II. PNEUMONIA OR INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS.
III. QUINSY OU INFLAMMATION OF THE TONSILS. IV. APOPLEXY, STAG-
JKRS, OR CONGESTION OF THE BRAIN. V. COLDS OR RISING OF THE LIGHTS.
ri, CATARRH OR SNUFFLES. VII. MEASLES AND TRICHINA. VIII. TRI-
CHIVA SPIRALIS. IX. OTHER INTESTINAL PARASITES. X. PARASITES OP THE
SKIX— MANGE OR SCAB. XI LICE. XII. DIARRHOEA. XIII. LEPROSY.
XIV. SKELETON OF THE HOG.
I. Inflammatory Diseases.
Svine arc, from their nature and the manner in which they are kept,
more subject to congestive and inflammatory diseases than any othei
farm animal. The results of this tendency are conspicuously seen in
quinsy, coughs and colds, sometimes ending in consumption, and especi-
ally in inflammation of the lungs.
II. Pneumonia, or Inflammation of the Lungs.
How to know it. — By the rapid and laborious breathing, and shivering
of the body and limbs. There will be a more or less severe cough, and
the hog loses appetite.
What to do. — Put the animal in a comfortable, quiet and well venti-
lated place. Keep a preparation of mustard and tepid water on the chest
and side, and give the following mixture :
No. 13. 2 Drachms bi-sulphate of soda,
2 Drachms nitrate of potash.
Mix in a pint of gruel and feed it to the patient, or turn it down from
a horn. This may be repeated as necessity requires, and, if necessary,
a blister may be applied to the chest ; but good nursing, and such nour-
ishing food as the hog will eat, should effect a cure.
III. Quinsy or Inflammation of the Tonsils.
This is a common and often fatal disease, if relief is not promptly
given. It is an inflammation of the glands of the throat.
How to know it.— If you find that the hog has difficulty in swallowing ;
if slavering and protrusion of the tongue are seen, and especially if there
be a swelling under the lower jaw and neck, you may be sure the animal
has the quinsy.
What to do. — Cast the hog or pig, and with a thin, keen-bladed knife
ecarify the parts until the blood flows freely. Then foment the parte
991
992 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOE.
with cloths ^vrung out of very hot water, applying them repeatedly tc
induce bleeding and reduce the inflammation. In the mean time the fol-
lowing should be prepared, to be used as soon as possible, as an
injection :
No. 14. 4 Ounces sulphate of magnesia,
2 Drachms oil ol turpentine,
}^ Pint soap suds.
Mix, ani inject into the rectum with a syringe. If the animal wiU
eat, give the following, mixed in a little gruel :
No. 15. 2 Teaspoonfuls turpentine,
2 Teaspoonfuls lard oil.
If he will not eat, swab the tonsils often with the mixture by Uicans
of a swab fastened to a small rod, the mouth being held open, as previ-
ously described.
rv. Apoplexy, Staggers or Congeafcion of the Brain.
This disease is not unusual in fat hogs.
How to know it. — The animal will be stupid ; the eyes red j the pulse
hard and rapid ; the bowels constipated. As the disease progresses, the
animal becomes partially or wholly blind, going in a circle or striking
against objects ; and at last he falls unconscious. Sometimes the attack
is attended with effusion on the brain, without other symptoms being
especially noticeable; the animal falls suddenly ; the limbs stiffen ; f rotb
flows from ths mouth, and the breathing is hard, with a snorting sound.
What to do. — If cold water is not at hand, bleed freely from the jugu-
lar vein. The proper application is cold water allowed to fall upon the
head from a considerable height. At the same time let an injection be
quickly prepared and administered at once ; use No. 14.
v. Colds, or Rising of the Lights.
Rising oi the lights is what is generally called a cold. Keep the ani-
mal warm and quiet ; feed well with easily digested food, and rub vinegar
and mustard on the chest. If it does not yield to treatment, give a table-
spoonful of tar every day, placing it well back on the tongue with a
paddle. If the disease resolves itself into inflammation of the lungs, see
treatment therefor in Article II, of this chapter.
VI. Catarrh or Smiffles.
This is a common disease that usually disappears with warmth and good
care, and light, digestible food. It sometimes assumes c chrsric fcx^fiJ,
as nasal gleet, just as it does in man. When this is the case, the animai
had better be killed at once and burled.
THE COMMON DISEASES OF SWINE.
'Q3
VII. Measles and Trichina.
Causes. — ^In swine measles is caused by a parasite (the bladier
worm) from eating the eggs of the tape worm of man (taenia solium)
in its food, just as trichina is caused by eating rats and mice or garbage
containing the germs of this parasite ; dogs, also, are well known to carry
and void the eggs of the tape-worm, and hence care should be taken that
swine do not eat their excrement. If the flesh of measly pork is eaten
by man, without its being most thoroughly cooked, he will be just as
surely infected with tape-worm as he would be with trichina if he ate
trichina-infected pork. Hence, it is never safe to eat measly pork, since
there is always danger that some of the cysts may escape death in
cooking.
The tape-worm is a flat-bodied worm, made up of small segments or
joints from a quarter to a half inch in length, joined end to end, with a
depression between them. When full grown, the worm is from one inch
to one hundred feet long. One end is narrow, being the head, which* is
globular and furnished with circular, sucking discs and a proboscis or
snout, encircled by a row of booklets. From the broad end the segments
become detached and are expelled when ripe. These little segments may
be seen wriggling along over the grass, vegetables and grounfl , and, as
they go, they deposit innumerable quantities of eggs, which are taken up
by grazing animals, especially the hog. It is estimated that a single tap©
worm lays upwards of 25,000,000 eggs. An egg taken into the stomach
of a hog opens and hatches an ovoid, six-hooked embryo, which bores
its way through the tissues till it finds a tissue congenial to its nature ;
and there it encysts itself and lies an
indefinite length of time till, perhaps,
it is eaten by a person, who becomes
a host for the tape- worm, which is
developed very soon and causes intes-
tinal pain, emaciation, nervous irrita-
bility, convulsions and, often, death.
The cysticercus cellulosa is the hydatid or bladder worm, that forms
the measles in pigs ; it becomes encysted in the mus-
cles, liver, brain, mucous and serous membr^ines, etc.
How to know it. — Measly pork is known by the
tysts, some of which are nearly the size of a grain
of barley, distributed through the muscular and
ftther tissues. In the living hog, when infected,
there will be found small, watery pimples of a pink or red color, just
under the skin. There will also be weakness of the hind parts and gen-
eral lack of health.
HEAD OF T^NIA SOLIUM.
Magnified, (Cobbold.)
CYSTICERCUS CEtLU'
LOSA. — Magnified.
994
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
sixth
What to do. — Treatment is of little avail. If the difficulty could be
known in time, daily small doses of sulphur and saltpetre, given for some
weeks, might pass the eggs from the bowels ; yet this is not certain.
Keep the dogs about the place free from tape worms by occasional
vermifuges, and burn all their dung when found.
Vm. Trichina Spiralis.
Trichinae are found in all animals, but usually in man, the hog and the
l^t. They are almost microscopic, varjing from one-eighteenth to one-
of an inch in length, and are among the most fatal of parasites.
The mature and fertile worm lives in the intestines
of animals, while the immature lives in cysts in
the muscles. When the eggs first hatch, the young
ones migrate through the intestines, and find their
way into the voluntary muscles, that is, the mus-
cles of motion ; and in the course of six weeks
they become encysted, and do no farther harm to the
man or animal containing them ; but during those
six weeks the life or death of the victim is merely
a question of strength to withstand the pain, ex-
haustioM and emaciation, and many people die from it.
How to know it. — The symptoms are swelling and great soreness of
the muscles affected ; pain ; emaciation and exhaustion ; it is often mis.
taken for rheumatism. In the
lower animals, the same S3aiip-
toms are seen as in man, but
to a less marked degree ; there
is loss of appetite ; stiffness in
the hind parts ; the muscles are
sore, and the animal is loth to
move. Tf those affected live
«ldult intestinal tri
china spiralis.
magnified.
MUSCLE TRICHINA ENCYSTED. MAGNIFIED.
through the six weeks, they will recover.
What to do. — During the six weeks give alcohol in half-ounce doses,
three times a day in gruel, and a teaspoonful of sulphur in the food
morning and night.
Prevention.— For people — never eat underdone pork, for trichinaj sur-.
vive 140 ^ F. Hams thoroughly smoked and boiled are safe.
For hogs keep them remote from slaughter houses, and never feed
them on Uie offal from slaughter houses. Keep their pens free from
rats and mice. Pork fed on slaughter refuse, or kept near a slaughter
house, ou^rht to be examined with a microscope before being eaten.
THE COMMON DISEASES OF SWINE.
995
IX. Other Intestinal Parasites.
These are numerous. The lard worm ( IStephanurus Dentatus) and the
kidney worm {Eustrongylus Gigas) are the most common, except those
tvhich produce the measles. Once they have found lodg-
ment, there is little to be done, and the swine had
better be killed immediately and converted into grease
to avoid danger. The lard worm is from one to one
and three-fourths inches long, by one-thirteenth inch
broad, and is found in almost ail parts of the body. It is
often found in the liver, and the fat about the rib, heart
the air passages, etc.
The Eustrongylus Gigas is found in the kidneys, which
it lives on till the whole is eaten, and then it attacks the
capsule enclosing the kidney and eats its way through
into the intestinal cavity, and causes death from nervous
prostration or inflammation. The kidney worm grows to
enormous size — the gigas means the giant — it being found
from one to three feet long and from a quarter to a half ""^^.^^Ati^imtl
inch in diameter. It is sometimes found in the intestiuee. -('^«*^'"->
Worms in Hogs:— Worms in hogs are best treated, in ordinary eases, by-
giving a teaspoonful of copperas to each one once a day in the feed.
X. Parasites of the Skin— Mange or Scab.
Scab is produced by a small itch insect {Sarcoptis /iSm's), and the
disease may be communicated to man. If the animals appear uneasy
STEPHANURUS
DENTATUS
OR LARD
WORM.
EUSTRONGYLUS GIGAS (Cuvier.)
examine them with a glass. Mange should be no more \;leiated than the
itch in children.
What to do. — Give the animal, immediately, and thereafter once p day
for a fortnight, the following as a dose :
No. 16. )^ Ounce flowers of sulphur,
1 Drachm nitrate of -jotaaiLw
996 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Mix as a powder, and give in the food. Kub the animal thoroughl^^
with soft soap, and at the end of an hour clean well with warm rain
water. AVhen dry, prepare the following;
No. 17. 1 Pint train oil,
2 Drachms oil of tar,
1 Draclim petroleum,
Flowers of sulphur to form a thick paste.
Rub this thoroughly in, and let it remain three days. Then wash
thoroughly Avith strong soap suds, and if the difficulty is not removed,
repeat the application of the ointment. The animals must be changed to
perfectly clean quarters, with clean bedding. Burn all old bedding, and
paint the floor cracks, and every surface outside and in, with quick-lime,
slaked with carbolic acid, one part to one hundred of water ; or get the
carbolic li(juor from the nearest gas-works, and slake with that.
XI. Lice.
There would seem no reason why swine should l)c infested with lice.
If they be suspected, examine the hogs, and when
dry, after washing with soft soap and water,
sponge freely v/ith crude petroleum, and give
daily, for some days, ^ drachm of copperas in the
food. If any lice remain, apply an ointment of
Scotch snuff and lard to the infested parts.
XII. Diarrhoea.
Young i^igs are often taken with diarrhoea, gen-
erally during the first ten days after birth. The
difficulty lies in the milk of the sow, either from bad
food or other disability.
What to do. — Give good, nourishing food, of
which sound grain is the basis ; place a mixture of powdered charcoal and
salt where the pigs and sow may freely take it. Prepare the following :
No. 18. 2 Pounds powdered fcenugreek seed,
2 Pounds powdered anise seed,
2 Pounds powdered chalk,
1 Pound powdered gentian,
2 Ounces cai-bonate of soda.
Mix, and give a tablespoonful to the sow every time she is fed.
Xm. Leprosy.
We have received accounts of hogs affected with "hog cholera" — every
disease for which no better name is known is now so called — in which
pimples and blisters appear about tke mouth and eyes, prostration ensues
HiKMATOPINDS.
Blood-sucking' louse of the
THE COMMON DISEASES OF SWINE.
997
the anima^ staggers when moving, and death follows sometimes with great
emaciation. In Europe this disease is called Leprocy — a misnomer as
much as to call it ' ' hog cholera, " It is a form of malignant eczema.
What to do. — Allow the hog a clean, cool, well ventilated place with
cool water to drink, and, if possible, pure water for a bath. Cleanse the
skin with soft soap and water, and dress the sores with the following lotion
ohree times daily:
1 Ounce powdered borax,
1 Pint of soft water.
Give, twice a day, the following, in gruel or ajiythmg the unin)ul will
best eat :
No. 19. >^ Ounce Uowers of sulphur,
1 Drachm nitrate of potash.
The disease is contagious, and want of care, dirty pens, and foul feed-
ing are superinducing causes.
XIV. Skeleton of the Hog.
For a better understanding of the anatomy of the liog, the lettered and
fignretl illustration of the skeleton will be found instructive. The first
series of figures, following the capitals, refer to the bones of the fetlock
and feet. The figures following Phalanges ], 2, S, refer to the hinder
parts. The last series of figures following Z — Head, indicate the bones
of the head. The reader will have no difficulty in recognizing and learn-
ing the names.
SKELETON OF THE HOG.
Names of the Bones. — A — Cervical vertebrie. B, B — Dorsal verte-
bra?. C — Lumbar vcrtcbrse. D — Sacrum. E, E — Coccygeal bones.
Fi F — Ribs. G — Costal cartilages. H — Scapula. / — Humerus. K,
K — Radius. L — Ulna. M — Carpus, or knee. 1. Scaphoid. 2. Semi-
lunar. 3. Cuneiform. 4. Trapezium. 5. Trapezoid. b. Os mag-
num. 7. Unciform. 8. Pisiform. iV, N — Lar^^e metacarpal, or
998 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTORc
cannoD. O — Small metacarpal. P, P — Sesamoid bones. Q^ Q —
Phalanges. 1. Os suffraginis, or pastern bone. 2. Os coronse. 3. Oa
pedis. R — Pelvis. (Fore-leg of pig. Phalanges 1,2,3). 1. Ilium.
2. Pubis. 3. Ischium. /S'— Femur. T— Patella. C7— Tibia. F—
Fibula. W — Hock. 1. Os calcis, 2. Astragalus. 3. Cuneiform
magimm. 4. Cuneiform medium. 5. Cuneiform parvum. 6. Cuboid.
3, 6. Cubo cuneiform. X— Large metatarsal. (Hind-leg of pig. Phal-
anges 1, 2, 3). T — Small metatarsal. Z — Head. 1. Inferior maxilla.
2. Superior maxilla. 3. Anterior maxilla. 4. Nasal bone. 5. Molar.
6. Frontal. 7. Parietal. 8. Occipital. 9. Lachrymal. 10. Squamous-
tempoid. 11. Petrous-tempoid.
Delivering Pigs* — If conditions are right there should be little oc-
casion for trouble in this regard. The sow should not be too fat and from
twelve to thirteen months old. She should have plenty of room to exer-
cise— a run to clover, alfalfa or other grass is excellent and give a little
extra laxative food for two or three weeks before farrowing if she is the
least bit constipated. Do not ring a brood sow.
With all this care, trouble should yet occur, proceed quietly with a pair
of forceps or a wire hook to assist in the delivery, taking care that the
instruments a^ well as your hands are well oiled and that you do not use
undue violence in the work.
To Castrate a Ruptured Pig:— Elevate behind and work the intes-
tine back. Make an incision at the usual place but do not cut through
the covering next to the testicle. Tie the cord and its covering with
a strong linen thread as close to the body as possible, taking care that
the intestine is not caught, and sever within an inch of tie.
Tumor On the Cord: — This is an evil result of castration. The
tumor usually grows rapidly and attains great size. Peel it out and
disinfect with carbolic acid and water. A few stitches may be taken
leaving a drainage at the bottom.
Milk Fever in Sows: — It occurs at time of delivery and is serious in
that milk is not secreted and the sow is very sick.
Drench her with about a quarter of a pound of epsom salts, a table-
spoonful of sweet sp. of nitre and a little ginger. Follow this with a mix-
ture of saltpeter and sulphur, using a teaspoonful for a dose once or twice
a day. Let the pigs tug at the teats and bathe with hot water.
Spaying Sows: — Right time, four to eight weeks old. Lay the pig
onitsrio-ht side with hind legs stretched back. Remove hair from a spot
midway between hip joint and edge of flank and make a cut one inch long
and through the muscle. Insert a finger and make an opening in membrane
covering fat. Press intestines forward and bring out upper ovary with
points of fingers. Work out folds of the bag to the fork, then the other
ovary in same way. Cut off the bag at or near the fork. Insert a finger
and push back the intestine and let the left leg loose. Withdraw finger,
disinfect wound and take a couple of stitches with coarse cotton thread.
To Castrate a Ridgling: — Make the incision as for spaying,
only large enough to insert the hand when the testicle may be found
and easily pnlled out and severed. Disinfect and sew up the wound.
xr
^ >>
3i
d o
a
o
BOOK IV
PART I
Sheep and Sheep Husbandr>
EMBRACING
ORIGIN, BREEDS, BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT;
WITH FACTS CONCERNING GOATS
1000 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR,
SHEEP AND SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
CHAPTER I.
ORIGIN, ANATOMY AND POINTS.
V NATIVE COUNTRY OP SHEEP. II. THEIR DIVERSIFIED CHARACTER. III.
A.N ATOMY OF THE SHEEP. IV. TOP AND VERTICAL VIEWS OF SKULL. V. DEN-
TITION OF SHEEP. VI. POINTS OP SHEEP EXPLAINED. VII. DIVISIONS OF
FINE WOOL. VIII. COMPARATIVE VALUE OF FINE AND COARSE WOOL. IX.
RANGING AND FLOCKING OF DIFFERENT BREEDS. X. REGIONS ADAPTED TO
SHEEP. XI. POINTS OF EXCELLENCE OF THE PRINCIPAL BREEDS. XII.
STANDARD FOR AMERICAN MERINOS. XIII. STANDARD FOR MIDDLE-WOOLED
SHEEP. XIV. STANDARD FOR COTSWOLD SHEEP.
I. Native Country of Sheep.
The native country of sheep is not known, and has not been since the
earliest historical times. There are no wild sheep known, if we except
the Ovis Montana, or wild sheep of Montana, in the United States,
though at the Paris exhibition of 1865, several wild (so-called) sheep
were exhibited, although bred in confinement. Among these were the
Vild sheep of Barbary, Ovis TragelapuSy more resembling a goat than
our wild species, which is really a sheep ; and also thePunjaub wild sheep,
Ovis Cycloceras, a native of Northern India, and the Europeon moufflon,
Ovis Musimon, belonging to Corsica and Sardinia.
n. Their Diversified Character.
That sheep were the earliest domesticated of any of the wild animals,
there is no doubt. Abel was a keeper of sheep, the first recorded shep-
herd or herdsman of any kind. The gi-eat length of time since their
domestication, is also shown by their widely diversified character. The
classification of Jiinnssus shows : The Hornless, Horned, Black-faced,
Spanish, Many aomed, African, Guinea, Broad-tailed, Fat-rumped,
Bucharian, Long-tailed, Cap-bearded, and Bovant. To these may be
added the Siberian sheep of Asia, found also in Corsica and Barbary, and
1001
1002 CYCLOPEDIA OP Live SfOCK AND COMPLETfi 6T0CK DOCTOK.
the Cretan sheep of the Grecian Islands, Hangary, and some portions of
Austria, making about all the principal sub-species.
m. Anatomy of the Sheep.
SKELETON OF LEICESTER SHEEP.
Explanation. — ^Begmning with the head, the leferences to cut of skele-
ton show: 1 — The intermaxillary bone. 2 — The nasal bones. 3 — The
upper jaw. 4 — The union of the nasal and upper jaw bone. 5 — The
union of the molar and lachrymal bones. 6 — The orbits of the eye. 7
— ^The frontal bone. 9 — The lower jaw. 10 — The incisor teeth or nip-
pers. 11 — The molars or grinders.
The Neck and Body. — 1, 1 — The ligament of the neck, supporting the
head, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 — The seven vertebrse, or bones of the neck. 1
— 13 — The thirteen vertebrae, or bones of the back. 1 — 6 — The sixver-
tebr:i3 of the loins. 7 — The sacral bone. 8 — The bones of the tail, va-
rying in different breeds from twelve to twenty-one. 9 — The haunch and
pelvis. 1 — 8 — ^The eight true ribs with their cartilages. 9 — 13 — The
five false ribs, or those that are not attached to the breast bone, 14 —
The breast bone.
The Fore Leg. — 1 — ^The scapula or shoulder-blade. 2 — The hu-
merus, bone of the arm, or lower part of the shoulder. 3 — The radius^
or bone of the forearm. 4 — The ulna, or elbow, 5 — The knee, with
its different bones. 6 — ^The metacarpal or shank-bones ; the larger
bones of the leg. 7 — A rudiment of the smaller metacarpal, 8 — One
of the sessamoid bones. 9 — The two first bones of the foot; the pas-
tern.- 10 — The proper bones of the foot.
ORIGIN, ANATOMY AND POINTS OF SHEEP.
1003
2— The
id also out of danofer.
The Hind Leg.— 1 — The thigh bone. 2 — The stifle joint and its bone,
the patella. 3^The tibia, or bone of the upper part of the leg. 4 —
The point of the hock. 5 — The other bones of the hock. 6 — The
metatarsal bone, or bone of the hind leg. 7 — Rudiment of the small
metatarsal. 8 — A sessamoid bone. 9 — The two nrst nones of the foot,
the pasterns. 10 — The proper bone of the foot.
It will be seen that the general anatomy of the sheep corresponds to
that of the ox. In the limbs we find the number of jonits the same in
the horse, ox and sheep. Beneath the fetlock, however, the four bones
are doubled in the sheep.
IV. Top and Vertical Views of Skull.
The first illustration shows the skull of a polled sheep as seen from
the top.
Explanation. — 1 — Occipital bone, depressed out of danger,
parietal bones, the suture having disappeared,
3 — The squamous portions of the temporal
bone — the buttress of the arch of the skull.
4 — The meatus auditorius, or bony opening
into the ear. 5 — The frontal bones. 6 — The
openings through which blood-vessels pass, to
supply the forehead. 7 — The bony orbits of
the eye. 8 — The zygomatic or mokr bones,
very much developed. 9, 10 — The bones of
the nose. 1 1 — The upper jaw bone. 1 2 — The foramen, through which the
'-erve and blood-vessels pass, to supply the lower part of the face. 13 —
The nasal processes of the intermaxillary bones. 14 — The palatine
processes. 15 — The intermaxillary bone, supporting the cartilaginous
pad, instead of containing teeth.
Next we give a vertical section of the head with its appropriate expla-
nation.
Explanation.— 1— Nasal bone. 2— Upper jaw boi 3 — Intermaxil-
lary bone supporting the pad, supplies the place of upper front teeth. 4,
4 — The frontal sinus. 5 — Cavity or
sinus of the horn, communicating
with the frontai sinus. It is here
shown by removal of a section of
the base of the horn. 7 — The fron-
tal bone. 8 — Vertical section of the
brain. 9 — Vertical section of the
cerebellum, a — The cineritious por-
tion of *he brain, b — The medul-
lary portion of the brain. 10 — ^The ethmoid bone. 11 — The cribif oral
SKULL OV A POLLED SHEEP.
HEAD OF SHEEP— VERTICAL SECTION.
1004
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
or perforated plate of the ethmoid bone. 12 — ^The lower cell of tbe
ethmoid bone. 13 — ^The superior turbinated bone. 14 — ^The inferior
turbinated bone. 17 — The sphenoid bone.
V. Dentition of Sheep.
Youatt gives as follows the dentition of sheep, oy which it
will be easy to tell the age correctly: The sheep has eight
incisors in the lower jaw, and twelve grinders — six on a side
in each jaw, — making in all thirty-two teeth. At birth the
lamb should have the two central incisors just pushing through. At a
month old all the incisors should be up. At one year, sometimes not
uitil fifteen months old, the two first milk incisors will be shed, and two
new or permanent ones will appear. At two years old past, it will have
two more permanent teeth, or four in all. At three years old past, it
will have six permanent incisors, and at four years old past, the eight
permanent teeth, or a full mouth, as it is called, will be shown. This
will be an accurate test as to the age of sheep, up to four years, varied of
course, by care and keep ; highly fed sheep developing faster than ill
kept ones. At six the incisors begin to decrease in breadth, and lose
their fan shape, as seen at four years old. At seven they become longer
and narrower, and each year this shrinkage continues, until at last they
become quite slender, the middle ones long, and at ten years they loosen
and begin to drop out.
VI. Points ot Sheep Explained.
To locate the different exterior portions of the sheep, we give a cut of
one of the half-wild breeds of the animal, which seems goat-like, but the
vvool of which shows it to be a sheep.
EX l-ERIOR POINTS OP SHEEP.
Explanation.— <i--I'^-^. ^—Muzzle. C— Neck. />— Shoulder. Ji
Shooider. i?'— Breast. 65— Girth-place. ^— Bact. i
ilZ-sHin. iT— Boot of Tail.
ORIGIN, ANATOMY AND POINTS OF SHEEP. 1005
Vn. Divisions of Pine WooL
To illustrate the divisions of the wool we ^dve a figured cut of a fine
wooled sheep. The divisions are numbered to coiTespond to pure Saxon
and Merino sheej), which when pure-bred, show only four qualities of
wool. However, the cross-breds and especially gi'ades sometimes show
seven or eioht.
DrVISION OF WOOL.
Explanation.— The refina^ or pick wool, (1) begins at the withers, and
extxnids along the back, to the setting on of the tail. It reaches only a
little way down on the quarters, bu dipping down at the flanks, takes in
all the superior part of the chest, and the middle of the side of the neck
to the angle of the lower jaw. The nna, (2) a valuable wool, but
not so deeply secreted, or possessing so many curves as the refina, occu-
pies the belly, and the quarters and th'ghs, down to the stifle joint;
(3) is found on the head, the throat, the lower part of the neck, and
the shoulders, terminatmg at the elbow, (fore legs,) and reaching from the
stifle to a little below the hock; (4) is procured from the tuft that
grows on the forehead and cheeks, from the tail, and from the legs below
the hock.
vm. Comparative Value of Pine and Coarse Wool.
Up to twenty years ago, fine wool was the most valuable, and the fine-
ness of the fiber increased the price per pound in corresponding ratio.
Then the exceeding fineness of broadcloth was the limit and standard of
highest excellence.
Of late years the demand for long and worsted wools
1006 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCltX
has steadily increased, with the change in fashion for gentlemen's, >vea,T;
and the demand for worsted, combing, and other long wools is steaaify
growing, and ai, prices altogether in advance of the fine wools. Hence
the larger breeds of sheep, once principally valuable for their mutton,
sprung suddenly into favor for their wool. In England, the value of a
sheep is rated fully as mucli for the carcass as for the wool. In the
United States and in Canada, to a considerable degree, the wool is still
the principal object ; so the saying that, an Englishman in examining a
flock, would ask, " how much will they dress," while the question of an
American would be, " how much will they shear," still holds good.
Nevertheless, this is gradually changing ; and the increased consump-
tion of prime mutton in our laige cities, and the increased facilities for
ocean transportation of live animals, have stimulated more and more the
breeding of mutton sbeep. The probability is, that the fashionable fab-
rics made of the wools mentioned will not soon go out of use for sum-
mer wear, since they are altogether superior to cotton and linen, both in
coolness and the ease with which they may be kept clean.
Fine wools, on the other hand, will never be superseded for wintei
wear, for blankets, for underclothing, and the endless variety of uses fot
which they are adapted.
rX. Ranging and Flocking of Different Breeds.
It is not generally known that there are peculiarities in sheep husband-
ry, especially in the flocking of herds, which cannot be overcome. The
most important of these is, that the mutton and long-wooled breeds can-
not be carried in large flocks. Merino and other fine-wooled breeds may
easily be carried in flocks of even 1000 and upwards, on suitable soils ;
but the large breeds cannot successfully be carried in flocks of more than
200 together. Hence the adaptability of the Western plains and of Texas
and New Mexico to the fine-wooled breeds, individual owners numbering
their flocks by many thousands each. On the other hand, the large breeas
are the favorites among farmers in the thickly settled portions of the
United States, where they are kept in flocks of from twenty up to several
hundreds.
X. Regions Adapted to Sheep.
It has generally been thought that only rocky, hilly regions are well
adapted to the keeping of sheep. This is a mistake. Such regions are
suited to sheep, no doubt, for sheep require a firm soil ; sheep, aL;o,
can subsist in rocky, barren regions where other animals would starve.
Yet any dry situation adapted to grass possesses all the necessary essen-
tials. The Western prairies, which, except for a short time in the
spring, are firm and dry, are most admirably adapted to sheep. All the hUl
ORIGIN, ANATOMY AND POINTS OF SHEEP.
1007
1008
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
§1
ORIGIX, ANATOMY AND POINTS OF SHEEP. 1009
'•egions of the South are eminently suited for sheep husbandry, espe-
cially for the mutton and long-wooled breeds. There are found the es-
sentials of a genial climate, plenty of range, pure water, sweet grasses,
and a soil natural to sheep. There is only a single drawback — the num-
ber of dogs that are allowed to wander at will to decimate flocks. If
the dogs were abated, the hill regions of the South would soon prove as
valuable for sheep as for fruit and for general agriculture.
XI. Points of Excellence of the Principal Breeds.
The standards of excellence, now generally adopted at the St. Louis
fair, at the Illinois State fair, and at many other prominent Western fairs,
and also at the great exhibition of live stock at the Chicago fair for 1881,
may be taken as being as near perfect as possible, and will rule in all
points except, perhaps, in the weight of the carcass. In the East, and
in some portions of the hill region South, the weight of carcass may be
reduced some twenty pounds. Thus the standard of 165 pounds gross
weight for a Merino ram, and 120 pounds for gross weight of Merino
ewe, was reduced to 140 and 100 jicands respectively at the Centennial
Exhibition, while in other respects the standards were identical. At St.
Louis, the heavy standard known as the Illinois standard is, without modi-
fication , used for judging sheep , This standard , in fact, was really arranged
by i)roniinent breeders of Illinois, and of the country contiguous to St.
Louis, we believe. The standards for the several grades will be found
adapted to any breed ; that for Cotswolds, applying to any long-wooled
breed with very simple modifications. The standards are as follows :
XH. Standard for American Merinos.
Points.
Blood. — Thoroughbred, i. e, purely bred from one or more of the
direct importations of Merino sheep from Spain prior to the
year 1812, without the admixture of any other blood. - - 1
Constitution. — Indicated by form of body ; deep and large breast
cavity ; broad back, heavy quarters, with muscular development
forming capacious abdomen ; skin thick, but soft, of fine tex-
ture, and pink color; expansive nostril, brilliant eyes, healthful
countenance, and good size, age considered. - - - - 15
8iZE. — In fair condition, with fleece of twelve months' growth, full-
grown rams should weigh not less than 165 pounds, and ewes
not less than 120 pounds. ------. 7
General Appearance. — Good carriage, bold style, elastic move-
ment, showing in particular parts, as well as general outline and
symmetry of form. - * - - , . . |
1010 CrCIiOPEDIA OP LITE 8TOGK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOa.
Points.
Body. — Throughout, heavy bones, well proportioned in length ;
smooth joints ; ribs starting horizontally from back-bone, and
well rounded to the breast-bone, which should be wide, strong,
and prominent in front ; strong back-bone, straight and well
proi)ortioned as to length ; heavy, muscular quarters, deep
through, and squarely formed behind and before, with shoulders
well set on, neither projecting sharply above the back-bone, nor
standing so wide and flat as to incur lial)ility to slip-shoulders. - 8
Folds and Wrinkles. — Folds on the ram should ))c larger than on
the ewe. Large and pendulous folds from the chin or jaws,
succeeding each other down the neck to the brisket, ending
with large fold or " apron," and extending up the sides of the
aeck, but lighter if at all extending over top of neck ; two or
three behind the fore leg or shoulder ; one on front of hind leg,
hanging well down across the flank ; two or more on rear of
hind legs or quarters, extending up tow^ards the tall, with one
or two on and around the tail, giving the animal a square appear-
ance on the hindquarters, and straight down as may be from end
of tail to hock joints and hind feet. In addition to folds, small
wrinkles over the body and belly are desirable, as forming com-
pactness of fleece, but not large enough to be apparent on the
surface of grown fleece, or to cause a jar in its quality, thus
leaving the body of the fleece even in quality, and free from the
jar of large folds over the body. - - - - --.'"!
Head. — Wide between the eyes and behind the ears and across thb
nose ; short from top of head to tip of nose ; face straight, eyes
clear and prominent; ears thick, medium size, and, together
with the face, nose and lips, white, covered with soft fur or
downy wool. Ewes should give no appearance of horns, while
upon the rams the horns should be clear in color, symmetri-
cally curved, without tendency to press upon the sides of the
head or to extreme expansion. - - - - _ _ 6
Neck. — Medium length, good bone and muscular development,
and, especially with the rams, heavier, toward the shoulders,
well set high up, and rising from that point to the back of the
head. -- - - - - --__5
Legs and Feet. — Legs medium or short in length, straight and set
well apart forward and V)ack ; heavy bone, smooth joints, with
large muscular development of the fore-arm ; thick, heavy
thighs, wide down to hock joints, and from knee joints down-
ward covered with short wool, or the soft furry covering pecu-
liar to the ears and face ; hoofs well shaped and of clear color. - 5
ORIGIN, ANATOMY AND POINTS OF SHEEP. 1011
Points.
Do'OiRiNG — ^Tendency to hair and gare upon any part of the sheep
is to he avoided. Evenness of fleece in length, quality, density,
lustre, crimp, trueness, strength and elasticity, covering the en-
tire body, belly and legs to the knees ; head well covered
forward, squarely to a line in front of the eyes ; well filled be-
tween the eyes and the ears or horns, and well u[) on the
cheeks ; muzzle clear, with small opening up to and around the
eyes. Scrotum of rams covered with wool, free from tendency
to hair. . = „ _ . . 1^
Quality. ^ — Medium, but such as is known in our markets as fine de-
laine and fine clothing wool, distmctly better in quality, lustre,
crimp and elasticity, than the wools of same length grown upon
the common grade sheep. - - - » _ •)
Density. — Shown by the compactness of the fleece throughout,
which should open free but close, showing very little of the skin
at any pomt, even at the extremities of the fleece. - - 10
Length. — At one year's growth not less than two and one-half
inches, and as nearly as may be uniform in length to the extrem-
ity of the fleece. - - - -*=. -5
Oil. — Evenly distributed *, soft and flowing freely from skin to sur-
face ; medium in quantity. . - - - > 5
100
Xnr. standard for Middle-Wooled Sheep.
Points
Blood. — Purely bred from one or more of direct miportations from
Great Britain. = = -.=.„„!()
Constitution and Quality.— Indicated by the form of body ; deep
and large in breast and through the heart ; back wide, straight,
and well covered with lean meat or muscle ; wide and full in
thigu, deep m flank ; skin soft and pink color ; prominent eyes
and healthful countenance, -• - - - - 25
Size. — In fair condition, when fully matured ; rams should weigh
not less than 200 pounds, and ewes not less than 175 pounds. 10
General Appearance and Character. —Good carriage ; head well
up ; elastic movement, showing symmetry of form and uni-
formity of character throughout. - - = . . 10
Body. — Well proportioned ; small bones ; great scale and length ;
well finished hind quarters ; thick back and loins ; standing
with legs well placed outside ; breast wide, and prominent in
front - - - --.--10
1012 CrOT-crraaDiA or «.rr« STOCK Ain> cxmiflete stock doctor.
Points.
Head. — Short and broad : wide between ears, and well covered
with wool ; color dark ^rey ; light muzzle not objectionable ;
ears short. - - - - - --10
Neck. — Short and heavy, especially toward shoulders. - - 5
Legs and Feet. — Short and well set apart : color dark grey, and
wooled to the hoof, which must be well shaped. - - - 5
CovEKiNO. — Body, belly, head and legs well covered with fleece
of even length and quality ; scrotum of rams also well cov-
ered. - - - - - - --10
Quality of Wool. — Medium, such as is known in market as half-
combing wool. -____----5
100
XIV. standard for Cotswold Sheep.
Points .
Head. — Not too fine, moderately small, and ))road between the eyes
and nostrils, but without a short, thick appearance, and inj^oung
animals covered on crown with long lustrous wool. - - 8
Face. — Either white or slightly mixed ^^^th gre}^ or white dappled
with browTi. '- -- - - ---_4
Nostrils. — Wide and expanded ; nose dark. - _ _ . i
Eyes. — Promineni, ])ut mild looking. - - - - - - 2
Ears. — Broad, long, moderately thin, and covered with short hair 4
Collar. — Full from breast a; d shoulders, tapering gradually all the
way to where the head and neck join. The neck of ram should
be short, thick and strong, indicating constitutional vigor^
(neck of ewe should be fine and graceful) and free from coai-se
and loose skin. [Collar 5 points with ewe.] . - _ 6
Shoulders. — Broad and full, and at the same time join so gracefully
to the collar forward and the chine backward as not to kv^ve the
least hollow in either place. --____ g
Fore-legs. — The mutton on the arm or fore-thigh should come qu\ie
to the knee. Leg upright with heavy bone, being clear from
superfluous skin, ^vith wool to fetlock, and may be mixed with
g^^y- - - - 4
Breast. — Broad and well forward, keeping the legs wide apart ;
girth or chest full and deep. _ - _ _ _ - 10
Fore flank. — Quite full, not showing hollow Oehind the shoulder.
[4 points with ewe.] ____ _ _ -5
Back and loin. — Broad, flat and straiglit, from which the ribs must
spring with a fine circ ilar arch. - - - - - 12
Belly. — Straight on underlme. [5 points with ewe.] - 3
p
o
a K
(D _;
I M
ORIGIN. ANATOM V \ . ] > i . .(NTS OF SHEEP.
1013
QuAKTEits. — Luu^^ and full, wuli multoii i^uite down to the hock.
Hock. — Should stand neither in nor out. . . . -
Twist. — Or junction inside the thighs, deep, wide and full, which,
with a broad breast, will keep the legs open and upright. -
Fleece.. — The whole body should be covered with long, lustrous
wool. .-..••••••
Points.
18
100
CHAPTER TT.
VARIETIES OF SHEEP AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS.
I. LONG-WOOLED ENGLISH SHEEP. II. LINCOLN SHEEP. III. ROMNEY MARSH
SHEEP. IV. LEICESTER SHEEP. V. THE COTSWOLDS. VL NEW OXFORD-
SHIRE SHEEI'. VII. THE OXFORD-DOWNS. VIII. MIDDLE .\ND SHORT- WOOLED
BRITISH BREEDS. IX. WHITE-FACED MOUNTAIN SHEEP. X. BLACK PACED
HIGHLAND, OR SCOTCH SHEEP. XI. HAMPSHIRE-DOWNS. XIL SHROP-
SHIRE-DOWNS. Xin. SOUTH-DOWNS. XIV. OTHER BREEDS OF GREAT
BRITAIN. XV. DORSET SHEEP. XVI. FINE-WOOLED SHEEP. XVIL AMER-
ICAN MERINOS. XVIIl. THE ATWOOD AND HAMMOND MERINOS. XIX. THE
RICH MERINOS. XX. ABOUT SHEEP IN GENERAL. XXI. THE AVERAGE
WOOL PER SHEEP. XXII. SUMMARY OF BRITISH BREEDS. XXIII. THE
SHEEP IN AUSTRALIA. XXIV. THE WOOL HARVEST. XXV. WHERE THE
WORLD'S SHEEP ARE LOCATED. XXVL THE WORLD'S GREATEST WOOL
SUPPLY.
Long-Wooled English Sheep.
Long-wooled sheep may l)e divided into two classes — those reared iu
rich alluvial and mar.shy districts that have been drained, as the Lincoln
and Konino}^ marshes ? and those reared in the rich agricultural districts
of arable land devoted to mixed farming. The latter includes the Cots-
wolds, the Lcicesters, and the Oxford-Downs. In discussing long-wooled
sheep, we shall simply give characteristics, supplemented with accurate
illustrations of the more valuable breeds, since this will be all that will be
necessary to enable the reader to easily recognise them and estimate theii
value.
n. Lincoln Sheep.
The Lincoln sheep are the largest sheep known, tfnder fairly good
feeding they dress up to 120 to 160 pounds at two years old past, while
under exceptional circumstances they dress up to 90 pounds per quarter at
thatage. Their long, lustrous fleeces, at the second shearing, will weigh from
10 to 15 pounds of washed wool, the fibre measuring nine inches in length.
They have been known in the United States since 1835, are hardy and
prolific, but large feeders. Notwithstanding their good qualities, they
have not become widely disseminated in this country, the Cotswolds
being generally preferred. They require the best and most succulent
grasses and the most skillful care, and this, probably, is the reason why
they have not succeeded so well in the West, where high farming is not
the rul&
HE. Komney Marsh Sheep.
These sheep are natives of the Southeastern part of England,especially
the drained marsh districts of Kent, where they have been bred from the
1014
VARIETIES OF SHEEP AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS.
1015
earliest times. They are hardier than the Lincolns, and, like most Brit-
ish breeds of long-wooled sheep, have been improved by a cross of the
Leicester. They have a peculiar tuft of wool on the forehead ; a thick,
broad head and neck ; are long in the body, with flat sides ; a broad loin ;
full, broad thighs ; the fore quarters are not so well developed. The
limbs are strong ; the hoofs broad ; the wool long, somewhat coarse, but
sound, bright and glossy. The wethers at three years old will dress from
100 to 120 pounds for the butcher ; the ewes dress from 70 to 90 pounds,
and have much inside fat. There seems to be no reason why they should
not prove valuable on rich, succulent pastures in the West, though it is
not to be denied that all the English breeds deteriorate in America, es-
,pecially in the West, probably both from the dry climate and the want of
succulent food (roots) in winter,
IV. Leicester Sheep.
Leicester sheep are considered as among the most valuable of British
breeds, and justly so. Since their improvement by Bakewell, during the
last centuiy, they have been successfully used for the general improve-
ment of the long-wooled breeds of England, giving better feeding quali-
GROUP OF SHROPSHIRE RAMS.
ties, fineness and early maturity. Tlieyare divided into Leicesters proper
and Border Leicesters. The modern improved Leicester is hornless ; the
head small and clean ; eyes bright, prominent and animated ; limbs clean
and fine-boned ; the neck and shoulders full and deep ; the body full ;
back straight, with hind quarters tapering to the tail, and less square than
1016 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOE.
the Cots^olds; the flesh is good, but not the best, being too fat; the
ears thin, long and directed back. The fleeces are especially valuable
for combing wool, being white, long and lustrous, and will average seven
or eight pounds per fleece; the skin is thin, but soft and elastic. They
VABIETIES OF SHEEP AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 1017
fatten to weigh, at twelve months old past, up to twenty-five pounds each
quarter, and at two years old up to about forty pounds per quarter. The
breed is popular in some parts of the United States, especially in the
West, but to succeed they must have the very best of care and attention.
Border Leicesters. — The breeding of the New Leicesters, or Dishley
as they were sometimes called, upon the "Border Sheep" of England,
produced what became known as the Border Leicester, a sub-family that
attained a distinct and well marked position in England, and which, under
good management, at about one year and a half old, would dress from
eighteen to twenty pounds per quarter of tender and succulent flesh.
Older than this che accumulation of fat was great, and the meat not fine.
The principal characteristics are an exceedingly small head, and small
but fine bone In proportion to the weight of carcass. They have clean
jaws; thin ears; full, placid eyes; straight, broad, flat back; arched
ribs — a peculiarity of all Leicesters, giving the body often the appear-
ance, when fully clothed with wool, of being broader than it is deep.
The belly is, also, carried very evenly below, giving a straight or nearly
straight line below. The skin is thin, but mellow, and the fleece long
and soft, averaging nearly as much as the improved Leicester — six to
seven pounds. Their heavy accumulation of fat has not made them fa-
vorites in the United States.
V. The Cotswolds.
There ai-e none of the English breeds of sheep that have become so
universally disseminated in the United States — not excepting the South-
Downs — as have the Cotswolds. The improved Cots wold is one of the
largest of English breeds, even since its refinement through the Leicester
crosses. It is hardy and moderately early in maturing; strong in con-
stitution ; broad-chested ; round-barreled ; straight-lxicked ; and fattens
kindly at thirteen to fifteen months old to yield fifteen pounds of mut-
ton per quarter, and at two years old, from twenty to thirty pounds per
quarter. The wool of the Cotswold is strong and rather coarse, but
white and mellow, six to eight inches in length, and averaging seven to
eight pounds per fleece ; some American fleeces have been sheared weigh-
ing eighteen pounds. The two illustrations of Cotswold ewes will show
the appearance of this favorite long-wooled breed as they appear under
good keeping, before shearing time.
Cotswolds in the West and South.— Their many good qualities, especi-
ally their hardiness, adaptation to the rolling prairies of the West and
the hill regions of the South, have made them general favorites with
long- wool breeders. They also cross kindly with other breeds, including
the South-Downs ; the ewes are prolific, and the flesh of the lambs and
1018
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
yearlings most excellent. Like all the long-wonled breeds, they accumu-
late much fat with age. Another point in their favor is that the fleeces
are not gummy, and do not shrink, as do the Merinos. A pound of Cots-
Mold wool, as it is taken from the sheep, will produce as much clean
scoured wool as two and a half pounds of gummy Merino wool. South
of the Ohio river, Coiswolds are often reported as wintering with little or
no feeding, except grazing, unless during more than ordinarily severe
winters. East and AVest of the Mississippi, in the latitude of St. Louis
and south of it, the same is true, and the statement will hold good with
all the more hardy breeds. Yet, even in these genial climates, all
sheep must be sheltered from storms, and it is by no means good policy
VARIETIES OF SHEEP AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 1019
to allow them to shift entirely for themselves in the matter of food. To
show accurately the form of this admirable breed, we give an il-
lustration of an ewe, and also of a buck, showing their appearance after
shearing.
In the hill region of Virginia, and other parts of the South and West,
the Cotswolds are yearly increasing in favor. The testimony of many
Southern planters and farmers is decidedly in their favor. One statement,
that of a prominent farmer of Clark county, Va., must suffice. His
testimony is as follows: It is far more profitable to keep the different
varieties of mutton breeds, than the fine wools, or Merino breed in this
5EST IiMPuKTKD KAiM 1 Gt'imani. Age 2 Yeara
The property of J. C. van Rooyen, Esq., Bornman's Drift. — Photographed expressly for this work.
portion of Virginia. I say this from my own experience, and that of
many intelligent gentlemen with whom I have conversed. The Cotswold
sheep, and its crosses with the South-Down, are less liable to diseases of
all kinds; they are more prolific, better nurses, and less liable to lose their
lambs than the Merino. The lambs are more vigorous and hardy; then
add their early maturity, their fitness for market at eighteen months old,
and their almost double value when in market, and you have advantages
which far outweigh the additional amount of food which the mutton
sheep may consume in proportion to his size.
1020 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
This is high praise not only for the Cotswolds, but for the South-
Downs, which were always a favorite breed in the hill region of the
South. It must be remembered, however, that none of the long-wooled or
1 ,,. _^o;^|,\- ^ ,,,^-^
'f:'$' -Jf -mm
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the mutton breeds do well in large flocks. As before stated, 100 of these
sheep is the largest number that should be flocked together. The illus-
tration of yearling Cotswold will serve as a good representation of the
VARIETIES OF SHEEP AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS.
1021
fully wooled animal at this age. It also shows the foretop of wool on
the pate, which is characteristic of this breed.
VI. New Oxfordshire Sheep.
Another breed that has been introduced into the United States, but has
not met with general favor, is the New Oxfordshire, one of the breeds
arising from crosses of the New Leicester upon the Cotswold. They
should not be confounded with the Oxford-Down, whichis a cross between
1022 Gf Cl/OPBDIA or UTB S1O0K Ain> CKWPLBTB STOCK DOCTOB.
the Cotswold and Hampshire-Down, and belongs to the middle-wools, as
well as to the special mutton breeds. In England they are regarded in
their own locality ^Yith favor. They are less hardy than the Cotswolds,
and in the United States have not been received with special favor. The
illustration of New-Oxfordshire ewe will show the general appearance of
the breed.
VTL The Oxford-Downs.
This excellent breed of Enghsh sheep is said to have originated about
the year 1830, by crossing a Cotswold ram on a Hampshire-Down ewe,
producing a sheep heavier than the Hampshire, resembling the Cotswold
in size and fleece, but finer and firmer in the fibre. The produce of these
parents were bred together, and careful selection ^produced sheep that in
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1862 were awarded a separate class at the English fairs. They are com-
paratively rare in the United States. It is said of them that, in a district
at the foot of the Cotswold hills, abounding in springy places, and re-
quiring extensive drainage, they have succeeded and thriven where
neither the Cotswolds nor the South-Downs would. A pen of these
sheep, shown at the Smithfield cattle show, in 1873, are repoiied to have
averaged, at 22 months old, 298 pounds each, or 885 pounds for the pen
of fchree. The average fleece is given as weighing 8 or 9 pounds, and of
the best quality for worsted manufactures ; and rams are reported af
having sheared 20 pounds of wool. The ewes are prolific, producing 150
lambs to the 100 ewes. The Oxford-Downs mature early, dressing 80
VARIETIES OF SHEEP AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS.
1023
to 90 pounds of superior mutton at fourteen months of age. They are
hardy, herd well, and are good feeders. They have a head much like
the Cotswold, with the tuft on the forehead, but with dark gray face and
legs like the Hampshires, but the grey is lighter than that of the South-
Downs. The fleece is thick and somewhat curled, giving 8 to 10 pounds
each, yearly, for the ewes, and twelve to fifteen pounds for the rams.
The wool is six to seven inches long, lustrous, neither hairy nor harsh,
but even in quality. This breed has as yet been but sparsely introduced
into tjie United States, but wherever it has fallen into good hands, has
been much liked, and is fully worthy of more extended trial, especially on
1024 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
soft and spongy lands, where its constitutional vigor should stand it in
good stead.
VIII. Middle and Shcrt-wooled British Sheep.
The middle and ^hort-wooled sheep of Great Britain are comprised
principally in the following breeds: The Black-faced and the White-
faced Highland sheep; the Hampshire-Downs; the Oxford-Downs; the
Shropshire-Downs; 'the Cheviots; the Dorsets; the Welsh Mountain sheep,
and the mixed Mountain sheep of Ireland.
IX. White-faced Mountain Sheep.
Wales has long been noted for one of the indigenous breeds of British
sheep, as it also has been as possessing one of the indigenous breeds of
British cattle. This breed seems clearly allied to the Highland sheep of
Scotland, and long occupied much of the low lands and hill region adjoin-
ing Wales. Its principal recommendation is the superior quality of the
B
^
B
L
"^^ ' iHH^^^^^H
LINCOLN EWE, GIBSON'S 16 2, BY ROYAL DUKE.
Grand Champion Ewe of her Breed.
mutton, which, however, seldom weighs more than eight to ten pounds
per quarter. These sheep are hardy, good nui-ses, with faces white, rusty-"
brown, or speckled with grey. The fleeces weigh only about two pounds
each, but the wool is famous for its quality of not shrinking in wash-
ing, a quality probably due, mainly, to the fact of its being home-
spun, since the same quality is allowed to all home-spun flannel ia «
greater or less degree.
C CO
IS
m
VARIETIES OF SHEEP AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS,
1025
X. Black-faced Highland or Scotch Sheep.
This breed is celebrated for its great hardiness and for its power of
withstanding cold and living on scanty food even when the ground is cov-
ered with snow, as well as for its superior mutton. It is the oldest breed
known in Scotland. The face is black; the muzzle thick; the horns of
the rams massive and spirally curved; eyes bright and wild; the body
square and compact. They herd well together, are docile and easily
handled. When fat, the carcass will weigh from sixty to seventy pounds,
and yields mutton of exceedingly fine flavor. The ewes are excellent and
careful mothers, and for these reasons we have given them a place in this
LINCOUX K.\M. CIBSONS
Grand Champion Rar
. BY liuYAL DUKE,
of his Breed.
work; in some mountain regions of America, this and the Welsh Moun-
tain breed may come to be of value. The fleece of the White-faced breed
will weigh about three pounds, but is adapted only to the manufacture of
coarser fabrics, as caipets, blankets and rugs.
XI. Hampshire-Downs.
The Hampshire-Downs are a mixed breed, originating by crossing the
South-Down on the native breed of Hampshire, followed later by the
Cotswold. During this infusion of improved blood, they have retained
ilieir original hardy constitutions in a remarkable degree. Before the
-7ar thev were much esteemed in the South, as being larger and fully as
1026
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
good in their mutton as the South-Downs,
der good keep, will weigh 100 pounds ei
seven pounds of excellent combing wool.
The lambs at a year old, tin-
3h, and the fleeces give six to
The mutton is not overloaded
with fat, and is Juicy and excellent in flavor. The Hampshire-Downs
are a hornless breed with black face ; roman nose ; large head ; the
whole frame massive niid compact; the barrel round and the limbs
strong and short.
XII. Shropshire-Downs.
The original of the Shropshire-Downs is an old English breed which
were kept on what was known as Marfe common, a tract of some 600,-
OCO acres. They were horned ; black or brown faced ; hardy, and con-
stitutionally excellent; yielding a medium fine fleece, of about two
pounds weight ; and about fifty pounds of excellent mutton when ma-
ture. Crossed with the Cotswold in the latter part of the last century,
and later with the Leicester and South-Down, careful selection has pro-
duced a sheep without horns ; faces and legs of a peculiar spotted gray
or darker color ; small, firm head ; handsome ears ; thick but handsome
neck ; broad deep breast — a round-barreled, broad-backed, fine-horned
sheep, that at two years old, will dress 100 pounds, and under extra feed
120 pounds, of excellent mutton. The fleece is long, glossy and will
yield about seven pounds of washed wool. The ewes are prolific and
good mothers, and wherever known iu the United States and Canada,
Are highly urized .
VARIETIES OF SHEEP AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS 1027
^
il-SL
■^^H^^^^HIkv '
■fl^^^^^^p^^^^^^^^
1028 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Xm. South-Downs.
The South-Downs, ouce the most celebrated of the mutton breeds,
both in England and the United States, ought probably still to be the
favorites wherever the production of mutton is the chief aim of the
breeder. But in the United States, wool is the most valua))le product of
sheep husbandry, and in England the South-Downs have, of late years,
^jven place in many districts to the broods heretofore mentioned, Avhich
eon)bine good mutton with superior wool. This is veiy generally ihe
case in the United States, and especially in the West, except in the
vicinity of large cities where superior mutton commands high prices.
Still, the South-Downs have been bred for many years in the United
Stiites, and are found in all sections of the country. The ewes are very
HAMPSHIRE EWES.
prolific. The staple of the wool is fine and curled, with spiral ends, weA
adapted to carding. They are models of what a mutton and hill sheep
should be ; in shape and character they have altered very much from the
old-time South-Downs, being smaller in the bone, equally hardy, and
with a greater disposition to fatten is combined a heavier carcass when
fat. The head of the modern South-Down should be of a medium
length, and the lips thin ; the under-jaw, or chap, fine and thin ; the ears
tolerably wide apart, well covered with wool, full and thin ; the forehead
well covered with wool, especially between the ears, and the eye full and
bright, but not prominent.
The neck should be of proportionate length, thin next the head, and
enlarging towards the shoulders, where it should be broad and straighten
ihe top, and not what is generally called ewe-necked. The breast should
be wide and deep, projecting well forward between the fore-legs. This
is considered an essential point with gi-aziers, as the breast gives the
sheep a greater degree of weight, and also Indicates a good coustitutioir
and disposition to thriVki.
VARIETIES OF SHEEP AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 1029
1030 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
The shoulders should be on a level with the Kack, and not too wide
above. If the shoulder-plates are very wide on the top, it is generally found
that the annnal drops beliind them. The back should be flat, from the
shoulders to the setting on of the tail. The ribs should project horizon-
tali}' from the spine, extending far backward, and the last rib projecting
more than the others. The rump should be long and broad, the tail set
on high, and nearly on a level with the spine ; the hips wide, and the
space between them and the last rib on cither side as narrow as possible,
thus preventing the dropping of the belly ; the ribs generally presenting
a circular form. The legs should be of proportionate length ; the hind
legs full in the inside at the point called the twist ; the hock, or hough,
rather turning out. The fore-legs should be straight from the breast to
the foot ; the face and legs of a dark brown color.
XIV. Other Breeds of Great Britain.
The breeds of sheep in Great Britain are as varied as the neighborhoods,
very few of them, except those already mentioned, having more than
a local reputation. In the summary of breeds, a few pages further on,
Ihese will be mentioned in connection with some of those described in
the preceding pages. The only additional English breed necessary to
illustrate here is the Dorset sheep.
XV. Dorset Sheep.
The Dorset sheep, while pro])ably of the same origin as the Welsh
Mountain, and the Scotch Highland sheep, are peculiar, we believe, to
GROUP LEICESTER SHEEP.
Dorsetshire. They are a hardy, active, strong, heavily horned race,
that would seem to be well able to take care of themselves in inhospitable
VARIETIES OF SHEEP AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS.
1031
regions. Thej are larger in every way than the Highlanders, prolific,
and both rams and ewes are horned. They are said to produce young
twice in the season, and this is turned to account, since tlie mutton of
the lambs is excellent, and sells for good prices. At two years old they
are said to dress 100 pounds each, and the fleeces are close, soft and
white, and comb well, and weigh about six pounds each. It is probable
that they might have some value in the mountain regions, where the
lambs might be made available in some near market.
XVI. Fine Wooled Sheep.
The principal breeds of fine wooled sheep that have attained a good
reputation, are : The Spanish, the Saxony, the Silesian, the French Meri-
nos, and the American Merinos. The latter breed, years since famous
all over the United States, is the result of careful breeding from Span-
SHROPSHIRE YEARLING EWES.
ish stock. All the other breeds have been carefully tried in the United
States but not with satisfaction. Both the Saxony and the Silesians have
exceedingly fine wool. In Australia many of the flocks have received an
infusion of Saxon blood ; but at the Centennial Exhibition at Philadel-
phia, there was nothing in the vast variety of these fleeces to induce
1032 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
American breeders to make a change in their own fine-wooled sheep.
A cross of the French Merino on American Merinos, and a second cross,
making the strain three-quarters American and one-quarter French, re-
sulted in increased size, but the animals were tender and bad feeders.
This might have been expected, since the French Merinos are at best a
mongrel race. It is doubtful if now a flock of French Merinos can be
found in the United States.
XVII. American Merinos.
So widely disseminated are this most valuable breed in every portion of
the United States, and so well known are they, that it is not necessary to
go into a description of their origin further than what has been given.
Suffice it to say they are now divided into three families, known as the
Atwood, the Rich, and the Hammond Merinos, from the names of the
three original breedei*s of these strains. They have been improved by
long continued and careful selections.
XVIII. The Atwood and Hammond Merinos.
The Atwood Merinos were originated in 1813 by Mr. Atwood, from
what were known as the Humphrey stock. About 1844 Mr. Hammond,
from selections from the Atwood flock, produced the larger breed of
American Merinos, perfect in the length and thickness of fleece and
thickness of staple, and characterized by great looseness of the skin, which
lies in soft, low, rounded ridges over the body, but offering no obstruction
to the shears. These were originally of Infantado and Paular blood, the
Paiilars, it 'is said, prevailing.
VAEIETIES OF SHEEP AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. 1033
XIX. The Rich Merinos.
These were originally descended from the pure Paulai*s of Spain, and
by careful breeding and selection were much improved by Mr. Silas Rich,
of Vermont, and by his son. Thus the American Merinos originated
from the choicest families from the herds of Spanish grandees, at the
time of their confiscation and sale by the Spanish government, about
1809. Hon. Wm. Jarvis, at that time United States Consul at Lisbon,
bought 3,500 sheep from the flocks of the Paulars, Negrettis, Agueirres
and Montarcos. The flocks of these grandees are said to have amounted
to an aggregate of 50,000 sheep. The animals bought by Mr. Jarvis
were the cream of Spanish flocks, and with the Infantados, make up the
five families which constitute the ground-work of the American Merinos,
now acknowledged to be the most valuable fine-wooled sheep in the
world.
Thus we possess the descendants of the Infantados, large, compact,
rather long bodied, and the descendants of the Paulars, smaller but exceed-
ingly rich in all that constitutes fine wool — two well marked families that
would be injured by the infusion of foreign blood, from whatever source
it might come.
XX. About Sheep in General.
In Great Britain the breeding and feeding of sheep has been second in
importance only to that of cattle. Since the settlement of Australia and
the other British dependencies, the breeding of fine-wooled sheep in
England has been almost entirely abandoned, and long, medium and
short-wooled sheep — valuable as well for mutton as for their fleeces —
have taken their place, leaving to the United States, and to the British
colonies, the almost exclusive breeding of fine-wooled sheep — Saxony,
Silesian, and French and Spanish Merinos. This production has grown
into great magnitude, owing to the fact before stated, that these Merinos
may be kept in immense flocks, and to the added reason, that, in Aus-
tralasia and in Texas, New Mexico, and the great American plains east of
the Rocky mountains, there are vast ranges of country where stock of all
kinds may be herded at a minimum cost.
The sheep of the world are estimated at 600,000,000 head, yielding
2,000,000,000 pounds of wool annually. Of this number Great
Britain has 35,000,000 sheep, shearing annually 218,000,000 pounds of
wool. This wool is principally of long, middle and short staple, but is
not what is known as fine wool. The rough wool, medium fine to coarse,
but not uniform in its texture, is produced in South America and Mexico
from 58,000,000 sheep, yielding annually 174,000,000 pounds of wool;
in North Africa, with 20"!oOO,000 sheep yielding 45,000,000 pounds; and
1034 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
In Asia with 175,000,000 sheep, yielding annually 350,000,000 pounds ot
wool. Now if we add 25,000,000 sheep to these numbers for tlie moun-
tain regions and northern portions of Europe, Greece, and Turkey, and
50,000,000 for Russia, producing in all 164,000,000 pounds of wool, the
entire balance of the world may be sot down as the home of iine-Avooled
sheep. Of these Australia has 60,000,000; the United States 36,000,-
000; the Cape of Good Hope 12,000,000; Germany 29,000,000; Aus-
tro-Hungary 21,000,000; France 26,000,000; Spain 22,000,000; Italy
11,000,000; Portugal 2,750,000 sheep. Of all these countries, Austra^
lia produces the finest wool, while the United States and Canada come
next, although Canada is essentially a mutton producing countiy, which
the United States is not, for the number of sheep kept.
Notwithstanding the immense area in the United States adapted to
sheep husbandry, the industry has not kept pace with the demand, and
until ten years ago our wool imports were constantly on the increase in
spite of the yearly increase of our flocks. From 1870 to 1875, only
two-thirds of our manufactured wool product was home growm. Since
that time our annual imports have not increased. The bulk of imported
wool is of low grade carpet wools, and unwashed Merino, and nonstitutr
ing only one-fourth of the product manufactured.
XXI. The Average Wool per Sheep.
In the United States the average M-eight of wool per fleece is over five
pounds ; in Australia it is over four pounds ; in Great Britian four and
three-quarters pounds ; in the German Empire three and two-thirds
pounds ; in France four and five-sixths pounds ; in Austro-Hungary
three pounds. South American fleeces are variable in weight, but much
lighter than those of Australia, and probably will not average more than
three pounds of wool each.
XXII. Summary of British Breeds.
The report to the Government of the United States, following the
Vienna Exhibition, states the characteristics of prominent English breeds
as follows : The British breeds are most naturally divided according to al-
titudes and fertility of their habitat. The large breeds, white, hornless,
and bearing long wool with small felting property, occupy the rich allu-
vial districts, the land? reclaimed from the sea, and the highly cultivated
and very productive farm-areas. These are the Leicester, Lincoln, Rom-
ney-Marsh, Cotswold, the few remaining of the Devonshire Notts, the
Roscommon, and similar Irish sheep. Next should be classed the sheep
of the chalk-downs, the commons and forests, suited to a dry and tern*
porate climate. These are the Downs of several families, perhaps now to
VARIETIES OF SHEEP AND THEIA CHARACTERISTICS.
1035
be taken as breeds, the Dorsets and their congeners — the pink-nosed
Somersets. They produce a short, felting-wool, suited to inferior grades
of goods. The Ryeland, formerly found in the western counties, and es-
teemed for producing the finest clotli-wool of England, is now almost ex-
tinct. The third general division comprises the mountain breeds, first
the Cheviots of the hills of the North of England and borders of Scot-
land ; the Black-face of the central chain of mountains and moors north-
ward from Derbyshire to the mountains of Scotland ; and two varieties
of Welsh mountain- sheep, and the Kerry and other mountain breeds of
Ireland. There are many local remnants of the ancient stock allied to
the above, but there are none worthy of special mention. The weight ol
fleece of British sheep averages about five pounds. The Lincolns may be
placed at eight pounds, the Cotswolds nearly the same, the Leicesters at
tseven, the Downs at four, the Cheviots at three, the Black-faces at two
and one-half, and the Welsh at two.^ The Leicesters are most numerous,
exceeding one-third of all ; the Downs one-sixth, the Black-faces nearlj
as many. Cheviots one-eighth, leaving about one-fifth for other breeds.
The heavy breeds of eighty years ago, modified mainly by the Leicestert
now furnish lighter fleeces.
BUNCH OF YEARLING CHEVIOT LAMBS.
1036 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
XXIII. The Sheep in Australia.*
Spain rendered a great service to the world in preserving the purity of
the ancient 'blood in sheep. It remained for other countries to improve
the stock by means of the modern art of breeding. While some of the early
Australian breeders gave attention to improvement by selection ; stocking
up the "runs" was in general the first consideration and when at length the
time for considering the quality of the sheep arrived, the flocks presented
wide opportunities for improvement. The wool wtus fine; but the fleece
\yi\s small and the staple short. The frame was small, and the ill-shaped
body bore wool only on the back, while there was much to be desired in the
way of evenness of quality throughout the fleece. What had to be accom-
plished in order to produce the Australian merino of to-day is shown by
-rfC7'5HKsSiJC;7T^
T3.'PE OF SPANISH MERINO EWE IMPORTED TO AUSTRALIA IN 1828.
the representation of a merino of the time from the Royal Spanish flocks.
Not content with securing the best breed of sheep in the world, the Austra-
lian breeder set about bringing it to the highest point of perfection. The
wool must not only be fine, but it must also be long, and of brilliant white-
ness, and it must cover the entire surface of the animal, the legs, head and
under-parts all taking part in producing the wool crop. The tip of the
nose and the hoofs are the only parts that do not bear wool, as may be seen
by the illustration of a typical Australian merino. There had to be an
enlargem.ent of the body, and the area of wool-bearing skin was farther
extended by a skillful arrangement of folds and pleats. This enlarged
area was also subjected to a kind of intensive cultivation. Two piles of
wool had to be made to grow where only one grew before; the crop had to
grow thicker on the ground, ''density" being carried to its extreme limit.
• For this article on "The Sheep In Australia" we are Indebted to the December l^sue of the
admirable magazine "LIFE" issued monthly at Melbourne, Australia, for which courtesy on the
part of Its publishers due acknowledgment 1« here mnde.
VARIETIES OF SHEEP AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS.
1037
Meanwhile, attention was also being paid to the "evenness" of the crop,
for Nature had no use for wool of equal fineness on every part of the sheep.
The skill of the breeder, however, managed to coax Nature into producing
an even fleece, and the development of the most perfect fine-wool sheep in
the world was complete.
XXIV. The Wool Harvest.
It would have been possible to develop a few ideal sheep in special stud
flocks, without having brought the general flocks of the country up to a
high standard, but there has been a remarkable all-round improvement.
Before sheep-classing, selection, and culling became general, the average
TYPE OF SPANISH MERINO P.AM IMPORTED TO AUSTRALIA IN 1823.
yield of wool was not more than three pounds or three and a half pounds
per head, but the return has been gradually increased to a general average
of about seven pounds per sheep. Last year the clip of Australia and Nevv
Zealand, according to Dalgety's review of wool, averaged seven pounds four
ounces per head, and its average value per head of sheep and lambs was 5.s.
lOc?. ($1.40). Another indication of the increasing size of the fleeces is the
average number of fleeces per bale of wool. The returns bearing upon this
point show a marked enlargement of the fleece even within the last ten
years. The number of fleeces of sheep's and lamb's wool averaged 59.65,
60.08, and 59.62 for the years 1897, 1898, and 1899, as compared with
51.72, 47.79, and 46.49 for the years 1908, 1909, and 1910 ; while improve-
ment in the same direction is indicated by the increased number of bales
required on the average to contain the fleeces of 1000 sheep. For the
1038
CYCLOrEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
three years ending in 1899, the average number was 16.68 ; while for the
three years ending in 1910 the average was 20.70. That the increase in
the quantity or weight of fleece per sheep has not been secured by any
sacrifice of the high quality of the wool is sufficiently proved by the un-
rivalled market-value of the clip. According to "Dalgety's Review" the
average value of all wool sold in Australasian markets this season. has been
9}id. (19y2 cents) per pound, as compared with Sy2d. (17 cents) last
year, and 9j/<cZ. (19 cents) the year before. The bales averaged a weight
of 335.3 pounds, and the average price per bale was £13 12s. 2d. ($63.58).
Pastoralists have not allowed their efforts in improving their sheep, and
producing wool of the highest excellence, to divert their attention from the
A CHAMPION AUSTRALIAN MERINO EWE OF 1911.
best methods of preparing the product for market, for their methods have
long been held up by brokers and buyere as an example to the producers of
other countries.
XXV. Where the World's Sheep are Located.
All these remarkable advances in the quality of wool, weight of fleece,
and excellence of marketing arrangements, have been achieved concur-
rently with an active increase in the number of sheep. As compared with
other wool-producing countries Australia is only an infant in years ; but it
has already outgrown all competitors. The sheep of the Commonwealth
now number 92,000,000; New Zealand flocks bringing the Australasian
VARIETIES OF SHEEP AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS.
1039
total up to 115,525,000. Half of Australia's sheep are in New South
Wales, or, precisely, 46,194,178; while there are 19,593,791 in Queens-
land; 12,937,983 in Victoria; 6,898,450 in South AustraHa; 4,692,419 in
Western Australia; and 1,928,053 in Tasmania. In recent years there has
been a rapid increase, and it promises well for the future of the world.
The Argentine comes next to Australia, with a total of 62,000,000 sheep,
these figures showing a decrease of no less than 7,000,000 in five years. As
vnW be seen by the diagram, Australia's lead is a long one. Russia follows
the Argentine with 61,500,000 ; then comes the United States with 56,000,-
000, and a long way in the rear are South Africa with 32,800,000, the
V P-
DOMALD DIXXIE, A CHAMPION AUSTRALIAN MERINO RAM.
United Kingdom with 31,800,000, British India with 18,000,000, France
with 17,000,000, Spain with 16,000,000, Italy with 10,800,000; while
among the countries possessing less than ten million sheep, Canada appears
with 2,800,000. When the figures are considered in relation to population,
Australia's twenty sheep per capita must be taken as convincing evidence
of the exceptionally favorable climatic and other natural conditions under
which the keeping of sheep is carried on.
XXVI. The World's Greatest Wool-Supply.
The magnitude of the wool-j)roducing industry and its condition of
rapid expansion are shown by the table of exports. Taking the last twelve
years, it is seen that there has been, not only a continuous increase, but
also the maintenance of an increasing proportion to the general total of
1040 CYCLOrEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Other exports. There has been an increase in the value of Australasian
wool exports from £16,136,082 in 1881, to £33,128,496 in 1909, and the
percentage of wool to the total exports in the same period increased
from 33.11 to 38,97; or, taking the average, the total annual exports
amounted to £71,809,832, and
those of wool to £23,897,836, the • Australia.
average percentage of wool to
the whole being 33.28. For the
year ended June 30, 1910, the ex-
ports of wool from Australia and
New Zealand were 1,921,507 bales
and 513,136 bales respectively.
That Australia is the greatest
wool exporting country in the
world, and as a wool-producer
among the continents nearly
equals Europe in quantity, may
be seen from the following table
of the world's wool-production
published in ''Dalgety's Review:"
Lbs.
North America .... 347,320,749
South America .... 545,119,560
Europe 804,905,074
Asia 210,399,000
Africa 139,702,000
Australasia 756,690,16?
Oceania 100,000
Spain
Canada
THE SHEEP OF ELEVEN COUNTRIES.
(Each vertical section represents five
million sheep, Australia leading with nine-
ty-two millions.)
Total 2,804,236,546
The total is equal to about
8,497,384 bales, and the Austral-
asian contribution is equal to
26.98 per cent of the whole, while
about 75 per cent of the Australasian clip consists of fine merino wool. As
the sheep of the world are decreasing, there are prospects of a growing
demand for Australasia's golden fleece.
CHAPTER III.
Breeding and Care of Sheep.
L CONSTANT WATCHFULNESS NECESSARY. II. THE BREEDING AGE OF
SHEEP. III. CROSSING. IV. COUPLING. V. THE PROPER TIME
FOR COUPLING. VL GESTATION. VII. KEEP A RECORD OF THE
BREEDING. VIII. MANAGEMENT AND TRAINING OF RAMS. IX. PAS-
TURAGE FOR SHEEP. ^X. WATER. XI. PROTECTION FROM INSECTS.
XII. EARLY AND LATE PASTURE AND FEEDING. XIII. WINTER
FEEDING. XIV. SHEEP BARNS. ^XV. GRADING THE SHEEP. XVI.
FEEDING TROUGHS AND RACKS. XVII. CASTRATION AND DOCKING. ■
XVIII. WEANING THE LAMBS. XIX. LAMBING TIME. XX. THE
NURSERY. XXI. TAGGING SHEEP. XXII. WASHING AND SHEARING-
XXIIL TYING THE WOOL. XXFV. DIPPING AND ANOINTING SHEEP.
XXV. A WORD ABOUT GOATS. XXVI. A PROFITABLE INDUSTRY.
XXVII. HABITS OF THE ANGORA. XXVIIL AN ASSISTANT TO THE
FARMER. XXIX. ANGORAS IN THE UNITED STATES. XXX. CAPA-
BILITIES OF THE MILCH GOAT.
I. Constant Watchfulness Necessary.
Constant care and attention are necessary in the management of sheep.
They are timid, without self-reliance, a prey to dogs; and even foxes
will destroy the lambs. The necessity of keeping large flocks together
causes them to be especially liable to contagious and epidemic diseases.
In any district where many sheep are kept, wandering curs must be de-
stroyed. They are worse than wolves and foxes; for the latter may be
guarded against at night, while dogs scare and destroy sheep in the day
time as well. Care must, also, be taken to secure them against conta-
gious and epidemic diseases. The shepherd must be watchful, vigilant
and attentive, summer and winter; it is worth his while to be so, for
there is money in sheep, once in the fleece and once in the carcass.
II. The Breeding Age of Sheep.
The proper age for sheep to breed is two years. The ewe may be
placed with the buck in the autumn after she is one year old, and there-
after she may continue to breed until the age of ten years. But unless
there is something in a buck or ewe more than ordinarily valuable, it is
hardly economy to continue them breeding beyond seven or eight years
old. From the age of three to eight years the best lambs will be pro-
duced. Under exceptional circumstances a strong ram will cover 100
ewes if allowed only one service each; but as a rule it is better to keep
a ram for each fifty ewes.
1041
1042 CYCLOPEDIA OF LHTB STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOB,
BBEEDING AND CARE OF SHEEP. 1043
III. Crossing,
Unless the breeder be thoroughly informed, and is breeding with a
view to the establishment of a new breed, in which distinct characteristics
are to be perpetuated, nothing is gained by crossing two distinct breeds.
The breeding of grades is different. If the farmer cannot afford to
breed pure stock, the American Merino may ])e crossed upon any of the
ordinary fine-wooled sheep of a district. In like manner the Downs will
improve the quality of the mutton and wool ; the Leicester will give
increased size and early maturity, and length of the wool staple ; so will
the Cotswold, and the latter will certainly get good constitutioned sheep.
The breeding of Merinos upon long-wooled sheep should never be
thought of.
rv. Coupling.
In breeding in flock, when more than one ram is kept, select the ewes
most fitted to each ram. At the coupling season, drive a flock to the
yard and let the proper ram in to them ; never allow more than one ser-
vice, and, as soon as performed, separate the ewe, and so proceed until
all the ewes in proper condition are served. Never allow a teaser, thai
is, an aproned ram, to run with the flock. Make a record of the ewes
served, and if from the fourteenth to the seventeenth day they do not
again come into heat, they may be considered to be with lamb ; but to
make sure, they may be returned to the ram upon the thirteenth day
after service.
V. The Proper Time for Coupling.
November is the season for coupling ; but if the object be to raise the
sheep for mutton and wool, the lambs should not be dropped until after
the time of grass, unless a place artificially warmed be provided for
weaning. If the object be to sell young lambs, the earlier in the season
they are produced the more money they will bring.
VI. Gestation.
Ewes cany their young on an average of 152 days from the time of
successful service. Twenty-two weeks is usuall}'^ allowed, but the time
may vary a week or ten days either way ; 146 days is the shortest period
and 161 days the longest.
VII. Keep a Record of Breeding.
There is nothing more important in breeding animals — especially pure-
bred animals and grades — than to keep a careful record of the breeding.
If you buy or breed an animal intended for breeding, enter its age and
pedigree, unless the entry is already made in a public record (herd book),
1044 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
in which case refer to it by page and number. "Write down, also, every
trait and characteristic, even to the minutest, inchiding feeding and
thriving qualities ; it will save you much care and vexation in future. If
you are breeding sheep, preserve samples of the wool from year to year,
and attach to the samples a record of weights, with comparison of quality
from year to year, and one fleece with another. Thus, on all occasions,
you may satisfy not only yourself, but any buyer as to the quality of
your herd. Even with ordinary flocks, a carefully kept register of name,
age, characteristics, and quality will be found useful.
VIII. Management and Training of Rams.
Rams should be trained to docility and obedience, and this is not diffi-
cult to do. They should never be allowed to run with the flock of ewes,
but should have separate pastures and enclosures, clean and comfortable,
and entirely disconnected from the flocks. They should be trained to
lead and to be handled; and if more than twenty ewes are to be served
during the season, the ram should have extra feed and care for at least
six weeks before tupping time. One hundred and fifty ewes have been
served by a single ram during an extended season, but under the best of
keeping less than 100 is better than over that number. Do not let a ram
serve more than two or three ewes in the beginning of the season, in-
creasing the number to five, and even ten, if necessity demands. As the
season approaches the close, restrict him again to a small number, for an
exhausted male cannot get strong progeny. To keep the reproductive
powers in full vigor, daily exercise must be kept up. There is more in
this than many persons imagine.
IX. Pasturage for Sheep.
Sheep eat a variety of vegetation other than the true grasses. They
are fond of many weeds, and if allowed they will soon reduce the weeds
that spring up after harvest. All the pasture grasses are natural to sheep,
except those, like Timothy, which close feeding is apt to kill. Blue
grass, orchard grass, the fescues, red- top, rye grass, etc., may be the
main dependence for sheep; clovers they do not like so well. In pastur-
ing ewes with lambs it is well to have spaces through which the lambs
can pass, and yet which will not permit the egress of the ewes. In Eng-
land these are called iamb creeps; this arrangement often enables the
lambs to get much succulent food outside, and they do no damage to
crops. In fact, sheep are often turned into corn-fields, and other hoed
crops, late in the season, to eat the weeds, of which they are fond.
They will soon clean a crop if it be such as they will not damage.
BREEDING AND CARE OF SHEEP.
1045
1046 CYCLOPEDIA OP LIVE
STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
BREEDING AND CARE OF SHEEP.
X. Water.
1047
It has been said that sheep require no water when pasturing. Do not
listen to such folly. On very succulent grass they will live without it,
and as a rule, take but little. They should always have it to take when
SUFFOLK SHEEP.
they desire. Like any other animal, sometimes their systems requires
more than at others. This is especially true during suckling time. See
that they have it, and of pure quality. Sheep, above all other animals,
should never drink from stagnant pools.
XI. Protection from Insects.
In summer, sheep should have shelter where they may escape from the
many insects that torment them, especially the sheep gad fly, and others
producing internal parasites; also, during July and August, provide a
plowed surface of mellow soil, and smear their noses, if necessary, daily
with tar.
XII. Early and Late Pasture and Feeding.
The better your early and late pastures are, the easiei" you can winter
your sheep, especially in the West Avhere few roots are raised. Attend to
this, and supplement the pastures by sowing rye and other hardy cereal
grains, which may be done on corn land of the same season, at the last
1048 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOE.
plowing, and upon grain land intended for hoed crops next season Light
grain, of Httle other value, will prove a mine of wealth ni this way if sown
as directed.
Never allow your sheep to fall away in flesh before they are put into
the feeding yards and barns for the winter. The time to feed is before
they begin to lose flesh. They will, indeed, shrink in weight somewhat,
as the feed becomes dry, but it will be principally moisture that they lose,
if proper feeding be kept up. When the full succulence of the flesh is
to be kept up, there is nothing better than roots — Swedish turnips, car-
rots and beets being the most profitable in the West. At all events, as
the pastures become dry let the sheep have one feed a day of something
better than they can pick up in the fields.
Xm. Winter Feeding.
You cannot have an even texture of wool, if sheep are allowed to
fall away greatly in flesh, or even receive a decided check. Every time
this occurs, a weak place will be found in the wool. Nor can you raise
heavy fleeces on hay. If you do not intend to take the best of care of
sheep, and keep them thriving, you had better not keep any but the com-
monest kinds. It is true, you will lose money on these, but then you
will have the satisfaction of knowing that you have lost less money than
you w^ould have lost on better ones.
ALLOWED TO SHIFT FOR ITSELF. WINTERED WITH GOOD SHELTER AND FEED
The feeding of roots is essential to the best care of sheep, especially
when the succulence of the flesh is to be retained ; but roots are not abso-
lutely necessary. The question of cost must be considered in connection
with grain. Carrots and parsnips may be raised with proper implements
and put in pits for five dollars per ton ; and Swedish turnips and man»ei
wurzels, for about three dollars or less. Carrots are excellent for ewes
before lambing time, and parsnips for those giving milk ; the latter may
be left all winter in the ground and be fed up to the time grass be-
comes flush. Beets should not be fed until after January on account of
BREEDING AND CARE OF SHEEP.
1049
an acrid principle they contain when first pitted. They are best when
used after the Swedes are exhausted.
XIV. Sheep Barns.
These need not be expensive structures, since it is only necessary to
provide shelter that v^^W keep out wind and water, and at the same tune
admit of proper ventilation. Ventilators for the escape of foul air must
be provided at the peak of the roof, and sliding doors and windows are
needed to allow the ingress of air, according to the wind and temperature.
BLACK-FACED RAM.
Champion and First Prize Black-Faced Ram, Glasgow. Scotland.
Let there be a passage-way through the center, if many sheep be kept
wide enough to admit a wagon-say nine feet-for ease in feeding and
cleaning On each side of this pa.ssage should be the racks and troughs
for feeding, the pens being arranged so as to accommodate about twenty-
five sheep each. In very severe weather this passage may be used lor
sheltering sheep kept in open sheds, if necessary. The illustration shows
one of the simplest forms of shelter, a structure of poles covered
with hay.
1050 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
XV. Grading the Sheep.
Sheep in winter should be carefully graded, according to size, strength
and condition. Strong lambs should not be put with weak ones j the
same rule applies with ewes and wethers. Rams should never be kept
with any other sheep ; nor should ewes be kept with wethers. Fat-
tening sheep will, of course, always be kept by themselves. The larger
the flock the more closely can sheep and lambs be graded, according to
age, size, strength and other conditions.
XVI. Feeding Troughs and Racks.
Sheep should never be fed on the ground, but from suitable troughs and
racks. The arrangement of these will depend upon whether the sheep are
to be fed under shelter or not. The racks should be low enough for the
COMBINATION TROUGH.
tsheep readily to get the fodder without reaching too high, and below
should be a receptacle for catching the waste. The illustration given
shows a good form of feeding trough ; if intended for hay, let the slant-
ing board be of slats oi it may economically be made double, so as to
BREEDING AND CARE OF SHEEP.
1051
allow feeding on both sides. Again, it may be used alternately for both
hay and grain ; the hinged doors allow easy cleaning. The back is up-
RACKS WITH TROUGHS FOR FEEDING SHEEP.
right; the center boards are movable to work up or down, so that when
feeding from both sides they rest together on the center beam.
XVII. Castration and Docking.
Lambs should be castrated at from two to four days old. A lamb is
held by an assistant, who turns him upon his back, holding the rump be-
tween the knees — the head towards himself — takings the fore and hind
legs ui each hand, puttmg the fore legs outside of the hind, and holding
them firmly just al)ove the knee joints. The operator takes hold of the
pouch and pulls it gently, so as to get as much as possible of it, and then
with a sharp knife at a single stroke, or better, a pair of strong shears,
takes off the pouch pretty close to the testicle. Then take a firm hold of
each testicle separately between the fore finger and thumb of the right
hand, and pull it out with all the cord that adheres to it. This com-
pletes the operation. The reason for cutting off all the pouch that can
be easily pulled beyond the testicle is, that it leaves a much evener sur-
face for shearing than if only a little is taken off. This operation should
be performed in the morning, and the lambs then turned out to move
al)out, which will, in a great measure, prevent any disposition to swelling
or stiffening of the parts, which is frequently the case if they are allowed
to lie still foi a time afterward.
Docking should be performed as soon as they recover from the gelding,
generally about three days afterward. This operation should be per-
formed with a single stroke of a sharp knife, and in the evening, being
careful to sever the tail at a joint, the assistant drawing the skin of the
tail to the body, so that the end will well cover the stub. Then allow
1052 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
the flock to lie down and keep quiet and still, so that they maj' lose the
least possible amount of blood. By morning the wound will be sufficiently
dried that no fear of bleeding need be entertained, unless by accident.
In no case should they be driven or put to any extra exertion immediately
after being docked, for sometimes they will bleed to death. If much
bleeding ensues, touch the part lightly with a red-hot iron.
XVIII. Weaning the Lambs.
Spring lambs should be weaned only in the fall, so the dams may have
the advantage of grass to recuperate before winter. Lambs, in fact,
should do well enough if weaned at three months old, and four months'
suckling is ample; nothing is gained by allowing them to run longer
with the dams. When once taken away, they should be placed entirely
out of sight and hearing of the dams, and if several are together they
will sooner become contented.
XIX. Lambing Time.
Especial care must be taken of the ewes at and near lambing time.
If the weather is not warm enough to fully prevent chilling, fire heat and
a secure place must be provided until the lamb is dried and has taken the
AMERICAN DORSET RAM.
teat. A young lamb is the tenderest of all farm animals, and a ewe is
very apt to become indifferent to a weak lamb. Hence the necessity of
that constant care and watchfulness, which will suggest itself to every
intelligent person.
BREEDING AlfD CARE OF SHEEP. 1053
XX. The Nursery.
Every shepherd should provide a nursery for sheep that are ailing, es-
pecially in winter. This may even be made available as a plac^ for
lambing. It is better, however, that both a lambing place and a nursery
be provided, since fire is essential for new-born lambs early in the season.
XXI Tagging Sheep.
This is important and should be performed as soon in the spring as
possible, certainly before the sheep are turned to grass. Secure^'the
sheep and cut away all the wool about the buttocks liable to gather dirt
and dung which accumulates in balls. It will improve the sheep and
save much trouble at shearing time.
XXn. Washing and Shearing.
We do not believe in washing sheep. It is distressing and dangerous
to the sheep, and the wool often becomes dirty again before shearing.
But if the sheep are to be washed, it should be done in clear, running
water, on a gravelly bottom, or under a stream of water. Do not shear
for three days or more after washing, according to the weather.
It is important that the shearing be properly done, and no unskilful
p3rson should be allowed to handle the shears. It is better to pay an ex-
tra price than to allow the skin of the sheep to be clipped and torn in
shearing. If the sheep have been washed, shearing should take place
when the oily-feeling matter, termed yolk, has so far reappeared in the
wool as to give it its natural brilliant appearance and silky feeling. The
wool should be cut off evenly and smoothly, reasonal ly close, but not
leaving the skin naked and red, which renders the sheep very liable to re-
ceive injury from cold. Stubble shearing and trimming, leaving the wool
long, so as to give the next fleece the appearance of extraordinary length,
or leaving it long in places, in order to affect the apparent sha^e of the an-
imal, are both frauds, but are sometimes jDracticed by unscrupulous per-
sons, on sheep intended for show or for sale.
XXm. Tying the WooL
The fleece should be as little broken as possible in shearing. It should
be gathered up carefully, placed on a smooth table, with the inside ends
down, put into the exact shape in which it came from the sheep, and
pressed close together. If there are dung-balls, they should be re-
moved. Fold in each side one-quarter, next the neck and breech one-
quarter, and the fleece will then be in an oblong square form, some
1054 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
twenty inches wide, and twenty-five or tliirty inches long. Then fold it
once Hicre lengthwise and it is ready to be rolled up and tied, or placed
in the press.
XXIV. Dipping and Anointing Sheep.
For freeing sheep of vermin,
them from mansre and other itch
as lice and ticks, and also to free
insects, recourse must be had to dip-
as it is termed. When lari^e flocks are kept, this is the only course
to pursue. When but few sheep are kept, the cure is accomplished gen-
erally by anointing them with any of ihe preparations in common use for
this purpose. For those who prefer ointments, the following will be
found good : One pound mercurial ointment, one-half pint oil of tur-
pentine, one pound resin, and six pounds of lard. Dissolve the resin in
the turpentine ; dissolve the lard by gentle heat, mix the mercurial oint-
ment thoroughly Avith it, and when cold rub both i)roparations well to-
gether. In applying this, the wool nmst be parted well down to the skin
from between the ears to the tail. From this similar partings should be
made along the shoulders and thighs to the legs and also parallel ones
BREEDING AND CARE OF SHEEP.
1055
along the sides. These furrows must have the ointment lightly rubbed
into the skin as they are formed.
For dipping sheep, suitable yards, a dipping trough, and pripping plat-
form must be provided; also means for heating and keeping the liquor
hot. The following is one of the best mixtures, having met with favor
in England, Australia and America : Three pounds arsenic, three pounds
pearl ash, three pounds sulphur, three pounds soft soap. Mix in ten
gallons of boiling water, stir, but avoid the fumes, and add ninety gallons
o :^
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of cold water. Prepare a tank that will easily allow a sheep to be dipped,
having a slanted, slatted drain at the side, tight bottom underneath, to
allow the drip to run back. Dip the sheep, back down, being careful not
to allow the head to enter the poisonous mixture, letting the animal re-
main one minute. Lift on to the slats and rub and squeeze the wool,
until pretty w^ll drained, and place in a yard until dry. When partly
dry, go over the heads with the ointment as recommended in case the
flock is too small to allow the expense of preparing for dipping.
X056 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR,
XXV. A Word About Goats.
Mr. R. A. Haste in Farm Life gives th^ following practical informa-
tion on the subject of goats:
The Angora Goat — A Coming Money-Maker.
In the minds of most people a goat is a goat ; and the mental image
conjured up by that name is an impudent tramp who haunts back alleys
and revels in a diet of tin cans, or feasts upon unprotected dry goods
IMPORTED ANGORA BUCK — GRAND CHAMPION PRIZE WINNER.
swinging from low-hanging clothes lines — a four-footed Ishmaelite out-
side the pale of the law — a hairy, horned personification of lawless im-
pudence and worthless vagabondage. This is also the picture conveyed
by the parable of Holy Writ, wherein the shepherd divideth his flock,
placing the sheep upon his right hand, the goats upon his left. To be a
goat, then, is to be an irredeemable outcast consigned to everlasting
darkness. So it was in the days of parables, and so it is now in more
liberal times. In the classic language of the street to **butt in" is to
I
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BREEDING AND CARE OP SH3SP. 1057
make a nuisance of one's self after the manner of Beara-^A 3illy, the
goat. What wonder, then, that it is hard for the goat famil)' to shake
off the reputation of 2,000 years, especially when that reputation is
sanctioned by the Holy Word.
But there are goats and goats. The Angora is not a worthless vaga-
bond like his bearded cousin, who loafs about the streets, a cheap clown
making fun for small boys, an unspeakable "butter in," whose chief
delight is to "chew the rag;" on the contrary, he is an aristocrat, dig-
nified and decorous, a thing of beauty and a source of profit to his
owner. Moreover, he has an interesting history.
Although born and reared in the mountainous regions about Angora,
a province 200 miles southeast of Constantinople, he is thoroughly at
home in any part of the world where fortune takes him.
It was in 1846 that Dr. James B. Davis of Columbia, S. C, at the
request of the Sultan, was sent to Turkey by President Polk to make
experiments in the culture of cotton. So well pleased was the Sultan
with Mr. Davis and his work that, as an expression of his appreciation,
he presented him on his return to the United States with nine Royal
Angora goats. These were the progenitors of the present Angora goats
in this country.
Uncle Sam, however, did not make much of the Sultan's hint, for
after the lapse of sixty years the total number of goats within the United
States does not exceed 500,000. This seems insignificant when com-
pared with 75,000,000, the estimated goat population of the world.
XXVI. A Profitable Industry.
No domestic animal, not even the reindeer, is more thoroughly adapted
CO man's use than the Angora goat; and yet for some reason the goat
industry has not taken root in this country. Everything seems favor-
able, the climate is admirable, and the food supply is abundant. The
slow progress made in the development of this industry is more than
likely due to a lack of information regarding the profits that can be de-
rived from the business.
I have little doubt that the Golden Fleece that Jason went forth to
find was the fleece of the first Angora. For the fleece of the pure Angora
is neither wool nor hair, but a fibre with qualities distinctly its own — it
is the mohair of commerce. From it are made not only the plushes but
the finer fabrics of ladies' wear, such as crepons and brilliantines. The
fibre is from three to six inches long, and the annual clip averages about
six pounds. The market price for mohair runs from twenty to forty
cents per pound, the average in the United States being about thirty
1058 CYCLorEDiA or live stock and complete stock doctor.
cents. Here is an annual profit of at least $1.50 per head, not counting
the increase, which is rapid.
A large percentage of the Angoras in this country are not pure brea,
'but are the results of crosses with the common goat. This impairs the
value of the fleece by introducing the hair of the common goat, called
kemp. This kemp will not take dyes, and therefore must be removed
before the mohair can be used.
The fleece, however, is but one of five sources of profit — and not al-
ways the greatest. The United States at present imports annually about
$35,000,000 worth of goat skins. For what purpose? For .gloves, shoes
A^.^rc..>.. .vlD — PRIZE WINNER OREGON ANGORA GOAT SHOW.
and for a hundred small toilet articles. Many a chamois skin did its first
•service on the V)ack of some luckless kid.
The value of a goat skin depends largely upon its commercial reputa-
tion, i. e., the locality from which it comes. For instance, the Curacao
kid has a special value, although not one specimen in a hundred is pro-
duced on the i.sland ; the vast bulk of this particular brand is imported
from the mainland of Venezuela and Colombia.
Another and a most important source of revenue are the untanned
pelts. There, seems to be no limit to their usefulness and their popu-
larity. Taken when the hair is about four inches long they make the
finest kind of rugs. The readiness with which they take and retain dyes
rendei-s them i)articularly valuable as carriage robes. Indeed, they have
BREEDING AND CARE OP SHEEP. 1059
about displaced the disappearing buffalo robe. Undyed, the hair retains
its brilliant luster. In its original white, nothing compares with the An-
gora as a robe for the baby carriage.
These skins with the fleece on are also used extensively in making chil-
dren's muffs and— tell it not — the beautiful white fur on My Lady's
opera cloak is the skin of the little Angora kid. Yes, it is known by
another name, or My Lady would not wear it— "but a rose by any other
name is still a rose. And it is not My Lady alone who is deceived.
Many a fine gentleman wears the coat of an old Angora wether thinking
he is decked in genuine astrakan.
The profit in goat keeping is not confined to the skin and the fleece.
The flesh is sold readily at market prices ranging above those of mutton.
It is a well-known fact that when goats are fed on grass, their flesh has
the flavor of mutton, but when kept exclusively on browse, it takes the
flavor of venison, and sells for that in the market — in the proper sea-
son, of course.
XXVII. Habits of the Angora.
As I have remarked, the Angora is not dainty ; he is adapted to a very
wide range of climate and j^hysical conditions. He seems to thrive
ecjually well in the climate of Mexico and in that of Canada. Naturally
the better and heavier fleece is produced in the colder climates. In
southern latitudes it is necessary to clip the fleece twice a year to pre-
vent shedding. Then, again, a dry climate is preferable to a humid one,
and a rough and semi-mountainous country to a level plain. The goat is
by nature a climber— an inheritance of his ancestors in the rugged moun-
tains and tablelands of Asia Minor.
The most interesting thing about the goat is his diet. In this respect
he differs from all his farm associates — and radically. He is a browser,
and prefers leaves, twigs and weeds to the best white clover or blue-
grass that ever grew. This is one of his strong points. He does not
interfere with the feed of the other stock. Sheep have been called
four-footed locusts ; they will utterly destroy the most carefully pre-
pared pasture in one season. In a single summer a flock of goats will
create a pasture out of a brush-covered common.
Turn fifty goats into a forty-acre pasture covered with brush, weeds
and all manner of foul growths, and in two years the work of reclama-
tion will be done; the brush will be dead, the weeds exterminated, and
the native grasses, whatever they are, will be in complete possession.
1060 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND raMPT^ETE STOCK DOCTOR.
XXVIII. An Assistant to the Farmer.
Like the honey-bee, the Angora goat works for his owner and boards
himself. He will eat what the other members of the farm animals
spurn. At the same time he will do as much as a gang of men toward
clearing the farm of bnish and weeds. In this respect a herd of goats
is of especial value to farmers living on the cut-over lands in the tim-
bered regions of this country. These cut-over lands have grown up with
brush which is often about as difficult to clear as the original timber.
Goats eat the leaves and small twigs, and the brush, thus deprived of
its breathing apparatus, dies, root and branch. The best time for goating
AMERICAN MILK flOAT.
a field of brush is in early summer, when the sun is hot. It does not
take long to reduce a field of vigorous second growth to the condition
of bare and dry whip stalks. When the goat cannot get leaves he takes
the bark of small saplings; in this way he does the work of the ax. It
is best in goating a field to cut all small saplings, that the goats may get
at the branches. You may depend on him to keep down all sprouts.
Dr. Santley, of Iowa, who has had much experience with Angoras as
land clearers, says : "Land can be cleared of the worst brush known in this
country for a little less than nothing by employing Angora goats. They
will pay you a profit and live on leaves and weeds, leaving the land
cleaner than you oan get it by any other process. At the present
BREEDIN© A:ND CARE «F SHEEP
1081
time I have over 600 acres that have been reclaimed by Angoras, and a
conservative estimate would be that the value of the land had thereby
been enhanced at least $10 per acre."
XXIX. Angoras in the United States.
Of the 500,000 Angora goats in the Ujiited States, four-fifths are in
the Southwest, especially in California, New Mexico and Texas. Yet
there is not a state in the Union where they will not do well, as well as
sheep, and when we consider their vast superiority as money-makers over
AMERICAN MILK GOAT.
Specially photoKraplied for this work.
the sheep, it seems strange that shrewd live-stock men have not seen the
handwriting on the wall and gone more extensively into goat raising.
The problem of pasturage in the West will have to be solved by the
sheep men if they intend to remain in business, but the goat pasturage
of the United States has not yet been touched.
In the timbered regions of the South and the Southwest, and in the
cut-over sections of the North, there are millions of acres of the finest
1062 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
goat pasture, not only free, but for which the goatman could get a price
for clearing with his herds. All unimproved land is goat pasture. And
this at present amounts to 265,000,000 acres, enough to support as many
goats.
The stat€ of Maine, for instance, according to the last census, had
6.000,000 acres in farms, one-half of which was unimproved land. Most
of the Southern states have less than one-third of the land under cultiva-
tion ; the balance is goat pasture.
"We have a duty of 12 centw a pound on mohair. With this protection,
foreign competition cannot be given as an excuse by the average fanner
YOUNG MILK GOAT.
Specially Photographed for this work.
for not going into goat raising. If there is such a demand for goat skin^v
Angora robes and mohair, as the returns from our custom houses show,
the market here must be good.
In recent years the United States department of agriculture has been
making efforts to interest the public in the Angora goat industry. Ex-
haustive bulletins have been issued giving information for the benefit of
the general pul)lic. Yet, wdth the facts before them, the growth of the
industry has been slow.
If I were asked what field of animal industry gave promise of the
largest and most reliable returns on the investment of both labor and
BREEDING AND CARE OF SHEEP.
1063
capital, I should unhesitatingly reply, the raising of Angora goats. If
I were asked to designate a locality in which to locate on Angora ranch,
I should say any place in the United States where the climate is reason-
ably dry and an unlimited goat range is available. To be more partic-
ular, the states of Michigan, Wisconsin and northern Minnesota offer
exceptional facilities, while Missouri, especially the Ozark region, the
states of Texas and Arkansas, and the entire Allegheny region, are
perfectly adapted to raising Angoras. I need not mention the extreme
Southwest, for the goat is already there.
There appears to be, therefore, no adequate reason why the people
AMERICAN MIT.K GOAT
of the United States should be paying tribute of $50,000,000 annually
to the goat herders of Asia, Europe and Africa, and another $10,000,000
to the importers of goat skins and Angora robes from Mexico and South
America.
XXX. Capabilities of the Milch Goat.
The two subjects uppermost in dairy circles just now are the milch
goat and a milking machine. The suggestion that goat's milk is pre-
i'3rred for hospital patients in cities and for children everywhere, has
set Home enterprising men and women to speculating on the probable
1064 CYCLOPEDIA O].' LIVE STOCK ANT> COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Figs. 1, 2, 4— Imported Toggenburg Goats. Fig. 3 — Schwarzwald Goat.
BREEDING AND CARE OF SHEEP.
1065
profits to be derived from dairy farms made up exclusively of goats.
There is no doubt about the superiority of goat's milk over that of the
cow for some purposes, and it is known that there is considerable de-
mand for this product, but to what extent, of course, is not so easy to
ascertain. The discussion naturally brings out inquiry as to the best
breeds for dairy purposes, and our counsels abroad are being urged by
the doj)artin(Mit to look up information in those countries where goat
breeding has long been a recognized industry. The Swiss are, perhaps,
AMERICAN MILK GOAT,
jecially photographed for this work.
the most skilled of all goat-herds, their mountain slopes and elevated
valleys being i)eculiarly adapted to goat culture. There, naturally,
inquiries have been set on foot and some information of interest has
been sent over from our counsel-general at St. Gall. It relates to the
Toggenburg goat, a variety which seems entirely unknown in this coun-
try, but one that has long been a favorite in the land of William Tell.
The milk of this goat is rich in quality, and keeps quite as well as cow's
milk. It sells for three and a half to about four cents a quart. These
goats breed at a year old, the time of gestation being five months. The
10()H CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
food in summer consists of grass and shrubs, but in winter, if the milk
is to continue rich in quality, a small quantity of grain and hay must be
given, and the temperature of the stall should be kept at from 57 to 60
degrees Fahrenheit.
In regard to the amount of pasture land required for the support of
this animal, it is computed that six to eight goats will need as much as
one cow, and that one man can manage from forty to fifty goats. Gen-
erally speaking the milk of the cow is more popular, but for children
the goat's milk is in greater demand, as tuberculosis is hardly ever
found in these hardy animals. The milk of the goat makes an excellent
cheese and fairly good butter, but as to the latter the milk of the cow
retains its pre-eminence. The meat of the young goats, from five to
twelve weeks old, is considered a great luxury. Indeed, it is often
mistaken for venison, and sells for from 29 cents to 39 cents for 2.1
pounds. This compares very favorably with the average price received
in Switzerland for beef, which is 33 cents to 37 cents for 2.2 pounds.
The average clip on long-haired goats is about 4.4 pounds. The hair
is not very marketable, but is used in some instances for ropes, which
are very strong and defy the action of water. The skins are worth
from 29 cents to 58 cents each, but the finest and best bring as much as
$1.35 each.
If well cared for, these animals will give milk from their first to their
tenth year, when they decrease in flow and finally dry up. Ordinarily
they will produce milk for eight months in a year. The price of these
animals is higher in the spring than in the fall, but average for a good
one, from one to three years old (male) in the fall, is $9.65 to $19.30.
Females of the same age bring $7.72 to $9.65; four-year-olds bring as
high as $13.51.
BOOK IV
PART II
Diseases of Sheep
HOW TO KNOW THEM; THEIR CAUSES, PRE
VENTION AND CURE
1068 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
COMMON SCAB.
First Pronounced Manifestation.
COMMON SCAB, ADVANCED CASE.
Diseases of Sheep.
CHAPTER 1.
GENERAL DISEASES.
I. REFERRING TO SCIENTIFIC TERMS. II. INFLAMMATORY DISEASES. III. DIS-
TEMPER OR EPIZOOTIC CATARRH. IV. GRUBS IN THE HEAD. V. HYDATIDS ON
THE BRAIN. VI. APOPLEXY. VII. INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN. VIII.
INFLAMMATION OF THE EYES. IX. SWELLED HEAD. X. VEGETABLE POISON-
ING. XI. TETANUS OR LOCK-JAW. XII. PARALYSIS OR PALSY. XIII. RA-
BIES OR CANINE MADNESS.
I. Referring to Scientific Terms.
The anatomy and explanation of the terms used to designate the several
parts of a sheep have been treated of in Chapter 1 of Part VII. A care-
ful study of these is necessary to enable the flock-owner intelligently to
undertake the cure of disease, as well as to enable him to become nicely
conversant with all that goes to make up physical perfection in the ani-
mal. The knowledge of these things is an im[)()rtant integer in consti-
tuting the difference between haphazard and practically intelligent
breeding, management, and cure of diseases, and may save the intelli-
gent man valuable animals and much money yearly. In the United
States and Canada, the fatal diseases to which sheep are subject are
comparatively few ; and this is especially true in the West and South-
west, owing, probably, to the fact that the summer and autumn are com-
paratively dry and equable, and the winters not characterized by excessive
dampness.
II. Inflammatory Diseases.
Diseases of an inflammatory nature are prolific causes of death among
sheep in Great Britain. In America, our sheep are comparatively exempt
from these diseases. Mr. Spooner remarked this fact, in comparing
English and American sheep, and attributed the cause to the more arti-
ficial care of sheep in England. Whatever the cause may have been in
his day, this will not now apply ; for in no country is all farm stock more
highly fed than in the United States and Canada. The real cause un-
doubtedly lies, first, in the climate, and second, in the greater intelligence
of our flock masters. They neither intrust sheep nor other farm stock
1069
1070 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
to ignorant servants, who, perhaps, can neither read nor write, and who
add superstition to ignorance. The intelligcMice of the master keeps puce
fully with all that is new in the art of farming, and this intelligence is
quickly caught by the workmen and shepherds.
m. Distemper or Epizootic Catarrh.
Sheep distemper or Malignant Epizoiitic Catarrh, is an epizooty that is
sometimes fatal in sheep, both East and West. The disease in its malig-
nant form is a severe congestion and inflammation of the lining mem-
branes of the nasal cavities, sometimes extending to the stomach and
bowels.
How to know it. — There is a slight watery discharge from the nostrils
and eyes ; there is depression and more or less loss of appetite ; the pulse
is slightly increased in frequency and is weak ; the breathing is not
changed unless the bronchial tubes are affected ; there is no cough. At
the end of a week, miless the animal gets relief, the nasal discharge is
thick and glutinous, and sometimes tinged with blood ; the eyes are halt
dosed and the lids are gummed with a yellow secretion ; there is great
prostration and emaciation ; the pulse is very weak ; respiration is diffi-
mlt ; the appetite is lost, and the animal soon after dies.
What to do. — There should be no bleeding or purging. Remove the
sheep to warm, well-ventilated quarters, and if the bowels are costive,
prepare the following :
No. 1. 1 Ounce carbonate of ammouia,
1 Ounce rhubarb,
2 Ounces ginger,
2 Ounces gentian.
Simmer the rhubarb, ginger and gentian for fifteen minutes in a quart
of water, and, when cold, add the ammonia and cork the bottle. Give two
tablespoonfuls four times a day. Keep up the strength of the sheep
with good food and nourishing drinks. Good nursing is of equal import-
ance with the other treatment, for if the sheep are neglected they will
either die or become so enfeebled as to be of little value.
IV. Grubs in the Head.
Causes. — This is caused by the eggs of the sheep gadfly ( (Estrus Ovis,)
being deposited in the nostrils of the sheep in July
^ and August. The eggs being deposited, the mag-
^B^^ gots hatch and find their way through the sinuses,
W^^ causing much pain. When the gadflies arc seek-
■^ ing the sheep, the animals will crowd together,
SHEEP GAD- with their noses to the ground, stamping violently ^„ ^„
*- i o ./ GKUB OF
at times, and will run from one place in the pas- gadfly.
ture to another. When the maggots reach their resting place they attach
tliemselves by their hooks, and are not easily dislodged.
GENERAL DISEASES. 1071
What to do. — The grubs may often be extracted by a competent sur-
geon, but it is a nice operation, and scarcely pays except in the case of a
very valuable animal. Burning leather under the noses of the sheep in a
close place, to cause violent sneezing, used to be practiced, but it is un-
safe. Injecting up the nostrils equal parts of sweet oil and turpentine
will often dislodge the grubs when they are not firmly fixed, but care
must l)c taken not to strangle the sheep.
Prevention. — Prevention is ia tiiis case far the best remedy. Keep a
portion of the field plowed so the soil is loose and dry. Smear the
sheep's noses once a day with tar during the season of the fly, and catch
as many of the flies as possible, by means of a light bag-net. The most
convenient way to apply the pine tar, in case of large flacks, is to smear
the inside of the salt troughs with it; then they will smear their own nores
while eating the salt.
V. Hydatids on the Brain.
Causes. — The bladder worm, causing this dangerous disease, is one of
the forms of the tape worm of the dog, the tenia serrata, preceding the true
or sexually i)erfect worm. It is rare in America, probably from the fact
that there are fewer dogs in proportion to the population than in England.
What to do. — Once fixed, nothing practically can be done, though,
when located, surgeons have pierced the cysts with a strong hypodermic
syringe, injecting therein half a teaspoonful of the following:
No. 2. 1 Grain iodine,
5 Grains iodide of potash,
1 Ounce water.
Mix.
Prevention. — Never allow dogs to feed on sheeps' heads, or other gar-
bage, unless cooked in the most thorough manner, remove the excre-
ments of dogs wherever found in the pastures, and kill all dogs that
make a habit of prowling about, away from home.
VT. Apoplexy.
This disease is mostly confined to sheep that are plethoric and fat.
What to do. — The sheep will leap suddenly in the air, fall, and unless
promptly relieved, will die in a few minutes. Then the only remedy is
sudden and copious bleeding from the jugular vein.
Prevention. — Fat sheep should be carefully watched for the earlier
symptoms. If a sheep appears dull and partially unconcious of what is
going on ; if the nostrils and pupils of the eyes are dilated, and the
membranes of the nose deep red or violet ; the pulse hard and the breath-
ing stertorous, bleed immediately and give afterwards two ounces of
epsom salts, to be followed by an ounce every six hours, until a full
evacuation takes place from the bowels.
1072 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Vn. Inflammation of the Brain.
This is produced by the same causes that produce apoplexy, and is
often a secondary effect of apoplexy. The animal is dull and inactive ;
the eyes red and protruding, and, as the symptoms intensify, the animal
rushes about in the wildest delirium. The general treatment is the same
as for apoplexy.
VIII. Inflammation of the Eyes.
What to do. — If there is serious inflammation, take a little blood from
the facial vein, the vein running down obliquely from the eye. Bathe
the eyes with the following wash :
No. 3. 5 Grains nitrate of silver,
1 Ounce soft water,
15 Drops laudanum.
Dissolve the nitrate of silver in the water and add the laudanum ; mix.
Batlie the eyes well three times a day and apply the lotion t\vice a day
with a camel's hair brush.
IX. Swelled Head.
Causes. — This is produced by a variety of causes, the bites of venom-
ous serpents and malignant insects, etc. Snake bites usually produce
death before the animal is found.
What to do. — In case of the bites of venomous insects, cut the wool
from around the parts, and bathe with strong sala^ratus water and give
internally, if necessary, each hour until relief is obtained, the following:
No. 4. % Drachm chloral hydrate,
1 Ounce soft water.
Mix.
X. Vegetable Poisoning.
What to do. — 111 ^'^se of trouble from vegetable poisoning, bathe the
affected parts thoroughly Avith warm water, and keep moist with the fol-
lowing lotion :
No. 5. 1 Ounce sugai of lead,
1 Pint soft water.
Mix.
XI. Tetanus or Lock-Jaw.
Causes. — There are various causes producing this difficulty, as inflam-
mation of the membranes after gelding, injury to the horns and hoofs,
or a wound on any part of the body.
How to know it. — The animal, if able to walk at all, does so with great
distiess ; the jaws are set, and death generally takes place qui-'ikly. It
is an excited condition of the nervous system. See lock-jaw of the norse.
GENERAL DISEASES. 1073
What to do. — Treatment is of little use, the malady being usually fatal.
Put the sheep into a dark place alone, and put a piece of Solid Extract of
Belladonna, the size of a pea, on the tongue twice a day ; put oatmeal
water in the pen for him to drink. Warmth and quiet are essential.
Bleeding used to be considered a specific by many, l)ut it should not be
practiced. Move the bowels as soon as possible, and follow tiiis up with
belladonna. Give four ounces of castor oil as the laxative. When the
worst symptoms are overcome, give gruels and other soft nourishing food
unal recovery.
XII. Paralysis or Palsy.
Lock-jaw and epilepsy are often mistaken for palsy ; yet, it is the
direct opposite of them. Like the two first it is somewhat rare in
America.
What to do. — The first thing to do is to make the lamb warm and com-
fortable. Give warm gruel, with a little ginger as a stimulant. If the
bowels are costive give four ounces of linseed oil. Give twenty grains of
powdered Nux Vomica in soft mashes three times a day ; continue this two
or three weeks. If the paralysis is severe, clip off the wool and apply
a blister of Spanish flies to the spine, from the points of the hips to the
shoulders.
Xni. Kabies or Canine Madness.
Sheep are particularly liable to be bitten by rabid dogs in their first
stages of madness. It is usually considered that flock-masters have a right
to destroy any dog worrying their sheep, but by a decision not long ago,
l)y the supreme court of Massachusetts, dogs are property; consequently,
the owner of a dog is liable for all the damage done by him, and anyone
that kills the dog is liable for his value. When a sheep develops rabies
he might as well be destroyed at once to save suffering. See rabies in
horses, page 452.
Tympanitis in Sheep: — Give internally a tea.spoonful of turpentine
in a little water or pa.s.s a rubber tube down the throat, A.-i a last resort
puncture the stomach with a trochar as you would cattle.
Inversion of the Womb in Sheep: — ^\Vash it with tepid water con-
taining a little laudinuni. Replace it carefully and take a few stitches
in the lifw of the vulva. Elevate the ewe behind. Usually the danger is
pa^ssed at the end of thirty-six hours.
CHAPTER TI.
PARASITIC AND OTHER DISEASES.
I. SCAB, TICKS AND LICE. II. FOOT-nOT. III. FOUL IN THE FOOT.
IV. SWOLLEN FOOT AND GRAVEL. V. MAGGOTS FROM BLOW FLIES.
VL INTESTINAL WORMS. VIL THE ROT OR LIVER FLUKE. VIII.
LUNG WORMS. IX. SHEEP WORRIED BY DOGS. X. SPRAINS, STRAINS
AND BRUISES. XL CARE WHEN LAMBING. XII. NAVEL ILL.
XIII. BARE-LOT METHOD OF RAISING LAMBS TO AVOID NODULE DISEASE.
I. Scab, Ticks and Lice.
Causes. — Scab is produced by a minute microscopic, parasitic insect,
which burrowing just beneath the cuticle, produces extreme irritation, and
causes the exudation of a watery fluid, serum. This, in drying, forms the
scab which brings away with it the wool in larger or smaller patches.
The disease is very contagious, and the insect is so
tenacious of life that it has been said to have remained
in a pasture three years andthcn spread the infection.
A careful flock master should examine every sheep
uhMvuiLx. purchased minutely, and take every means to keep
*oi°"he s"heep^and"^(k)g" u tlic infectiou f rom his flock. The illustration shows
causes skin irritation and p/. , i • , i i • -j j ^
eruption. shccp affectcd With scab in its extreme lorm.
How to know it. — The sheep will be restless and irritable ; will rub
against anything near ; will bite its fleece, and scratch with its hoofs. At
length the fleece becomes ragged, and drops off, to permanently infect
tne pasture.
What to do. — It is not diflicult to cure, but the means must be thor-
ough. A good effective remedy, though poisonous, is the following :
No. 6. 6 Pounds arsenic,
G Pounds pearl ash,
6 Pounds stdphur,
6 Pounds soft soap,
20 Gallons boilings water.
Mix, but avoid the fumes, and when cold, add 180 gallons of cold water,
and stir until well mixed. Prepare a tank that will readily allow a sheep
to be dipped in it. From this a slanting, slotted drain, having a watcr-
tit'ht bottom underneath, and extending just over the edge of the tank,
should be laid. Dip the sheep, back foremost, into the tank, allowing him
to remain submerged in the liquid, except the head, for one minute. Then
1074
PARASITIC AND OTHER DISEASES.
1075
place him on the slats and squeeze the wool thoroughly, and when well
drained turn into a clean yard until dry. Then go over the heads of the
Hock with the following:
No. 7. 2 Pounds mercurial ointment,
6 Pounds lard,
2 Pounds rosin,
1 Pound oil of turpentine.
Place the lard and mercurial ointment in a suitable iron pot, and im-
mei*se in a vessel of hot water, say about 180 degrees, and stir until well
mixed. Then dissolve the rosin and turpentine, and when the lard is
cold, nib it all well together. Apply it by parting the wool on the head
between the ears, on the forehead, and under the jaws, the idea being to
reach every part not touched by the dip.
A COMPARATIVELY FJARLY CASE OF COMMON SCAB,
Showing a Bare Spot and a Tagging- of the Wool.
In preparing No. 6, for ordinary cases, twenty pounds of strong tobacco
may be simmered in the water, instead of the arsenic, and the other in-
gredients miay be stirred in while the liquid is boiling hot, having first
removed the tobacco leaves and stems. When this dip is used, the head
may also be dipped, from time to time, being careful that the liquor does
not get in the nose and eyes. The sheep may remain in the liquor, as
hot as can be borne, four or five minutes, dipping the head occa.'jionally,
and No. 7 need not be used though it would be better. The wool must
be pressed and dried, as before stated; so proceed until the flock is all
gone over, using some means to keep the liquor hot.
1076 CYCLOPEDIA OF UVB STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
A dip in great repute in Australia, where immense tiocks are kept, is
the following^
No. 8. 10 Pounds tobacco leaves,
10 rounds sulphur.
50 Gallons water.
Boil the tobacco in the water, .-indadd the sulphur while hot. Dip the
sheep in the liquor, as hot as can be borne, for five minutes.
Tjck. — The sheep tick is a dipterous insect, but with no wings devel-
oped. The ticks are large and live on the surface of the
skin and suck blood. They are plainly seen when the
wool is divided, or when the sheep are shorn ; then the
ticks will go off to the lambs, where there is more
wool. The treatment for them may be the same
as for scab.
SHEEP TICK Lice. — Lice are sometimes found on sheep ; they
WITH EGGS. are of the variety of bird lice, (Trichodectes), with large,
broad head, with biting jaws, but no sucking tube. Bird lice are usu-
ally very irritating. The treatment given above will apply for lice as well
as for scab and tick.
II. Foot Rot.
How to know it. — The skin at the top of the clefts of
the hoofs and over the heels, which is naturally smooth,
dry and pale, becomes red, moist, warm and rough, as
though chafed. Next, there is a discharge ; and ulcers
form, extending down to the upper portion of the inner trichodectes
wall of the hoof. Then the walls become disorganized, and o*" ^"^ sheep.
the disease penetrative, between the fleshy sole and the bottom of
the hoof, an offensive and purulent matter is thrown out, and the
whole foot becomes a mass of corruption, often filled with magg-'tts.
The animal early becomes lame and loses appetite, and at length dies
from exhaustion. If the attack is violent, and in the first cases it gene-
rally is, it may reappear the second and third years, but in a milder form,
if proper measures be taken, and this should be done at the first symp-
toms of lameness.
What to do. — Cut away all the diseased parts, cleaning the knife from
time to time in weak carbolic acid. Prepare a tank and fill it to a depth
of four inches with a saturated solution of blue vitriol (sulphate of
copper). Keep this as hot as the sheep can bear to stand in, by occa-
sionally introducing a piece of hot iron. Let each sheej) stand in this for
ten minutes or more. Then cover the hoof with chloride of lime, and
PARASITIC AND OTHER DISEASES 1077
fill the cleft of the hoof with a fillet of tow, long enough for the ends to
he twisted into a string to tie ahout the fetlock. Keep the sheep in a
dry, well-littered yard on dry, short pasture, and examine the hoofs daily
for some time. Renew the chloride of lime, if necessary, and feed plenty
of nourishing food. It is probahle that a tonic may be needed ; if so,
l)repare the following:
No. 9. 2 Drachms common salt,
}4 Drachm sulpliato of iron,
la Drachm nitrate of potash.
Mix as a powder, and give once a day, as circumstances may dictate.
III. Foul in the Foot.
This is a common disability, especially in sheep that have been driven
on the road.
What to do. — When it is only the effect of travel, the remedy is simple.
Wash the cleft and other parts of the hoof with warm, soapy water, and
then touch the tender or thin parts with a feather dipped in oil of vitriol
(sulphuric acid), and cover them with tar. Apply a strong solution of
blue vitriol (sulphate of copper), to the cleft if any signs of foul are ap-
parent. In driving sheep, these three things, viz., soap, sulphuric acid
and blue vitriol should be kept on hand ; or in place of sulphuric acid the
following :
No. 10. 1 Part solution chloride of antimony,
1 Part compound tincture of myrrh.
Mix and keep ready for use in incipient foul or travel sore. If it is a
bad case the foot should be bandaged.
IV. Swollen Foot and Gravel.
How to know it. — The issue (biplex canal in the front and upper part
of the hoof) becomes swollen and inflamed.
What to do. — Kxamine it to find if any substance is imbedded therein ;
if so, extract it ; if swollen and inflamed, treat as advised for other swell-
ings ; if ulcerated lance it lightly to let out the matter, and dress with the
compound tincture of myrrh. If the hoof becomes graveled, extract the
gravel at any cost ; dress as above, and cover with a small plug of tow
dipped in tar.
V. Maggots from Blow Flies.
There should be no excuse for maggots accumulating in wounds, much
less from the collection of filth about the thighs. If found, cleanse the
1 078 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
parts thoroughly, extract the maggots and touch the wounds with the
following :
No. 11. 1 Part creosote,
4 Parts alcohol.
Mix.
Bathe dally with tincture of myrrh.
Prevention. — Keej) the sheep well tagged by shearing from under the
tail and thence diagonally down the thighs.
VI. Intestinal "Worms.
The presence of intestinal worms is seldom known to the ordinary ob-
server until after the death of the sheep, when they may be found by
dissection. If the worms are thus found, the presumption is good that
other sheep are seriously infected, for, as a rule, unless they are abund-
ant, they do little or no harm.
What to do. — As a simple vermifuge, when their presence is suspected,
ordinary wood soot, mixed with the salt the sheep naturally take will do
good. In fact, if sheep are allowed plenty of salt, with the soot mix-
ture once a week, when worms are suspected they will do well enough ;
or give every two weeks, in ground feed, the following, which is enough
for 80 to 100 sheep:
No. 12. 2 Pounds common salt,
1 Pound sulphate ot magnesia,
^ Pound sulphate of iron,
% Pound powdered gentian.
Mix.
For good simple vermifuge for round and thread worms, to be given
as a drench, take
No. 13. 4 Ounces linseed oil,
J^ Ounce oil of turpentine,
Mix.
If the sheep are known to have tape worm, give in molasses and water
the following :
No. 14. 2 to 4 Drachms po\vder»?d areca nut,
10 to 20 Drops oil of male-fern.
Mix
The first quantities for small, and the latter for large sheep.
In the case of a large sheep, administer half a pint of linseed oil on the
following day.
Vn. The Kot or Liver Fluke.
CauseSr — Small flat worms {Fasciola Ilepatica and Distomum Lan-
ceolalum) in the liver, called the liver fluke, are the cause of rot.
PARASITIC AND OTHER DISEASES.
1079
How to know it. — There will l)e tenderness and weakness about the
ioins ; the bellv will be swollen and enlarged ; the eyes yel-
low as in jaundice ; and if the skin be rubbed back and forth,
when taken up between the thumb and fingers, it is soft
and flabby, with a crackling sensation.
What to do. — If there is diarrhcea, a weak heart beat, and
general stui)or, remove the shoop to a high dry pasture, or
to well ventilated airy })laces, as the case may be. Prepare
the following :
No. 15. }£ Pound sulphate of magnesia.
6 Dracluns oil of turpentine.
Mix the magnesia sulphate with three half joints of water,
add the turpentine and give one-third of it every two days,
shaking the bottle before using.
Follow the above with the tonic :
No. 16. 40 Pounds oat meal,
4 Pounds powdered gentian or anise seed,
4 Pounds common salt,
1 Pound sulphate of iron,
Mix.
Give half a pint to each sheei) once a day for a week : then wait three
weeks and repeat. Remove the
sheep to high dry pasture or salt
marsh, both being poisonous to the
fluke. Do not put the sheep in a
wet iDasture, for there they only
sow the seed to perpetuate the
trouble.
VIII. Lung Worms.
Causes. — This disease is caused by the presence of worms (Stronffi/lus
Fila7'ia), which are usually found in the wind-pipe, and hionchial tubes
and sometimes in the lungs.
How to know it. — There will be a
husky cough ; quickened breathing ;
loss of appetite and flesh ; and the
sheep will rub its nose on the ground ;
there may be dysentery with foetid
evacuations. Examine the mouth and throat, and also the stools, for in-
dications of the worms. Prepare the following:
No. 17. 6 Ounces sulphate of magnesia,
4 Ounces nitrate of potash,
4 Ounces sulphur,
4 Ounces sulphate of iron,
Mix.
DISTOMUM LANCEOLATUM.
STRONGYLUS FILARIA, MALE ENLARGED.
1080 CYCIX)PEDTA or LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Give a single handful to each sheep in oat or corn meal once a day for
a week ; then wait three weeks and repeat. Burn turpentine on pine
shavings under their noses so as to make them l)reathe the fumes.
IX. Sheep worried by Dogs.
Sheep that have been torn by dogs, are apt to die, owing to the lacer-
ated nature of the wound, especially if the skin has been stripped from
considerable surface in hot weather.
What to do. — The lacerated surfaces must be brought together, in such
a way that they may unite ; and, if necessary, stitched. In hot weather
flies must be guarded against, and the wounds should be treated as
advised in the case of horses when wounded.
X. Sprains, Strains and Bniises.
What to do. — These also are to be treated precisely as advised in the
case of horses. In simple cises hot fomentations and the subsequent
application of camphor is the rule usually followed. For a sprain, to
immerse the liml) in water as hot as can l)e borne, for half an hour at a
time, and repeated several times a day, usually effects a rapid cure.
XI. Care when Lambing.
What to do. — The ewes should be well fed for several weeks previous
to lambing, so as to be strong and have the lambs strong and well devel-
oi)ea when dropped ; but avoid having ths ewes fat. Have a dry, com-
fortable place for them to run in, not too warm ; they should be put in a
SWELLING OF THE UMBILICUS IN CHARBON (NAVEL ILL.)
warmer place when lambing than they have been accustomed to, in order
to avoid chilling the lamb. Allow no spectators around the sheep while
lambing, except the man they are accustomed to ; let him watch the
progress of events to see that help is given if needed.
PARASITIC AND OTIILII UlSLASES. 1081
Sometimes wrong presentations are made, and then the shepherd should
be ready with his hand oiled and warmed in warm water to render
assistance ; let him insert his hand and change the position of the fcetus
as the ease requires, being very careful indeed not to wound or torture
the ewe.
If the lamb is dropped at night and gets chilled, put it into a warm
water bath and dry it thoroughly when taken out, and give it a few
spoonfuls of milk, diluted a little and sweetened, and with a dusting of
red pepper in it. Keep the ewe separate from the others for a week or
ten days, and feed on soft food and roots if it is too early for grass.
XII. Navel 111.
Charbonous fever, or carbuncular erysipelas in lambs, in addition to
the other symptoms, usually manifests itself
in swelling of the umbilicus. The swellings
are not confined to the umbilical region, but
are often found in other parts of the body. It
is sometimes seen as a symptom or complica-
tion of rheumatic disease of the joints of lambs,
foals and calves. It was considered by shep-
herds, not many years ago, to be a distinct
THE ROT. disease, known as Navel 111. See illustration
on preceding page.
Xlll. Bare-LrOt Method of Raising Lambs to Avoid Nodule Disease.
A panisitic worm known to scientists as Oesophagostoma colum-biananh
causes the appearance of nodules in the intestines of sheep. This worm
is generally distributed throughout the United States, and becomes a
serious scourge in the sheep business, especially when conditions are
favorable for the infestation of young lambs. It has been shown by the
Louisiana Experiment Station that when sheep infested by this parasite
are placed on clean pasture and allowed to remain for some time the
pasture becomes contaminated and will cause an infestation of healthy
sheep which may subsequently graze upon it. It was also found that
when an infested pasture was plowed up and cultivated for one season
danger of infestation with the parasitic worm which causes nodule disease
was entirely removed.
This indicates a successful method of treating infested land. On ac-
count of the wide distribution of this parasite, however, and the general
infestation of breeding ewes, it was desirable to find a method by which
lambs could be raised from these ewes without becoming seriously infested
with the parasite.
1082 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
What to do. — In order to accomplish this purpose a bare-lot system
was adopted. This consists simply in keeping the ewes with their lambs
on a plat of ground from which all grass or other green vegetation has
been removed. The lambs, therefore, have no temptation to pick up any-
thing from the ground and do not run the risk of infesting themselves
with the nodule-producing parasites which may be upon the ground. In
the experiments carried on at the Louisiana Station the ewes were fed
grain once a day, and a rack was provided for feeding green forage of
different kinds. All green forage which was pulled out of the rack by the
sheep was carefully removed from the feed lot each day. Fresh water was
always present in a wooden trough, and the feed lot was leveled so as to
prevent the accumulation of water in pools from which lambs might
drink. In this feed lot nine ewes were placed with six lambs, the lambs
being born in February and March. At the end of June, all lambs being
weaned, the ewes were slaughtered and all found to be infested with the
parasitic worms. The lambs were slaughtered and carefully examined at
ages varA'ing from 88 to 155 days. In three of these lambs two or three
nodules of minute size were found in the intestines. The others were
entirely free from nodules, but all six of the lambs were infested to a
greater or less extent with stomach worms. The infestation of stomach
worms, however, was not sufficient to influence perceptibly the develop-
ment and fattening of the lambs. It is difficult to understand how infesta-
tion with stomach worms took place. The bare-lot method appears, from
these experiments, to give promise as a means of raising lambs for market
at an early age from mothers infested with the nodule-producing parasite
without danger of serious infestation of the lambs. It is recommended
that in addition to maintaining the infested ewes with their lambs in a
bare lot the lambs should be given some vermifuge with their food, or at
least common salt, to assist in the removal of possible stomach worms.
TROUGH FOR DIPPING LAMBS FOR SHEEP SCAB.
BOOK V
PART I
POULTRY
BISTORY. MANAC^jEMENT AND CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE VARIOUS BREEDS •
[084 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
BL(qCK (qND WHITE L(qNGSHflNS
POULTRY
CHAPTER I.
ORIGIN AND VARIETIES OP FAUM BIRDS
; ORIGIN OF THE WOUD I'OULTRV. II. TYPES AND NATIVE COUNTRY OP BARN-YARD
FOWLS. III. CHANGES DUE TO BREEDING. IV. DIVISION OF FOWLS.
V. THE WILD TURKEY. VI. DUCKS. VII. GEESE. VIII. THE SWAN.
IX. PHEASANTS. X. GUINEA FOWLS. XT. PEAFOWLS. XII. ANATOMY
OF THE HEN.
I. Origin of the Word Poultry.
The word poultry comes from the Latin word ^JwZZws, a chicken, or the
young of any animal. In its broad sense it is now used to designate any
domestic fowl bred or fed for human food, and for the eggs and feath-
ers. Hence, the peacock may reasonably be included, since its feathers
are an important article of commerce. The modern word poultry, how-
ever, more pj'operly comes from the French word poule, hen, just as our
word pullet comes from the French poulet, a chick. The cut of the
French Creve Cceur will illustrate a singular departure from the wild
type given on the next page. In a more modern sense the word poul-
try is generally applied to barn-yard fowls or the genus gallus — the Avord
fowl being used with a prefix, as water-fowl, which includes ducks and
geese, Guinea-fowl, etc., while turkeys, peacocks, pheasants and other
later or only partially domesticated birds are designated by their proper
or common names,
II. Tjrpes and Native Country of Bam- Yard Fowls.
The originals of all the varieties of barn-yard fowls were inhabitants of
thickets, and other openings of the forests, rather than of the dense
forest itself ; there are a number of species. A variety closely resem-
bling our common barn yard fowl, is the Sonnerat fowl, ( Gallus Son-
neratii) a native of the Ghautes, separating Malabar from Coromandel.
Damphier, previous to the discovery of Sonnerat, found wild fowls
closely resembling our old barn-yard fowls in the islands of the Indian
Archipelago. So it may safely be said, that our fowls with long flowing
tails, are natives of India.
1085
1086 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOP,
m. Changes Due to Breeding.
The great wild species of Southern Asia, and the wild Malay and Chit-
tagong, were probably influential in modifying the large Asiatic breeds of
to-day; and our bantams undoubtedly spring from the Bankiva jungle
fowl, although careful and systematic l)reeding and selection have given
us bantams of all the principal breeds of barn-yard fowls, including the
games. Again, as showing a marked departure from the wild form, we
BEARDED SILVER POLISH HEN.
«nve cuts of two heads, one tne Breda, or Gueldre, retaining the wattles,
but not the marked comb, and a variety of Brahma, with no wattles, and
with only the rudiments of a comb.
rv. Division of Fowls.
Our barn-yard fowls may therefore be divided into the common or
mixed breeds, Asiatic fowls, European and American varieties, and Ban-
tams. Each of these will be treated in their proper places.
ORIGIN AND VARIETIES OF FARM BIRDS.
10S7
V. The Wild Turkey.
The wild turkey is a native only of America ; there are several so-
called species, but they are, however, only varieties that have bred con-
stant lo type, perhaps having escaped from some ancient domestication.
They are all fertile one with another. The turkey is native to all that
region from Central America, north, up to 45 degrees, wherever suitable
timber covert can be found ; but in all the more thickly settled regions
they have long since been exterminated. The illustrations show the
common wild turkey hen, and the Mexican wild turkey cock.
GALLUS SONNERATIl.
VI. Ducks.
None of the wild fowl seem to have been more eaViVy domesticated
than the duck, though the domestication of birds of any species seems
easy, whenever they prove valuable enough to pay their keepmg. Only
the hirger varieties have, as a rule, been thought worth domestication,
though^of late years some of the smaller and beautifully plumaged birds
have^been bred in a tame state. They make very handsome adjuncts to
water scenery, in connection with swans and t.he rarer species of geese.
1088
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR,
The common white duck and the Rouen are two of the oldest domesti-
cated varieties of ducks ; while the Cayuga, or black duck, an American
variety is among the latest.
iTF.ATi OF SINGLE WATTLED BKAHMA FOWL. HEAD OF BREDA, OR GUKLDRE.
VII. Geese.
Geese, as well as ducks, being birds of passage, are found in all cli-
mates, from sub-tropical latitudes up to the Arctic Circle. "R'ollowinfc the
BUFF LEGHORN COCKEREL.
season of spring into the North, they breed in summer from latitude
forty-five no to sixty, and return in the autumn to their winter quarters
ORIGIN AND VARIETIES OF FARM BIRDS. 1089
in the sub-tropical regions. The common gray goose is the nearest ap-
SINGLE COMB RHODE ISLAND REDS.
A PAIR OF SINGLE COMB BROWN LEGHORNS.
proach to the wild type, and these are becoming scarcer and scarcer each
1090 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
year, gradually giving way to improved breeds. Of these, the Embden,
or Breme\::^ combine a pure white color, softness of color, and heavy
weight. The origin of the gray and the white geese is generally sup-
A PAIR OF SILVER-LACED WYANDOTTES.
posed to be the gray-lag goose (Anser Ferus), of the North of Europe.
The American wald goose (Anser Canadensis), is a distinct species;
this variety breeds freely, and is tolerably contented under domestication,
ORIGIN AND VARIETIES OF FARM BIRDS.
1091
even in the first generation. It is but a few years, compurativelj'-, since
they were first domesticated. Asia and Africa have furnished tin with
TRIO OF BLACK COCHINS.
four sub-families of geese, three of which enme from China, and the
fourth from Africa — the African goose.
1092 CYCI/5PEDIA OP UVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOiU
vm. The Swan.
The swan has long been known in history, but is not a useful bird
except as an ornamental appendage to the ponds and Irkes of parks.
The most common is the white swan ; there are, besides, a number of rare
and ornamental varieties, among them the black swan from Australia, and
the black-necked Chili swan. The head and neck of the latter are jet
black ; the body, wings, and tail, pur^ white, the bill having a red knob
or protuborance.
IX. Pheasantf,
None of the pheasants {Phasianus) are natives of tlie United States,
the so-called pheasant of the South and some other sections of the United
States being really the ruffed grouse ( Tetrao umheUus), The convmon
half-domesticated pheasant of Europe and America {Phasiaims Qolchi*
cus) is found wild in the Caucasus, and about the Caspian Sea. In the
United States we have five varieties which breed in confinement, but none
of them are more capable of domestication than the peacock. Theso
varieties are : The ring-necked, originally from China ; the ash-colored,
the white; and the parti-colored.
The ring-necked pheasant is said to be originally from China. The
male of the silver pheasant {Phasianus nycthemerus) originally from the
north of China, is a most beautiful bird, of a silver white color, with.
regular, slender, lace-like black markings on the feathers of the back,
while the under parts are of a black color ; the long, drooping tail is also
silver white, barred with black. The female is of a dull reddish color,
and of a smaller size. The golden pheasant (Phasianus thaumalea pic-
tus) is one of the most beautiful of birds, bred in a state of balf-domes-
tication, and is much smaller than either of the pheasants before men-
tioned. The under part of the male is of a red color, the head is orna-
mented with a splendid golden yellow crest, the neck i» hidden or over-
hung by a somewhat projecting ruff of feathers of a bright yellow color,
striped or barred with black. The wings are of a dull blue, the hind
parts of the body are of a golden color, set off with red, and the tail is
long and brown, barred with black The female of this species is also
inconspicuous in color.
These birds have bred well in some forests in Europe, and in a state
of domestication have produced three varieties, viz : the ordinary golden
and red color, the black, and the Isabella or fawn. They all, like the
Guinea-fowl and peafowl, roost on high trees and elevated points, and
wander considerably ; but in close confiueioeut they will permit handling.
ORIGIN AND VARIETIES OF FARM BIRDS.
1093
X. Guinea-Fowls. '
Guinea fowls are of two varieties and are now quite widely dissemi-
nated The varieties are, the pearl and the white, the latter yet rather
rare ' They have been grouped by naturalists into a number of varieties,
A TRIO OF GUINEAS.
but the distinction «as more fanciful than real, since all ^e varieties
readily mate one with the other, and the progeny arc contmuously fertile
'"xhtir' original home may be inferred from their generic name Nnm-
ida; they come from Numidia and other portions of Africa from Gam-
WHITE GUINEA-FOWL.
Ha to the Gaboon. The so called Cape Verde and J^"''-;- Gm";''"
fowls are undoubtedly descendants of these, become wild after having
been carried there. The cuts of the white and speckled species will give a
1094 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
good idea of the whole tribe. A very rare species is the Vulturine
Guinea-fowl, so called for its vulture-like head and neck. The whole
species are among the most watchful and wary of birds, giving instant
alarm with their shrill note of danger. When bred, they should be
allowed full liberty, since they do not stand confinement well.
XI. Peafowls.
This magnificent bird, quite useless except for the splendor of its plum-
age and the value of its tail feathers, is rare in farmyards, from its sup-
posed want of adaptation to northern climates. This, however, is a mis-
take ; they are as hardy as most of the breeds of barn-yard fowls. The
male is cruel and cowardly, and is given to destroying the eggs of the
female. Hence the hens are very secret as to their nests. They do not
lay their eggs until late in the season, and keep their broods away from
the yard;? until driven thither in the autumn for want of food. They
have considerable powers of flight, and the males, especially, wander .ong
distances from home ; they should be allowed their full liberty.
Xn. Anatomy of the Hen.
The anatomy of the hen will answer for all the land birds, and, in a
"Pleasure (for all but th j scientific breeder) for water-fowls as well, since
the frame of the latter is only so modified as to permit their swimming
an1 diving in water. Both ir land and water-fowls the more valuable
ORIGIN AND VARIETIES OF FARM BIRDS.
10.
portions for food are the breast, the thigh, the leg, the neck and the
wing. The back and rump give but little flesh, very choice in flavor.
Fig. 1 represents the skeleton of a hen of average size and in the pro-
portions as ordinarily met with.
Explanation. — ^ — ^The head, length 2 3-4 inches. B — The neck,
length 5 1-3 inches. G — The back or spine. D — ^The hips or hip
bones, (the back and hips comprise
from the shoulder to the tail,) length
5 9-10 inches. E — Rump or coccygis,
length, 1 1-2 inches. F — Shoulder-
blade or shoulder. G — Collar bone or
*merry-thought.' H — Chest or thorax,
composed of the sides and breast-bone
(bone of the throat); it contains the
heart, liver, etc. 1 — The breast-bone,
length a little over 3 1-2 mches. J —
The wing bones, as will be seen, are
composed of the humerus or shoulder-
bone of the wmg, length 3 1-7 inches ;
also the radius and the cubitus, the fore-
arm or pinion, length 2 3-4 inches ; the
tip of the wing, or that which takes the
place of the hand and fingers, length 2 1-3 inches. K —
The leg, composed of c? — (Fig. 2.) the thigh bone,
length 3 1-7 inches ; e — the shin bone, length 4 1-3
inches ; / — ^the bone of the foot, the tarsus, length
3 1-7 inches ; g — the claws, that of the middle, length
2 1-3 inches ; the two to the right and left, length
1 6-10 inches ; that of the back, length 8-10 inches ; h
— the patella or knee ; i — the os calcis or heel.
The foot as shown in Fig. 2, is all that part (/)
from (g) to {i). The hen — like nearly all four-footed
animals, and unlike man — walks on the toes. If the
hen walked on the foot, all that portion from the toe
aails up to e, would 'rest on the ground, and hence the position of the
irear toe would be different. As it is placed, it supi)orts the other toes m
iv^alking and especially when on the perch, at night ; for all land breeds
are peculiar in this, that when they are at rest, they retain their position
securely by the simple weight of the body, which causes the sinews and
muscles to contract and thus draw the toes firmly around the object
grasped. Some fowls have five, and even six toes, but fouronh' sire used
to advantage — thiee before and one behind. The rest are really super-
uumerary — as much so as two timmbsi on h luan^ band
ANATOMY OF THE HEN. (Fig 1).
:Fig. 2).
CHAPTER n.
BAHN-YARD FOWLS.
I. ENGLISH BREEDS— DORKING FOWLS. II. SILVER GRAY DORKINGS.^— HI. OSAT
DORKINGS. IV. FAWN-COLORED DORKINGS. V. BLACK DORKINGS. VI.
BOLTON GRAYS, OR CREOLES. VII. FRENCH FOWLS — HOUDANS. VIH. LA
FLECHE FOWLS. IX. CREVE CCEURS. X. BREDA OR GUELDER FOWLS.
XI. SPANISH FOWLS. XII. HAMBURG FOWLS— BLACK HAMBURG. XIII.
PENCILED HAMBURGS. XIV. LEGHORN FOWLS. XV. AVHITE LEGHORNS.
XVI. AMERICAN BREEDS. XVII. DOMINIQUE FOWLS. XVIII, OSTRICH
FOWLS. XIX. PLYMOUTH ROCK FOWLS..
I. English Breeds— Dorking Fowls.
Of the distinct English breeds of bam yard fowls, the Dorking«, in
their varieties, confessedly stand first. The old White or Surrey Dork-
nig is the original type from which the others have sprung. The Dork-
ings all have five toes, are full wattled, with long sickle-shaped tail feath-
ers and generally single serrated combs. The White Dorkings are
plump, compact birds with strong head and bill. The plumage is pure
white without spot, and the legs, also, are white. The mature cock will
weigh fully ten pounds, the hen eight or nine pounds, and year-old birds
eight or nine pounds when fat. They are fairly hardy, good layers, care-
ful and watchful of the brood ; and the flesh is most excellent. None of
the Dorkings can stand cold storms ; but they are altogether the best of
the distinct English breeds.
n. Silver-Gray Dorkings.
The Silver-gray Dorking is undoubtedly a chance variety of the White
Dorking, which has been continued by careful breeding and selection.
They vary much in their markings, unless the greatest care is used, and
even then many chicks must be discarded from the breeding yards.
Their mixed origin is fully shown in the fact that dark colored birds
often produce handsome silver-gray chicks.
m. Gray Dorking.
The distinguishing colors of this variety are : Breast, tail and larger
tail feathers perfectly black ; the head, neck, hackle, back, saddle, and
wing bow a olear, pure, silvery white ; and across the wings a well de-
fined black bar, in striking contrast with the white outside web of the
1096
BARN-YARD FOWLS.
1097
quill feathers and the white hackle of the neck and saddle. The neck of
the hen is silvery white; the breast salmon red, changing to gray near the
thighs; the wings silvery or slaty gray, without any tinge of red; the
tail dark red, the inside nearly l)lack. The chicks grow rapidly, if well
fed, so that they may be mude ready for broiling before they are fully
fattened.
i
A PAIR OF BUFF LEGHORNS.
A PAIR OF ROSE COMB RHODE ISLAND REDS.
IV. Fawn-Colored Dorkings.
Birds of this variety are handsome, but with tails shorter than the
others ; they have black legs and a high carriage. The hens lay large eggs.
The matured cocks will weigh up to nine pounds and the hens seven
1098 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
pounds of excellent flesh. They are said to have been produced by a
cross between the White Dorkings and the f awn-colored Turkish fowl.
V. Black Dorkings.
The black Dorkings differ but little from the other varieties. They are,
however, thought to '^e more hardy than the other sub-families ; the hens
are good layers and careful nurses, and the eggs are large. According
to Wright, the pui-e-breds are jet black; the neck of some cocks tmged
PAIR OF WHITE INDIAN GAMES.
with gold, and the hens silver tmged ; the comb usually double, short,
sometimes cupped, but sometimes single; the wattles small; the tail
feathers shorter and broader than those of the "White Dorking ; the legs
black, short, and with the two under toes separate and distinct.
VI. Bolton Grays or Creoles.
This breed, once famous in England, was said to have been bred with
such nicety that individual fowls could scarcely be distinguished one from
another. They are great layers ; not inclined to set ; short-legged ; plump j
medium-sized ; the eggs, however, rather small ; the color is white, thick-
ly spotted with black as to the neck and body, with black bars at the ex-
tremity of the tail.
BAEN-YAKD FOWLS.
1099
Vn. French Fowls— Houdans.
The four varieties of French fowls that have been more or less dissemi-
nated in the United States are the Houdans, the Creve Cceur, La Fleche,
and the Breda.
The Houdans rank in France with the Dorkings in England, and in
the United States they are regarded with favor. They are said to have
been originated from a cross ])etween the Dorking and the silver Padoue,
and have the fifth toe as do the Dorkings. In color they should be white
BLACK JAVAS.
and black, evenly distributed, making them distinctly speckled. Red
feathers are not admissible, but an occasional stained feather is sometimes
seen in the best fowls. They love to wander, but bear confinement well.
The comb is double leafed, and they have whiskers and beard growing
well up on the face which, with the crest or top-knot, gives them a curious
appearance. The crest of the hen is quite thick, rounded and full. They
are hardy, fatten kindly, lay good-sized eggs, and the flesh is of the first
quality.
1109 CTCLOPEDIA OF LTO: STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCEL DOCXOB.
Vm. Iia Pleche Fowls.
These are hard}' ; tall , rather angular, but compact-bodied ; jet black ;
sirong-limbed, with dense, firm plumage. They lay excellent eggs, and
the flesh is superior to that of an}^ other French breed, and excelled
probably by none. They are <i full wattled fowl, and the protuberant
feathers behind the serrate comb give them the" appearance of being
double homed. Their ears are large and opaque. The beak moderately
curved, neck hackles long and fine, reflecting violet and green-black
colors, as do the breast, wings aud upper tail feathers. The legs are
BABN-TARD FOWM.
1101
BL6CK BREASTED RED GflMES.
1102 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
PARTRIDGE COCHINS.
BARN-YARD FOWLS. 1103
long, slate-blue in young fowls, and a lead- gray when old. The hen is
colored like the cock. The cocks are fully mature at a year and a half
old and the hens at twelve months.
IX. Crave Coeurs.
The Creve Coeurs are among the most elegant and stately of French
fowls. Their color is black, reflected with a glistening greenish hue ;
PAIR OF WHITE-CRESTED BLACK POLISH FOWLS.
their antler-like, deep crimson combs and crested heads give them a
bold, striking and dignified appearance. They are, also, probably the
most useful of the French breeds, when we take into consideration then-
good feeding qualities, their great merit as steady producers of large
1104 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
eggs, their easy fattening qualities, and their constitutional hardiness.
Their color should be jet black, though as age approaches an occasional
white feather may appear in the crest. They are short-legged, compact
fowls, with little offal, and of the non-sitting order — so much so that the
eggs should be placed under other hens, or those more apt to be reliable
as sitters and nurses. In England they are reputed somewhat tender, but
in the United States we have heard no complaints of this kind, after they
were once acclimated. The heads of the cocks are topped with handsome
crests, before which are seen large, toothed, two-horned combs. Their
wattles are handsome and pendent, and they have dense cravats of
feathers on the fore part of the neck. The illustration admirably shows
their chief characteristics.
X. Breda or Gueldre Fowls,
These fowls are called after the French province of the same name,
where the breed originated; but though they are classed as French fowls
they evidently show an infusion of Asiatic blood, while they are Polish
PAIR OF BT.ACK T.ANGSHANS.
in shape and undoubtedly closely allied to that breed. There are sev-
eral such varieties distinguished by color — the cuckoo-marked being
called Gueldres, and the black, Bredas, though the latter term seems to
be applied to all that are not cuckoo or dominique marked.
BARN-YAED FOWLS.
1105
They have just a perceptible crest, pendent wattles, and very little
comb. Whatever the color, they have but few feathers on the leo-s,
which are slaty blue, and the thighs vulture hocked. The plumao-e is
close and compact, the ear lobes and wattles bright red and peculiar in
shape. The chicks are hardy and feather quickly, and the eggs are large,
smooth and excellent in flavor. Two peculiarities of this breed are the
almost total absence of comb, causing a depression in that part, and their
cavernous and conspicuous nostrils. The accompanying illustration, to-
gether with the cut of head on a previous page, will sufliciently portray
their distinguishmg characteristics.
XI. Spanish Pcrwls.
There are a number of Spanish varieties besides the Pure Black and
the Pure White, as the Minorca or Red-faced Black, the Ancona, the
Gray or mottled, and the Andalusian or Blue Spanish. They have lono-
been yalued in the United States for their great laying and non-sitting
PAIR OF SILVER-SPANGLED HAMBURGS.
qualities, but are too tender to stand a northern climate, without extra
protection, and they do not do well anyw^here, when exj^osed to wet. With
proper attention, the fancier may get good returns in large, meaty, well-
flavored eggs, and plenty of them. To the average farmer they are not
a valuable breed.
1106
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
The characteristics of the two principal varieties are sufficiently well
portrayed by the illustration in connection with the following description:
The weight of a full-grown Spanish cock should not be less than seven
A PAIR OF BUFF WYANDOTTES.
pounds, nor its height, when erect, less than twenty-two inches. The
color should be pure black, or pure white, according to the variety, without
white in the black or black feathers in the white variety. The eye
should be full, bright and of a dark brown color. The ear lobes and
BARN-YARD FOWI^, 1107
white face are important characteristics ; the comb of the cocks high,
firm, single and deeply serrated, while in the hens it will often fall over
on one side ; the wattles large, long, and of the deepest vermilion color,
as is also the comb.
Xn. Hamburg Fowls— Black Hamburg.
All the Hamburg fowls have these constant characteristics : Bright,
double combs, firmly fixed, and ending in a long point behind and some-
what turned up ; medium size ; upright carriage ; long upright tails, and
long flowing plume feathers. They are hardy and robust, great layers
of excellent flavored eggs, but seldom sit, even when they have a free
range, and almost never when kept confined.
The black Hamburg is one of the best of fowls for farms where free
range can be had and plenty of eggs are desired. They will lay even in
the coldest weather if given warm quarters and warm food. The eggs
are not large, but they make up in quality what they lack in size. The
plumage should be deep black, relieved with a metallic lustre,
xni. Penciled Hamburgs.
There are two varieties, — viz.. Golden and Silver penciled, as there are
two varieties of Spangled Hamburgs, the Golden and the Silver. In fact.
-7> ^^ - -
60LDEN PENCILED HAMBmtGS.
the Silver penciled variety are probably but little different from the okf
BoltoD Gray, previously descnbed*-flTi(^ descendwJ probably direct Umi
1108 CYCLOPEDIA 01<' LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
the Turkish fowl described long ago by Aldrovandiis. Tegetmeier says
of them, that perhaps no variety of fowl ever rejoiced in more synonyms
than this very pretty, and, in suitable situations, profitable breed; they
have been long termed Bolton Grays, from being extensively and success-
fully cultivated in and about Bolton, in Lancashire; Creoles, from the
intermixture of the black and white in their plumage ; Creels, which is a
provincial mode of pronouncing Creoles; Corals, because the numerous
j)oints of their polished, bright scarlet rose combs bear no distant resem-
blance to red coral; Penciled Dutch, because many are imported from
Holland; Dutch Every-day Layers and Everlasting^^, for the same rea-
CORNISH INDIAN GAME HEN.
BLACK HAMBURG HEN.
son, and their great productiveness as layers; and Chitteprats, the deri-
vation of which is not so obvious. Chitteface, according to Bailey, the
lexicographer, means a meagre child; and Chitteprat, if intended to de-
scribe a diminutive hen, would not be misapplied to one of this variety.
The general characters of Penciled Hamburgs may be thus stated:
They are birds of small size, compact and neat in form, sprightly and
cheerful in carriage: In the plumage on the body of the hens, each
feather (with the exception of those of the neck-hackle, which should be
perfectly free from dark marks) is penciled with several transverse bars
of black on a clear ground, which is white in the silver, and a rich bay in
the golden birds. These pencilings have given rise to the name of the
BABH'-TABD FOWLS. 1109
variety. In the cocks, however, there is a general absence of these mark-
ings, the birds being either white or bay. In both sexes the legs are blue,
with fine bone. The comb is a rose, square in front and well peaRed be-
hind ; the ear-lobe a well-defined white ; the face scarlet.
in weight and size, Silver-penciled Hamburgs are considerably below
the general standard ; the carriage of the cock is very erect ; the tail is
well borne up, and the head occasionally thrown back so far that the neck
often touches the tail ; the general form is exceedingly neat and elegant.
In the hen the carriage is sprightly and active, but not so impudent as that
of the cock ; both sexes are alike noisy and restless in their habits, neat
and very pretty in their form. The neck-hackle in both should be pure
white ; penciling with black, a very frequent fault in the hackle of the
hens, being very objectionable. The saddle of the cock must be pure
mealy white. The cock's tail is black, the sickle and side sickle-feathers
beiug glossed with green, and having a narrow white edging. In the heae
the tail must be distinctly barred or penciled with black.
The breast and thighs of the cock are white, as are the upper wing-cov
erts or shoulder, but the lower wing-coverts are marked with black on the
inner web, showing a line of dots across the wing, forming a bar. The
secondary quills, or those flight-feathers which are alone visible when the
wing is closed, are white on the outer web and blackish on the inner web,
and have a rich green-glossed black spot at the end of each feather. In
the hens the entire plumage of the body, namely, that of the breast,
back, wings, and thighs, should have each feather distinctly penciled oi
marked across with transverse bars of black ; the more defined these are
the better, as there should be a perfect freedom from a mossy appearance,
which is caused by the two colors running into one another. The legs
and feet in both sexes should be of a clear leaden or slaty blue. The
comb in the cock is evenly set on the head, square in front, well sprigged
al)ove with small, even points, not hollowed on the upper surface, andter-
mhiating in a single flattened pike behind, which inclines slightly upwards.
In the hen the comb is the same in form but very much smaller. The
ear-lobe in both sexes must be a dead opaque white, free from red on
the edge.
The hens of either variety must have the body distinctly and definitely;
penciled, and the hackles of either sex mu£t be entirely free from dar^
markings. In the spangled varieties the markings must be distinct, like
spangles, or speckled. The other characteristics range uniform with
those of the other varieties. Whatever the variety, they are most valu-
able either to the farmer or fancier, but with the fanner, unless he be a
fancier as well, if a little off color in breeding it is no '*''*nmeuU so far
as egg-lapng is conoeroed.
1110 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
XIV. Leghorn Fowls.
The Leghorn fowls are of the Spanish type, except in color.
White Leghorn is regarded witli most favor, although the Brown
The
Leg-
horn has its fanciers. There are also other grades of colors except black.
SINGLE-COMB BROWN LEGHORN COCK.
Whatever the color, they have all the good laying qualities of the Span-
ish, without their tender qualities, and indeed dispute the palm with the
Hamburgs in every good point. The illustration shows what are ac-
cepted among breeders a.s standard White Leghorns.
XV. White Leghorns.
These birds are among the most elegant of barn-yard fowls, either in
the yard of the farmer or amateur. They are similar to the Spanish in ap-
pearance, except that the plumage is white, with hackle or neck, and the
saddle or rump feathers tinged golden. Unlike the Spanish, they are
hardy, standing even our western winters excellently. They are good
winter layers, and seldom desire to sit; the young early take care of
BAKK-YAUD FOWLS.
\nt
themselves, and feather so early that they look to be miniature fowls
when six weeks or two months old. They are quiet and docile. The
eggs are superior in flavor, and as a table fowl they have few superiorib
among the gallinaceous tribe.
LLACK MINORCA COLX.-ILIIL.
XV 1. Ajnerican Breeds.
The distmctive American breeds of barn-yard fowls that have attained
wide celebrity are the Dominique, the Ostrich fowl, and the Plymouth
Hock. The Dominique have often been confounded with the Scotch
Grays, and also with the Cuckoo Dorkmgs and oth^^ fowls bred to the
1112 CYCLOPEDIA OF UVE STOCK AND COMPLETB STOCK DOCTOB.
cuckoo feather of England and France ; they are, however, an old and
entirely distinct American race. The Georgian Game is also a distinct
American breed, but this will be treated of under the head of Games.
XV Jl. Dominique Fowls.
For the farm-yard, when both eggs and chickens are desired, this breed
when pure, (unfortunately now rather rare), is one of the most valuable
of the known breeds, for it combines hardiness of constitution with goodfor-
aging qualities ; is prolific of eggs, and when killed shows plenty of good
flesh. The true color is a soft and undulating shading of slaty blue,
t^on a light ground all over the body, thus forming bands of variouA
DOMINIQUE FOWL.
narrow widths, and finely penciled among the smaller feathers. The
cocks have heavy hackle and saddle feathers. The feet and legs must be
bright yellow or buft", and the bill of the same color. The combs of the
cocks, however, are variable, some cocks having a single and others a
doubls comb.
BARN-YARD FOWLS.
1113
BLACK SPANISH.
1114 CYCLOPEDIA OP LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
BABN-YABD FOWLS.
1115
XV ill. Ostrich Fowls.
This breed is not widely disseminated, but in their native region-
Bucks County, Pa.— they are highly esteemed for their weight, valuable
laying qualities, excellent flesh, and hardy constitutions. The cocks will
weio-h nine pounds at maturity and the hens seven to eight, and will
*^ ~ often lay forty to fifty eggs before
wanting to sit. The color of the
cock is blue-black, the ends of
the feathers tipped with white.
The wings a golden or yellow
tinge, the hackle dark glossy blue.
The cocks have a double rose-col-
ored comb, and large wattles. The
leo-s are short and strong, and the
body thick and plump. The hens
are marked similarly to the cock,
but more soberly, and the comb
is single, high and serrated.
XrX. Pl3rmouth Rock Fowls.
This is one of the latest-formed of American breeds, first shown at
OSTRICH FOWLS.
'- ^i^
A PAIR OF COLUMBIAN WYANDOTTES.
Boston in 1840. It is evidently a breed made up of various crosses, and
^^^^ '''^'''^TSiliMW^^^^ '"" --^— DOCTOR.
BARN-YARD FOWLS.
1117
unfortunately was disseminated before its characteristics became uniform
or well fixed in any respect. It gave rise to much bitter controversy,
in which even the common dunghill was stated to have had a large share
in the origin. Of late years, what is called the Improved Plymouth Rock
has appeared and shows care and uniform breeding. They are said to
grow fast, fledge early, take on flesh rapidly, and to combine excellent
qualities as egg producers and as table fowls. They have not yet be-
come popular, except with a comparatively few fanciers, and for the
reason, perhaps, that their really good qualities are not yet known among
farmers.
A. PAIR OF SINGLE-COMB WHITE LEGHORNS.
1118 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
3
<
g
O
o
K
P
o
Oh
caAPTEnni.
GAME FOWLS AND OTHER RARE BREEDS.
I. GAME FOWLS AND THEIR VARIETH.S. II. EARL DERBY GAMES. IH. BROWN*
BREASTED RED GAMES. IV. DUCK-WING £D GAMES. V. WHITE GEORGIAN
GAMES. VI. GAME BANTAMS. VII. OTHER BANTAMS. VIII. THE SEA-
BRIGHT BANTAM. IX. JAPANESE BANTAMS. K, FBIZZL£D FOWLS. Xl.
EUMPLESS FOWLS. XII. SILKY FOWLS.
I. Game Fowls and their Varieties.
The Games are the most elegant as they are the noblest of the gal-
linaceous tribe. Watchful, without fear, attacking an enemy— even in-
truding dogs— with boldness, and tightingto the death, they at the same time
are hardy, good foragers, and the hens produce eggs of the finest flavor.
In fact, many fanciers breed them simply for the excellenceof their eggs and
the delicacy of cheir flesh Pubhc sentiment is justly against the barbarous
practices of the cock-pit, in which birds are pitted against each other
until one or both are killed. The varieties are numerous, and the sub-
varieties are many, each having a local celebrity. As mere fighting birds,
the English, Irish, Cubans, Mexicans, Spanish and Malays all have theii
favorites, while in many sections of the South the (xeorgian Games ape
held to be superior in point of shape, carriage, plumage, hardiness and
courage, as they undoubtedly are superior in point of flesh, and thft
quality ot the eggs. Among sub-varieties that have acquired more o>
less celebrity, the Salmon-pile Games, and the Dominique or Cuckoo
Games may be noticed as combining many excellent qualities. What-
ever breed is selected, but one variety can be kept in a run, since it would
give rise to endless battles and killing of birds ; besides, of all gallina-
ceous birds, the breeder of games should carefolly keep tbem from inter*
mixture.
n. Earl Derby Game.
This most excellent strain of game fowls is really the Blaok-Breastod
red Game, but bred with the greatest care and attention for over a cen-
tury in England. They are unsurpassed in style, beauty and courage,
and for the table are among the best. As bred in England and If. this
country they are identical ; tliey are described as having a round, well
knit body, on long, strong legs, with white feet and claws i the head
long, the bill laaoe-«haped and elegant ; the face brigjbt red, with traall
1119
1120 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AfJJ> COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
comb and wattles red ; they are daw-eyed, that is, the eye is gray like
that of the Jackdaw; back intense brown-red; lesser wing coverts
marc-on colored ; greater wing coverts marked at the extremity with
steel-blue, forming a bar across the wings ; primary wing feathers bay;
tail irridescent black; hackle well feathered, touching the shoulders;
wings large and well quilled ; back short ; breast round and black ; tail
long and sickled, being well tufted at the root ; the carriage is upright «ui4
elegant.
EAKL DERBY GAME.
Beeton, an English author describes them as follows : Head fine and
taperinir ; face, wattles and comb bright red ; extremities of upper man-
dible and the greater portion of the lower one white, but dusky at its
base and around its nostrils ; chestnut brown around the eyes, continued
beneath the throat ; shaft of neck hackles light buff ; web pale brown
edf^ed with black ; breast shaded with roan and fawn color ; belly and
vent of an ash tint ; primary wing feathers and tail black, the latter
carried vertically and widely expanded; legs, feet and nails perfectly
white.
aAME FOWLS, AND OTHER RARE BREEDS.
m. Brown-Breasted Red Games.
1121
Not mferio?* perhaps to the foregoing in point of elegant carriage and
wurage are the Browu-breasted reds. Tegetmeier justly says that since
J-J^y have long been sought for the pit, by men who rear them s>^^ zkv to this
end, variation in shades of color is cared nothing about. Hence undei
the name of Browu-breasted red are included streaky-breasted, marble-
oreasted, and ginger -breasted reds, and various other shades of color.
There is no l^reed of Game having so many variations in color, caused b}
1122
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMI'LETE STOCK DOCTOR.
mating together blues, piles, duns, and brown and black-breasted reds;
so that there is little uniformity of color in the strain. In the purest
strain is a light streaky breasted cock, with back and shoulder coverts
dark crimson ; saddle red maroon on centre, pn.ssing off to* a dark lemon
and straw; hackle red, with the middle of each feather dark. The hen
should have a nearly black body, but intermixed with gray on the wing;
the hackle bright, brassy or golden.
IV. Duck-Winged Games.
Like the Brown-breasted reds, there are several varieties of the
Duck-wings. The Silver Grays are considered to be, perhaps, the pure.-;t
in type; but each fancier has his own peculiar strain. Tegetmeier des-
cril)es the best cocks, correct in color, as having the hackle nearly clear
white, with a very slight tinge of straw color, without any decided yel-
low tinge or dark streak on the feather. The saddle should be as nearly
as possible the color of the hackle; the Ijrenst of a maroon straw; the
PAIK OF WHITE-FACED BLACK SPANISH FOWLS.
shoulder coverts a rich brass or coi)per maroon ; the breast and tail pure
black. The hens to match these cocks should have their necks of a clear
silver, striped with black, the silver to go right up to the comb, but being
a little darker above the eyes; the back and shoulder coverts a bluish-
gray, shaft of feather scarcely showing any difference from the rest of
the feather, any approach to red or penciling being decidedly objection-
able ; the breast salmon color, of a rich shade.
GAME FOWLS AND OTHER RARE BREEDS.
1123
V. White Georgian Games.
This magnificent breed of Southern games makes one of the prettiest
sights we have ever seen on the lawn. Their elegant carriage, pure
white color, great courage and intelligence, make them decided favorites
wherever known. They are of European origin, like all other Games, but
have been bred pure in the South, and are now, we believe, unknown in
Europe except by specimens carried there. They are as good farm fowls
— the eggs being delicate, the flesh excellent — as they are game in the
1124 CrCLOFEDlA OF LfVE 8TOCE AND COMrLETE STOCK DOCTOB.
pit. Their characteristics are : In color they must be pure white all
over, with no shade whatever on neck, breast, hock or tail. The legs
may be white or yellow ; and the beak should harmonize with the legs ;
the comb, ear lobes and wattles must be of the deepest vermilion color.
The yellow beak and legs arc generally preferred, since they a^a sup-
posed to indicate greater hardiness ; but we have never seen any differ-
snce in this respect between the white and yellow legged birds. Still,
the latter will continue to be preferred for cooking, in response to a
somewhat popular, but probably erroneous taste.
LIGHT BRAHMA.
VI. Game Bantams.
Many of the varieties of the large games have their representatives in
the bantams ; specimens of the game bantams are often but little larger
than pigeons, but they all possess the erect carriage, wonderful courage,
and brilliant plumage of their larger relations. To our mind, the Black-
breasted reds combine more good qualities than any other. They may
be kept in the yards with the large Asiatic breeds without any danger of
intermixture, but they will nevertheless be found fully masters of the'yard.
and will always give due warning of danger to the flock, and assist ma-
terially in its protection from intruders. Fall broods of any of the ban-
tams make the handsomest and smallest specimens, and show birds are
usually thus brod
GAME iJ'OWLS, AND OTIIKIC llAlilJ UKEEDS. 1125
Vn. Other Bantams.
The principal varieties bred are the Black, the Cochin, the Feather-
legged, the Nankin, the Pekin, the White, the Soubright and the Japan-
ese. The two hitter will be sufficient for notice here as being the two
most distinct and elegant of all the varieties.
Vin. The Seabiigbt Bantam.
These are of two varieties, the Golden-penciled, and the Silver-penciled,
identical, except in the color of their plumage. A peculiarity of these
is, that occasionally an old hen, or a barren one, will assume the plumage
of the cock, a remarkable reversion. It is worthy
of note, however, that the mules of the Seabrights
are all what are called hen-tailed breeds.
The standard for the Seabrights whether Gold
or Silver-penciled, is : The weight of the cock
should not exceed twenty ounces at most ; the
hen not more than sixteen. Hens have been
shown weighing not more than twelve ounces.
The plumage of the Silver bantam is of a silver-
white color with a jet black margin. The Golden
variety is identical except that the ground color of
sEABRKjur BANTAM. tho plumagc is golden. The legs are smooth, the
heads are clean, the comb double and pointed at the back, and the tail
straight and without the long sickle feathers. Whether they be golden
or silver spangled, the value of the birds consists in the delicacy and pen*
cilings of the markings.
IX. Japanese Bantams.
These are without doubt the most striking of any of the varieties of
bantams. Their carriage and general contour remind one of the best
specimens of the white Leghorn, except that the comb of the hen is fully
upright. This rare breed has a pure white body, the tail long, and the
shafts of the sickle feathers white, long, upright, with the ends slightly
curved, but carried over the back. The comb should be very long, broad,
and moderately serrated, extending well back ; the wattles long, pendant,
and bright red. The legs are short and yellow ; the body of the wings is
white, but the quill feathers black. The hens are fan-tailed and the comb
somewhat crinkled. These fowls cannot stand hard weather, and the
chicks are quite tender. Hence they should not be hatched until warm
weather sets in. The illustrations show perfect representations of these
elegant fowls.
1126 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
X. Frizzled Fowls.
Among the most curious of the gallinaceous tribe are the frizzled fowls,
originally said to have been brought from Java, and occasionally fouiKl
in the collections of amateur fanciers. The color should be pure white,
though there are varieties bred brown and also black. Their peculiarity
consfsts in their feathers being frizzled or rolled back. They are not
useful, and their only value consists in their curious appearance.
JPAIK or SILKY FOWLS.
XI. Rumpless Fowls.
Rumpless fowls have been known for centuries at least. They were
known in Virginia in the last century, and Buffon would have had the
generation for whom he wrote believe, that short tails, or the want of
tails was a characteristic of American animated creation ; and he gravely
accepted as truth that Englisa fowls gradually lost their tails when trans-
planted to America. If he nad been better informed he would have
known that Aldrovandus described the rumpless fowls more than a hun-
dred years before his time. It is the Persian or rumpless cock of
Latham. They have been bred of various colors, including black. The
most fashionable variety now is pure white, with a small single comb as
shown in the illustration. Rumpless bantams have also been bred. I'
GAME FOWLS, AND OTHER RARE BREEDS.
1127
fact, it would seem not difficult to breed off the tail feathers of any
fowls. None of the rumpless breeds, however, have particular value
except as curiosities.
RUMPLESS FOWLS.
XII. Silky Fowls.
This is also a breed more curious than useful. Its chief peculiarity
is, that the feathers are filamentous and lack cohesion, giving the
plumage a silky appearance. They are sometimes called negro-fowls,
from the fact that the skin is of a dark violet color, or almost black, and
the wattles and low, flat comb often dark purple, and covered with wart-
like excrescences. The bones are also covered with a dark membrane, so
that taken altogether they may be regarded as the most singular of the
1128 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
whole galliuaceous tribe. The silk fowl is a native of Asia, and *hemost
fashionable specimens are now bred pure white. The young chickens are
covered with a yellow, silky down and are most interesting. Aside from
their ota-ious appearance, they Jiave littie value.
RED PYLE GAME COCK
SILVER DUCKWING GAME COCKEKEi.
LONG-TAILED JAPANESE GAME COCK.
GAME FOWLS, AND OTHER RARE BREEDS,
1129
AMERICAN DOMINIQUE. MALE.
From "Perfected Poultry of America," used by courtesy Hon. F. D. Coburn,
Secretary Kansas State Board of Agrrioultvire.
1130 CYCLOPEDIA OP LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
AMERICAN DOMINIQUE. FEMALE
From "Perfected Poultry of America." used by courtesy Hon. F. D Coburn
Secretary Kansas State Board of Agriculture.
CHAPTER IV,
ASIATIC FOWLS.
r IHE VAKIOUS ASIATIC! BREEPS. II. DAKK BRAHMAS. HI. LIGHT BRAHMAS.
IV. CC^OHIN FOWLS. V. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF COCHINS. VI.
WUITE COCHINS. VII. BUFF COCHINS. VIII. PARTRIDGE COCHINS.
I. The Vaxious Asiatic Breeds.
Of all the varieties of the large Asiatic breeds introduced into the
United States, first and last, the Brahmas and the Cochin Chinas alone
have held their own with other popular breeds, and have been generally
disseminated. The so called Shanghai and the Chittagong — the latter
confessedly the giants of the larger breeds of fowls— have not fulfilled
expectations. Wo shall, therefore, give the Chittagong only a passing no-
tice, and simply delineate the principal varieties of the Brahmas and the
Cochins. Of the Shanghais it may be remarked, that, when first intro-
duced, they were the largest of the fowls imported up to that time, and
were of various colors, gray, buff, cinnamon-colored, partridge and
black ; and it is more than prr/bable that some varieties of the Cochins
owe their parentage to a union /f the Shanghai and Chittagong, if indeed
the so called Shanghai be not a Cochin and nothing else. However this
may be, neither the Cochins nor Brahmas' were originally from the
Brahma-Pootra river, in India, since this region having been in the pos-
session of the English so long, these remarkable fowls, if they had
existed there, could not have remained unnoticed.
n. Dark Brahmas.
As bred both in England and America the characteristics of the dark
Brahmas are as follows : The head of the cock should be surmounted
with what is termed a "pea-comb." This resembles three small combs
running parallel the length of the head, the centre one the highest;
beak strong, well curved ; wattles full ; oar-lobes red, well rounded and
falling below the wattles. The neck should be short, well curved;
hackle full, silvery white striped with black, flowing well over the back
and sides of the breast; feathers at the head should be white. Back
very short, wide and flat, rising into a nice, soft, small tail, carried up-
right ; back almost white ; the saddle feathers white, striped with black,
1131
1132 CYCLOPEDIA OF UVK STOCK AHD COMPLETE 8TOCK DOCTOR.
and the longer the better. The rise from the saddle to the tail, and the
side feathers of the tail to be pure lustrous green- black (except a few
next the saddle), slightly tipped with white, the tiiil feathers pure black.
The breast should be full and broad, and carried well forward ; feathers
black, tipped with white : wings small, and well tucked up under the
saddle-feathers and thigh fluff. A good black bar across the wing is
Important. The fluff on the hinder pails and thighs should be black or
dark gray; lower part of the thighs covered with soft feathers, nearly
black. The markings of the hen tire nearly similar to those of the cock.
Both sexes should have rather short yellow legs and profusely feathered
A PAIR OF SILVER-LACED WYANDOTTES.
oo the outside. The carriage of the hen is full, but not so upright as
that of the cock. The markings of the hen, except the neck and tail, are
the same all over, each feather having a dingy white ground, closely pen
ciled with dark steel gray, nearly up to the throat on the breast.
III. Light Brahmas.
The best of these fowls should be mostly white in color, but if the
feathers are parted, the bottom of the plumage will appear of a bluish
gray. The neck*backles should be distinctly striped with black downthu
ASIATIC FOWLS.
1133
LIGHT BRAHMA MALE AND FEATHERS.
'rcim "p^rfftcted Poultry of America," used by courtesy Hon. F. D. Coburn,
Secretary Kansas State Board of Agrlcalture.
1134 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
LIGHT BRAHMA FEMALE AND FEATHERS.
■^rom "Perfected Poultry of America," used by courtesy Hon. F. P, Coburn,
Secretary Kansas State Board of Agriculture,
ASIATIC FOWLS.
1135
center of each feather. The plume of the cock is often lighter than that
of the hen; the back should be quite white in both sexes. The wings
should appear white when folded, but the flight feathers are black ; the
tail black in both cock and hen ; in the cock, however, it is well developed,
and the covert^s show splendid green reflections in the light; it should
stand tolerably upright, and open well out laterally, like a fan; the
legs should be yellow, and well covered with white feathers, which may
or may not be very slightly mottled with black; ear-lobes must be pure
red, and every bird should have a perfect pea-comb. The illustration
shows both the penciled or dark and also the light Brahma.
SINGLE-COMB WHITE LEGHORN COCK.
IV. Cochin Fov^^ls.
As an indication of the steady and increasing popularity of this, the
largest of valuable barn-yard fowls, it is only necessary to enumerate
some of the principal varieties into which they have been broken up,
according to the taste or fancy of breeders. These are, White, Buff,
1136 CYCLOPEDIA OF LFVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Cinnamon, Grouse or Partridge Cocliin, Lemon, Silver Buff, Silver Cin-
namon, Black Cochin, Cuckoo, and Silky-feathered Cochin, We illus-
trate three of the best known breeds, the White, the Partridge and the
Buff Cochin. Although amjong the largest of barn-yard fowls, they
endure confined quarters well; but it must be remembered that even the
BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK FEMALE AND FEATHERS.
From "Perfected Poultry of America," used by courtesy Hon. F. D. Coburn,
Secretary of Kansas State Board of Agriculture.
most domestic of fowls cannot remain healthy unless they are allowed a
fair amount of exercise. Among the best of the breeds for farmers are
the White Cochins, the Buff Cochins, and the Partridge or penciled Coch-
ins, It may also be remarked that the principal objection to the Brah-
mas, and especially the Cochins, is that they accumulate fat so rapidly at
4SlAriC FOWLS.
1137
maturity that they are subject to apoplexy and kindred disorders. This
may, however, be avoided by plenty of exercise, and a rather low diet.
The engravings of Buff Cochin cock and hen show the general shape and
carriage of the several sub-familes.
V. Gteneral Characteristics of Cochins.
The characteristics which will apply to the several varieties are now
generally accepted to be as follows : In the cock the comb single,
A FAIR OF PARTRIDGE COCHINS.
fine, rather small, upright and straight, with well defined serrations, stout
at the base and tapering to a point ; head small and carried rather for-
ward ; eye bright and clear ; deaf ears pendant and large ; wattles large
and well rounded on the lower edge ; the hackles of the neck full and
abundant, reaching well to the back ; back broad, with a gentle rise from
the middle to the tail, and with abundant saddle feathers •• wings small,
the primaries well doubled under the secondaries, so as to be out of sight
yyiien the wings are closed ; tail small, curved feathers numerous, th«
1138 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLITE STOCK DOCTOR.
whole tail carried rather horizontally than upright ; breast deep, broad
and full ; thighs large and strong, well covered with soft feathers ; vul-
ture hocks, those with long, stiff feathers, are objectionable ; the fluff
soft and abundant, well covering the thighs and standing well out behind ;
legs rather short, thick and bony, wide apart, and well feathered on the
outside to the toes ; toes stout and strong, the anterior and middle toes
well feathered ; the carriage not so upright as in other breeds. The hen
should coiTcspond with these points, but be more feminine in appearance ;
for instance, the comb should be single, very small, fine, low in front,
perfectly straight with well defined serrations, and the tail, of course,
lacking the sickle feathers.
VI. White Cochins.
These are sturdy, heavy birds, and among the best foragers of any of
the Asiatic varieties. The standard for color, the other characteristics
being as given under the general head, is : Comb, face, deaf-ear and
wattles, brilliant red ; plumage pure white throughout, the cock as free
from yellow tinge as possible, the hens entirely free from any tinge
whatever ; legs bright yellow.
Vn. Buff Cochin.
The points for cocks of this breed are as follows . Comb, face, deaf-
ear and wattles, brilliant red ; head, rich clear buff ; hackie, back, wings,
and saddle, rich, deep golden buff, the more uniform and even the bet-
ter ; quite free from mealiness on the wings ; breast, thighs and fluff, uni-
form, clear, deep buff, as free from mottling and shading as possible ;
tail, rich dark chestnut, or bronze chestnut mixed \\'ith black, dark chest-
nut preferable ; legs, bright yellow ; leg feathers, clear deep buff.
The color of the hen should be as follows ; Comb, face, deaf-ear and
wattles, same as cock ; hackle, back, wings and saddle, same as cock,
but slight marking at ends of feathers of the neck not a disqualification ;
legs, bright yellow, with feathers same color as those of the body.
VUL Partridge Cochins.
The illustration will give a good idea of this magnificent breed of fowls.
The points of color are r
Color of CocK.-'Comb, face, deaf-ear and wattles, rich brilliant
red i head, rich red ; hackle, rich bright red, with a rich black stripe
down the middle of ea ;h feather ; back and shoulder coverts, rich dark
red ; wing bow, rich dark red ; greater and lesser wing coverts, metallic
greenish black, forming a wide bar across the wings; primary wing
quills, bay on outside web, dark on inside web ; secondary wing quills,
rich bay on the outside web, black oo tbe inner web, with a metaUio
ASIATIC FOWLS.
1139
black end to each feather; saddle, rich bright red, with a black stripe
down the middle of each feather; breast, upper part of body, and thighs,
rich deep black; tail, glossy black (white at the base of the feathers ob-
jectionable, but not a disqualification.)
■fNm^A:.^ ^
A PAIR OF SINGLE COAIB WHITE ORPINGTONS.
-^51^$
A PAIR OF GOLDEN WYANDOTTES.
Color of Hen.— Comb, face, deaf-eax, and wattles, brilliant red;
neck, bright gold color on the edge of the feathers, with a broad black
stripe down the middle; remainder of the plumage, light brown, dis-
tinctly penciled with dark brown ; the penciling to reach well up the front
1140 CYCLOPEDIA OF lAYE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
of the breast. The shaft of the feathers on the back, shoulder coverts,
bow of the wing, and sides, creamy white ; remainder of the plumage, rich
brown, disticotly penciled with darker brown ; the penciling reaching
well up the front of the breast, and following the outline of the feathers ;
legs, dusky yellow, with brown feathers.
PARTRIDGE COCHIN HEN.
ASIATIC FOWLS.
1141
■f
114? CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOK.
CROUP OF YOUNG LIGHT BRAHMA HALF BREEDS.
CHAPTEE V.
NEW. POPULAR BREEDS OF POULTRY.
WYANDOTTES. II. WHITE WYANDOTTES. III. WYANDOTTE BANTAI
IV. LANGSHANS. V. AMERICAN JAVAS. VI. THE ORPINGTONS.
I. Wyandottes.
The Wyandottes are one of the strictly American breeds, and were
originally known as American Seabrights from their peculiarity of
marking. When admitted to the American standard in 1883, they were
given the name Wyandotte. Their origin, so far as known, was a cross
between the Brahma and Hamburg. As now carefully bred, their char-
acteristic markings are distinct and constant. The plumage is white
and black, each feather having a white ground heavily laeed with black,
the tail being entirely black ; the plumage is in fact the white and black
speckled of the Hamburg with the black tail of the Brahma. The legs
are yellow as are those of the Brahma, but bare like those of the Ham-
burg. They have the rose comb of the Hamburg, but not so large, and
in size they approach the Brahma.
^The birds feather early, are plump broilers when young, and retain
plumpness with age. They are yellow skinned, thrift}^, hardy, and reach
a capacity for broiling early. In the adult birds the feathers are white,
bordered red with black, giving them a bright, even, speckled appearance.
The hackle is penciled white and black, and the tail is quite black. The
eggs are medium in size, of a dark buff color, and the laying qualities of
the fow.s are generally good, but as in the case of any variety, the de-
scendants of cross-bred fowls will depend somewhat on care in selection.
The illustration represents highly bred fow^s of this variety.
II. White "Wyandottes.
Early in the breeding of the Wyandottes (1872) some pure white
chicks were observed in a clutch of the laced Wyandottes of Mr. Geo.
H. Towle, of New York State, as having the same characteristics of the
dark variety. They were bred together until 1886, when they were ex-
hibited in Boston, Mass. This variety are reported to be prolific layers
and hardy ; are pure white with yellow legs and skin, but yet (1911)
they are not generally disseminated.
III. "Wyandotte Bantams.
Whenevei a r.ew and well received breed is brought out, there are
aWays some who seek to get money out of alleged variations. There
1143
1144
CLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOB.
are Bantams of many of the older breeds of fowls. These are produced
by in-and-in breeding, and the production of clutches of chickens hatched
m the autumn, the growth carefully subdued by light feeding, and strict
selection, and this continued for generations until the peculiarities are
fixed. Lately Wyandotte Bantams have been advertized. Do not be
ied astray just yet by these alleged small Wyandottes. They are half
starved fall chicks, bred by a smart boy near Chicago, and Bantams only
. WYANDOTTES.
im name, so we are informed by one of the best authorities on poultry in
the United States.
rv. Langshans.
This new breed of poultry, at least in the United States, is distinct in
its characteristics, and originating as it did in the provinces of Langshan,
Northern China, is one of the most hardy of Asiatic fowls. In China iis
name is "Yop" (sacred bird), from the fact that it is offered in sacri-
fice to the Gods of the Chinese. These birds were first introduced into
England about 1872, and immediately attracted the attention of fanciers,
and also caused a controversy as to whether it was a pure breed. T^as
NEW, rOl-LLAU bUEKLS OF POULTRY.
1146
question settled, it was admitted to the English standard. Birds were
broujiht to the United States in 1878, and admitted to the standard here
in 1883. The excellence of the fowls soon attracted general attention.
They are showy, handsome, have the power of resisting disease remark-
ably, and are noted for their quietude and ability to stand confinement.
SULTAN COCK.
BLACK-TAILED JAPANESE BANTAM COCK.
ROSE-COMB WHITE LEGHORN COCKEREL. SILVER GRAY DORKING COCK,
They are great winter layers, a characteristic of Asiatic fowls, and with
special care are also good all the year layers. The hens are good sitters
and good mothers ; the flesh is considered superior. The chicks when
hatched are black with shades of canary color on the head ai-.d breast,
1146 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
but carrying a few white nest feathers when assuming their first plu-
mage. They are of two breeds, white and black.
The flesh is white, resembling somewhat that of the turkey. The
plumage is dense black throughout, with a beetle green gloss on back,
wing and sickles, the feathers in the sun's rays showing vivid scintillations-
The tail of the cock is largo, wide spread and carried well up with glossy
side hanging, and long sickle feathers; hackles full, flowing and quite
glossy; head small for the size of the fowl ; comb single, straight, and
evenly serrated ; wattles and ear lobes deep rich red ; legs da.;k slate
color and lightly .feathered on the outer toe; bottom of feet and web
between the toes pink.
There is no dou])t but the Langshans are among the most practically
useful of the Asiatic breeds, but they nmst not be confounded with the
Black Cochin, a most excellent fowl, and which have been sold by some
unscrupulous breeders for Langshans. The home of the Langshan is a
1,000 miles from Cochin, China. The Langshans are more erect, and
have larger and better feathered tails, than the Black Cochins, and are
considered more vigorous, active and hardy. The Langshans are of
great size, cockrels weighing, at seven months of age, if fat, ten to twelve
pounds, and pullets, of the same age, eight to nine pounds.
The chicks are noted for rapid growth, small dense bone in propor-
tion to weight of the fowl, white fleyh and skin, full breast, and finely
flavored flesh, not having the dryness so often found in the large breeds.
The illustration o-ives excellant portraits of this now famous fowl.
V. American Javas.
This breed is attracting some attention of late years. They are not
generally disseminated, but are described upon the authority of Mr.
Bicknell, as large, long bodied fowls, with deep, full breasts, handsome
and hardy. There are two yarieties bred, one black, the other mottled.
The difference is only in color. The combs of both vareties are single;
legs yellow; shanks free from feathers ; skin yellow. The flesh when
cooked is said not to present the ol)jectlonable dark color of some of the
breeds of fov '
HEAD OF SINGLE-COMB BROWN LEGHORN HEN.
HTCAD OF SINGLE-COMB BROWN LEGHORN COCK.
NEW AND POPULAR BREEDS OF POULTRY. 1147
VI. The Orpingtons.
To a Mr. Wm. Cook is credited the honor of having originated the
Orpingtons, which were named after his own home. It is admitted also
that he originated all the varieties, we believe, except possibly the Buffs,
but there was some little dispute about this, some claiming that what he
called Buff Orpingtons were the fowls originally known a.s the Lincoln-
shire Buffs. In any event they are all Oi-pingtons and to IMr. Cook be-
longs the honor of their propagation.
The Bujf Orpington. — The Buff Oipington is a compact fowl, created
through the Golden-spangled Hamburg, Buff-Cochin, and Colored-Dork-
ings. The Orpingtons are a large-sized, compactly-built, general-purpose
fowl, broad, deep, with a fairly good length of back and body, built a little
more after the Cochin type than any other of the general-puiiDOse fowls.
They have wonderful vitality, are good egg producers, and highly valued
as table poultry. They have good length and fulness of the breast and
plumpness of the carcass. They are very attractive fowls in all their
varieties, and have gained great reputation throughout the world in a
very few years.
The Black Orpingtons. — The Black Orpington was produced from
Black Minorca male birds, black sports from Plymouth Rocks and Black
Langshan males, only clean-legged specimens being selected. This united
the blood of the Minorca, the Plymouth Rock and the Langshan, after
carefully selecting their offspring to produce the present-day Black
Orpingtons, both single and rose-combed.
This variety has the same general breed characteristics demanded of
all of the varieties of the breed.
The shape of the Black Oqjington conforms to the Buffs, except that
they lean more toward the Langshan than the Cochin. They arc larger
than the Buff variety, but are not so much like the Cochin as the Buff
and the Jubilee varieties. In color of plumage they are a rich, glossy
black, some of them beautiful in finish; bottom of the feet showing the
pinkish white; eyes, dark; face, wattles and ear-lobes, bright red; skin,
pinkish white. The only difference between the single and rose-combed
specimens of this variety lies in the combs.
The White Orpington. — The White Orpingtons are believed to have
been produced from White Leghorns, White Dorkings and Black Ham-
burgs.
The same general type of breed conformation pertains to all the Orping-
tons. It varies, however, an appreciable difference in the type of the sev-
eral varieties. The Buffs and Jubilee varieties lean toward the Cochin
type, while the Blacks and White favor the Langshans.
The Jubilee Orpington. — This variety is produced by crossing Ham-
burgs, Cochins and Speckled Dorkings. These crosses produced birds of
fine size, possessing prolific egg-producing qualities. They have four toes
on each foot, white legs, light horn or white beaks. They are bred in both
the single and rose-combed varieties. They have a deep body, long, promi-
nent breast, skin and flesh very white, with round, bulky formation,
typical of all the Orpington family.
CHAPTER VI.
INCUBATORS AND BROODERS.
ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION
I. THE ANTIQUITY OF ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION. II. INCUBATORS VS. HEN. III.
WHEN CHICKS BRING MONEY. IV. KEEP UP WITH THE TIMES. V. CARE
WHILE IN THE BKOOUER. VI. FEEDING YOUNG CHICKS. VII. HOW TO
MAKE AN INCUBATOR. VIII. HOW TO OPERATE THE INCUBATOR. IX. A
CHEAP HOME-MADE INCUBATOR. X. HOW TO MAKE THE BROODER.
I. The Antiquity of Artificial Hatching.
How long artificial incubation has been practiced is not definitely
known. Tiiis principle was known in Egj'pt many centuries asro. It has
long been practiced in China. In Egypt ovens were used. In China the
same general plan was in operation. In warm climates the use of brood-
ers are not so essential as in cold climates. Efforts were made from time
to time in France and in the United States in the direction of artificial in-
cubation, but little progress was made until a perfect brooder became an
accomplished fact. It is only within the last few years that real progress
has been made in rendering incubators and brooders pratically succesful,
and only within the last three years is it the fact that eggs have been
hatched and reared more succes.sfully than by the natural process.
II. Incubators vs. the Hen.
The incubators will not hatch every fertile egg, neither will the hea.
In intelligent hands, however, the incubator will hatch more eggs in cold
weather than the hen, and in warm weather about as many. The brooder
will take care of chickens better than the hen if the temperature is
properly controlled. The incubator does not, like the hen, drag the
chicks throngh the dew and dirt. It does not cover the chicks with lice,
like too many hens. The food can be just what is required. The water
is pure, and the weak chick is not without food, since there is always
enough for all.
One reason why the incubator should hatch more eggs than the hen,
is, the eggs if gathered properly are known to be fresh. They can bt
tested readily from time to time, and infertile eggs removed. The prin-
cipal thing to attend to is to know that the incubator retains its heal
without requiring too nmch attention. The operator must learn how to
manage the machine, and this any intelligent man or woman may easily
do. In fact, women take most kindly to the work, and become enthusi-
asts in the care of the fluffy chicks.
1148
INCUBATORS AND BROODERS. 1149
III. When Chicks Bring Money.
*' The early bird catches the worm." The early hatched chick brings
the money. You can hatch eggs in the incubator as soon as the hen can
bo made to lay. You cannot hatch eggs by the natural process in cold
weather unless you have special facilities for so doing. By means of
the incubator and brooder, you can get little broilers into market by the
time it is s.ife to set a hen out of doors. To raise broilers by means of
the incubator and brooder requires comparatively little room. Villagers
can do this even if they keep no hens, by contracting for eggs from such
i^armers' wives as raise good poultry.
As fast as one clutch is hatched you can put another lot into the incu-
bator You can hatch the eggs of any birds, including those of turkeys,
ducks and geese. The time required for hatching the eggs of the various
species of barnyard fowls will be found on page 1164. The money, how-
ever, is in chickens.
IV. Keep up with the Times,
What you want to do to be successful, is to study your incubatoi- and
brooder until you are sure you understand the working perfectly. Prac-
tice with it without eggs until you are sure as to the regulation of the
temperature. Among other things, you must know how much water to
use, and the colder the weather, the more hot water. Water nmst be
kept in the ventilator. It must be fresh when put in, and be changed
every day.
You must have a correct thermometer, and learn to use it. The heat
should be as near 103 degrees Fahrenheit as possible until the last three
days, then, not over 102 degrees. The extremes of temperature are
between 95 and 105 degrees. A temperature of 108 degrees for a short
time will not kill the life of the egg, nevertheless it should never be
allowed to get so high.
Keep the incubator where there are no odors, and when the chickens
are hatched, let them remain in the incubator until they are dry before
removing them to the brooder. The heat of the brooder should never go
below 90 degrees.
V. Care While in the Brooder.
The brooder must have sufficient heat and plenty of fresh air, and the
air must be warm. There are several good brooders as well as incuba-
tors for sale in the market. We illustrate an incubator — by a series of
cuts — simple in its construction, perfect in its working, and that with the
aid of the carpenter and tinman, can be made on the farm. Also a
brooder.
1150 CYCLOPEDIA OP LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE! STOCK DOCTOR.
VI. Feeding Young Chicks.
Chicks require no food for the first twenty-four hours after hatching
The second day the food should be haid boiled eggs. Then bread and milk
may be allowed. The fourth day, and thereafter, feed equal parts of
oatmeal and coriimeal cooked together with milk. Feed five times a day
until the chickens begin to feather. Thereafter four times a day. When
the chicks are ten or twelve days old they may have screenings of wheat,
cracked corn, gravel, finely powdered oyster shell, bone meal, and clean
water where they can always take it. The food must be varied; mashed
potatoes, chopped onions, cabbage, or lettioe should form part of the
food, and in lieu of insects give them finely minced meat. Do not crowd
them. Keep them in small lots. Feed in vessels that may be kept clean,
.-.nd let the water always be pure.
VH. How to Make an Incubator.
We have been at some considerable trouble to lay before our readers
some practicable plan by which a common sense incubator could be made
on the farm, by means of the village carpenter and tinman. In corres-
pondence with Mr. P. H. Jacobs, a gentleman who is an acknowledged
authority on poultry, we learned that his facile pencil had contributed
to the Farm and Garden^ of Philadelphia, drawings, of not only incu-
bators, but of brooders as well. A letter from Mr. Jacobs to the editor
of the Farm and Garden^ brought the response back, we were welcome
to the cuts and descriptive matter to make the whole intelligible. Tiie
offer was accepted with thanks for the courtesy, and thus we are enabled
to lay before our readers the latest im[)rovement in practical artificial
incubation and brooding of chickens. Of course there are many good
incubators and brooders patented and otherwise. The reader can avail
himself of these upon investigation, but the following will fill the bill in
a common sense way. It is so fully illustrated, that the description an-
nexed will be all that is required to make the whole quite intelligible, and
is as follows :
First, get good boards, 1 inch thick and 1 foot
wide. Cut them 46 inches long for your floor, and
have the floor 42 inches wide. Place four posts,
which are 24 inches high, at each corner (figure 1)
marked A A A Ay and two posts {B B) in front,
the two front posts to be 18 inches high. Make
posts of 2x3 strips and nail them securely to the
floor. Fasten the floor boards together by strips
underneath, using as many as preferred. The
PIG. 1. INNER BOX. four comcr posts are for your outcr box. This box,
when finished, is 4 feet long: and 44 inches wide, outside, provided it is
rNClTBATORS ANV BKOODERS.
1151
made of boards one inch thick. Iiiduding its top and floor, it is 26
inches high. Nail on your side boards. Let rear and front end boards
cover ends of side boards. After the tank is in, and the top of the inner
box is on, cover inner box with sawdust, and nail down the top of outer
box. Tongued and grooved boards should bo used for every part of the
incubator except the floor, which should be of heavy boards. All the
measurements given here, however, are for boards one inch thich, but
three-quarter stuff may be used if desired.
Inner box. This holds, or rather comprises, ventilator, egg-drawer,
and tank. It is 40 inches long and 32 inches wide, outside measurement,
and must hold a tank 30x36, The side boards are nailed to the posts
B B (figure 1) and front boards of outer box, and fastened at the rear
FIGURE 2. INTERIOR OF INCUBATOR.
end by the rear oards being nailed to the ends of the side boards.
Cleats are put on end and sides (on the floor), to fasten the inner box to
the floor. Nail the bottoms of the side and rear end boards to the cleats.
To make the inner box, refer to figuere 2, which has portions of the
outer and inner boxes torn away, to show interior. A is the large or
outer box ; B is the inner box ; C C are strips 1 inch wide and 1 inch
thick, nailed to sides of inner box; D 2> are strips 1 inch wide and 1
inch thick nailed to sides of inner box. The strips G C, with iron rods,
half an inch thick (F F F F), hold and support the tank. Let ends of
iron rods extend a little into sides of inner box, to assist in supporting
the weight of water. The strips D D are to hold the egg drawer. E is
1152
CYCLOPEDIA OF UVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
FIG. 3. EGG DRAWER.
a tin tube, 1 J inches in diameter and 2 feet long, placej in the front part
of the ventihitor to admit air. Observe, however, that figure 2 does not
show the sawdust in front, as will be explained. We will now take up
the separate parts. First is the ventilator. This is simply the bottom
of the inner box, being under the egg-drawer, 5 inches deep and 30 inches
wide, (the side boards of the inner box being its sides). The front end
is boxed off, which includes the front
boards and also the sawdust, thus
making ventilator, inside measure-
ment, 36 inches long. E is the tin
tube, for the admission of air, before
mentioned. Use no sawdust in the
ventilator, but paper the bottom well
and close, so as to have no air enter
except through the tin tube. The
tin tube is open at the front on out-
side of incubator, and enters into ventilator.
Egg" drawer. The egg drawer goes under the tank, and rests on the
strips D D (figure 2). The egg drawer is 4 inches deep, outside mea-
surement. It is 39 inches long, outside measurement (which includes
the boxed-off portion in front of
drawer), and is 30 inches wide. Three
movable trays, each 1^ inches deep,
are fitted in egg drawer. Nail strips
1 inch wide and f of an inch thick,
1 inch apart, the length of the egg
drawer (but not under boxed-off por-
tion) for the bottom. Mortice ends
of strips in egg drawer, so.:as to have
the bottom smooth. Tack a piece of muslin on these strips (thin muslin
is best), and tack it on the inside of the drawer. Now nail strips to
bottoms of trays (use lath, if desired, cut to 1 inch width), but you
need not mortice them. Simply nail them on the bottom, 1 inch apart,
running lengthwise, and tack muslin on the bottom of the trays, inside^
in the same way as for egg drawer. The inside of your drawer will be
3 inches deep. The sawdust in front of egg drawer (the boxed portion)
fits in boxed front of incubator (see figure 5). Put a broad cap on out-
side of egg drawer, at front end, to exclude air.
The tank. This is 30x36 inches, and is 7 inches deep. It is supported
by the stiips G C. and rods FFFF(^gure 2). Being 36 inches long,
it goes close up t(/ the back boards of the inner box, the front being
enclosed by a sliding board, secured with upright strips at each end ot
FIG. 4. TANK.
tNCUBATORS AND BROODEES.
1153
board, 1 inch in diameter (so as to remove tank when necessary )j which
leaves a small space in front of the sliding board to be filled with saw-
dust. Have the tank tube in front
only long enough to extend through
the sawdust in front, and have your
faucet to screw into this tube, the
tube being threaded. The tube on
top of tank should be long enough to
extend through the tops of hotli boxes
(outer and inner, through the saw-
dust"), and should, therefore, be 7
inches high from top of tank, as is
seen at figure 5. When the incuba-
tor is ready, we have figure 5, which shows the sawdust packing in front,
by looking into the opening into which the Qg^ drawer enters when filled
with eggs.
Figure 6 shows the incubator as if cut in half lengthwise, and displays
all the positions. What
ZIZZHZl
INCUBATOR READY FOR THE
EGG DRAWER.
TANK
%:,
EGG DRAWER
3C
FIG. G. SECTIONAL VIEW OF INCUBATOR.
is meant by the "boxed-
off" portion in front, is
that portion filled with
sawdust in front. The
side boards of the inner
box are joined, on their
front ends, to the front
boards of the outer box,
being also nailed to the
two short middle posts.
Fill in between the boxes
with sawdust, and if saw-
dust is scarce, use chaff, oats, finely-cut hay (rammed down), or any-
thing that will answer, but sawdust
or chaff is best. In figure 6 ^ is the
tube on top, B the faucet in front,
C the opening for the egg drawer,
and Z> the tube to admit air into the
ventilator. This tin tube should bo
as close to the bottom of the ven-
tilator as possible. When making
incubator, do not forget to cut holes
for tubes oi tank and also for air tubes to come through, and then putty
around them.
FIG. 7. INCUBATOR COMPLETE.
1154 CYCLOPEDIA OF UVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Vni. How to Operate the Incubator.
Each tray holds about 80 eggs, laid in promiscuously, the same as in a
nest, making total number for incubator 240 eggs. First fill the tank
with boiling water, but never allow it to remain in the tube on top, as it
thus increases pressure ; hence, when tank is full to top of the tube,
draw off a gallon of water. Fill it 48 hours before putting eggs in, and
have heat up to 115 degrees before they are put in. As the eggs will
cool down the heat, do not open the drawer for 6 hours, when the heat
should be 103 degrees, and kept as near to that degree as possible, until
the end of the hatch. It is best to run it a few days without eggs, to
learn it thoroughly. Place incubator in a place where the temperature
does not fall I)elow 00 degrees. As the heat will come up slowly, it will
also cool off slowly. Should the heat be difficult to bring up, or the eggs
be too cool, you can raise or lower the trays, using small strips under
them. You can also stop up or open the air tube in the front openings
of the ventilator whenever you desire. When the eggs are put in, the
di-awer will cool down some. All that is required then is to add about a
bucket or so of water once or twice a day, in the morning and at night,
but be careful about endeavoring to get up heat suddenly, as the heat
does not rise for five hours after the additional bucket of water is added.
The cool air comes from the ventilator pipe, passing through the muslin
bottom of the egg drawer to the eggs. Avoid opening the egg drawer
frequently, as it allows too much escape of heat, and be careful not to
open when chicks are hatching, unless compelled, as it causes loss of heat
and moisture at a critical time. Cold draughts on the chicks at that
time are fatal. Do not oblige visitors. Be sure your thermometer records
correctly, as half the failures are due to incorrect thermometers, and not
one in twenty is correct. Place the bulb of the thermometer even with the
top of the eggs, that is, when the thermometer is lying down in the drawer,
with the upper end slightly raised, so as to allow the mercury to rise,
but the bulb and eggs should be of the same heat, as the figures record
the heat in the bulb, and not in the tube. Turn the eggs twice a day
at regular intervals — six o'clock in the morning and six o'clock at night.
Do not let them cool lower than 70 degrees. Turn them by taking a row
of eggs fi-om the end of the tray and placing them at the other end,
turning the eggs by rolling them over with your hand. By removing
only one row you can roll all the rest easily. Give no moisture the first
week, very little the second, and plenty the third week. Do not sprinkle
the '^&2®. For moisture, put a wet sponge, the size of an egg (placed
In a fiat cup), in each tray, the second week, and two spongos in each
tray the third week. Do not put in sponges until you are about to shur.
INCUBATORS AND BROODERS.
1155
FIG. 1. THE BUOODEU IN POSITION.
up the drawer, after turning. Wet the sponges by dipping in hot water.
After the first ten days the animal heat of the chicks will partially assist
in keeping the temperature. Be careful, as heat always drops when
chicks are taken out. You can have a small glass door in front of egg
drawer, to observe thermometer, if desired. Always change position of
trays when eggs are turned, putting the front one at the rear.
IX. A Cheap Home-made Brojder.
We give an illustration of a brooder in use, figure 1, and select it be-
cause it is one of the best, being easily made, and at a low cost, and
because it has been tried and found to answer all purposes. By refering
to figure 1 it will be seen that the
top is detachable, being lifted off
by the handle when desirable. Al-
though the lower part of the
brooder is above ground, yet, if
preferred, it can be sunk in the
ground, provided the holes (to
admit cold air to brooder, and
smoke from lamp to escape) are
left above the surface of the
ground. Space must be left to
admit of getting at the lamp if brooder is in the ground. Eithei a No.
2 burner lamp or a small kerosene oil stove may be used for heating the
brooder. Be careful to leave air holes at the bottom of the door, or the
lamp will smoke. Keep the brooder at a temperature of 90 degrees.
Figure 2 shows the lamp (or kerosene oil s?tove, if preferred) under a
sheet-iron tank. It heats the
tank, the smoke of the lamp pass-
ing out at four holes, placed at
each corner of the brooder, which
distributes the heat. The cold
air enters around the tank, and
is drawn right over it above the
lamp, as the cold air rushes in as
fast as the warm air rises. The
hot air rises through a tube in
the floor. It will be seen that
the sracke of the lamp does not
go into the brooder, and that the tube in the brooder extends through
the wooden floor only. The brooder is a yard square, but the tank may
be smaller; the box containing lamp is ten inches deep, and the space
SECTIONAL VIEW.
1156
CYCLOPEDIA OP LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
FIG. 3.
TANK, SHOWING HOW TO
CONSTRUCT IT.
hetween the top of the tank and wooden floor is half an inch. The cur-
tain in front of brooder is simply a piece of cloth cut into strips. The
smoke holes of the lamp should
be at each corner^ but only two
cold air holes are necessary, and
they should be near the centre of
the sides of the brooder. Bear
in mind the cold air goes between
the tank and the wooden floor,
and gets heated.
X. How to Make the Brooder,
To make this brooder, cut six boards, 1 inch thick, 6 inches wide, and
3 feet long, tongued andgrooved,so that no air can come through except
by way of the tube on top, which tube is 1 inch in diameter, and 2^
inches high from the floor. These
boards are your floor. On the
under side of this floor, at the
edges, nail strips all around (on
ends and sides), the strips being I
inch thick and 1^ inches wide.
Then set your tank as shown in
cut. You will then have an air
space between the floor and tank
of half an inch. Be sure and cut
air holes to admit the coid air.
You may simply have open holes
The holes need only be a half inch
-RAP ^
f^
;"-,- .-
D60R_
%
' -^-.
--r-T.=*i;
- 1 -.T-'
-j:.
^m
N^L
. ,
FIG. 4. LOWER PART UNDER GROUND.
or may use tin tubes, if preferred,
n diameter. You can now easily fit
on the lower box, and also make the covering on top, as may be seen by
the illustration.
This brooder is an English method, and shows that upward currents of
warm air have been in use for
many years for both hatching and
brooding. Figure 1 shows the
brooder with lamp and tank above
ground. Figure 2 shows a sec-
tional view of the same. Figure
4 shows the lower part of brooder
under ground, with trap door, for
getting at the lamp. Figure 5 shows the mother, which covers the chicks,
with adjustable pegs or legs. The tank is from Lewis, the top from
Rankin, while the mother is from Bell and others.
FIG. 5. THE MOTHER.
CHAPTER VII.
BREEDINa AND MANAGEMENT OP POULTRY.
U A STtTDY OF POINTS NECESSART. II. EXPLANATION OP POINTS. in. POINTS
OF THE HEAD. IV. THE PLUMAGE ILLUSTRATED AND EXPLAINED. V. IDEAL
SHAPE OF FOWLS. VI. BREED TO A FIXED TYPE. VII. NUMBER OF HENS TO
EACH COCK. VIII. HOW TO MATE. IX. BREEDING UPON A MIXED FLOCK.
X. INCUBATION OF VARIOUS FOWLS. XI. GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF
FOWLS. XII. PROPER FOOD FOR FOWLS. XIII. POULTRY HOUSES AND COOPS.
XIV. FEED BOXES AND DRINKING FOUNTAINS. XV. BREEDS FOR MARKET.
XVI. BREEDS FOR EGGS. XVII. HOW TO FATTEN.^— XVIII. KILLING AND
DRESSING FOWLS. XIX. PACKING AND SHIPPING TO MARKET. XX. GLOSS-
ARY OF TERMS USED BY POULTRY FANCIERS.
I. A Study of Points Necessary.
Careful study of the points and characteristics is fully as necessary to
'Success in the breeding of poultry as in any other department of breeding.
!t is not enough that you have a general idea of how fowls are to be fed
and cared for ; but to succeed — especially as a breeder of pure fowls—
POINTS OF POULTRY, ILLUSTRATED.
one raust understand the probable results in mating fowls for a particular
purpose, rsjt only must the contour and physical make-up be under-
stood, but the breeder must have a knowledge of, and nice discrimination
for, the various feathers, markings and characteristics, else he cannot hope
1157
1158 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
for the best success. He should also understand the technical terms used,
so that he may school his mmd to their exact meaning in applyig them to
the fowl. The preceding illustration and references will fully explain all
the points. They have been compiled from the best authorities extant,
such as the writings of Tegetmeier, Wright and others.
n. Explanation of Points.
The first illustration, with lettered references, is all that will be re-
quired in learning the technical terms relating to the exterior of fowls.
Explanation— ^— Neck hackle. ^—Saddle hackle. (7— Tail. D—
Breast. E — Upper Wing coverts. F. Lower Wing coverts. G —
Primary quill. H — Thighs. I — Legs. K — Comb. L — Wattles. M
— Ear-lobe.
m. Points of the Head.
For the following analysis of the points of the head, and of the plum-
age, we are indebted to Moore' s Rural New Yorker. The cut will explain
the precise situation of the several parts of the head.
POINTS OF THE HEAD OF COCK.
Explanation. — 1 — The como, which surmounts the skull. 2 — The wat-
tles which hang underneath and on each side of the beak. 3 — The ear
wattles, which hang under, the cheek. 4 — The tufts of little feathers
which cover and protect the auditory organ. 5 — The cheeks which com-
mence at the beginning near the nostrils, cover all the face and re-unite
hehjnd the head by a continuation of the flesh of the same nature, but
BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.
1159
covered with feathers. 6 — The nostrils which are at the beginning of the
beak.. 7 The beak, of which the two parts, the upper and lower man-
dible, are horny.
The head of the cock, as of the hen, is composed of two principal parts ;
1st, the skull is a firm union of bones, which include the upper part, or
mandible, of the beak ; 2nd, the lower part or mandible of the bep,k, be-
ino- the lower jaw-bone, formed by a single piece. In the skull are the
sockets or cavities which contain the eye ; the nostrils are in front of the
eye ; the auditory organ, or ear, is behind the eye. The head, excepting
the beak, is entirely covered by a fleshy covering, round which may be
seen several appendages or caruncles, which are the crest, the two ear-
OUTER AND INNER WING PLUMAGE. (See Article IV 0
lobes, and the two ear-wattles. This covering forms the checks The
color, the size, the form of each of these parts is v.ncd according to
the variety, and often serves to characterize each. A tuft of short feath-
ers called "the tuft" covers the ear.
The comb is straight or drooping ; it is single when it is composed of
only one piece, double when there are two alike united or near together,
it is triple when it is formed of two alike and one in the middle ; it is
frizzled when full of granulations more or less deep, and erect excres^
cences • it is a crown when it is circular, hollow, and indented ; it is goblet
shaped'when hollow, vascular, and not indented. There are other forms
hvi they are composed of parts or unions of those particularized.
1160
i-jrCLOPEDIA OF UVB STOCK AWD CXJMTLETB 8T0CK DOCTOB
IV. The Pliunage lUustxated and Explained.
With the hen there may be three kinds of feathers distinguished : 1.
The large feathers on the wings for flying, and on the rump to form the
tail ; 2. the middle-sized feathers which cover the large feathers, and are
also found on the wing and rump ; 3. the neck, the back, the sides, the
throat, the shoulders, and a part of the wings. They are always in lay-
ers compactly covering those beneath them like tiles. We shall des-
ignate them by the name of the places they occupy, and refer to the
engravings to render them easy to recognize :
POINTS OF THE FOWL.
Explanation — A — The upper featkers oi the head are small in those fowls not tufted.
They suiTOund the skull.
JB— The under feathers of the head are almost like bristles. They cover the cheeks ia
die space which separates on the wattles.
C — The upper feathers of those at the back of the neck are short, and leagtheniBg
lower dcwn, forming what is called the hackle. ITiey become longer between the
liouiders when they cover the beginning of those on the back and the commeucemeol
»f the wings.
BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.
1161
7)— The feathers of the back, forming a layer about 10. These feathers are of the same
nature as those of the ueck, but a little larger, and form the saddle.
ji'_The feathers of the breast cover the entire length of the two breast muscles extend-
ing beyond the breast-bone at each side and uniting at its end. The whole forms what is
termed the breast. These feathers, with the feathers of the loins, overlap those of the
sides.
G^— The feathers on the sides cover the loins, taking in the back as far as the rump,
which they go beyond and cover the lower part of the feathers of the tail. They also
cover the commencement of the feathers of the flanks, thighs and abdomen.
^— The feathers of the flanks are light and fluffy. They cover the upper part of tllO
thigh feathers and slip under those of the breast.
SHOWING POINTS.
/—The feathers of rh'j abdomen cover and envelop all this part from the end of the
breast to the rump. These feathers are generally fluffy, of a silky nature and spread out
in a tuft.
J— The outside feathers of the thigh cover those of the abdomen and leg.
i— The outside and inidde feathers of the leg stop at the heel, or in some varieties they
proceed lower and form what are called ruffles or vulture hocks.
Jf— The feathers of the feet or sole are long, short, or entirely absent, in the different
Yarieties. These feathers' are along the shank either in one or several rows. They are
always on the outside par* .
1162 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
JV— The feathers of the toes appear on the outsides.
O— The middle tail feathers envelop the rump and cover the bases of the large feather*
l>f the tail.
P— The larger tail feathers are in a regular line of seven on each side of the rump, ana
form the tail.
Q—The outside feathers of the shoulders cover a part of the other feathers of the wing.
They form the shoulder.
^— The inside feathers of the shoulders are small, thin, and slender.
S—The larger feathers of the pinion form, when the wing is opened, a large, arched
surface, and are of different sizes. These feathers grow out of the under side of the
pinion.
T— The small outside feathers of the pinion are of dilierent sizes. They come on all
the outside sm-faces from tlie shoulder to the pinion. They begin quite small on the out-
Bide edge, and finish a medium size on the inside edge.
IT— The inside feathers of tlie pinion are close, middle-sized, and small, covering the
bases of the large feathers of the pinion.
F— The large flight -feathers, or feathers of the hand, are large and strong, and are of
most use to the bird in locomotion. They begin at the under edge of that which is called
the top of the wing.
X^The outside flight-feathers cover the large ones ; thev are stiff and well flattened on
the others.
T— The inside flight-feathers are, some tsmall and others medium-sized; cover th-
bases of the flight-feathers.
Z — An appendix called the pommel of the wing, which represents the fingered part. It
Is at the joint of the pinion and has some middle-sized featliers ot the same description as
the large pinion feathers, and have some small ones to cover tljem. These feathers assist
the flight.
V. Ideal Shape of Fowls.
The Dorking fowl may be taken as the embodiment of as much ex-
cellence in the same compass as can be found in any other breed. Hence
IDEAL KHAPE OF FOWL.
we give an illustration of the Dorking, figured to represent ^he ideaj
'shape of the barn-yard fowl.
BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.
1163
VI. Breed to a Fixed Type.
In breeding fowls, always avoid violent crosses. Disparity of form in
mating birds can only end in disaster through the cropping out of undue
form, and especially by bad effects in the feathering, even after the lapse
of many years. The same general rule should be borne in mind that we
have stated in previous chapters on breeding live stock; avoid crosses as
much as possible, and breed pure when it is possible to do so.
VII. Number of Hens to Each Cock.
The number of cocks to be kept according to the hens will vary with
different breeds. One cock to eight or ten hens is sufficient in any l)reed.
This will be the right number for Games, Dorkings, and French fowls;
with Spanish Brahmas or Cocbins two more hens may be allowed One
Hamburg cock will generally serve for twelve to fourteen hens. When
several males are kept, it is better to keep all but one or two of them con-
fined, allowing them to take turns with the flock, since this prevents
worrying the hens and ensures better service. When the raising of
chickens is alone concerned, it is better to have plenty of males, to ensure
fertility. When only eggs are wanted for market, as many will be laid
whether properly fertilized or not.
Vm. How to Mate Fowls.
From the age of one to four years is the best time for laying. Hens
two years old and over make the best setting hens. Avoid vulture hocks
(feathers running down at the hocks as in vultures) in all fowls, and
PAIR OF HOUDANS.
especially in the Asiatic breeds. In breeding Asiatic fowls, let the males
be as full-colored as possible, since the tendency of these fowls is to
breed to lighter colors; but judgment must be used not to get too violent
1164 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
contrast in the sexes. So, if the hen is long-backed select a short^backed
cock, but if the hen is short-backed, never breed to a long-backed cock ;
you cannot well have the back too short. In breeding to color, all self-colors
should be as solid as possible, and in parti-colored fowls study the birds
for mating carefully, so that you may breed as near to a feather as pos-
sible, according to the characteristics of the breed. As a rule, heavily
penciled males will get heavily penciled chicks, but if the saddle is very
heavily striped, or the neck hackle very dark, the chicks will incline to
be spotted ; but cocks with dark hackles, and hens with hackles lightly
penciled will produce chickens delicately penciled.
IX. Breeding upon a Mixed Flock.
if you cannot afford pure-bred stock, buy a sufficient number of cock?
for your hens, or select a dozen hens and mate them w^ith a good cock,
from which to raise chickens. Once you Ijegin, stick always to the same
strain, and in three years you will have a strain of fowls — if you have
carefully selected the chicks, alsvays using pure males — good enough for
market purposes and eggs. In the meantime, get a clutch of eggs from
pure fowls and breed them separate from the others, and soon you will
have the pure breed also. There is no farm stock that it pays better to
breed pure than poultry, whether they be land or water fowl.
X. Incubation of Various Fowls.
The following table will show at a glance all necessary information m
relation to the incubation of various fowls.
NAME OF BrRD.
Turkey, sitting on ^ Hen . . .
the eggs of V Duck • .
the j Turkey
Hen sitting on the \Duck. •
eggs of the . . . j Hen . . .
Duck
Goose
Pigeon
PERIOD OF INCUBATION.
SHORTEST
PERIOD.
MEAN
PERIOD.
LONGEST
PERIOD.
XI. General Management of Fowls.
In order to raise poultry successfully, proper buildings and plenty of
range must be provided. The buildings need not be exi^ensive, and on the
BBBEDINQ AND MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY. 1165
farm any warm out house will afford comfortable quarters, and range
enough is provided in the out fields. On the
farm in summer fowls will pick up a good
share of their living, insects chiefly, and
thus, while partly supporting themselves,
they are at the same time profiting their
owner by the destruction of insect pests. In
fact, fowls, if allowed, will wander consider-
able distances in search of food, as illustrated
-n the cut "Foraging for themselves."
Those who keep fowls i.i villages and subur- ^^^^^^^^ ^,^^ themselves.
ban places, must provide animal food and
also green vegetable food in addition to the grain fed. This, with com
fortable quarters, care in feeding, and due attention to the health of the
birds, constitute about all there is practically in poultry raising, except
that pure breeds are kept with a view to the rearing of very superior
birds. In the latter case a more careful study of the anatomy, physiology,
and points of fowls must be made as in breeding any other animals.
Xn. Proper Food of Fowls.
Fowls need a variety of food ; they are nearly omniverous feeders.
Animal food is essential, but the bulk of the feeding may be grain, either
raw or ground. If mixed feed (ground grain) is used, have the dough so
stiff that it will not run ; never feed sloppy food. Indian meal and pota-
toes boiled and mashed together, so stiff that the dough clings when
squeezed in the hand, is one of the best of foods. Feed on clean ground
never in a trough in summer, since moist food so fed will inevitably
become sour, and the troughs are seldom properly cleaned. In winter,
ground feed should be fed as hot as the hens can eat it, and a little chop-
ped onion mixed m is excellent; provide other green food also, as cab-
bage leaves. For animal food, a sheep's pluck, hung so high that the
fowls can just reach it, is excellent ; so are the greaves from trying
establishments. To keep the hens in good laying condition, they must
have animal food, and also bones broken so fine that they may be easily
swallowed. Very little meat, however, is necessary, for if too much is fed
the fowls may lose their feathers. Whole grain, and the drinking water
should be kept in some receptacle, so the fowls may take it at pleasure.
The grain fed may be screenings from wheat, rye, buckwheat and oats.
Xm. Poultry Houses and Coops.
Poultry houses, however simple, should be both warm in winter and
well ligbtec?'. The sjcje containing the glass should face the South for the
1166 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
advantage of the sun's warmth in winter. The windows should also be
provided with iron netting, so the sash may be raised to admit air in
summer, and also in mild weather in winter. One portion should be half-
dark, for the laying and sitting hens, and a proper dust bath must also be
provided. Have the perches not more than two feet from the floor in the
roosting place, and all on one level ; let them be large. A two by four
scantling, well rounded and set on edge, is not too large for heavy birds.
The whole house should be whif ewashed once a month in summer, and kept
scrupulously clean at all times. If lice make their appearance, fumigate
thoroughly, and after cleansing, whitewash with lime to which a little car-
bolic acid is added. Sprinkle Scotch snuff among the feathers on the
backs of the fowls, and give fresh materials for dust bath.
The proper coops for hens with young chickens will readily suggest
themselves. A barrel with one head out, laid on its side, and with stakes
driven along one end to admit the passage of the chicks is a good make-
shift. The ordinary triangular coop is well known. The best coop is a
square box 18 by 24 inches, and roofed to shed rain ; from the open end of
this a runway is thrown nine inches high and as wide as the coop, so
closely slatted at the top that old fowls cannot get their heads through
to feed. At the end arc orifices to give egress and ingress to the
chicks. In this way they may be fed without interference from the
mother hen or other fowls, and it also furnishes a safe place of refuge
from danger.
XrV. Peed Boxes and Drinking Fountains.
Both the feed boxes and drinking fountains should be self-feeding. A
three-gallon jug filled with water, and turned mouth down in a suitable
dish, and properly supported, makes a toler-
able drinking fountain, and will suffice to
convey the idea. For a larger number of
fowls, a five or six gallon keg, with a faucet
with a long spout to rest near the bottom of
the drinking trough is good. If filled,
bunged tight, and the faucet opened, just
enough water will be given up to keep the
supply in the trough at a uniform height.
A GOOD FORM OF FOUNTAIN. ^eed boxcs are made on the same general
principle, a box narrowing to the bottom, and with an orifice large
enough to allow a free flow of grain, and resting near enough the bottom
of the feeding box so that but little will be given down at a time. Slats
sufficiently wide apart so the fowls can feed through them, also
the poultry from wasting the grain.
BREETESiH MiD liiANAGEMENT OF POULTRY.
1167
A Perfect Hopper.-The best form of feeding hopper is shown in tht
annexed cut ; it can readily be constructed by any person by aid of the
follorring description with references : A
—An end view, eight inches wide and
two feet six inches high. ^—The roof,
three feet long, projecting over the
perch on which the fowls stand while
feeding. (7— The lid of receiving man-
ger raised, exhibiting the grain. E,U
—Cords attached to the perch and lid
of manger or feeding trough, i— End
bar of perch, with a weight attached to
the end to balance the lid, otherwise it
would not close when the fowls leave
the perch. ^-Pulley. (^-Fulcrum. ^ ,,,,,,, ,^^,«a hopper.
The hinges at the ridge are for raisuig
the top when the hopper is to be replenished. When a fowl desires food ,
it hops upon the bars of the perch and the weight of the fowl raises the
lid of the feed box, exposing the grain to view, and after satisfymg it«
hunger jumps off and the lid closes. Of course the dimensions can be
increased as desired.
A Rat-Proof Hopper.— A stool hopper— as shown in the annexed cut-
inaccessible to rats may be built by the following directions : Make a
platform two or three feet square, as
the case may be ; then make a square
box, three inches high and sixteen inches
square ; nail it in the center of the plat^
form ; saw strips one and a quarter
inch square and eighteen inches high
for the posts ; nail strips of boards, two
inches wide, to the posts at the top to
secure and steady them; then take
common lath or any thin stuff, one
and a half or two inches wide, and
nail them to the top and bottom, up and
down, leaving spaces of two inches be-
tween the slats, so that the fowls can get at the feed. The roof may be
four-square, as shown in the cut, and detached so that it can be raise
for the hopper to bo replenished with grain. Elevate the hopper on a
post about three feet from the ground, as shown in the cut, which makes
it rat and mice proof. The fowls will soon learn to leap upon the pla/-
form and feed from the gram box between the slats.
A STOOL FEEDING HOPPEK.
1168 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLEX?: STOCK DOCTOR.
XV. Breeds for Market.
The Dorkings are superior table fowls ; they are, however, rather ten-
der and hard to rear, and have not gained special favor in the United
States. The Dominiques are hardy, good layers, and good table fowls ;
the Plymouth Rocks are larger, and perhaps better if you have the stock.
A Dominique cross on Brahmas or Cochin Chinas, will give chicks that
grow fast, feather well, and make plump fowls. A Dorking cross on the
large Asiatic breeds, is regarded in England as excellent. All things con-
sidered, we think the Brahmas and the Cochins will give the best results,
and the Brahmas especially are good winter layers. In this, however,
every breeder will have his own fanc}'. The Houdans and La Fleche are
in good repute among breeders, but the price of the original stock must,
of course, be taken into consideration.
XVI. Breeds for Eggs.
As laying fowls simply, we have found the Polands all that could be
desired. The Leghorns, Houdans, Hamburgs and Black Spanish are
fully as good layers, and all of them are non-sitters ; but the Leghorns
and the Hamburgs have the reputation of being tender, and the Spanish
are decidedly so. The Houdan and La Fleche have hardly been tried
sufficiently in this country to warrant a decided opinion as to their true
value.
XVII. How to Fatten.
The fattening of poultry, if they are in good flesh to start with, does
not take long. In fact the bulk of the chickens marketed are taken direct
from the yards without extra feeding. This is bad econom3^ Fifteen to
twenty days' feeding, if they are confined in a dark place, will render them
fat. When fat, market immediately, since they wdll soon begin to shrink.
Market when they cease to teed full. Corn meal, made into a thick
mush, with as much additional meal as can be worked in while boiling
hot, and allowed to cool, is the best feed. Put the fowls in coops so
small that they cannot turn round, and feed three times a day, allowing
to take what water — skimmed milk is better — and clean gravel they will.
The last week omit the gravel, and keep the pens clean and well littered
with straw all the time.
XVni. Killing and Dressing.
Let the fowl fast at least twelve hours before killing. No man ever
made money by selling a fowl with half a pint of raw corn stuffed in the
crop. Tie the legs of the fowl together, hang it up, open the beak,
pass a sharp thin-bladed knife, into the mouth and up into the roof,
BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY. 1169
dividing the meirfbrane ; tiius the bird is killed instantly. Then deftly
cut the throat and let it bleed. The nicest way to pick, is without scald-
ing and while the bird is quite warm. It may be easily done and the
bird not torn ; thus dressed it will bring enough more in a city market to
pay the extra trouble.
To Scald a Fowl.— A well known buyer and dresser for the Chicago
market, in answer to the question, how to ciress and pack, gave the writer
the following information which is here reproduced :
Have the water just scalding hot — not hoiling — 190 degrees is just
right. Immerse the fowl, holding it by the legs, taking it out and in,
until the feathers slip easily. Persons become very expert at this, the
feathers coming away by brushing them with the hand, apparently. At
all events, they must be picked clean. Hang turkeys and chickens by
the feet, and ducks and geese by the head to cool. Under no circum-
stances whatever, should ducks and geese be scalded ; they must invaria-
bly be picked dry. Take off the heads of the chickens as soon as picked,
tie the skin neatly over the stump, draw out the insides carefully, and
hang up to cool. Never sell fowls undrawn. They will bring enough
more drawn and nicely packed, with the heart, gizzard and liver placed
inside each fowl, to pay for the trouble. Let them get thoroughly cool
as cold as possible— but never, under any circumstances, frozen. There
is always money in properly prepared poultry ; the money is lost in half
fitting them for market, the fowls often being forwarded in a most dis-
gusting state. There is money in the production of eggs ; there is
money in raising poultry for the market. The money is lost in improper
packing, and in a foolish attempt, occasionallv made, to maLe the buyer
pay for a crop full of musty corn, at the price of first-class meat.
XIX. Packing and Shipping to Market.
The poultry, having been killed as directed, carefully picked, the heads
cut off, and the skin drawn over the stump and neatly tied — or if pre_
f erred, leave the head on, the fowl will not bring less for it — and the
birds chilled down to as near the freezing point as possible, provide clean
boxes and place a layer of clean hay or straw quite free from dust, in the
bottom. Pick up a fowl, bend the head under and to one side of the
breast bone, and lay it down flat on its breast, back up, the legs extena^
ing litraight out behind. The first fowl to be laid in the left hand corner.
So placed, lay a row across the box to the right, and pack close, row by
row, until only one row is left, then reverse the heads, laying them next
the other end of the box, the feet under the previous row of heads. If
tliere is a space left between the two last rows, put in what birds will fit
sideways. If not, pack in clean. Icng straw, and also pack in straw at the
1170 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AN.T> COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOE.
sides and between the birds, so they cannot move. Pack straw enough
over one layer of fowls, so that the others cannot touch, and so proceed
until the box is full. Fill the box full. There must never be any shak-
ing, or else the birds will become bruised, and loss will ensue. Many
packers of extra poultry place paper over and under each layer before
filling in the straw. There is no doubt but that it pays. Nail the box
tight ; mark the initials of the j^acker, the number of fowls and variety,
and mark plainly the full name of the person or firm to whom it is con-
signed, with street and number on the Ijox. Thus the receiver will know
at a glance what the box contains, and does not have to unpack to find
out.
XX. Glossary of Terms Used by Poultry Fanciers.
Beard. — A bunch of feathers under the throat of some breeds, asHou-
dans or Polish.
Breed. — Any variety of fowl presenting distinct characteristics.
Brood. — Family of young chickens.
Broody. — Desiring to sit.
Carriage. — The attitude or bearing of a bird.
Carunculated. — Covered with fleshy protuberances, as on the neck of
a turkey-cock.
Chick. — A newly-hatched fowl, until a few weeks old.
Chicken. — Applied to indefinite ages until twelve months old.
Clutch. — Given to the batch of eggs under a sitting hen, also to brood
of chickens hatched therefrom.
Cockerel. — A young cock.
Comb. — The red protuberance on top of the fowl's head.
Condition. — The state of the fowl as regards health, beauty of plumage
^-the latter especially.
Crest. — A tuft of feathers on the head ; the top-knot.
Crop. — The receptacle for food before digestion.
CiLshion. — The mass of feathers over the tail and end of the hen's
back, covering the tail ; chiefly developed in Cochins.
Deaf-ears. — Folds of skin hanging from the true ears, varying io
color, being blue, white, cream-colored, or red.
Dubbing. — Cutting off the comb, wattles, &c., leaving the head
smooth.
.Ear-lobes. — Same as deaf-ears.
Face. — The bare skin around the eye.
Flights. — The primary wing feathers, used in flying, but unseen when
at rest.
Fluffs. — Soft, downy feathers about the thighs.
BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF POIILTRY. 1171
Furnished. — Assumed full character. When a cockerel obtains his
tail, comb, &c.
Gills. — A term applied to the wattles, sometimes more indefinitely to
the whole region of the throat.
Hackles. — The peculiar narrow feathers on the fowl's neck.
Hen-feathered^ or Henny. — Kesembling a hen, in the absence of
sickles.
Hock. — The elbow-joint of the leg.
Keel. — A word sometimes used to denote the breast bone.
Leg. — The scaly part, or shank.
Leg-feathers. — The feathers on the outside of the shank.
Mossy. — Confused in marking.
Pea-comb. — A triple comb.
Penciling. — Small stripes over a feather.
Poult. — A young turkey.
Primaries. — The flight-feathers of the wings, hidden when the wing if
closed .
Pullet. — A young hen.
Rooster. — The common term for the male bird.
Saddle. — The posterior of the back, reaching to the tail in a cock,
answering to the cushion in a hen.
Secondaries. — The wing quill-feathers, which show when the bird is at
rest.
Self-color. — A uniform tint over the feathers.
Shaft. — The stem of a feather.
Shank. — The scaly part of the leg.
Sickles. — The top curved feathers of a cock's tail.
Spangling. — The marking produced by each feather having one large
spot of some color different to the ground.
Spur. — The sharp weapon on the heel of a cock.
Stag. — Another term for a young cock.
Strain. — A race of fowls, having acquired an individual character of
its own, by being bred for years by one breeder or his successors.
Symmetry. — Perfection of proportion.
Tail-coverts. — The soft, glossy, curved feathers at the sides of the
bottom of the tail.
Tail-feathers. — Applied to the straight, stiff feathers of the tail only.
Thighs. — The joint above the shanks.
Top-knot. — Same as crest.
jTn'o. — A cock and two hens.
Under-color. — The color of the plumage as seen when the surface is
lifted.
1172
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOB.
Vulture-hock. — Stiir projecting feathers at the hock-joint.
Wattles. — The red depending structures at each side of the base of the
beak.
Weh. — Expressing a flat and thin structure. The web of a feather is
the flat or plume portion ; the web of the foot, the flat skm between the
toes ; of the wing, the triangular skin, seen when the member is extended.
Wing-bar. — Any line of dark color across the middle of the wing.
Wing-how. — The upper or shoulder part of the wing.
Wing-butts — The corners or ends of the wing. Game fanciers denote
the upper ends as sliouldcr-butts ; the lower as lower-butts.
Wing-coverts. — The broad feathers covering the roots of the seconda-
ry quills.
TTTF. NARRAOANSETT TTTRKEY— MALE.
CHAPTER VIII.
THE TUEKEY, AND ITS VARIETIES.
r. VARIETIES OF THE DOMESTIC TURKEY. II. THE BRONZED-BLACK TURKEY.
III. THE COMMON TURKEY. IV. THE OCELLATED TURKEY. V. ENGLISH
TURKEYS. VI. RARE VARIETIES. VII. THE CARE OF TURKEYS.
I. Varieties of the Domestic Turkey.
Notwithstanding the length of time that the wild turkey has been do-
mesticated— over 300 years — it still retains some of its wild habits, even
under the most artificial conditions. This is undoubtedly due to the fac.
that the turkey endures close confinement to a less extent than any of the
domestic land birds, and hence these traits of wildness, Avandering and
the hiding of nests and youngs have not been entirely bred out. The
same is true of the pheasants, still less domesticated, although they have
been in more or less subjection to man since ancient times.
All turkeys, whether of the wild or domestic varieties, breed freely,
one with the other, and continue fertile, thus proving conclusively that
they came originally from one species. They are now broken up into
every color, black-bronzed and white-mottled being the original wild
color. Among the sub-species, are : The Common turkey ; Black-and-
white-mottled ; Black-bronzed ; the Mexican ; the Ocellated or Hondu-
ras ; the White ; the Buff ; the Fawn-colored ; the Copper-colored, and
the Paili-colored . Temminck, in 1813 described Isabelle yellow turkeys,
with fine full crests of pure white. Lieutenant Byam described crested
wild turkeys as seen by him in Mexico ; it is probable that this observer
mistook curassows for turkeys, since this bird is domesticated there
and nobody else has found crested turkeys in Mexico.
II. The Bronzed-Black Turkey.
This variety is said to have been produced by a cross of the Wild tur-
key upon the Common turkey hen, the produce fixed and improved by
careful selection and breeding. They are the largest, as they are un-
doubtedly the best, of the domestic varieties. The average for mature
birds, well fattened, is about thirty pounds, while forty pounds is not
uncommon for extra male birds. The hens will weigh from twenty to
twenty-five pounds each, when mature. They are as hardy as they are
beautiful in plumage.
^ 1173
1174
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
The best specimens are described as follows : In the cock, the face, ear-
lobes, wattles and jaws are deep rich red, the wattles warted and some-
times edged white, the bill curv^ed, strong, of a light horn color at the tip
and dark at the base. The neck, breast and back black, shaded with
bronze, which in the sunlight glistens golden, each feather ending in a
narro\y glossy black band extending clear across. The under part of the
body is similarly marked, but more subdued. The wing-bow is black
A PAIR OP WHITE WYANDOTTES
A SILVER-LACED WYANDOTTE PULLET
showing a bnlliant greenish or brown lustre, the flight-feathers black,
barred across with white or gray, even and regular; the wing-coverts rich
bronze, the end of each feather terminating in a wade black band, giving
the wings, when folded, a broad bronze band across each ; tail black, each
feather irregulariy penciled with a narrow brown band, and ending in a
grayish-bronze band. Fluff abundant and soft; legs long, strong, dark or
nearly black. The hen is similariy colored, but more subdued. '
THE TURKEY AND ITS VARIETIES.
1175
BUFF TURKEYS
1*76 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
WHITE TURKEYS
ADULT BRONZF TURKEY—MALE.
E TURKEY, AND ITS VARIETIES.
in. The Common Titrkey.
1177
The common turkey is white and black mottled, having the head and
wattle of the wild turkey. They are of medium size, and, probably
from the fact that they have been more generally disseminated and longer
domesticated than the other varieties, they are less inclined to wander*
SLATE TURKEY HEN.
When simply dollars and cents are concerned, they are the most profit-
able to breed, since they are hardy, of medium size, and mature early.
They will weigh, fat, at eight months old, from eleven to twelve pounds,
and, when fully grown, sixteen pounds.
IV. The Ocellated Turkey.
This is one of the most elegant of the whole genus ; it is a native of
Central America, and is found wild all over that region. It breeds kindly
with our domestic turkey, and the progeny remains quite fertile, but
both the true and cross breed are too tender for the North. Our bronzed
green and gold turkeys undoubtedly owe their markings to this variety.
The ground color of the plumage of the Honduras, or Ocellated turkey,
is bronzed-green, banded with gold-bronze and shining black ; lower down
the back the color is deep blue and red ; upon the tail the bands become
fully defined and sharp, producing the peculiar oceliated or eye-like ap-
11'
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
pearancc, whence their name. The wattle is also peculiar, and the top
of the head is covered with wart^like protuberances, as shown in the cut
of a vounjic Ocellated hen.
rOUNG OCELLATED TURKEY HEN.
V. English Turkeys.
The so-called English turkey is simply a su])-variety of the common
American domesticated turkey already described. Careful breeding and
selection have increased the size and rendered them quite uniform in
color. One sub-variety is the Norfolk turkey, black with a few white
spots on the wings. Another sub-variety, valued in Cambridgeshire, is
bronze-gray, and longer-legged than the Norfolk ; these, however, vary
from a light copper color to dark, the latter being preferred.
THE TURKEY AND ITS VARIETIES.
VI. Rare Varieties.
1179
There are a number of more or less rare varieties of turkeys, the Buff,
the Fawn, and the Pure-white being the principal ones. They are all
considered more tender than the varieties heretofore named. Turkeys of
the white variety are especially handsome, the color being relieved by the
tuft on the breast, which remains jet black, which, with the blue-white
and red caruncles of the head and neck, present a most elegant appear-
VII. Caring for the Turkey.
There are almost as many w^ays and methods of feeding as there are
localities where turkeys are grown. A considerable number who allow
A PAIR OF BRONZE TURKEYS.
their turkeys a good deal of freedom will succeed ; others do equally well
who follow methods quite the reverse. Some never house the mother
hen or the young, while others house them both.
While our present-day turkeys are classed as ''domestic fowls," they
are rather semi-domestic when compared with other poultry. For this
reason the treatment given them must differ from that given to hens
and chickens, and houses or coops that will serve for the latter will be
clean and dry for the poults ; it may not meet the wants of the turkey hen.
She must have a house or box in which she can stand erect and stretch
1180 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
her neck and look about. The floor of this must be of boards, but dry,
clean earth is best for both the hen and the poults. This natural environ-
ment has a beneficial influence upon the mother and the young turkeys.
It adds to both health and spirits, and helps to develop constitutional
vigor.
Satisfactory results can never be secured by handling turkeys like cage
birds or hothouse plants. Avoid overdoing the care and attention. Treat
them like turkeys, and use common sense in looking after them. Their
native home was in the woods and fields; in their present semi-domestic
condition they need more shelter and care, but they should never be shut
in so close as to deprive them of plenty of light, room, and air. They
should not be pampered and fed upon unnatural foods; neither should
they be over-fed at any time. In their wild state they ran about here
and there, seeking small grains, seeds, and bugs, getting plenty of exercise
as well as food. Their domestic condition deprives them of the necessity
of hunting for their food, and consequently of the exercise that comes
from so doing.
When quite young, the poults are apt to receive more attention than
they need. Then, as they grow older and the novelty of attending to
them wears off, they are too often neglected just at the time when more
care should be given to them. For instance, when their feathers are
growing and the unusual heat overcomes them, special care may profitably
be bestowed; again, the same is true when the frost destroys their natural
food supply in the fall. Thousands are lost at these critical periods from
lack of a full food supply.
An open coop, made of slats or lath, may be placed over the mother
turkey just prior to the hatching of her eggs, as this will prevent her
wandering away with her young when they are hatched. It may be.
covered on top with tar paper as protection from rain or sun. Such open
coops are frequently used in turkey-growing districts, and those who use
them could not be induced to change. They should be large enough to
provide plenty of space for the mother turkey. Quite often a box too
small for the hen to turn about or to stand erect in is used for a coop for
the hen and poults. This annoys her and she becomes restless, tramps
about, kills her young, and is blamed for taking bad or indifferent care
of her offspring, when more than likely, if she had room to move about,
she would be a model mother for the poults.
In a suitable coop, the brood of young turkeys can stay for a day or
more in comfort, sheltered from wet and storm or cold, with space enough
to move about. In such a coop the very young poults can stay while the
mother goes about on the outside for exercise. To have this use the coop
when the hen is out, set up in slides inside the door a piece of board a foot
wide; this will keep the poults safe from the hot sun or the wet much
better than will the triangular pen so often made of three boards.
THE TURKEY AND ITS VARIETIES. 1181
Almost any kind of pen, coop, or house will do for the turkey hen and
poults if it will protect them from rain and storms, if it is large enough,
is clean, not too close or warm, and absolutely free from parasitic enemies.
These are the important requisites of the structure in which they are to
be kept until the poults are well started. They should be allowed their
freedom a part of every day when the grass is dry, and should be made
to stay within at nights and during wet days, till old enough to wander
with the mother hen and roost out on the fences or trees.
Either fresh coops should be provided each year or the old ones should
be thoroughly cleansed within and without. Prior to using old coops.
A PAIR OF WHITE HOLLAND TURKEYS.
paint them thoroughly with crude petroleum, in which have been dis-
solved some naphthalene balls, filling everj^ crack and crevice with this
at least a week before they are needed, and be sure that the odor of the
preparation has disappeared before using the coops, as it is not beneficial
to the young. The features of most importance in cooping the mother
and young are plenty of light and room, and freedom from dampness and
insect parasites.
When the poults are ready to leave the nest, move the mother hen and
her young into the coop provided for them ; supply a little food now and
then as they need it, and see that the mother has plenty of food and water.
Let them alone in the coop till they begin to move about. As soon as
they will, let the poults run out on the grass when it is dry, but keep them
from the wet grass, as nothing is more detrimental to their growth, unless
1182 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
it be insect parasites. As they advance give them a more plentiful food
supply, and guard against any possibility of lice infesting them.
While they are young special attention must be given to protection
from the direct rays of the sun, exposure to which wilts them completely.
At times they will reel under its influence as though suffering from sun-
stroke, or move about with slow steps, weakly dragging one foot after the
other, while giving forth a feeble peep that sounds the warning of their
approaching end. The blood-sucking parawite has much the same effect
upon them when present. When under the influence of both at the
same time, the chance of survival is small indeed.
Have a dry spot where the young poults may run and exercise. This
may be provided by spreading a load or two of coaree sand near the coops,
which will furnish a dry foothold, no matter how wet or damp the grass
may be. To keep this in sanitary condition go over it once a day with
a fine-toothed rake, in order that the sun may dry it thoroughly. When
the young turkeys are suitably housed, properly fed, and kept free from
lice, they are quite as easy to grow as young chickens.
A thorough investigation of the methods of feeding young turkeys
shows to what extent general rules already cited are followed. While all
who succeed seem to adopt nearly the same methods, there are a few dif-
ferences worthy of consideration. Some feed bread and milk in a saucer
as soon as the poults will eat, while others soak bread and milk and squeeze
it dry before feeding; some adhere closely to an absolute grain diet, while
others feed everything they imagine the poults will eat.
It should never be forgotten that in the wild state their foods were the
bugs, worms, seeds, etc., which they could find for themselves, and which
were hunted for and scrambled after continually. There was then no
overfeeding upon rich, unnatural foods that impaired health and produced
bowel troubles or other ailments that naturally follow unwholesome food.
They subsisted by their own efforts in the wild state, while now they are
quite too often forced to eat unnatural foods that are furnished in hope
of forcing them to an unnatural growth. If the grower wishes to copy
nature as nearly as possible, the young poults may be given for their
first meal very fine oatmeal or finely cracked wheat or corn, with a little
fine grit of some kind and a very little granulated meat scrap. Some of
the commercial brands of ''poultry food" are also good. They should
have clean water convenient where they can help themselves at will.
As a general rule, do not feed them wet food or slops. Poults are seed-
eating chicks, not slop eaters. Bread and milk, however, contains ele-
ments most valuable in the growing of all kinds of fowls. This food
should be considered, when properly given, as one of the best kinds of
food for the first day or two. Soak stale bread in sweet milk, press out
the milk as completely as possible, and feed the bread to the young poults.
Be careful never to use sour milk, nor should the bread thus prepared
THE TTTRKEY AND ITS VARIETIES. 1183
ever be fed after it has become sour. Feed this, a little at a time, every
hour or two for two days or more ; then add a little hard-boiled egg, shell
and all broken fine, to the soaked bread.
After a day or two on this ration, follow with the ration of finely broken
grain already described, and include a little finely cut meat. Make sure
that the meat scrap is pure and sweet. Nothing is more injurious to the
poults than tainted or infected meat of any kind, as it will disturb their
bowels in a very few hours and cause great trouble. Lean beef, well
cooked and cut into very small fragments, is good. Be very cautious
about feeding green meat or bone. If any of this is fed, have it cut quite
fine, giving but little at first, and be absolutely certain that it is fresh and
sweet. Cooked meat is better for them while young.
Coarse sand is excellent for grit, and if sufficient of this is at hand no
other grit will be needed; but plenty of grit of some kind is a necessity,
for without it the poults cannot grind their food.
Food should be given them quite early in the morning, and at frequent
intervals during the day. Never overfeed them, but use discretion in
providing plentifully for their necessities. Give them all they will eat
willingly, and no more. Avoid the use of rich foods, grains in hulls,
and millet seed, which is not good for them while they are young ; a little
of this seed, however, may be fed as they grow older. Too much hard-
boiled egg is bad for them, while a reasonable amount with bread is bene-
ficial. An excess has a tendency to clog and congest the bowels, and the
writer has seen poults die from the effects of a diet exclusively of egg and
millet seed. The same injurious effect may be produced by feeding
entirely with milk curds.
Bowel trouble must be considered as an assured result of improper
feeding, and may be aggravated by exposure to cold and dampness.
Indigestion is a prime factor in the development of this ailment that kills
so many turkeys while young. This should be prevented as far as possi-
ble by the feeding of finely broken charcoal, which is a safeguard against
fermentation in the crop or gizzard, thus aiding digestion. This looseness
of the bowels should not be mistaken for cholera. It may usually be
relieved by feeding rice that has been boiled almost dry in milk.
Too much stress cannot be laid upon the practice of hand feeding.
The turkey hens are not so attentive to their young as chicken hens. If
all who grow turkeys w^ould pay special attention to hand feeding of the
poults as soon as they are hatched, much benefit might be gained. To
be successful with hand feeding, one must take the food between the
fingers and thumb, patiently hold it to the ueak of the young turkey, and
try to induce it to eat. This method of feeding tames and quiets the
young poults, gives them a good start, and prevents the possible con-
tamination of the food by being thrown upon the ground. Although
1184 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
feeding in this manner may appear to involve considerable labor, the
resulting benefits are often far in excess of the time and effort expended.
After three weeks the poults may have whole wheat, hulled oats, cracked
corn, and a little millet seed, in addition to their other food. Many
young turkeys are lost when partly grown, particularly during wet
weather after they have been given liberty to roam at will. Much loss
may be avoided by going after them wherever they may be and feeding
them a little once or twice a day. This plan should be followed during
continued wet weather, no matter how far advanced they may be. A
continuous wet spell deprives them of the greater part of the bugs and
worms they feed upon, and the wet grass, by retarding their motion, tends
to reduce vitality. Go after them during such weather and feed them,
so as to prevent the bad results that must follow a scarcity of food at such
times. Flocks of young turkeys that wander continually should be fed
at least once a day, if only a little, to keep them quiet or tame. If fed at
least once a day on grain, they will grow faster, mature earlier, and make
better size than if not fed at all. Those who make use of these methods
secure the best results.
One of the most successful growers in the country feeds the young
poults at the start oatmeal, broken wheat, and finally cracked corn; as
they grow older whole wheat, hulled oats, and coarser cracked corn, and
still later, whole grains of corn. When running at large they are taught
to come close to the barns twice a day for food. Following these and
similar methods enabled him to bring to maturity, during the unfavorable
season of 1903, over 300 white turkeys out of about 335 that were hatched.
Hulled oats are used to avoid the injurious effects that arise from feed-
ing oats in the hull, the sharp portions of which are apt to prick and
irritate the crop. No more nutritious grain can be fed to growing poults
than hulled oats. Wheat and whole or broken corn will do as they grow
older, but oats should be added whenever practical. If hulled oats cannot
be had, use clipped oats, boiled; drain them thoroughly, and feed w^hen
cold. Always select plump, heavy oats, with a large percentage of kernel.
Nothing equals good, sound grain of all kinds for feeding the growing
turkeys. Do not use poor, shriveled, or musty grain of any kind. It is
a mistaken notion that it will pay to feed inferior grain to any kind of
growing fowl. It is a loss of both time and money to do so, as nothing
but disappointment can result from its use. The best results always come
from having the best quality of stock and giving it the best food and care.
WATER FOWL.
1185
WATER FOWL.
CHAPTER IX..
GEESE ANB THEIR VARIETIES.
». THE MANAGEMENT OF GEESE. II. EMBDEN OR BREMEN GEESE. III. TDTT-
LOUSE GEESE. IV. WHITE CHINESE GEESE. V. HONG KONG GEESE. VI.
THE AFRICAN GOOSE. V£I. THE CANADA OR WILD GOOSE. VIII. EGYPTIAN
GEESE.
I. The Management of Greese.
The management of geese is very simple. A good dry spot for their
resting place, plenty of range, with young grass, and a pond, or running
water, if possible, will enable any one to raise geese successfully, if plenty
of grain, corn and wheat screenings are given to make up what they fail
to get in their rambles. The grain fed should always be given in a deep
vessel of water in summer, if deep natural water is not near, since geese
are often annoyed by insects getting in the ears and nostrils, which they
rid themselves of by thrusting their heads well down into water.
In fattening for market, corn-meal and potatoes boiled together to a
thick mush, is as good as anything. They should be sold as soon as fat,
trhich should be in about two weeks of feeding. If the mush is made
with skimmed milk the geese will become very fat, if given as much as
they will eat three times a day.
Geese are subject to but few diseases. For diarrhoea, give one or two
drops of laudanum in a little water, and repeat if necessary For giddi-
ness bleed them in the prominent vein which separates the claw. Geese
live to a great age, and old geese are the best mothers. Ganders, how-
ever, are best at from one to three years old, since as they get age they
are apt to become cross, and sometimes injure small children.
II. Embden or Bremen Geese.
There is no doubt but the Embden is the most valuable of the domesti-
cated varieties of geese. They should be pure white, with prominent
blue eyes ; strong, medium-length neck ; heavy bodies, with the featbew
1186
GEESE, AND THEIR VARIETIES.
1187
rather more inclined to curl from the shoulder to the head, than in other
varieties ; the bill rs dark flesh color and the legs orange. Young birds
of the year have been made to weigh over forty poiuuls, and mature birds
PAIR OF GRAY AFRICAN GEESE,
near sixty pounds. The average for breeding birds may be put at about
twenty pounds. They are early layers and may be made to rear two
broods in a season.
1188 CYCLOPEDIA OF UVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
III. Toiilouse Geese.
These magnificent birds, next in merit to the Embden, and by many
fanciers preferred to them, have compact bodies, rather short legs, and
will often outweigh the Embdens. Their bodies and breasts are light
gray ; the neck dark gray, the color deepening as the head is approached :
the wings are colored like the neck, but getting lighter towards the belly,
PAIR OF YOUNG BROWN CHINESE GEESE
which, together with the rump, is white. The legs and feet are a deep
reddish orange, and the bill the same color, but inclining to brown. In
quality of flesh there is little if any difference between the Embden and
the Toulouse.
IV. White Chinese Geese.
The White Chinese geese, from their immense size, pure white color,
and swan-like appearance are much admired by fanciers who have ponds
of water. Whether swimming or on land, they are pleasing and graceful
GEESE, AND THEIR VARIETIES.
118^^
fn movement. The color is pure white ; the bill and the knob on the
head oniiigc colored, and the color of the legs the same. A peculiarity
of this breed is the great disparity in si/e between the males and females,
MMMiMk
PAIR OF GRAY TOULOUSE GEESE.
EMBDEN AND AFRICAN CROSS.
ctie former bemg one-third larger than the latter. They are prolific of
eggs, which are rather small-sized for the size of the birds, and the gos-
lings are tender and delicate in flesh. They are hardy and prolific, some-
times reanng three breeds in a season.
1190 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
V Hong Kong Gteese.
The Hong Kong, or gray China goose, is supposed to be the variety
from which the White Chinese goose sprung. Certainly, there are not
greater differences between the two than between the Embden and
Toulouse. The Hong Kong is distinctly knobbed, and in size is between
a goose and swan. Their distinguishing marks are the knob on he top
of the head, the feathered dewlaps or wattle under the throat, and dis-
tinct dark stripe do^vll the neck. They vary in color, but the true color
GROUP OF WHITE PEKIN DUCKS.
is a grayish brown on the back and upper parts of the body, changing to
white or whitish gray under the al)donien ; the neck and breast yeUowish
gray, with a distinguishing stripe of dark brown running down the
back of the neck from the head to the body ; the bill and legs are
orange, and the protuberances at the base of the lower bill very dark,
approaching to black. They are nocturnal in habit, very prolific in eggs,
and the flesh of the young birds is superior in quality.
GEESE, AND THEIR VARIETIES.
1191
VI. The African Goose.
This is one of the largest of any of the varieties of geese, and is re-
markable for its upright carriage, carrying the neck straight and the head
level in walking. It is rather a rare bird in the United States, and has
sometimes been called the Siberian Goose, but the name African goose is
undoubtedly the true one. The bill is hooked or armed with small inden-
RMBDEN TOULOUSE CROSS,
tations along the sides ; at the base of the bill on top is a bright vermil-
ion colored fleshy tubercle, and a hard, firm, fleshy membrane under the
throat. The head and upper part of the neck are brown, deeper on the
upper side and lighter on the underside. The cut will give a good idea
of the principal characteristics of this variety.
VH. The Canada or Wild Goose.
This goose is well known all over the United States and Canada,
breeding in the far North, spending the spring and autumn in the more
tempe-^ate regions, and going South, even to the Gulf of Mexico, in the
winter. It is the most sagacious of any of the goose tribe, and when
1192 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
hatched from wild eggs, often becomes thoroughly domesticated in tuo
first generation, and breeds freely with the other varieties of geese.
When bred on the farm, the flesh retains much of the game flavor of
the wild birds. It is certainly one of the handsomest of water fowls.
VIII. Egyptian Geese,
This is a rare variety in the United States, but is prized for its beautiful
plumage and stately carriage. It is a small bird, weighing about eight
pounds, but elegant and striking in its plumage. The color is dark red
around the eyes ; the bill white ; a red ring about the neck ; the neck
and breast light fawn gray, with a maroon star on the breast ; the belly
red and gray; the wing feathers one-half deep rich black, and the rest
pure white, with a black bar running across the centre ; the back light
red, changing to dark red near the tail ; the tail jet black.
STANDARD TOULOUSE GOOSE.
WATER FOWL.
CliAPTERi X.
VARIETIES OP DOMESTIC DUCKS.
I. DUCKS ON THE FARM. II. VARIETIES BEST ADAPTED TO THE FARM. Til.
AYLESBURY DUCKS. IV. ROUEN DUCKS. V. THE COMMON WHITE DUCK.
VI. CAYU(}A BLACK DUCKS. VII. MUSCOVY DUCKS. VIII. BLACK EAST
I'NDIA DUCKS. IX. CALL DUCKS. X. PEKIN DUCKS. OTHER AND RARE
DUCKS.
I. Ducks on the Farm.
Year by year both ducks and geese are becoming more popular as an
addition to the reguhir farm stock. Ducks, especially, are yearly receiv-
ing more and more attention. First, from the fact that the ducklings are
the most active and indefatigable insect hunters known ; second, they
are more easily reared than any other farm birds; third, their feathers
are valuable, and fourth, the eggs and young ducks find ready sale in
the markets. In the fields of the market gardener they are especially
vakiable, and all those who know their value in this respect Avould raise
, if only for their aid in summer as insect destroyers.
II. Varieties Best Adapted to the Farm.
When the flesh and feathers are the principal objects, the white breed
are best ; but when flesh is the prime object, and handsome, ornamenta
qualities are desired, the Black Cayuga and the Rouen duck will give sat-
isfaction. We think the young of the Rouen duck the best insect de-
stroyers of any of the large breeds, and the young of the common gray
duck, the best of the smaller breeds. The Muscovy, one of the largest
of ducks, has really little to recommend it, except size, and even here,
the Cayuga, the Rouen and the Aylesbury' will nearly compete with
them, and are far superior in quality of flesh. One reason, probably,
why ducks have received so little attention in the West, is that wild
ducks have been so numerous in tne spring and fall that a mess might at
any time be had for the shooting. They are, however, becoming scarcer
1193
1194 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK ANT> COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOB.
and higher year by year, and hence, except in new settlements near
water, more and more attention is yearly l)eing paid to the raising of
tame ducks.
TRTO OF COLORED ROUEN DUCKS.
The raising of ducks is exceedingly simple. They are little liable to
disease and are able to take care of themselves soon after being hatched.
The mean period of incubation is thirty days. The eggs should be
placed under a large hen, light Brahma preferably, and vv-n.-^n hatched
VARIETIES OF DOMESTIC DUCKS.
1195
they should have a pool of clear water to play in, however small it may
be. Their food may be the same as that of young chicks, and if placed
where insects abound, they will soon rid the squash, melon, cucumber, or
other patches of these enemies of the oardener.
III. Aylesbury Ducks.
Of all the English breeds, the Aylesbury is undoubtedly the best, and,
taking into consideration the color of the feathers, it is one of the most
useful of the species introduced into the United States. They are
scarcely so heavy as the Rouen, but eighteen pounds per pair is not unu-
sual. They are prolific in eggs of pure white color, and quite thin in
WHITE PEKIN DUCK.
the shell. The Aylesbury is rather inclined to fall down behind from
the stretching of the abdominal muscles. In breeding, always avoid such
birds, and as soon as it is noticed, kill and dress them for market, since
as soon as this becomes the case they are generally sterile. This will
apply to all ducks, and hence, in the selection of the male, take those
that are especially free from this disability.
rv. Rouen Ducks.
This name is probably a corruption of Roan duck ; at all events there
is no evidence that the breed originated at the French town of this name.
1196 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
It is undoubtedly a variety of the Mallard or Gray duck, and bred together
the young come uniform in their markings. The color should closely
PAIR OF CRESTED WHITE DUCKS.
PAIR OF COLORED EGYPTIAN GEESE.
approximate that of the wild Mallard duck. In fact, the marlrings of the
wild duck will perfectly describe the lame, enlarged and improved va-
riety. The eyes, nowever, are more deeply sunken, and they have the
VARIETIES OF DOMESTIC DUCKS.
1197
disability of soon falling behind, the abdominal protuberance being devel-
oped at an early age.
Thev are the largest as they are the most quiet of ducks, and seidom
wander. When fat, they have been made to weigh nearly twenty pounds
the pair, and drakes of nine or ten weeks old have been known to weigh
more than twelve pounds the pair. The llesh is most excellent
and they are prolific layers of large, rather thick-shelled, bluish-green
V. The Common Wliite Duck.
This duck is too well known to need description. They are not unlike
the Aylesbury, except in size. Since the introduction of the larger
breeds, they have fallen into disrepute and are now seldom found pure.
PAIR OF WHITE MUSCOVY DUCKS.
VI. Cayuga Black Duck.
Of the origin of this famous American duck, nothing positive is known.
They have been bred about Cayuga lake, New York, for many years.
They are essentially a water duck, rarely rising from the water, and so
clumsy on land that they seldom wander far. In color they are black, or
rather deep brown black, with a white collar about the neck, and white
flicks on the breast ; the drakes usually show more white than the ducks,
and the green tint on the head and neck being far more pronounced ; in
fact the duck should have but a faint strip of green on the head, neck and
wings. In breeding, the darkest males should be selected, since they in-
cline to breed to white. They are good layers, producing about eififhty
1198 CYCLOPEDIC OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOi
to ninety eggs in a season when well fed. The flesh is excellent, dark
and high flavored, and the birds hardy. The weight of the birds at six
to eight months old, if well fattened, is from twelve to fourteen pounds
YOUNG GOOSE CROSSES— EMBDEN AND TOULOUSE.
per pair, and sixteen pounds has been reached. For rearing entirely on
land, we have not found them so good as the Kouen or Roan, but near
lakes, ponds and streams there are no better or more profitable ducks.
Vn. Muscovy Duck.
The Musk, or Brazilian duck was once regarded with great favor, and
certainly they are both handsome and large, the drakes often weighing
ten pounds The color is a very dark, rich, blue-black, prismatic with
every color of which blue is a component ; there is a white bar on each
the back of the drake are fine and plume-like ; the legs and feet are dark.
In warm climates they are said to be prolific, but our experience with
them, years ago, was that they are neither hardy nor good layers.
They are readily distinguished by the red membrane surrounding the eyes
and covering the cheeks.
VARIETIES OF DOMESTIC DUCES.
1199
Vm. Black East Indian Ducks.
These are really black, and are among the most beautiful of ducks.
From time to time tbey have appeared under various names, as East
Indian, Labrador, Buenos Ayres, and Brazillian ducks. They are quite
YOUNG GOOSE CROSSES— EMBDEN AND AFRICAN.
Hardy, and their color would suggest that they are closely related to the
Mallards. Their beauty and hardiness, together with their small size
will recoE mend them to amateurs ; but for profit they cannot compare
with the b?st of the huge breeds.
PAIR OF WHITE CALL DUCKS.
rX. Call Ducks.
There are two «^arieties of ducks which bear the same relation in size
ttj the large breeds that Bantams do to other barn-yard fowls. These
1200 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
are the Gray and the AVhite Call duck. The Gray is the miniature
counterpart of the Eoan or Rouen duck, and the White resembles the
Aylesbury except in size and color of the bill, which in the AYhite Call
duck is a clear yellow, while in the Aylesbury it is a flesh color. They
GROUP OF WHITE AYLESBURY DUCKS.
are pretty things on a lake or piece of water m ornamental grounds,
a, d the colored variety is used by sportsmen as decoys for other ducks,
they being noted for their loud, shrill, aud oft repeated call ; hence the
VARIETIES OF DOMESTIC DUCKS. 1201
X. Pekin Ducks.
These valuable waterfowls were originally introduced into the United
States in 1873. Their weights come fully up to that ot the Aylesbury
duck, but they look larger, being exceedingly heavily feathered. The
color is i)ure white, with a creamy tinge underneath. The flesh is not con-
sidered fully equal to the Aylesbury, but the feathers are s'-ipcnor. The
beak of the bird is yellow; neck long; legs short and red. Pet Pokins are
hardy, and can be made to weigh, at four months old, about twelve pounds
the pair. The following are the qualifications and points required for ex-
hibition birds by the American Association:
Head, long, finely formed; color of plumage, white; eyes, deep leaden-
blue; bill of medium size, deep yellow and perfectly free from marks of
any other color; neck rather long and large in the drake — in the duck, of
medium lenghth; color of plumage white, or creamy white breast and body.
Breast, round and full; body, very long and deep, and in adult birds, ap-
proaching the outlines of a parallelogram; color of plumage, white or
creamy white throughout; wings, short and carried compactly and smoothly
against the sides; color of plumage, white; tail, rather erect, the curled
feathers of the drake being hard and stiflf; plumage, white; legs, thighs
short and large; color of plumage, white; shanks, short and strong, and of
a reddish orange color; plumage downy, and of a faint creamy white.
XI. Other and Bare Ducks.
Among the ducks of elegant plumage lately domesticated is the Wood
duck, known all over the West, and now disseminated as the Carolina
duck. It is one of the most beautiful of any of the varieties in the bril-
liancy of its plumage and varied elegance of the markings, one of the most
striking in the graceful plume of feathers falling back from the head
They are so easily domesticated that they will allow themselves to be
handled, if always treated with gentleness.
The Mandarin duck, a Chinese variety, is also a bird of splendid plum-
age, but rare.
Of the crested ducks, the White and the Black Poland are best known.
Both are crested, the crest varying in size, but always bearing a ball of
feathers, quite round.
Another very rare duck, the Crested duck, said to be native to America,
is described by Mr. Latham as being " the size of the wild duck," (an
indefinite description), "but much larger, for it mensures twenty-five
inches in length ; a tuft adorns its head ; a straw yellow, mixed with
rusty-colored spots is spread over the throat and front of the neck ; the
wings, speculum blue beneath, edged with white ; the bill, wings and U*^\
are black ; irides red, and all the rest of the body ashy-gray.
1202 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
PAIR OF BLACK CAYUGA DUCKS.
WILD AND AFRICAN CROSS.
GRAY WILD GOOSE.
BOOK V
PART II
Diseases of Poultry
HOW TO KNOW THEM; THEIR CAUSES, PRE.
VENTION AND CURE
1204 CYCLOl'EDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMl-LETE STOCK DOCTOR.
r
TOULOUSE GEESE AND FEATHERS
From -Perfected Poultry of America." used by courtesy Hon.' P. D. Coburn. Secretar
Kansas State Board of Agriculture.
Diseases of Poultry.
CHAPTER I.
THE CAKE AND TREATMENT OP SICK FOWLS.
\ DIVISION OF DISEASES INTO GROUPS. II. APOPLEXY. III, VERTIGO. IV
PARALYSIS. V. CROP-BOUND. VI. DIARRHOEA. VII. CATARRH. VIH,
BRONCHITIS. IX. ROUP. X. GAPES. XI. PIP. XII. CONSUMPTION.
XIII. INFLAMMATION OF THE EGG PASSAGE. XIV. LEG WEAKNESS. XV
RHEUMATISM. XVI. POULTRY LOUSINESS. XVII. CHICKEN CHOLERA.
I. Division of Diseases into Groups.
The diseases to which poultry are subject, are comparatively few.
Poultry lousiness ; roup, a contagious disease ; gapes ; crop-bound ,
diarrhoea ; catarrh ; inflammation of the egg passage, and rheumatism,
are the principal ones. These and a few others, only, will l)e noticed.
They may be divided as follows : Diseases of the brain and nervous sys-
tem ; diseases of the digestive organs ; diseases of the lungs and air pas-
sages ; diseases of the egg organs ; and diseases of the skin.
II. Apoplexy.
Causes. — The cause of this disease is usually overfeeding and confined
quarters. The bird may be moping for some days, but usually the
trouble is not noticed until the fowl falls, and dies with hardly a struggle.
What to do. — The remedy is to open the largest of the veins under the
wing. By pressing on the vein between the opening and the body, the
blood will continue to flow until the pressure is released.
Prevention — The prevention is i)lenty of exercise, and abstinence from
over-stimulating food.
m. Vertigo.
This is caused usually by strong feeding and lack of exercise. The
fowl runs in a circle with but partial control of the limbs, and sometimes
falls and dies.
What to do. — When observed, hold the head of the bird under a stream
of cold water which will soon give relief. Ten grains of jalap may be
administered afterwards, and the bird be kept on a rather low diet.
12U0
1206 CYCLOPKDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
IV. Paralysis,
This is also induced by the sumo causes as the two last mentioned dis
oases, and is the direct effect of some disorder oi the spinal cord. But
little can be done, when once a bird is thus attaciijd.
Prevention. — Plenty of exercise, a mixed diet, and well ventilated but
dry quarters.
V. Crop-Bound.
Causes. — This is caused by irregular feeding. A hungry bird stuffs
his crop to such a degree, that the whole, when moistened, becomes a
dense impacted mass. Sometimes any large hard substance will serve as
a nucleus for the gradual gathering of other substances around it.
What to do. — The treatment is to puncture the upper part of the crop,
■ loosen the mass by degrees with a blunt instrument, and gradually re-
move the lump. If the incision is large, the slit may be sewed up, and
the bird kept for ten days on soft food. If in good condition, the
cheapest way is to kill the bird unless it be a valual)le one.
\rL. Diarrhoea.
The symptoms are obvious.
What to do. — The remedy is to give something to check the purging.
Try the following :
No. 1. 5 Grains powdered chalk,
5 Grains Tui-key rhubarb,
2 Grains Cayenne pepper.
If this does not check the discharge, give the following, until the bird
Id relieved :
No. 2. 1 Grain opium,
1 Grain powdered ipecac.
Give every 5 hours, until relief is had.
VII. Catarrh.
Causes. — Damp quarters, and roosting in exposed situations.
How to Know. — In simple cold or catarrh there will be swelling of tho
eyelids, a watery or other discharge from the nostrils, and the face
may be more or less swollen at the sides.
What to do. — Remove to comfortable quarters, and give warm food,
liberally dusted with pepper. This will usually effect a cure.
VTII. Bronchitis.
Causes. — Bronchitis results when the effects of a cold expend them
selves in the lungs and ail' passages
THE CARE AND TREATMENT OF SlCK FOWLS. 1207
how to know it. — There will be cough, a raismg of the head to breathe,
and a more or less offensive smell.
What to do. — In severe cases, give the following:
No. 3. 1 Grain calomel,
}^ Grain tartar emetic.
Strip a feather, also, to within one-half inch of the end, and swab the
throat thoroughly with powdered borax ; also, let the fowls drink of the
following :
No. 4. ^ Ounce cliloride of potassium,
2 Quarts soft water.
This disease is sometimes called croup.
Preventives. — Good ventilation, cleanliness, and jiroper care.
IX. Roup.
When this disease is once found, the affected fowls should be either
.Jlled and l)urned, or else removed out of the way of the well ones. Or,
better, remove the well ones to other quarters. Separation must be
complete ; otherwise the entire flock will be subjected to the disease. It
is one of the most fatal pertaining to fowls, and action should be decisive
and promptly taken.
How to know it. — The symptoms, at tirst, are like those of severe
catarrh ; but the discharge from the nostrils is thick, opaque, and of a
peculiar and offensive odor. Froth appears at the inner corners of the
eyes ; the lids swell, and often the eyes are entirely closed ; the sides of
the face become much swollen, and the bird rapidly losea strength and
dies.
What to do. — The fowls must have dry, warm quarters, and soft and
stiumlating food. Give, as soon as po8sil)k', for a small fowl, a tea-
spoonful, or for a large fowl, a tablespoonful of castor oil. The nostrils
should be syringed, by inserting a small syringe in the slit of the roof of
the mouth, with one part of chloride of soda to two parts of water.
Three or four hours after the oil has been given, having divided the fol-
lowing into thirty doses, give one, two or three times a day ;
No. 5. 1^ Ounce balsam copaiba,
}^ Ounce liquorice powder,
}4 Drachm piperiue.
This is enough for thirty doses ; enclose each dose in a little gelatine,
and administer as directed. If the fowls continue to get worse, kill at
once and them.
1208 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOB-
X. Gapes.
This is caused l)y parasitic worms ( Sclerostoma syngamus) in the
wind-pipe, and occurs usually in chickens from
two to four months of age. It has been said to
be produced from a small, tick-like parasite, lodged
on the heads of the chickens. If a case occurs,
examine the chickens Avith a pocket lens, and if
the parasites are found, destroy them with the fol-
lowing, which is good, also, for hen lice:
No. 6. 1 Ounce morcmial ointment,
1 Ounce lard oil,
^'2 Ounce llowers of sulphur,
)2 Ounce crude petroleum.
batl
m a warm
and apply
(JAIMC WORM,
natural size , i. enlarged.
Mix, by melting
when just warm.
To cure the gapes, strip a small quill feather to
within half an inch of the end ; dip it in spirits of turpentine, and insert
it into the opening to the wind-pipe at the base of the tongue ; turn it
around once or twice, and withdraw it. If relief is not had, repeat tht
operati(m again the next day. Give warm shelter, good, soft food, well
mixed with a little black pepper, and skim-milk to drink.
XI. Pip.
This is not a disease but the result of another disease. It is the forma-
tion of a scale or crust at the tip of the tongue.
What to do. — Remove the incrustation , wash with chloride of soda,
and if the nostrils are stopped, inject as advised for roup ; if the fowl is
very much ailing, give a teaspoonful of castor oil.
XIIc Consumption.
This is a rare disease among fowls that are kept on the farm. It is a
gradual wasting away, with cough and the throwing out of matter, and
is the result of too close confinement in damp, unhealthy (quarters. It
often becomes hereditary in fowls so kept, and if you are unfortunate
enouo-h to have got such fowls from some breeder of pure-bred fowls,
who was not attentive to his stock, kill them, since it is worse than use-
less to breed from them.
XIII. Inflammation of the Egg Passage.
How to know it. — The indications of this disease, rare in fowls kept on
the farm, are as follows : If the inflammation is at the lower end of the
passage, the egg is without shell; if the inflammation is iu the middle
TUE CAllE AND TREATMENT OF SICK FOWLS. I'iOU
portion, the membrane is misshapen, or incomplete; if the H^hole pas-
sage is inflamed, the yolk is passed out without any covering.
The laying of soft shelled eggs is not evidence of inflammation. It
may be the effects of being driven about, or of a want of lime material m
the system to form the shell. In inflammation there will be fever, and
the feathers, especially over the back, will be rufiled. The hen will be
moping, and at times will strain to discharge the contents of the passage.
What to do. — The proper remedy is to give the following ;
No. 7. 1 Grain calomel,
1-12 Grain tartar emetic.
To be given in a little gelatine.
Keep the hen afterwards, for some time, on nourishing but not stimula-
ting food. As a rule the cheapest way, unless in the case of a valuable
fowl, is, if the difficulty returns, to kill the fowl.
XIV. Leg Weakness.
This is a disease of young fowls and more generally of young males,
rather than of pullets. The bird seems unable to support its weight, and
constantly sinks down. The large Asiatic fowls are most suoject to it.
The remedy is nourishing diet, with a due proportion of insect or animal
food. The grain should be cracked wheat, coarse oat-meal or barley
meal, and if from three to eight grains of citrate of iron be daily given,
it will greatly assist as a tonic.
XV. Rheumatism.
Causes. — This is a disease arising from cold, damp quarters, or those
badly ventilated. Another cause is the chickens running in the dew or
wet in the early season. Cramp is produced by the same causes. Little
can be done, once they are affected.
Prevention. — The prevention is obvious. Good, clean, well ventilated
quarters, and plenty of nutritious and varied food.
XVI. Poultry Lousiness.
There would seem to be little need for the appearance of this nuisance,
if care were taken, and if new fowls introduced were first examined with
a lens ; for the jiarasites are very minute. The common hen louse, is
larger than the "hen spider" so called, which is almost microscpic.
What to do. — The first may be destroyed by sprinkling the breeders
and nests with Scotch snuff or flowers of sulphur, at intervals of two or
three days.
Tlie hen spider is more difficult to exterminate. When hens have been
al 3wed to roost in a horse stable, we have known the horses and every
1210 CYrx.OPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR,
crevice to fc .^o infested that only the most rigid means could extermi-
nate themo This was by the application of flowers of sulphur, moistened
with kerosene, applied to the roots of the manes and tails of the horses,
and a thorough application to the fowls themselves. In addition, every
part of the building must be thoroughly cleansed and washed, and every
surface, crack and crevice filled with lime, slacked with ammoniacal
liquor from the gas works ; or in place of this use a little carbolic acid
with ordinary lime wash. "Wash, also, all the furniture, perches, nests,
etc., with a solution of one pound of potash, to a quart of water, or the
ammoniacal water of a gas factory. Then put in plenty of dust baths,
and the difficulty will probably be ended.
XVTI. Chicken Cholera.
First ren\vate the coops thoroughly; then saturate the roosts, floor
and sides of the coop with kerosene oil. Then use Recipe No. 6 for lice.
Grease your chickens thoroughly with it, every one of them, under the
wings, and wherever the feathers are off. Repeat the greasing pro-
cess in ten days, then once a month from the first of May until Novem-
ber, and use the following internally:
No. 8. Hyposulphite of soda, 4 oz.,
Water, 1 gallon.
Mix.
Dissolve the soda in the water; then make cornmeal dough with
the water, and feed it to your chickens twice a day for a week (just an
ordinary feed), and then once a week through the summer months as a
preventative. If, however, any are sick, give one teaspoonful of the
water (without the meal) four times a day until out of danger. In the
very great majority of cases, the above will be found effectual.
Bumble Foot in Poultry:— If the foot is swollen and contains mat-
ter, open it and press the puss out. Wa.<h with warm water and apply
tincture of iodine daily until cured. Burn off warty excressences with
luniar caustic or cut off with a sharp knife.
Feather Eating: — Feed chickens an all-around ration, give plenty
of space for a run and you will have no trouble in thi^ line.
ScalyLegs in Chickens:— "Wash legs in warm water, apply kero-
sepe and anoint with lard."
Mites : - - Treat the roosts, nests, etc., with either of the following,
boiling hot: Salt brine or alum water.
Gaponizing: — Instruments with directions for using them can be had
by those especially iuiterested.
CHAPTER II.
A SUMMARY OF DISEASES OF POULTRY AND THEIR
REMEDIES.
I. DISEASES, BAD HABITS. AND INSECT PESTS. II. IMPORTANCE OF CLEANLINESS
III. DISEASES. IV. BAD HABITS. V. INSECT PESTS.
I. Diseases, Bad Habits, and Insect Pests.
It is not the purpose of this article to go into the details of the various
diseases of poultry, but simply to consider briefly some of the common
ailments and to give some of the simple remedies. Prevention is better
than cure, so it will be well to consider some of the more frequent causes
of diseases in general. Filth, dampness, improper ventilation, improper
feeding, and the introduction of infected birds into the yard may be
mentioned as some of the most common causes.
II. Importance of Cleanliness.
Everything about a poultry house should be kept reasonably clean.
As a rule droppings should be removed daily, for the accumulation of
excrement harbors parasites, contaminates the air, and breeds contagion.
After the dropping boards have been cleaned, they should be sprinkled
^^^th road dust, coal ashes, land plaster, or air-slaked lime to absorb the
liquid excrement. Nests in which straw or other similar material is used
should be cleaned out and new straw put in about once every three or four
weeks, or oftener if it becomes damp or dirty.
The quarters should be thoroughly w'hitewashed at least once a year,
late in summer or early in the fall. The whitewash can be made by
slaking lime in boiling water and then thinning to the proper consistency
for applying. The addition of 4 ounces of carbolic acid to eadh gallon of
whitewash will increase its disinfecting power. The runs should be
plowed occasionally in order to bury the accumulated droppings and also
to turn up fresh soil.
III. Diseases.
When a disease has become firmly established in a flock or a single bird
is badly affected, the free use of the hatchet is usually the most practical
method, as it does not pay to spend two dollars' worth of time in curing
a one-dollar bird. Slight cases, however, can often be cured with but little
trouble. In nearly every instance it is better to remove the well fowls anr^
1211
1212 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
put them by themselves, and in the case of infectious disease the premises
should be thoroughly disinfected.
Apoplexy. — This is a disease of the brain caused by the rupture of one
of the blood vessels. The bird is attacked suddenly and falls down, ap-
parently dead or nearly so. The usual cause is too high feeding, but it
may also be due to some other provocation, such as sudden fright, violent
exertion, or straining in laying eggs. Fowls are sometimes found dead
on the nest or under the perches. There is usually no previous warning,
and so in most cases treatment is impossible, as the bird usually dies
almost immediately. When, however, the sufferer is still alive pierce a
vein on the underside of the wing and let it bleed freely. This will
reduce the pressure on the brain and often result in a cure. The bird
should then be kept on a limited diet for some time in order to reduce the
sui-jilus fat. As preventive measures, regulate the diet and give plenty
of exercise.
Vertigo. — This is also a disease of the brain and may be regarded as
a minor kind of apoplexy. The bird shows giddiness, throA\dng its head
upward, backward, or to one side. The gait is uncertain and staggering,
the sufferer often running around in a circle. Sometimes the bird falls
to the ground, fluttering and making convulsive movements with the legs.
The bird can often be revived by holding its head under a stream of cold
water. After this keep the bird in a cool and shady place for some time
and regulate the diet.
Bronchitis. — Bronchitis is a cold accompanied by a rattle in the throat
or by a cough, and may be caused by exposure to dampness or cold tem-
perature or by drafts of air. In the majority of cases the removal of the
cause and good care will result in a cure. Inhalation of steam or vapor
from boiling water has been found beneficial. Giving a teaspoonful of
equal parts of cider vinegar and water has proven successful in some cases.
Catarrh. — Catarrh is a form of cold that is quite common among fowls,
and may be caused by dampness, drafts of air, or exposure to cold. It is
indicated by a watery discharge at'the nostrils, which later becomes more
viscid. Remove the cause, keep the birds fairly warm, and give them
plenty of easily digested feed. The injection of kerosene into the nostrils
is also beneficial. This may be done with a small syringe, a medicine
dropper, or a small oil can. If catarrh has become confirmed, the nostrils
and throat should be cleansed with hydrogen peroxide and equal parts of
water several times daily, and the nostrils grea.scd wdth va.seline.
Diphtheria. — The marked symptom is the appearance of a diseased
growth in the throat and inside of the mouth, resembling raised patches
of whitish or pale-yellowish skin, which may invade the entire throat
and mouth, often aiso appearing like ulcers or sores on the face, comb,
and about the eyes. Make a swab of cotton tied on the end of a stick
and swab out the mouth with hydrogen peroxide. Remove any of the
SUMMARY OF DISEASES OF POULTRY. 1213
growths that come away easily. This disease is very contagious, and any
birds suffering from it should be removed from the tlock and the premises
disinfected.
Roup, or contagious catarrh. — The first symptoms of this disease are
similar to those of simple catarrh, but as the disease advances there is
often swelling of the sides of the head and the nostrils become closed with
thick mucus, causing the bird to breathe through the mouth. If the
swellings contain pus, they should be opened \\iih. a sharp instrument, the
contents removed, and the wound treated with a mild antiseptic, such as a
2 per cent solution of carbolic acid. The application of kerosene mixed
with an equal part of olive oil has given good results in many cases.
When a fowl has a bad case of roup, it is usually better to kill it, unless
especially valuable.
Pi'p, — This is a condition of the tongue caused by some such ailment
as a cold, which compels the bird to breathe through the mouth. The
continual passing of air over the tongue causes it to become dry, hard, and
scaly, especially about the tip. The best remedy is to remove the cause,
also wet the tongue two or three times a day with a mixture of glycerin
and water, equal parts.
Bumble foot. — This is caused by bruises on the bottom of the foot, and
is often due to the fowls having to fly from rather high perches and alight-
ing on hard and uneven surfaces. Remove the cause by lowering the
perches. If the foot is swollen and the swelling is filled with pus, it should
be lanced and the pus permitted to escape. The wound should then be
washed out with a 2 per cent carbolic-acid solution, greased with vaseline,
and wrapped with a piece of cloth.
Cholera. — This is a contagious disease caused by bacteria, and is usu-
ally brought in by the introduction of infected birds or by water or feed
contaminated by the excrement of sick birds. It is also possible for fowls
to be infected through wounds or even by the inhalation of germs in the
form of dust. The symptoms include great thii-st and the voiding of
feces of which the part normally white is yellow. This is not a sure indi-
cation of the disease, for the same thing may occur as the result of other
disorders. Diarrhea is generally a prominent symptom, the droppings
being thin and voided frequently, and in the later stages the yellow por-
tion may change to green; the fowl becomes depressed, the feathers be-
come ruffled, the comb becomes pale or very dark, and the bird has a poor
appetite. Sometimes the disease runs rapidly through a flock, destroying
the greater part of the birds in a week, or it may assume a more chronic
form, extend slowly, and remain on the premises for several weeks or
months. Fowls affected with this disease usually die within thirty-six
hours. Most so-called cases of cholera are simply diarrhea.
In most cases medical treatment for cholera has proved unsatisfactory.
The best method of combating this disease is to carry out strict sanitary
1214 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
precautions as regards cleanliness and disinfection, and to totally destroy
the carcasses of dead birds. Droppings should be burned or thoroughly
disinfected by mixing with a 10 per cent solution of carbolic acid. Disin-
fect the building l)y spraying thoroughly with a 5 per cent solution of
carbolic acid, and then whitewash.
Crop hound. — The crop sometimes becomes overloaded with feed, and
its thin muscular walls become distended and partially paralyzed, so that
the organ, can not be emptied, or the opening into the lower esophagus
may become clogged with a feather, a straw, or some other substance
which the bird has swallowed. The crop is greatly distended and the
mass of feed is rather hard and firm. In both cases the symptoms are
the same and treatment should be conducted on the same principles. For
treatment pour one-fourth to one-half ounce of melted lard or sweet oil
down the throat and manipulate the contents of the crop with the hand in
such a way as to tend to break up the mass. Unless the passage is closed
the contents of the crop will usually pass away within a few hours. For
a few days feed should be limited in quantity. If the foregoing method
is ineffectual and an operation becomes necessary, clip away the feathers
from a portion of the crop and with a very sharp knife, lancet, or razor
make an incision about one and one-half inches long through the skin
and the wall of the crop. Then carefully remove the contents of the crop
with the finger, the handle of a spoon, or some other convenient object,
and wash out the crop with warm water. Pass the finger, well oiled, into
the esophagus to see there is no obstruction. Sew up the wall of the crop
fii-st and then the outer skin, using white silk or linen thread, being care-
ful not to sew the two membranes together, and in a few days the wound
will be healed. Feed sparingly on whole grains until the wound heals,
and do not give any water for twenty-four hours.
Diarrhea. — This is caused by some irritation of the digestive system,
and may be due to the quantity of the feed, the quality of the feed or
drinking water, or to climatic conditions to which the fowl • has been
exposed. There is a general depression, roughness of plumage, and a loss
of appetite, and usually frequent expulsion of soft, whitish, yellowish, or
greenish excrement, the droppings become more liquid until severe diar-
rhea is present. When the affection is at all serious, the excrement may
become mixed with mucus or blood. It is important that the cause be
sought out and removed. See that the birds have comfortable quarters
and that they are not exposed to drafts, cold or dampness. If taken early,
diarrhea can often be checked by reducing the amount of green and ani-
mal feed and feeding largely on dry feed, eliminating the moist mash.
Give a tablespoon ful of sweet (olive) oil as a laxative to carry off any
irritating matters that may be in the intestine. In severe cases give 5
to 10 drops of laudanum to each bird.
SUMMARY OF DISEASES OF POULTRY, 1215
Gapes. — Gapes is caused by the presence of small worms, which are
attached to the lining of the trachea or A\'indpipe, where tbey cause much
irritation and often death to young chickens. Gapes usually occur when
the chicks are from 2 to 6 weeks old. Separate the well from the sick
birds and clean the coops, pens, and feed and water dishes by disinfecting
with a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid. Sometimes the worms can
be removed from the trachea by inserting a feather moistened with tur-
pentine or kerosene. The oil will cause the dislodgment of the worms,
and some will be drawn out with the feather, while othere will be expelled
by coughing or sneezing. Place the chicks on a piece of paper, so that the
worms may be caught and burned.
Freezing (frostbite). — If the comb or wattles of fowls become frozen,
and it is discovered before they thaw out, apply snow or cold water to
remove the frost, for this gradual thawing will often save them. Then
apply vaseline to the affected parts twice a day.
Scaly legs. — This is caused by a mite which burrows under the scales
of the feet and shanks, and is considered to be infectious, but does not
spread rapidly. It is noticed most frequently in old fowls. The scales
can be removed by soaking the feet and shanks in warm, soapy water,
and by rubbing or brushing them off with a toothbrush or nailbrush.
After the scales have been removed apply sulphur ointment or equal parts
of melted lard and kerosene. The frequent application of kerosene has
also been found effectual without the previous soaking in water.
Chicken pox, or sore head. — This is a contagious disease caused by a
fungus, and occurs in chickens, turkeys, pigeons, and sometimes in geese.
It is quite prevalent and' very destructive among young chicks in the
Southern States. This disease appears as an eruption of yellow nodules
about the beak, nostrils, eyes, and other parts of the head. These nodules
reach their full development in five to ten days, when they emit a watery
discharge, which later changes to a thick yellowish matter. As the dis-
ease progresses the birds grow thin and weak, and death results. In
cases of spontaneous recovery, the nodules dry up and form crust, which
later crumble away. The parasite causing it penetrates the skin of a
healthy individual either through an abrasion, through punctures caused
by bites of lice, etc., or less frequently through the normal skin. The
disease is most prevalent during warm, damp weather, and consequently
is most fatal to late-hatched chicks.
The following preventive measures should be employed: Keep affected
birds from the premises; keep the houses clean and dry, and hatch the
chicks early. Sick birds may be treated by applying carbolic ointment, or
glycerin containing 2 per cent carbolic acid, to the affected parts twice a
day. The sores may also be bathed with soap and water to loosen the
crusts and subsequently sponged with a solution of copper sulphate (one-
1216 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
half ounce to 1 quart of water) . When other treatments are unavaihng,
tincture of iodine may be sparingly used.
Egg-bound. — Irritation of the oviduct, causing the membrane to be-
come dry and deficient in its normal lubrication, an abnormally large egg,
or a, too fat condition of the hen may cause difficulty in expelling an egg
from the body and produce the condition known as egg-bound. If the
egg remains in the oviduct for a considerable length of time inflamma-
tion is produced, which finally develops into decomposition of the tissues
and results in death. Fowls when egg-bound are restless, going frequently
on the nest, showing a desire to lay and, in general, giving evidence of
being in distress. Later they become dull and listless, remaining in this
condition until death if not relieved. The egg can usually be felt in the
posterior portion of the abdomen. If the trouble is early discovered, inject
a small quantity of oil into the vent, and gently try to work the egg out.
If this treatment is unsuccessful, hold the lower part of the body in warm
water for half an hour, or until the parts are relaxed ; then treat as above.
It may be necessary to break the egg, allow the contents to escape, and
remove the shell in pieces. After removal of the egg give soft cooling
feed.
Occasionally difficulty in laying an egg causes prolapsus or eversion
of the oviduct. When this occurs the oviduct is partially turned inside
out and protnides from the vent. If the egg causing the trouble has not
been expelled, remove it, wash the exposed portion of the oviduct with
warm water, apply carbolated vaseline or lard, and return to its normal
position by gentle pressure. In addition it is well to give the fowl 3 to 5
drops of fluid extract of ergot.
Intestinal worms. — Worms are frequently present in the intestines and
ceca of chickens, particularly young chicks, often causing considerable
loss. Practically the only w^ay to determine that worms are present is to
examine the ceca and intestines of dead chicks. The worms are small and
hairlike. Occasionally flat tape worms are found, but these are not very
common. Chicks infested vdth worms go off feed and become thin and
sickly looking.
In combating worms care should be taken to keep clean the soil over
which the chicks run, and to move the runs each year or two if possible.
Cleanliness in the house must also be observed. In treating affected birds,
powdered areca nut (20 to 40 grains per fowl), administered either in
mash or mixed Avith butter and made into pills, is an effective remedy.
Powdered male fern (30 grains to 1 dtam), or oil of turpentine (1 to 3
teaspoonfuls) , alone or diluted with an equal bulk of olive oil, is also
very good. It is well to follow any of these remedies with a dose of castor
oil (1 to 3 teaspoonfuls).
Limber Neck. — This disease, as its name indicates, is characterized by
the limp condition of the neck, the fowl practically losing all control of
SUMMARY OF DISEASES OF POULTRY. 1217
the neck muscles, so that the head rests on the ground. This condition
occurs in warm weather, and is caused by the fowls eating decomposed
flesh in which a ptomaine has developed. This poison causes partial paraly-
sis of the neck muscles and often results in the death of the birds. Mag-
gots eaten by fowls do not cause the disease, except iis they may contain
the poison which they have obtained from the decaying flesh.
The best and most effective treatment is, of course, never to leave any
dead fowls or other dead animals around, but to bury or burn all carcasses.
Treatment of sick birds is not usually very successful, but a teaspoon ful
of cjustor oil is sometimes effective.
IV. Bad Habits.
Egg eating. — This habit sometimes becomes a serious vice, fowls be-
coming very fond of eggs when they have learned to eat them, and it
often spreads from fowl to fowl. It usually begins through accident by
eggs being broken or frozen. Be careful to see that this does not happen.
See that the nests are properly supplied with straw or other nesting mate-
rial and have them darkened, so that if an egg is accidentally broken the
fowls will not be likely to discover it. Supply plenty of lime in the form
of oyster shells, bone, or similar substances to insure a firm shell. As
soon as it is discovered that a fowl htis formed the habit, the fowl should
be removed, in order to prevent the spread of the vice. Once formed, it is
difficult to eradicate, and the safest remedy is the death penalty.
Feather eating. — Fowls sometimes pluck feathers from themselves and
from each other, which is often caused by too close confinement, by the
presence of insect pests, or by improper feeding. When some of the fowls
of a flock have formed the habit slightly, a wide range with a change of
diet, including a plentiful supply of animal feed, and freedom from insect
pests, will usually correct the evil. Above all, see that the fowls have
plenty of inducement to exercise. If the habit becomes well formed it is
very troublesome and may necessitate the killing of some of the fowls in
order to stop it.
V. Insect Pests.
Two classes of external parasites, popularly known as lice and mites,
will be considered here. There are several varieties of lice which attack
poultry. They subsist mainly on the feathei-s and perhaps on the epider-
mic scales. They are found largely on the head and neck, under the
wings and about the vent, and when present in large number they cause
the fowls much discomfort. Persian insect powder (pyrethrum), pow-
dered sulphur, and some of the various preparations on the market, such
as tKe louse powders, are good in combating these pests. The hens can be
dusted with one of these powdei-s after they have gone to roost. Have the
1218 CYCLOPEDIA Ol- LIVE STOCK AND COMI'LETE STOCK DOCTOH.
powder in a box with a perforated cover, grasp the fowl by the legs, and
shake the powder well among the feathei-s. Dust at le.-ist three times at
intervals of about a week in order to catch the lice which hatch out after
the first dusting.
The mites subsist on the blood of the fowls and are not usually found
on the bodies of the bird except when at roost or on the nest. During the
day they inhabit cracks and crevices of the walls, roosts, and nasts. Sitting
hens are often so annoyed that they are compelled to leave the nests in
order to relieve themselves of these pai-asites. The free use of kerosene
about the nests and perches is useful in fighting mites. The walls of the
house may be sprayed with kerosene, the operation being repeated every
three or four days for two weeks. Insect powdere are of little avail.
The following method has proved excellent in ridding houses of mites
and lice when the weather conditions are such as to perniit the birds being
kept outside the house for five or six houi"s. Close all the dooi*s and win-
dows and see that there are no cracks or any other openings to admit air.
Get an iron vessel and set it on gravel or sand near the center of the house;
place in the vessel a handful of shavings or straw saturated with kerosene,
and on these sprinkle sulphur at the rate of about 1 pound to every 90
or 100 square feet of floor space. Instead of wyug tht^ shavings and kero-
sene the sulphur can be saturated wth wood alcohol. When everything
else is in readiness light the material and hastily leavv:, the house. In case
any anxiety is felt about firo, a glance through a window will show
whether everything is all right. There is vei*y little danger of fire when
proper precautions have been taken to have plenty of soil beneath the
vessel. Allow the house to remain closed for three or four houi*s, at the
end of which time one can safely conclude that there are no living beings
inside. Now throw all the dooi-s and windows wide open so as to drive
out the sulphur fumes thoroughly, and then the fowls may be allowed to
enter. Let them in one by one, and iis each cntei*s catch it and dust it
well with insect powder, which will destroy the lice on the birds. Tobacco
dust is also good to use instead of insect powder. The birds and house
have now been freed fi-om vermin for the present, but the eggs of the in-
sects have not been de-troy cd, and in a week another swarm will be
hatched out. Therefore it will be necessary to repeat the operation once
or twice before the pests are exterminated. After this care should be
used to see that no strange fowl is admitted to the house or yard without
having been thoroughly rid of lice, for ono lousy hen will contaminate all
the rest
CHAPTER III.
DISEASES OF THE TURKEY. CAUSES, PREVENTION
AND CURE.
I. PARASITES AND DISEASES. II. INSECT PARASITES. III. GAPES. IV. BLACK-
HEAD. V. TAPEWORM. -VI. DIARRHEA. VII. CHOLERA.
I. Parasites and Diseases.
No kind of young poultry is so susceptible to- the effects of unfavorable
conditions as young turkeys. They must be carefully protected from at-
tacks of parasites and from excessive heat and dampness until they have
gained sufficient strength and size to wander away with the parent turkeys
and care for themselves upon the range.
II. Insect Parasites.
The chief danger from lice and mite attacks to the poults is directly
after the poults are hatched ; but the best remedy is to deal with the hen
before the young are hatched. The plumage of the hen should be dusted
with insect powder close down to the skin from head to hock joint, being
careful not to get it into the eyes. This should be done at least twice a
week until within two or three days before hatching. The most careful
attention should be given to this. Never use lime or sulphur for this pur-
pose. Nothing is better than Persian insect powder, but any good insect
powder will answer the purpose if it does not contain ingredients that are
injurious to the eyes.
It may often occur, however, that the hen will not have been properly
treated, and so lice and mites will be found on the young; and, in order
that the poults may live and thrive, they must be freed of these enemies.
As soon as the young are ready to leave the nest they must be examined
carefully for lice, which may be on top of the head, under the throat, or
about the wings or vent. Some of them are gray in color and difficult to
see. They may be destroyed by the use of sweet oil, rubbing a very small
amount upon the head and throat; insect powder is sufficient for the other
parts of the body. It is very important that only a small amount of the
sweet oil be used, as too much is injurious. Kerosene should never be used
to destroy parasites.
III. Gapes.
After extenial paiasitee, the most destructive ailment of young turkeys
id the ffqn}&.
1219
1220 rvrLOPEDTA of live stock and complete stock doctor.
Cait.se of the trouble. — This comes from certain small worms that are
picked up by the young turkeys in places that have become infested with
them. Some believe that the angleworm is the cause of the spreading of
gapes, and it probably is one of the causes. It is possible for the angle-
worm or other worms to be infested by gape worms, and thus, when eaten,
to cause the gapes in young chickens and turkeys. Whenever the ground
is infested with the gapeworm eggs they may readily infest all the angle-
worms in the same soil, and the eating of these may cause the infestation
of the young poults.
Treatmeiit. — Many remedies are recommended for this ailment, few of
which have ever proven of much advantage. A feather or a twisted horse
hair may be introduced into the windpipe for the removal of the gape-
worms. Some recommend the feeding of finely chopped garlic and of
turpentine in the mash, while others suggest the uiixing of a teaspoonful
of naphtha or benzine in enough mixed food for a dozen poults. The
theory of the use of these remedies is that the fumes from the turpentine
or the benzine will pass through the entire body and into the wind])i])e
and destroy the gapeworm.
These remedies are known to have destroyed as well as to have cured,
and great precaution must be observed in their administration ; try them
on a few at a time and do not risk the destruction of the whole flock. An-
other remedy is to place the ailing chicks in a box over which has been
stretched some cheese cloth; take some very dry air-slaked lime and sift it
down onto the poults or chicks through the cheese cloth ; this fine dust
will penetrate the nostrils and throat and cause a violent coughing and
sneezing, which tends to dislodge the gapeworms and give relief. It is,
however, a dangerous remedy which should l)e cautiously used rather as
an experiment than as an absolute cure.
Prevention. — No saying could be more truly applied to this ailment
than "a pound of prevention is worth a ton of cure," and cleanliness is the
only sure preventive of gapes. Where the ground has become infested, a
very thin coating of slake lime should be scattered all over it early in the
spring before the frost is out of the ground and allowed to lie there until
the frost disappears, leaving the ground almost dry ; then take a hoe and
scrape off all the lime and one-half inch of the soil, cart it away, and bury
it at least four feet under ground.
Another plan is to sprinkle the soil with water into which has been
mixed some sulphuric acid; after twenty-four horn's cover the surface with
lime and turn the soil under with a plow. A surer and better way than
this is to remove your poultry plant to an entirely new part of the farm
where there is no danger of infestation, then spread a coating of lime over
the infested land and plow it under and cultivate it for a year or two.
Examinations made by opening the windpipes of dressed turkeys during
thf winter have frequently revealed the presence of two, three, or four
DISEASES OF THE TUKKEY. 1221
gapeworiiis aitaclicd to the lining membrane of the windpipe; thus is
shown the possibility of cai'rying the infection over in grown birds, which
nmst likewise be provided against. The grown turkey might be carefully
subjected to the lime-dust treatment ixs above, to produce coughing or
*sncezing, and some of the nm(;us may be tidvcn from the throat with a fine
platinum loop and examined under the microscope for worm eggs. Those
showing evidence of the presence of the worms should be kept isolated and
treated until they arc known to be free of the worms.
IV. Blackhead.
In many localities turkey growing ha.s become almost extinct its the
result of the scourge known as blackhead. This disease wiis first noticed
in New England, but quickly spread throughout the entire country.
Nature of the disease. — It first attacks the cecum — the blind gut situated
betw^ecn the large and small intestines. It also attacks the liver, this organ
becoming very nmch enlarged, often to twice its normal size, and showing
over its surface discolored spots varying from one-eighth to two-thirds of
an inch in diameter, shading in color from whitish lemon to dark yellow.
While this disetuse is attributed to microbes, it is thought to be very
much aggravated or increased through inbreeding. In other words, many
attribute the prevalence of wdiat is known as blackhead to the depleted
vitality of the stock of breeding turkeys, making it possible for the germs
to grow and gain destructive foothold.
Symptoms. — Diarrhea is the most marked and constant symptom, and
may be expected sooner or later in the course of the disease ; it results from
inflammation and internal weakness. A peculiar discoloration of the head
occurs when the disease is at its height, which has led to the popular
designation of blackhead. This disease attacks very young turkeys and
oft«n lasts for several months before causing death. The fact that the
propagation of this aff'ection is more active during midsunnner has led to
the belief that it is exclusively a summer disease.
Treatment. — The use of medicine has not proven very successful.
Among the remedies most recommended are sulphur, sulphate of iron,
quinine, and salicylic acid. Sulphur may be given, 5 to 10 grains being
combined with 1 grain of sulphate of iron ; or sulphur, 10 grains, sulphate
of iron, 1 grain, and sulphate of quinine, 1 grain. It is necessary that
such treatment be repeated two or three times a day and continued for
considerable time to obtain results.
Some people who have had experience with this ailment in recent
years believe that it results largely from inbreeding, the infection being
transmitted from one flock to another by afi'ected birds or eggs. The
remedies applied proving of little benefit, the only alternative is the intro-
duction of new, strong, and healthy stock. Some have gone so far as to
1222 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
destroy their entire flocks, and, after having thoroughly disinfected the
premises, started with new, healthy stock, while others have introduced
wild blood into their flocks.
In all bowel troubles in turkeys, feeding boiled rice has proven of ben-
efit, and it has been largely practiced by experienced growers. Many feed
the boiled rice to the young poults to prevent the coming of the destructive
diarrhea. The most successful way to obviate a dangerous looseness of
the bowels is to avoid feeding wet or sloppy food and guard the young
from taking cold. The feeding of small particles of charcoal is beneficial
to the young from the fact that it sweetens the crop and gizzard and
prevents fermentation, which is very injurious and destructive. Above
all things, never make use of infected turkeys for breeding stock.
V. Tapeworm.
Tapeworm and worms of all kinds are very injurious to turkeys.
Syrrhptoms. — The presence of the tapeworm may be recognized through
the indolent, drowsy spirits of those infested with it; a careful examina-
tion of the voidings will also reveal its presence, as those infesiod will pass
small portions of the worm.
Treatment. — Powdered male fern is an effective remedy, and may be
administered in doses of from 30 grains to 1 dram of the powder; or of the
liquid extract, 15 to 30 drops. This should be administered morning and
evening before feeding, the minimum dose to the younger, increasing the
dose as they grow older. Oil of tuipcntine is an excellent remedy against
worms of all kinds which inhabit the digestive organs of poultry. A com-
mon remedy made use of by some for the removal of worms from fowls is
one drop of kerosene oil night and morning. This should not be adminis-
tered to the very young, but may be used with impunity after they are a
few weeks old.
VI. Diarrhea.
Looseness of the bowels or diarrhea is quite too often mistaken for
cholera; but such looseness may come from any of the several causes, such
as bad feeding, dampness, filth, or infestation with lice. The removal of
the cause is the very best cure. Feeding boiled rice and a little charcoal,
as already stated, will prove of great benefit. The remedy most often
used is a mixture of equal parts of ground ginger, cinnamon, cloves, and
cayenne pepper. This is mixed into the mash food, about a stroked tea-
spoonful to a dozen very young pouUs. Double the amount after they are
four or five weeks old. What is known as Sun cholera mixture is very
beneficial, either when mixed in the drinking water or the mash food.
This may be given so that each would have from 5 to 20 drops at a time,
according to age.
DISEASES OF THE TURKEY.
1223
VII. Cholera.
Cholera, when present in its tnie form, is a most uncompromising dis-
eno-c. The only thing that can be done to save a flock of turkeys attacked
with true cholera is to remove all the ailing ones immediately and destroy
them. Transfer those not attacked to some other part of the farm and
thoroughly disinfect and clean up the locality where they have been,
feeding nothing but a slight grain diet for a short time. Medical treat-
ment has been of very little service in this ailment. The drugs that have
been used are sulphur, copperas, capsicum, alcohol, and resin, either
administered separately, or equal parts thoroughly mixed together and
administered in the mash food.
Diarrhea and blackhead are often mistaken for cholera. If it is always
remembered that the carcass, no matter from what cause the fowl may
have died, should be either burned up or buried at least 4 feet under-
ground, no infection to other fowls is likely to result. No other known
cause of the spreading of the disease equals the permitting of dead bodies
of infected fowls to lie about.
Turkeys, like poultry of all other kinds, are subject to the other diseases
and ailments which affect fowls, most of which may be prevented or
avoided if proper care and attention are given to the sanitary conditions
and to the proper feeding of the stock.
OF BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK. MALE. HEAD OF BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK. FEMALE,
1224
CVCLOrEDlA VF LIVE STOCK A^D COMl-LKTE 8TOCK DOCTOR.
A PAIR OF DARK BRAHMAS.
A PAIR OP LIGHT BRAHMAS.
BOOK VI
BEES
HISTORY AND CHARACTERISTICS,
WITH DIRECTIONS FOR THEIR
SUCCESSFUL MANA(]EMENT
l''! <v<[.(ii'i;i>rA n\- ( 1
■ONfl'LETK ^'irir'K riOPTOR.
THL GENDERS OF BEES. BE£-Ke'^^'=::# AND SWARM.
BEES.
CHAPTER I.
VARIETIES AND PECULIARITIES OP BEES.
2. NATURAL IIISTORV OF BEES. II. THE TIIUEE GENDERS OF THE HONEY BEE.
III. VARIETIES OF THE HONEY BEE. —IV. THE SO-CAl.l.EI) ^lEEN OR MOTHEB
BEE. V. THE NUMBER OF EOGS LAID. VI. DRONES OR JIALE BEES. VII
NEUTER OR WORKER BEES. VIII. VARIETIES OF HONEY. IX. WAX AND
HOW IT IS FORMED. X. PLANTS ADAPTED TO THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY.
I. Natural History of Bees.
Ill all liuips, and among all nations and tril)es, however savage, the
honey bee has been held in high esteem. Among savages and barbarians
bees have always been prized for the stores of sweets they produce, and
among more civilized people, for the interest attached to the study of
their peculiarities and habits, as well as for the value of the honey as an
article of food or luxury.
The honey bee belongs to the ord^r Hexapods, that is true insects : and
to the sub-order IJyrnenoptera. This sub-order includes wasps, ants,
sand-flies and ichneumon flies. The group com})rises insects havin:? ^
tongue for taking liquid food, as well as strong jaws for gnawing and
biting. The family to which the honey bee belongs (Ap/'dm), includeg
all in.sects which feed their young or larvoe on pollen and honey.
Insects of this family have broad heads ; also antennne or feelers, usu-
ally thirtecn-jointed in the male, and only twelve-jointed in the female;
the jaws (77iandibles)x(iry strong, often toothed ; the tongue (h'gidc) long ;
the second jaws [maxilla') one on each side of the tongue, also long ; and
the tongue, when not in use, generally folded back once or twice
under the head. The Jarv<f, .are footless, maggot-like grubs, which are
fed on honey and jJoUcn ; and a ])eculiarity of the honey bee is, that the
neuter egg may be changed during its growth, by the workers, when
necessary, so that the fertile or mother form (queen) is produced.
The mother bee is impregnated but once, and lives several 3'ears laying
eggs, producing neuter bees or males, apparently at will, though probably
according to a natural law not yet fully understood. The worker bees
live vr*- over one vear, and the males are destroyed at the end of the first
1227
1228 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
summer's growth. This much must suffice, since the ol)ject is not to
write a dissertation on the natural history of the honey bee, but simply to
give such information as will assist the practical farmer in keeping such
a number of swarms as 'his range will support, without seriously interfer-
ing with the ordinary labor of the farm.
There is a poetry lingering about tlie sui)je(!t of bees and bee-keepings
that prol)ably will never be eradicated from the human mind, a feeling
that lias come down from the earliest anti(juity, and fostered from gen-
eration to generation, among all peoples, especially so until the produc-
tion of other sweet substances became i)ossible to man. Another reason,
and perhaps the key note to the poetry of the subject, is the curiouM as
well as perfect economy of this interesting species, in all its details.
II. The Three Genders of the Honey Bee.
We tind these interesting insects living in colonies of many thousands,
apparently under an intelligent system of government, composed of three
distinct classes. These are the female, or mother bee, the neuters, or
workers, and the males. The single female in a swarm has, for her sole
province, to lay the eggs fi-om wliich the young are hatched ; the males
QUEKN BEE.
WORKER.
or drones have no other duty save that of impregnating the single female
once, thus rcMidering her fertile for life ; the worker bees, whose gender
is neuter, gather all the food, prepare the wax, build the cells, store the
honey, feed the young larviw bees, clean the hive, and perform all the
labor. These three classes of bees are re})resented by the cuts ; the out'-
lines are all enlarged, but n^tain the relative proportions each to the
others. Thus, the young bee-keeper may readily distinguish each variety
of bee at sight. For the want of such object lessons wc have known old
men who had, as farmers, kept bees all their lives, unable to distinguish
one from the other, and, in fact, who had never seen the mother bee at
all
VARIETIES AND PECULIARITIES OF BEES.
III. Varieties of the Honey Bee.
1229
Our domestic hoc belongs to the Apis MelUfica, and is a native of the
Eastern nomisphore, none having ])een known in the westci-n half of the
globe, until brought here from beyond the Atlantic ; but once introtiuced,
they have taken kindly to our climate, and arc now spread over the
whole of North America where the winters are not too severe, since their
natural instinct of swarming enables them easily to escape from domestic
catio'.i. The varieties of the honey bee best known are the Black, or
Gernuin bee, and the Italian, or Ligurian bee, both of which varieties
were known as long ago as the time of Aristotle, 400 years before Christ.
The so-called Black bees are not really black, bi'.t a gray-black. The
specitic distinction between the two varieties al)ove mentioned was tirsi
made by Spinola, in 1805, who called one the German, and the other the
Ligurian, the name Italian being a synonym, adopted lately for the
reason that the tirst well-known importation of them to the United
States was from Italy. In 1850, these " Italians " were imported sim-
ultaneously into England and the United States from (iermany, and the
next ycvir an im[)oi1ation was made direct to the United States from
Italy, where they were systematically ke[)t, ; and now they aie generally
disseminated throughout the United States and Canada.
The German Ix'cs are pretty much self-colored. The Italians are
easily distinguished by the l)right yellow rings — three in number when
the breed is pure — at the ))aseof tlie abdomen.
The Egvptian bees {fasciafa or banded) ai'c broadly banded with y el-
low. They are smaller, more slender and yellower than the Italians, anci
are supi)osed to be the bees mentioned in scripture. Vogel states that
they gather no propolis ; they are also reported to be active, to stand the
cold well, and to be cross and more liable to sting than either the Ger-
man or Italian. Italian bees are credited with being the best natureci
of any, a matter not difficult to account for under the laws of heredity,
since they are the oldest of thoroughly domesticated bees.
Another variety of bees that has received attention is the Cyprian
bee, which is yellow, and undoubtedly a variety of the Italian. A vari-
ety of Italians has recently been sold, called Albinos, from their white
hairs ; the probability is that all Italian bees have these white-haired
individuals naturally among them. The Carnolian, the Heath, the Her-
zeo-ovinian, and the Krainer l)ees are also described by fanciers. In
these days of sharp practice there are yearly candidates for the farm-
er's money on every hand. Our advice is that farmers stick to the Ger-
man and Italian ; they are good enough for every day use.
1230 CYCLOPEDIA or LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
IV. The So-Called Queen or Mother Bee.
The mother bee has no sovereign attributes, though the ancients called
her the King, and hence our name Queen, adopted since her true gender
became known. She is simply a perfectly developed female with ova-
ries occupying nearly the whole of her abdomen, which, as shown in the
cut, is of great length ; and the spermatheca, capable of being compressed
at will, is capable, according to Lenckart, of containing 25,()()0,()()0 sper-
matozoa. Hence, the mother bee may lay fertile or infertile eggs at pleas-
ure. She is longer than cither the drones or workers ; her wings are
shorter; and although armed with a [)owerful .sting, .slic seldom uses it.
It has been a mooted question, whether it be possible for the mother ])ee
to be impregnated except while on the; wing; the i)robal)ility is that she
can only be thus rendered fertile, the male losing his life with the
accomplishment of the act.
V. The Number of Eggs Laid.
The energy Avith which the mother bee lays eggs is startling. It is her
sole province to keep the colony populous, and since the life of the worker
is short, her activity nmst be fully employed, during mild weather. She is
capable of laying from 2,000 to 3,000 eggs a day when necessary, and has
been known to lay six eggs in one minute. That most careful observer,
Berlej^sch, says he had a queen that laid 3,021 eggs in twenty-four hours,
by actual count, and 57,000 eggs in twenty days ; that this queen con-
tinued prolific for five years, and must have laid more than 1,300,000
eggs at a low average during this time. Other careful observers, notably
Dzierzon, say queens may lay over 1,000,000 eggs.
VI. Drones or Male Bees.
The drones are the male bees, and their presence or absence often
seems to be determined by the necessities of the colony. It is probable
that, if allowed, the drones would live as long as the worker bees ; but
from May to November is the time when they are usually found in the
hives. The usual number in a hive is from two hundred to three hun-
dred, but less than half this number may safely be left by the bee keeper
to ensure the impregnation of the young queens at swarming time. The
worker bees kill all remaining drones in the autunm, usually before hard
frosts occur. An unimpregnatcd queen will lay eggs producing drones
only, but after fertilization can lay either worker eggs or those producing
male bees, apparently at will.
VII. Neuter or Worker Bees.
The worker bees are undeveloped females, that is with abortive ovaries ;
sometimes, though rarely, they become so far developed as to lay drone
VARIETIES AND PECULIARITIES OF BEES, 1231
eggs. How this happens is not certainly known, but the probability is
that they may hcwc been partially fed with the food used ia producing
queens. This is the opinion of Burlepsch, and Langstroth, but the opin-
ion of Huber is, that, reared near royal cells, they received the same food
accidentally. They do not differ from the ordinary worker except in the
power of laying eggs as stated. The number of workers in a hive will
range from 1,500 to 4,000, and even more ; about 3,500 should be con-
tained in every strong colony of bees.
The worker bees are peculiarly constituted for the work ; the tongue,
labial jj(7ij9?' and jaws are long, and the tongue hairy, enabling them easily
to lap up their li(juid food. When filled, the tongue is doubled back, and
disengaged of its load by the inclosing paljji and jaws, and the load is
sucked into the honey bag. The bees have, also, the power of injecting
the contents of the honey bag for feeding bees, or for fiUing the honey
cells. The jaws are strong, with semi-conical cutting edges, so they
may cut comb, knead wax, and perform the other work intended by
nature. Their eyes are like those of the queen, but the wings are longer
and, like those of the drones, reach the end of the body whan at rest.
The three cuts on pagel228will show the differences perfectly.
On the outside of the posterior limbs next the body, is a rim of hairs,
forming what is called the pollen basket. The pollen is gathered by the
organs of the mouth, and carried back by the four anterior legs. On the
anterior legs is a notch covered by a spur ; its use is not well known. The
sting of the worker is strong, sharp and straight, unlike that of the queen,
which is curved. The gland which secretes the poison is double, and the
poison sack is the size of a flax seed. The sting is triple, and armed with
barbs. Hence the sting is not easily withdrawn when once fully inserted,
and hence the bee so stinging loses its life, since the sting and a portion
of the alimentary canal are left in any tenacious substance it may pene-
trate, as t^e skin of the hand for instance,
vm. Varieties of Honey.
Natural honey is the fluid nectar of f.owers. It undergoes slight modi-
fications in the honey bag of the bees, and is somewhat changed chemically,
but retains the flavor, and to a certain extent, the aroma of the flowers
from which it is gathered. Hence, certain districts noted for special
plants, and aromatic flowers, produce highly prized honey, while other
districts produce unwholesome honey from the noxious or poisonous flow-
ers. Thus in ancient times, the honey gathered in the district of Mount
Ida was famous for its excellence, while that of Trebizond w;is abhorred.
Honey contains grape sugar, manna, gum, mucilage, extractive matter,
the odor of the flowers from which it was taken, and a little wax, pollen
1232 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLKTE STOCK DOCTO' ^.
and acid. In fact, it is said that under the microscope, me ipoflen con-
tained has deteiinined some of the flowers from which tne noney was
taken. When tiist drawn from the comb the honey is quite fluid, but in
time candies, as it is termed, that is, the solid ;^lucose separates from the
fluid parts, and is identical, chemically, with grape sugar ; nevertheless the
solid and fluid parts are not essentially different. All honey tends to
crystalize with age, and become ycHow.
The adulterations of honey arc various. That from glucose (" corn
sugar") is the most diflicult of detection ; starch, chalk and ether solids,
may be detected b}' hwiting the honey, whereupon these impurities will
settle to the bottom. Of late years the tilling of old comb with glucose
has been so largely i)racticed, that it is not safe to buy any but white
comb, capped over. Hence pure comb, capped by the bees, commands
two or three times the price of strained honey.
rx. Wax and How It is Formed.
The wax used by bees in the formation of the cells is a solid, unc-
tuous substance, secreted by the bees in pellets of an irregular pentagon
shape, on the under side of the abdomen ; it is in very thin scales,
secreted by and moulded upon the membrane towards the body from the
wax-pockets. There are four wax-pockets on a side, and thus eight
scales may be secreted at a time.
Wax is a costly product for tiie bees, the production of one ounce of
wax requiring the consumption of about twenty ounces of honey.
Hence, modern ingenuity has invented a machine for pressing out thin
scales of wax of the true hexagonal shape, although the natural combs
are not true hexagons. The formation of the comb by bees is one of the
most interesting and wonderful things in nature. The walls of anew cell
are only 1-1 80th of an inch in thickness, and so formed as to combine
the greatest possible strength with the least material, and the least cost
of space. The drone cells are about one-fifth larger than those of the
workers, the diameter of the worker cells averaging little more than one-
fifth of an inch, while drone cells are a little more than one-fourth of an
inch, or, according to Reamur, respectively two and three-fifths lines,
and three and one-third lines.
Comb, when first formed, is always transparent; when dark, it has
become so from being used as brood comb, the color being due to the
cocoons left in the cells. When used solely for honey, they are often
drawn out even to an inch in length. The capping of the brood-cells is
dark, porous, and convex, while the capping of those in which honey is
etored, is white and concave.
VARIETIES AND PECULIARITIES OF BEES. 1233
X. Plants Adapted to the Production of Honey.
Aside from aititic'«.l feeding, the practice of which will hardly be
adopted and cannot be advised among fanners, or those who do not make
bee-keeping a special business, the prevalence of honey-l)earing plants-
must be specially considered, in deciding upon the number of hives
vvhich may be profitably kept. It is generally supposed that garden
flowers are a prolific source from which bees get their stores ; such, howv
ever, is not the case. In the West those annuals or perennials prolific in
honey are, many <»f them, spicous, and of great vahie aside from this use.
Of the clovers, the Alsike, the White, and the Sweet clover are eminenl
for their bee-feeding qualities. The last named is of no value except
as bee i)asturage.
Bee-keepers have l)eeii accused of purposely sowing this fragi'ant weed
for this purpose, much to the annoyance of farmers, and it cannot 1)6
deni(Kl that it has l)ecome largely prevalent wh( re bee-keeping is estab-
lished as a distinct industry. These plants bloom in June and »Iuly.
while red clover is not available as bee food until the second groAjfth is
in blossom, after harvesting the first crop for hay. The earliest bU)om
will come from dandelion, the strawberry, and other wild and cultivated
plants, and the observing bee-keeper must be governed by the prevalence
of bloom, in estimating how many swarms may find forage during April!
and May — a most trying time for bees. In May and June the sumac
and the white sage are valuable i-i California, while in the South the
cotton plant is a prolific source of hoi'.ey from June until frost ; and
during this time, in various parts of the country, mustard, rape, the
milk weeds, and St. John's wort; yield abundant stores of honey. In
July, corn is the great honey-producing plant all over the West ; in
August, and thence until frost, buckwheat is the great honey producer ;
and during the later season, the vast array of wild flowers will be avail-
able, among them asters, golden-rod, the wild sunflowers, beggar-ticks,
Spanish needles, tick seed, etc.
In all forest regions the bees feed upon the bloom of shrubs and trees,
and in every locality upon orchard trees and bushes. The latter furnish
abundance of blooms, the apple especially, and the best time to change
swarms, or divide them, is when orchard trees are in full bloom.
The first trees to give bloom in the spring, are the red and white ma,*
pies, the aspens and willows. South of 40 degrees the red bud (Judas
tree) is prolific in its bloom. May gives us alder, sugar maple, haws,
crab-apple, and nearly all fruit trees and bushes. Late in May and early in
June we have the barberry, grape, white wood (tulip tree), sumac, and
during June the wild plum, raspberry and blackberry; July will give
1234
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
bass wood, Virginia creeper and button bush. In the South, all these
trees thrive in the hill region ; many of them we do not have in the West,
among them the sour wood. In California the pepper tree and
red gum, are noted for late bloom. When there is plenty of the
plants we have named, the bee-keeper need not fear but there will be
an al)undance of bloom of many species indigenous, but not mentioned
here.
CHAPTER II.
THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF BEES.
I. HIVES. II. NKMBKR OF SWARMS PUOKITAHKY KKIT ON A FARM IH.
SWARMlNfi. IV. llIVINd NKW SWARMS.— — V. TAKIN(; TlIK HONEY. VI.
WINTERIN(} HEFS. VM. IMPLEMENTS OF USE. VIII. A MOTHERLESS SWARM.
IX. FASTENIN(J EMPTY COMBS IN FRAMES. X. FEEDING BEES. XL
ENEMIES OF BEES. —XII. FOUL BROOD. XIII. CONCLUSION.
I. Hivos.
Whatever the hive used — the old fashioned close box hive is novv-a-
days obsolete — si!n[)licity is the main feature to be considered by the
farmer. Have nothing to do with a hive that is full of doors, drawers,
traps, or any of these devices to catch the unwary. Leave these to
experimental bee-keepers. If comb-honey in frames is desired, about
4,000 cubic inches should be the contents of the hive. If the surplus
honey is to be contained in caps, 2,000 cubic inches and even less will be
ample for the hive. In any event, the
hive should be closely jo-'ited, and care-
fully put together.
In oiu" opinion the Langstioth hive, or
some moditication of this form is best, all
things considered, for the farmer. Its
patent has now expired, and the cut we
give shows a hive that any carpenter can
make, or the several parts vau now be
bought ready to be put together of any
one dealing in bee-keepers, supplies,
packed for shipment. Its working parts
are easily adjusted; it is as near moth
proof and vermin proof as any hive —
none are really so. To the talent of Mr, Langstroth, who during his life
labored continuously in simplifying the "mysteries of bee-keeping," is
due, more than to an}' other one individual, the bringing of this interest-
ing art within the grasp of all.
On the next page are given two illustrations, showing different forms
of movable frames, the larger one filled with comb, while the smaller one
has only a few cells. The smaller frame is only about sis or eight inches
1235
MOVABLE FRAME HIVE.
1236 cycLOT*a)i^ of ViJVB stock and complete stock doctor.
square, and, \ 'he.: filled with comb, will contain about a pound of honey.
A number of then Miaced sMe by side, and joined together,
will oc(aipy the same space in the hive as the larger frame.
The .small frames a^e far more convenient ff)r handling
t.han the larger ones, ai^d by their use the honey can be sold
in the frames i;i q?.ii..ntidcs to suit retail buyers. Most of
the California honey shipped eastward, comes in these snii.-! ^'^mall frame.
frames just as the bees made it.
As bcfon; said, whatever the hive let
it be sim-jle ; and since none of the
standard hives are now covered by
patents, a practical man ought to be
able easily to judge what suits his idea
lest. The cut will show one of the
jiovablc frames filled with a wired
f^.i taken as show li -^ a movable frame
MOVABLE FRAME FILLED AVITH COMP
comb foundation, and may also
filled with coml).
II. Number of Swarmt Pi'ofltably kept, on a b arm.
The great mistake made by farmers in bee keeping is, t^iat they are too
eager to increase the number of their swarms. When a few swanns are
kept the bees remain healthy and give plenty of sur[)lus honey, because
they find plenty of natural forage. Swarms, on the other hand, are ex-
tended until ten, tAventy, fifty, and even more, are working; then come
light crops of honey, disease, moth and other pests, and, at last, starva-
licr puts an end to the experiment. Artificial feeding and precise care
may, indeed; prevent this ; but the fanner cannot spare the time from
his other duties, though the specialist may. We have never been able to
keep more than twenty swarms, even on one of the best of feeding
grounds, without special care and feedhig ; and the greatest profit for
the least outlay has been from ten or twelve swarms ; seme locations
will not support more than half this number. Every farm r nge should
keep five or six sAvarms nicely. Our advice, therefore, is, understock
rather than overstock.
m. Swarming.
The proper time for bees to sAvarm is as early in the season ii pos-
sible. If they have been properly wintered, that is, if they are strong,
swarming will begin about the time apple trees are in full bloom. The
old adage says,
A swarm in May, is worth a load of hay ;
A swarm in .June, is Avorth a silver spoon;
A swarm la Julyt is no*' worth a fly."
THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF BEES.
12^
This it will be well for every farmer to remember. The eariy swarms
become populous, and have plenty of honey before the dry season
and heat cut off the honey supply, and can carry themselves through.
The late swarm is weak, gets weakei-, and finally succumbs to the
inevitable.
IV. Hiving New Swarms.
Jn working about bees, at any time, and for whatsoever purpose, there
must be no haste, sudden movements, or excitement of any kind. This
is what causes stinging. If you crush a bee, or if it gets pinched in any
part of your dress, you will be stung; if not, there is little danger,
unless you go about your work in an excitable manner. If you are so
unfortunate as to be stung, get out of the way as quietly and quickly as
possible ; the odor of the sting will excite the whole colony. It is well to
protect yourself against stingingin the most perfect manner ; apair of buck-
skin gauntlets tied securely over the cuffs of the coat,
the bottom of the pantaloons tied firmly about the boot
tops, thick, loose clothing, and a bee veil afford per-
fect security to even those whom bees dislike (hasty
persons), and to those who fear bees (timid })ersons).
A bee veil is sinq)ly a piece of bobinct, huge enough
to tie over the head, as shown in the (uit , and whicli
may be fastened by being tucked under the to}) of the
coat, or tied about the collar.
Have your hives ready, and all prepared beforehand.
If the bees are settled upon a handy bush, simply
shake them carefully into the hive, as many as you
can ; cover and place it near where the other bees may
enter. If the greater pait of the swarm fall on the
ground, drive them to the entrance, by gently and carefully sweeping
them with something soft. When they begin to enter, leave them alone
until evening, when they must be set where they are to remain. If the
swarm has settled ui)on a limb so high that it cannot be reached by a
ladder, climb to it, tie a rope securely to the limb l)(•^()IHl wIkmc you
wish to saw, let the end pass over a limb still higher, and thence to the
ground. An assistant holds the end of the rope anil eases the limb as it
begins to be severed, so it comes down gently, and often without seri-
ously disturbing the ])ees ; pass it gently to the ground, i)ut the bees
into the hive, as before dii'ected, and it will be found that this is about
all the " mystery " in hiving bees. Watch for indications of swarming,
and be ready, and you will seldom lose a swarm.
I'.KK VKIL.
i'l'AH CYCLOPEDIC OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR
We never knew a swarm to go directly away without clustering, the
Krst time they came out. Hence the beating of tin pans, and throwing
water, or sand among an issuing swarm is all nonsense. But if they rise
directly up and seem inclined to make off, a good dash of M^ater or sand
will often bring them down, probably on the principle that they think it
a bad day for swarming. Wire swarm-catchers are sometitnes used. A
bushel l)asket on a suital)lo handle is excellent, when a swarm is to be
shaken down from a limb.
V. Taking the Honey.
Never undertake to work iibout a colony of bees unless you are sure
they are tilled with honey. At the first alarm of any kind, tapping on
the hive, or smoking, their first impulse is to
fill themselves with honey, to be ready for
any emergency. Once filled, which need not
take nu)i-e fhan five minutes, they are quiet,
and will not sting unless they are hurt ; pro-
BELLOWS AN1> SMOKING TUBK. ^.^.^.^j ^^^j^^,^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^.^^^^^^^^ ^j^^ j^^^^^^^ ^^^j
pay no attention to the flying bec^s — if you do you will get stung. A good
form of smoker — very little smoking will do — is given in the cut. A few
whiffs from a smoker's pipe answers
very well. If any honey wished to be
removed, sticks, loosen it or cut through
jjoNEY KNIFE. it with a thin knife. The cut shows the
best form of honey knife.
VI. Wintering Bees.
A gooa siaiid for bees is a simple shed, tight on the sides and facing
the cast ; the roof should be water-proof ; if then you have shutters for
the front to l)e put up in winter, to keep out drifting snow, you have a
good place both for summering and for wintering bees. Bees, of course,
may be most economically wintered in a cold, dry, light, well-ventilated
cellar ; but this again belongs to the professional Ai)iarist, and wants nice
manao-ement. The healthiest and best place for the farmer to winter
bees is in such a house as we have mentioned, further protected with
cornstalks, or straw mats. The hives should be placed within twelve
inches of the ground ; this is, also, the pi-oper distance for summer. The
main thing in summer is to guard against extreme heat, and in winter
against driving storms, especially snow. Bees will stand extreme cold, if
they are healthy, and the hive contains thirty pounds of honey in the
autumn. They cannot stand wet, nor snow drifted among them in the
hives. ;
GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF BEES.
1289
Vn. Implements of Use.
In bee-keeping, as in every other art, certain implements and labor-
saving appliances are needed. For tailing honey from the hives, the
bee veil, the smoker and the honey knife are all that is necessary;
and where the honey is made in the small movable frames, already
described, the knife is discarded. Indeed, the implements of use
are but very few, so fnr as successful bee-keeping is practiced by
the farmer. We have figured the smoker and the honey knife. A pipe of
tobacco and any well tempered, thin knife will
answer. There are centrifugal machines in use for
extracting honey from tl-e comb, when it is wanted to
be again returned to the hive. A cut of a good form
is given. This again belongs more to the i)rofessional
bee keeper than to the farmer.
VIII. A Motherless Swarm.
Sometimes, from one cause or another, a colony of
bees loses the (pieen or mother bee, and has no hirvie
from which to rear another ; or, the bee keeper may
choose to divide swarms, giving a nucleus of Ihrco
frames. These are taken from the center frames of
other hives ; take bees and all, but be sure the queen
is left in the old hive, and shake among those in the
nucleus hive the bees from two or t hi'ee more frames,
so that after the departure of those that will naturally
leave and return to their old homes, enough will be left to keep up the
requisite warmth in the hive. First, however, you must tind a frame
containing one or more capped queen cells ; cut a triangular piece out of
one of the fi'anies to be inserted in the
nucleus swarm, cutting away the bot-
tom as shown in the illustration, so
there shall be no danger of conipies-
sion of the queen cell. Then cut a
})iece containing a queePi cell from the
other frame, and fasten it to tli<^ frame
— see the illustration, also showing
other queen cells — and after putting
this in the nucleus hive, i)ut in the
other two fi-anies and l)ees as directed.
We could hardly advise the farmer Dee-
FURNisHiNG A QiiEKN CELL. kccpcr to adopt this plan, but it is
well to know how, in case it becomes necessary to furnish a queen cell tc
an unfortunate swarm
CMCNTKIKITGAL EX-
niACTOK.
1240 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
UTTLIZTNO PIECES OF OOMB.
IX. Fastening Empty Comb in Frames.
On pn.goll02i£ a cut of a wired coinb foundation; any com b even
^ ^ in pioces may be utilized hy a little cut-
ling and fitting, and temporarily fastened
with wire or thin narrow strips tied top
and bottom as shown v.\ the annexed cut,
until the bees secure it, which they will do
::' a day or two.
X. Feeding Bees.
If a swarm, from lack of forage,
becomes insnfticiently supplied with honey to carry them through the
winter, or if it be found that they lack food in the early spring, they must
be fed. The best thing is strained honey, of course ; the only other
admissible thing is granulated sugar made into a syrup of the consist-
ency of honey. If the object be to stimulate bees to commence rearing
brood early, a half pound to a pound of sugar a day, early in the spring
and continued until bloom is plenty will be sufficnent. If they are starv-
ing, enough must be given to fully supply their wants and some to spare.
If the bees require feeding in the fall, it should be given in such quanti-
ties that they may begin the winter with fully thirty pounds of capped
honey per swarm. It is best not to guess at the weight ; mark the weigh"'
of every empty hive plainly on it before the bees are put in, and then
you may know pretty nearly how much honey the swarm has by the siire
test of weighing.
We give two cuts, one of the feeding hox invented by Mr, Shuck, the
C^)
^1^
9
other Professor Cook's couibined division
board and feeding box. Any suitable ves-
vel that will hold honey, with a float on
top, pierced with holes, that the bees can
feed through, will answer well enough, and
this may be placed in the upper chamber of the hive, secure from other
bees.
COOK'S DIVISION BOAKl> AND
KEEDEIJ.
GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF BEES.
XI. Enemies of Bees.
211
There are many enemies of bees, among them the mosquito hawk, or
WOKK OF THE LARV^: IN COMB.
BEK MOTH.
(.levil's darning-needle, as it is some-
times called. The bee-killer (Asil-
us) is a two winged fly, which seizes
the bee and sucks its fluids. A Ta-
china fly has the reputation of laying
its eggs ill the l)odies of bees occasionally. Large spiders rarely entangle
bees in their nets. Ants sometimes depredate on bees. These, how-
ever, may be provided against, as may mice, toads, and the king bird.
The worst enemy to bees is the moth, which, if a swarm is not strong,
will soon ruin it entirely with the webs and larva. The moth lays its
eggs in the miimtest crack, and the young find their way into the hive,
where they soon destroy the swarm by filling everything with their webs,
as they progress. Tiieir manner of working is shown in the cut en-
titled "work of the larvie in comb."
XII. Foul Brood.
This fungous disease of bees, once it gets a foothold in an apiary, gen-
erally carries destruction with it. It is quite contagious ; Schonfeld, of
Germany, not only infected the healthy larvje of bees Avith the germ, but
other insects also. The symptoms are a steady decline in the colony ;
llie brood becomes brown and salv}^ and gives off a l)ad smell like that
of putrefaction. The spores arc in the honey and the bees eating this and
feeding it to the young brood, infect them. A remedy said to be suc-
cessful in eradicating the disease is as follows:
8 Grains salicylic acid,
8 Grains soda borax,
1 Ounce rain watei-.
Uncap all the brood
<r machine.
Or in this proportion for the quantity needed,
and throw the solution over thecomb with a sprayin
XIII. Conclusion.
Those who wish to go into bee-keeping extensively must educate 1 hem-
selves by means of books written particularly on the subject of bees in all
1242 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVK «TOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
the minutiffi of their care. What we have given is a guide to those whoj
like the writer, may wish to keep a few swarms of bees.
The trying time for bees in the West is the extreme cold of our wm-
ters, and the droughts of summer. These must be guarded against.
The same care must be exercised with bees as with any other farm stock.
No farmer of sense would overstock his pasture ; do not, therefore, imag-
ine l)ccausc ])ees have the power of fliirht that the}^ can forage indefinitely.
They cannot. Their extreme power of flight is about three miles. Their
most economical working range is, according to our observation when the
country was new, only about one-half mile. They must first find flowers
before they can get honey. Hence our advice, before increasing your
swarms largely, be sure those you ah'eady have are somewhat lazy.
It is not hard to tell if your neighbor's bees and your own are overlap
ping on the feeding grounds. Dust a Httlc flour on a bee, after it has filled
itself from a saucer of honey offered to it. Sec which way it flics, and
if it flies away from home, be sure that either your neighi)or is over-
stocked, or else that j^ou have not enough. Remember, however, that a
few heavy swarms are better than many weak ones. It is the honey you
are after, and not numbers of swarms. In handling bees, do so deliber-
ately and sagaciously, and you will not be stung. Do not make experi-
ments largely in new hives, or in bee foods. Stick to a simple form of
hive, and puic sugar syrup as food. Keep no more swarms than can
easily forage to the full capacity of the hives. Take surplus honey as
soon as it is ready, and keep plenty of empty boxes on hand for the honey
harvest. But be very careful how you allow your cupidity to rob the
hives in the fall, lest bees may not have enough to amply carry them
through the winter, and fully up to the time when flowers are plenty
GLOSSAHY OP SCIENTIFIC AND OTHER TERMS, IN GENERAL USE,
WITH THEIR DEFINITIONS.
Ablactation — A weaning or cessation from sucklins:.
Abomasum — The last or fourth stomach of riuninating animals.
Abdomen — The portion of the body containing- the stomach and intestines ;
the belly.
Abnormal — That which is not natural or regular.
Abortion — The casting of the young in an unnatural manner, and before
the proper time.
Abrade, Abrasion — To rub off, to wear away by contact, as rubbing off
the surface of the skin, j)roducing galls.
Abrupt — Quick, sudden ; an abrui)t turn or twist in the intestine maj-
produce strangulation of the parts.
Abscess — A swelling and its cavity containing pus or matter. A cavity
containing i)us.
Abscission — The cutting away or removal of a part.
Absorb — Swallowing up, drinking in.
Absorbent — In anatomy, those vessels which imbibe or suck up, as the
lacteals or lymphatics. Jn medicine, any substance, as chalk, mag-
nesia, etc., used to absorb acidity in the stomach.
Absorption — The taking up by the vessels of the body of any substance
either natural or unnatural, as the serum of dropsical swellings.
Acardiatrophia — Atrophy or wasting of the heart.
Aaphalhremia — Anaemia, or lack of blood, in the brain.
Accelerate — Growing quicker or faster, as an accelerated pulse.
Acid — Sour. The last fermentation before the putrid.
Acidulate — To make slightly sour, as with lemon, vinegar, or the UAin
eral acids.
Accretion — Increase, or growing as an exostosis or umiatural growth of
bone.
Aceni — Stony growths of the liver, resembling berries.
Acrid — Sharp, pungent, biting, irritating, as the. strong acids.
Acute — Severe, sharp. In diseases, those which soon come to an end in
contradistinction to chronic.
Action — The paces of a horse, either natural or acquired.
Actual — The production of an immediate effect, as by the use of a hot
iron (actual cautery) in contradistinction to the effect of cscharotics,
as a caustic application.
1243
1244 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK aKD COMPLETE 8T0C;K DOCTOR.
Acupresmre — Arresting hemorrhage, as by means of a needle passed
twice through a wounded substance at the side next the heart
Adamantine Substance — The enamel of the teeth.
Adenitis — Inflammation of a gland or glands.
Adermatrophia — Atrophy (wasting) of the skin.
Adhesion — A joining together, as the union of parts in healing.
Adhesive — That which adheres, as certain plasters.
Adij)ose — Fatty matter ; belonging to fat.
Adolescence — The period between puberty (the age of procreation) and
the full development of the physical system.
Adult — The age succeeding adolescence, and preceding old age.
Aerate — Mixing with air, as the blood in the lungs, by which it absorbs
oxygen.
^doea — Genital organs.
Etiology — Relating to the doctrine or probable cause of a disease.
Affection — Disease, or disease of some particular part.
Affinity — 'i'he attraction which causes particles of l)odies to adhere and
form compounds. That which causes substances to cohere.
Affluence — Determination of the blood or of humors to a i)art.
Albuminuria — That condition in which the urine contains albumen and
an excess of urea, coagulablc by means of nitric acid and heat.
Albumen — Substances, animal and vegetable, resembling the white of
an egg.
Aliment — Solid or liquid substance tiiken as food.
Alimentary Canal — The bowels.
Alkali — Any substance which will neutralize an acid, as magnesia, soda,
potash, etc.
Alkaloid — A saliflal)le base existing in some vegetaljles, differing from
alkali in composition and general properties, and having nothing in
connnon except their basic properties. Brucia, emetia, morphia,
strychnia, etc., are alkaloids.
Alter — A term in common use for castration.
Alterative — A medicine chanii:in<r the functions and condition of the
organs of the body.
Alum — Sulphate of alumina and potassa.
Alveoli — The sockets in the jaw bone in which the teeth are situated.
Amaurosis — Partial or total loss of vision from paralysis of the retina.
Amputation — The operation in surgery of cutting off a limb.
Anoimia — Poverty of the blood as opposed to plethora. Too few red
corpuscles and two nniny white corpuscles in the bh^od.
Anasarca — Dropsical swellings as of the limbs, abdomen, chest, etc.
Anbury — A soft spongy tumor.
GLOSSARY OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS. 124.")
Aneurism — Dilatation of an artery producing a tumor ; lesion of an
artery ; dilatation of the heart.
Analysis — Separation into parts; resolving into the original elements.
Anatomy — The art of dissecting, or separating the different parts of
the body. The science of the structure of the body, as learned by
dissection.
Anchylosis — The stiffening or rendering rigid a joint.
Anvesthetics — Agents which deprive of sensation and suffering, as chloro-
form, ether, etc.
Anodyne — A medicine to allay or diminish pain.
Anomalous — Deviating from the general character or rule.
Antacid — Opposed to or an antidote to acids.
Antagonism — Opposed in action ; one contradicting another.
Anterior — Before ; in front of another part.
Anthelmintic — Medicine to kill or expel worms.
Antidote — That which counteracts hurtful or noxious substances. A
remedy to counteract the effects of i)oison.
Antiperiodic — Medicine to arrest or retard the return of a paroxysm in
periodic disease.
Antiseptic — Agents for preventing, arresting or retarding putrefaction.
Anus — The fundament, or lower i)ortion of the bowel at the tail.
Aperient — Laxative medicine ; that which gently ojjerates on the bowels
Aphtha — Ulceration of the mouth, beginning with minute vesicles and
ending in white sloughs.
Apoplexy — Sudden effusion of blood into the substance of the brain.
Sometimes used for effusion into the substance of other organs or
tissues.
Ap)proximate — Coming near to. An aiii)roximate cure is by inoculating
for another disease.
Aqueous — Watery ; having the property of water, as watery matter,
aqueous j^us.
Aromatic — Strong smelling stimulants, given to dispel wind and relieve
pain.
Artery — Blood vessels which caiTy the red blood from the heart.
Articulate — Joinina:, working together or u))on one another, as the
bones.
Asthma — A disease attended with difficulty of breathing, and a sensation
producing wheezing, coughing and other distressing svmptoms.
Asphyxia — Death from strangulation of the lungs, from want of air.
Asthenopia — Weakness of the sight or vision.
Assimilate — To make like another; assimilation of food in the nutrition
of the body.
1240 CrCLOPEDIA OF LIVR STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DO OR.
Astragalus — The largest bono of the hock-joint, lying below the os
calcis.
Astringent — That which causes contraction of the bowels or vital struc«
tures. Astringents are medicines which suppress discharges, as from
the bowels, blood, mucus.
Attenuate — To draw out, to make thin, reduce in size.
Atrophy — Wasting of a part, as the muscles.
Atlas — The first bone of the neck or first cervical vertebra.
Atony — General weakness, want of tone.
Augment — To increase.
Auricle — The external part of the ear ; also parts of the heart, one on
each side resembling ears.
Auscultation — -The act of listening to sounds given b}' different parts of
the body when struck, especially to the sounds produced by the func-
tional motions of the lungs and heart by percussion.
Balk — To refuse to pull, or to refuse to go forward at command.
Bars — (Of the hoof.) The two ridges of horn, passing from the heels
of the hoof toward the toe of the frog. (Of the mouth.) The trans-
verse ridges on the roof of the mouth of the horse.
Base — The lower part, as the base of the brain ; the foundation.
Beneath — Under a certain part.
Bicipital — Two headed, as bicips muscles, bicipital groove, etc.
Biliary — Belonging to or pertaining to bile. Biliary du(!t, a canal con-
taining bile.
Biology — The doctrine of life, or of living bodies.
Bioplasm — The so called living or germinal self -propagating matter of
living beings.
Biped — Two footed.
Bolt — To swallow the food hurriedly without proper chewing.
Bolus — Medicines formed into a round or conduicical mass, for ease in
administering, often termed a ball. The cylindrical shape is the
proper one.
Boot — Buffer, a leather l)and, worn to prevent one foot outtmg the other
in traveling.
Bots — The grub of the fly equus equi, when in the stomach of the
horse.
Bougie — ^An instrument for opening the urethra, or urinary, or other
passages.
Bounded — Parts lying about another, surrounded by.
Breeding -in-and-in — Breeding to close relations, in the same sub-family,
as the produce of the same sire but of different dams, or of the tjame
sire and dam.
GLOSSARY OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS. 1247
Broxy-^A. term often applied to a number of fatal diseases of sheep,
especially to a form of anthrar or carbuncular fever.
Bronchia — The first two branches of the wind-pipe. Bronchitis is an in-
flammation of the bronchia.
Bronchotomy — The operation of cutting into the wind-pipe.
Cadaverous — Having the appearance of a dead body.
CcBsarian operation — To cut into the womb by way of the abdomen,
when natural delivery cannot be accomplished.
Calcareous — Containing lime, lime-like.
CalculuH — Any hard, solid concretion found in any part of the body, ab
stone in the bladder, gall-stones, etc.
Calefacient — Anything producing warmth.
Calks, or Calkins — The heel of the horse-shoe when turned down to pre*
vent slipping.
Callous — Induration ; a hard deposit; excess of bony matter.
Ca?ntl-backed — Hump-backed.
Canal — A tu})e or passage — as the alimentary canal, (throat), tjTnpanic
canal, etc.
Cancer — A hard, unequal, ulcerating tumor, which usually proves fatal.
Canine Teeth — The teeth between the lateral incisors and the small
molars of the jaw.
Canker — Eroding ulcers of the mouth ; virulent, corroding ulcers. Any
sore which eats or corrodes.
Cannon-bone — The shank, or I>one below the knee or hock. The met
acarpal or metatarsal bone of the horse,
Cantharis — A coleopterous insecst. The cantharis vesicatoria ; powdered,
it is the active principle in ordinary blistering plasters.
Canula — A hollow tube of metal or other substance, variously used ii
surgery.
Capillary — Hair-like ; applied to the minute ramifications of the bloot
vessels.
Gapped Hock — A swelling on the points of the hock of the horse.
C ipsicmn — Cayenne i)ei)per. The small, long red pepper.
Capsular Ligaments — Ligaments surrounding the joints.
Capsule — A membranous bag or sac.
Carbon — Woody matter. Charcoal is impure carbon ; the diamond is
pure carbon. Carbonic acid is expelled from the lungs in the act of
breathing. Carbonic oxyde in the blood or lungs is fatal to life.
Cardia — The superior or ossophagal orifice of the stomach ; and of the
heart.
Caries — -Ulceration of the substau^' 3 of the bones.
1248 CYCLOPKDTA OF T.TVF STOCK AND COMPLFTE STOCK DOCTOR.
Cai'mmatives — Warming, stimulant, aromatic medicines, used in colic
ana wind.
Carotid Canal — A canal in the temporal l)one, through which the carotid
artery, and also some nervous tilaments pass.
Cartilage — Gristle ; the substance covering the ends of l)ones, moving and
working upon each other,
Caseine — The nitrogenized constituent of milk. Blood fibrin and all)u-
men is identical in composition.
Castrate — To geld, emasculate, deprive of the testicles.
Cataplasm — A poultice, either medicated or not. Tt sometimes takes
name from the special agent employed, as si/iapism, a mustard
poultice.
Catafrh — A co/d attended with running of the nose.
Cataract — An opacity of the crystaline lens of the eye, causing partial or
total blindness.
Cathartic — Purgative medicine, used for freely opening the bowels.
Catheter — An instrument used for drawnig the water from the bladder,
and for other purposes.
Caustic — Any l)urn;ng agent, as potash, nitrate of silver. To cauterize
is to burn, generally applied to the use of the hot n-on in diseases.
Cavity — A depression, as the cavity of a- wound.
Cellular tissue — The membrane or tissue which invests every fiber of the
body, composed of minute cells communicating with each other, and
which serve as reservoirs of fat.
Cephalic — Pertaining to the head.
Cerebral — ^Peitaining to the brain.
Cervical — The neck ; belonging to the neck.
Characteristic — A symptom of character. Characterize, to distinguish.
Chalybeate — Containing iron. Any medicine of which iron forms a part.
Chemical — Relating to chemistry.
Chemistry — The science which investigatesthe composition of substances,
and the changes of constitution produced by thdr mutual action.
Chii-urgical — Belonging to surgical art.
Cholagogue — Medicines tr) Increase the secretion of the bile.
Cholechloride — A medicine which increases the evacuation of the bile.
Chole, the bile.
Chondritis — Inflammation of cartilage.
Choroiditis — Inflammation of the choroid coat of the eye.
Chronic — A lingering, long-standing disease, succeeding the acute stage.
A seated, permi nent disease.
Chyle — The milky liquid, as taken from the food during digestion, and
prepared from the chyme, and ready to be absorbed by the lacteal
vessels before being poured fortU into the blood.
OIXMSSABT OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS.
1249
Chyme-^-^ThQ food modified and prepared by the action of the stomach.
Cicatrice — The scar left after the healing of a wound or ulcer.
Circumscrihed — Limited. In pathology applied to tumors distinct at
their base from the surrounding part.
Circulation — The vital action which sends the blood through the aiteries,
and back again through the veins to the heart.
Cleft — A mark ; division ; furrow.
Clyster — Liquid medicine injected into the lower intestine.
Coagulate — To clot, as the blood when drawn.
C oh ion — Connected ; adhering together ; sticking together.
Colic — Acute pain in the abdomen, intensified at intervals.
Collapse — A falling together. A closmg of the vessels. Extreme de-
pression of the vital powers.
Colon — ^The largest of the intestines, or more properly, the largest divis*
Ion of the intestinal canal.
Cmtiorh — ^The act of copulation ; union of the sexes.
Coma — Lethargy. Drowsiness produced by depression of the brain and
other causes.
Comatose — Constant propensity to sleep.
Conception — Fecundation by action of the male.
ConeUHon — A healthy, sei-viceable state of the system. A firm state of
the muscular tissue.
Congenital—Born with another ; of the same birth. Belonging to the
individual from birth.
Congestion — An accumulation of clogged blood in the vessels, or in the
parts, as the lungs, brain, etc.
Constrict — Drawing or binding together, as constriction of the muscles
of a part.
Contagions — A disease that may be communicated by contact, or the
matter communicated, or proceeding from the breath, or emanations
of the body.
Contorted — Twisted, twisting, writhing, as the body in pain, or from the
result of disease.
Contusion — A bruise ; a wound made by a blow or bruise.
Convex — Having a rounded surface. The opposite of concave.
Concretion — Adherence of parts naturally separate. In chemistry, coB*
densation of fluids or other substances into more solid matter.
Condiment — Substances used to improve or heighten the flavor of food.
Confiuent — Running together, as in pimples or pustules when they
become confluent.
V-nstipation — ^A state of the bowels in which the evacuations are unmat"
'jjrally hai'd. A stoppage of the evacuation of the bowels.
1250 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Continuity — ^Parts united so completely that they cannot be separated
without laceration or fracture.
Convalescent — Returning to health after sickness.
Convoluted — Rolled together or upon itself. The cerebrum is convoluted.
The irregular foldings of the intestines are convolutions.
Copious — Plentiful, abundant, as a copious discharge.
Core — The hard portion of purulent matter, as in boils.
Corn — A diseased portion of the foot, — in the horse, between the bar
and the quarter, usually on the inside.
Coronet — The upper part of the hoof, just where it joins the skin.
Corrosive — ^That which eats away, destroying the texture of the living
body.
Corrugation — ^Contracting the skin into wrinkles.
Costa — A rib. Costal : belonging to the ribs.
Counter Irritation — An application to irritate one pai-t to relieve pain in
another. A blister or mustard poultice produces counter irritation.
Cow-pox — Peculiar pustules upon the teats of cows, from which the vac-
cine matter is obtained, used to prevent contagion from small-pox, or
to mitigate the intensity of the disease.
Cranium — The skull. Cranial : pertaining to the skull.
Crest — The back or upper j^art of the neck of the horse.
Crepitation — Applied to the noise made by the ends of fractured bones,
when they grate together. The sound produced by pressing together
cellular tissue in which air is contained.
Cribbing {of horses) — The act of seizing any hard substance, or pressing
thereon witn the teeth, and gulping; sometimes called wind sucking,
though the latter is not necessarily cribbing.
Crisis — In disease, that pomt or period which determines a favorable oi
unfavorable termination.
Crop — The craw or first stomach of a fowl.
Cruor — The red colored portion of the blood.
Crupper — The buttocks of a horse.
Crural — Pertaining to the legs, as the crural arteries and veins.
Crust — The hoof, so-called. The outside luminal of the hoof.
Crusta — A scab.
Cul-de-sac — A passage closed at one end.
Cuneiform — Formed like a wedge.
Curb — A soft swelling, becoming hard, situated on the back part of the
hind leg, just below the point of the hock.
Cuticle — The epidermis or scurf skin. The skin is composed of the cutis
vera, reta muscasum and cuticula.
Cutaneous — Of the skin, as ^ cutaneous affection.
GLOSSARY OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS. 1251
Cyst, Cystis — A small bladder or sac ; applied to those containing mor-
bid matter or parasites, which become encysted, or inclosed in an
envelop.
Cystic Duct — The duct which proceeds from the gall bladder, uniting
with the hepatic duct.
Cystitis — Inflammation of the bladder. Cystoplegia is paralysis of the
bladder.
Debility — The condition of weakness or feebleness.
Decoction — Extraction of the soluble parts of substances by boiling.
Decompose — To decay. To separate into component parts.
Defecation — Purifying from impurities of foreign matter. Voidnig the
excrement from the body.
Degenerate — To become worse or inferior.
Deleterious — Injurious, poisonous or destructive.
Delirium — Insanity ; a wandering of mind in disease.
Deliquescent — Any salt which becomes liquid by attracting moisture from
the air.
Demulcent — That which sheaths and protects irritated surfaces.
Dens — A tooth. Dental : pertaining to the teeth. Dentition : the de-
velopment of the teeth,
Depilitory — Any agent or thing which causes the loss of the hair.
Dermal — Belonging to the skin.
Desiccate — To make dry by heat.
Detergents — Medicines having the power of cleansing the vessels or skin.
Develop — To increase. A disease develops its intensity. To show
increasing muscular form. Bringing to perfection.
Diabetes — An excessive flow of urine containing saccharine matter.
Diagnosis — The distinguishing of one disease from another.
Diaphoretic — A medicine which causes perspiration or sweating.
Diaphragm — The midriff. The membrane, or broad muscle, which divides
the thorax or chest from the abdomen or belly.
Diarrhae,a — A continued and profuse discharge from the bowels.
Diet — Any kind of food or drink. Dietary : a regulated allowance of food.
Diffuse — To extend or drive out. That which may flow or si)read, as a
diffusible stimulant.
Digestion — The separation and dissolving of the food in the stomach.
Digestive ointment has the power of resolving tumors.
Dilate — To open wide, as dikition of the eye.
Dilatation — The expanding of a body, as of the heart, arteries, the blad-
der, etc , from over-fullness.
Dilute — To make thin, as a medicine with water, with oil, etc.
Diminution — A lessening, or decreasing, as of pain, etc.
1252 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Diploma — A document granted by a legally chartered college, showing
that the person named is entitled to practice his or her profession.
Disinfectant — An agent capable of neutralizing morbific effluvia, or the
cause of infection.
Dislocation — Putting out of joint.
Disorganization — A complete morbid change in, or even total destruction
of, the structure or texture of an organ.
Dissection — Exposing the different parts of a dead body, that their ar-
rangement and structure may be studied.
Distorted — Deformed, crooked, out of the natural shape.
Distend — To stretch out, or swell.
Diuresis — An extraordinary or abundant excretion of urine.
Diuretic — A medicine to increase the flow of urine.
Doctor — In a common sense, applied to a person legally qualified to prac-
tice medicine. In its real sense, applying to various titles, as Ph, D.,
Doctor of Philosophy; D. D., Doctor of Divinity; LL. D,, Doctor
of Laws.
Domestic — Relating or belonging to the home or farm.
Dorsal — Pertaining to the back. The dorsal column : the back-bone.
Drachm — The eighth part of an ounce.
Drastic — Powerfully acting medicines or poisons.
Drench — Liquid medicine given by the mouth.
Drug — Originally, a medicine in its simple form, but now applied to
medicines generally.
Duct — A tube for conveying a fluid or the secretions of the glands.
Duodenum — The first portion of the small intestine, through which the
bile is poured.
Dura Mater — ^A fibrous, semi-transparent membrane, lining the cavity of
the cranium, and containing the brain, (of which it may be considered
the outer membrane), and protecting the same by its thickness and
great resisting power.
Dysentery — Inflammation of the mucous membrane of the large intes-
tines, producing mucous or bloody evacuations.
Dyspepsia — Serious derangement of the digestive functions.
Dysphagia — Difficulty of swallowing.
Dyspnoea — ^Difficulty of breathing.
Dysuria — Painful and incomplete passage of urine.
EcbolicSf Parturients — Agents causing the contraction of the womb.
Ectozoon — Parasites, as lice, infesting the surface of the body. Entozoa :
parasites within the body.
Eczema — Small pustules crowded together, not contagious, but producing
a smarting pain.
GLOSSARY OF SCIENTIFIC TSRMS. 1253
Effluvia — Morbid exhalations of the body ; sometimes applied to animal
and vegetable odors.
Effusion^=-'A flowing out, as of the blood, water or lymph, into the
Ejection — Casting out, as ejecting improper matters from the stomach.
Elastio-^ThQ property of springing or stretching.
Elephantiasis — Chronic lymphangitis, by which the limb is enlarged,
resembling the leg of an elephant.
Emasculation — Removal of the male generative organs ; castration.
Embryo— ThQ impregnated ovum in the womb, after growth has com*
meoced.
Emetic— A medicine given to produce vomiting.
EmoUients — Agents which have the power of softening or relaxing.
Empiric — One whose skill is experimental, or the result of mere ex-
perience.
Ena7nd~—ThQ hard outer covering of the teeth.
Encysted — ^Enclosed in a sac.
Enema — Medicines given by injection into the bowels.
Engorgement — In animals, vascular congestion, the result of over-feeding.
Enteric — Belonging to the bowels.
Enteritis — Inflammation of the bowels.
Enterorapliy — The sewmg together of the divided edges of the intestines.
£[p^t?e»^^o— Disease that affects a large number, as though carried in the
air
Epiglottis — The covering of the glottis „ A tongue-shaped projection, to
prevent food or liquids from entering the wind-pipe.
Epizootic — Contagious disease, attacking large numbers of horses at one
time. Applied to catarrhal fever in influenza, which spreads rapidly.
Equine — Belonging to the horse.
Equitation — The art of riding on horseback.
Eruption — ^Pimples, blisters, rash, etc., breaking out on the skin.
Esopkagtts — The gullet, or tube of the throat which conveys food to the
stomach.
Essence — The properties or virtues extracted from any substance.
Evacuate — To empty or pass out, as to evacuate the bowels.
Ewe-necked — In the horse, having a neck like a shorn sheep.
Exanthema — Eruption of the skin, with fever.
Excision — Cutting out, or cutting off, any part.
Excoriate — To tear or strip off the skin ; to wear away or abrade ; to
break the skin in any manner, as in galling, or with acrid substancea*
J:ixcremenz — Hefuse matter. The dung,
^iujreecence— Unnatural or superfluous growth.
1254 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Excreting — Throwing out from the body.
Excretion — ^The act of throwing off effete matter from the animal sys-
tem ; that which is thus thrown off.
Exfoliation — Separation or scaling off of dead from living bone. Sepa-
ration of scales (laminaj) from any substance.
Exhale — Breathing out, evaporating.
Exostosis — Unnatural growth or })r()jection of bone.
Exotic — Foreign. Tbat which belongs naturally to another district than
our own.
Extensor-tendon- 'Tha tendons which stretch out the limbs.
Extirpation — The complete removal of a part by means of the knife.
Extravasate — To let out of the proper vessels, as blood, after the rui)ture
of a blood-vessel.
Extremities — The limbs.
Exudation — A sweating, or passing out of a liquid through the walls or
membranes containing it.
Exude — To discharge through the pores.
Facial — Pertaining to the face.
Foices — The excrement.
Farcy — A disease of the lymphatics of the skin of the horse. Also, a
disease allied to glanders.
Fat — The well known animal substance, whose natural function it is to
protect the organs, maintain the temperature, and nourish in case of
need.
Febrifuge — A medicine to lower the temperature of the body, and counter-
act fever.
Feculent — Foul or impure matter, formed by the breaking down of the
tissues ; excrementitious matter.
Femur — The thigh bone proper.
Fermentation — ^Incipient decomposition of vegetable substances, from
souring.
Fester — To suppurate, and discharge corrupt matter.
Fetid — Having an offensive odor.
Fibrin — An organic substance found in the blood, and composing a large
part of the tissues of the body. Fibrous membrane : a membrane
composed of fibres.
Fibula — The small or splinter bone of the leg. The outer bone of the
hind leg of the horse, etc., — much smaller than the tibia.
Filtration — Straining a liquid to clarify it.
Fissure — An opening, a crack.
Fistula — ^A deep, narrow ulcer, having a passage leading to it.
FietubMS — Resembling a fistula, either in form or nature.
GLOSSARY OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS. 1255
Flanks — That part of the horse between the false ribs, hips and stifle.
Flatulent — Affected with, or caused by, the generation of gas or wind in
the stomach and intestines, as tiatulent colic.
Fleam — An instrument used for bleeding the larger domestic animals.
Flex — To bend, as the head, neck or limb ; as, a muscle flexing the arm.
Flexor — A muscle whose office it is to bend a part ; in opposition to
extensor.
Florid — Red or scarlet like, from excess of blood in a part.
Foetus — The young, yet unborn.
Fomentation — The application of warmth and moisture, as with a liquid
or poultice.
Foramen. A cavity pierced through and through.
Forceps — Long pointed pincers or nippers.
Fracture — The breaking of a bone.
Friction — Exciting circulation by rubbing.
Fumigate — The application of smoke or vapor.
Function — The ofiice or duty of any part of the body.
Fundament — The anus or extremity of the bowel. The end of the gut.
Fungus — An unnatural growth resembling mushrooms.
Qall — The fluid contained in the gall-bladder, consisting, principally, of
the bile secreted by the liver.
Ganglion — A collection or bunch of nerve fibers, causing the enlargement
of a nerve, and resembling a knot.
Gangrene — The mortification or death of any part of the body, or of any
of its tissues.
Gas — An emanation, or invisible fluid, generated in the body.
Gastric — Pertaining to the stomach.
Gastritis — Inflammation of the stomach.
Gelatine — Animal jelly.
Generate — To beget offspring ; begetting or producing young ; breeding.
Genital — Relating to reproduction of young, or to the generative parts.
Gland — A structure for secreting certain fluids of the body, and contain-
ing a tube.
Gestation — The condition of pregnancy, or being with young.
Glanders — An exceedingly contagious disease, which is incurable and
fatal .
Gleet — Thin matter issuing from an ulcer. In horses, applied to nasal
gleet exclusively.
Glottis — The narrow opening at the top of the windpipe.
Graminivorous — Feeding on grass and other vegetable food.
Granivorous — Feeding on grain or seeds.
1256 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Granulate — To grow or develop in the form of grains, as new flesh in
the healing of wounds.
Gravel — Calculous matter found in the kidneys.
Gravid — The state of being with young.
Gullet — The oesophagus, or food pipe leading to the stomach.
Haggard — Worn down ; thin ; ghastly ; deathlike.
Haunch — That part of the body which lies between the last ribs and the
thigh. In the horse, the bony region of the hips.
Haw — The process of the eye-socket, which is thrown over the eye to
clear it of foreign substances.
Haemal — Relating to the blood.
Hcematin — The coloring matter of the blood.
Hectic — A constitutional and remitting fever exhibited in consumption ;
produced also by ulcers, sores, etc.
Helix — The outer circumference or ring of the external ear.
Hemorrhage — A discharge of blood from the vessels containing it.
Hepatic — Belonging to the liver.
Hepatitis — Influnmiation of the liver.
Hepatized — Converted into a liver-like substance.
Herbivorous — Feeding on herbs.
Hereditary — Inbred from the parents, as disease, color, vices, and other
peculiarities.
Hermaphrodite — Possessing the attributes of both sexes, in a greater or
lesser degree ; being of, or including, both sexes. Said of animals,
plants or flowers.
Hernia — Rupture, or soft tumor formed by the protrusion of any of the
viscera of the abdomen.
Hippopathology — The science which treats of the diseases of horses ; the
leading branch of veterinary science.
Homogeneous — Being of the same kind or quality throughout.
Hue — Color.
Humor — Any fluid of the body, excepting the blood.
Humerus — The upper arm-bone ; upper bone of the fore-leg.
Hybrid — The offspring of two different species of animals, as of the horse
and ass (the mule).
Hydragogue — A medicine which removes effused fluids from the systi^m.
Hydrocephalus — Water in (dropsy of) the head.
Hygiene — The preservation of health and prevention of disease.
Hypertrophy — Excessive growth.
Hypodermic — Beneath the skin . Used principally of medicines — as mor-
phia, etc., — applied by injection under the skin.
Hysterics — A nervous disability, mostly among females.
GLOSSARY OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS. 1257
Ileum — The lower part of the small intestine.
Impotence — Inability to iserforni the sexual function.
Impregnation — The act of rendering, or state of being, pregnant.
Incision — Cutting into ; a clean cut ; cutting, as in any operation per-
formed.
Incontinence — Inability to retain the natural evacuations.
Induration — The hardening of a part from the effects of disease.
Incisors — The front teeth of the jaws.
Infection — Communicating disease by miasma or emanations from a dis-
eased body.
Influenza — An epidemic disease, causing general depression, with fever.
Infusion — Liquid produced by steeping an insoluble substance in water,
without boiling.
Ingesta — Food taken into the stomach.
Inhalation — A drawing into tl 3 lungs ; the inbreathing of medicated or
poisonous fumes.
Inject — To throw in artificially, as from a syringe.
Injection — Liquid medicine thrown into a natural or artificial cavity.
Inoculation — The production of disease by virus or matter from a sore,
communicated from one animal to another.
Instinct — Sense, as applied to animals.
Integument — The covering which invests the body (the skin), or a mem-
brane covering any particular part of it.
Intercostal — Between the ribs.
Interfering — The cutting of one foot or leg with the other.
Intermittent — In fevers, a characteristic by which the paroxysms intermit
or cease, returning at regular, or nearly regular, intervals.
Interstices — The minute spaces between the particles of a body.
Intestines — The bowels. The alimentary canal, leading from the stomach
to the anus.
Invert — To turn about or upside down.
Invigorators — Strengthening medicines, or agents.
Iris — The circular membrane of the eye floating in the aqueous humor,
and perforated to form the pupil.
Isomeric — Composed of the same elements in the same proportions, but
chemically and physically different.
Ifisue — A running sore, artificially produced, and kept open to relieve
irritation or morbid action in a neighl)oiing i)art.
Jaundice — A diseased condition resulting from derangement of the
liver, and characterized by great lassitude, and by yellowness of the
eyes, skin and urine.
1258 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE 8TOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Jejunum — That part of the small intestines comprised between the duo^
denum and ileum.
Jet— The peculiar flow of blood from the arteries, in a spurting motion.
Jugal region — The region of the cheek-bone.
Jugular — The large vein of the neck.
Labial — Belonging or relating to the lips.
Lacerate — To tear. A lacerated wound is a torn wound.
Lachrymal — Pertaining to the tears. The lachrymal duct is the duct
leading from the eye to the membrane of the nose.
Lactation — The act of giving suck, or time of suckling.
Lactiferous — Bearing or conveying milk ; as, a lactiferous duct.
Lamella— K thin plate or scale of anything ; pertaining to the anatomy
of the hoof.
Laminitis — Founder ; a disease consisting of inflammation of the parts
between the pedal or coffin l)one and the sensitive laminaj.
Lancinating— ^hai'i^, acute, shooting , in a manner as if tearing ; thus,
a lancinating pain.
Languor — Weakness, faintness, debility.
Laryngitis — Inflammation of the larynx.
Larynx — The swell at the upper part of the wind-pipe, and extending
into the throat.
Lateral — At or to one side.
Laxative — A medicine which gently opens the bowels.
Lens — In oculary anatomy, a portion of the eye situated immediately
back of the cornea.
Lesion — Disease of a structure ; any hurt or injury.
Levator — A general name for a muscle whose office it is to raise some
part, as the lip or eyelid.
Ligaments — The bands of the joints binding them strongly together.
Ligature — Silk or flax thread, or any material suitable for tying arteries.
A bandage used in the operation of bleeding.
Liniment — A fluid medicine employed externally and with friction.
Liquefaction — The act or process of reducing a solid substance to a
liquid form.
Lithotomy — The operation of extracting stone from the bladder, by
cutting.
Liver — The largest gland of the body, its office being to secrete the bile.
Lobe — A round projecting part of an organ.
Local — Confined to a certain part or district.
Lotion — A fluid applied externally, usually by means of a cloth kept
constantly wet therewith.
GLOSSARY OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS. 1259
Lubricate — To moisten, as the lubrication of the joints and moving parts
by their appropriate fluids.
Lumbago — Rheumatism of the lumbar region.
Lymph — A transparent and nearly colorless fluid. The fluid contamed
in, and poured out by, the lymphatics.
Lymphatics — The vessels of animal bodies ^\hich contain the lymph.
Macerate — Steeped almost to solution. Thorough soaking of a part in
water previous to dissection.
Malady — Disease or ailment.
Malar — Pertaining to the cheek-bone.
Malanders — An ulcerous condition on the inside of a horse's legs.
Malaria — Infectious and noxious eflluvia, from decomposing animal or
vegetable matter.
Malformation — Badly or unnaturally shaped or formed.
Malignant — Severe ; long ; dangerous disease.
Mammal — Having an udder or teats for suckling the young.
Mammary glands — The glands which secrete the milk.
Mange — A contagious disease caused by the presence of acari in the skin
Mai-row — The fatty substance in the hollow of cylindrical bones.
Mastication — The act of chewing the food.
Materia medica — A term including all medicines or substances used in
the cure of diseases.
Maxilla — The upper or lower jaw.
Mediastinum — The partition formed by the meeting of the pleura, divid-
ing the chest into tw'o lateral parts, and separating the lungs.
Medidlary — Consisting of, resembling, or pertaining to, marrow.
Membrane — A thin animal tissue. The thin covering of the brain, bones
and other organs.
Mental — Relating to the mind, or to the reasoning faculty.
Mesentery — The membrane which attaches the intestines to the spine.
Mesacolon — A process of the peritoneum to which the colon is attached.
Metastasis — The transference or removal of disease from one part to
another, or such change as is succeeded by a solution.
Miasma — Impalpable germs, the product of putrefaction (animal wr
vegetable), producing disease.
Midrif — Th e di aph ragm .
Milk fever — A fever preceding or accompanying the secretion of railk.
Morbid — A state of disease ; the product or result of an uimatural state,
as morbid humors ; a failing, sinking state.
Mortification — The death of a part from gangrene.
Motor — That which causes, or is the instrument of, movemeiit; as, the
motor muscles.
t260 OYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Mucilage — A jelly-like fluid ; one of the proximate eleiLcnts of vege-
tables, al)undtint in slippery elm ; the agent which lubricates the joints.
Mucus — The substance secreted by the mucous membranes, and effused!
upon the surfaces of the membranes, as the running of the nose in a
cold.
Muscles — The organs of motion. The voluntary muscles constitute the
lean meat, or flesh of animals.
Muscular fiber — Fibers composing the body of a muscle, disposed in dis-
tinct bundles
Myeline — The fatty substance in nerve tissues.
Myitis myosotis — Inflammation of a muscle.
Myology — The branch of anatomy treating of the muscles.
Myotomy — Dissection of the muscles.
2^(2vus — A natural mark or blemish ; a birth-mark.
Narcoma — Stupor from the influence of opium or other narcotic.
Narcotics — Drugs which allay pain and produce sleep.
Nasal — Pertaining to the nose.
Naturalia — The parts of generation.
Nauseants — Medicines that sicken the stomach.
Navel — The umbilicus.
Necrosis — Death of a bone, or of a portion of bone.
Nephritis — Inflammation of the kidneys.
Nerves — The fibrous system which conveys sensations to the brain and
through the body.
Nervous — Having weak nerves.
Neuralgia — A painful disease, or affection of, one or some of the nerves.
Neurotomy — The cutting or division of a nerve.
Neutralize — To destroy the force or effect of anything.
Nictitation — A quick and frequent winking of the eyelids.
Nitrate of silver — Lunar caustic.
Nutritive — Tending to nourish or build up ; strong, healthy food.
Nutrition — The process by which the food taken is assimilated ; to repair
waste and promote growth.
Obesity — Exceeding fatness^
Oblique — Slanting.
Obliteration — Alteration in the appearance or function of a part prevent-
ing its action.
Occult — Hidden. Applied to diseases whose causes or successful treat-
ment are not understood.
Ocular, oculary — Relating to the eyes.
Odontalgia — Violent toothache, usually from decay.
GLOSSAEY OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS. 1261
Oedema — Effusion of serous fluid into the cellular tissues, producing
svvelliug.
Oil — Fluid fatty or unctuous substances, either animal or vegetable.
Oils are either fixed or volatile ; the former leave a greasy stain on
paper.
Omentum. — The caul. A fold of the peritoneal membrane, covering the
intestines in front, and attached to the stomach.
Omnivorous — Animals which cat all kinds of food. Swine are omniv-
orous, in the general acceptation of the term.
Opacity — Want of transparency ; that quality of bodies by virtue of
which they cannot transmit rays of light.
Optic — Relating to the sight, as the optic nerve ; relating to the laws of
vision.
Or'bit — In ocular anatomy, the bony cavity in whicli the eye is situated.
Organ — The natural instrument by which a process or function is
carried on.
Organic — Composed of, or pertaining to, an organ or its functions; de.
pendent on, or resulting from, organism.
Orifice — The mouth or entrance to any cavity of the body.
Origin — The beginning or starting point of a thing.
Os — The technical name for bone.
Os calcis — The tip of the back.
Osseous — Bony, or resembling bone,
Os cheocele — Scrotal hernia. Any tumor of the hernia.
Ossification — Changing to bone. Bony formation.
Ostalgia — Pain in one or some of the bones.
Osteo sarcoma — A fleshy, cartilaginous mass, growing within a bone,
enlarging and sometimes fracturing it.
Ovariotomy — The art or operation of removing the ovaries from the
female animal ; spaying — analogous to the gelding of the male.
Ovaries — The organs connected with the uterus that mature and give off
the ova (eggs) which, when impregnated, produce the foetus.
Ovule — The impregnated germ or egg.
Oxidize — The change formed by the action of oxygen, or air containing
oxygen, on any substance. The changing of the black or venous blood
into red or arterial blood, in the lungs.
Ozcena — Gleet, catarrh.
Pabulum — That which is proper for food.
Palate — The roof of the mouth.
Palpitation — A rapid, thumping movement of the heart, from mental
excitement or from disease.
1262 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Panacea — A supposed universal cure. A medicine applicable to manv
cases.
Pancreas — The narrow, flat gland extending across the abdomen, some-
times called the sweet-bread.
Paralysis — An affection impairing or destroying the natural function, and
especially the voluntary movement, of a i)art ; in popular usage, the
palsy.
Parotid— ^anv the car. Parotid gland : the largest of the salivary glands.
Paroxysyn — In disease, a recurrence coming on after an intermission.
Chills and fever, for example, are paroxysmal.
Parturition — The act of bringing forth young.
Patella — The knee-pan.
Pathology — The science which treats of the causes, nature, symptoms
and cure of diseases.
Paunch — The rtrst stomach of ruminating aninuils.
Pectoral — Pertaining to the breast, as the pectoral nuiscles. A medicine
adapted to relieve affections of the chest and lungs.
Pectin — Tiie gchitinizing principle of certain fruits and vegetables.
Pelvis — That i)art of the trunk bounding the abdomen, containing a pan
of the intestines, and the internal urinary and genital organs.
Penis — The exterior male organ of urination, and of the passage of the
semen.
Pepsin — A substance assisting digestion.
Peptic — Promoting digestion ; relating to digestion.
Pericarditis — Inflammation of the pericardium.
Pericardium — The serous membrane enclosing the heart.
Perichondrium — The membrane covering the cartilages.
Pericranium — The membrane lining the bones of the skull.
Perinoeum — The space between the anus and the genital organs.
Periosteum — The fibrous membrane investing a bone.
Peritoneum — The serous membrane lining the cavity of the abdomen
Peritonitis — Inflammation of the peritoneum.
Permeate — To penetrate every part of, and pass through without rupture
or sensible displacement. Water permeates sand ; light permeates glass.
Pharynx — The opening or tube at the back part of the mouth which
leads to the stomach.
Phlebitis — Inflammation of a vein.
Phlebotomy — The operation or act of bleeding.
PhthiAs — Consumption .
Physiology — The science which treats of the functions of the varioui?
organs of a living body.
GLOSSARY OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS. 1263
Piles — A disease consisting of chronic dilatation or small tumors of the
blood-vessels immediately about the anus, and attended with more or
less pain.
Placenta — The membrane covering the young in the womb ; the after-
birth.
Plethora — A full habit of body ; full of blood.
Pleura — The serous membrane lining the interior of the chest, and
covering the lungs, which it lubricates with its secretions.
Plexus — Any union of vessels, nerves or fibers in the form of net work.
Pneumonia — Inflanmiation of the lungs.
Poison — Any substance, animal, vegetable or mineral, which appHed ex-
ternally or taken internally, causes either death or serious hurtful
changes. Poisons are classified as irritant, narcotic, sedative, acro-nar-
cotic, and acro-sedative.
Poll-evil — A chronic, suppurating abscess, on the summit of a. horse's
head, around the attachments of the cervical ligaments.
Polypus — A tumor with narrow base, in the nostrils, uterus, vagina, etc.
Post-mortem — Literally, after death. The examination of a dead body.
Predisposed — Prepared or fitted for beforehand ; inclined to ; as, being
predisposed to disease.
Prepuce — The cutaneous fold covering the glans penis.
Prohang — A flexible, knobbed instrument, for pressing into the stom-
ach food or other substance which may have lodged in the throat.
Process — Prominence; a projecting part; any i)rotuberance, eminence
or projecting bone.
Profuse — Abundant, plentiful ; as, a profuse discharge.
Prognosis — The act or art of judging by the symptoms the probable
course of a. disease.
Prolapsus uteri — Falling of the womb.
Prolapsus recti — Falling of the rectum.
Proud fiesh — A fungous growth on an ulcer, or an excrescence of flesh
in a wound from excessive granulation.
Pulmonary — Pertaining to, or affecting, the lungs.
Pulsation — A beating or throbbing of the heart or arteries.
Pulse — The action or beat of the arteries.
Pumices — The letting down or falling of the coffin bone on the sole.
Puncture — Any orifice made with a pointed instrument.
Pupil — The ball or apple of the eye, through which the rays of light
pass to the crystalline humors.
Purgative — ^Any medicine having the power of operating strongly on the
bowels.
126-'^ CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Pus — The matter discharged from a tumor when hmced, or from sores.
Healthy pus is yellowish white in color, and is always secreted in the
process of healing.
Pulref action — The process of decomposition ; state of corruption ;
rottenness.
Pylorus — The lower orifice of the stomach on its right side, through
which the food passes to the intestines.
Quack — A pretender in medicine. A charlatan.
Qualmisii — Sick at the stomach ; suifering from nausea.
Quiescent^-At rest. Showing no pain. Making no sounc*
Quitlor — An ulcerous formation, rescml),ing fistula, inside a horse's foot.
Rabies — Madness ; hydrophobia.
Rachitis — Inflammation of the spine ; rickets. The latter word is i)rob-
ably a corruption of rachitis.
Ramify — Branched ; running in various directions.
Rancid — Having a rank, strong smell ; in a state of incipient putrefac-
tion.
Raphe — A seam or suture.
Rash — An eruption of the skin.
Receptacle — That which receives or contains something else.
Rectum — The last intestine. The anal gut.
Reflux — In medicine, the return of the blood from the head, or f::D.-
towards the extremities to the heart.
Refrigerants — Medicines or lotions to diminish heat.
Regurgitate — To throw or pour back ; to swallow again.
Relax — To abate ; to become more mild, or less rigorous.
Remittent — Ceasing for a time, as a fever or a pain.
Reproduction — The act or process of reproducing the young ; breeding.
Resolvent — A substance or medicine that will scatter inflammatory or
other tumors, and prevent their suppuration.
Respiration — The act of breathing.
Respiratory murmur — The nmrmur which, when the ear or stethoscope
is applied to the chest, is heard in the lungs, and attending the act of
breathing.
Retention — A stopping or withholding, as retention of the urine.
Retina — The expansion of the optic nerve in the back part of the eye,
on which the image is produced, in the act of seeing, or vision.
Repulsion — In physics, that power by which particles or bodies are made
to recede from each other.
Reunion — The union of parts separated by a wound or accident.
Rickets — A certain diseased state of the bones in children.
itigidity — Stiffness ; inflexibility.
GLOSSARY OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS. 1265
Ringbone — ^Exostosis, or formation of bony matter, on the coronet bone
and pastern bone of a horse's foot.
Roaring — A disease or constriction of the wind-pipe, producing a roar-
ing noise in the expulsion of the breath.
Rumination — The act or habit of chewing the cud.
Rupture — ^The act of breaking or bursting, or the state resulting there-
from. The common name for hernia.
Saccharine — Containing, or having the qualities of, sugar.
Sacral — Belonging to the os sacrum.
Saline — Containing salt in solution ; tasting saltish.
Saliva — The secretion of the salivary glands, which moistens the food
in chewing, and also keeps the mouth and tongue moist.
Salivation — An excessive secretion of saliva. White clover will some-
times produce it in horses, or it may be produced by certain medicines,
especially calomel.
Sanguine — Full of blood. Abounding with blood.
Sanguinification — The process of producing blood from chyle.
Sanitary — Relating to the preservation of health ; tending to health.
Sarcoma — A fleshy tumor.
Saturate — ^To soak so full of liquid or fumes that no more can be held.
Scab — The incrustation on a sore. A verminous disease of sheep.
Scaphoid — Shaped like a boat, as the navicular bone.
Scapula — The shoulder-blade.
Sclerotic — The thick, hard, white outer coat of the eye.
Sciatica — A rheumatic or neuralgic affection of the hip.
Sear — To burn Avith a hot iron ; actual cautery.
Secretion — The separation of various substances from the blood.
Sedatives — Soothing medicines ; remedies to depress nervous power, or
lower circulation.
Semen — The male generative product :ecreted in the testicles.
Senile — Old, or belonging to old age.
Sensorium — The seat of sensation. An organ which receives impressions.
Sensitive — Having feeling. Sensitive lamellae : lamellae of the coffin-bone.
Septic — Causing or hastening putrefaction. Antiseptic : arresting putre-
faction.
Serum — T^e yellowish, watery portion of the blood remaining after
coagulation.
Seton — An artificial passage made under the skin, by means of a seton
needle, and kept open with tape, silk or the like, which is thereby
drawn in, and is moved backward and forward daily, to keep up irri-
tation, with a view to reducing inflammation elsewhere.
Shank — ^The bone of the leg from the knee to the ankle.
1266 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Sialogogue — A medicine to promote the flow of saliva.
Sinus — An orifice or canal containing pus or matter.
Skin — The covering of the body, and the organ of touch. It is com-
posed of the scarf skin {cuticle), the middle {reta inucosum), and the
inner or true skin {derma).
Slink — To abort; to produce young before the natural time.
Slough (pronounced sluff). — To fall away, separate from, as in disease,
or in mortified parts.
Socket — The depression or process in which one organ works on another.
Soj)oriJic — A medicine to induce sleei).
Spasm — A sudden involuntary contraction of the muscles ; a convulsion.
Spafunodic—Chiivactenzod by spasms, as cramping, fits, etc. ; recurring
at intervals, as colic pains, etc.
Spavin — A swelling in or near some of the joints of a horse's leg. It
is of two kinds. Bone spavin is a bony growth (exostosis) in the
region of the hock. Bog spavin, incorrectly called blood spavin, is
situated between the tibia and astragulus.
Spinal — Relating to the spine, or back-bone.
Splint — An excrescence in the shank-bone of a horse. Splint-bone : one
of the bones of a horse's leg.
Spleen — A livid colored organ, the office of which is not yet well known.
Spontaneous — Occurring without any apparent cause from without.
Sporadic — Separated, scattered ; occurring here and there, as sporadic
cases of disease.
Sterile — Barren. Not capable of producing young.
Sternum — The breast-bone, situated in the fore part of the thorax.
Stimulants — Medicines to temporarily excite the nervous or circulatory
systems.
Stomachics — Agents to promote digestion.
Strangles — An eruptive fever attended with inflammation and suppura-
tion of the tissue of the upper part of the throat ; called in the United
States, distemper.
Strangulated — Choked ; having the circulation stopped in any part.
Strangury — Stopping of a passage.
Stricture — Stoppage or obstruction of a passage of the body, by morbid
or spasmodic action.
Stupor — A dull, sleepy, stupid condition. Loss of sensation.
Styptic — A powerful astringent for restrainmg or stoppmg bleeding.
Sudorific — That which ^vill cause perspiration or sweating
Suppuration — The process of forming pus or matter ; the result of in-
flammation in an abscess or wound.
GLOSSARY OF SCIENTiriC TERMS. 1267.
Suture — A stitch or fastening on joining together. The seam or joint
which unites the bones of the skull.
Symmetry — As applied to animals, signifies that they are well propor-
tioi.ed, handsomely and stoutly formed.
Sympathy — The connection existing ])etween two or more oigans, by
which the diseased condition or abnormal action of one is transmitted.
secondarily, to the others.
Symptom — Any circumstance observed to occur (jonstantly in the smimc
form of disease, and serving to point out its true nature and seats •
any change occurring in the progress of a disease, indicative of its
course and probable determination.
Synovia — A fluid resembling the white of an egg, secreted at the joints
and articulations, which it lubricates and keeps in healthful condition
Jomt-oil, so called.
Tmnia — Literally, fillet or band. The scientific name of the tape-worm
Tarsus— The cartilage towards the edge of each eyelid, giving it shape
and firmness. That part of the human foot with which the leg joiiAS,
and whose front is called the instep. The hock-joint of the horse.
Tendon— T\\Q dense, fibrous structure in which a muscle ends, and b}'
which it is joined to a bone.
Tent — A pledget or plug introduced into a wound.
Tenuity — The property of being thin, as rarefied air.
Testicle— 'T\\Q. male gland containing the seminal fluid.
Tetanus — A disease in which the muscles of voluntary motion are spas-
modically but persistently contracted, causing rigidity of the parts
affected. When in the face it is called lock-jaw or trismus.
Therapeutics— T\ii\t part of medicme which relates to the discovery and
application of remedies for diseases. The use of diet and medicines.
Thorax— ThQ chest, or that part of the body between the Heck and
abdomen.
Thorough-pin — A bursal enlargement of the upper and back part of the
hock of a horse.
7% rwsA— Ulceration of the cleft of the frog, and extending over the
whole of it, with a discharge of fetid matter.
Tibia— ThQ large bone of the hind leg of the horse, etc.
Tonics — Agents which gradually and permanently improve the system.
Tonsil — An oblong gland situated on each side of the fauces, terminated
by the larynx and pharynx, at the rear of the mouth and having ex-
cretory ducts opening into the mouth.
Torsion — The act of turning or twisting, as in drawing a tooth with the
turnkey.
Trachea — The windpipe.
1268 CYCLOPEDIA OP UVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Tractile — That which may be drawn out.
Transfusion — The introducing of blood from one living being into
another.
Tread — Tramping upon, as the tread of one hoof upon the other. The
part of the hoof resting on the ground.
Trichina spiralis — A minute entozoon (parasitic mite), which burrows
in the muscles, and which, before becoming encysted, sometimes causes
the death of the animal. They are principally generated in swine,
fowls, rats and other omnivorous feeders.
Tuber — A rounded projection, especially of a bone.
Tuhercle — A small tumor, as tubercles in the lungs.
Tumor — A swelling or enlargement, generally applied to those which are
permanent.
Tympanum — The drum of the ear.
Ulcer — A r inning sore.
JJlna — The larger of the two bones of the arm.
Ulterior — Remoter ; yet to come ; last or final.
Umbilicus — The navel.
Ungulata — Animals having the toes (digits) enclosed in hoofs.
Unciform — Curved or crooked, as a clam or the finger nail.
Ureter — One of the two canals or ducts which convey the urine from the
kidneys to the bladder.
Urea — ^The principal characteristic constituent of urine. It is white,
transparent and crystallizable.
Urinary — Pertaining to the urine.
Urine — The saline secretion of the kidneys.
Uterus — The womb.
Vagina — The canal, in female animals, from the vulva to the uterus.
Varicose veins — Veins, most commonly in the legs, which are permaneLtl}/
dilated, knotted and irregular.
Vascular — Pertaining to the vessels or animal and vegetable bodies, as
the vascular functions. The arteries, veins, lacteals, and the liKe,
compose the vascular system. Animal flesh is vascular.
Venesection — Letting blood by opening a vein,
Fewows— Pertaining to the veins, or contained in the vein.
Ventral — Pertaining to the abdomen or belly.
Ventricose — A swelled appearance, making the object look bellied.
Vermicular — Worm-like in shape or appearance.
Vermifuge — A medicine or agent to kill or expel worms.
Vertebra — A division or separate bone of the spinal column.
Vertex — The top of the head
GLOSSAKY OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS. 1269
^ eriigo — ^Dizziness. An indication of plethora, or, frequently, a symptom
of some disease.
Vesicle — A small blister. Any membranous cavity.
Veterinarian — One skilled in (and, usually, legally qualified for) the
treatment of the diseases of the horse, cattle and other domestic
animals.
Veterinary — ^Pertaining to the diseases of domestic animals, and treats
ment of the same ; connected with the duties or art of the veterinarian.
ViUi-^¥me, small fibres. Villous : abounding with minute fibres, as the
inner mucous membrane of the stomach and intestines, 'ailed the vil-
lous coat, from its abounding with villi or minute hairs.
Virutent—DangQYou.^ or malignant ; as, a virulent tj^Q of * disease.
Virus — Contagious or infectious matter^
Fisce* (x-=The organs contained in. any cavity of the body, particularly
of the head, thorax and abdomen,
P^sc^c/-=-Sticky or tenacious, with a glutinous consistency.
Fmow™- The act or faculty of seeing ; that which is seen.
F2Ya^— Having or containing life. Necessary to life,
Vivify-^To bring to a vital state o
Vivisection — The dissection of, or cutting into, living animals.
Volatile — Giving off v^apor, or flying off in vapor.
Vulnerary — Plants, lotions, ointments, drugs or other substances useful
in the healing of wounds -
Vulva — The outer opening in female acimalSy of the generative parts.
Wane-^To decrease, as in a fever,
Warbka—SuidW, hard tumors on the back of a horse, from irritation of
the saddle Tumors occasioned by the depositing of the eggs of t^
gadfly In the backs of horses and cattle »
PFarte— Spongy excrescences on various parts of the body,
W'in-^A. distinctly defined tumor under the skin, seldom hur*tf ul. An
encysted tumor.
Wfiinny---^£o utter the call of the horse- To neigh,
WindgaUs-^A. distension of the synovial membranes of a horse's fetlock
joints.
WitJiers-^Tfxe bony crest of the shoulders, in a horse.
WoTub—ThQ uterus, or bag in which the young are carried before birthe
Wound — A breach of the skin or flesh. Surgery classifies wounds as
contused, incised, punctured or poisoned.
Wry neck — ^An involuntary fixed position of the head towards one of the
shoulders.
Xiphoid — Sword-like. A small cartilage at the bottom of the breast-bone*
Yeasty — Frothy, foamy, spumy ; as, yeasty pus or matter.
1-270
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR,
ZeiiK'—The gluten of maize.
Zootogf/— That part of natural history which treats of the structure,
habits, classification and habitations of animals.
Zod7i — An animal ; having animal life„
Zootomy — Dissection of the lower animal
Zygoma-'T\\(i cheek-bone„
Zygomatic — Pertaining to the cheek-bone, or to the bony arch under
which the temporal muscle passes.
Zymotic— Caused by, or pcrraming to, fermentation ; as, a zymotic dis-
ease, being one in which some morbific principle acts on the system
like a ferment.
BOOK VII
SUPPLEMENTARY
INCLUDING CANADIAN, AFRICAN,
AUSTRALIAN AND OTHER
MATTER
1272 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Stomach. — The stomach is the large white poiich-hke organ which is
situated in the upper part of the abdominal cavity next to the lungs and
by the side of and partly underneath the liver. Usually the external
surface of the stomach shows no change from normal, though occasionally
there may be observed small red spots similar to those which have been
described as appearing in the lungs, heart, and kidneys. The stomach
should be opened by cutting the front wall from one end to the other.
HOG SICK OF HOG CHOLERA, CHRONIC TYPE.
INTKSTINKS OF A HOG.
Notice the small tubercles.
Small intestine. — In some acute
and virulent types of hog cholera the
outer surface of the small intestine
may be literally covered with bloody
spots, giving one the impression that
blood had been spattered over these
organs, but upon washing them with
water it will be found that these
bloody areas can not be removed.
There is no other characteristic lesion
of the outer surface of the small in-
testine. The inner lining, however,
may at times, in cases of hog cholera,
be congested and inflamed, so that the
normal wrinkled inner surface is
greatly thickened and covered with a
yellowish exudate or coating, or it
may be dotted with small bloody spots
like those seen on the outer surface.
"HOG CHOLERA.
PROM THE LATEST EXPERIMENTS AND INVESTIGATIONS.
t THE VARIOUS FORMS ASSUMED. II. INVESTIGATIONS IN SWINE PLAGUE.
III CONTAGIOUS, OR INFECTIOUS PRINCIPLE, ETC. IV. FROST AND THE
VIRUS —-v. MEASURES OF PREVENTIVE. VI. THE DISEASE AS OBSERVED
IN SWINE. VII. GLOSSARY OF PRECEDING SCIENTIFIC TERMS. VIII. CON-
CLUSION.
In the body of this work the various contagious diseases of swine are
treated of. Malignant diarrhoea often carries away large numbers of
swine. It is sometimes called hog cholera. In a general way corn burned
nearly to a charcoal is a good corrective of diarrhoea. So is wood char-
coal, and also the slack of bituminous coal, or the soft coal itself. Fatal
diarrhoea is often the result of disorganization of the functions of the
liver, the flux not being the disease, but the result. To excite the liver
to action where this is suspected, for a hog weighing from a hundred to
a hundred and fifty pounds in ordinary stock condition, give 20 grains
powdered mandrake, or from 10 to 20 grains of calomel, and repeat if
necessary. This will excite the liver to action.
In the first stages of diarrhoea, where the discharges are copious and
dark, give 1 to 2 drachms of bi-carbonate of soda dissolved in milk, or if
the hog will eat, incorporate it in a warm bran mash. The liver remedy
may also be given in the same way.
In cases of cholera, if subsequent to the flux constipation ensues, it
may be met with doses of 1 ounce of castor oil and 1 drachm of turpen-
tine. Or give one-half ounce doses of sulphate of soda in one-half pint
©f water.
If there is difficult breathing and cough, give 1 to 2 grains of tartai
emetic and one-half drachm of saltpetre, two or three times a day, in
one-half pint of water, and rub the sides of the chest and throat with
turpentine.
In giving these formulae the farmer must use his judgment. J^ollow
up the dos"es as may be required to produce the effect desired. These
remedies will also be indicated in cases of malignant hog cholera.
I. The Various Forms Assumed.
When the later symptoms are pronounced, the disease will assume the
form of malignant epizootic catarrh, (see page 984), and the prescrip-
tions there given are to meet the symptoms as stated.
1273
1274 CYCLOPEDIA OP LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOB.
On page 1)8") a form of intestinal hog cholera is treated of under the
name of "Contagious Fever of Swine." Symptoms as there stated should
be closely observed, that they may be met by the remedies as stated.
Still another form of hog cholera, and one of the most malignant and
fatal, is a peculiar inflammation of the lungs and bowels, known as conta-
gious pneumo-enteritis. This is the disease that has caused such wide
destruction of swine, and which the government of the United Slates has
spent long time of the best veterinary talent of the country and money
to investigate. The result of all this is, that hogs once fairly down with
any of the fatal forms of contagious diseases we have mentioned, had
better be killed at once, and sent to the grease rendering tank if near, or
deeply buried. When a hog is too sick to take medicine in food, the
diflSculty of administering is one of the chief obstacles to produce the
proper effect.
Disinfection. — The rules for disinfection must be carefully observed,
as given on pnges O.SO and 990, for where the virus germs are present or
capable of being brought, there can be no hope of permanent help.
There is no specific for these malignant diseases, as already stated in
this book. The cures claimed from the use of so-called specifics are of
swine not affected with malignant diseases; as preventives they may be
valuable. Fully as much or more so, will be No. 8 and No. 12. The
receipts given in the descriptions of the several forms of hog cholei-a
are the best known to veterinary science.
II. Investigations in Swine Plague,
Recognizing the importance of combatting the virulent contagious di-
seases affecting swine, the Department of Agriculture, at Washington,
has had comi)etent veterinarians investigating the disease for years. A
large portion of the work, and especially the microscopical examinations,
were placed under the direction of PI. J. Detmers, V. S., now professor
of veterinary science. University of Ohio. This gentleman adds to his
accurate knowledge as practitioner the habit of careful investigation in
various departments of science. His examinations into swine plague
(hog cholera) covers a number of years, and we give his general state-
ment of symptoms, and, also, general conclusions gathered from the
hundreds of pages he has written on the subject.
m. Contagious, or Infectious Principle, Etc.
If an animal infected with swine plague receives a wound or an exter-
nal lesion suflScient to cause congestion and inflammation, the morbid
process is almost sure to localize in the congested or inflamed parts
Further, if the infectious principle is introducea into the wound or a
HOG CHOLERA. 1275
lesion with inflamed, swelled, or congested borders — for instance, in a
wound caused by ringing or castration, etc. — the morbid process is sure
to develop in the inflamed or congested borders of that wound. All this
is easily accounted for if the bacilli and their germs constitute the infec-
tious principle, and if the mode and manner in which they obstruct and
<^log the capillary vessels is taken into consideration; but it is utterly
irreconcilable with the non-appearance of any local reaction after an
inoculation by means of a wound too slight to cause congestion, if the
infectious principle possesses the nature of a virus, or of a chemical
agency.
rv. Frost and the Virus.
Swine plague, until the last days of December, or until the ground
becomes covered with snow, and the weather exceedingly cold, was
s[)reading from farm to farm and from place to place, in the locality vis-
ited, but as soon as the temperature began to remain below tlie freezing
point at noon as well as at night, it at once ceased to spread from one
farm or locality to another. At the same time, however, it was observed
that the very cold weather of the last days of December and the first
days of January did not materially interfere Avith the spreading of the
swine plague from one animal to another in all pens and hog lots in
which the disease had previously made its appearance, and in Avhich the
way of feeding and watering the animals was such as to allow a contam-
ination of the food and the water for drinking with the excreta of the
diseased hog, or in which the pigs and hogs still healthy had open
wounds, sores, or scratches, and had to sleep together with the diseased
hog in the same place and on the same litter. Afterwards, when milder
weather had set in, the spreading from one place to another very slowly
commenced as^ain. (The cold indicated 20 degrees below zero.)
V. Measures of Preventive.
In relation to the spread of the disease and measures for prevention,
Dr. Detmers advises as follows:
The most effective means of prevention that can be applied by the in-
dividual owners of swine consists, first, iii promi)tly destroying and bury-
ing sufficiently deep and out of the way the first animal or animals that
show symptoms of swine plague, if the disease is just making its appear-
ance, and in aismfecting the premises, or if that is difficult, in removing
the herd at once to a non-infected place, or out of the reach of the infec«
tious principle. If possible the herd should be taken to a piece of high
and dry ground, free from any straw and rubbish — if recently plowed, still
l)etter — and should there receive clean food and no water excei)t such as
is freshly drawn from a well. If this is complied with, and if all com-
127(5 CYCLOPwpiA or live stock ant complete stock doctor.
munication whatever with any diseased hogs or pigs is cut off in every
respect, which is absolutely necessary, and still danger should be antici-
pated, for instance, if one or more animals should have become infected
l)efore the herd was removed, or a po.si5i))ility of either food or water for
drinking being or becoming tainted with the infectious principle should
exist, the danger may be averted, or at least be very much diminished by
administering three times a day to the water for drinking either some
carbolic acid (about 10 drops each time for every 150 pounds of live
weight) or some hyposulphite of soda (a teaspoonful for every 100
pounds of live-weight), till all danger has disappeared. Second, where
swine plague has been allowed to make some {)rogress in the herd, or
where the presence of the disease is not discovered until several animals
have been taken sick or have died, and others have become infected, the
best that can be done is to separate at once the healthy animals from the
diseased and suspected ones ; to place the healthy animals by themselves
and the doubtful ones by themselves; to separate, disinfect and treat
the animals in the way just stated. Special care must be taken to pre-
vent any communication, direct or indirect, between the three different
parts of the herd. If one person has to do the feeding, etc., he must
make it a strict rule to attend always first, to the healthy animals, then to
those considered as doubtful, and last to the sick ones, and must never
reverse that rule, or go among the healthy hogs or pigs after he has been
in the yard or pen occupied by the others. If possible each portion of
the herd should have its own attendant, who should not come in contact
with any of the others. The separation must be a strict one in every re-
spect; even dogs and other annuals may carry the infectious principle
from the diseased animals or from the yard occupied by them to the
healthy hogs and pigs. Buckets, pails, etc., which are used in feeding
the sick hogs should not be used for the healthy ones, because the infec-
tious principle may be conveyed by them from one place to another.
Last, but not least, it is very essential that the hog-lot occupied by the
healthy portion of the herd be higher than that occupied by the others.
If it is lower, and especially if it is so situated that water and other liquids
from the other hog-lots can flow into it or over it, the separation is
worse than useless, for then the healthy portion of the herd will surely
become infected, unless the ground is exceedingly dry. Third, whenever
swine plague is prevailing in the neighborhood, any operation, such as
ringing, marking by wounding, or cutting ears or tail, and castration and
spaying particularly, must not be performed, but should be delayed until
the disease has disappeared, or does not exist anywhere within a radius
of two miles. If such operation should become absolutely necessary, the
HOG CHOLERA. 1277
wounds must be dressed at least once a day with an effective disinfect-
ant, for instance, with a sohition of carbolic acid or thymol, till a heal-
ing has been effected* (See disinfectants, page 990.)
Swine plague Is very often communicated from herd to herd and from
place to place by a careless, and, in some cases, even criminal contamina-
tion of running streamlets, creeks and rivers with the excrements and
other excretions of diseased hogs and pigs, and with the carcasses and
parts of the carcasses of the dead animals. This source of the spreading
of the disease can be stopi)ed only by declaring such contamination of
streamlets a nuisaii'3e and making the offense punishable by law. Allow-
ing swine affected with the plague to have access to such streamlets
should be considered as constituting good evidence of such a contamina-
tion, as also the throwing of dead hogs, or parts of a carcass, into such
streamlets, creeks, or rivers.
VI. The Disease as Observed in Swine.
Symptoms during life. — "The disease may last from a few hours to
four weeks in fatal cases. Quite frequently animals will die very sud-
denly and without warning. Some of these cases present the hemorrhagic
type of the disease very distinctly. In the majority of cases which came
under our observation recently, the disease lasted from one to two weeks.
The most prominent symptoms are those of great debility and capricious
appetite. In about one-half of the cases, diarrhoea set in afler three or
four days. The feces are usually liquid, at times blood-stained. In
^hose cases where ulceration is extensive, diarrhcea is always present. The
vectal temperature is usually high but variable, and not at all reliable as
?. means of determining the intensity of the disease.
Lesions observed after death. — Discoloration or reddening of the skin
is quite rare. When present, it is usually found about the genitals in
both sexes. The subcutaneous fatty tissue is frequently of a diffuse red-
ness and rarely studded with small extravasations.
The peritoneal cavity usually contains more or less straw colored serum
in advanced cases. In those which die quite suddenly serous effusions
are absent. The coils of the intestine are now and then covered with a
few fibrinous, stringy coagula, indicating slight peritonitis. Beneath
the serous covering of the intestines extravasations of blood are quite
common in very acute cases. They are most frequently encountered on
the large intestine throughout its entire lens'th or limited to the csecum.
Occasionally a few coils of the ilium are covered with punctiform ecchy-
moses. They are found now and then on the stomach. Only once did
we see large ecchymoses in the fatty tissue sorrounding the kidney.
The spleen is usually considerably swollen, dark, gorged with blood.
1278 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
and very friable. On its surface and borders, in acute cases, raised
blood-red points are frequently encountered. The liver is sometimes
enlarged, sometimes liighly congested, and is found quite pale at other
times. Occasionally its surface is mottled with pale greenish patches.
The kidneys are more or less changed. Frequently the surface is dotted
with a variable number of dark-rod points, is commonly much congested ;
even the tips of the papilUe may assume a dusky hue. The cortical
portion in some cases is the seat of a hemorrhagic intlammation. On
section it is dotted with closely set, dark-red points, probably the glome-
ruli in a state of extreme engorgement.
The heart is but slightly affected. The pericardium is always more
or less distended with fluid. In acute cases a variable number of puno-
tiform and larger extravasations are present beneath the pericardium of
the auricular appendages. More rarely a few are found beneath the
endocardium of the ventricles. The right side is, as a rule, distended
with a dark coagulum and left nearly empty.
The lungs are in many cases normal, both in cases of rapid death and
protracted disease. We have seen many cases in which perfectly sound
lungs accompanied extensively ulcerated intestines. In a moderate
number of acute, virulent cases, the luiigs are, in general, collapsed and
pale. Under the pleura, however, there are seen small patches of a
dark-red color, which correspond to limited regions of dark hepatized
tissue not much more than one-quarter inch in diameter. These foci
are always found throughout the lung tissue in greater or less abun-
dance. In the advanced stages of chronic swine plague, the major part
of the lungs may be completely hopatizod. This condition we have
found but rarely, and may depend on circumstances not yet clearly un-
derstood.
The lymphatic glands are always more or less affected, those of the
thorax as well as those of the abdomen. The glands at the root of the
mescntary are very nmch thickened and confluent, mottled, red, and
whitish; the medullary portion is commonly reddened, the cortex more
frequently gorged with blood. The glands imbedded between the coils
of the large intestine are usually of a very dark-red. When these coils
are torn apart, the glands are brought to view as isolated, bean-shaped
bodies, their dark, blood-red color contrasting markedly with the adja-
cent paler, flesh-coloix'd serosa. This congestion prevails throughout the
gland-tissue. On section the knife becomes covered with blood. This
description applies equally well to the glands in the region of the
stomach, the paler inguinals, the bronchial, and mediastinal glands. In
chronic cases, which have lasted from three to fours weeks, the lym-
phatics are usually large, but very pale and tough od section.
HOG CHOLERA. 1279
The intestinal tract is ordinarily the seat of the most severe lesions.
In the stomach the fundus or most dependent portion is deeply reddened,
often blackish in color, depending on the amount of extravasated blood.
Occasionally clots of blood are found forming a coating around the food.
In older cases the inflammation may be absent or replaced by isolated
ulcers. The duodenum is rarely affected. The jejunum seems to enjoy
a still greater imnmnity. The ileum is less exempt from pathological
changes which seem to be proportioned to the extent and severity of the
lesions found in the adjoining large intestine, which will be first de-
scribed."
VII. Glossary of Preceding Scientific Terms.
The scientific terms used in the foregoing in diseases as observed in
swine, are as follows : —
Auricular — Pertaining to the ear.
Caecum — The commencement of the large intestine.
Ecchymoses — Livid, black or yellow spots from extravasation or effu-
sion of blood.
Feces — The natural discharges of an animal.
Glomeruli — Heads. Places of gatherings.
Hemorrhagic — Pertaining to flux or discharge of blood.
Hepatized — Gorged with effused matter, producing a peculiar livery
appearance.
Ilium — The third or longest division of the lesser intestines.
Lymphatic Glands — A reddish colored gland connected with the lym-
phatics {lymphatic^ a vein-like valved vessel containing a transparent
fluid).
Lesion — An injury or morbid change,
Mesentary — The membrane which retains the intestines and their ap>
pendages in their proper position.
Peritoneal — Region of the thin, smooth serous membrane investing
the whole internal surface of the abdomen, and more or less all the
viscra contained in it, and of which it forms the surface.
Pericardium — The membranous sac inclosing the heart.
Pleura — The membrane of the inner portion of the thorax and invest-
ingr the lungs.
Rectal — The last portion of the intestines.
Sub-cutaneous — Under the skin.
VIII. Conclusions.
The preceding investigations definitely settle certain controverted
points concerning the causes of swine plague, which may be briefly sum-
marized :
1 280 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPI.ETE STOCK IKKTrOR.
Swine plague Is caused by a specific microbe (an invisible germ) mal-
tiplying in the body of the diseased animal. The microbe probably be-
longs to the genus bacterium (a filamentous organism not yet defimtely
known as belonging to the vegetable or animal kingdom, but apparently
having distinct power of motion).
When introduced beneath the skin this bacterium is fatal to pigs, rab-
bits, guinea-pigs, mico, and a certain percentage of pigeons, it is more
than piohahle that cattle inoculated with the virus of swine plague will
come down with a disease that has been mistaken for contagious pleuro-
pneumonia, but it is not communicated to other animals. It is also fa-
tal to pigs when introduced with the food, or when they feed on the in-
ternal organs of swine which have died of the disease.
It is worthy to be remembered that the disease described in France as
Rouget, and in Germany as Rothlauf, and for which Pasteur has pre-
pared a vaccine, is caused l)y an entirely different microhe. The vaccine
for this disease does not protect against swine plague. The introduc-
tion of . Pasteur's vaccine is not only useless but may contribute to the
introduction and spread of a disease, the existence of which in this
country has not yet been demonstrated.
During the last two years, 1897-98, the Bureau of Animal Industry has
been experimenting with the serum treatment, both as a cure and preven-
tive, in Pope County, Iowa, with the result that about 23.16 per cent, of
infected hogs died, showing a recovery of 76. 84 per cent. In a correspond-
ing number of hogs in other herds not treated the loss was 84. 24 per cent.
This is a remarkably strong showing in favor of the serum treatment.
This serum can be got from the Department of Agrichlture at Washington,
D. C. It can be applied by any up-to-date veterinarian.
The value of this treatment can be figured from the loss in Iowa alone
lastyear of $15,000,000.
Full particulars of the experiments with this serum are found in Bulletin
No. 23, United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal In-
dustry, 1899.
Jlog Cholera (1911): — It is yet the great question among breedei's
of hogs. It is well established that he who provides comfortable quarters
for his hogs, keeps their surroundings clean by a regular program of re-
moval of filth and disinfecting where they eat, sleep and wallo^v, with a
cHDnstant lookout for lice and providin.s; for such food as the system' re-
quires, need have little fear of that droad disease.
Experts are in hot pursuit of the cholera bacillus and as a result are
rapidly perfecting a serum that is an anti-toxine against hog cholera and
will no doubt control that disease as effectually as they do black le^ in
cattle.
SWINE,
By Prof. G. E. Pay, K. S. A., Professor of Agriculture and Farm Superintendent. Ontario Agricultural
College, Guelph, Ontario.
I. Judging Hogs of Bacon Type— II. The Fat Hog.— III. Large Yorkshires.— IV. Tamworths.
V. Berkshires.
In dealing with this subject it will be necessary to pay special atten-
tion to the type of hog for which Canada is noted, and this calls for
some e.<planations regarding our trade in pork products.
American vs. Canadian Trade. — In the United States there is an im-
mense home market for lard and oleomargarine (a substitute for butter).
In Canada we have no trade in oleomargarine, and a very much smaller
home market for lard. The American packer, therefore, can utilize
very fat hogs, manufacturing lard and oleomargarine from the fat, and
placing only the leaner carcases and the lean parts of the fat carcases
upon the market to be consumed as meat. On the other hand, practi-
cally all the Canadian hogs must be consumed as meat, and as there is
a very limited and decreasing demand for fat pork, the production of a
leaner type of hog has become a necessity. Great Britain is the home
of the export trade in pork products of both Canada and the United
States, the latter country exporting vastly larger quantities than Canada;
and in order to keep out of a hopeless competition with the Americans,
our packers have been forced to cater to an entirely different class of
customers. Thus it comes that the lean and carefully prepared bacon
of Canada is taken by the large cities of Great Britain, while the Ameri-
can product goes to a less fastidious class of customers at a considerably
lower price. Canadian bacon, therefore, does not realh-^ come into
competition with the American product in Great Britain, and a very
little consideration of the facts brieliy outlined above should convince
any thoughtful person of the importance of kee})ing out of the way of
American competition. Our chief competitors are Denmark and Ireland,
and the whole future of our swine industry is dependent upon the intel-
ligent attention our Canadian breeders and feeders pay to quality.
Superior quality must be our motto, if we would hold and extend our
trade.
The kind of bacon of which Canadian packers make a specialty is
what is known as the "Wiltshire side." To make this bacon, a hog is
required weighing from one hundred and sixty pounds to two hundred
and twenty pounds, live weight, though hogs are preferred not over two
1281
1282 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMrLP:TE STOCK DOCTOR.
hundred pounds live weight. The description and scale of points which
are offered give a prettj clear idea of the type of animal required, but it
may be added that the layer of fat along the back should be only about
one and a quarter inches thick, and that it should be uniform in
thickness over loin, back, and shoulder top. A hog suitable for making
Wiitsbire sides is known in Canada as a "bacon hog."
I. Judging Hogs of Bacon Type.
We now come to a very important matter, that of judging swine of
bacon type. It is perhaps too much to expect that there will ever be
entire unanimity of opinion among judges, yet it is something greatly to
be desired, and an effort should be made to come as near to this desired
end as possible, The main difficulty in judging seems to arise from the
fact that judges differ regarding the relative importance of the various
Fig. 1.
-Light jowl and good neck; shoulders well proportioned; belly sags a little
towards the rear, good length of side.
parts of an animal. They may be in entire accord as to what consti-
tutes a perfect bacon hog, but, unfortunately, perfect animals are scarce,
and it is in the attempt to balance one defect against another that dif-
ferences in judgment frequently occur. It would seem reasonable,
therefore, to assume that some authoritative standard of excellence and
scale of points would be helpful in bringing about greater uniformity in
judging.
In the scale of points given herewith, an attempt has been made to
distinguish between a breeding animal and one intended for slaughter-
ing. It is quite apparent that in breeding animals, weight limits should
not be used. On the other hand, an animal that is to be slaughtered
need not be criticized as to eyes, ears, hair, style, or the strength of its
pasterns, while weight becomes very important.
SWINE.
1283
In connection with the scale of points, it will be well to study the
diagram (Fig. 3) given below. It has been copied from an article by
Loudon M. Douglas, in the Eoyal Agricultural Society's Report for
1898. Unfortunately, later figures are not available; but the diagram
Fig. 2.— Well proportioned shoulder, good top line and good trim belly, but lacts
length.
mpy be regarded as showing, at least approximately, the relative values
of the various cuts. Attention is also called to Figures 1 and 2, which
are modified sketches made from photographs of two hogs from the
experimental department of the Ontario Agricultural College.
PRIMl PART
rnnsoJUICK BACK BACK R/BS. PRIME CUT
"TOP or THICK PRIME THIN STREAKY
FORE HOCK ''"''"' '"'^'^''''''
FLANK
GAMMON HOCK
Fio. 3.— Diagram showing various cuts of a side of bacon, and the average prices realized for
each during 1897. (Copied from R. A. S. Report for 189S.)
Scale of Points for Hogs of Bacon Type.
description.
Head AND Neck— 8 points: points
Snout, moderately fine 1
Eyes, good size, full and bright L
Jowl, light and neat 3
Neck, medium length, muscular, but possessing no tendency to arch
on top 3
1284 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Fork Quarters— 17 points:
Shoulders, light, smooth, rounded from side to side over top and
very compact, no wider than back y
Breast, good width and full - 4
Fore Legs, set well apart, medium length, aud straight; pasterns,
upright; bone clean and moderately fine 4
Body— 40 points:
Back, medium width, rising slightly above the straight line, and
forming a very slight arch from neck to tail 9
Loin, strong and full but not unduly arched, wide as rest of back.... 5
Ribs, good length and moderately arched S
Side, fairly deep; long, smooth, and straight between shoulder
and ham; a straight-edge laid over shoulder point and ham
should touch the side throughout 12
Heart Girth, full but not flabby at fore flanks, filled out even with
side of shoulder; there should be no tucked-up appearance
back of fore legs, nor droop back of shoulder top 5
Flank, full and low ^ 1
Underline, straight ; the belly should be markedly trim and neat 5
Hind Quarters— 15 points:
Rump, same width as back, long and slightly rounded from a point
above hips to tail, and rounded from side to side over top... 5
Ham, full without flabbiness; thigh, tapering towards hock without
wrinkles or folds, and carrying flesh well down towards
hock 6
Hind Legs, medium length; hocks, set well apart but not bowed out-
ward; bone clean, and moderately fine; pasterns, strong 4
Quality— 15 points :
.£"ar, rather thin, (1); hair, fine and abundant, (2); skin, smooth,
showing no tendency to wrinkle, (2); bone, moderately fine
and clean in legs, moderately fine in snout and head, and
showing no prominence on side and top of shoulder, (5) ;
flesh, firm and smooth, with no flabbiness at jowl, fore flank,
belly, or ham, (5) 15
Style— 5 points :
Active and sprightly in movement, walking without a swaying mo-
tion, and standing well up on toes 5
Perfection 100
N. B. — For hogs intended for killing, the same scale of points may be
used with the following modifications: Strike out score for eyes, ears, hair
and style; deduct two points fiom points allowed fore legs and also hind
legs and add following score:
Weight, 175 to 200 pounds, live weight. Being under 160 pounds or
over 220 pounds will disqualify 13
Regarding the scale of points, the following may be noted:
Head and Neck. — These parts have very little market value and con-
sequently should be comparatively light. A great deal of the weight
of the head is in the jowl, which should therefore be light. A long,
scrawny neck is very objectionable, indicating poor feeding qualities.
A short neck is a good thing in itself, but where the neck is very short
it is apt to be heavy on top, a formation associated with heavy shoulders
sv/iNE. 1285
carrying a great thickness of fat over theto-p. Fig. 1 shows a very light
jowl and a good neck.
Fore Quarters. — The diagram shows that the values are low in the
fore quarters, particularly the fore hock, or shoulder. Consequently,
we want as little shoulder as is consistent with constitution, smoothness
of shoulder being especially desirable. Figures 1 and 2 show very well-
proportioned shoulders, together with a very good representation of the
style of legs required.
Body. — A glance at the diagram will show the importance of the body
and the desirability of great length. The desired top-line is well illus-
trated in Fig. 2, though the hog has scarcely enough length. While a
"razor back" is not desirable, yet a broad back invariably gives too
great a thickness of fat. A flabby, heavy belly, with heavy fore flanks,
must not be mistaken for a long rib. A fair depth of side is very de-
sirable; but when it goes beyond a certain point it becomes objection-
able, because it gives too much belly meat. Notice in the diagram the
prices of "flank" and "thin streaky" as compared with the cuts above
them. Fig. 2 shows a good trim belly, but in Fig. 1 it sags a little too
much towards the rear, owing to the somewhat crouching position of
the animal, which the artist has failed to entirely eliminate. Fig. 1,
however, shows an excellent length of side.
Hind Quarters. — Some surprise may be occasioned by the compara-
tively low value attached to the ham in the diagram. A large, blocky
ham is not desirable, but the ham should taper gradually towards the
hock, and be very smooth.
Quality. — Special attention should be paid to general smoothness and
absence of flabbiness.
iStyle. — This would, of course, be disregarded by the packer, but is
deserving of some prominence in breeding stock,.
Before leaving the question of the bacon hog, it is worthy of note that
carefully conducted experiments at the Ontario Agricultural College,
Guelph, go to show that it does not necessarily cost any more to pro-
duce a pound of gain in a good type of bacon hog than in any other type.
Hogs of excellent bacon type proved very economical feeders, and
ranked very high in this respect when compared with fat types
II. The Fat Hog.
The fat hog, so popular in the United States, is practically the oppo-
site of the bacon hog in general character. Its weight may be anywhere
from 200 to 400 pounds, the common run being from 200 to 300 pounds*
live weight. In this animal, thickness and depth are emphasized rather
than length. The heavy jowl; short, thick neck; broad shoulders.
1286 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
back and rump; heavy and frequently bulging hams; deep, rather than
long, side; short legs, and the fine bone which is an indication of obes-
ity rather than muscular development, all combine to make up an ani-
mal very different indeed from the bacon type. There is a popular be-
lief that this type of hog can be more cheaply produced than the bacon
type. This may be true for certain conditions; but for the conditions
which commonly prevail in Canada, the belief is ill-founded, as has
been previously stated.
Scale of Points for Fat Hogs.
description.
Head AND Neck— 5 points: points.
Snout, moderately fine 1
Jowl, full, broad, deep, smooth, and firm, carrying fullness back near
to point of shoulder 2
Neck, short, thick, and deep; rounding and full from poll to shoul-
der top 2
Fore Quarters— 12 points:
Shoulders, broad and compact on top, deep, well fleshed, blending
smoothly with neck and body 7
Breast, wide, deep, and full 3
Fore Legs, set well apart, short, tapering and straight; pasterns,
upright; bone, clean and fine 2
Body— 35 points:
Back, broad, straight or very slightly arched, medium length, uni-
form width from shoulder to ham, thickly fleshed, even and
smootli without creases or projections 10
Loin, broad, strong, full, and thickly and smoothly fleshed 8
Ribs, long and well sprung at top and bottom 3
Sides, medium length, deep, smooth, even between shoulder and
ham 6
Heart Girth, large, full back of shoulder, and deep and full at fore
flanks '. _ 4
Flank, deep and full 1
Undo line, straight, with no sagging nor flabbiness of belly 3
Hind Quarters — 19 points:
Rump, same width as back, long, slightly rounded from loin to base
of tail, smooth 5
Ham, broad, deep, heavily fleshed, plump and reasonably smooth;
flesh carried well down to hock on inside as well as at rear 12
Hind Legs, short, straight, set well apart and squarely under body;
bone, fine and clean; pasterns, strong 2
Quality— 16 points:
Ear, fine and soft, (1); hair, fine and abundant, (1); skin, smooth,
showing no tendency to wrinkle, (3) ; bone, fine and smooth in
legs, fine in snout and head, and showing no prominence at
side or top of shoulder, (5); flesh, firm and smoothly distrib-
uted over all parts, no flabbiness at jowl, fore flank, belly and
ham,(6) 16
Symmetry— 5 points:
All parts should be proportionately developed, so that in general ap-
pearance the animal is smooth, compact, and well balanced 5
Weight: heavy for age 8
Perfection 100
SWINE.
BREEDS OF SWINE.
1287
III. Large Yorkshires.
Yorkshire swine are of English origin, and in that country three
types are recognized, viz.: Large Whites, Middle Whites, and Small
Whites. In this country, practically only one type is known, the Large
Whites, which are variously called Large Yorkshires, Improved York-
shires, and Improved Large Yorkshires. The term "improved" is used
Improved Tamwortli Sow, bred by J. K. P.uthour, Buoford, Ontario, and property
of Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph, Ontario.
because the modern Large Yorkshire is a modification of the original
large white English pig, which was extremely coarse and hard to fatten.
Yorkshires are now one of the most popular breeds in Ontario, and
they are rapidly gaining a footing in the other provinces of the Dominion
as well as in the United States.
Characteristics. — Yorkshires are one of our largest breeds of swine.
They vary considerably in type, and it requires skill in selection to breed
them of uniform character. When intelligently selected, they are
profitable feeders, growing rapidly, and becoming ready for the packer
at an early age. They are well adapted to the production of bacon for
1 2«S
rVCLOPEDlA OF ],1VK STOCK AND COMIM^KTE STOCK DO
SWINE. ]2.S9
our export trade, as thej produce a long side and a large proportion of
lean to fat. They are reasonably hardy and very prolific. They are
exceptionally valuable for crossing on the fatter types of hogs, giving
to the progeny greater length and less tendency to excessive fatness.
They are, perhaps, better adapted to pen feeding than to grazing, and
they will stand forcing without becoming overfat.
Judging Yorkshires. — Yorkshires vary considerably in type and gen-
eral qualities, and some of these types are very objectionable. The
more old-fashioned strains frequently possessed extremely short,
turned-up snouts, with the lower jaw often extending beyond the upper.
While many good hogs possess this peculiarity, it is too commonly
associated with very undesirable qualities to deserve popularity. Ani-
mals with this formation of snout often have a heavy jowl, neck, and
shoulder, a short side, and a general lack of quality. Even though the
animal may not possess these undesirable qualities in itself, there is a
strong probability of their cropping out in many of the progeny. Then
there is another extreme: the long, scrawny neck; narrow back; rough,
bony shoulder; long, coarse-boned, puffy legs, and bristly coat. This
type should be avoided as one would avoid the plague. It may have
length, but is not a bacon hog. It lacks quality, which is essential to
the bacon hog; and it is a hard feeder, which the bacon hog is not.
In the description which accompanies the scale of points, an attempt
has been made to give an idea of what the Large Yorkshire should be.
In judging, however, due allowance must be made for masculinity in
the boar; and, provided he is right in other respects, a slight promi-
nence of the side of the shoulder may be overlooked. The neck, also,
is more heavily muscled than would be desired in a barrow, and it is
possible to have the boar too fine in bone. It is a great mistake, how-
ever, to go to the other extreme and imagine that general coarseness
and lack of quality, or a frame loaded with fat, indicates constitution.
There should be activity, strength, and vigor without coarseness;
smoothness and quality without overrefinement; length without weak-
ness; substance and apparent thrift without obesity.
In judging of the length of the hog, it is not enough that it should
be long from snout to tail. The most valuable part of the carcase lies
back of the shoulder, and care must be exercised in noting the length
between shoulder and ham. What appears at first sight to be a long
animal will sometimes be found wanting in length of side, the shoulder
extending far back and encroaching upon the side. This formation
gives a carcase which is heavy at the cheap end. It is possible, how-
ever, to run to extremes in this connection also, for there is a limit to
the lenfijth of middle which an animal may safely carry, and it is possible
1290 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
to have an animal out of proportion in this respect. Strength must
accompany length.
Sows should show no indications of coarseness, and should possess
at least twelve sound teats.
Scale of Points for Large Yorkshire Swin'"
description.
Color— 2 points : points.
White, free from black hairs, and as far as possible from blue spots
on the skin 2
Head and Neck— 8 points:
Snout, medium length, straight, or nearly so, moderately fine 1
Face, slightly dished, broad between eyes 1
Eyes, good size, full and bright 1
Jowl, light and neat 2
Ears, long, good width, moderately thin, slightly incliHed forward,
and fringed with fine hair 1
Neck, medium length, muscular, but possessing no tendency to arch
on top 2
Fore Quarters— 15 points:
Shoulders, smooth, somewhat rounded from side to side over top and
very compact; no wider than back, and not running back on
side so as to shorten distance between shoulder and ham 8
Breast, good width, and full 3
Fore Legs, set well apart, medium length, and straight; pasterns,
strong; bone, clean and strong; feet, compact 4
Body— 37 points:
Back, medium width, rising slightly above the straight line, and
forming a very slight arch from neck to tail 8
Loin, wide as rest of back, strong and futl, but not unduly arched— 5
Ribs, good length and moderately arched 3
Side, fairly deep; long, smooth, and straight between shoulder and
ham; a straight-edge laid over shoulder point and ham should
touch the side throughout 10
Heart Girth, i\A\, but not flabby at fore flanks, filled out even with side
of shoulder; there should be no tucked-up appearance back of
fore legs, nor droop back of shoulder 5
Flank, full and low 2
Underline, straight; the belly should be markedly trim and neat 4
Hind Quarters— 17 points:
Rump, same width as back, long and slightly rounded from a point
above hips to tail, and somewhat rounded from side to side
over top 5
Ham, full without flabbiness; thigh, tapering towards hock without
wrinkles or folds, and carrying flesh well down towards hock 8
Hind Legs, medium length; hocks, set well apart, but not bowed
outward; bone, clean and strong; pasterns, strong; feet, com-
pact 4
Quality— 13 points :
Hair, fine and abundant, (2) ; skin, smooth, showing no tendency to
wrinkle, (2) ; bone, clean in legs, and showing no prominence
on side and top of shoulder, (4); flesh, firm and smooth, -with
no flabbiness at jowl, fore flank, belly, or ham, (5) 13
SWINE. 1291
Style— 3 points:
Active and sprightly in mojment, walking without a swaying mo-
tion, and standing well up on toes 3
Symmetry— 5 points :
All parts proportionately developed, so that the general appearance
gives the impression of a well-balanced, strongly-built animal 5
Perfection 100
Objections.
Snout. — Unduly short and turned up.
Jowl. — Heavy.
Ears. — Small, similar to Berkshire, or unduly coarse and droopino-.
Neck. — Either long and scrawny, or extremely short and heavy.
Shoulders. — Extremely heavy, open on top, or extending far back on
side so as to shorten distance between shoulder and ham.
Girth. — Light around heart, tucked up at fore flank, depressed back of
shoulder top, narrow across floor of chest.
Back. — Either extremely narrow or extremely wide ; either sagt^ed or
unduly arched.
Loin. — Narrow and weak.
Side. — Short; falling away at lower part, owing to short-curved rib.
Belly. — Either tucked up or sagging.
Ham. — Either bare or wrinkled and flabby.
Legs. — Long, coarse, crooked, deformed ; bone puffy ; pasterns wenk ;
feet spreading.
Qualitij. — Hair scanty or coarse and wiry; skin wrinkled; flesh soft
and flabby, or unevenly laid on.
Symmetry. — Undue development of certain parts in proportion to
others.
IV. Tam worths.
Tamworth swine are also of English origin, and were quite extensively
bred in England as early as the beginning of the past century. Thev
have been greatly improved and modified of late years, and are to be
found in large numbers at the leading shows in this country. They
have also spread into the United States, though it is impossible to fore-
tell their success in that country.
Characteristics. — They are admirably adapted to the production of
export bacon, being lengthy, smooth-shouldered, light-boned, and pro-
ducing a large proportion of lean to fat. They are reasonably hardy,
and the better class of them are economical producers of bacon. The
sows are prolific and good mothers, though in experiments at the
Ontario Agricultural College, the young pigs scarcely grew so rapidly as
1292 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
the Yorkshires. They are quite extensively used for crossing on other
breeds.
Judging Tamivor I hs.— The Tamworth is essentially a bacon hog,
and must be judged as such. Fancy points must give way to utility,
although heavy, drooping ears, and black spots are seriously objected
to. Leaving the remarks on breed tyi)e out of consideration, what has
been said in connection with judging Yorkshires applies with equal
force to this breed.
Yorksliire Boar, bred and owned by the Ontario Agricultural College, Guelpb, Ontario.
Scale of Points for Tamworth Swine.
description.
Color— 2 points: points.
Golden red without black spots in hair or skin 2
Head and Neck— 8 points:
Snoul, rather long, straight, and fine 1
Face, slightly dished, good width between eyes 1
Eyes, good size, full, and bright 1
Jozul, very light and neat 2
Ears, rather long, pointed, thin, erect, and fringed with fine hair... . 1
Neck, medium length, muscular, but possessing no tendency to arch
on top " 2
Fore Quarters — Same as for large Yorkshire.
Body— Same as for large Yorkshire.
Hind Quarters— Same as for large Yorkshire.
Quality — Same as for large Yorkshire.
Stvlk— Same as for large Yorkshire.
Symmetry — Same as for large Yorkshire.
Objections— Same as for large Yorkshire.
8WINE. 1293
V. Berkshires.
In the Berkshire we have another English breed, and one that is very
extensively spread over Canada and the United States. Some years ago
the utility of this breed was greatly injured by its breeders aiming to
secure fancy points rather than to develop useful qualities. Color was
regarded as of great importance, and, in addition, they bred for an ex-
tremely short snout, heavy jowl and neck, a broad, fat back, and very fine
bone. Of late years Canadian breeders at least have been trying to get
as far away as possible from the type mencioned above, and to bring the
breed nearer the bacon type. Tj^eir efforts have met with a consider-
able degree of success, though there is still much to accomplish before
the breed as a whole can be classed as an ideal bacon hog.
Characteristics. — There is a marked difference in the general type of
Canadian and American Berkshires, for while Canadian breeders have
been striving to lengthen the side and modify the type generally to meet
the requirements of our market, Americans, on the other hand, have
been breeding them solely for the production of the fat hog. Berk-
shires, as a breed, are very easy feeders, and mature early. They are
hardy and fairly prolific. Perhaps their greatest faults from a market
standpoint are their tendencies to shortness of side between shoulder
and ham, and to undue weight of jowl, neck, and shoulder. They form
poi)ular crosses with Yorkshires and Tamworths, and the result of these
crosses is usually a very good bacon hog.
Judging Berkshires. — Owing to the confusion of types, it becomes a
diflScult matter to judge Berkshires satisfactorily in Canadian show-
ings. However, since the bacon hog is the leading hog in Canada, and
since Berkshire breeders claim their favorites to be well adapted to the
production of Wiltshire sides, it seems only reasonable to assume that
they should be judged mainly from the bacon standpoint. It is true,
that a very important use of Berkshires is to cross with such breeds as
the Yorkshire and Tamworth, but even for this purpose they are all the
better for approaching the bacon type very closely. There is, there-
fore, good ground for discounting the heavy jowl, neck, and shoulder,
and the extremely broad back, and for insisting upon only a moderate
development of these parts. Length, particularly between shoulder and
ham, becomes of greater importance than depth and thickness. What
has been said under Yorkshires regarding the danger of going to
extremes, applies with equal force here, and the judge must not fail to
emphasize constitution, quality, and symmetry.
Scales of Points. — Since there are two distinct standards for judg-
mg Berkshires, it has been thought advisable to give two descriptions.
The first one assumes that the Berkshire is to be judged as a bacon hog,
1294 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
and is recommended as a standard for Canadian l)reeders. The second
description gives a very clear idea of the ideal Berkshire of the United
States.
Scale op Points for Berkshire Swine as Bred for Bacon Production.
description.
Color— 2 points: points.
Black, with white on face, feet, tip of tail, and an occasional splash
on arm 2
Head and Neck— 8 points:
Snout, medium length and rather fine 1
Face, dished, {?ood width between eyes 1
£yes, good size, full, and bright 1
Jowl, light and neat 2
Ears, medium size, thin, and soft, almost erect, but sometimes in-
clining slightly forward in aged animals 1
Neck, medium length, muscular, but possessing little or no tendency
to arch on top 2
Fore Quarters— Same as for large Yorkshire.
Body — Same as for large Yorkshire.
Hind Quarters — Same as for large Yorkshire.
Quality — Same as for large Yorkshire.
Style — Same as for large Yorkshire.
Symmetry — Same as for large Yorkshire.
Objections — Same as for large Yorkshire with exception of ears, which
should read: Very large, coarse, or flabby.
BERKSHIRE SWINE.
Description Adopted by the American National Association of Expert Judges.
disqualifications.
Form. — Very large and heavy or drooping ears ; small, cramped chest,
crease back of shoulders and over the back so as to cause a depression
in back easily noticed, deformed or crooked legs, feet broken down, so
that the animal walks on pastern joints.
Size.— Overgrown, gangling, narrow contracted or not two-thirds
large enough for age.
Condition. — Barrenness, deformed, seriously diseased, total blind-
ness from any cause.
Score. — Less than sixty points.
Pedigree. — Not eligible to record.
detailed description.
1. — Head and Face. — Head short, broad, coming well forward at
poll, face short and fine and well dished, broad between the eyes,
tapering from eyes to point of nose, surface even and regular.
Objections. — Head long, narrow and coarse, forehead low and nar-
row, jaws narrow or contracted, lower jaws extending beyond upper,
SWINE. 1295
face long, straight between eyes, nose coarse, thick, or crooked, or
ridgy.
2. — Eyes. -Very clear, rather large, dark, hazel or gray.
Objections. — Small, dull, blood-shot, deep set or obscure, vision im-
paired by wrinkles, fat or other cause.
3. — Ears. — Generally almost erect, but sometimes inclined forward
with advancing age, medium size, thin and soft.
Objections. - Large, coarse, thick, round or drooping, long or large
knuck, difference in form, size or position one with the othir, animal
unable to control their position.
A. — Neck. — Full, deep, short and slightly arched, broad on top, well
connected with shoulder.
Objections. — Long, flat, lacking in fullness and depth.
5. — Jowl. — Full, firm and neat, carrying fullness back to shoulder
and brisket.
Objections. — Light, flabby, thin, tucked up or wrinkled.
6. — Shoulder. — Broad, deep and full, not extended above line of bacfe
and being as wide on top as back, carrying size down to line of belly
and having lateral width.
Objections. — Lacking in depth or width, thick beyond the line of
sides and hams or extending above line of back, heavy shields on hogs
under eighteen months of age.
7. — Chest. — Large, wide, deep and roomy, full girth, breast bone
curving well forward, extending back on level, not tucked up, broad
between fore legs.
Objection's. — Flat, narrow at top or bottom, small girth, lacking
lepth or fullness, breast bone crooked or tucked up.
8. — Back — Broad and straight, carrying same width from shoulder
to ham, surface even and smooth without creases or projections and not
too long.
Objections. — Narrow, swayed or hollow, dropping below a straight line.
9. — Sides and Ribs. — Sides full, smooth, firm and deep, carrying
size down to belly and evenly from ham to shoulder. Ribs long, strong,
well sprung at top and bottom.
Objections. — Flat, thin, flabby, not as full at bottom as top. Ribs
weak, not well sprung at top or bottom.
10. — Belly and Flank. — Wide, full and straight on bottom line.
Objections. — Belly narrow and sagging. Flank thin and tucked up.
11. — Ham and Rump. — Haras broad, full and long; the lower front
part of ham should be full and stifle well covered with flesh, coming well
down on hock. Rump should have a rounding slope from loin to root of
tail, same width as back and filling out on each side and above the tail.
1296 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLKPE STOCK DOCTOPv.
Objectious. — Ham narrow, short, thin, not projectin^r beyond and
coming down on hock, cut up too high in crotch. Rump flat, narrow
and too steep.
12. — Legs and Feet. — Legs short, straight and strong, set wide ai)art,
with hoofs erect and capable of holding good weight.
Objections. - Legs long, slim, coarse, crooked, muscles light, pastern
long, slim or flat, feet long or sprawling.
13. — Tail. — Set well up, fine, tapering and neatly curled.
Objections. — Coarse and straight, too low.
14. — Coat. — Fine, straight, smooth, lying close to and covering the
body well, not clipped, evenly distributed over body.
Objections. — Hair coarse, harsh, wavy or curly, not evenly distributed
over body, swirls or clipped.
15. — Color. — Black, with white on feet, face, tip of tail and an occa-
sional splash on arm.
Objections. — Solid black or black points, or white spots on body.
16. — Size. — Large for age. Boar two years and over not less than
450 pounds, sow same age 400 pounds. Boar eighteen months 350
pounds, sow same age 325 pounds. Boar twelve months 300 pounds,
sow same age 275 pounds. Boar and sow six months 150 pounds.
Objections. — Under weight, coarse, not in good form to fatten.
17. — Action and Style. — Action, vigorous. Style, graceful and at-
tractive, k
Objections. — Dull, sluggish and clumsy.
Id). — Condition. — Healthy, skin clear of scurf, scales or sores, soft
and mellow to the touch, flesh fine, evenly laid on and free from lumps,
hair soft and lying close to body, good feeding qualities.
Objections. — Unhealthy, skin scaly, scabby or harsh, flabbiness or
lumpy flesh, too much fat for breeding. Hair harsh, dry and standing
up from body, poor feeders, deafness, partial or total.
11). — Disposition. — Quiet and gentle and easy to handle.
Objections. — Cross, restless, vicious and wild.
HORSE BREEDING.
By Prof. J. Hugo Reed, V. S., Guelph, Ontaria
THE LAW OF HEREDITY OK SIMILARITY. II. THE LAW OF VARIATION.—
III. LAW OP HABIT. IV. THE LAW OF ATAVISM OR STRIKING BACK. V.
THE LAW OF CORRELATION. VI. THE LAW OF FECUNDITY OR POWER TO REPRO-
DUCE. Vil. IN-BREEDING AND IN-AND-IN-BREEDING. VIII. CROSS-BREED-
ING. IX. THE RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF PARENTS. X. INFLUENCE OF
A PREVIOUS IMPREGNATION. XI. INTRA-UTERINE INFLUENCE. XII. SEX
AT WILL. XIII. CARRIAGE HORSES. XIV. SADDLE HORSES AND HUNTERS.
XV. COBS. XVI. ROADSTERS. XVII. POINTS OF THE HORSE. XVIII.
THE EXTERNAL CONFORMATION OF THE HORSE. XIX. CONFORMATION OF TFB
HEAVY DRAFT STALLION. XX. CONFORMATION OF MARE OR GELDING.
XXI. CONFORMATION OF COACH STALLION. XXII. CONFORMATION OF CAR-
RIAGE MARE OR GELDING XXIII. CONFORMATION OF THE HACKNEY STALL-
ION. XXIV. CONFORMATION OF THE STANDARD-BRED STALLION. XXV.
CONFORMATION OF THE THOROUGH-BRED STALLION. — —XXVI. CONFORMATION
OF THE THOROUGH-BRED GELDING OR MARE.
Present conditions point clearly to the fact that horse breeding can
be carried on with a reasonable prospect of fair profit. I do not mean
to advise farmers to go exclusively, or even extensively, into horse
breeding, but to have one or more mares breeding every year, as I think
any person following mixed farming should. While to-day even the
horse of no particular breeding or characteristics to particularly recom-
mend him (the mongrel, we might say) will command a fair price, I do
not recommend his production. The time for the patronage of the im-
pure bred sire at a low stud fee is past. In order that a man may suc-
cessfully and profitably breed horses, a few things are essential. In the
first place, he must be a fair judge of a horse, he must understand the
desirable conformation, action and characteristics of the horse he is try-
ing to produce, and the greater his knowledge of the internal economy
— as bones, muscles, ligaments, nervous, thoracic and abdominal organs
— the better. He must, provided he intends breeding for the market,
carefully study the horse markets and ascertain which classes of horses
are in demand at fair prices. Then he must decide which of those
classes his particular tastes or fancies, conditions or environments war-
rant him in endeavoring to produce. He must fix in his mind a definite
standard and then work up to that standard.
He must not expect to reach his ideal all at once : he must have pa
tience and perseverance, must not become discouraged if he be disap-
pointed in his first attempt. Success in breeding horses, as in all other
departments of farm management, must be measured by the actual
1297
1298 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
HORSE BREEDING. 1299
value cf the products and the profits that may be derived from them.
The relative value of animals depends upon their adaptation to a partic-
ular purpose, and the returns they make for expense incurred and food
consumed. The man who contemplates breeding horses for profit should
carefully study the "Laws of Breeding." He must recognize that re-
production is governed by certain laws. There is no such thing as
chance in breeding. AH occurrences that appear as such can be ex-
plained if we are acquainted with the history of the sires and dams for
generations back. We will now mention a few of the principal laws of
breeding, some of which the breeder can control, others he cannot.
I. The Law of Heredity or Similarity.
The greatest and strongest law of breeding is the law of heredity ol
similarity, or, in other words, "like begets like." But we have devia«
tions from this law which are often hard or impossible to explain.
The law is not absolute. It is necessary for the maintenance oi
species. In this respect it is absolute ; the law of variation is neces*
sary for the improvement thereof. Breeds have been improved and
new breeds developed by crossing. The law of heredity is so strong
that it teaches us to be careful in the selection of both sires and
dams for breeding purposes. It is claimed by many that the in-
tellectual and nervous points of the offspring are imparted to a greater
extent by the dam, and the external conformation and constitution
more by the sire. (This is a disputed point.) Not only are desir-
able qualities, as conformation, constitution, disposition, etc., trans-
mitted from the parent to the offspring, but also undesirable qualities,
and also diseases, or at least a tendency or hereditary predisposition to
diseases, such as ophthalmia, spavm, ringbone, and other bone diseases,
roars, heaves, chronic cough, etc. Youatt says there is scarcely a dis-
ease but is to a certain extent hereditary. If we accept these as facts, we
will readily perceive the importance of exercising great care in the selec-
tion of animals for breeding purposes — both sires and dams. Don't un-
dervalue the dam. One of the greatest mistakes often made is to breed
a mare that is worthless, or nearly so, expecting her to produce a good
foal. We often hear the expression, "That mare is not of much ac-
count, but she will do to breed." If the dam be inferior it is quite
unreasonable to expect the progeny to be a high-class animal, even
though the sire be a superior one. It goes without saying that a parent
cannot impart to her progeny qualities that she does not herself possess.
Another mistake often made is, a man has rather an inferior mare, and
he does not consider he is warranted in paying the necessary fee to
secure the services of a first-class stallion for her, and hence breeds her
1300 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
to a low-priced and inferior animal. If a mare be worth breeding at all,
she should be bred to the very best stallion of her class whose services
can be secured for a reasonable stud fee. Even a rather inferior raare,
if mated with a first-class sire, will in all probability produce a fair foal,
a better animal than herself, but usually inferior to the sire. Deform-
ities and diseases are not always transmitted to the progeny, but fre-
(juently they are affected for three or four generations by such things.
When accidents happen to mares during pregnancy, the offspring is
liable to be affected thereby. If the law of heredity were absolute or
invariable, all breeding operations would be of a very monotonous char-
acter, but inferior animals or plants can be improved by careful breed-
ing, and this is called
II. The Law of Variation.
On this law the breeder places most of his expectations in breed-
ing. For instance, grain or corn will adapt itself gradually to what-
ever climate you continue to grow it in. The coarse corn of the
South, sown in this country, will grow tall and rank, and but few
grains will ripen before the early frosts. Each time it is grown it
becomes better and better until it becomes adapted to the climate, unless
there comes a very early frost, when the whole will be destroyed. Most
vegetables can be traced to some worthless little plants found on some
of the hills of Great Britain or France. The various races of human
beings are accounted for by the law of variation. The same law applies
to domesticated animals. Whatwas the original of each species we can
form only our own opinions. As an instance, we may take the turkey,
unknown in the old world until about two hundred years ago, and now
the varieties are numerous, and differ greatly in size, form, color, etc.
All these varieties have been developed gradually by careful breeding
from the wild turkey. These changes can be traced to three causes,
viz. : climate, supply and nature of food, and habit. Climate has great
influence on the constitution and organization. Animals of hot climates
are very different, especially in regard to the skin and its coverings, to
those of cold climates. In warm climates the covering is thin and light,
while in cold, wet climates there is a flne wool next the skin, and grow-
ing through that there is a coarse variety of hair to throw off the wet,
etc. The great work of Nature is to protect the true skin from wet and
cold, which affect the internal organization.
The supply of food has a great influence on the form and habits of
animals. In the low, natural pastures of England, where food is
plentiful and of good quality, the stock is large, heavy and indolent,
mature and fatten quickly, while on the mountains of Wales or the
BORSE BREEDING. 1301
Highlands of Scotland the stock is the opposite, being small, lively and
very hardy, capable of living ou little food and thriving, and standing
exposure to cold sufficient to cause the death of animals not accustomed
to such usage.
III. The Law of Habit.
The habits and characteristics of animals that have been devel-
oped by the conditions in which they are placed, or the peculiar
training they have received at the hands of n:an, appears to be
transmitted from generation to generation with nearly as much cer-
tainty and uniformity as those that characterize the original type or
species from which they descended. Some of the most strilving charac-
teristics of this form of heredity are to be found in the transmission of
the highly artificial peculiarities that characterize the various improved
breeds of animals. The tendency to lay on fat rapidly and mature early
is inherited in the best strains of Shorthorns, Devons, Herefords and
other meat-producing breeds of cattle, while the ability to secrete an
abundant supply of milk is, in a like manner, perpetuated in the Ayr-
shire, Jersey and other dairy breeds. The certainty with which these
acquired qualities are transmitted constitutes one of the most valuable
peculiarities of the breed. The American trotting horse furnishes a
well-marked illustration of the inheritance of acquired characteristics.
The various breeds of dogs have peculiarities that have been developed
by a long course of training, which are transmitted with a uniformity
that is surprising. Young setters, pointers and retrievers that have
never been in the field will often "work" with nearly as much steadiness
and ability as thoi?e that have had a long experience in hunting and
sporting. In such cases, however, it will be found that their ancestors,
immediate or remote, have been well trained to their special method of
hunting.
The shepherd dog is remarkable for its sagacity and the perma-
nence with Avhich it carries out the will of its master, and it would be
difficult, if not impossible, to train dogs of any other breed to equal
them in their special duties. The greyhound hunts by sight and the
bloodhound by scent, and their offsprings all inherit the same peculiar-
ities. Habits not peculiar to any particular breed of animals are often
inherited, for instance, tricks taught to dogs, as sitting up, begging,
etc., are sometimes performed by their puppies without their having
been taught. The handwriting of members of the same family fre-
quently have a marked resemblance. There are families in which the
special use of the left hand is hereditary. It must be admitted, how-
ever, that acquired habits are not in all cases hereditary, but it would be
difficult to fix a limit of their inheritance. Acquired habits and the
1302 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
original traits of animals appear to be conflicting elements in their con-
stitution, either of which may, from its intensity, predominate in hered-
itary transmission. Pigs have been taught to point game, play cards,
and perform various tricks, but in the hereditary transmission of these
characters Nature has had a stronger influence than culture. There
seems to be reason to believe that such hereditary transmission is limited
to acquired peculiarities which are simply modifications of the natural
constitution of the race, and would not extend to such as may be alto-
gether foreign to it. From a practical point of view, however, the in-
heritance of acquired characteristics, so far as they are of any value, is
fortunately without apparent limit. Abnormal characteristics are fre-
quently hereditary, but they are not so likely to be transmitted as ac-
quired habits that are in harmony with the original peculiarities of the
animal. It is stated on good authority that animals that have been
branded in the same place for several successive generations transmit
the same mark to their offspring. Dr. Brown-Sequard, in experiment-
ing with guinea-pigs, observed that in those subjected to a peculiar op-
eration, involving a portion of the spinal cord or sciatic nerve, a slight
pinching of the skin of the face would throw the animal into a kind of
epileptic convulsions. When these epileptic pigs were bred together
their offspring showed the same predisposition without having been op-
erated upon, while no such tendency showed itself in a large number of
pigs bred from parents that had not been subjected to the operation.
IV. The Law of Atavism or Striking Back.
Any peculiarity of an ancestor, more or less remote, whether of color,
form, habits, mental traits or predisposition to disease, may make its ap-
pearance in the offspring without having been observed in the parenti.
Numerous cases illustrative of this law are 'reported, and I have no doubt
many readers of this article can call to mind cases in their own experience.
Mr. Dawson reports the case of a pointer bitch having given birth to a
litter of seven puppies. Four were marked with blue and white, which is
so unusual a color with pointers that she was thought to have played false
with a greyhound, and the whole litter was condemned, but the gar.ie-
keeper was allowed to keep one as a curiosity. Two years later a friend
of the owner saw the young dog and declared that he was the image of
his old pointer bitch, Sappho, the only blue and white pointer of pure
descent which he had ever seen. This led to a close inquiry, and it was
proved that he was the gi^eat-great-grandson of Sappho, so that he had
only one-sixteenth of her blood in his veins. Goodale states that many
years ago there were a few polled cattle in the Kennebec Valley, but
t.hov finally became extinct. For thirty-five vAwra after the last of these
HORSE BREEDING. 1303
polled cattle were killed, the cattle on the farm of Mr. "Wingate all had
horns, Dut at the end of that time a polled animal made its appearance
in the herd. In the well-known case of George III. of England, the in-
sanity was transmitted by atavic descent from a male ancestor eight
generations back — not only the insanity, but other of the well-known
characteristics of the unfortunate monarch were exactly repeated. In
the Shorthorn herd book may be found numerous instances of the atavic
inheritance of color, and almost every breeder can furnish from his own
experience instances of a similar nature. Occasionally a black lamb
appears in a flock in which black sheep have not been present for several
generations. In a large family we seldom find all the children resem-
bling either parent, and in many j^f.tances the resemblance to a grand-
parent or some more remote ancesi^t* prevails to so great an extent that
the obvious peculiarities of the immediate parents are obscured.
V. The Law of Correlation.
Any peculiarity in the development of one organ or set of organs
is usually accompanied by a corresponding modification or suppres-
sion of the organs of some other part of the system. The correlated
structure of animals enables the comparative anatomist, from the
examination of a tooth, to determine not only the class and order to
which the animal belonged, but its habits and mode of life and char-
acter of food required for its support. It is claimed that when any
particular part of the body acquires a very high degree of development
certain other parts stop short of their ordinary state of evolutiop, as if
the former obtained its unusual increment at the expense of the latter.
The law of correlation is thus illustrated in herbivorous mammals. A
limb terminating in a hoof serves for locomotion, and it cannot be used
as an organ of prehension, to grasp, seize or tear, and the teeth of these
mammals have flat, roughened grinding surfaces, while in carnivora the
feet are supplied with nails and claws which enables the animals to use
them for prehension and holding flesh, etc., while the teeth are fine and
pointed and the muscles of mastication strongly developed. In blind
people the sense of touch attains a delicacy that is surprising. Cases
are on record of blind people who could not only distinguish colors but
shades of the same color by the sense of touch.
VI. The Law of Fecundity or Power to Reproduce.
The fertility of animals is frequently influenced by changes in
their surroundings and habits that cannot of themselves be con-
sidered unfavorable to the healthy action of the system. It has
been observed that the procreative powers are impaired, or even
1804 CYCLOrEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
entirely wantin<T, in muny wild species when , placed in close confine-
ment. Domesticated animals are, as a rule, more prolific than the
wild; no doubt due in a great measure to a better supply of food
throughout the year, and the more uniform condition in which
they are placed. The activity of the reproductive organs is necessarily
dependent upon the functions of nutrition which supplies the material
concerned in the operation. There is a certain degree of antagonism
between the nutritive and the generative functions, the one being exe-
cuted at the expense of the other. When the function of nutrition is
impaired by disease, or when the supply of food is not sufficient for the
wants of the system, the reproductive powers suffer a corresponding de-
crease in their activity. Sheep bred on rich pastures more frequently
produce twins than those pastured on poorer lands. While full feeding
seems to increase the fecundity, any excess in the nutritive activity of the
system will as readily im})air the powers of reproduction. It is hard to
say whether underfeeding or overfeeding has the greater effect on
fecundity. To be prolific an animal requires to be kept in moderate
condition. There seems to be a marked relation between the size of
animals and their fecundity. Throughout the entire animal kingdom
the small species of animals appear to be more prolific, and, as a rule,
breed at an earlier age and at shorter intervals and produce a greater
number of young at a birth. It is a well-known fact that members of
certain families of any species are more prolific than members of other
families. Among cattle it is said that when twins are produced, a male
and a female, the latter, called a free martin, is, as a rule, barren ; when
twins are of the same sex the reproductive powers are normal. In free
martins the internal generative organs are said to be imperfect, partak-
ing of the character of both sexes. In appearance these imperfect
animals often resemble males.
VII. In-Breeding and In-and-in-Breeding.
In-breeding indicates the breeding together of distant members of the
same family. In-and-in-breeding the breeding together of very near rela-
tives. The line of distinction between the terms is very hard to define.
Various opinions exist in regard to this line of breeding, many claiming
that in-and-in-breeding produces a delicacy of constitution, others dis-
claiming this fact. My experience is that it is not well to breed too close,
but that judicious in-breeding is generally successful. We can thereby
intensify any desirable qualities the family may possess. Many cases of
in-and-in-breeding in fowls and sheep with favorable results are reported.
In wild animals, where it is carried on without restraint, we notice the
species do not deteriorate, due to the fact that the best and strongest
HORSE BREEDING. 1305
males drive the weaker ones awaj; hence the offspring is the produce
of the best specimen of the male.
VIII. Cross-Breeding.
Strictly speaking, cross-breeding is the pairing of animals of dis-
tinct breeds, and in this limited sense it may be considered the
opposite of in-and-in-breeding. But the term cross-breeding or out-
breeding is frequently used to indicate the mixture of the blood of dif-
ferent families of the same breed. Cross-breeding has, probably, been
carried on more in sheep than in any other animals, frequently with
good results, but often the reverse. Some animals, the mountain breeds
of sheep, for instance, that have been bred on the mountains for years
and 3'ears, have acquired such individuality of form, constitution, etc.,
that the introduction of improved rams gives very poor results. Cross-
breeding can have but two objects: either the improvement of existing
breeds or the production of a new breed. To cross-breed with the idea
of obtaining a new breed requires a great deal of knowledge, patience
and wealth, and can be successfully carried out by very few. To im-
prove for the purpose of slaughter or for the improvement of other
qualities is a different thing, and for these purposes judicious cross-
breeding (not too violent crosses) is likely to be successful. Crossing
must be done by degrees ; extreme or violent crosses are not to be tol-
erated. In breeding horses a farmer breeds either for his own use or
for the market. If for his own use, he must make up his rcind what
class of horses is best suited to his purpose, and then be careful in the
selection of both sire and dam. If for the market, he naturally consid-
ers what class is in the greatest demand at the best prices, and, having
decided that question, goes intelligently to work to produce it.
IX. The Relative Influence of Parents.
Many diverse opinions are given by writers as to the relative
influence of parents upon the progeny, some of which, without suf-
ficient reasons, have been quite generally accepted as established
facts. My opinion is, that the condition and general constitution
of animals during the time of copulation has great influence upon the
offspring, and, provided both sire and dam be in good health, the
one of the better breeding, that is the animal that is the produce of
ancestors that have been bred in a certain line for generations, and
has the characteristics of that special family intensified in him or her,
which evidently gives him or her greater prepotency, will have the
greater influence upon the progeny. The importance of securing males
of the best quality — males that from their superior breeding will be likely
130G CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
to be prepotent — to mate with the mares at our disposal, cannot be too
strongly urged as one of the readiest means of improvement. It is
generally admitted that the straighter or less mixed the breed is, the
greater the probability of its transmitting to the offspring the qualities
it possesses, whether these be good or bad. Economy has made the
male ancestor the most important, simply because he sires a great many
foals while the mare i)roduces only one each year.
X. Influence of a Previous Impregnation.
The influence of the male in the process of breeding is not limited
to his immediate offspring, but extends through the female that he
has impregnated to her offspring by another male. Paradoxical as
this statement may appear, there are many well-authenticated cases
on record that cannot be explained in any other way. It is authen
tically stated that in 1815 a chestnut mare, seven-eighths Arabian
was covered by a Qiiagga (a species of Zebra). The hybrid pro
duced resembled the sire in color and many characteristics of form
etc. In 1817, 1818 and 1821 the same mare was bred to a pure
bred Arabian stallion and produced three foals, all of which bore the
curious markings of the Quagga. Instances of this kind in a less
marked degree have been noticed by many breeders. Although any
impregnation may have influence upon successive ones, the first is of
the most importance. It is probable that the female has received,
through the fatal circulation, some of the attributes the foetus has
derived from the male, and that these are communicated along with
those proper to herself to the offspring of a different male. It is claimed
that when a pure-bred female of any breed has been impregnated by a
male of another breed she becomes a cross — loses her purity of blood in
consequence of her connection with the foreign animal. It maybe said
that the act of fecundation is not an act that is limited in its effect, but
that it affects the whole system, the sexual organs especially, and in the
sexual system the ovums to be impregnated hereafter are so modified by
the first act that later impregnations do not efface the first impression.
XI. Intra-Uterine Influence.
The abnormal peculiarities sometimes observed in animals at the
lime of birth, that are not recognized as family characteristics, have
been popularly attributed to some mysterious influences of the im-
agination of the mother in the process of intra-uterine development.
Some claim that this law is noticed even in fowls. It is stated
that the ambition, courage and military skill of Napoleon Bonaparte
had their foundation in the fact that the Emperor's mother fol-
HORSE BREEDING. 1307
lowed hei- husband in his campaigns, and was subjected to all the
dangers of a military life, while, on the other hand, the murder of
David Rizzio in the presence of Queen Mary was the death-blow to the
personal courage of James I., and occasioned that strong dislike of
edged weapons for which that monarch was said to be remarkable.
Various instances can be cited of deformities, monstrosities and birth-
marks in the human family traceable to frights, etc., received by the
mother during pregnancy. The same law acts, but not to so marked an
extent, in the lower animals. I call to mind one well-marked case of
the effect of a fright received by a mare during the act of copulation.
A farmer bred a half-bred Clydesdale mare to a pure-bred Clydesdale
stallion. Both sire and dam were good individuals, with full manes and
tails. This farmer owned a dog with a very short tail, and he had the
habit of interfering with any of the stock that were fighting. The stall-
ion came to the farm to serve the mare, and during the act of copula-
tion the dog, evidently thinking his services as a peace-maker were in
demand, caught the stallion by the tail and growled and swung from
side to side. The groom ran back and gave the dog a kick, and he
ran towards the barn, passing directly in front of the mare. This mare
produced to this cover, and the foal, while perfect in form, had only a
few hairs and no dock where the tail should be. This animal is still
owned by the breeder. I saw her a few months ago, and she is a fair
representative of her class, being well developed in all points except the
above. I cannot explain this phenomena in any way except that the
mare was startled by the sudden appearance of the tailless dog, and it
caused such a nervous impression as to cause the development of a foetus
with the same peculiarity.
XII. Sex at Will.
Various theories have been advanced to produce sex at will, but, as far
as I can learn, all have failed in actual practice.
If we recognize the foregoing laws as governing factors in the repro-
duction of horses, it teaches us that too great care cannot be exercised
in the selection of animals for breeding purposes, and also that great
care of the dam during pregnancy is demanded. As to the hygiene of
pregnant mares, it does not differ in many respects from that of other
animals. The mare should be kept in moderate condition and be given
regular exercise during pregnancy, or else regularly used at ordinary
work. She should not be subjected to excessive muscular exertion, and
should not be worked much under saddle, and, if ridden at all, spurs
should not be used ; the excessive muscular contraction often caused by
the application of the spur is liable to cause abortion. If we are breed-
1308 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK ANP COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
ing with the hopes of producing speea, I think it well to speed the mare
for short distances at whatever gait we expect to produce, as I think
the offspring inherits to a certain extent the habits of the dam, espe-
cially those exercised during the period of gestation, but she should on
no account be speeded for sufficient distances to produce fatigue. The
food and water should be of the very best quality, the food easily
digested and given in reasonable quantities. The premises in which
she is kept during cold weather should be roomy, thoroughly clean and
well ventilated. All undue nervous excitement should be avoided, also
the absence of all nauseous odors, and all operations that necessitate
the casting of the animal or the letting of blood. The administration
of drastic purgatives should also be avoided, if possible, for these
have a tendency to produce abortion. When the time of parturition
approaches she should be carefully watched and, if necessary, skilled
assistance called in. As before mentioned, the prospective breeder
should carefully consider the class of animal he will endeavor to repro-
duce, and, having decided that point, he should provide himself with
one or more mares of that class, of the best quality his means ^'M
allow. Unless he can provide a mare or mares of at least fair qK^ility
he had better not breed at all, as the results will surely be disappomtijiig
from the reasons already stated. I do not consider it necessary to secure
pure-bred mares ; of course it vnll be all the better if such can be got,
but the price of good pure-breds of any class is beyond the means of
the ordinary breeder. Having secured the dams for our prospective
stock, the next point is to select a sire. Unfortunately, there are many
owners of stallions who think it is the duty of their friends to patronize
them. This is altogether a mistake. The breeding of horses is a busi-
ness matter, and must be considered purely from a business standpoint
in order to make it a success; and the man who breeds his mare to an
unsuitable stallion simply because he is owned by a friend, not only is
doing himself an injustice, but his friend an injury. The result will,
with very few exceptions, be the production of a nondescript, and as a
stallion's value in a community is determined largely by the quality of
his stock, the production of a colt of this kind will injure his reputation
to a much greater extent than can be compensated by the stud fee
received. A breeder must carefully study his mare in regard to con-
formation, temper and general peculiarities, and, remembering the law
that "like begets like," select a sire that should be suitable. If the
mare be deficient in some particular point, select a stallion that is well
developed in that point; if she have hyper-development of any point,
see, if possible, that the sire is rather deficient there. If she be of
iiyoer-nervous disposition, select n phlegmonous sire, and vice versa. la
HORSE BREEDING. 1309
all cases be careful to ascertain that both parents are not affected with
any disease the predisposition to which will probablj be transmitted to
the progeny. Diseases or malformations that can be traced directly to
injuries, of course are not transmissible. Undesirable traits of disposi-
tion, as viciousness, stubbornness, etc., are as much to be avoided in
breeding animals as disease. The classes of horses that at the present
time are in demand at fair prices are: heavy draft, carriage, saddle
horses and hunters, and good, strong, clever roadsters. Other classes
that cannot be produced by any special line of breeding are good
chunks of 1300 to 1100 pounds, and cobs with extreme action.
In selecting stallions to sire any of these classes out of the mares at
our disposal we should insist upon both individuality and pedigree. The
time when pedigree alone was considered is fortunately past. A horse
with a good pedigree but poor individuality, a poor or inferior animal
of his class, is of course not a suitable animal for a sire. Get both if
we can, but I would sooner sacrifice pedigree than individuality. In
mentioning the classes of horses that the farmer can produce I have
purposely omitted race horses. I do not consider it is the province of
the ordinary farmer to try to produce horses to race at any gait. The
percentage of horses produced that are fast enough to win money at any
gait on the race track is very low, and if a farmer of ordinary means
should produce one it will cost him a great deal to develop his speed.
My observation has been that the farmer who has attempted this has
generally ruined himself financially unless he has sense enough to see
how things were going and given it up before he has spent his all in
trying to produce a world-beater. Therefore, I say, leave tlie produc-
tion of race horses in the hands of the millionaire, and endeazor to pro-
duce an animal that has a fair value at four or five years old without
much development or handling. Let the dealer educate the horse for
the city market. Of course this applies to the lighter classes of horses
that require a considerable amount of education to fetch the fancy
prices occasionally paid. If the farmer has time and experience in such
matters it will probably pay him to put the finished article on the
market; but as a rule it pays him to sell the young horse in the green
state to the dealer for a reasonable price, and let him take the trouble
and chances of giving him manners and action and selling him for a
fancy price, provided, of course, he develops into a superior animal.
The light classes of horses, as carriage horses, cobs, saddlers and hunt-
ers require good manners and willingness and ability to perform cleveriy
the functions peculiar to the class before they can be put Lpon t^«
market as a finished product. The education of such horses is, we may
say, a business by itself, and the faruier who attempts it, even though
1310 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
he may be very capable and competent, must of necessity neglect hi»
general farm operations, therefore we contend that he should, as a rule,
sell his horses partially green. Of course it pays to have the horse tol-
erably handy in harness or saddle in order to be able to show the pros-
pective purchaser that he is capable of developing, with proper handling,
into a good specimen of his class. It is a mistake to let a colt remain
entirely unhandled until four or five years old, and then offer him for
sale in that condition. The average dealer will not buy a perfectly
green one, as it is generally a hard and dangerous task to handle a
big four or five-year-old colt that has never been accustomed to
restraint of any kind, and a horse that will drive in single or double
harness or carry a man on his back, what we might call a partially edu-
cated fellow, is worth a great deal more money than the same animal
perfectly green. Draft horses, weighing from 1400 to 1700 pounds,
are produced by breeding good mares of this class to a sire of any of
the recognized breeds of draft horses, and especially to the Clvdesdale
or Shire. Percherons and Suffolk Punches have not proved producible
sires in this country, but the two former classes have proved very suc-
cessful, *and they are so much alike it is not necessary to go minutely
into the distinguishing characteristics. The Clydesdale is probablj^ the
most popular, and certainly the most plentiful, but it is rather hard to
say why it is so. Many claim that the draft colt can be reared with
much less risk and with less liability to accident and disease than the
lighter classes. This can probably be explained from the fact that the
colt of this breeding is naturally a quieter and more settled animal than
those of lighter breeds and hotter blood, and consequently less liable to
injure himself from exuberance of spirit while in the pasture field or
paddock. And then again, small bunches, or blemishes, are not consid-
ered of as much couse(|uence, nor can they be as easily seen, especially
on the limbs, on account of the amount of coarse hair, on a heavy colt
as on a light animal. If we decide to breed heavy horses we should
decide what particular breed we will produce, and then stick to that
breed. If disappointed in the first production, do not get discouraged
and try another breed ; probably it will be well to try another sire of
the same breed, as there may be some reason why the first sire did not
nick well with our mare; but stick to the original selection of breeds,
and if we use ordinary intelligence success is bound to attend us.
In the selection of a sire for any class of horses it is well, if possible,
to drive around in the section in which he has stood in previous years
and view his stock. It is sometimes the case that a stallion whose
appearance and pedigree lead us to the conclusion that he should be a
good sire is disappointing, and on the other hand an animal apparently
HORSE BREEDING. 1311
not SO good will prove valuable in the stud. In viewing the product of
a stallion we must, of course, note carefully the mares out of which the
colts have been produced.
XIII. Carriage Horses.
Carriage horses, as a rule, are not pure-breds. We have in this
class pure-bred Hackneys, Cleveland Bays and French and German
coach horses, which are pure-bred, but as there are few pure-bred
mares of any of these classes in this country, the farmer who attempts
to produce carriage horses must use as sires the above mentioned
sires or the standard-bred or thoroughbred. The selection of a sire
for carriage horses must be largely governed by the mare to whom
he is to be bred. In my opinion the Hackney is the only horse that
truly comes up to the standard at present demanded in this class of
horses. He hsis fair size, beauty, a fair amount of quality and the
extreme action, both fore and aft, that is required. The carriage horse of
the present day must have free, easy, high and attractive action of both
knees and hocks; he must be of fair size and quality with attractive
appearance, both when standing and in motion. His action must not
only be high bub in a straight line, neither paddling nor rooling his fore
feet; he must not go wide behind, nor yet so close as to interfere.
While we try to get symmetry, quality and style along with the required
action, we must have action even though we sacrifice some of the other
qualities. I have stated that in my opinion the Hackney is the true
carriage horse, and we would therefore think that he should be used in
all cases to sire such. But a great deal depends upon the mare. My
experience has been that the produce of the Hackney out of a cold-
blooded mare is not a satisfactory animal for any purpose ; he will in
most cases be coarse, lack quality and ambition, and while he may be
possessed of a fair amount of action, his very noticeable lack of other
desirable characteristics and ambition render him almost worthless for
the purpose for which he is intended. Therefore, unless the mare has
considerable hot blood (by hot blood I mean the blood of a thorough-
bred), it will not be wise to mate her with the Hackney. If we have a
half-bred or even a quarter-bred mare of the desirable size, she should
produce well if crossed with the Hacknej'. The dam in this case will,
in all probability, impart quality, and the sire action and style, to the
offspring. Other sires for the production of carriage horses are coach
stallions. The same remarks as to quality in the mare apply here as to
the Hackney. These stallions are likely to produce larger stock, and
many of them have very good action, and when large carriage horses
are desired they should have the preference. Many first-class horses
i.312 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
of this class hiive been sired by the standard-bred stallion, and in fact
many prize-winning carriage horses are standard-bred. At the same
time, I do not think it wise to breed standard-breds with the hopes of
producing carriage horses. Horses of this class have been bred for
many generations with the sole idea of producing extreme speed at the
trotting or pacing gait, and as a rule they lack the conformation and
style demanded in the carriage horse, and seldom have the desired
action, and while we occasionally find one that fills the bill, it is the
rare exception. And we do not wonder at this, as he has not been
produced with this idea. At the same time there are many big, clever,
stylish, high-actionod standard-bred stallions in the country that are
well qualified to produce carriage stock if intelligently mated. The
mares to be bred to these stallions with this idea must be of fair size
and qualified with the characteristics of a carriage horse well marked.
If we are breeding to the standard-bred with the hopes of producing
speed, we will, of course, select a stallion that can trot or pace fast, not
paying so much attention to size, quality, etc. But if breeding for car-
riage purposes, speed is not at all essential. One danger in this line of
breeding is the fact that standard-breds, even though true, natural trot-
ters, are liable to produce pacers, and of course this is a gait that
cannot be allowed in a carriage horse. Many good carriage horses have
been sired to the thoroughbred. We can breed a coarse mare with
good action to this horse with greater prospects of success than to any
other sire. He will impart to the progeny the necessary quality and
ambition, and the dam will impart the necessary action; but. in order
that we may get the desired action for carriage purposes in this line of
breeding, we must have the action in the dam. As the action of the
thoroughbred, while very elastic, is naturally rather close to the ground,
and, as he has such great prepotency, it requires extreme action in the
dam to overcome this characteristic.
XIV. Saddle Horses and Hunters.
Suitable horses of this class are, with few exceptions, the progeny
of the thoroughbred. I might here make a few remarks about the
term "thoroughbred." There is but one animal in the world that
is entitled to the term, and that is the English runninof horse and
his pure descendants. The term is often misapplied, both in print
and conversation. We read of thoroughbred cattle, thoroughbred
sheep, pigs, fowls, dogs, etc., etc. It should not be; we should use
terra "pure-bred." We have pure- bred cattle, pure-bred sheep, etc.,
etc., and in horses we have pure-bred Clydesdales, pure-bred Shires,
standard-bred horses, etc., but the term "thoroughbred" needs no
HORSE BRF.KDING. 1313
qualifications whatever. It applies to the one animal and to him alone.
The thoroughbred, we may say, without danger of successful contra-
diction, is the purest domesticated animal produced. He has been care-
fully bred in certain lines for centuries and careful records have been
kept. Doubtless he originated by intelligent crossing; but crossing
ceased so long ago that he may truly be called thoroughbred. On account
of his careful breeding and strong individuality he has greater pre-
potency than any other sire. (By prepotency we mean the power or
ability to transmit to his progeny his own characteristics.) On this
account we need to be even more careful in selecting a sire from this
class than from others — as if there be any undesirable points or charac-
teristics, whether of conformation or disposition, in the sire, they are
liable to be even more marked in the progeny. Therefore, we must not
breed to a thoroughbred simply because he is thoroughbred, but be
careful to select a sire that is of the required size, sound, of o-ood con-
formation and disposition. We can, as already stated, breed a coarser
mare to this horse than to others. His progeny, except from very
coarse mares, seldom lacks quality and ambition. Of course even with
this sire the cross must not be too violent. Violent or too well-marked
crosses in any case are seldom followed by satisfactory results. The
produce of the thoroughbred generally excels in the saddle and makes a
fair harness horse. He is the best all-round horse. The market for
the good sized half-breed is, always has been, and I think it probable
always will be, good. He, with the carriage horse, is the rich man's
horse, and when we are able to supply the animal men of this clasf
want, price will not prevent his sale. It is not a hard matter to produce
snudl animals of this class, called light weights and medium weio-hts,
but the production of a heavy weight hunter, one able to carry up to
220 pounds or over, is a more dithcult matter. For this purpose we
should select a large mare 1200 pounds or over with as much quality
and ambition as possible, and breed her to a good big thorouo-hbred,
one of 1200 or 1300 pounds. If we have a mare of reasonable quality
to cross with a stallion of this description the results will in most cases
be satisfactory. While there is a good market for the light weio-ht
saddler or hunter of good action and manners, a much lono-er price can
be obtained for the big fellow of the same class. We may say that the
larger the animal of this class is, provided, of course, that he has
quality, the more money he is worth. There are many large men who
enjoy an hour or two in the saddle, either on the flat or in the huntin»
field, and especially for the latter purpose it requires a laro-e, strong
horse to carry a man of say 220 pounds or over safely across country,
and when a man of this weight, with money and huntino- Droolivitiea
1314 CYCLOPEDIA OK IJVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
sees a horse that has the necessary weight, ambition and manners to
perform well under such circumstances, he will pay a long price lo
secure him. Then again, this horse can be used also in the carriage
with a fair amount of satisfaction. Of course a first-class saddler or
hunter has not carriage action, but for the man who likes both riding
and driving this is certainly the best horse. A horse with typical car-
riage action does not answer nearly as well for saddle purposes as a
saddle horse does for harness.
XV. Cobs.
A salable cob is a little chunky fellow with extreme action and
beauty, lie cannot be produced with any degree of certainty, lie
is sired by the various classes of light horses out of ordinary mares.
His j)roduction in most cases can be explained by the action of some of
the aforementioned laws of breeding. While a good animal of this
class sells for a good l)rice 1 do not think it would be well for any
breeder to try to produce him.
XVI. Roadsters.
A good and salable gentleman's roadster is not necessarily a race«
horse. In that it is seldom that a racehorse makes a satisfactory
roadster. A gentleman's roadster should be of fair size, 15 1-2 lo
16 hands, of good and graceful conformation, good color, and a stylish
walking fellow, free driver, capable of traveling at the rate of twelve
miles an hour or faster and keeping that clij) up for several lioui-s. He
must have good action, both fore and aft. Must not require boots or
scalpers to prevent him injuring himself, and may cither trot or pace.
He is, with rare exceptions, sired by the standard-bred, but can be sired
out of a road mare by any of the lighter breeds of sires. In order to
produce him with any degree of certainty we require a good sized mare
with trotting blood and good individuality to mate with the big, clever-
looking, trotting-bred stallion, with good action and at least a fair
amount of speed. Small animals of this class may be able to go the
distance on a good road hitched to a light rig at the required speed but
my idea of a gentleman's roadster is an animal that has sufficient size
and strength, combined with speed, to enable him to draw two in a
buggy over heavy roads. Unfortunately there are too many roadster-bred
horses in the country that are so small that even though they may bo
tolerably speedy, if not fast enough for racing purposes, have really no
market value. Therefore, in breeding roadsters for the market we
should be careful to produce animals of fair size as well as speed. Such
animals can be produced if we are careful in the selection of the parents.
HORSE BREEDING
1?>V
Any of the lighter breeds of horses mentioned are very serviceable on
the ordinary farm, and can be made to earn their own living from three
years old until marketable, say at four or live years.
A/
XVII.
Points of the Horse.
Hea.l.
L'-J. Back.
1. Muzzzle.
2;i, 2:5. Jlibs (forniinfr tojj<'tIicr the
2. Nostril.
or chest).
.'{. Forelipad.
24. The circumference of the chest
4. Jaw.
point, called tlie girth.
r.. Poll.
2;'). The loins.
Neck.
2f5. The croup.
G, <;. Civst.
27. The hip.
7. ThioppU^ or wind-pipe.
28. The flank.
29. The sheath.
Fore quai-ter.
;{0. Tlie root of the dock or tail.
8, 8. Shoulder-blade.
The hind quarter.
9. Point of shoulder.
.'Jl . The hip-joint, whirlboue or roui
]0. Bosom or breast.
;{2. The .stifle joint.
]1,11. True arm.
31}, 'SA. Lower thigh or gaskin.
12. Elbow.
34. The quarters, haunch or upp(!r
YA. Forearm (arm).
35. The hock.
]4. Knee.
3fi. The point of the hock.
If). Cannon-bone.
37. Tlie curb-place.
10. Back sinew.
38. The cannon-bone.
17. Fetlock or pastern joint.
39. The back sinew.
18. Coronet.
40. Pastern or fetl-)ck joint.
19. Hoof or foot.
41. Coronet.
20. Heel.
42. Foot or hoof.
Body or Middlepiece.
43. Heel.
21. Withers.
44. Spaviu-place.
it this
thigh
lolO CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
XVIII. The External Conformation of the Horse.
We will now give t:i])les of what we consider the desirable points in
the different classes of horses, making use of as few words as possible,
in order to make our meaning clear. The plate and table on the fore-
going page explains the position of the different points.
XIX. Gouformation of the Heavy Draft Stallion.
Jltad.—EiiY somewhat short, but pointed; forehead broad and rather
flat; nasal bone straight ; eye full, prominent and mild; muzzle small ;
muscle of cheek well developed; lips firm; mouth of medium size.
]\J'eck. — Of medium length, deep where it joins the body, being con-
tinuous with withers without any line of demarcation; crest well arched,
broad and strong, but not so heavy as to turn to either side; whole neck
well and prominently muscled, and surmounted by a good full mane.
Wit/iers. — In line with posterior part of the upper border of neck;
rather broad and well muscled; back straight, not too long; loins broad
and well muscled.
Croup. — Well and prominently muscled, not too drooping; tail well
carried and full haired.
Chest. — Ribs long and well sprung; breast l)roa(l, full and prominently
muscled.
/Shoulder. — ^Moderately upright and well muscled, the muscles cover-
ing the blade thoroughly developed.
Elbow. —Strong and muscular, turning neither in nor out, but fitting
closely to the chest.
Forearm. — Large and well covered with prominent muscles.
Knee. — Well developed, broad from side to side and deep from before
backwards; straight, neither bending forwards (called kneespring) nor
backwards (called calf knee).
Knee to Foot. — Cannon-bone, broad and flat with an absence of beefi-
ness ; in Clydesdales and Shires, should be well feathered with straight and
not too coarse hair on the posterior border, especially in the region of the
fetlock; in other breeds of draft horses the same amount of long hair is
not present; back tendons hard and prominent and not too much tied
in below knee; pasterns short, strong and tolerably upright.
Foot. — Of medium size, rather round, with good strong wall, not flat ;
heels full and round and not too deep; frog well developed; must not
turn toes either in or out; must stand straight.
Haunch. — Heavily muscled; thick through ham; hind quarters broad
and well muscled.
Stijle. — Strong and well muscled.
Oaskin. — Muscles strong and prominent; bone large and substantia*
HORSE BREEDING. 1317
Hock. — Large and strong and well developed in all directions; point
well developed, posterior border straight, and the joint free from pufli-
ness.
Hock to Foot. — Cannon-bone and feathering same as the fore, ten-
dons Avell marked and must not have a pinched or tied in appearance
below joint, skin lying close to bone and tendons; an absence of beefi-
ness; pasterns short, strong and tolerably upright.
Foot. — Smaller, narrower and more concave sole than in front foot;
frog well developed.
Color. — Bay, chestnut, black, brown, roan, with reasonable modifica-
tions.
Skin. — Soft, mellow, loose, not like parchment.
'Iempera7ne)it. — Energetic, docile, not nervous.
Style and Action. — General appearance attractive, movement firm,
smart and elastic, especially to walk.
Weight. — 1600 pounds upwards.
Height. — 16 to 17 hands.
XX. Conformation of Draft Mare or Gelding.
Head. — Not so masculine-looking as the stallion, ear rather short
but pointed, forehead broad, nasal bones straight, eye prominent and
mild, muscles of cheek well developed, lips firm, mouth of medium size.
jVeck. — Of medium length, deep where it joins the body, well muscled :
crest high and hard, but not as much developed as in the stallion ; good
mane.
Wiihe7's. — In line with superior border of neck, thick and strong, back
short and straight; loins broad.
Croup. — Well muscled, not too drooping; tail well carried and full
haired.
Chest. — Ribs long and well sprung; barrel tolerably round and close
to the ground; breast broad, full and well and prominently muscled.
Shoidder. — Moderately upright ; well covered with well developed,
hard muscles, the part against which the collar presses well defined,
muscles covering the blade well developed.
Elbow. — Well developed and fitting close to body.
Forearm. — Large and well muscled.
Knee. — Large and strong in every direction, straight.
Knee to Foot. — Not too much tied in below knee; cannon-bone flat
and clean; tendons well marked and strong, may be well feathered, an
absence of beefiness; pasterns short, strong and tolerably upright.
Foot. — Strong, tolerably round, sole not flat, frog pron^inent and full,
heels full and ronnfj and not too deep.
1P)18 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Haunch. — Well muscled, thick throujrh ham, (jiiarters broad and
strong.
Stifle. — Large and well developed.
Gask-in. — Muscles strong and bone substantial.
Hock. — Strong and well developed in all directions, point well de-
veloped, posterior border straight, free from puffiness.
Hock to Foot. — Hind cannon broad and flat, not tied in below joint,
tendons well developed, an absence of beefiness, skin lying close to bone
and tendon, may be well feathered by straight and rather tine hair, pas-
terns, short, strong and tolerably upright.
Foot. — Smaller and narrower with more concave sole than in front,
frog i)rominont and well developed.
Color. — Bay, black, brown, chestnut, roan, with reasonable modirica-
tions.
Skin. — Soft, mellow, loose, not like parchment.
Temperament. — Docile but energetic, not nervous.
Style and Action. — General appearance attractive, action free, firm
and easy, all feet being brought forward in a straight line and firmly
planted; walking action especially must be good, not slow or clumsy.
Weif/ht. — 1500 pounds upwards.
Height. — 15f to 17 hands.
XXI. Conformation of Coach Stallion.
Head. — Ear of medium size, tine and approaching each other at tips
when pointed forward, forehead broad and flat, bones of nose straight
in front and slightly dished on the lateral surfaces, muscles of cheek
well developed, eye prominent, nostrils large and flexible, mouth of
medium depth.
jSfeck. — Rath'^^' long, head gracefully attached and carried well up,
crest well developed and nicely arched.
Withers. — Well developed, not too thick, back straight and rather
short, loins broad and strong.
Croup. — Only moderately sloping, dock coming out high uj), tail full
haired and carried straight and well out from the body.
Chest. — Ribs long and well sprung, deep from above downwards ;
breast full and well muscled.
Shoulder. — Rather oblique and well muscled.
Elbow. — Well developed and fitting closely to ribs.
Forearm. — Strong, muscles well developed and standing out boldly,
Knee. — Broad from side to side in front, deep from before backwards,
upright.
lines to Foot. — Cannon-bone broad and flat, tendons well developer
HORSE BREEDING. lolU
and prominent, skin lying close to bone and tendons ; an absence of beefi-
ness, not too much tied in below knee, an absence of long hair ; pas-
terns strong, of medium length and obliquity ; all joints strong and
well developed.
Ji'oot. — Wall moderately deep and strong, of medium size and toler-
ably round, sole concave, frog well developed, heels broad and strong
and not too deep; must not turn toes either in or out.
Haunch. — Muscles well developed and standing out boldly, hind
quarters broad and strong.
Stifle. — Well developed and strong.
Gaskin.—Sivong and well developed, muscles standing out boldly and
well defined.
Hoch. Large and strong in all directions, point well developed, pos-
terior border straight; an absence of coarseness and puffiness.
Ilock to Foot. Hind cannons clean, broader and flatter than the fore
ones, tendons standing boldly out and well defined, an absence from
beefiness, skin lying close to bone and tendon ; must not have a tied in
or pinched appearance below hock, an absence of long hair, pasterns
strong, of medium length and obliquity.
}i'oot. Smaller and narrower, with more concavity in sole than the
fore one, frog well developed, heels round and strong and not too dee}).
Color.— Biiy, brown, black, chestnut, roan, gray, with reasonable
modifications. (In this class a good horse may be a bad color.)
Skin.—Soii, mellow, loose, not like parchment,
Temperament.— ^n&v^eWc, docile, not sluggish, free from nerv-
ousness.
Style and Action.— Free and elastic, attractive, knee well bent, fore
feet lifted well off ground when in motion and being brought straight
forward, neither paddling orrooling, stride long, with an absenc-e of the
tarrying action sometimes seen, hocks well bent and hind feet lifted
well up, not going wide or yet close enough to strike opposite ankle.
Weight. —l\()^ to 1400 pounds.
Height,— lh% to Wi hands.
XXII. Conformation of Carriage Mare or Gelding.
Head. The same general outline as the coach stallion, with an
absence of the masculine appearance.
^ec•^^— Clean cut, an absence of masculine appearance, rather long,
head nicely attached and carried well up, crest well developed and wiry
and nicely arched, windpipe standing in relief from the muscles, the
lugular gutter well defined.
1320 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Withers. — More prominent and not so thick as the stallion; back
straight and rather short, loins broad and strong.
Croup. — Not too sloi)ing, dock coming out well up, tail well haired,
carried straight and well out from the body.
Chest. — Ribs long and well sprung, deep from above downwards.
Shoulders. — Moderately sloping, well nmsclcd over shoulder-blade.
Elbow. — Well developed and lying close to chest.
Forearm. — Strong, muscles well developed, well defined and standing
boldly out.
Knee. — Large and strong in all directions, upright; should be crit-
ically examined for malformations.
Knee to Foot. — Cannon-bone strong, broad and flat, tendons well
defined and standing boldly out, and not apparently too much tied in
below the knee, and absence of bcefincss and long hair, skin lying close to
bone and tendon, pastern strong, of medium length and obliquity.
Foot. — Of medium size and tolerably round, horn thick, strong and
with smooth surface, sole rather concave, frog full and well developed,
heels broad and strong and not too high, must not turn toes either in
or out.
Haunch. — Muscles strong and standing boldly out, well defined, hind
quarters broad and strong.
Stifle. — Strong and well muscled.
Gaskin. — Strong, muscles well defined, large and standing boldly out.
Hock. — Strong and well developed in all directons, an absence of
coarseness and pufiiness, point of hock well developed and posterior border
straight.
Ilock to Foot. — Kind cannons broad, strong and clean, tendons strong,
well defined and standing boldly out, not tied in below joint, an absence
of bccfincss, skin lying close to bone and tendon, limb flatter than the
front one; pasterns strong, of medium length and obliquity.
Foot. — Smaller and narrower than in front, sole more concave, frog
large and strong, heels strong and not too deep.
Color. — Bay brown, black, chestnut, roan, gray, with reasonable
modifications. (A good horse of this class may be a bad color.)
Skin. — Soft, mellow, not like parchment.
Temperament. — Docile, lively, energetic, not sluggish, free from
nervousness.
Style and Action. — General appearance attractive and stylish, knees
well bent and fore feet lifted high from the ground when in motion,
being brought forward in a straight line, with neither a paddling nor
rolling motion, and not allowing the foot to tarry in the air, but extend-
ing it promptly and boldly forward with a long stride, hocks well bent
HORSE BREEDING. 1R21
and hind feet lifted gracefully and quickly from the ground, not going
wide, nor yet close enough to interfere; must not forge.
Weight.— 1000 to 1300 pounds.
Height.- -15^ to 16^ hands.
XXIII. Conformation of the Hackney Stallion.
Head. — Of medium size, slightly dished laterally, wide between the
eyes, eyes full, prominent and mild, but lively in appearance, ears small,
fine, turned inwards at tips when pointed forward, set wide apart, nos-
trils of medium size but very flexible, mouth small, muzzle tine, jaws not
heavy but wide apart, cheeks flat with well developed nmscles, but not
too fleshy, head carried fairly high, nose drawn slightly inwards
towards breast.
Neck. — Of medium length, crest well developed, hard and whipcordy,
well arched, clean, but not too fine at throat, wide and muscular at
shoulder.
Withers. — High but not sharp, back short with rise at loin, which
should be broad, full and muscular.
Croup. — Slightly drooping, long, not steep, tail set on rather high,
well haired and carried straight and well out from the body.
Chest. — Ribs long and well sprung.
Breast. — Tolerably wide and well nmscled.
/Shoulder. — Oblique, dee}) and well musclec".
Elbow. — Well muscled and strong, fitting close to chest
Forearm. — Long, well and prominently muscled.
Knee. — Broad and deep in all directions, straight, with an absence of
malformations.
Knee to Foot. — Cannon-bone short, strong and flat, with an absence
of beefiness, back tendons standing out prominently, no coarse hair on
posterior border, tendons not too much tied in below knee, pasterns
strong and of medium length and obliquity.
Foot. — Of medium size, round and strong, tolerably concave sole,
well developed frog, strong and broad heels, not too high, must not turn
toes either in or out.
HauncJi. — Heavy muscled, thick through ham, hindcpiarters bro;id
•md strong.
Stifle. — Strong and well muscled.
Gaskin. — Well and i)rominently muscled and strong, hamstring
standing boldly out and well let down at hock.
Hock. — Strong, clean, rather short, an absence of coarseness, well
developed in all points, no pufiiness, point well marked, posterior border
straight.
1322 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
Hock to Foot. — Cannon rather short, strong and flat, an absence of
beefiness, back tendons standing out prominently and not tied in below
joint, skin lying closely to bone and tendon, without long hairs on pos-
terior border, pastern strong, of medium length and rather oblique.
Foot. — Smaller than fore foot, sole more concave, frog w^ll developed,
heels broad, strong and not too high.
/Skin. — Soft, mellow, loose, not like parchment.
Color. — Bay, brown, black, chestnut, roan, gray, with reasonable
modifications. (A good horse of this class may be an undesirable
color.)
Action. — Knee and hock action high, with considerable extension,
stride, grace and speed, must not paddle or rool fore feet nor allow them
to tarry in the air, but fetch them up and forward in a straight line,
with grace, promptness and style; hind feet must be lifted promptly
and high, not with a sprawling action nor yet going close enough to
interfere, but being brought forward in a straight line, with a good long
stride and firmly planted.
Temperament. — Docile but veiy energetic, free from nervousness,
general appearance attractive and symmetrical.
Weight.— \)bO to 1200 pounds.
Height. — 15 to 16 hands.
The conformation of the Hockney mare or gelding the same as above,
with the absence of the masculine appearance of head, crest and genera]
physiognomy.
XXIV. Conformation of the Standard-Bred Stallion.
Head. — Ear of medium size and pointed, eye large, prominent and of
docile expression, bones of the nose straight in front and slightly dished
laterally, bones of cranium nicely rounded, nostrils firm, large and
readily dilated, muscles of cheek well developed, but not too heavy,
mouth of medium size, lips firm, muzzle fine and tapering, branches of
lower jaw well spread apart at their angles.
Neck. — Rangy with well developed crest and attached to the head in
an angular sort of wa}^ rather of the obtuse order.
Withers. — May be continuous with the su})erior border of the neck,
well developed and not too broad, back straight and rather short, loins
broad.
Croup. — Somewhat sloping with dock coming out high up, tail well
haired and carried in a graceful manner.
Chest. — Deep through the girth, ribs long and well sprung with well
marked angles, breast broad and well muscled.
Shoulder. — Oblique from above downwards and forwards, blade bon%
well covered with muscles.
HORSE BREEDING. 1323
Elbow. — Well muscled and lying close to chest.
Forearm. — Well developed and strong, with muscles well defined and
standing boldly out.
Knee. — Straight, strong in all directions, free from malformations.
Knee to Foot. — Cannon-bone rather short, broad, flat and clean, not
feathered, tendons well defined and prominent, skin lying close to bone
and tendon, tendons not too much tied in below knee, an absence of
beefiness, pasterns strong, of medium length and obliquity.
Foot. — Of medium size, rather round with strong wall, sole rather
concave, frog large and well developed, heels broad, strong and not too
deep, must not toe either in or out.
JTaunrh. — Muscles well developed, deep through ham, quarters broad
end strong.
Stifle. — Strong and well muscled, compact.
Gaskin. — Muscles prominent and hard, hamstring prominent.
Hock. — Large and strong in all directions, all parts well developed, an
absence of malformations and puffiness, point well developed and pos-
terior border straight.
Hock to Foot. — Cannon-bone rather short, broader and flatter than in
front, little or no feathering, an absence of })eetiness, tendons standing
out prominently and well defined and not tied in below joint, skin lying-
close to bone and tendon, fetlock joint large and strong, pasterns strong,
of medium length and obliquity.
Foot. — Smaller and not so round as in front, sole more concave, frog
well developed, heels strong and not too deep.
Color. — Bay, brown, black, chestnut, roan, gray, with reasonable
modifications.
8kin. — Soft, mellow, loose, not like parchment.
Temperament. — Docile, kind, prompt, energetic, not nervous.
Style and Action. — Free and elastic, perfect in trotting gait, a good
walker, must not paddle or rool in front, may go wide behind, may
either trot or pace, and must go level without hitting himself any phice,
and be able to go fast.
Weight. — 9r)0 to 1200 pounds, or even more.
Height. — 15 to IG^ hands.
The mare and gelding of this class may be of the same general type
as the stallion, but not so masculine looking; the neck, withers and gen-
eral physiognomy being the points which contribute most to the more
tffeminate appearance of these animals. The neck should be more del-
icate and cleaner cut, the crest not so well developed, the withers more
pronounced, not so thick through and through at the upper part, and
1324 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AXD C0:MPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
there should be a line of a demarcation between withers and neck, the
general physiognomy milder and gentler and less impetuous.
XXV. Conformation of the Thoroughbred Stallion.
Jfead. — Ears tine, not too long, ai)i)roaching each other at the tips
when thrown forward; cranium broad and nicely rounded, forehead tlat
and broad, eyes wide apart, prominent, large and bold in expression,
nasal bones straight in front but slightly dished on lateral surfaces,
nostrils firm, large and flexible, of large capacity when the animal is ex-
cited, lips firm, mouth of medium size, muzzle small and tapering,
cheeks well but not too heavily clothed with hard, well developed mus-
cles, branches of lower jaw well spread apart at their angles.
J^eck. — Clean cut and rangy, crest well developed and whipcordy but
not so heavy as in other classes, head attached to neck in graceful,
angular manner, rather of the obtuse order, jugular gutter well marked.
Withers. — Well developed, high and not too wide, unless animal bo
fat there should be a line of demarcation where the neck leaves off and
the withers commence, back straight and rather short, loins broad and
strong.
Croup. — Rather long and slightly sloping with dock coming out high
up, tail carried straight, well out from the body in an arched and graceful
manner.
Chest. — Somewhat cone-shaped with good, broad base behind, apex
between forelegs, where the animal may be narrower in proportion than
other breeds, the cavity should be deep from above downwards espe-
cially at the girth, ribs long, well sprung, with well marked angles,
breast muscles well defined and prominent, but not too wide.
Shoulder. — Oblique from above downward and forward, the blade
bone being well covered with hard, well developed muscles.
Elbow. — Well muscled and lying close to chest.
Forearm. — Long, well developed and strong, well clothed with hard,
well developed muscles, having grooves of demarcation between them,
showing the outlines of each individual muscle.
Knee. — Clean, straight, large and strong in all directions, the bone
forming the back part somewhat prominent, an absence of malforma-
tions.
Knee to Foot. — Cannons short, broad, flat and clean, tendons standing
out plainly, hard and whipcordy, lines of demarkation between tendons
and ligament and between ligament and bone, an absence of beefiness and
long hair, skin lying close to bone and tendon, tendons not toe jsuci.
pinched below knee, fetlock joint well developed and strong, pasterua
somewhat lengthy and of medium obliquity.
HORSE BREEDING. 1325
Foot. — Rather smaller ia proportion than in other breeds, round,
strong and tolerably deep wall, sole concave, frog well developed, heels
full and not too deep, must not turn toes in or out when standing.
Haunch. — Well clothed with hard, well developed muscles, showing
grooves of demarcation between them, thick through ham, (juarters
broad and strong.
Stijie. — Strong and well muscled, not bulky,
Gaskin. — Clothed with hard muscles standing individually boldly out,
hamstring strong, prominent and whipcordy.
Hock. — Deep and strong in all directions, all points well developed
but not rough, an absence of malformations or puffiness, point very
well developed, straight on posterior border, the whole joint clean and
hard and of an angular order.
Hock to Foot. — Cannons short, wider and flatter than fore ones, clean,
no beefiness, no feathering, tendons well marked individually and must
not have a pinched appearance below joint, but very gradually taper in
width from hock to fetlock, skin lying close to bone and tendon, fetlock
joints large, clean and strong, pasterns rather lengthy, strong and of
medium obliquity.
Foot. — Smaller, not so round as the front ones, sole more concave,
frog well developed, heels strong and not too deep.
Color. — Bay, brown, chestnut, gray, black with reasonable modifica-
tions.
Skin. — Soft, mellow, loose, not like parchment, hair forming coat
fine, silky and straight, hairs of mane and tail, although coarse, must be
straight and soft in comparison with other breeds.
Temperament. — Mild, not vicious, energetic, inclined to be impetuous,
not too nervous.
Action. — Prompt, free and elastic, not too much knee and hock
action, but going rather close to the ground, esi)ecially in the canter or
gallop, must not paddle or rool fore feet, nor go close enough behind
to interfere, good walker.
Weight.—S-Ay 1050 to 1300 pounds.
Height. — Say Ib^ to 16|^ hands.
XXVI. Conformation of the Thoroughbred Gelding or Mare.
Head. — Rather small, ear fine and pointed, not too long, cranium
nicely rounded, forehead flat and broad, eye large and prominent and
gentle in expression, nasal bones straight in front and slightly dished
laterally, nostrils large, firm and flexible, lips firm, mouth of medium
depth, muzzle tapering and small, cheek clothed with hard, well
1326 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
developed muscles, branches of lower jaw well spread apart at their
angles.
Neck. — Clean cut and rangy, crest well developed and whipcordy,
but not so full as in the stallion, the point where the neck leaves off to
be well marked in frontof the withers, jugular gutter well marked, wind-
pipe standing out independently of the rest of the neck, attachments of
head to neck well marked and to be rather angular, of the obtuse order.
Withers. — Well developed and high, forming a well marked promi-
nence over the shoulder, the top of which should not be thick; the
back, springing from the posterior aspect of the withers, should be
straight and short, loins broad and well muscled.
Croup. — Rather long and somewhat sloping, with dock coming out
well up, tail carried straight, well out from the body and in a gracefully
arched manner.
■ Chest. — Somewhat cone-shaped with good broad base behind, apex
between shoulders rather narrow, but deep through the girth, ribs long
and well sprung with well-marked angles.
Shoulder. — Coming from high, sharp withers, should be obliciue from
above downward, blade clothed with hard muscles, well formed but
not bulky.
Ulboio. — Well muscled and lying close to chest.
Forearm. — Well developed and strong, with muscles standing boldly
out and well defined, marked from each other by grooves.
Knee, knee to foot, foot, haunch, stifle, gaskin, hock, hock to foot,
foot, color and skin, same as stallion.
Temperament. — More docile than the stallion, l)ut still very energetic.
Action. — Rather lighter on foot than the stallion; in other respects
the same.
Weight.— ^ixy 850 to 1250 pounds.
Height.— Sixy 15 to 16^ hands.
The saddle horse may be of the same general type as the thorough-
bred (mare or gelding), but if not Ihoroughljred will not have as much
(|uality. Must have good manners, a mouth that responds readily to
the hand of his rider. Graceful and elastic actions in all paces being
essential.
We will now give a 'sw illustrations showing some of the desirable
and undesirable points of conformation of the horse. From these ilhis-
trations the breeder will be able to inform himself as to the various
features and traits of disposition; also the correct and incorrect posi-
tion of the limbs, feet, etc.
HORSE BREEDING.
IS'il
Fig. A. — Shows a very good head of a thoroughbred. The general
expression and attitude denote intelligence, ambition and docility. The
crest is nicely arched, but not bulky; head gracefully attached and well
carri< 1; all muscles and the jugular gutter well marked.
Ft B. — Shows a good head and neck of a trotting or road horse.
Fig. C. — Shows a good head, but the neck is very deficient, being
too long and thin, and much too fine where attached to head. Necks of
this description are usually accompanied by a small head, with little
space between the angles of the lower jaw. Consequently, the space
occupied by the larynx (that catilaginous box at the commencement ol
the windpipe) is limited, not allowing suflicient room for expansion when
large quantities of air are taken into the lungs during violent exercise,
and as a consequence the animal is very liable to become a roarer.
F\6 6
Pig, 7). — Represents an ill-formed head and neck. The neck is at-
tached to the head in an ill-manner. The mouth or nose is turned in too
much towards the breast, which renders the animal practically uncon-
trollable unless a check rein be used to keep his nose out. The eye,
ear and general expression denote stubbornness and ill-temper. For
purposes of draft, the neck should be very much thicker and more
heavily muscled than in light horses, but nevertheless the head should
be properly attached.
Fig. ^.— Shows a shapely, muscular neck for draft, rather thick at
the attachment to the head, but at the same time well proportiored.
1328 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
The head is broad, strong, and rather large at the muzzle, not a serious
fault even with drivinir horses, althouj^h a line muzzle looks more attract-
FIGE
FIG F
ive, and with large flexible x :^strils this conformation may be vei well
marke.l.
Fig. F. — Shows a badly I'ormed neck and shoulder, and an ill-propor-
tioned, badly formed head.
Fig. G. — Shows an ewe-necked vicious brute, the head set on too
high, the dished face, shape and position of ears, wild expression of the
eyes and position of lips denote a vicious and dangerous disposition.
The Roman nose also denotes stubbornness.
Fig. II. — Shows a strong, muscular neck and head, but at the same
time the position of the ear, the eyes high in the head with a surly ex-
pression, the Roman nose, thick neck and jaw denote a treacherous and
unsafe horse. Such a horse, if kept properly under control by a com-
petent driver, may l)e fairly well numaged, but in careless or incom-
petent hands is liable to become vicious and intractable at any time.
Plate 2. — Shows different conformations of the back. The back
should be straight and of medium length; the straighter and shorter it
is the more it denotes strength, while the longer it is, and especially if
it also be hollow, the more indicative it is of weakness. However, very
HORSE BREEDING.
1329
short backs arc not desirable, as a certain amount of lengtli is essential
in order that the animal may have action and a certain amount of speed.
GOOD AND BAD BACK.
Though shortness of the back indicates strength, particularly as regards
carrying weight, we must remember that too much must not be sacri-
ficed for any one point, and a horse with a very short back is apt to
overreach (forge) unless his shoulders be very oblique. Backs which
are in their original formation hollow, invariably become more so under
the influence of weight and age. This is particularly noticeable in stall-
ions that are used in the stud. In fact, all backs, though originally
straight, become more or less hollow with age. This effect is partly due
GOOD AND BAD HINDQUARTERS.
to the ordinary mechanical action of weight on a given line, and partly
to wasting away of the muscles in old age. A horse with what is called
1330 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
a roach back is usually rough and uneven in his paces and inclined to
forge. The formation is favorable to strength, and unless the pecul-
iarity be very marked, especially if the quarters are good, and the
shoulder strong and obli(|ue, he will generally be a serviceable animal.
In the illustration the top tigure showf^ a very straight back and croup
— with the dock coming out very high up. The central tigure a hollow
back and drooping croup, and the lower figure a roach back,
Plate 3. — The hair of the tail usually indicates the breeding of a horse
to a certain extent. That of well-bred horses is generally straight and
fine. A thick, coarse or curly quality of hair usually denotes want of
breeding. The tail should be carried firm, straight and well away from
the hind (|iiarters. It should be set on almost in a line with the back
bone. In the coarsely bred animal the tail is usually set on low down,
possesses little muscular power, clings to the quarters, and altogether
looks mean. Fine, curly hair is occasionally, though seldom, seen even
in the tails of thoroughbreds.
In the illustration the figure on the left shows a tail the dock of which
comes out high up, and the tail is well and gracefully carried. The sec-
ond figure shows the dock coming out lower down from drooping croup,
and tail not so well carried. In the next figure this is more marked, the
animal hugging the tail, while the figure to the right shows a tail with
coarse, wavy hair coming out very low down from a very sloping croup,
and meanly carried, the hams cut away and weak, and altogether the
parts of a mean-looking and generally unserviceable animal.
Plate 6. — Let us now view the position of the hind legs, viewed from
the side, the horse standing.
Fig. 1. — Shows the commonly received idea of the correct position,
but the whole limb is placed rather too far back, and it is rather too
near the perpendicular from point of hock to fetlock pad.
Fig. «/.— Shows a more correct position, the limb is more under the
center of gravity than Fig. I, the hock not quite so far back and there
is a slight deviation forward from hock to fetlock.
Fig. K. — Shows a horse standing too straight, hamstring not well
developed, and rather a deviation backwards from point of hock to fet-
lock, altogether a rather weak limb.
Fig. L. — Shows the limbs too much bent, sickle shaped, giving the
horse a mean appearance, and at the same time the hock is not strong,
and disease, especially curb, is easily produced.
Fig. M. — Shows the leg from hock down placed too far behind; this
conformation indicates weakness and is usually associated with defective
action.
HORSK BREEDING.
1331
Fig. iV. — Shows the point of the hock poorly developed, the hock is
not "well let down," always accompanied by poor hock action.
Fig. O. — Shows the opposite and desirable conformation, the point
of hock well developed. The hock is "well letdown." This confor-
mation indicates good leverage, and is usually accompanied by good
1332 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
riG R
no. 5
FIO,
FIG V
no vs/
FIO X
■IG. DD
pig.ce: fig ft
FIG 6G FIG HH
action. In this figure the hock alone must be considered, not its posi-
tion in respect to the body.
Coming now to the rear view of the hind legs.
Fig. P. — Shows the points of the hocks too close together Ccow
hocked), with a lateral deviation outwards of the limbs to the feet. lie
points the feet outwards, is splayfooted. The points of the hocks
HORSE BREEDING.
l■^'?,^
should not approach each other in this manner, but should stand
squarely, turnhig neither outwards nor inwards, and the limbs should
maintain this position down to the foot, which also should be planted
straight forwards and backwards.
j^lfj, g._Shows the hocks too far apart, the points turned outwards,
with a lateral deviation inwards from hock to foot, the toes turned
inwards (parrot toed).
Coming to the fore quarters the illustrations will give a good idea of
«?hape, obliquity of shoulder, setting on of the neck and carriage of
Jihe head.
_Pig^ i?._Shows good conformation of head, neck and shoulders.^
pig^ ^\_Shows shoulders too upright, neck too short and thick,
throat' thick and heavy, ears and eyes badly placed, and general expres-
sion bad.
j^'ig^ T.— Shows correct position of fore limb and foot.
ji^ig, [/-.—Shows feet too close together; the horse is bandy-legged.
jTig^ 17._The feet are too wide apart; the horse straddles.
j^ilg] If .—Shows the toes turned out; when traveling he will rool his
toes inward, and in all probability strike the opposite limb some place
between the pastern and knee, or even above the knee, according to the
lieicrht of action. This is called speedy stroke, and is very undesirable,
as i"t necessitates the wearing of boots for protection, and is liable to
cause him to stumble.
jTig, A^— Shows the contrary conformation ; the toes turn inwards,
giving the animal a waddling action, which has a very clumsy and
unatti-active appearance. There is considerable waste motion.
7//^. Y.—CjUes a side view of fore leg. The position is correct, the
knee large, strong and straight, neither bending forwards, "knee
spring," nor backwards, "calf-knee."
jPlg^ Z.— Shows the knee bending backwards, "calf or buck-kneed."
This conformation is well marked, causes undue strain on back liga-
ments and tendons.
Fi(j. yM.— Shows a small, weak knee, with the tendons tied m or
pinched below the joint.
Fig. BB.—Sho\\s the pastern too long and weak.
Fig. (7(7.— Shows the pastern too short; there is a want of flexi-
bility; the action will be stiff and stilty.
Fig. DD.— Shows a good limb in a correct position.
Fig EF.— Shows the pastern too short and upright; the action will
be stiff and stilty, especially for saddle purposes. The concussion is so
^leat that parts are very liable to disease.
Fig. FF.—Shosws the opposite conformation ; the pastern is too long
1334 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
and oblique, the strain consequently undue upon the back tendons,
which, as a consequence, are liable to disease.
Fig. GG. — Shows the correct position of foot in relation to the
breast.
Fig. HII.— Shows the foot planted too far back.
Fig. If. — Shows a weak knee and fetlock. The limb is straight, but
out of proper position on account of weakness.
The reader who carefully examines these illustrations should be a
fairly good judge of how a horse should look, either from a :.>ont, rear
or side view, both as to the body and limbs.
DAIRYING AND DAIRY BUILDINGS.
By Prof. H. H. Dean, B. S. A., Professor of Dairy Husbandry, Ontario Agricnltural
College, Guelph, Ontario.
THE DAIRY COW. II. FEED. III. BUTTER MAKING. IV. SPECIAL POINTS ON
BUTTER MAKING. V. CREAMERIES. VI. CHEDDAR C!HEESK. -VII. SALTINll
THE CURD. VIII. CURIN(+ THE CHEESE. IX. FARM CHKESE. X. DAIRY
BUILDINGS. XI. TOWN AND CITY MILK AND CREAM TRADE. XH. CONDENSED
MILK. XIII. IMITATION BUTTER. XIV. THE TESTING OF MILK. XV. MAR-
KETING DAIRY PRODUCE.
The dairy interests of the North American people are very large. No
branch of agriculture has been so profitable as dairying. The dairy cow
is the queen of all animals kept on the farm, when i)roperly fed and
when cared for in the best manner.
There are two classes of dairymen as regards method of manufactur-
ing their product, viz. : private and co-operative. The former are the
older, but the latter are more extensive in their operations. Co-oper-
ative cheese factory dairies began in 1851, in the State of New York.
The chief advantages of co-operation in the dairj' are a more uniformly
high quality of cheese and butter, which sells for a higher price than
average private dairy goods, and the fact that it relieves the farmer's
wife of a great deal of drudgery.
Co-operative factories are managed on one of two plans — joint stock
company or private enterprise. In the first, the factory, plant, etc., are
owned by the farmers that manage the business, as well as owning and
milking the cows. WTien properly managed, they are the most success-
ful factories. Private enterprise factories are chiefly owned by one per-
son, who provides factory and plant and manufactures the product, as a
rule, for a certain rate per pound. This plan usually insures good busi-
ness management, and the system is well liked in muny sections.
I. The Dairy Cow.
A good cow is the foundation ;if all successful dairying. Good cows
are found in all breeds and among those of no particular ])reeding; but
they are more common among what are known as the dairy breeds, chief
of which in America are Holstein, jersey, Ayrshire, Guernsey, Cana-
dian, and some strains of the Short-Horn.
1335
1336
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE SIOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
DAIRYING AND DAIRY BUILDINGS. 1337
In building up a dairy herd, select the best cows of the breed, grade
or native most suitable for the conditions under which they are to be
used. Breed these cows to pure bred males of the same breed as the
cows are, where pure breeds are kept, and breed the grades and natives
to pure bred males of whatever breed is thought to be best. Rear the
heifer calves on whole milk for about two weeks, then change gradually
>;o warm, sweet skim milk to which has been added a small amount of
bran and ground oats when young. Afterwards feed the meal dry and
give clover hay, grass, and in winter give pulped or sliced roots.
Keep the calves warm, dry and clean. The heifers should commence
milking when between two and three years old. Weigh the milk from
each cow, and test for fat at least once a month. Have a standard of
not less than 6000 pounds of milk or 250 pounds of butter per year foj-
each cow, and sell all which do not come up to this standard at the end
of their second milking period. In this way a creditable dairy herd
may be built up in a few years.
II. Feed.
Grass is nature's food for milk production, and where this is obtain-
able in abundance no other feed is necessary. Give plenty of pure
water, and allow cows access to salt at all times. Lucerne clover is an
excellent soiling crop, as also are green peas and oats and corn. Corn
silage is a valuable summer food as well as a good food for winter. In
winter give the cow all the mixed corn silage and cut clover hay which
she will eat, together with mangels, and six to eight pounds of meal for
each pound of fat produced in the milk, or for every twenty-five tc
thirty-five pounds of milk which she gives. The meal may consist of
one-half bran and the other half peas and oats. Gluten feed, cotton-
seed meal, oil cake, etc., are also useful concentrates, if they can be pur-
chased at reasonable prices and without adulteration. The subject of
cow feeding and management may be summed up in: breed carefully,
select wisely, care for kindly, feed liberally, milk regularly. This dc,
and prosperity shall attend the steps of the dairyman.
Ill, Butter Making.
Butter may be made in a private dairy or in a creamery. In the pri-
vate dairy the milk is usually set for the cream to rise in shallow pans
or deep cans, or, what is now very common, it is run through a cream
separator innnediately after being milked. To obtain the best results
with shallow pans, set as soon as possible after milking in pans about
four inches deep. Keep in a clean, cool place, such as a cellar or milk-
house, and skim at the end of twenty-four or forty-eight hours. Loosen
the cream from the edge of the pan with a thin-bladed knife, and allow
1338 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE S'lOCK DOCTOR.
JERSEY IvILY.
Ontario Agricultural College. Two years old, solid color, black tongue and switch.
Her milk is excellent quality and she promises to make
a fine cow for butter making.
the cream to glide over the edge of the pan into the cream can. Do not
use a perforated skimmer, as it wastes the cream. In deep setting, set
in pans about eight inches in diameter and twenty inches deep. Phice
the cans in ice water for twelve to thirty-six hours, and skim carefully
from the top or bottom. If using a separator, run the milk through as
soon as milked; but if separating but once a day, heat the milk to 115''
to 100° and then separate. Cool the cream to 60° as soon as it comes
from the separator. Wash the machine after each time of using. The
cream from pans and cans should be kept sweet until twenty-four hours
before churning, when it may be warmed to about 60° to 65°, and a small
amount of clean flavored sour skim-milk or buttermilk may be added
to hasten and control the ripening or souring of the cream. A better
way is to heat some skim-milk, to which has been added 25 per cent, of
clean water, to 1(50° for twenty minutes, then cool to 80° to 1*0° and add
a commercial culture. This is a safer plan than to use ordinary sour
milk, buttermilk or cream. The commercial culture may be propagated
DAIRYING AND DAIRY BUILDINGS.
1339
for ail iudetinite length of time with proper cure, and need not be bought
oftener than once or twice a year. The cream is ripe and ready to churn
when it tastes slightly sour, is thick and glossy in appearance, and has a
pleasant, ripe smell. If tested with a one-tenth normal alkaline solution,
it should show five-tenths to six-tenths of one per cent, acidity. Cream
may be churned in a box or barrel churn or in a combined churn, and
worked at a temperature of 50^ to TC, depending upon conditions.
Churn at such a temperature that the butter will come firm in twenty to
forty-five minutes. Stop the churn when the butter is the size of wheat
grains, and draw the buttermilk. Wash the butter once in water at 50"^
to 55", and then salt in the churn or on a worker. For a farm dairy a
V-shaped worker is very convenient. In the factory, rollers are used to
apply pressure to the butter. The amount of salt will vary from one-
half ounce to one ounce per pound of butter. Use fine, clean salt.
Work the butter once for local markets ; for export or to pack, work
twice, to overcome "mottles" or "streaks." For local trade, put the
butter in pound prints wrapped in parchment paper. For export or
AYRSHIRE PATTI.
No. 10,741 in Canadian Ayrshire Book. Two years old. Her dam was imported from
Scotland and was one of the best cows in the college herd.
1340 CYCLOPEDIA OF 1,IVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
cold storage, pack in square boxes holding fifty-six pounds, or in tubs
holding fifty pounds. The best packages are lined with paratfine wax
and heavy parchment pa})er. If the packages are unlined, soak in brine
for three or four days, then steam and sprinkle the inside with salt be-
fore putting in the butter. Spruce is the best material for wooden
butter packages. Pound the butter firmly into the package, so that it
will be close and uniform when emptied.
IV. Special Points on Butter Making
(1) If coloring is used, add it to the cream before commencing to
churn. Do not overcolor the butter. Commercial coloring is prefer-
able to carrot or other home-made coloring.
(2) Pasteurizing (^. e., heating to 160°) the whole milk before run-
ning it through the separator in winter will enable the butter maker to
secure a more uniform quality of butter, and butter at all times which
has im})roved keeping quality. Sweet cream may also be Pasteurized
after each time of skimming by setting the can of cream in a tub or
tank of hot water at 180° and stirring until the cream reaches 160°, then
cool to below 60° before adding to the cream can or crock containing
cream from previous skimmings. Add about one cup of culture to the
cream can in winter with the llrst lot of cream to get good •flavor, and
hold at 60°.
V. Creameries.
Creameries are of several kinds — whole milk or separator, cream
gathering, and combined separator and cream gathering — usually in con-
nection with skimming stations, at which only the cream is separated
and then it is taken to a central creamery to be churnod. In connection
with the cream-gathering creamery, hand separators on the farm are be-
coming very common. This method saves the expense of hauling the
whole milk to the creamery and the skim-milk back to the farm ; but
owing to the fact that the cream is often spoiled before it reaches the
creamery, it is doubtful if this is the best plan to make a fine quality of
butter. In sections where cows are not plentiful the cream-gathering
pkn is to be commended, but in thickly settled portions the whole milk
creamery is best, because the finest quality of butter may be made if
patrons cool the milk properly at the farm and it reaches the creamery
sweet. The butter maker then has an opportunity to show his skill in
the manufacture of high-class butter.
VL Cheddar Cheese.
In the system of factory cheese making known as cheddar, the milk
is delivered at the factory once a day — usually before 9 a. m. The
proper cariqg for ui'iIk at the farm is a very important point in the
DAIRYING AND DAIRY BUILDINGS.
1341
1342 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
making of fancy cheese. The chief things to observe in the care of
milk are: Have good health j cows, fed on clean food, which does not taint
the milk. (Turnips, turnip tops, rape, api)les, apple pomace, brewers
grains, etc., should not be fed to cows producing milk for cheese mak-
ing or any other fine dairy products.) As soon as milked the milk
should be strained into cans. When the cows are all milked, place the
cans of milk in a tank of cold water and stir until the milk is below 70%
at which temperature it may be left for the night, except on Saturday,
when it should be cooled to near 50'', if it is to be sent to the factory on
Monday morning. The morning's milk should also be cooled, if possi-
ble, and should not be mixed with the evening's milk until it leaves for
the factory. Be sure that the atmosphere is pure in which the milk
sets over night. The cows should also be milked in a clean, pure at-
mosphere. After the milk reaches the factory coloring is added, as
soon as the weight of milk in the vat is known, if colored cheese are
made, though white or uncolored cheese are more wholesome, and there
is a growing demand for uncolored cheese. The coloring commonly
used is made from Annato seed, though many colors are now made from
the by-})roducts of gas manufactories.
The milk is then heated to 86° by means of steam turned under the
vats of milk. When the milk is ripe, which is ascertained by means of
a rennet, or an acid test, the milk is set by adding from three to five
ounces of rennet extract per 1000 pounds of milk. When the curd is
firm it is cut once with a horizontal knife and twice with a perpendicular
knife. The curd will then be in the form of cubes from three-eighths
to five-eighths of an inch in size. The curd is then gently stirred and in
about ten minutes heat is applied by means of steam. The curd is kept
in motion by the hands, by means of a rake, or by machinery until the
whole mass of curd and whey reaches a temperature of 98°, when the
steam is shut off, but the stirring continues for some time. When the
curd is firm and the acid begins to develop, as indicated by the hot iron
test, or the acid test, the .whey is run from the curd, which process is
known as "dipping." After dipping, the curd is stirred and then
allowed to "mat" or "cheddar." The curd is afterwards cut in strips
about six inches wide and three to six inches thick and })laced on racks
covered with a cloth for the whey to drain. When the curd becomes
"meaty" it is put through a knife mill and cut in strips about the size
of a finger. These strips of curd are stirred often enough to keep them
from matting together, and also to improve flavor and texture of the
cheese.
DAIRYING AND DAIRY BUILDINGS.
1343
VII. Salting the Curd.
The ripening process goes on until the curd feels mellow, and when a
handful is squeezed it shows a mixture of butter and white whey. Tho
curd is then ready to salt. Salt is applied at the rate of one and one-
half to two pounds per 1000 pounds of milk for rapid curing cheese,
and two and one-half pounds to three and one-half pounds for slow cur-
ing cheese. After the salt has been thoroughly stirred through the curd
and the harsh feeling leaves, the curd is then placed in hoops which have
SHORT-HORN HEIFER, CONSTANCE XV., OE MAPLE LODGE.
Bred by A. W. Smith, Maple Lodge, Ontario, and the property of the Ontario Agri-
cultural College, Guelph, Ontario.
a cotton bandage placed inside by means of a bandager. The curd is
then firmly packed into the hoops and pressure is applied by means of a
screw. The gang press in which the cheese lie horizontally is now used
in preference to the upright press. After the cheese have been under
pressure for about three-quarters of an hour they are removed from the
press and the bandage is neatly pulled up on the cheese and cap cloths
are placed on the ends. This is known as "dressing" the cheese. The
cheese is now returned to the press and allowed to remain under
1344 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
pressure for about twenty hours, when they are removed to the curing
room. Cheese should always be neat and stylish before placing in the
curing room.
VIII. Curing the Cheese.
Cheese are about half nuidc when leaving the press. The green
cheese are indigestible, and the process of curing is the gradual change
of insoluble, indigestible curd to a soluble, digestible cheese. Temper-
ature is the chief factor in controlling the rate at which the change takes
place, though rennet, salt, moisture and the character of the gieen
cheese are also important factors. Cheese cure best at a temperature
between 60° and 65°. During hot weather most curing rooms get too
warm. To control temperature in hot weather the room should be well
insulated by means of building paper and matched lumber. Double
doors and double windows are also necessary. To cool the room use a
sub-earth duct, ice, cold water in pipes, or compressed air. A sub-earth
duct may be built at a cost of about $75 by placing two rows of ten-inch
tile in a trench about 150 feet long and ten feet deep, and connecting
these with the curing room and an in-take pipe with a hood or cowl on
it to face the wind at all times. This in-take pipe should be about four-
teen to sixteen inches in diameter, and may be made of galvanized iron,
and should be thirty to fifty feet high. As the air passes through the
tile from the pipe it is cooled to about 60" and enters the curing room at
this temperature. The amount of air entering the room is regulated by
means of a slide door or a register placed in the floor or wall.
For heating a curing room in spring or fall use a coal furnace or steam
from the boiler.
Cheese should remain in the curing room from two to four weeks, if
the temperature does not go above 65° to 70° at any time. If the tem-
perature cannot be maintained below 70"", they are best placed in cold
storage at the end of one to two weeks. Cheddar cheese ai'O not fit for
consumption until they are one to two months old. A well-made ched-
dar is at its best when six to ten months old or even older than this, if
it does not cure too rapidly.
IX. Farm Cheese.
Cheese for home use or for local trade may be made b}^ putting one
hundred to three hundred pounds of milk in a can, clean tub or other
vessel, adding rennet, cutting with a long knife, heating to 94^ to 96*^,
by taking out some of the whey and heating it on the stove, then pouring
it back on the curd. In about two hours take off the whey and allow
the curd to mat slightly. Then break or cut it, and when it is mellow
apply the salt and put in a small hoop. A hoop to hold the cur^
DAIRYING AND DAIRY BUILDINGS. 1345
from one hundred pounds of milk should be eight inches in diameter
and about the same height. The cheese may be pressed by placino- a
lever on the cheese and hanging a weight on the farther end. Nice
cheese are made in this way at small expense.
X. Dairy Buildings.
Buildings for all kinds of dairy work should be built substantially,
with good walls to control temperature, high ceiling (ten to fourteen
feet), cement floors, and have a good drainage. Wood, brick, stone or
cement may be used. All buildings should have good foundations. The
cost of a cheese factory to handle the milk from five hundred cows will
be from $1,000 to $1,500, and the utensils will cost $500 to $800. A
separator creamery for five hundred cows will cost about $2,000 for
building, and $1,000 to $1,500 for machinery. A cream-gathering
creamery complete will cost $1,500 to $2,000. A combined factory
with skimming stations will cost $5,000 to $10,000.
A first-class curing room is a very important part of a cheese factory,
and a good refrigerator is very essential in a creamery. Mechanical re-
frigeration is now common in large creameries, though the smaller ones
continue to use ice; sometimes the ice is mixed with about five per cent,
salt, and placed in galvanized iron tubes in the refrigerator to secure a
greater degree of gold. Butter should be maintained at about 32° while
at the creamery.
All dairy buildings should be painted a light color outside with suit'
able trimmings. The surroundings should be neat and tidy.
XI. Town and City Milk and Cream Trade.
There is an increasing demand for dairy products in towns and cities.
This is the most remunerative branch of the dairy, but entails a great
deal of labor where the dairyman delivers the milk or cream. It is now
customary to ship to large concerns who handle the business in the
cities. Some cities are equipped with very excellent facilities for hand-
ling and delivering milk and cream to customers. "Clarified,"
"certified" and "modified" milks are now obtainable in many large cities.
The interests of city consumers are considered as never before.
A pure and wholesome milk supply is as important to any town or city
as a pure and wholesome water supply. Company or municipal control
appears to be the best means of securing this, though there is danger of
it becoming a monopoly when controlled by a company, and danger of
mismanagement and corruption if controlled by the municipality.
Milk for town trade should be strained at once after coming from the
cows, and then be cooled to below SO"" by stirring the milk placed in ice-
water, or by running it over suitable coolers. Milk should be delivered
1346 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
SENSATION OF DEN TON I A — No. 134368.
Sweepstakes Jersey Cow, Toronto Industrial Exhibition.
DENTONIA'S ISLAND QUEEN— No. t|4t66.
& nottd prize-wiaaev.
DAIRYING AND DAIRY BUILDIN<J8.
1347
in the city at night or early in the morning. No preservatives or color-
ino- of any kind should be added to the milk for town trade. Commerical
cream should test about twenty per cent. fat. Where dealers require richer
cream, they should pay accordingly. With a separator it is possible to
obtain cream of any desired richness by adjusting the machine. When
setting the milk for cream to rise, this is not easily done. Time is the
factor deciding richness, where the skimming is properly done. To get
richer cream allow it to stand for a longer time. Cream for whipping
purposes should contain at least twenty per cent, fat, should be partially
A GALtOWAY PRIZE WINNER AT SMITHFIELD, ENGLAND,
ripe, and be as cold as possible. There is more difficulty in whipping
separator cream compared with cream raised by gravity, because the
albuminous matter is largely removed by separating.
XII. Condensed Milk.
A growing branch of dairying is the manufacture of condensed milk.
This milk is ordinary milk from which a large portion of the water has
been evaporated, and to which is usually added about fifteen per cent,
of cane-sugar. Milk intended for condensing purposes requires to be
1848 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
especially well cared for, and dairymen patronizing condensing factories
are usually paid an extra price for their milk as compared with milk
sent to cheese factories and creameries. Factories for condensed milk
are likely to become more numerous as the market for this class of
dairy goods becomes extended.
XIII. Imitation Butter.
Goods made from animal and vegetable fats and sold for pure butter,
are a great menace to the legitimate dairy trade. Dairymen have no
particular objection to the manufacture and sale of these articles so long
as they are sold on their merits. The majority of customers who buy
oleomargarine and the various other imitations of butter, do not know
that they are paying for spurious goods, as these are usually sold as
butter. In Canada, the manufacture and sale of "oleo" in any form is
strictly prohibited by law. The dairymen of the United States are
making a gallant fight against butter made from lard, tallow, and oil.
XIV. The Testing of Milk.
A very important part of the duty of a dairyman is to know how to
test the percentage of fat in cream, skim-milk, buttermilk and whey.
The fat of milk and cream is usually taken as a measure of its value for
food. At creameries and for butter making on the farm, the value of
milk and cream is almost entirely represented by the fat which they
contain. It is customary to test the fat with what is known as the Bab-
cock test, which was discovered by Dr. S. M. Babcock, of Wisconsin,
U. S. A., in 1890. The principle of the test is that commercial sul-
phuric acid (oil of vitriol) is used to dissolve the curdy matters and set
the fat free. Centrifugal force is applied, and a further separation of
the fat takes place. Hot water is then added and more centrifugal force
is brought to bear on the fat, when the percentage is read on the necks
of the bottles. If the solids other than fat are calculated, a lactome-
ter is used for the purpose, in connection with the Babcock test and a
formula.
For cheese making, the casein of milk should also be considered.
This is conveniently estimated by adding the factor 2 to the percentage
of the fat.
The testing of the by-products of the dairy show the cheese and
butter maker wherein losses occur in manufacture. No up-to-date
maker of dairy goods neglects to test the raw material (milk), or the
by-products (skim-milk, buttermilk and whey), in order that he may
know exactly what he is doing. For testing cows on the farm, the Bab-
cock test is invaluable. The tester and scales should be applied to each
individual cow in the herd, in order to know whether »ows are profitable
DAIRYING AND DAIRY BUILDINGS.
1349
LORD OF DENTONIA — No. 50166.
The imported famous and proud head of the Dentonia Jersey Herd.
BIM OF DENTONIA — No. 5201 1.
'Raised at Deutonia. Sweepstakes Jersey Bull. Toronto Industrial Exhibition.
1350 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
or unprofitable. There is no other way of securing a money-making
dairy herd.
XV. Marketing Dairy Produce.
There is room for business ability and skill in the marketing of but-
ter and cheese. Tlie private dairyman secures private customers who
will take a stated quantity weekly, or he may consign to a reliable com-
mission house. The practice of trading butter for dry goods and gro-
ceries is to be condemned, as such a market is not discriminating; it
pays the same price for all kinds of butter. Butter should be put up
in a neat, attractive form for market; and where butter is delivered
directly to customers, the person who does the delivering should be neat
and clean in appearance, in order to create a favorable impression.
Creamery butter is usually sold to dealers, consigned to commission
men, or exported to Great Britain. Butter for export should be lighter
in color, salted less, and be milder in flavor than that made for the home
trade. Pasteurized butter is favorably received on the British market.
Cold storage at the creamery, on the railway and steamer, and at the
ports, make it possible to ship butter long distances without deteriorat-
ing in quality.
Cheese is sold on boards of trade to dealers, consigned to commis-
sion men, or exported direct by factorymen. Some English firms now
control the output from certain Canadian factories, and have the goods
forwarded as soon as they are ready. This plan saves the dealer's com-
mission on this side of the Atlantic, and appears to be growing in favor.
The shrewdest men should be appointed as salesmen for factories,
because they have to deal with shrewd men, and patrons' interests will
not be properly looked after unless the very best men are appointed to
sell the cheese.
Number of Cheese Factories and Creameries in Canada.
Cheese factories, ------- 2575
Creameries, -----... 725
Combined cheese factories and croaineries, - - 317
Total, - - 3617
TEXAS CATTLE FEVER.
THE TEXAS-FEVER TICK AND METHODS OF EXTERMINATING IT.
T LIFE HISTORY OP THE TICK. II. DEVELOPMENT ON THE GROUND.
III HOW TO FREE CATTLE OF TICKS. IV. PICKING OR BRUSHING
TICKS OFF CATTLE. V. SMEARING OR SPRAYING CATTLE WITH A
DISINFECTING SOLUTION.
The more important losses for which the tick is responsible are as
follows :
1. Deaths from tick fever among native cattle and purebred cattle im-
ported irom the North for breeding purposes.
2. Deaths of cattle north of the quarantine line from fever followmg
the occasional accidental introduction of the tick.
3. The temporary and permanent arrest of growth and development
resulting from attacks of the fever.
4. The decrease in weight and the lessened rate in puttnig on flesh
in the ca.se of beef cattle, and the decrease in the amount of milk produced
by dairy cattle, as the result of the irritation and loss of blood occasioned
by great numbers of ticks.
5. The prevention of southern breeders from exhibiting their stock
in the North.
6. The decreased price that southern cattle bring on the market on
account of the restrictions placed upon them.
7. The considerable expense incurred each year by the Federal Gov-
ernment and the infested States in establishing quarantine lines and in
enforcing regulations to prevent the spread of Texas fever.
Various writers have estimated the annual loss due to the tick at from
$40,000,000 to $100,000,000. These figures should be ample argument,
even to the most conservative, for the eradication of the tick.
I. Life History of the Tick.
Before methods of eradication can be carried out intelligently and suc-
cessfully, it is necessary to know the life history of the tick, and the in-
fluence of temperature, moisture, and other climatic conditions on the
various stages of its existence.
The usual host for this tick is the cow or ox. Frequently, however,
horses, mules, deer, and sometimes even sheep serve as hosts. But none
of these latter animals, with the possible exception of deer, are susceptible
to tick fever, consequently they suffer from the tick as a simple parasite
and not as a transmitter of disease, although they must be considered in
plans for eradication.
1351
1352 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
=fv*
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H, ^ ^. ^
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TEXAS-FEVER PROTOZOA AND THE TICKS WHICH TRANSMIT THEM.
TEXAS CATTLE FEVER. 1353
Only a part of the development of the tick takes place on the host ; the
rest of the development occurs on the pasture occupied by the host.
II. Development on the Ground.
In tracing the life history of the cattle tick it will be convenient to begin
with the large, plump, olive-green female tick (fig. 1), somewhat more
than half an inch in length, attached to the skin of the host. During
the few preceding days she has increased enormously in size as a con-
sequence of drawing a Jarge supply of blood.
When fully engorged she drops to the ground, and at once, especially
if the weather is warm, begins to search for a hiding place on moist earth
beneath leaves or any other litter which may serve as a protection from
the sun and numerous enemies. The female tick may be devoured by birds
or destroyed by ants, or may perish as the result of unfavorable conditions,
such as low temperature, absence or excess of moisture, and many other
conditions ; so that many which fall to the ground are destroyed before they
lay eggs.
Egg laying (see fig. 2) begins during the spring, summer, and fall
months in from two to twenty days, and during the winter months in thir-
teen to ninety-eight days. The eggs are small, elliptical-shaped bodies,
at first of a light amber color, later changing to a dark brown, and are
about one-fiftieth of an inch in length. As the eggs are laid they are coated
with a sticky secretion which causes them to adhere in clusters and no
doubt serves the purj^ose of keeping them from drying out. During egg
laying the mother tick gradually shrinks in size and finally is reduced
to about one-third or one-fourth her original size. Egg laying is greatly
influenced by temperature, being retarded or even arrested by low tem-
peratures. It is completed in from four days in the summer to one hun-
dred and fifty-one days beginning in the fall. During this time the tick
may deposit from a few hundred to more than 5,000 eggs. After egg
laying is completed the mother tick has fulfilled her purpose and dies in
the course of a few days.
After a time, ranging from nineteen days in the summer to one hun-
dred and eighty-eight days during the fall and winter, the eggs begin to
hatch. From each egg issues a small, oval, six-legged larva or seed tick
(fig. 3), at first amber colored, later changing to a rich brown. The seed
tick, after crawling slowly over and about the shell from which it has
emerged, usually remains more or less quiescent for several days, after
which it shows great activity, especially if the weather is warm,, and ascends
the nearest vegetation, such as grass, or other herbs, and even shrubs.
Since each female lays an enormous mass of eggs at one spot, thousands
of larvae will appear in the course of time at the same place and will ascend
the nearby vegetation and collect on the leaves. This instinct of the seed
1354 CYCLOrEDlA of LIVK stock and COMl'LETE STOCK DOCTOR.
ticks to climb upward is a very important adaptation to increase their
chances of reaching a host. If the vegetation upon which they rest is
disturbed, they become very active and extend their long front legs up-
ward in a divergent position, waving them violently in an attempt to seize
hold of a host.
The seed tick during its life on the pasture takes no food and conse-
quently- does not increase in size, and unless it reaches a host to take up
the parasitic portion of its development, it dies of starvation. The en-
durance of seed ticks is very great, however, as they have been found to
live nearly eight months during the colder part of the year.
III. How to Free Cattle of Ticks.
Among the most important measures to be adopted in eradicating these
parasites from cattle in the infested districts may be mentioned: (1) Pick-
ing or brushing them off; (2) smearing or spraying the animals with a
disinfecting solution, and (3) dipping the "ticky" animals in a vat con-
taining a solution capable of killing the ticks without injury to the cattle.
The systematic application of one or more of these methods, together
with appropriate measures for eradicating or destroying the cattle ticks
upon pastures, has been successfully adopted in certain sections, and has
thus diminished the area of the infested district.
IV. Picking or Brushing Ticks off Cattle.
Where the herd is small a very effective but laborious method is to pick
off these parasites by hand or to scrape them off with a dull knife or a
currycomb. This should be done at least three times a week in order to
find all the adults before they mature and fall off, as by this system the
smaller ticks which at first escaped detection will be found before they are
fully developed. After removing the ticks they should be destroyed, pref-
erably by burning. Care should be taken to go over all parts of the animal
frequently by the ticks, especially under the belly, around the tail and
udder, and inside the legs. After the ticks are picked or bnished off, the
cattle should not be neglected, but should be carefully examined later for
the presence of ticks which have been picked up in the meantime. If
this work is thoroughly performed and no ticks arc allowed to fall off and
lay eggs from June 1 to the end of November, the cattle will be free of
ticks, and the pastures will have had an opportunity of becoming cleaned.
V. Smearing or Spraying Cattle w^ith a Disinfecting Solution.
Grea.sing the legs and sides of cattle with cotton-seed oil, fish oil, or Beau-
mont crude petroleum will assist in preventing the ticks from crawling
up on the body. In small herds, smearing the cattle with a mixture of 1
gallon of kerosene, 1 gallon of cotton-seed oil, and 1 pound of sulphur,
or with a mixture composed of equal parts of cotton-seed oil and crude
petroleum, or with Beaumont crude oil alone, has proved efficacious when
TEXAS CATTLE FEVER. 1355
applied to the skin two or three times weekly during the tick season. For
this purpose sponges, syringes, brushes, mops, or brooms may be used.
This method not only kills the older ticks on the cattle by mechanically
plugging up their breathing pores, but also makes the legs so slippery that
the seed ticks are unable to get a foothold in order to crawl up on the cat-
tle. Where a large number of animals are to be treated, but not sufficient
to make it advisable to construct a dipping vat, spraying the infested
animals has given very favorable results. The animals should be placed
in a chute or a stall, or tied to a tree, and then sprayed with Beaumont oil
or a 5 per cent solution of any of the standard coal-tar dips. The solution
may be applied by means of a force pump, such as is used by orchardists
to spray fruit trees, or by placing the solution in a barrel upon a wagon
or on a platform above the animals and allowing the fluid to gravitate
through a hose, to the end of which is attached an ordinary sprinkling
nozzle. The solution is then allowed to flow over the skin of the animal,
especially upon the legs and under portions of the body. If the cattle are
on tick-infested pavstures, this treatment — either smearing or spraying —
must be continued through the whole season, and if thoroughly done it
will leave the fields free from ticks the following year.
SORGHUM POISONING.
This disease has been found to be due to the elaboration, within the
tissues, of stunted or second-growth sorghum, a glucoside, which later de-
velops into prussic, or hydrocyanic acid, and causes death very rapidly.
This was satisfactorily determined at the Nebraska Government Station
while Dr. Peters was the veterinarian there.
Virtually, it is a case of prussic-acid poisoning, and death being so sud-
den (this being one of the most active poisons known), there is not very
nuich to be seen by way of symptoms previous to death. Being aware of
the fact that sorghum, in this condition, is the cause, stockowners usually
either do not allow their animals to use the sorghum, or turn them on to it
for only a short time at first, or allow them to have something else in their
stomachs before turning them on to the sorghum. The remedy is, therefore,
a question of prevention rather than cure, as there is little that can be done
to counteract the effect of the poison after it has been absorl^ed int^) the
system. So that, in a general way, the cause may be said to be this ])()is()n
in the stunted, or second-growth sorghum.
Symptoms : Sudden death.
Treatment: Prevention, along the lines here suggested.
There is a similar poison in other forage i)lants, and on certain charac-
ters of soils, than sorghum.
THE DEHORNING OF CATTLE.
I. DEHORNING BY SNUBBING HEAD TO STANCHION RAIL. II. TREATMENT AFTER
DEHORNING. III. TO PREVENT HORNS GROWING ON YOUNG CALVES.
IV. APPLYING THE CAUSTIC. V. AGE WHEN CAUSTICS ARE NOT EFFECTIVE.
I. Dehorning by Snubbing Head to Stanchion Rail.
The dehorn inp; of partly developed and adult cattle could be very
satisfactorily performed without other apparatus or instrument than a
good strong clothes line and a clean, sharp, meat saw or a miter saw with-
PIG. 4 7. — DEHORNING WITH SAW, COWS HEAD SNUBBED TO STANCHION RAIL.
out a rigid back — in the hands of a fairly good mechanic. The same
simple means for controlling the animal is just as applicable when the
dehorning knife is to be used as when the horns are to be removed with the
saw. This consists in securing the head of the animal to the horizontal
rail or stringpiece which holds the upper ends of the stanchion boards.
The animal is put in the stanchion in the usual manner ; then one end of
a heavy clothes line is passed around the upper part of the neck and tied
in a knot that will not slip, otherwise it will choke the animal. The free
end of the rope is now carried between the horns, through the stanchion to
1356
THE DEHORNING OV CATTLE.
1357
the front up and over the horizontal stanchion rail, then down underneath
the neck and up and through the top of the stanchion rail to an assistant
who should hold it firmly. Now, release the stanchion, allowing the anima
to withdraw its head, so that the horns are just inside of the stanchion rail
or stringpiece; then, keeping the head tight, pass it once around the muz-
zle UP and over the stanchion rail, and through to the front again to the
hands of the assistant, who should stand 3 or 4 feet in front of the animal
and hold the rope firmly, but prepared to release it when told to do so by
the operator. The animal is now ready for the dehorning operation.
It is necessary that the rope be held by an assistant, as ^ the event of
the animal struggling during the operation so as to throw itself off its feet,
-HORNS SHOWING (a, PROPEK AND
IMPROPER) CUTTING.
or if there appears to be danger of its choking, the rope may be slackened
promptly at the word of the operator and the animal partly released. 1 his,
however, is rarely necessary, for as soon as the head is secured the operator
should be ready, standing at the right shoulder of the animal ^^ath his
saw and proceed to saw off first the right and then the left^horn. The
horns should be severed at a point from a quarter to a half inch below
where the skin joins the base of the horn, cutting from the back toward
the front Figure 47 shows the animal and the operator in position for
the dehorning operation by this method. It is a good plan before com-
mencing the real work to e:cperiment upon an animal in the matter of con-
trol by snubbing the head to the stanchion rail as described.
If the stanchion rail is too wide to permit of properly securing the lower
part as well as the upper part of the animal's head, the turn of the rope
131
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
KIG. r,l. — HEAD OF STEER SHOWING RE
SULT OF PROPER DEHORNING.
around the muzzle may be omitted and the last lap of the rope carried
around the stanchion rail to the front and to the hands of the assistant.
The rope should pass each time over the neck of the animal to the stan-
chion rail so that the laps are be-
tween the horns, in order that the
rope may not interfere with the
work of the saw.
II. Treatment After Dehorning.
It is not usual to apply any
preparation after the operation of
dehorning to prevent bleeding, as
the loss of blood is not sufficient,
as a rule, to be of consequence.
Care should be taken, however, to
prevent substances from getting
into the openings left after the
horns are removed. The horn
cores are elongations of the
frontal bones of the skull, and are
hollow. They communicate ^\'ith
the frontal sinuses, or air spaces,
of the head ; therefore foreign substances which would act as an irritant in
these cavities are apt to set up an inflammation, resulting in the formation
of pus or an abscess, which may prove quite serious. Fragments of horn
detached in the process of dehorn-
ing would serve as such irritant
and by their presence in these
cavities cause inflammation. This
trouble, though, is of infrequent
occurrence, but would appear
more liable to happen when the
dehorning instruments are used,
on account of their 'tendency to
crush, especially in the case of old
animals, whereas the saw cuts
clean. If proper care is taken,
however, such an occurrence fol-
lowing dehorning may in almost
every instance be avoided.
Occasionally animals after be-
ing dehorned and turned out of
the stable will rub their heads against a dirt or gravel bank or the rough
bark of a tree, and foreign material may thus get into the cavities, though
usually the soreness of the parts is sufficient to prevent this.
5 2. — HEAD OF STEER SHOWING BAD
APPEARANCE CAUSED BY IM-
PROPER DEHORNING.
THE DEHORNING OF CATTLE. 1359
If the animals are dehorned when flies are about, it is well to apply
some pine tar with a view to keeping flies from the wounds. Some oper-
ators do this in nearly all cases, thinking that it facilitates healing. The
dehorning operation should always, when possible, be performed in cool
weather, and upon animals which have at least attained the age of two
years.
Another method of restraint is to throw the animal and hold it stretched
flat on the ground by means of a rope around its neck, held by a man on
horseback with a turn around the saddle pommel, a second rope around
the hind feet, similarly held by another man on horseback.
In the absence of horses these ropes can be secured by taking a turn
around a post. After the animal is thus secured an assistant grasps the
nose and upper horn, turning the head so that the lower horn can be
removed first. This obviates the danger of fracturing the lower horn,
and allows the blood to flow directly on the ground and the head to be
held flat for the removal of the upper horn. Whether a saw or the shears
be used, the cut must be made uniformly at a line sufficiently below where
the skin joins the horn, in order to get satisfactory results from the opera-
tion. If the cut is made too high an irregular, gnarly growth of horn is
very apt to follow. It will be seen that the point of union of the skin and
horn varies in different cattle; hence there can be no rule of measure-
ment, except as the eye becomes trained to see the point or line at which
the cut should be made, which can soon be easily and accurately approxi-
mated by carefully noticing the variation referred to in different animals,
which variation is largely influenced by breed, together with the texture,
quality, and setting of the horns. In the beef breeds fully one-half inch
of skin, all around, is usually taken off with the horn.
Figure 50 illustrates the difference between a proper and an improper
cutting, and figures 51 and 52 show the appearance of animals' heads
after proper and improper dehorning.
III. To Prevent Horns Growing on Young Calves.
When circumstances are favorable, as in the case of farmers who build
up their herds by raising the progeny, the horns may be prevented from
growing by a simple and practically painless method, and the custom of
preventing the growth of the horns rather than deferring the rnatter
with the necessity of removing them from the grown animal is becom-
ing more popular and more generally practiced under all conditions ex-
cept in the case of calves dropped on the open range. To do this suc-
cessfully it is necessary that the calf should be treated not later than one
week after its birth, preferably when it is from three to five days old. The
agent to be used may be either caustic soda or caustic potash, both of which
may be procured in the drug stores in the form of sticks about the thick-
1360 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
ness of an ordinary lead pencil and 5 inches long. These caustics must
b«B handled with care, as they dissolve the cuticle and may make the hands
or fingers sore. The preparation of the calf consists in first clipping the
hair from the parts, washing clean with soap and warm water, and thor-
oughly drying with a cloth or towel. The stick of caustic should be
wrapped in a piece of paper to protect the hands and fingers, leaving one
end of the stick uncovered.
IV. Applying the Caustics.
Moisten the uncovered end slightly and rub it on the horn buttons or
little points w^hich may be felt on the calf's head, first on one and then
the other, alternately, two or three times on each, allowing the caustic to
dry after each application. Be very careful to apply the caustic to the
horn button only. If it is brought in contact wdth the surrounding skin
it wall cause pain. Be very careful also not to have too much moisture on
the stick of caustic, as it will excoriate the skin and make the parts sore
if allowed to run down over the face. After treatment keep the animal
protected from rain, as water on the head after the application of caustic
will cause it to run down over the face. This must be carefully avoided.
V. Age When Caustics are Not Effective.
When a calf is three or four weeks old the caustics or caustic prepara-
tions are of little or no use. The horns on animals of this age can be re-
moved by one cut of a good sharp pocket knife, but when the treatment
is delayed to this age there is considerable hemorrhage as the result of
cutting the starting horns, which would be entirely avoided if the animals
are treated with one of the caustics at the earlier age above indicated.
SAND IN HORSES.
This disease pertains to a sandy country and is caused by the horse
pulling up by the roots grass and other plants in grazing, and thus swal-
lowing a small amount of sand. The sand is indigestible and, being
heavy, settles in the lower portion of the stomach and becomes impacted.
It is also aggravated by drinking in shallow water. When the w^ater is
muddy it includes sand, which is precipitated while in the stomach.
Prevention: Do not allow stock to drink in very shallow places or
water that has been disturbed to the extent of becoming muddy. Use
troughs in the absence of clear water of proper depth. Harden down the
pasture by using special grasses to bind the sand, and pack it by rolling.
What to do: Pollard (shorts) gruel used as feed is beneficial in
helping to remove sand, but not reliably effective because of the weight of
the sand and its compactness in the stomach. Tn its early stages turn the
animal on his back and massage the belly. Another treatment consists of
giving frequent doses of very strong coffee.
POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES.
I. THE PURPLE LOCO WEED. II. THE WHITE LOCO WEED. III. POISONlNa
BY LOCO PLANTS. IV. SYMPTOMS OF LOCO POISONING IN HORSES. V.
SYMPTOMS OF LOCO POISONING IN CATTLE. VI. SYMPTOMS OF LOCO POI-
SONING IN SHEEP. VII. TREATMENT OF LOCOED ANIMALS. VIII. SUMMARY.
I. The Purple Loco Weed.
Astragalus mollissimus, popularly known as the "purple loco" or the
"woolly loco," sometimes as the "Texas loco," or the "true loco/' is the
plant that in the past has been considered as the more probable cause of
loco poisoning. This is sometimes known as the "stemmed loco plant,"
A PLANT OF THE PURPLE LOCO WEED.
because it has true stems, while the white loco weed is stemless. The for-
mer is a perennial plant growing in patches on adobe soil, in depressions
rather than in elevated situations. It rarely grows in the abundance which
is characteristic of some of the other so-called "loco plants," but it may
cover several acres. Under favorable circumstances where a plant grows
for several years it may become, perhaps, a foot in height and possibly 2
feet in diameter. The flowers are a very deep, purple and the pods short,
black, and thick. The leaflets are ovate or elliptical and very densely cov-
ered with hairs, from which the plant gets its common name of "woolly
1361
1362 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
loco." The plant has a decumbent habit; that is, the long branches are in-
clined to lie rather close to the ground.
The purple loco plant is found as far north as South Dakota, as far
south as Mexico, and as far west as parts of Arizona. Its eastern limit may
be stated as central Kansas and Nebraska.
Treatment: — Keep
animals away from it
and feed nutritious
food. Cattle or sheej)
may be disposed of by
fattening.
II.
The White Loco
Weed.
The white loco plant
{Aragallus Laimbcrti)
is distinguished from
the purple loco by its
long, lanceolate leaves
and by the gen-
eral habit of the
plant, which is erect
rather than decumbent.
It has no tiTie stem,
and on this account is
sometimes called the
''stemless loco." The
flowers are ordinarily on
long flower stems and
commonly are white in
the Plains regions, al-
though there is consid-
erable variation in
their color. Purple flowers are not unconnnon. In the mountain regions
the white loco ordinarily has very deeply colored flowers — deep shades of
violet and purple. It blossoms earlier than the purple loco. Plants blos-
som in Colorado in the latter part of April, and early in the summer the
flow^ers disappear and the pods are found upon the still erect flower stems.
The pods of Aragallus Lamherti are slender and filled A\dth seeds, which,
when the pods dry, rattle as a pei-son passes through a patch of the
plants, making a sound which closely resembles the warning of a rattle-
snake. In this plant, as in the purple loco, there is an extremely long
root, growing down from three to six feet.
-.^S^lZr-
LANT OF THE WHITE LOCO WEED IN FLOWER
POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES. 1363
The white loco is found much more widely distributed than the purple
loco, extending from the northern to the southern border of the United
States, as far east as central Minnesota, and as far west as western Utah
and Arizona.
III. Poisoning by Loco Plants.
It was found when the loco investigation was undertaken by the Bureau
of Plant Industry that there was a very general belief among stockmen
that the purple loco weed was a poisonous plant and a less general belief
that the white loco weed was injurious.
The field work which has been carried on during the past three years
has demonstrated that horses, cattle, and sheep in the field can be poisoned
by feeding upon these two plants. It has also been shown very clearly
that the purple loco weed is very rarely injurious to cattle. In those sec-
tions where the purple plant is the only loco weed known, the losses from
poisoned stock are found to consist almost exclusively of horses. This
seems to be because cattle will not readily eat , this plant. The
experiments show that under ordinary circumstances most cattle would
prefer to starve rather than to eat any of the purple loco weed. The
majority of horses do not take readily to this plant except as they are
induced in the first place to eat some of it because of short feed. It has
been demonstrated that the so-called loco disease of the Plains is not sim-
ply a matter of starvation, as has been supposed by many, and it is also
clear that when other food is abundant very few horses will eat loco.
When, however, because of shortness of grass a horse is induced to begin
the eating of loco, it is very likely to contract a habit which leads to con-
tinual feeding upon the weed, with eventually fatal results.
In regard to the white loco weed the experiments showed very clearly
that horses, cattle, and sheep will eat this plant with great readiness, par-
ticularly if they come across it at a time when grass is somewhat scarce.
Both the white and the purple loco weeds are green during the winter,
when all grass on the plains is dry and brown. They are prominent
plants, too, which induces an animal to try them, and because of their
succulent character and somewhat pleasant taste, it may continue to eat
them. Not only horses but cattle and sheep will eat the white loco weed,
and sometimes even with great avidity. Many animals will eat this weed
even when grass is abundant, but it is more common for the habit to be
contracted during the autumn, winter, and spring, when there is a scarcity
of green grass. Both horses and cattle will eat the white loco weed read-
ily, but perhaps cattle take to it more readily than horses. During the
spring months, before the grass starts, where the white loco weed is abun-
dant, practically all animals eat more or less of it. As the grass becomes
more abundant many of these leave the loco weeds and devote themselves
1304 CYCLOrEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
entirely to grass. These animals as a rule do not seem to be injured by
the habit. Others, however, acquire a taste for the plant and an appe-
tite which is not easily overcome, and will continue to eat the loco weed
even where there is an abundance of other feed. Whether an animal will
become locoed or not is then simply a matter dependent upon the indi-
vidual. Some cattle and horses will eat loco weeds during a part of the
year for a period of years and suffer no harm. Others acquire a habit
which leads them to eat this plant almost exclusively, and these will die
within a few months or, in some cases, even within a few weeks.
Sheep, also, are poisoned in much the same way as horses and cattle.
The effect of the poisoning seems to be peculiarly noticeable on lambs.
Frequently lambs will die within two weeks of the time when they com-
mence to eat this weed, and without any marked loss of flesh.
IV. Symptoms of Loco Poisoning in Horses.
The first symptom of loco poisoning in horses is often a change in the
general condition of the animal. If high-lived the animal becomes some-
what dull. Following this, irregularities in its gait and in its mode of
eating appear. The irregularities in the gait may be due partly to weak-
ness and simulate a paralytic affection. The horse drags its feet more or
less, this being particularly noticeable in the hind legs. Associated with
this paralytic condition is an apparent loss of muscular coordination. In
stepping over a slight obstruction the horse lifts its feet unnecessarily high,
or in going over a rut in a road it may leap as if jumping over a ditch.
As the disease progresses the animal becomes solitary in its habit and
seems to lose very largely its nervous sensibility. If one approaches a
badly locoed horse the horse does not notice the pei'son until he is within
a few feet, when it may suddenly rear and perhaps fall over baekward.
When it drinks or w^hen it eats there is a peculiar stiff motion of the
jaws, showing a lack of control of the muscles. If a locoed horse is used
either in riding or driving, this lack of muscular coordination may make
it extremely dangerous, as such a horse shies violently at imaginary
objects, can not readily be led or backed, and if started in motion is inclined
to go in an automatic fashion at the same gate until stopped by some
obstruction. In the later stages of the disease the animal loses flesh, its
coat becomes rough, and eventually it ceases to eat and dies.
V. S5miptoms of Loco Poisoning in Cattle.
The symptoms of locoed cattle are very similar to those of locoed horses,
the differences being only such as would be expected from the different
character of the nervous organization of the animals. There is the same
lack of muscular coordination, and while a steer is not apt to faU over
POISONS AND THErR ANTIDOTES. 1365
backward, it will start and tremble and perhaps rear and jump backward
when suddenly alarmed. A badly locoed steer shows a violently shaking
head, particularly after it has become heated. Ordinarily a locoed steer
is dull, but under some conditions it may become frantic and \Nall run
into obstructions in an utterly unreasonable way. It is commonly said
by stockmen that it is impossible to drive a locoed steer, because it is just
as likely to run into the driver as in the opposite direction.
Locoed cattle gradually lose flesh, have staring eyes and rough coats,
go to wattr less and less frequently, and eventually die of starvation.
VI. Symptoms of Loco Poisoning in Sheep.
The symptoms of poisoning in sheep are not so marked as those in
horses and cattle. The lack of muscular coordination is not so notice-
able, but still exists. Locoed sheep show, perhaps, more clearly the weak-
ness which goes with the disease, as they stumble and fall, and rise again
only with great difficulty. The symptoms of loco poisoning in sheep
resemble the symptoms caused by "grub in the head," or Oestrus ovis, and
it is at times difficult to distinguish between sheep affected by this grub
and those that are poisoned by loco weeds.
VII. Treatment of Locoed Animals.
The first, and without any doubt the most important, part of the treat-
ment is the food. As a matter of fact many locoed animals, especially in
the earlier stages of the disease, can be cured by simply taking them away
from the loco weeds and feeding them upon nutritious food Hke alfalfa
and grain. All chronically locoed animals are constipated, and the food
should be of such a character as to remove this condition. For this pur-
pose alfalfa and oil meal have been used, although any other food having
laxative properties would be useful. Probably nothing is better for locoed
horses and cattle than to turn them, under proper precautions, into a field
of alfalfa.
Where the constipation is of an obstinate character it has been found
desirable to give doses of Epsom salts. The dose used in experiments
with mature cattle was about one pound, given in the form of a drench.
For younger animals the dose was smaller, calves receiving not more
than two ounces. For horses the dose should be about eight ounces, and
for full-grown sheep four ounces. These doses varied with the size and
condition of the animal, but commonly rather small doses were found
sufficiently effective. It was not necessary to repeat the treatment many
times, provided care was taken to give food of a laxative character.
Very much can be accomplished in the way of preventing loco poison-
ing by the proper handling of stock. It has already been stated that it is
1366
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOR.
in times of short feed that the stock coininoiily contract the habit of loco
feeding. Feeding hay during this period will prevent many animals
from acquiring the habit. On some ranges the loco weeds have a rather
definitely limited distribution; in such cases, if kept away from the
infested areas until the grass is started, few of the stock become locoed.
VIII. Summary,
(1) The purple loco and the white loco weeds produce the loco disease.
The former is the most poisonous, but it affects horses almost exclusively,
because other animals do not eat it. The latter is eaten by cattle and
sheep, as well as by horses, and produces the disease in all of these animals.
(2) Barium is found in many loco plants, and its connection with the
poisonous effects is still under investigation.
(3) Other leguminous plants in Arizona, New Mexico, and California,
locally known as "rattleweeds," produce the same symptoms as the purple
and the white loco weeds and are supposed to contain the same poisonous
substance.
(4) Locoed animals may recover under careful feeding, but the cure
is hastened by the use of Fowler's solution for horses and strychnine for
cattle.
(5) The purple and the white loco w^eeds may be eliminated from
fenced pastures, and provided the crown of buds is cut off they will not
grow from the roots.
(6) In some localities much can be accomplished in the way of pre-
venting loco poisoning by feeding horses, cattle, and sheep during periods
of short feed and by keeping the stock away from infested areas.
HEAD OF REDCAP COCK.
HEAD UF AMICRICAN DOAUNIQUE, MALE.
POULTRY,
THE SELECTION OF BREEDING STOCK.
By W. R. Graham,
A., Manager ami Lecturer Poultry Department, Ontario AKrlcuIniral
College, Guelph, Ontario.
Like breeding other kinds of live stock, there are certain conforma-
tions that are desirable, and are sought after more or less, and there are
other shapes which are not desirable.
It is not the purpose of this article to go into the detail of breeding
fowls, but more particularly to
try and show that there are vast
differences in the shape of differ-
ent representatives of the same
breed; some of which we con-
sider desirable, while others are
not what one would wish to use
in a breeding pen. ,
From observation and study we
have learned that birds of a cer-
tain type or shape have usually a
good constitution, and have the
ability to make good use of the
food, while other birds repre-
senting other types are more or
less lacking in vigor and in feed-
ing qualifications.
Take, for example, cut No. 1.
This is the cut of a Barred Kock
cockerel, which has a very desir
able conformation. You will no-
tice that the beak (bill) is short
and stout, being well curved;
also that the head is moderate in
width and the eye bright. These
are all indications of constitution.
Now, compare this head with
that in cut No. 2. Here you see a long, narrow head, a very long
beak, and a sluggish eye. These are not desirable points. We natur-
ally expect this bimi to be lacking in vigor, constitution, etc., whi'^'*"
is actually the case.
1367
No. 1.
1368
CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLETE STOCK DOCTOK.
Again, compare tne two birds as to width of breast. We like a wide
breast, so as to get plenty of meat on each side of the breast-bone ; also
we must have lung and heart capacity. This, of course, brings a wide
back. No. 1 has a fine wide breast, which is also full or prominent.
No. 2 is rather narrow in the breast. No. 1 is also deeper. Now, if
you were so situated as to be able to examine these birds critically, you
would find No. 1 had a very long breast-bone extending w^ell back ; also
that there was exceptional width between the legs, and, further, that he
stood straight upon his legs, the feet being firmly placed upon the
No. 2. No. 3.
ground. No. 2 is very narrow between the legs; the legs also bow
toward each other at the joints, and, further, he does not stand straight
upon his legs; or, in other words, he is sickle-hocked. His breast-bone
is medium in length. No. 1 has a fair size bone. No. 2 is a little
heavier in bone. In w^idth of back No. 1 is far superior to No. 2. In
length of back No. 2 has a slight advantage. Here is the weakest point
in No. 1, in that he lacks length of back. A very long back is not all
desirable. A short back is much better, but a medium length of back
is what is wanted. This is necessary to get weight. A short bird must
POULTRY.
1369
be uncommonly wide to scale equal to a bird with a medium length of
back. Iq size of thigh No. 1 is much larger, and is firmer in the flesh.
While the thigh is not the most desirable portion of the bird, yet I like
to see a bird with good muscle.
In Judging birds from a market or utility standpoint, one must bear
in mind that the breast meat is the most valuable. A bird possessing
length, width and depth is the one the buyer is iookmg for. A wide
back is pleasing to the eyes, and is also some indication as to the under
line, and, further, as to constitution.
1 may add that cockerel No. 1 is the best type of a nuirket bird in his
class that I have seen for some time, being extra strong in breast points.
Compare the cuts of the hens. No. 3 is a long, narrow hen with
legs that bow towards each other. She is an indifferent layer and
feeder. She has a long neck, a narrow but a moderate beak and eye.
She is not constitutionally strong, and has always been somewhat lack,
ing in vigor.
No. 4 is not represented to advantage. She is a fine type in every re-
spect, having plenty of weight, is active, bright, and is a fairly good
1370 CYCLOPEDIA OF LIVE STOCK AND COMPLKTE STOCK DOCTOR.
layer. This hen was pronounced by one of the most expert judges in
Ontario to be of exceptional fine Rock shape.
In No. 5 we have a rare bird. This hen as a pullet produced one hun-
dred and eighty-three eggs in nine months (no record kept earlier in
the season), and is further a fine market bird. Note the stout beak,
the active eye, the prominent breast, possessing plenty of width and
depth; also the width between the legs. The color of this hen is also
very good from a show standpoint. She lacks in bone, also is a little
short in the leg for a Plymouth Kock. This is one of the few hens that
we can show to advantage to the farmer, the market poultryman, and to
the fancier, and have all very well pleased.
No. 5.
Diseases Peculiar to Soutii Africa
South African Horse Sickness
What It ISi Horse sickness is a peculiar epizootic disease of South
Africa, affecting horses, asses and mules, but the two latter show a
greater resistance to the disease than the horse. It exists in all territories
and colonies south of the Equator, and has been known in Cape Colony
since 1780. In a report of the late Lieut.-Col. Nunn, D. S. 0. A. V. D.
of October, 1888, he describes four kinds of Horse Sickness; (1) Acute or
Pulmonary, (2) Blue Tongue, (3) Dikkop, and (4) Sub-acute or Bilious
form. It affects isolated horses as well as those in troops, and sometimes
the old before the young, appearing as often among those in the open air
as those kept in sheds.
The first form is rapidly fatal, while the form known as the Dikkop,
although fatal, has a slower course. It prevails mostly in low-lying dis-
tricts, in kloofs several thousand feet above sea level, while districts with-
out kloofs or valleys only a few feet above sea level are free, if they are
some distance from the sea, probably owing to there being less moisture
in the atmosphere.
The Horse Sickness season begins about November and lasts till about
May. If rains come early and the summer season is wet, then this dis-
ease is rife, but if it is a dry summer very few cases occur. February,
March, and April are generally the w^orst months for Horse Sickness, and
on moist days with the air humid and the temperature high, the disease
is most prevalent.
CausCi The cause of Horse Sickness is at present undiscovered.
Probably the micro-organism is very minute, for under the highest power
of the microscope, it is invisible, and passes through the best made filters.
This is proved by the fact that filtered blood when injected into the horse
produces the disease. The following are some of the leading theories and
ideas, as to the possible modes of infection. The organism evidently re-
quires heat and moisture for its propagation and vitality ; and it appears
to have a miasmatic origin, and to be transmitted by dews, fogs, and
winged insects. The writer has known cases to occur in infected districts
by the animal eating dew-laden grass before the sun has had time to drive
off the dew. Inoculation by mosquitoes, etc., is undoubtedly a very prob-
able mode of infection. Mosquitoes and other winged insects are likely
carriers of the disease when one considers the vast numbers in which they
are bred in stagnant waters and kloofs saturated with dew.
1371
1372
DISEASES PECULIAR TO SOUTH AFRICA
How To Know \\, lu the Acute or Pulmonary form the symptoms
are comparatively absent until just before death. The animal seems to
be in perfect health and, within an hour, characteristic symptoms appear,
viz., respiration, animal lies down and gets up immediately, followed by
violent heaving of the flanks, staggers about for a few minutes, falls down,
ejects a quantity of white froth from the nostrils and mouth, and probably
dies within a few minutes. Owing to the absence of symptoms
until just before death, it was thought that the disease was of short dura-
tion. It is proved, however, that the period of incubation is seven or eight
days; and from the period of infection to the symptoms above described, it
will be noticed that there has been a gradual rise of temperature, each day
higher than the preceeding day, and the evening temperature higher than
the morning, till it rises to the final stage, 103 F. or 107 F., when there
is a sudden drop to below normal, and then death. During the period of
incubation there have been going on other changes not visible to the ordi-
nary eye, viz., a dusky yellow discoloration of the eye, spots are seen on
the white parts accompanied, perhaps, by a watery discharge from the
eyes. By placing one's ear close to the front part of the neck, a peculiar
dry, crackling sound might be heard; and then is seen a swelling of the
parts above the eye and eyelids. Inside, the nostrils change color and
become congested, with swelling along the line of the jugular vein. The
horse becomes easily tired, stands lazily, resting its head upon some sup-
port and, finally, the symptoms above described soon put an end to the
animal's suffering.
The Dikkop Fornii The symptoms in this form usually appear some
days before death, gradually becoming well defined towards the end.
The head, neck, and lips become swollen, in some cases enormously; the
eyes close and lower lip drops, and death soon follows.
Blue Tongue Form (Biaauw Tong), This is a sub-variety, in which
the swellings of the head and neck are Jiot so marked, but the tongue be-
comes very much swollen and of a vivid blue colour, due to intense venous
congestion.
The Bilious Form (or Subacute). The .symptoms come on gradually,
the animal being off its feed. There is constipation, and the faeces are
coated with mucous. The urine is of a deep amber color, temperature
of the body 106 F. to 108 F. and the pulse is quick and hard. Abdom-
inal pains are frequently noticed, sometimes violent, and often accom-
panied by a foul smelling diarrhoea. Jaundice sets in. Sometimes brain
symptoms appear, in which case it is hopeless; as also when swellings,
filled with a quantity of yellow fluid, occur on the limbs and body, the
owner may expect a fatal issue. The symptoms just described might
equally apply to those of biliary fever, and indeed is many times mis-
DISEASES PECULIAR TO SOUTH AFRICA 1373
taken for that disease; but each disease is distinct from the other, and
although Edington claims that horse sickness, gall sickness and veldt sick-
ness are only forms of one disease, the investigations of Kock, Theiler, the
late Mr. Hutcheon and others, have proved this to be a fallacy. Space,
however, will not permit giving the full result of their investigations.
What To DOi Prevent the disease by careful attention, and by pro-
tective inoculation, and by not allowing the horse to eat dew-laden grass
until well dried by the sun. If possible, remove horses to higher veldt
where frosts prevail. If animals have to remain in districts infected with
horse sickness use nose bags (as illustrated on page 394) previously
steeped in some good antiseptic fluid. Put on before sun set and take
off after sun rise, thus preventing grazing and acting as an antiseptic.
Inoculation (protective) is by far the best method. Kock, Theiler and
others, have succeeded in giving immunity by inoculation, using both
virulent blood and antitoxic serum, and although the final stage of their
investigations have not yet been reached, they are sufficiently advanced
to give immunity for a short period.
Blue Tongue (Blaauw Tong) (Bekziekte)
or Malarial Catarrhal Fever of Sheep
What It Is. Blue Tongue is an inoculable disease of sheep, character-
ized usually by fever and many definite symptoms, comprising, chiefly,
lesions of the mouth and feet. It is common in many parts of the Cape
Colony, Bechuanaland, British Protectorate and Transvaal.
Prevaiencet The late Director of Agriculture, Cape Colony, long ago
pointed out that this disease was met with both on low and high veldt,
under conditions which were recognized as being also most favorable for
the production of horse sickness, but being much more prevalent and
wide spread than the latter, and occurring regularly every day in certain
localities. Less frequent in high altitudes than in low lying areas. The
fever season is well marked in many districts and generally lasts from
January to April. It is less prevalent in dry seasons and the cases that
do occur are of a much milder type ; and sheep that are kraaled high up
on a hill side rarely become infected. Outbreaks are said to cease after
the first frost.
Mode of infection. It is generally believed that sheep suffer less from
Blue Tongue when their wool is long than when newly shorn, and this
is proved to a certain extent by the fact that when sheep are dipped in
any of the good dips, it has a checking influence in the number of cases
in an outbreak. This is probably due to the fleece becoming repellent,
after dipping, to such insects that carry the infection. Kraals situated
1874 DISEASES PECULIAR TO SOUTH AFEICA
on low-lying spots are infected with stinging gnats, mosquitoes, etc., and
it is almost certain that insects of this nature carry the infection, for in
winter and spring time, when these insects disappear, the disease also
disappears.
Period of Incubatioili When the disease is produced under natural
conditions, the jDcriod of incubation is not known, but when experi-
mentally produced. Veterinary Surgeon Spreule of Cape Colony, found
it to be from two to five days.
How To Know Iti In a typical case, the onset is marked by fever;
the temperature, which may be erratic, ranging from 104 degrees F. to
106 degrees F., the morning temperature being much lower than one
might expect. The fever period lasts from five to seven days, a decided
drop being noticed when the eruption takes place. Prior to this it may
be noticed that the sheep is getting thin and does not feed so well as
usual. The first symptoms that attract attention are swelling of the
lips and frothing at the mouth, and a catarrhal discharge from the
nostrils, and on examination of the mouth, it is seen that the lining mem-
brane is of a blue color. In mild cases the only indication may be sores
inside the mouth and on the tip of the tongue. The tongue miiy be
gangrenous, and in very severe cases become badly infected and of a
dark blue color; the organ swells until it quite fills the mouth, making
swallowing impossible. There is a copious discharge from the mouth;
the lips become greatly swollen, while the usual discharge, growing
profuse, dries on the nose, causing difficulty in breathing. Some times
diarrhoea sets in, blood being passed, which is always a fatal sign, but
as a rule, the fseces are almost normal except for some slimy mucous
discharged along with them.
The lesions in the mouth heal in five to seven days, the appetite
returns, the feet become tender, swollen and painful round the coronets;
sometimes all four feet become affected, but commonly the front feet
only. There is much thirst during both the febrile and eruptive stages,
and sometimes when the sheep begin to feed well vomiting may super-
vene, especially if they have free access to water. The contents of the
stomach, vomited, passes down the nostrils, and in many cases is inhaled
into the lungs, thus setting up a fatal pneumonia, i. e.,- septic inflamma-
tion of the lungs. In young animals, especially if in poor condition the
disease runs a very rapid and fatal course. The sheep are very much
emaciated, and persistently lie down, although the feet may not be af-
fected. The nose is brought round to the flank, the neck becomes twisted
(Wry neck) and death soon takes place. In these cases the wool can be
pulled out easily, but fortunately, such severe cases are exceptional.
After severe attacks recovery is slow, and death often occurs from
debility, following upon an attac>
DISEASES PECULIAR TO SOUTH AFRICA 1-^75
Mortalityi In outbreaks on the veldt, the mortality may range from
five to thirty per cent, the loss to the flock master being very great in
value of the wool, as many fleeces become patchy and ragged. But with
suitable treatment the losses will not be so severe.
CauseSf Seeing that Blue Tongue is not contagious, for contact of
healthy with diseased sheep fail to produce it, no organism has yet been
found in the blood, which, if injected into healthy sheep produce the
disease, therefore, it must be clearly acknowledged that the sickness is
caused by insects biting or stinging the sheep.
Immunity. After an attack of Blue Tongue, sheep acquire a consider-
able amount of immunity, but it has been proved by Theiler, Dixon and
Spreule, of Cape Colony, that protection and immunity is also given
by a hypodermic injection of an antitoxic serum which can be obtained
from the various veterinary centres in the Colonies with full instructions.
Much credit is due the above investigators in the experiments carried
out by them.
What To DOa Give the sick animals complete rest, cool shady surround-
ings and succulent food. Water should be sparingly allowed as it in-
duces vomiting. Aj^plications of chlorate of potash and water, or of
glycerine of tannin as described below are very good, and many farmers
have met with great success by the use of Stockholm Tar and Sulphur.
When the tongue and lips are very much swollen, scarification w4th a
small lancet or needle gives relief.
Let the sheep have plenty off salt to lick.
Mode off Application! Chlorate of Potash. Take one ounce of chlorate
of potash and dissolve it in two pints of rain water. Pour some of this
solution into the mouth to act as a gargle. If a little is swallowed it
will do no harm as it is not poisonous. Glycerine of tannin (obtainable
from any chemist) and also the Stockholm Tar and Sulphur, are applied
with a stiff feather, or gum brush, or even a piece of rag tied on the end
of a stick to form a swab. Apply once daily.
The above applications may be used alternatively in their given
order to obtain the best results.
We are not advocates of too much interference with sick animals,
for some, such as cattle, sheep and pigs, do not like it. Unlike horses
they are not so amenable and appreciative of attention therefore we say,
lot the attendant do what he has to do once a day and do it well, and we
think it will generally be sufficient. Only in very bad cases should the
Creasing be applied twice a day.
^37(i DISEASES PECULIAR TO SOUTH AFRICA
Heart-Water in Sheep and Goats
What It ISi Heart-water is an inoculable disease due to a micro-
organism so minute as to defy the efforts of all investigators to find it.
Like the organism of horse sickness, it passes through all filters, though
Theiler reports it did nut pass through a Berkefield or Chamberlain filter,
and he hopes very soon to be able to define it.
After inoculation of blood from a sick animal into a healthy one,
it is found that from five to fifteen days elapse before any symptoms ap-
pear, and usually the time is from eight to ten days. After the mani-
festations of symptoms the disease runs on from two to six days, or even
more. Heart-water in sheep is very similar to, if not identical with,
the Heart-water of cattle, and can be transmitted by blood inoculation
from sheep to goats and to cattle, or vice versa. The credit of these
investigations is due to the late Dr. Hutcheon and his assisstants and to
Mr. Loundsbury, the Cape entomologist who has made clear the mode of
spreading and dissemination of the disease.
Heart-water is met with only in the bush veldt, on which the breed-
ing of high bred sheep and goats is distinctly disappointing. One happy
feature about this disease is, that not all the bush veldt is equally bad.
The worst parts are certainly the low lying. The season has some in-
fluence. In summer the disease is more prevalent and virulent, and
the wise farmer knowing this, when a outbreak occurs among his flock,
if on a low veldt, moves the sheep to a higher veldt. The disease soon
comes to a standstill. It is not contagious, for once a flock was moved
out of the Heart-water veldt to a high and noninfected area, and mixed
among other sheep and goats, the latter would not take the disease.
Mode of Infection! Mr. Loundsbury, the Cape entomologist, found
that Heart-water is carried by a certain species of tick, viz., the Bout tick,
and, in his experiments, time after time, produced the disease artificially.
He reports that the disease does not go from the female through the egg
as is generally supposed, but is taken up either by a larva or lymph from
a sick animal and so communicated, thus showing that while the disease
is not contagious it is infectious.
The Bout tick breeds only in warm veldt where it finds protection
in the bushes.
Heart-water is met with in the Transvaal 0. R. C, C C, and
Rhodesia, and in fact any part where the Bout tick is found.
How To Know Itt Fever accompanied by rise in temperature, may be
the only symptom, and the animal suddenly dies, although it might have
seemed quite healthy only a short time before. Usually, however, the
temperature continues to rise even up to 106 degrees F, or 108 degrees F,
DISEASES PECULIAR TO SOUTH AFRICA 1377
The animal may then stop feeding, become prostrated, and die without
any typical sign of its suffering from Heart-water. Many cases show
symptoms of brain trouble before death, denoted by a constant movement
of the jaw, and of the tongue, as if it was chewing, extending the tongue
and withdrawing it, and, in some cases, licking the ground. If tied to
a post, it will turn round many times and suddenly fall. Fits set in, the
neck being extended backwards, and the legs in regular motion. These
symptoms pass away but only to return again, indicating the approach
of death. Some animals bleed a great deal before death, while others
pass quietly away. The symptoms of the digestive organs also
vary greatly. Sometimes there is foam at the mouth and the throat
may be slightly swollen, rumination (chewing the cud), may stop
even before feeding, the bowels are usually normal, but sometimes costive,
and again, diarrhoea may be present. Thus it will be seen that the
symptoms vary considerably in different cases, but the brain signs are
very indicative, and are caused by the diseased condition of the brain.
Posi-Mortenii The principal lesion in Heart-water in sheep and goats
is the increase of liquid in the heart-bag, hence the name Heart-water.
This condition is also found in sheep and goats dying from other causes
such as bad pasture, internal parasites, etc., but there is this difference,
that in these latter cases one always has to do with a poor carcass, whereas
in a good-conditioned animal the water in the heart sac, points to Heart-
water as a specific disease. The changes occurring in other parts of the
body or organs do not call for special mention as, except by the pro-
fessional reader, they would be but little understood.
What To DOi Prevention by cautious methods and by protective
inoculation.
At present no tangible forward movement has been made. Some
investigators claim to have discovered a protective method by inoculation,
but experiments made by the late Director of Agriculture and his very
capable staff found them to fail, and so far, no true protective power is
known. In the meantime flock masters will do well to watch their flocks
carefully. Dipping is good during the period of infection, using any of
the authorized sheep dips, so as to destroy any larva or lymph ticks that
may be among the wool or mohair. Shift the kraals from low veldt to
hieh veldt.
1878 DISEASES PECULIAK TO SOUTH AFRICA
Tape-Worm in Ostriches
Tape-Worm in OstriclieSi 'i'his very prevalent and often fatal disease
is well-known to all bird farmers. It is sometimes confused with Froi-
maag, or rotten stomach, but the latter generally occurs only after eating
lucerne which sometimes ferments in the stomach and causes the so-
called rot. A post-mortem shows the actual cause of death.
Symptoms of Tape-Worm. Ostriches that have worms soon show the
signs and should be treated at once. The birds get thin and look dull
and flabby, very much like a chicken that has gapes. The feathers and
wings droop, and the bird mopes and lags behind in a big camp, and if
in a small camp, it keeps by itself seeming to prefer solitude. It has no
appetite and gradually pines and dies.
Treatment! in the Oudtshoorn C. C. district most farmers use airy,
or aloes, as a remedy, also soot with meal. Some say this is a cure, and
it is a fact that a certain specie of aloes is an excellent remedy, but this
specie is not the common Cape aloe, but a small aloe with a long trailing
pointed stem, thick as a finger. The leaves are about a foot long, one
inch broad at thickest, tapering, serrated at edges with fine teeth, flowers
on top of stalk one inch long and one-sixth of an inch wide and of a
light color. The Kafllirs call the plant Ikalona. The leaves are cut off
and the expressed juice only is used, in doses according to circumstances.
The different farmers have their own mode of administering and their
own ideas as to dose, etc., which vary in different cases.
Alphabetical and Analytical Index
Abdomen, tapping the, horse 555
Abnormal presentation foal, horse . . 482
Abortion and miscarriage , cow 888
—of cattle, contagious 831-832-833
— or slinking the foal, mare 195
— mare 513
Abeesses, horse 445
Abscess on breast, horse 273
— opening an, horse 555
Accidents and diseases, legs of the
horse 314
—cattle 923
Actinomycosis of the lower jaw,
cattle 829-830
Acute and chronic founder or 1am-
initis, horse 293-297
African goose, the 1191
After-birth, cow, retention of the ... 887
— expulsion of the, horse 484
Age of cattle told by the chart..625-626-627
— of hog, how to tell by teeth 941
— or horse, chart illustrating the.. 113
— of horse, how to tell by teeth... 113
Alimentary canal, diseases and acci-
dents of, horse 408
Albuminuria, or albuminous urine,
cattle 873
Alderneys, Guernseys and Jerseys . . 679
Alfalfa or luzerne 788
Altering the character by crossing
cattle 637
Amaurosis or glass eye, horse 521
American breeds, fowls 1111
— breeds of hogs 955
— Javas, fowls 1146
—Merinos 1032
Anaemia, cattle 834
— pernicious, swamp fever or surra,
horse 470-476
Anaesthetics and how to use them,
horse 547
Analyzing the skeleton of the horse . 57
Anatomy and points of sheep. . .1001-1002
— of foot of horse 282
—of the hen 1094-1095
—of the horse's foot 295
— of man and horse, comparative. . 56
Ancestors perpetuated, peculiarities
of 639
Aneurism, horse 439
Angora goats, a coming money
maker 1056
— where he thrives 1059
—habits of the 1059
Angoras in the United States 1061
Page
Angus cattle, polled 734-735
— cows as milkers 736
— cattle, color of the, polled 735
— cows compared with the Gallo-
ways 736
Ankle boots in common use to pre-
vent interferring 366
— cocked horse 342
Anthrax, cattle 821-822
— in birds and poultry, how pro-
duced 824
— malignant, or charbon, hogs. .986-987
— malignant or splenic fever in
hogs 988
— prevention, cattle 825
— prevention, hogs 989
— the common form of, hogs 988
Antidotes, poisons and their 1361
—to poisons, horse 561-562-563-564-
565-566-567-568-569-570-571
Anointing sheep 1054
Antiquity of the Devons 708
Apparatus and appliances, surgical,
horse 573
Apoplexy, cattle 903
Apoplectic or splenic form of an-
thrax, hogs 988
Apoplexy, cow, parturient 892
—fowls 1205-1212
— horse 431
— how to prevent, horse 431
— staggers or congestion of the
brain, swine 992
— sheep 1071
—splenic, cattle 822
Arabian blood, horse, potency of. .168-169
—horse, the 164-165
Arabia, horses of 46
Artery, tying an, horse 279
Artificial breeding of horses 46
— hatching, the antiquity of 1148
Asses and mules 199
Asiatic fowls 1131
Atavism, cattle 639
— or breeding back, horse 188
Atavism or striking back in a horse. 1302
Atrophy of the heart, horse 438
— of the liver, horse 517
—of the muscles, horse 273-368
Atwood and Hammond Merinos,
sheep 1032
Australia, the sheep in 1036
— the wool harvest in 1037
Average wool per sheep 1034
Aylesbury ducks 1195
1379
1380
ALPHABETICAL AND ANALYTICAL INDEX.
Page
Ayrshire ancestry 737-738
—as a milker 739
— cattle, points of 742
—cattle, the antiquity of 737
— cow, importance of good teats,
color, style and condition. .745-746
— cow, milk points, the head, the
neck, body and limbs 744-745
— cow, the body, the skin 743
cow, the points summed up 743
— In America "-10
—of today 740
— points 80 years ago 740
— quality of the flesh 739
—quality of the milk 739
Azoturia, congestion of the kidneys,
horse 461
Back, good and bad, horse 1329-1330
— sprain of the, horse 375
Backing or gibbing, horse 262
Back sinews, thickening of the, horse 268
Bacon type, judging hogs of ... .1282-1283
— type scale of points of hogs
of 1283-1284-1285
Baker's brace for broken knee, horse 340
Bakewell's ten rules, cattle 644
Balking, horse - 536
Bandages and sutures, cattle 929
— horse 548
— for lacerated wounds, cattle .... 924
— for various diseases, 7 illustra-
tions 370
Bantam fowls, other 1125
Bantams, game 1124
— Japanese 1125
—the Seabright, fowls 1125
Bantam Wyandottes 1143
Bare-lot method of raising lambs to
prevent nodule disease ..1081-1082
Barn for hogs 974-975
Barns for sheep 1049
Barnyard fowls 1096
Batavian cattle, Friesian and 747
Bees, conclusion 1241-1242
— drones or male 1230
— enemies of 1241
—feeding 1240
—foul brood 1241
— history, characteristics and man-
agement 1225
Bee hives 1235
— keeping, implements of use in ..1239
Bees, natural history of 1227
— neuter or worker 1230
Bee, number of eggs laid 1230
Bees, taking the honey 1238
Bee, the three genders of the honey. .1228
—the so called queen or mother ..1230
Page
Bees, varieties ind peculiarities of.. 1227
Bee, varieties of the honey 1229
Bee's wax and how it is formed 1232
Bees, wintering 1238
Beef from the old Teeswaters 656
points illustrated, short horns... 674
— where the choice, lies 623
Bedding for horses, economy of 227
Belgian horse, characteristics of the. 149
—the 148
Belly, tapping the, cattle 927
— tapping the for flatulence, horse 557
Berkshires, characteristics, scale of
points 1293-1294
Berkshire hogs, English breeds 948
— swine, detailed description of. . .
1294-1295-1296
Big head, horse 372
Big leg, horse 274
Biting, horse 262
Body and limbs of the horse 96
— of horse seen from the front
98-99-100
Bog spavin, horse 274
Boil plague, Siberian, in horses,
cattle, sheep, goats and pigs.. 822
Boil, shoe, horse 274
Book II Part I, cattle 597
Bolton grays or Creoles, fowl 1098
Bone and bulk imparted to the Eng-
lish horse 161
Bones and articulations of the foot,
horse 65
— and muscles, front limbs of
horse 62
Bone, fractures or broken, cattle . . . 923
Bones of the arm, horse 62-63
— of head and neck of horse 61
—of knee, horse 62-63
Bone spavin, bog spavin, blood
spavin 316-319-323
— spavin hocks with skin removed. 315
— spavin, horse 274-314
Bony tumor, horse 273
Border Leicester sheep 1017
Bots, horse 528
— in the duodenum or intestine,
horse 532
— in the stomach, horse 532
Bowel, impaction of large, horse . . . 424
Black Dorkings 1098
Black East Indian ducks 1199
Black-faced Highland or Scotch
sheep 1025
Black head, turkey 1221
—Hamburg fowls 1107
—leg, cattle 822
— quarter, cattle 822
—teeth In pigs 980
ALPHABETICAI. AND ANALYTICAL INDEX.
1381
Page
Bladder and kidney disease, cattle. . 836
— calculi or stones in the, cattle . . 875
— cystitis, or inflammation of the,
cattle 874
— eversion of the, horse 463
— extraction of stones from,
horse 552-553
— inflammation of the, cystitis,
horse 462
— of the ox or bull, tapping the . . . 929
— paralysis of the, horse 463
— rupture of .the, horse 464
— spasm of the neck of the, horse. 463
Blankets and other clothing for
horse 238-239
Bleeding, an old time practice, horse. 548
— cancer or fungus haematodes,
cattle 922
—cattle 930
Blind eye, horse 272
Blindness, moon or specific ophthal-
mia, horse 518-519
Blistering, hor^e 549
Bloat in cattle 926
Blood diseases, contagious, horse. 448-451
• — general diseases of the, horse . . 441
Bloody milk, cattle 930
— murrain, cattle 822
Blood poison, specific or strangles,
horse 451
— poison, treatment for, horse.... 333
—spavin, horse 274-323
— vessels, diseases of the heart and,
horse 437
— vessel, rupture of a, horse 439
Bloody urine, cattle 874
— urine or haematuria, horse .... 465
Blue disease or cynosis, horse 439
Blue tongue, or bilious form, horse. .1372
— tongue, pei'iod of incubation. .. .1374
— tongue, sheep, mode of infection. 1373
— tongue, sheep, mortality of 1375
Brace for dislocated elbow, horse... 369
— for dislocated shoulder, horse... 369
Brain, diseases of, horse 429
— hydatids on the, sheep 1071
— inflammation of the, cattle 903
— inflammation of the, horse 378
— inflammation of the, sheep 1072
— swine, congestion of the 992
Brahmas, Dark 1131
—light, fowls 1132
Breaking the halter and pulling back,
horse 535
Breast of horse, abscess on 273
Breda or Gueldre fowls 1104
Breeders for health, feed the, swine. 971
Breeder must know, what the, cat-
tle 644
— of cattle must be a good farmer. 646
Breeding age of sheep 1041
— and care of hogs 964
— and care of sheep 1041
— ancient and modern, cattle 628
— animals, (hogs) how to select... 966
— and management of poultry 1157
— cattle, careful judgment necess-
ary 651
— cattle, early system of 643
—cattle for beef 646
— cattle, special selection of male
necessary 651
— fistula from improper, horse 273
— for certain uses, cattle 634
— for .labor, cattle 647
—for TOilk, cattle 647
—horse 1297
— horses, opinions relating to 48
— in and in-breeding, cattle 635
—in line, cattle 635
— Jerseys viewed from a practical
standpoint 698-699
— know what for, cattle 649
—of cattle, the 642
-^of horses, know what to breed
for 183
— of horses, importance of accurate
knowledge of 183
— poultry, changes due to 1086
— swine, age of 965
— stock, hogs, the care of 967
—stock, poultry 1367-1368-1369
— specimens of close, cattle 651-652
— to color in horses 189
— upon a mixed flock, fowls 1164
Breeds and breeders of cattle 599
— care in selection, hogs 964
Breed, cattle, do not attempt to
form a 632
— cattle, how formed 634
Breeds, development and improve-
ment of, cattle 628
— for beef and milk, cattle 647
— fowls, American 1111
— from mature animals, horses . . . 185
— game fowls and other rare 1119
— illustrations of noted English,
cattle 631
—of cattle, native districts of. .615-616
—of fowls for eggs 1168
— of fowls for market 1168
— of hogs, American 955
— of hogs, Lancashire large 955
— of hogs, Lancashire middle 955
— of hogs, practical value of im-
proved 964
—of hogs, the Chester White 955
— of hogs, summary of 962
— of horses and their characteris-
tics 120
— of poultry, new popular 1143
— of sheep, points of excellence of
the principal 1009
1382
ALPHABETICAL AND ANALYTICAL INDEX.
Page
Breeds of sheep, ranging and flocking
of different 1006
— of Swine 945
— cf swine, sires of improved 945
—Spanish American 600-601
— summary of British sheep. .1034-1035
— typical types of cattle 599
Breed, symmetry in cattle essential
whatever the 692
Breed, to a fixed type, fowls 1163
Bremen or Embden Geese 1186
British breeds of sheep, summary
of 1034-1035
— sheep, middle and short, wooled.1024
Broken back, horse 374
—knees, horse 265-342
— ribs, horse 376
— tail, horse 377
Broken-wind, horse 265
Brooder, a cheap home made 1155
Brooders and Incubators 1148
Brooder, how to make the 1156
Brood-mare, choosing the 258
Bronchitis, cattle 844
—fowls 1206-1212
—horse 397-398
Bronzed-black turkey, the 1173
Brown-breasted red game fowls 1121
Bruises of the foot, stone, horse 307
— sprains, strain and, sheep 1080
Buff Cochins 1138
Buildings, dairy and dairying
795-1335-1345
Bullocks, outline of fat 622
Bumble foot in poultry 1210-1213
Bursal enlargement of fetlock, horse 274
Butter, how to color 800
—how to pat 800
— immitation 1348
—making 1337-1339
— making in Europe 799
— making in the west 799
— making, special points on 1340
— preparing a package for use 801
—salting 800
Buying for blood, horse 258
Calculi, causes, remedy, horse 427
— or gall-stones, horse 516
— or stones in the bladder, cattle. 875
— urinary, horse 467
Calks or threads on the coronet,
horse 305
Call Ducks 1199
Calves, a good condiment feed 784
— castration of 928
— common sense feeding 776
— feed grass and oats early to 781
—feeding for beef and labor 782
— feeding the young 780
— good winter keeping for 776
— outdoor feeding where corn is
cheap 783
Page
Calves, to prevent horns growing on
young 1353
— starved 776
— when and how to castrate 777
—when and how to feed 783
— where profit comes in 781
Canada or wild goose, the 1191
Cancer, fungus haematodes, or bleed-
ing, cattle 922
Cancerous ulcers and osteo sarcoma,
cattle 828
Canker, horse 304
— of the frog and sole, horse 304
Caponizing, chickens 1210
Capped hocks, horse 265-275
— hock and elbow or capulet,
horse 334-335-336
Capulet or capped hock and elbow. .
334-335-336
Care of the feet in the stable, horse. 312
Caries or ulcerations of the bones
of the horse 371
Carbuncle or furunculus, horse 358
Carbuncular erysipelas or braxy in
sheep 823
Carriage horses 1311
Castration and docking of sheep 1051
—calves 928
— evU results of, horse 508
— horse 551
Castrate, calves when and how to... 777
—a ridgling, to 998
Casting cattle, device for 848
Casting, horse 550
Casting, Rarey's plan, horse 551
Castration, pigs 968
Cataract, eye, horse 523
Catarrh, distemper or epizootic,
sheep 1070
—fowls 1206-1212
—horse 393
— in cattle, malignant 839
— or cold in cattle, simple 841-842
— or snuffles, swine 992
— swine, malignant epizootic 984-985
Cattle, action of remedies in 810
—accidents 923
— anemia 834.
— and the horse compared, path-
ology of 809
— ascites, or dropsy of the belly
with natural presentation 888
— bloat in 926
—bleeding , 930
—Book II 597
— breeder must be a good farmer . 646
— bronchitis 844
— chokins: 923
—contagious abortion of . . .831-832-833
— constipation 865
— cornstalk disease in 840
—cuts of meat in 808
— dehorning 930
— diarrhoea, or scours 865-866-867
—dipping 913
ALPHABETICAL AND ANALYTICAL INDEX.
1383
Page
Cattle, diseases of 807
— diseases of tlie digestive or-
gans 850
— dislocations 925
—Dutch 613
—Dutch belted 723
— Durham or Teeswater breed .... 606
—dysentery 867-868
— dyspepsia in 864
— economy of full summer and win-
ter feeding 792
— enteritis or inflammation of the
digestive apparatus 868
— feeding in summer 791
— five general classes of 777
—fossil 613-614
— full feeding and early maturity
of 779
— glamorgan 721-722
— haematuria or red water in 838
— heredity in 637
— Herefords, the 604
— history, management and charac-
teristics of the various breeds. 597
— hook-worm disease of 911
— hoven or tympanitis * 860
— hydro thorax in 847
— hydrocephalus with malpresen-
tation 886
— impaction of the rumen or maw-
bound 861
—Irish 608
—kidney and bladder disease 836
—lice 909
— lithlasis, or gravel in 875
— long horns 619
— malignant sore throat 840
— mange 910
— non-contagious blood diseases of 834
—of the Campagnas 628-631
— operations 927
— original type 600
— owners, only safe principles for. 811
— paralysis 904
— parasitic diseases of 90S
— pasturage and feeding for profit. 786
— peritonitis 869
— phenomena of health 811
— pleurisy in 846
— pneumonia 845
—Polled Durham 717
— purpura hemorrhagica, blood dis-
ease 837
— retention of the urine, or dysuria 872
— rheumatism in 835
— rumenotomy 928
— scabies of, or mange 914
— septicaemia and pyaemia 836
, — short horn 654
— Spanish-American breeds 600-601
— spaying 929
— special signs of disease in 812
— seven special classes 778
— sutures and bandages 929
Page
Cattle, Swiss 610
— Swiss contrivance for slaughter-
ing 805
— tapping the chest and belly 927
— tapping the rumen for hoven... 928
— the breeding of 642
— the Caesarian operation 930
— the dehorning of 1356
— the Devons 603
—the wild of England 614-015
— the pulse, respiration and tem-
perature 811
— torn eyelids 922
— tracheotomy 928
— true policy with young 780
— tuberculin test of, for tubercu-
losis 853
— typical breeds 599
— undomesticated herds of Europe
and Asia 600
— uraemia 836
— variation in type 635
— watering 791
— wens 926
— wounds 924
— when to sell 793
Caustics are not effective, age when. 1360
— in dehorning, applying the 1360
Cavalry horses for U. S. Army 180
Cayuga black duck 1197
Cerebro spinal n:\eningitis, horse .413-431
Ceroma, or fatty degeneration of the
liver, horse 515
Certificate of soundness, conditions
modifying the, horse 5G0
Changes in poultry due to breeding .1086
Characteristics and varieties of
sheep 1014
— Hblstein-Friesians 728
—of the Devons, notable 712-713
Charbon or malignant anthrax, hogs
986-987
— chancre, lalange, cattle 822
— true, period of incubation, hogs. 987
Chart, age of cattle told by the. 625-626-627
— illustrating ages of the horse, 6
months 1o 29 years 113
— plates, and figures, important fac-
tors in modern education .... 49
Cheddar cheese-making 801-802
— cheese 1340
Cheek of the bit into the mouth, how
to remedy 262
Cheese, cheddar 1340
—Cheshire 803
— curing the 1344
—farm 1344
—making 801-802
Cheshire hogs 959
Chest, tapping the, cattle 927
— tapping the, horse 555
Chester white hogs 955
Chicken cholera 1210-1213-1214
Chicken pox or sore head 1215
1384
ALPHABETICAL AND ANALYTICAL INDEX.
Page
Chicks, care when in brooder 1149
— feeding young 1150
— when bring money 1149
Chinese swine 945
Choking, cattle 923
—horse 412
Cholera, chicken 1210-1213-1214
—hog 1273-1274-1275-1276-1277-
1278-1279-1280
— hog sick of, chronic type 1272
—turkey 1223
Choosing the brood-mare 258
Chordes, horse 386
Chronic founder or laminitis, horse.. 297
Chunk, a good farm, horse 280
Circulatory apparatus of the horse . . 84
— horse, explanation of 85
Cirrhosis, or fibrous degeneration,
horse 516
Cleanliness, importance of, poultry .1211
Cleveland Bay horse, the 136-137
Clovers not generally valuable .... 788.
— the valuable 787
Clydesdale horse, the 124
Coach stallion, conformation of.1318-1319
Cobs 1314
Cocked ankle, horse 342-345-346
Cochin fowls 113.5
Cochins, Buff 1138
— general characteristics of 1137
—partridge 1138
—white 1138
Colds or rising of the lights, swine . 992
Colic flatulent, first stage and ruptur-
ed or last stage, horse 418-419
— spasmodic, horse 416
Color and form in horses, the im-
press of 189
Coloring butter, how to 800
Colt, handling a vicious, the Rarey
method 215
— how to raise a 196
— how to subdue a wild 214
— the breeding and training of .... 183
— to make come to you 211
Comb in frames, fastening empty . . .1240
Common turkey, the 1177
—white duck, the 1197
Comparative anatomy of the man
and horse 56
— value of fine and coarse wool.. 1005
Conclusions regarding the tuberculin
test, cattle 857-858
Condensed milk 1347
Condiment for calves, a good 784
Conestoga horse, the 130
Conformation of the carriage mare
or gelding 1319-1320
—of coach stallion 1318-1319
—of the Hackney stallion 1321-1322
—of the heavy draft stallion. .1316-1317
— of the horse, external 1316
Pag-e
Conformation of the thoroughbred
gelding or mare 1325-1326
—of the thoroughbred stallion.1324-1325
—of the standard-bred stallion.1322-1323
Congestion of the kidneys, Azoturia,
horse 461
— of the liver, horse 514
—of the lungs 403
— or inflammation of the testicles,
horse 477
Conjunctivitis or opthalmia, cattle.. 921
Constipation, cattle 865
— horse 421
— sufferer from, horse 424
Construction of mangers and racks.. 227
Contagious diseases of cattle 813
— fever, swine 985
— pleuro-pneumonia, cattle. .813-814-815
— pneumo-enteritis, swine 986-987
Contracted hoof, horse 274
Contraction of the foot, horse 301-302
— of hoof, horse 265
Consumption, fowls 1208
— or white plague, cattle 849
Coops, poultry houses and 1165
Cord of pig, tumor on the 998
Corns, horse 265-281
Corn disease, wormy, horse 349
Corn stalk disease in cattle 840
Correlation, the law of, horses 1302
Cotswold sheep 1017
—in the west and south.. 1017-1018-1019
—standard for 1012-1013
Cough, chronic, horse 406-407
— disease of horse 265
Coupling sheep 1043
Cow, abortion and miscarriage 888
—a Dutch 936
—dairy 1335
— dying to save the calf 887
—gestation of 652-653
— nymphomania and sterility .... 896
— of Germany, the Limburger 936
— pox, or variola vaccinae 825
— prolonged after-pains 887
—retention of the after-birth 887
—the man behind the 767
— uterine hemorrhage or flooding.. 889
Cows and heifers, scale of points for
Jersey 693-694-695-696-697
Cracked heel or scratches, horse.... 355
Cramps of the muscles of the neck
and loins, horse 386
— of the muscles of the thighs,
horse 348
Cream, attention to 1338-1339
— trade, town and city milk and.. 1345
Creamery and cheese factory, how to
build 797'
— and factory vs. dairy 806
Creameries, patent 798
— the several kind 1340
Creve Coeur fowls 1103
Cribbing, horse 533
ALPHABETICAL AND ANALYTICAL INDEX.
1385
Page
Crib-biting and wind-sucking, horse
263-266
Crop-bound fowls ^^^^'^oH
Cross-breeding, horse 1305
Crossing, altering the character by,
cattle 637
-sheep 1043
the Jersey 681-682
Cruelty and improvidence vs. thrift
and kindness 242
Cutting ankles, horse 263
—horse ^^^
Cuts of meat in cattle 808
Curb, horse 266-275-325
Curd, salting the 1343
Curing the cheese 1344
Cyanosis, or Blue diseases, horse... 439
Cystitis or inflammation of the blad-
der, cattle S74
— horse 462
Dairying and dairy buildings.795-1335-1345
a profitable industry ^. • 795
Dairy buildings, the "'^^'lal
— butter in the west '799
cattle and dairying 763
points observed in judging 767
cows, how to select 760
cow, the 1335
industry, a proper foundation
for 763-764
—products in the United States... 796
produce, marketing 1350
vs. creamery and factory 806
room, temperature of the 799
Dairy cattle, housing, feeding and
care of 755
— the Ayrshires 737
cattle, the Dutch breeds 747
Dairying, essentials for 766
Danish cattle, importation into Fries-
land 748
Dark Brahma fowls 1131
Definition of terms, cattle 649-650
Degeneration of the testicles, horse. 479
Dehorning cattle 930-1356
.—treatment after 1358
Delivering pigs 998
Dentition of sheep 1004
Derby game. Earl fowls 1119
Development and improvement of
breeds of cattle 628
of cattle tick on the ground 1353
Devons, active, handy, first-class for
beef 716
— antiquity of the 708
—cattle 708
— comparatively small cattle 708
— cow, color and form 714-715
— essentially muscular cattle 711
— natural grazing grounds of the.. 708
— notable characteristics 712-713
— points of the 712
—the 603
—the body and tail of the 714
Pag©
Devons, the legs of the 713
— their deceiving appearance .... 711
—weights of the 719
— working qualities of the 711
Diabetes, insipidus, or profuse stal-
ing, horse 464
Diagnosis of tuberculosis in cattle.. 853
Diarrhoea and superpurgation, horse . 422
—fowls 1206-1214
— in hogs 996
or scours, cattle 865-866-867
— turkey 1222
Difference between the teeth of foal
and horse 114-115
Digestion and assimilation, influence
of good, cattle 686
Digestive apparatus of the horse ... 86
— apparatus, explanation of 87
organs of cattle, diseases of the. 859
Dikkop form, the, horse 1372
Dipping cattle and hogs 913
Diphtheria, fowls 1212
Dipping, general directions, cattle. 919-920
-sheep 1054-1055
Dirt sac of broken knee, manner of
opening, horse 342
Disabilities of the horse and how to
know them 262-263-264-265-
266-267-268
Discharge from nose, horse 272
Diseases and accidents of the alimen-
tary canal, horse 408
bad habits, and insect pests,
poultry 1211 to 1217
contagious blood, horse 448
Diseased hocks, three 316
Disease in cattle, corn stalk 840
Diseases, malignant, summary of
treatment for, hogs 989
Disease, navicular, horse 299-300
Diseases of cattle 807
Disease of cattle, special signs of . . . 812
Diseases of cattle, contagious 813
non contagious blood 834
of fowls, division into groups. . .1205
of sheep, how to know, causes,
prevention, cure 1067
—of sheep, inflammatory 1069
—of poultry 1205
of poultry, common 1211-1212-
1213-1214-1215-1216
—of poultry and their remedies, a
summary of 1211
of stock peculiar to South
Africa 1371
of swine 981-983
of swine, the common inflam-
matory 991
—of swine, malignant and epidemic 98c
of swine, the prevention of 983
— svmptoms of internal, horse 275
—of the blood, general, horse 441
—of the digestive organs, cattle. . . 859
—of the eye, cattle 921
— of the eye, horse.
518
1386
ALPHABETICAL AND ANALYTICAL INDEX.
Page
Diseases of the generative organs,
horse 477-478
— of the heart and blood vessels,
horse 437
—of the horse 271
— of the horse, external accidents. . 371
— of the liver, horse 514
— of the nervous system, cattle... 903
— of the organs of generation,
horse 507
— of the organs of generation, cat-
tle 876
— of the respiratory organs, cattle. 841
— of the respiratory organs, horse. 392
—of the skin, cattle 906
— of the turkey — causes, prevention
and cure 1219
— of the urinary organs, cattle 871
— of the urinary organs, horse 459
Disease, outward manifestation of,
horse 272-273-274-275
— wormy corn, horse 349
Disinfection, hogs, rules for 989
— mange, cattle 917
Distemper or epizootic catarrh, sheep.1070
Dislocations, cattle 925
— of shoulder and elbow, horse 369
— shoulder, hip joints, etc., horse.. 359
Division of diseases into groups,
fowls 1205
—of fowls 1086
Divisions of the several parts of the
horse 55
Docking and castration of sheep 1051
— and nicking, horse 554
Domestic ducks, varieties of 1193
Dominique fowls 1112
Dorkings, black 1098
— fawn-colored 1097
— silver gray 1096
Dorset hog, the black 952
—sheep 1030
Doses, graduation of, horse 278
— repeated, when and how often,
horse 577
Dourine, or Maladie du Colt, horse.. 480
"Downers" or paralysis behind, hogs. 980
Draft mare or gelding, conformation
of 1317
— stallion, 'conformation of the
heavy 1316-1317
Dressing fowls 1168
Drinking fountains, feed boxes and,
poultry 1166
Driving and saddle horses, highly bred 175
Drones or male bees 1230
Drooping rump, horse 273
Dropsy, horse 385
— of the belly with natural pre-
sentation, cattle 886
— of the scrotum, or hydrocele,
horse 507
Droughts, provide against 786
Page
Dry bible or dry murrian, impaction
of the omasum, fardle bound,
cattle 862-863
— murrian or fardle bound, • cat-
tle 862-863
Ducks 1087
—Aylesbury 1195
—black East Indian 1199
—Call 1199
—Cayuga black 1197
—Muscovy 1198
—of the farm 1193
— other and rare 1201
— Pekin 1201
—Rouen 1195
— the common white 1197
— varieties best adapted to the
farm 1193
— varieties of domestic 1193
Duck-winged game fowls 1122
Duroc hogs 958-960-961
Durham cattle, polled 717
— the or Teeswater breed 606
Dutch cattle 613
— cattle, antiquity of the 747
— cattle, an artificial breed 754-757
— cattle as a distinct race 747
—belted cattle 723
— cattle, color and form 752-753
— cattle, early importations. 757-758-759
— cattle, facts about 751
— cattle, feeding qualities 754
— cattle older than Holstein 748
— cattle, origin 752
— cattle, races — Lowland race —
Mountain race — middle race... 751
— cattle, varieties described 751
— cattle, yields of milk 754
— Friesian cattle, measurements
adopted to 760
Dysentery, horse 423
—in cattle 867-868
Dyspepsia, horse 415
—in cattle 864
Ear, large, long and drooping, horse. 273
— small, short, horse 273
Eating feathers, fowls 1210-1217
Economy of comfort, the 224
— of the muscular covering of the
horse 68
Eczema, contagious, foot and mouth
disease or Epizootic Aphtha,
cattle 820-821
— chronic, or psoriasis, cattle 906
— horse 391
Ectropium, turning out of the eye-
lids, horse 524
Eel back, horse 273
Eclipse, description of 252
Egg-bound, poultry 1216
Egg-eating, fowls 1217
Eggs, breeds for 1168
Egyptian geese 1192
Elephantiasis or lymphangitis, horse 353
ALPHABETICAL AND ANALYTICAL INDEX.
1387
Page
Elephant leg, horse 352-354
Embden or Bremen geese 1186
Emphysema of the lungs, cattle 848
Endocardium, sac around the heart,
horse 437
Enemies of bees 1241
English thoroughbreds, horses 152
—turkeys 1178
Engorgement, horse 349
Enlarged glands, horse 267
Enlarged fetlock joint, horse 273
—hock, horse 267
— jugular vein, horse 273
Enteritis or inflammation of the di-
gestive apparatus, cattle 868
Entropium, inversion of the eyelids,
horse 524
Enteritis or inflammation of bowels,
horse 424
—a test for horse ." .425-426
Epilepsy, cattle 903
Epizootic Aphtha, eczema or foot and
mouth disease, cattle 820-821
— catarrh or distemper, sheep. ... .1070
— catarrh, malignant, swine 984-985
Epizooty, pink eye, influenza,
horse 441-442
Equine variola or horse pox 454
Erysipelas, horse 446-447
—cattle 906-907
Erythema or mud fever, horse 274
Escutcheons, illustrated and ex-
plained, cattle 690-691
Escutcheon marks, the .Jersey cattle. 685
— or milk mirror Ayrshire cattle.. 742
Essex hog. the 951-952
Eversion of the bladder, horse 463
Ewe-neck horse 273
Exostosis of the jaw, horse 373
Explanation of terms used in dis-
eases of the horse 277-278
— of points in poultry 1158
External accidents and diseases of
the horse 371
— conformation of the horse 1316
— parts of the horse 81
—parts of a fat ox 623
Extirpation of the eye, horse 552
Extracasation of blood in the penis,
horse 480
Eye, blind horse 272
— cancerous tumors in the, horse. . 524
— cataract, horse 523
—diseases of the, horse 518
— diseases of the, cattle 921
— extirpation of the, horse 552
— firing, horse 552
— foreign substance in the, cattle.. 922
— glaucoma, horse 522
—iritis, horse 522
— leucoma, horse 522
—pink in cattle 922
Pag-e
Eye, obstructions of the lachrymal
duct, horse '. 525
— worm in the, or filaria oculi,
horse 523
Eyes, inflammation of the, horse 267
— sheep, inflammation of the 1072
Eyelids, inversion and eversion of
the, cattle 922
— torn, cattle 922
— torn, horse 524
Farcy and glanders, horse 448-449-450
— buds, horse 273-274
— Japanese, or mycotic lymphan-
gitis, horse 457
Fardle bound or dry murrian, cat-
tle 862-863
Farrowing, hogs 968
Fat hogs, scale of points for 1286
Fatty degeneration of the heart,
horse 438
Fawn-colored Dorkings 1097
Feather eating in fowls 1210-1217
Fecundity or power to reproduce, the
power of, horse 1302
Feed boxes and drinking fountains,
poultry 1166
— calves, when and how to 783
— cattle, a summing up 792-793
—dairy cattle 1337
— grass and oats early to calves. . . 781
— grass the most valuable for cattle 789
—how to, horse 232
— kinds to raise for cattle 786
— the breeders for health, swine.. 971
— the quantity of grain to, horse.. 235
. — wet better than dry for hogs 977
— what to, horse 234
— when to, horse 233
Feeding and early maturity of cattle 779
— and sheltering swine 971
— and watering horse 541
— bees 1240
—calves for beef and labor 782
— calves outdoors when corn Is
cheap 783
— calves to reach results . . .'. 782
. — cattle, economy in 779
—cattle for profit 786
— cattle in summer 791
— cattle in winter 790
— hogs for pork in summer 972
— hogs from birth, economy of full 976
— in close pens, hogs 974
— influence of shelter and, cattle.. 637
— of cattle, the raising and econom-
ical 775
— potatoes to hogs 978
. — sheep in winter 1048
— sick animals, horse 276
—swine in the fields 973
— watering and grooming, horse. . . 232
— young calves 780
— young chicks 1150
1388
ALPHABETICAL AND ANALYTICAL INDEX.
Page
Feet in the stable, care of the, horse. 312
— of the horse and their diseases. . 281
— of the horse, object lessons on.. 326
— pumiced, horse 298
— sound and contracted, horse 288
— various stages of foundered,
horse 296
Fetlock joint, gall on, horse 273
— versal enlargement of. horse... 274
Fever, malarial, horses 470
— mud, horse 274-357
— puerperal, mare 512
— puerperal, or metro-peritonitis,
cow 891
— Rinderpest or contagious en-
teric 816-817-818
— splenic or malignant anthrax,
hogs 988
— swine, contagious 985
—Texas cattle 1351
— Texas, Spanish or splenic, cat-
tle 818-819
Fibrous degeneration or cirrhosis,
horse 516
Filaria oculi or worm in the eye,
horse 523
Fine wooled sheep 1031
Firing, eye, horse 552
Fistulas, probing and opening, horse. 556
Fistula from improper breeding, horse 273
— of the lower jaw, horse 272
— of the parotid duct, horse 380
— of the upper jaw, horse 272
— salivary, horse 273
Fistulous withers, horse 273-380
Flank or ventral hernia, horse 274
Flat foot, horse 274
Flatulent colic, first stage and rup-
tured or last stage, horse. . .418-419
Flatulence, tapping the belly for,
horse 557
Flexions, horse, how to teach 212
Flexor tendons of the forelegs, horse 331
Flies, maggots from blow, sheep 1077
Foal, abnormal presentations, horse. 482
— after-birth retained, colt 490
— attention to the colt 487
— dorsal presentation, colt 491
—expulsion of afterbirth, colt. .484-486
— expulsion of foetus, colt 484-486
— head presentation, colt 485-486
— left transverse position, colt. .485-486
— right transverse position, colt. 485-486
— tail presentation, colt 485-486
— the different presentations,
colt 484-486
— umbilical cord of, colt 490
— various presentations illustrated,
colt 491-492-493-494-495-496-497-
498-499-500-501-502-503-504-505-506
— when is born dead, colt 490
Foal's teeth, horse 113
Foaling time, mare, how to know the 195
Page
Food for swine, the proper 972
— of fowls, proper 1165
— quality of for sick animals, horse 276
— the assimilation of, cattle 645
Foods, so-called perfect for bone and
muscle 784
Foot and gravel, swollen, sheep 1077
— and mouth disease or eczema or
epizootic aphtha, cattle 820-821
— bones and articulations of the,
horse 65
— contraction of the, horse 301
— flat, horse 274
— foul in the, sheep 1077
— fracture of the bone of the, horse 306
— horse, the analysis 59
— of horse, anatomy of 282-295
— of the horse, how to prepare for
shoe 310
— of the horse, veins of the 312
— ox, horse 273
— names of the bones, horse 65
— pumiced, horse 268
— rot, sheep 1076
— sole of, showing position of corn,
horse 283
— sound, horse 322
—stilt, horse 274
Forage and feeding plants, cattle 788
Fore-quarters of the horse, bad 96-97
— of the horse, good 97
Forging, the habit of, horse 367
Fossil cattle 613-614
Foul in the foot, sheep 1077
— sheath, horse 466
Founder, chronic or laminitis, horse 297
Foundered feet of horse, various
stages of 296
—horse 294
Founder or laminitis, acute, horse.. 293-297
Fowl, Bolton grays or Creoles 1098
Fowls, American breeds 1111
—Asiatic 1131
—barnyard 1096
— breeding upon a mixed flock 1164
— black Hamburg, or Hamburg 1107
—Breda or Gueldre 1104
—Cochin 1135
— Creve Coeurs 1103
—dark Brahma 1131
—division of 1086
— Dominique 1112
—Dorking, English breeds 1096
— duck-winged games 1122
—Earl Derby game 1119
—French Houdans 1099
—frizzled 1126
— game and other rare breeds. .. .1119
— general characteristics of Coch-
ins 1137
— general management of 1164
— how to fatten 1168
— how to mate 1163
— how to scald a 1169
—ideal shape of 1162
ALPHABETICAL AND ANALYTICAL INDEX.
1389
Page
Fowls, killing and dressing 1168
— LaFleche 1100
—Leghorn 1110
—light Brahmas 1132
—Ostrich 1115
— packing and shipping to market. 1169
—penciled Hamburgs 1107-1108-1109
— period of incubation of various. .1164
— proper food of 1165
—Plymouth Rock 1115
— rumpless 1126
—silky 1127
—Spanish 1105
— the care and treatment of sick.. 1205
— the various Asiatic breeds of 1131
—water 1186-1193
— white Georgian game 1123
Fractured limbs, sling in use for,
horse 338-339
Fractures or broken bones, cattle... 923
—of limbs, horse 336-337
Fracture of the bone of the foot,
horse 306
— of the skull, horse 377
Frames, fastening empty comb in.. 1240
Framework of horse and index of
value 53
Freezing or frost bite, poultry 1215
French fowls — Houdans 1099
Friesian and Batavian cattle 747
Friesians, Holstein, origin and devel-
opment 724-727
Frizzled fowls 1126
Furunculus or carbuncle, horse 358
Gadfly and grub, the, cattle 90S
—horse 528
Gall on fetlock joint, horse 273
— saddle, horse 273
Galls, saddle, horse 383
— wind, horse 274
Galioways in America 734
— points of the, cattle 732
Galloway, limbs and head, skin and
color, cattle 732
Gall-stones or biliary calculi, horse.. 516
Game bantam fowls 1124
— fowls, brown-breasted red 1121
— fowls and other rare breeds. .. .1119
Gapes, fowls 1208-1215
—turkey 1219-1220-1221
Gastritis, horse 413-414
Geese 1088
— and their varieties 1186
—Egyptian 1192
— Embden or Bremen 1186
— Hongkong 1190
— the management of 1186
—Toulouse 1188
—white Chinese 1188
Gelding, conformation of car-
riage 1319-1320
— conformation of draft mare or.. 1317
— or mare, conformation of the thor-
oughbred , 1325-1326
Page
Genders of the honey bee 1228
Generation, diseases of the organs of,
cattle 876
Generative organs, diseases of the,
horse 477-478
— tuberculosis in cattle 852
Gestation of cows 652-653
— mare, treatment during 194
— mare, the period of 194
— sheep 1043
— of sows 969
Gonorrhea, bull 894
Glanders and farcy, horse 448-449-450
Glands, enlarged, horse 267
— swelling of the lymphatic, horse 273
Gland, swelling of the parotid, horse 273
Glamorgan cattle 721-722
Glass eye or amaurosis, gutta serena,
horse 521
Glaucoma, eye, horse 522
Gleet, or gonorrhea, horse 509
— nasal, horse 394
Glossary of terms used by poultry
fanciers 1170-1171-1172
— of scientific and other terms. . . .
1243-1247
Glossitis or inflammation of the
tongue, cattle 860
Gonorrhea, horse 466-509
Gnawing the manger, etc., horse.... 534
Goat, Angora, varied uses 1066
—Angora, where distributed. .1062-1063
— Angora, an assistant to the
farmer 1060
— milch, capabilities of the 1063
— raising a profitable industry ...1057
Goats, a word about 1056
Goitre, horse 273-379
Gold dust horses of Kentucky 124
Goldsmith Maid and Abdallah
170-171-172-173
Good and bad heads, horse 1327-1328
Goose, the African 1191
— the Canada or wild 1191
Grading the sheep 1050
Graduation of doses, horse 278
Grain, cheapest food for swine 973
— should be ground for hogs 977
Granary, an economical 228
Grapes, advanced stage of grease,
horse 357
Grass lots 230
— the most valuable feed for cattle. 789
Grasses and clover for swine 973
— the coming for the west 790
— of special value 789
Gravel, horse 303
— swollen foot and, sheep 1077
—in bladder, cattle 875
Gray Dorkings 1096
Grease heel, horse 274
—horse 356-357
Greatest wool supply, the world's. . .1039
Groom, when to, horse 238
Grooming and watering horses.232-236-238
1390
ALPHABETICAL AND ANALYTICAL INDEX.
Grub and gadfly, the, cattle 908
Grubs in the head, sheep 1070
Gruel, how to make, horse 235
Guernseys, Jerseys and Alderneys.. 679
Guinea fowls 1093
Gut tie and intussusception, horse... 428
— or strangulation, cattle 870
Gut twist, horse 428
Habits and insect pests, poultry. 1211-1217
— of the Angora goat 1059
Hackney stallion, conformation of
the 1321-1322
Haematuria or bloody urine, cattle.. 874
or bloody urine, horse 465
or red water in cattle 838
Halter, slipping the, horse 264
Hamburg fowls 1107
Hammond and Atwood Merinos,
sheep 1032
Hampshire-down, sheep 1025
Hampshire or thin rind hogs 958-961
Hams of horse, avoid straight 101
Harmlessness of the tuberculin test,
cattle 856
Harness room, the 230
— where to keep 225
Hatching, the antiquity of artificial. .1148
Hay and straw, horse 236
Head, analyzing the, cow 623
— and backbones, the horse 55 ,
— and neck of horse 60
Heads, good and bad, horse 1327-1328
— horse, economy of the 70
— horse, the analysis 59
— of the horse, vertical section of 68
Heart, atrophy of the, horse 438
— enlargement of the, horse 437
—fatty degeneration of the, horse. 438
— induration of the, horse 438
— obesity of the, horse 438
—rupture of the, horse 439
— spasmodic action of the, or
thumps, horse 440
— the diseases of, horse 437
Heart-water in sheep and goats 1376
Heaves, horse 402
Heel, grease, deep-seated skin dis-
ease, horse 274
Hegelund method of milking. .. .773-774
Hemorrhage of the uterine or flood-
ing, cow 889
Hemorrhagica, purpura, horse ...443-444
Hen, anatomy of the 1094-1095
Hens to each cock, number of 1163
Herd, how to start a, cattle 650
— will grade, how the, cattle 650
Hereditary characteristics of horses,
value of 49
— influence of parents, cattle 638
Heredity in cattle 637
— in good milkers, value of 686
—or similarity, the horse 1299
Page
Hereford as a work ox, the 705
—color, the 700
cow, discussion of qualities 705
Herefords as valued in England. .706-707
— date of importation 702
— grades fifty years ago 702
— in America 701
— in Canada 703
—in the West 703
— of today in England, the 705
—points of the 705
—the 604
— the middle-horned cattle 700 '
—fifty years ago 700-701
Hernia, flank or ventral, horse 274
— inguinal, horse 274
— or rupture, cattle 870
— or rupture, horse 387
Hepatitis, or inflammation of the
liver, horse 515
Hide-bound horses 389
High-blowing, horse 265
Hindquarters, good and bad, horse..
1329-1330
Hip lameness and hipped, horse 351
Hipped, hip lameness and, horse... 351
History, management and character-
istics of swine 938
— of the English horse, Herbert..
152-154-157
— of the Texas fever tick 1351
— the horse in ancient 41
Hives, bee 1235
Hiving new swarms 1237
Hock and elbow, capulet or capped,
horse 334-335-336
— enlarged, horse 267
— horse, bones of the 66-67
Hocks, capped, horse 265-275
Hog barns 974-975
" — cholera or purples 986
—cholera 1273-1274-1275-
1276-1277-1278-1279-1280
—feeding in the South 974
— house '. 980
—lice 996
—location of markets for 942
— objectionable points 1291
—of India 948
—origin and antiquity of the 939
— ringing a 969
—skeleton of the 997
— stomach of 1272
—teeth of the 941
—the Essex 951-952
—the fat 1285
—the native American species of. 939
—the Suffolks 953
—the Yorkshire 953
thin rind or Hampshire 961-962
ALPHABETICAL AND ANALYTICAL INDEX.
1391
Page
964 Hor
Hogs, breeding and care of
—cooking feed for • • • • • • • • • • • - ■ ■
—comparative value of light ana
heavy „. o
—dipping cattle and »J^
—farrowing q^„
—feeding potatoes to ^"^
—form and feeding qualities
general conclusions
Hampshire or thin rind . .
— leprosy of _
—malignant sore throat in .
—mixed rations for
of Europe, the wild
-paralysis behind
r>f +hp ITKILISLI V lU
957
978
959
974
. 966
. 978
. 958
6-997
. 987
. 976
. 940
^ .980
—prospect of the industry in 979
—Poland China
pumpkins for
the Cheshire
—value of mast for • •
—wet feed better than dry for.... ^i'
worms in, how treated
Yorkshires
Holstein cow, the great milk mirror
995
1287
-Friesians, characteristics
-Friesians, milk and butter rec-
ords
688
728
729
-Friesians," origin and develop- _
ment ^24-^27
—Friesians types '/T.
Home-made brooder, a cheap •••••••j^^^
Honev bee, the three genders of the. 1228
—plants adapted to the production_^^^^
—taking " the* ' ^^38
varieties of
1231
1190
274
Hongkong geese
Hoof, contracted, horse
—of horse, contraction of ^oo
—ridge in the, horse j^'-
—with rings, horse ■ ^'^
Hook-worm, disease of cattle yj-^
Hoose or husk, cattle ^^^
Hopper, a perfect for fowls lib/
—for fowls, a rat proof iJ-«5<
Horns growing on young calves, to
prevent ^^^^
Horse, a choice express delivery.... j^o(
—a good farm chunk • • ^^^
—a choice heavy drafter of the
show ring order ^o<J
a choice wagon ■!}
—a clean strong neck J-JJ
—action in general ^^
—action the first requisite of a
good ••• **^
—analysis of parts indicating dis-
position Qfi
_bad forequarters , ■■ f
—best method of harnessing . . .222-_z.i
-body and limbs
96
-WUUJ CA.uy^ • . — 1907
-breeding ^'^^'
-breeding, the law of avatism or
striking back 1^02
Pago
se breeding, the law of habit 1301
-breeding, the law of variation. .1300
-buying cheap 249
-choice coach or brougham 91
-choice cobs ^^
-circulatory apparatus of 84
-coarse pointed hip 273
-condition of, for hard work HI
-difference between breaking and
training 209
-digestive apparatus of Sb
-diseases of the— Book I, Part II. 269
—engorgement ^^^
—external parts of the 81
—flexions, how to teach 2U
—forequarters of the, good 104
—forming a good saddle 218
—foundered 294
—front view of, showing bad fore-
quarters ^^^A^
— gaited saddler ' .III
—good and bad back of 1329-1330
—good and bad heads of 1327-1328
—good and bad positions of hind
legs 1330-1331
—guai^antee of soundness 250
harnessing and driving 213
—hindquarters of the, good
_. 103-104-107-108
—his different gaits ^^^'o^S
—how to buy and how to sell a . . . 249
—how to saddle 222
—how to train, the old system and
new • 208
—illustrated anatomy of ^^
—in Asia and Siberia, wild 4^
—internal economy of the Jy
—know what you buy for ._ ^&o
—law of heredity or similarity. .129.)
-learning to lead
210
—lessons in sound signals 211
—limbs of the, look well to 10&
—models for buying ^^^
—navel infection in ^^^
-necessity of studying points of. Ill
not lying down, how to remedy. 26d
—of ali work ^20
—of high form, a ^^^
—outward appearance of the, as
indicating value »»
—over-reaching ^^^
—paralysis of hind legs ^'4
-pawing 263
—Persian
—points of the -^^ij
pox or equine variola 454
—preserving breeds in purity 42
—quarters of the, medium good to
bad 105-lOb
—quidding and swallowing the
food without grinding ^o*
rear view of legs
.1332-1333
-recipes for t^^e.^Vo- 59i:592-593-5V4-595
1392
ALPHABETICAL AXD ANALYTICAL INDEX.
Pagre
Horse requires intelligent manage-
ment, why the 243
— sickness, peculiar to South Africa.1371
— slipping the halter 264
— subduing a vicious or tricky.... 216
— teeth, how to tell his age 113
—the Belgian 148
— the body of as seen from front. . 100
— the body of, its external acci-
dents and diseases 371
— the external conformation of the. 1316
—the farm 120
— the five-gaited saddler 140
— the French coach 138
—the Hackney 138
— the head illustrated outwardly.. 90
— the, his ancient and modern his-
tory 41
— the, in civilization 42
— the, in the times of Henry VIII
and James 1 161-162
— the law of correlation 1302
— the proper age to work 213-214
— the proportions of the 251
—the Shire 145-146-147
—the Vermont draft 143
— time of the exodus under Moses. 41
— to train a racer 221
— training for draft 218
— training the, first lesson 210
— training to the wagon 218
— training to trotting harness. .220-221
— unsteadiness while being mounted 263
— vicious to shoe 263
— what a critical horseman said... 100
— what constitutes a good 252
— wormy corn disease in 349
Horses, about trotting 167
— artificial breeding and diseases. 46
— and mules, market classes and
grades of 176-177
— breed only from pure sires 190
— carriage 1311
— characteristics influenced by
country and climate 120
— coach 135
— driving and saddle, highly bred. 175
— European 44
—fast walking 89
— for different kinds of work 90
—fossil 43
— German and Hungarian 44
— heredity in 186
— heredity of disease in 187
— how to have a good plow team. . 218
— in-breeding of 48
— in Iceland 46
— light driving 135
— millet disease of 469
— no profit in inferior 185
— Norway, Sweden and Finland... 46
—of Arabia 46
—of Asia 44
—of China 44
— peculiar organic structure of. . . 187
Page
Horses, relation of size in sire and
dam 190
—road 130
—sand in 1360
— sound, avoid hereditary diseases 261
— testing as roadsters 175
— the best are cheapest in the end 192
— their characteristics, breeds, etc. 120
— the value of partly bred 259
— the wild, of today 43
— thoroughbred 152
— transmission of qualities in 189
—trotting and hunting 131-132-133
— variation and development 188
— what the ancients knew of... 109-110
Houdans-French fowl 1099
Hoven, tapping the rumen for, cattle 928
— or tympanitis, cattle 860
Humanity and common sense, horse. 240
Hunters and saddle horses 1312
Hunting horses 131-133
Husk or hoose, cattle 908
Hydatids on the brain, sheep 1071
Hydrocele or dropsy of the scrotum,
horse 507
Hydrothorax in cattle 847
— horse 405
Hydrophobia or rabies, cattle 905
— or rabies, horse 452
Hypertrophy of the thyroid gland,
horse 379
— of the liver, horse 516
Hysteria, mare 513
Icterus, jaundice or yellows, horse.. 516
Imitation butter 1348
Impaction of large bowel, horse 424
— of the omasum, cattle 862-863
— of the rumen or maw-bound, cattle 861
Implements of use in bee-keeping. .1239
Importations, short horns, Ohio, Ken-
tucky, Bates 660
Impregnation, influence of a previous,
horse 1306
Incontinence of urine in cattle, or
enuresis 873
Incubators and brooders 1148
Infection, navel, horse 349
Inguinal hernia, horse 274
Inflamed parotid gland, horse 379
Inflammation of the bladder or cys-
titis, cattle 874
— of the bladder, cystitis, horse.. 462
— of the bowels, movements in,
horse 413
—of the brain, cattle 903
— of the brain, sheep 1072
— of the brain, or phrenitis, horse. 429
— of the egg passage, fowls 1208
— of the endocardium, horse 437
— of the tongue or glossitis, cattle. 860
— of the eyes, sheep 1072
— of the kidneys or nephritis,
horse 459
— of lung tissue, horse 400-401
ALPHABETICAL AND ANALYTICAL INDEX.
1393
Page
Inflammation of the mammary glands
or udder, mare 512
— of the ovaries, horse 511
— of a vein, or phlebitis, horse 440
— of the udder or mammitis, cow. . 894
In-bieeding and in-and-in-breeding,
horses 1304
— of horses 48
In-and-in-breeding, cattle 635
Incubator, how to operate the 1154
—how to make an. .1150-1151-1152-1153
Incubation of various fowls, period
of 1164
Induration of the heart, horse 438
Inflammation of the womb, or
netritis, cow 891
Inflammatory diseases of sheep 1069
— diseases of swine, the common.. 991
Influence of shelter and feeding, cat-
tle 637
— of parents, the relative, horse. . .1305
— of a previous impregnation,
horse 1306
Influenza, epizooty, pink eye, horse. 441-442
Insect pests, diseases and bad habits
of poultry 1211-1217
— parasites, turkey 1219
Interfering horse 365
Intestinal worms, chickens 1216
— worms in sheep 1078
— parasites, hogs 995
Intestines or diaphragm, rupture of
the, horse 421
Internal diseases of the horse, symp-
toms of 275
— functions of the horse 68
Instruments, apparatus and medi-
cines, horse 572
—obstetric 489
— what to keep and how to use
them, horse 572
Intra-uterine influence, horse 1306
Intussusception and gut tie, horse.. 428
Inversion of the womb, cow 889
— of the womb in sheep 1073
Irish cattle 608
Iritis, eye, horse 522
Itchy tail, horse 388
—skin, horse 389
Itch or mange, horse 273
Jack and stallion sores 391
Jacks, breeding 200
Japanese bantams 1125
— farcy, or mycotic lymphangitis,
horse 457
Jaundice, icterus or yellows, horse.. 516
Javas, American, fowls 1146
Jaw, actinomycosis of the lower, cat-
tle 829-830
—exostosis of the, horse 373
— flstula of the upper, horse 272
— flstula of the lower, horse 272
—lumpy, cattle 829
Jerseys, Alderneys and Guernsevs.. 679
Page
Jersey bulls, scale of points for.695-696-697
— color and size 698
— crossing the 681-682
— milk mirrors 684
— not a dairy cow 693
—of today, the 681
— red swine 959
— the, described 683
Joint, enlarged fetlock, horse 273
— in horse, open 340-341
Josephine, champion dairy cow of all
the world 769
— Chief, remarkable milk record. 771-772
Judging dairy cattle, points observed
in 767
Jugular vein, enlarged, horse 273
— vein, inflamed, horse 382
Kicking, a device to cure the habit of 229
—horse 262
— while eating grain, horse 535
Kidney and bladder disease, cattle.. 836
— worm, hog 995
Kidneys, cattle, nephritis, or inflam-
mation of the 871
— congestion of the, azoturia, horse 461
— nephritis or inflammation of the,
horse 459
Killing and dressing fowls 1168
Kinds of feed to raise for cattle 786
Kind man will have a willing team. . 245
Knee, dirt sac of broken, manner of
opening, horse 342
— Baker's brace for broken, horse. 340
— sprung, horse 344
Knees, indurated enlargement of the,
horse 274
— broken, horse 265
— broken, horse 342
LaFleche fowls 1100
Lambs, bare-lot method of raising to
avoid nodule disease 1081-1082
— weaning the 1052
Lambing, care when, sheep 1080
—time 1052
Lameness, horse 267
— sprain, kick or stifle, horse 274
Laminitis, acute founder or, horse. 293-297
Lampas, horse 411
— burning for, horse 411
Lancashire hog, short-faced 954
— breeds, hogs 954
—hogs 954-955
Langshans, poultry 1144
Lard worm 995
Laryngitis or common sore throat,
cattle 843
— roaring and whistling, horse. .395-396
Law of correlation, the horse 1302
— of fecundity or power to repro-
duce, horse 1302
— of heredity or similarity, horses. 1299
Leakage from the navel, horse 349
1394
ALPHABETICAL AND ANALYTICAL INDEX.
Page
Leg, big, horse 274
— weakness, fowls 1209
Leghorn fowls 1110
Legs, hind, horse, good and bad posi-
tions 1330-1331
— of the horse, etc 334
— of the horse, their accidents and
diseases 314
—rear view of, horse 1332-1333
Leicester sheep 1015
Lessons in bandages for various dis-
eases, horse 370
Leucoma, eye, horse 522
Leucorrhoea, mare 511
— or whites, cow 893
Leprosy in hogs 996-997
Lice, cattle 909
—hog 996
— horse 529
— ticks, scab on sheep 1074-1075
Ligaments, rupture of the suspen-
sory, horse 333
Light Brahma fowls 1132
Lights, rising of the, swine 992
Limber neck, chickens 1216-1217
Limbs, horse, anatomy of the hind. . 66
— the hinder of the horse 56-66
Lincoln sheep 1014
Lip, loose, flabby, horse 272
Lithotomy, extraction of stones from
the bladder, horse 552-553
LIthotrity or breaking stone in blad-
der to pieces with forceps,
horse 553
Liver, atrophy of the, horse 517
— congestion of the, horse 514
— diseases of the, horse 514
fatty degeneration of the, or
ceroma, horse 515
— fluke or rot in sheep 1078
— inflammation of the, or hepatitis,
horse 515
— softening with rupture, horse... 517
— hypertrophy of the, horse 516
Long horn cattle 619
Long wooled English sheep 1014
Lock-jaw or tetanus, cattle 904
— or tetanus, horse 432-433
— or tetanus, sheep 1072
Locoed animals, treatment of 1365
Loco plants, poisoning by 1363
— weed disease, the, horse 567
— weed, the purple 1361
—weed, the white 1362
— poisoning in cattle, symptoms of.l364
— poisoning in horses, symptoms of.l364
— poisoning in sheep, symptoms of.l365
— poisoning, summary of 1366
Loft, the hay and straw 228
Lousiness, poultry 1209
Lumphy jaw, cattle 829
Lung, section affected with pleuro-
pneumonia, cattle 814
— worms in sheep -1079
Page
Lungs, cattle, emphysema of the 848
— inflammation of the, swine . 991
of the horse, congestion of the.. 403
Lymphatic glands, swelling of the,
horse 273
Lymphangitis, mycotic or Japanese
farcy, horse 457
— or elephantiasis, horse 353
Madness, rabies or canine, sheep. .. .1073
Maggots from blow flies, sheep 1077
Making butter 1337-1339
Maladie du coit, or dourine, horse... 480
Malarial fever in horses 470
Malformed pastern, horse 273
Malignant diseases of hogs, sum-
mary of treatment for 989
Mallenders, horse 274
— or Sallenders, treatment of, horse 333
Malpresentations, cattle 876
Malpresentation, cattle — first, second,
third, fourth, fifth, sixth, sev-
enth, eighth, ninth
880-881-882-883-884-885
Mammitis or inflammation of the ud-
der, cow 894
— mare 512
Management of bees 1225-1235
— of fowls, general 1164
— and training of rams 1044
Mange, cattle 910
—in cattle, transmissibility of ?17
— disinfection, cattle 917
— or itch, horse 273
— horse 530
— or scab in hogs 995
— scabies of cattle or 914
—treatment, cattle 917-918
Mangers and racks, construction of. . 227
Mare, attention to the mother 486
— conformation of the thorough-
bred gelding or 1325-1326
— diseases peculiar to the 510
— or gelding, conformation of draft.1317
— or gelding, conformation of car-
riage 1319-1320
— how to know if is in foal 194
— treatment after foaling 194
Market, breed of fowls for 1168
Marketing dairy produce 1350
Marks of the Sussex cattle 719
Mashes, how to make, horse 235
Mast for hogs, value of 974
Master, how to know an intelligent. 243
Masturbation, horse 509
Mate fowls, how to 1163
Means, how to use one's 246
Measles and trachlna, swine 993
Medicine, difliculty of giving to swine 990
ALPHABETICAL AND ANALYTICAL INDEX.
1395
Page
Medicines, additional <iirections for
giving, horse 543-544-545-546
—forms of and how to administer,
horse 279
—how often to give, horse ^76
—simple directions for preparing
and using, horse 578
Megrins. similar to apoplexy, horse.. 4d2
Melanosis, horse ^°^
Meningitis, cerebro-spinal, horse.... 4^1
Merinos, the rich, sheep j^^^
American lUo ^
—American, standard for.1009-1010-1011
—the Atwobd and Hammond 103^
Metritis or inflammation of the
womb, mare
511
1024
Middle and short-wooled British
ShGGD
—horned cattle, the Herefords . . . . 700
-horns, the valuable breeds of . • • • <00
—wooled sheep, standard for. 1011-1012
Milk, bloody, cattle • • • • • • •.• • ^"^^
—and butter records, Holstem-
Friesians ^29
—the care of i***'^
—cows lesson in treatment, feed-
ing and watering... 769-770-771-772
—cream and cheese, driving off
animal odors '^^
—fever, apparatus for treatment.. 897
—fever, causes, how to know what
to do S99.900
—fever in sows • • • ^^=*
—fever its simple and successful
treatment HI
— f^ver, description of the disease. SJb
—fever, first stage, second stage.. 898
—fever or parturient paresis, cow. 893
—fever, preliminary statements ... 897
—fever, prevention 55^
—the management of 'J°
—mirrors, Guenon's theory of.... 684
—mirror or escutcheon Ayrshire
cattle If
—mirrors, Jersey ^°*
—production, feed J^^J
—the testing of i^J°
-veins, the fl
Milkers, good in all breeds 68b
—value of heredity ^^"^
Milking, Hegelund method '^^'J
manipulations n6-n-i
Millet disease of horses 469
Minerals, etc., poisoning from drugs,
horse 561-562-563-564-565
Miscarriage and abortion, cow 888
Mites, chickens l^^O
Mixed rations for hogs 9"^
Moon blindness, horse 518-519
Morgan horses, the ■^^^I'll!
Mountain sheep, white-faced 10-^4
Page
Mouth and foot disease In cattle. .820-821
sore, illustrated, horse 410
Mud fever, horse 357
— fever, horse 274
Mule, antiquity of the 200
—longevity of the 204
Mules ■^'^'olr
—are not vicious ^^^
— asses and V^z^
— the breeding of 205
—market classes and grades of
horses and ''"^^"oaI
value of for labor 204
Muscle, horse, the three-headed 76-77
Muscles, atrophy of the, horse 2<3
—atrophy of, horse • ^*>^
—bones and, of the front limbs of
the horse ^2
—and bones, fore legs of the
horse 63-64
—of the head and neck of the
horse '^^■H
—of the hinder parts of the horse.. 75
—of the hind quarters of the horse 75
—of the horse in walking -69
_^f the horse described "5-76
—of the front of the neck of the
horse 71-72-73
_of the horse, fore lifnbs, leg and ^
foot ^^-'^
—of the nose and lips of the horse 71
—rupture of, horse • • 368
_of the shoulder and back of the
horse '^3-74-75
Muscovy duck ^^^^
Muscular covering of the horse, econ-
omy of 68
—system of the horse »»
Mustang, the ^^3
Mycotic lymphangitis, or Japanese
farcy, horse ^57
Nails, pricking from, horse 291-292
Nasal gleet, horse 394
Native districts of some breeds of
cattle 615-616
Nature and application of tuberculin,
cattle ^54
Navel ill, in sheep 1081
infection, horse 349
leakage from, horse 349
rupture, horse 274
Navicular disease, horse 299-300
—disease and ring bone, illustrated,
horse 324
Neck, ewe, horse 273
Necrosis, death of bone of the horse. 372
Neapolitan swine 946-947
Nephritis, or inflammation of the kid-
neys, cattle 871
—or inflammation of the kidneys,
horse ^^^
1396
ALPHABETICAL AND ANALYTICAL INDEX.
Page
Nervous debilitj' at parturition, cat-
tle 905
— system of the horse 82
— system of the horse, explanation
of plate 83
— system, diseases of the, cattle.. 90S
— system and brain, diseases of,
horse 429
Netritis, or inflammation of the
womb, cattle 891
Neurotomj% destroying sensation in
the foot, horse 553
— horse 267
New Oxfordshire sheep 1021
Nicking and docking, horse 554
Nodule disease of sheep, bare-lot
method of raising lambs to
avoid 1081-1082
Norman Percheron horse, the 126-127
Nose, discharge from, horse 272
Nursery for sheep necessary 1053
Number of hens to each cock 1163
— of swarms profitably kept on a
farm 1236
Nursing and feeding sick animals,
horse 276
Object lessons, about, horses 49
—on feet, horse 326
Objectionable points, hog 1291
Obesity of the heart, horse 438
Obstetric instruments 489
Ocellated turkey, the 1177
Omasum, impaction of the, fardle
bound, dry bible or dry mur-
rian, cattle 862-863
Open joint in horse 340
Operation, the Caesarian, cattle 930
Operations, cattle 927
— horse 547
Opinion of milk mirrors. Sharp-
less' 689-690
Opinions relating to breeding 48
Ophthalmia or conjunctivitis, cattle. 921
— simple or conjunctivitis, horse.. 520
Organs of generation, cattle, dis-
eases of the 876
— of generation, diseases of, horse. 507
Orchitis, congestion or inflammation
of the testicles, horse 477
Origin of the hog 939
— of the tuberculin test, cattle... 854
— of the word poultry 1085
Orpingtons, buff, black, white, jubi-
lee 1147
Osteo porosis, big head, horse 372
Osteophytes, following sore shins,
horse 363
Ossification of th'e lateral cartileges,
horse 267
Ostrich fowls 1115
Ostriches, tape worm in 1378
Outline of fat bullocks 622
Outward manifestations of the horse
272-273-274-275
Pag«
Ovaries, inflammation of the, mare.. 511
Overreaching, horse 367
Ox, external parts of a fat 623
— foot, horse 273
— skeleton of the 621
—structure of the 620
—teeth of the 625
Oxford downs, sheep 1022
Oxfordshire sheep 1021
Pacer, the Narragansett 143
Packing and shipping fowls to mar-
ket 1169
Palsy or paralysis of sheep 1073
Paralysis behind "downers," hogs... 980
—cattle 904
— horse 434
— of the bladder, horse 463
—fowls 1206
— of tongue, cattle 860
— or palsy of sheep 1073
— of hind leg, horse 374
Paraphimosis and phimosis, horse . . 509
Parasites and other diseases, turkey. 12^.9
— of the skin in hogs, mange or
scab 995
— other intestinal, hogs 995
Parasite, cattle, form and life history
of the scab 915
Parasitic diseases of cattle 908
— and other diseases of sheep 1074
— diseases of the horse 526
Parents, the relative influence of,
horse 1305
— hereditary influence of, cattle... 638
Parisis or milk fever, parturient,
cow 893
Park horse, a choice 248
Parotid gland, inflamed, horse 379
— gland, swelling of, horse 273
Partridge Cochins 1138
Parts of the horse, names of the 79
Parrot mouth, horse 409
— apoplexy, cow 892
Parturient parisis or milk fever, cow 893
Parturition cattle 876
— difficulties due to mother, mare. 489
— difliculties due to the foal, horse 489
— difficult, in the mare and cow
compared 487-488
—implements, cattle 878-879-880
— mechanism of, horse 498
—natural, horse 483-510
— nervous debility at, cattle 905
— preliminary stage, horse 483
Pastern, malformed, horse 273
Pasturage for sheep 1044
—and feeding for profit, cattle 786
Pasture, time to 790
— the poor man's wealth 787
'—and feeding sheep, early and
late 1047
Paunch or rumen, tapping for hoven,
cattle 928
Peafowls 1094
ALPHABETICAL AND ANALYTICAL INDEX.
1397
Page
Peculiarities of ancestors perpetu-
ated, cattle 639
Pekin clucks 1201
Penciled Hamburg fowls ..1107-1108-1109
Penis, wounds of the, horse 508
— extravasation of blood in the,
horse 480
Perch'eron horse of today, the 128
Period of incubation of various fowls. 1164
Peritonitis, horse 426-427
—cattle 869
Pernicious anemia, swamp fever or
surra, horse 470-476
Perpetuated, cattle, peculiarities of
ancestors 639
Persian sheep 1046
Pharyngitis, horse 411-412
Pheasants 1092
Phimosis and paraphimosis, horse... 509
Phlebitis, or inflammation of a vein,
horse 440
Phrenitis or inflammation of the
brain, horse 429
— or inflammation of the brain,
cattle 903
Pictures from real life 244
Pigs, castration 968
—black teeth in 980
— delivering 998
— to castrate a ruptured 998
— sows eating their 980
—thumps in 980
— weaning the 968
Pink eye in cattle 922
— epizooty, influenza, horse ....441-442
Pioneers of improved cattle 631
Pip, fowls 1208-1213
Plants adapted to the production of
honey 1233
Plethora, cattle 834
Pleurisy in cattle 846
— horse 404
Pleuro-pneumonia, cattle, contagious
813-814-815
— in cattle, inoculation for 815
Plumage, poultry, illustrated and ex-
plained 1160-1161-1162
Plymouth rock fowls 1115
Pneumo-enferitis, contagious, swine.
986-987
Pneumonia in cattle- 845
— horse 400
— or inflammation of the lungs in
swine 991
Points of Ayrshire cattle 742
— on buttermaking, special 1340
— estimating the value of, cattle.. 697
— of excellence of the principal
breeds of sheep 1009
—of the Devons 712
— of the head, poultry 1158
—of the horse 1315
— for short horn bulls, scale of . . .
674-675-676-677
Page
Points, necessary study of, poultry. .1157
— of poultry, explanation of 1158
— of sheep explained 1004
Polled Angus cattle 734-735
— cattle in general 731
—cattle, the Galloways 731-732
— Durham cattle 717
Poisons and their antidotes, horse.. 561-
562-563-564-565-566-567-568-569-570-571
—of the skin, horse 566
— and their antidotes 1361
Poison, treatment for blood, horse.. 333
Poisoning by loco plants 1363
— in horses, symptoms of loco.... 1364
— from stings, horse 566
— in sheep, symptoms of loco 1365
— in cattle, symptoms of loco 1364
— from drugs, minerals, etc., horse
561-562-563-564-565
—sorghum, cattle 840-1355
— vegetable, sheep 1072
— while grazing, horse 565
Poland China hogs 957
Polish cow, the 907
Poll evil, horse 273-381
Polypus, horse 393
Ponies 141
Porcelaneous deposits, horse 363
Potatoes, feeding to hogs 978
Poultry, changes due to breeding. . .1086
—Book v.. Part 1 1083
— breeding and management of 1157
—bumble foot in 1210-1213
— common diseases
1211-1212-1213-1214-1215-1216
— diseases of 1205
— houses and coops 1165
— importance of cleanliness 1211
— lousiness 1209
— necessary study of points 1157
— new popular breeds of 1143
— origin and varieties of 1085
— selections for breeding stock
1367-1368-1369
— types and native country of 1085
Presentation of foal, abnormal 482
Prevention of diseases of swine 983
Pricking from nails, horse 291-292
— to straighten crooked tails, horse
554-556
Principles for cattle owners 811
Prizes, rules in awarding. Jerseys.. 695
Probing fistulas, horse 556
Profit in calves, where it conies in. . . 781
Profuse flow of saliva, horse 272
Psoriasis, or chronic eczema, cattle. 906
Puerperal fever, or metro-peritoni-
tis, cow 891
— fever, mare 512
Pulling back and breaking the halter,
horse ^35
—at the halter, horse, to prevent. . 223
1398
ALPHABETICAL AND ANALYTICAL INDEX.
Pag-e
Pulse, a proper method of feeling
the, horse 434
— respiration and temperature of
cattle 811
Pumiced feet, horse 298
— foot, horse 268
Pumpkins for hogs 978
"Purples," or "hog cholera" 986
Pyaemia and septicaemia, cattle.... 836
Purpura hemorrhagica, horse ....443-444
— hemorrhagica, cattle 837
Quarter and sand cracks, horse 286
— crack and remedies, horse 287
— crack, horse 274
— crack illustrated, horse 289
—ill, cattle 822
Queen or mother bee, the so-called. .1230
Quidding, horse 268
— or dropping the food, horse 409
— and swallowing the food without
grinding, horse 264
Quinsy, horse 397
— or inflammation of the tonsils,
swine 991
Quittor, horse 268-274-284
— horse, what to do 285
Rabies or canine madness of sheep. .1073
— or hydrophobia, cattle 905
— or hydrophobia, period of incuba-
tion, horse 453
— or hydrophobia, horse 452
Race-course, the first London 158
Racing and trotting form of horse. . . 253
Rams, management and training of. 1044
Rations for hogs, mixed 976
Rat-tail, horse 273
— or loss of hair on the tail, horse. 388
Rearing, horse 263
Recipes for the horse
589-590-591-592-593-594-595
— or prescriptions for cattle
931-932-933-934-935-936
Red water in cattle 838
Regions adapted to sheep 1006
Relative influence of parents, the
horse 1305
Rennets, how to prepare 804-805
Remedies and their application, stan-
dard, horse 579-
580-581-582-583-584-585-586-587-588
Respiratory organs, diseases of the,
horse 392
— organs, diseases of the, cattle... 841
Restiveness of the horse, how to cure 262
Rheumatism, horse 445
—fowls 1209
—in cattle 835
Ribs, the horse 55
— broken, horse 376
Rich merinos, the 1033
xlldge in the hoof, horse 273
Rinderpest or contagious enteric fe-
ver in cattle 816-817-818
Page
Ridgling, to castrate a 998
Ringworm, cattle 910
— horse < 531
Ringbone, horse 268-322-327
— and navicular disease, illustrated,
horse 324
Rings, hoof with, horse 274
Ringing a hog 969
Road horses 130
Roadster and many times a cham-
pion, horse 191
Roadster, the 253
Roadsters 1314
Roaring, wheezing, whistling, high-
blowing and gruntin? horse.. 265
— and whistling, laryngitis, horse..
395-396
Rolling in the stable, horse 264
Romney marsh sheep 1014
Roots for swine 973
Rot or liver fluke in sheep 1078
Rouen ducks 1195
Roup, fowls 1207-1213
Rules in awarding prizes. Jerseys... 695
Rules for disinfection, hogs 989
Rumen or hoven, tapping the 928
— or maw-bound, impaction of the,
cattle 861
Rumenotomy, cattle 928
Rump, drooping, horse 273
Rumpless fowls 1126
Running away, horse 263
Rupture of the bladder, horse 464
— of the suspensory ligaments,
horse 333
— a tendency to, horse 439
— or hernia, horse 387
— of stomach, intestines or dia-
phragm, horse 421
— of muscles, horse 368
— of a blood vessel, horse 439
— of the heart, horse 439
— or hernia, cattle 870
— of the liver or softening or ra-
mollissement with, horse 517
— navel, horse 274
Ruptured pig, to castrate a 998
Saddler, a choice three-gaited 255
Saddling a horse, best method 222
Saddle gall, horse 273-275-383
— horses 177-255
--horses and hunters 1312
Salivary fistula, horse 273
Saliva, profuse flow of, horse 272
Sallenders, horse 274
— or mallenders, horse 333
Salting butter 800
—the curd 1343
Sand crack, horse 268-274
— cracks, quarter and, horse 286
— in horses 1360
Sarocele, horse 478
Seabright bantams, the 1125
Seedy toe, horse 290
ALPHABETICAL AND ANALYTICAL INDEX.
1399
Page
S'eive, a good one, horse 232
Sense, use common in all things 241
Septicaemia and pj^aemia, cattle.... 836
Service of the stallion, when 193
— of mare, treatment after 193
Sex at will, horse 1307-1308-1309-1310
Scabies of cattle, or mange 914
Scab, ticks and lice on sheep. . .1074-1075
— parasite, cattle, form and life
history of the 915
Scaly legs in chickeni? 1210-1215
Scale of measurements of horse 251
—of points, Berkshires 1293-1294
— of points for hogs of bacon type
1283-1284-1285
—of points for fat hogs 1286
— of points for Jersey cows and
heifers 693-694-695-696-697
— of points for short horn bulls..
674-675-676-677
Scotch and Highland cattle 608
— sheep, black faced Highland, or. 1025
Scours or diarrhoea, cattle 865-866-867
Scientific terms applied to sheep. .. .1069
Scratches or cracked heel, horse. . . . 355
Slaughtering cattle, Swiss contri-
vance for 805
Sling in use for fractured limbs,
horse 338-339
Shape of fowls, ideal 1162
Sharpless' opinion of milk mirrors. . . 689
Sheath, foul, horse 466
Shearing and washing sheep 1053
Sheep and sheep husbandry 999
— apoplexy of 1071
— and goats, heart-water in 1376
— and wool supply of eleven coun-
tries 1040
— barns 1049
—black faced Highland or Scotch. 1025
— blue tongue or malarial catarrhal
fever of 1373
— breeding and care of 1041
— care when lambing 1080
— castration and docking 1051
— constant watchfulness necessary.1041
— coupling 1043
— crossing 1043
—dentition of 1004
—dipping and anointing 1054
^diseases of 1067
— distemper or epizootic catarrh of.l070
— Dor-et 1030
— feeding troughs and racks for. . .1050
—fine wooled 1031
—foot rot 1076
—foul in the foot 1077
—gestation 1043
— grading 1050
—grubs in the head 1070
—hydatids on the brain 1071
— Hampshire-downs 1025
— in general, about 1033
— inflammatory diseases of 1069
— inflammation of the brain of. ..1072
Page
Sheep, inflammation of the ej^es 1072
— intestinal worms in 1078
— inversion of the womb in 1073
— keep a record of breeding 1043
— Leicester 1015
— Lincoln 1014
— liver fluke or rot in 1078
— long wooled English 1014
— lung worms in 1079
—maggots from blow flies 1077
— middle and short-wooled British. 1024
— native country of 1001
— navel ill 1081
— new Oxfordshire 1021
— of the world, where located 1038
— origin, anatomy and points.1001-1002
—other breeds of Great Britain. . .1030
— paralysis or palsy of 1073
— parasitic and other diseases of.. 1074
— pasturage for 1044
—Persian ' 1046
— points of, explained 1004
— provide a nursery for 1053
— rabies or canine madness of.... 1073
— ranging and flocking of different
breeds of 1006
— regions adapted to 1006
— require protection from insects. 1047
— require water when pasturing. . .1047
— romney marsh 1014
— scab ticks and lice on 1074-1075
— scientific terms 1069
— Shropshire-downs 1026
—South-downs 1026-1028
— sprains, strains and bruises 1080
— standard for American merino..
1009-1010-1011
—standard for Cotswold 1012-1013
— standard for middle-wooled.. 1011-1012
—swelled head 1072
— symptoms of loco poisoning in.. 1365
— tagging 1053
— tetanus or lockjaw 1072
— the average wool per 1034
— the breeding age of 1041
—the Cotswold 1017
—the, in Australia 1036
—the Oxford-downs 1022
— the proper time for coupling. .. .1043
— their diversified character 1001
— top and vertical views of skull.. 1003
— tympanitis in 1073
— washing and shearing ,...1053
— white-faced mountain 1024
— winter feeding 1048
— worried by dogs 1080
— varieties of, and their character-
istics 1014
— vegetable poisoning 1072
Shelter and feeding, influence of, cat-
tle 637
Shins, sore, horse 361-362
Shipping fowls to market 1169
Shire, the, horse 145-146-147
Shoe boil, horse 274
1400
ALPHABETICAL AND ANALYTICAL INDEX.
Pag-e
Shoeing and care of the feet, horse. 310
— where the bearing should rest,
horse 311
Shoes, right and wrong fitting, horse 309
— weight of and how to fit them.. 311
Shoulder and elbow, dislocation of,
horse 369
— lameness and sweeny, horse.... 347
Short-horns as beef makers 664
—Canadian 664
— cattle breeds 654
— critically described 666
— during the past 50 years 640
—in America 656-657-658-659
— cow in outline 632
— grade cows and steers 665
— how they were bred up, cattle.. 640
— Kentucky and other importations 660
— origin of modern 654
— ox in prime condition 624
— ribs barrel shaped 670
— the back straight and broad 670
—the body 669
—the bull hubback 655
— the great Ohio importations 660
—the head 666
— the hide, the hair, the color 673
— the legs short and straight 669
—the loin broad 669
—the neck 666
—the Patton family of 665
—the touch 670
— three strains of 641
— westward march of the 664
— what made them famous 655
— wide in the crops 670
Short-wooled British sheep, middle
and 1024
Shropshire-down sheep 1026
Shying, horse 263
Siberian boil plague in horses, cattle,
sheep, goats and pigs 822
Sick animals must have rest, horse. . 277
— animals, nursing and feeding. . . 276
Side-bone, horse 308
Side views, good and bad shoeing,
horse 313
Silky fowls 1127
Silver gray Dorkings 1096
Signs of generalization of the tu-
bercle, cattle 852
— of a good milker, their practical
utility 685
Sinews, thickening of the back, horse 268
Sires, horse, breed only from pure. . . 190
— in different herds, value of, cat-
tle 648
Sitfasts, horse 383
Skeleton, analyzing the, horse 57-58
—of the hog 997
—of the horse, details of 53-54
— the horse, hinder parts 58
—of the ox 621
Page
Skin, diseases of the, cattle 906
— of hog, parasites of the 995
—itchy, horse 389
Skull, fracture of the, horse 377
— of sheep, top and vertical views
of 1003
Snuffles or catarrh, swine 992
Softening or ramollissement, liver
with rupture, horse 517
Sores, jack and stallion 391
Sore head, or chicken pox 1215
— mouth, horse 410
—shins, horse 361-362
— teats, cow 895
— throat in cattle, malignant 840
— throat, laryngitis or common,
cattle 843
— throat, malignant, hogs 987
Sorghum poisoning, cattle 840-1355
Southern chunk, a choice, horse 259
South African horse sickness 1371
South-down sheep 1026-1028
Sound animals, avoid hereditary dis-
ease, horse 261
Soundness, certificate of, horse 559
— seller's guarantee, horse 560
Sows, Berkshire and Poland China.. 949
— ^^eating their pigs 980
—gestation of 969
—milk fever in 998
Spanish fowls 1105
Spasmodic action of the heart, or
thumps, horse 440
— colic, horse 416
Spasm of the neck of the bladder,
horse 463
Spavin, bog, horse 274-319
— bone, horse 274-314
—blood, horse 274-323
—brace, for 325
—horse 268
—occult 320
— two stages of, cured spavin and
sound hock 321
Spaying cattle 929
— horse 556
Specimen of close breeding, cattle.651-652
Spiralis, trachina, hog 994
Splenic apoplexy, cattle 822
— fever or malignant anthrax, hogs 988
Splint, horse 268-273-329
Sprains, cattle 926
— strains and bruises, sheep 1080
Sprain of the back, horse 375
— of back tendons of the forelegs
horse 330
Spraying cattle for Texas cattle
tick 1354-1355
Sprung knee, horse 344
Stables and other shelter for the
horse 224
— care, general, horse 238
— cleaning the 231
— construction and management of,
horse 5S7
ALPHABETICAL AND ANALYTICAL INDEX.
1401
Pag-e
Stables for horses, how to build 224
— hygiene of, horse 537
— necessity for, horse 537
— temperature and ventilation of. . 225
— the care of stocli when in, horses 543
— yard and outsheds, the 230
Staggers or congestion of the brain,
swine 992
— stomach, horse 414
Staling, diabetes, insipidus, or pro-
fuse, horse 464
Stallion and mare, selection of 193
— conformation of coach 1318-1319
— conformation of the hackney..
1321-1322
— conformation of the heavy draft
1316-1317
— conformation of the thorough-
bred 1324-1325
— conformation of the standard-
bred 1322-1323
— selecting the 261
— sores, jack and 391
— training for service 217
Stall, floor of the, horse 312
Stalls, the arrangement of 226
Standard-bred stallion, conformation
of the 1322-1323
Standard for American merino
sheep 1009-1010-1011
Standard for Cotswold sheep. . .1012-1013
— for middle wooled sheep 1011-1012
— remedies and their application,
horse 579-
580-581-582-583-584-585-586-587-588
Sterility, cow, and nymphomania.... 896
Stifled horse, device for treatment. . 351
— or derangement of the stifle
joint, horse 350
Stifle lameness, horse 274
Stilt foot, horse 274
Stings, poisoning from, horse 566
Stomach, rupture of the, horse 421
— staggers, where to tap for, horse
413-414
Stocking, swelling of the legs, horse 353
Stone bruises, horse 307
Stones in the bladder or calculi, cat-
tle 875
Strangulation or gut-tie, cattle 870
Strangles, specific blood poison, horse 451
Stricture of the urethra, horse 466
String halt, horse 364
Structure of the ox 620
• Study necessary, horses 49
Stumbling and tripping, horse 264
Suffolk hogs 953
Summary of British breeds of sheep
1034-1035
— of directions for making the tu-
berculin test, cattle 858
Sunstroke, effects of, horse. .434-435-436
Surfeit, horse 384
Page
Surgical apparatus and appliances,
horse 573
— outfit, a cheap and serviceable,
horse 575
Suppression of the urine or dysuria,
horse 465
Surra, horse 454-455-456
— or swamp fever, pernicious ane-
mia, horse ' 470-476
Sussex cattle 719-720
— cattle, distinguishing marks of
the 719
—cattle, the color 719
Superpurgation and diarrhoea, horse 422
Supplementary, including Canada,
Africa and Australia 1271
Sutures, quilled and twisted, horse. 556-557
Swan, the 1092
Swarm, a motherless 1239
Swarming, bees 1236
Swarms, hiving new 1237
— profitably kept on a farm, num-
ber of 1236
Swamp fever or surra, pernicious ane-
mia, horse 470-476
Sway-back, horse 273
Sweeny, shoulder lameness and,
horse 347
Swelled head, sheep 1072
Swelling of the lymphatic glands,
horse 273
— of parotid gland, horse 273
Swine, age of breeding 965
— American vs. Canadian trade 1281
— apoplexy, staggers or congestion
of the brain of 992
—Berkshire 948
— breeds of 945
— catarrh or snuffles 992
—Chinese 945
— diflScultv in giving medicine to. 990
—diseases of 981-983
— Essex and Chester white 947
— gleaning in the fields and after
cattle 973
— grasses and clover for 973
— feeding and sheltering 971
— history and statistics of 939
— history, management and char-
acteristics of 938
— inflammation of the lungs of . . . 991
— Jersey red 959
—judging of bacon type 1282-1283
— necessity of good care of 969
—Neapolitan 946-947
— of Europe, Asia and Africa 940
— roots for 973
— Tamworth 1291
— the common diseases of 991
— the proper food for 972
— trachina and measles 993
— watch symptoms early and use
preventatives of disease 990
—various breeds of 1287-1289-1290
Swiss cattle 610
1402
ALPHABETICAL AND ANALYTICAL INDEX.
Page
Swollen foot and gravel, sheep 1077
Symmetry in cattle essential what-
ever the breed 692
Symptoms and general treatment,
diseases of the horse 271
— of internal diseases of the horse 275
Tail, broken, horse 377
—itchy and rat 388
Tails, to straighten crooked, horse . 554-556
Tagging sheep 1053
Tamworth hogs 950
—swine 1291
Tarn worths, judging 1292
Tape worm, cattle 910
— worm hog 993
— worm in ostriches 1378
— worm in turkey 1222
Tapping the abdomen, horses 555
—the bladder of the ox or bull 929
— the belly for flatulence, horse . . 557
—the chest and belly, cattle 927
— the chest, horse 555
Teats, sore, cow 895
Teeswaters, beef from the old 656
—the old, cattle 654
Teeth-ache, decay, filling, wolf teeth,
horse 408
Teeth, difference between the foal
and horse 114-115
— of horse, true index of age, how
to tell : 113
— teeth of the hog, how to tell age. 941
—of the ox 625
— size of horde regulating 116
Tendons, thickened, horse 273
Tenotomy, horse 557
Terms, definition of, cattle 649-650
— used bv poultry fanciers, glos-
sary of 1170-1171-1172
— used in diseases of the horse. 277-278
Tetanus or lockjaw, cattle 904
—or lockjaw, horse 432-433
— or lockjaw, sheep 1072
Testing of milk, the 1348
Testicles, degeneration of the, horse. 479
— inflammation of the, horse 507
Texas cattle fever 1351
— fever, Spanish or splenic, cat-
tle 818-819
Thickening of the back sinews, horse 268
Thighs, cramp of the muscles of the,
horse 348
Thigh, weak, small, horse 275
Thin rind or Hampshire hog 961-962
Thoroughbred gelding or mare, con-
formation of the 1325-1326
— horses 152
—stallion, conformation of the.1324-1325
Thoroughbreds, common American,
horse 164
—English 152
Thoroughpin, horse 268-275-323
Thrift and unthrift contrasted 241
Thrush, horse 299
Page
Thumps, spasmodic action of the
heart, horse 440
Thyroid gland, goitre, horse 273
Tick, development on the ground. . . .1353
—life history of the 1351
—spraying cattle for Texas. .1354-1355
— the Texas fever, methods of ex-
terminating it 1351
Ticks and lice, scab on sheep. .1074-1075
— how to free cattle of 1354
Time for coupling sheep 1043
— for lambing 1052
Toe, seedy, horse 290
Tongue, blue form, horse 1372
— cattle, glossitis or inflammation
of the 860
— cattle, paralysis of the 860
— laceration, horse 409
Tonsils, swine, quinsy or inflamma-
tion of the 991
Toulouse geese 1188
Tracheotomy, cattle 928
— inserting tube in windpipe, horse 558
Trachina and measles, swine 993
— spiralis, hog 994
— spiralis, prevention for people. . . 994
Training of rams, management and. 1044
Traits of sire and foal 261
Transmissibility of mange in cattle. 917
Treating, know what you are, horse. 275
Treatment of horse, the economy of
humane 240
— of horse, importance of prompt. . 275
—of sick fowls 1205
— symptoms and general, horse... 271
Tripping and stumbling, horse 264
Trotter, the modern 170
Trotters, progenitors of fast 168
Trotting blood, strains of 181
— horses 131
— horses, about 167
— horse, development of the 167
— horses, the breeding of 167
— horse, the movement in 173-174
Troughs and feeding racks for sheep. 1050
True charbon, period of Incubation,
hogs 987
Tubercle, signs or generalization of
the 852
Tuberculin test, conclusions regard-
ing the 857-858
—test, origin of the 854
— test of cattle for tuberculosis... 853
— test, summary of directions for
making the 858
— the harmlessness of, cattle 856
— the nature and application of. . . 854
— test, the value and reliability of
the 854-855-856
Tuberculous cattle 826-827-828
Tuberculosis, consumption or white
plague, cattle 849
— animals that are exempt from. . . 849
— in cattle, acute or chronic 850-851
— in cattle, advanced stage of 851
ALPHABETICAL AND ANALYTICAL INDEX.
1403
Pag-e
Tuberculosis in cattle, generative... 852
— predisposing causes of 850
— the diagnosis of, cattle 853
— what animals are susceptible to. 849
Tumor, bony, horse 273
— in the false nostril, horse 392
— on the cord of a pig 998
Tumors, horse 378
— in the eye, cancerous, horse 524
Turkey, black head 1221
— caring for the
1179-1180-1181-1182-1183-1184
-cholera 1223
—diarrhea 1222
— diseases of the, causes, preven-
tion and cure 1219
—gapes 1219-1220-1221
— tapeworm 1222
— the, and its varieties 1173
— the bronzed-black 1173
— the common 1177
—the ocellated 1177
—the wild 1087
Turkeys, English 1178
— rare varieties 1179
Tying an arterj% horse 279
— the wool of sheep 1053
Tympanitis or hoven, cattle 860
— sheep 1073
Types of cattle, the three principal. . 641
Type of fowls, breed to a fixed 1163
— variation in, cattle 635
Udder, inflammation of the mammary
glands of, mare 512
— inflammation of the, or mam-
mitis, cow 894
Ulcers and osteo sarcoma, cattle. . . . '828
Unsoundness, horse, what is 264
Uraemia, cattle 836
Urethra, stricture of the, horse 466
Urinary calculi, horse 467
— organs, cattle, diseases of the.. 871
— organs, diseases of the, horse... 459
Urine, cattle, haematuria, or bloody. . 874
— cattle, albuminuria, or albumin-
ous 873
— dribbling of the,, horse 465
— haematuria or bloody, horse 465
— incontinence of, or enuresis, cat-
tle 873
— retention of the, or dysuria, cat-
tle 872
— suppression of the, or dysuria,
horse 465
Uterine hemorrhage or flooding, cow 889
Value and reliability of the tuber-
culin test, cattle 854-855-856
— of sires in different herds, cattle 648
Variation in type, cattle 635
Varieties and characteristics of
sheep 1014
—of domestic ducks 1193
—of honey 1231
Page
Varieties of the domestic turkey. .. .1173
—of the honey bee 1229
— turkey, rare 1179
Variola, equine or horse pox 454
— vaccinae, or cow pox 825
Varicocele, horse 479
Vegetable poisoning, sheep 1072
Vein, enlarged jugular, horse 273
— inflamed jugular, horse 382
— inflammation of a, or phlebitis,
horse 440
Veins of the horse's foot 312
— the milk, the udder and twist... 687
Ventilation and temperature of
stables 225
Vermont draft horse, the 143
Vertigo, fowls 1205-1212
Veterinarian's certiflcate of sound-
ness, horse 559
Veterinary medicines and doses,
horse . . .575-576-577-578-579-580-581-
582-583-584-585-586-587-588
Vices and disabilities and how to
know them, horse
262-263-264-265-266-267-268
—in the stable, horse 533-536
— seller's guarantee should cover,
horse 560
Wagon and- carriage floor the 230
Warts, horse 388-479
Washing and shearing sheep 1053
Wasting the grain, horse 535
Water, a good supply of 230
—fowls 1186-1193
— required for sheep 1047
Watering cattle 791
— and feeding stock, horse 541
—and grooming, horses 232-236-238
Wax and how it is formed, bee's 1232
Weaning the lambs 1052
—the pigs 968
Weaving or motion of head and neck
from side to side, horse 264
Weights and measures, horse 579
Wens, cattle 926
Wheezing, whistling, high-blowing,
grunting and roaring, horse.. 265
Where the world's sheep are located. 1038
Whistling, laryngitis, roaring and,
horse 395-396
—horse 265
White Chinese geese 1188
—Cochins 1138
— faced mountain sheep 1024
— Georgian game fowls 1123
— Leghorns 1110
— plague, consumption or tubercu-
losis, cattle 849
— Wyandottes 1143
Whites, or leucorrhoea, cow 893
Wild cattle of England 614-615
— goose, Canada or 1191
—turkey, the 1087
Wind galls, horse 274-346-347
1404
ALPHABETICAL AND ANALYTICAL INDEX.
Pag-e
Wind-sucking horse 534
Windpipe, inserting tube in the, horse 558
Winter, feeding cattle in 790
— feeding, sheep 1048
Wintering bees 1238
Withers, fistulous, horse 273
Wolf teeth, horse 409
Womb, cow, inversion of the 889
— inflammation of the, or metritis,
cow 891
— inversion of the, sheep 1073
— metritis or inflammation of the,
mare 511
Wool harvest in Australia 1037
— of sheep, division of fine 1005
— of sheep, comparative value of
fine and coarse 1005
— per sheep, the average 1034
— supply of eleven countries 1040
Page
Wool supply, the world's greatest. . .1039
—tying the 1053
World's greatest wool supply, the... 1839
Worm in the eyes, horse 523
— lard and kidney, swine 995
Worms in hogs 995
— intestinal, chickens 1216
—intestinal, horse 526-527
— intestinal in sheep 1078
— lung, sheep 1079
Wormy corn disease, horse 349
Wounds, cattle 924
—horse 360
— lacerated, how to treat, horse . . 468
— of the penis, horse 508
Wyandottes 1143
Wyandotte bantams 1143
Yellows, icterus or jaundice, horse.. 516
Yorkshire hogs 953-1287
List of Colored Plates and Chart
GROUP MORGAN COLTS ONE AND TWO YEARS OLD. Page
Fjrs. Prize Winners. — Specially photographed for this work "VIII.
HACKNEY MARES
Prize Winners. — Specially photographed for this work XXXII
PRIZE WINNING COACH HORSES.
Specially photographed for this work 48
REAR VIEW THREE YEAR OLD PERCHERON HORSES.
Noted Prize Winners. — Specially photographed for this work 64
FRENCH DRAFT HORSES.
Noted Prize Winners. — Specially photographed for this work 80
GERMAN COACH HORSES.
Noted Prize Winners. — Specially photographed for this work 96
FOLDING CHART FOR TELLING THE AGE OF THE HORSE FROM SIX
MONTHS TO TWENTY-NINE YEARS. (60 engravings). Frontpage - 112
FRONT VIEW PRIZE WINNING PERCHERON HORSES.
Specially photographed for this work 144
PERCHERON HORSES.
Many Times Prize Winners. — Specially photographed for this work - - - 176
FRENCH DRAFT HORSES.
Prize Winners. — Specially photographed for this work 208
IMPORTED GERMAN COACH STALLIONS'.
Many Times Prize Winners. — Specially photographed for this work - - - 240
FRENCH COACH HORSES.
Noted Prize Winners. — Specially photographed for this work 256
THE EXTERNAL DISEASES OF THE HORSE WITH VARIOUS DEFECTS
AND BLEMISHES.
Specially designed and drawn for this work 272
IMPORTED WEST HIGHLAND CATTLE.
Prize Winners in England and America. — Specially photographed for this work 608
DOUBLE STANDARD POLLED DURHAMS.
Noted Prize Winners. — Specially photographed for this work 64t
JERSEY BULL.
Many Times a Prize Winner as indicated. Sold for $10,000. — ^Specially photo-
graphed for this work 61*
1405
1406 LIST OF COLORED PLATES AXD CHART.
STANDARD BROWN SWISS CATTLE. Page
Prize Winning Group. — Specially photographed for this work 6S8
GROUP OF YOUNG HEREFORDS.
Prize Winners in National Show. — ^Specially photographed for this work - - 704
PURE BRED DEVON CATTLE.
Many Times Prize Winners. — Specially photographed for this work - - - 712
AYRSHIRES.
Many Times Prize Winners. — ^Specially photographed for this work - - - 728
DUTCH BELTED CATTLE.
Standard Type of that Breed. — Specially photographed for this work - - V60
GROUP YORKSHIRES.
Pure' Bred and Noted Prize Winners. — Specially photographed for this
work Book III
YORKSHIRE BOAR.
Prize Winner at Many Expositions. — Specially photographed for this work - 940
TAMWORTH SOWS.
Prize Winners and Specially photographed for this work 945
HAMPSHIRE OR BELTED HOGS.
Noted Prize Winners. — Specially photographed for this work .... 960
DUROCS.
Many Times Prize Winners. — Specially photographed for this work - - - 964
WHITE YORKSHIRE HOGS
Prize Winners International Show. — Specially photographed for this work - 976
CERVERO, THE LARGEST SPANISH MERINO IN THE WORLD, AND FOUR
OF HIS LAMBS.
At two years old sheared fifty-two pounds wool. — Specially photographed for
this work - - - - Book IV
DORSETS.
Noted Prize Winners. — Specially photographed for this work 1009
. LEICESTERS.
Noted Prize Winners and Typical of Their Breed. — ^Specially photographed for
this work -..---..... ioi2
SHROPSHIRES.
Best Type of Their Breed. — Sneciaily photographed for this work - - - 1024
DELAINE RAM, RAMBOUILLET AND TWO RAMBOUILLET EWES.
Many Times Prize Winners. — Specially photographed for this work - - 1040
HAMPSHIRE DOWNS.
Many Times Prize Winners in England and America. — Specially photographed
for this work . . . . . .... 1056