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Washington, D. C.

LONGLEAF PINE

WILBUR R. MATTOON, Extension Forester, Forest Service

CONTENTS

Range and Importance
Rate of Growth

Production of Turpentine and Rosin
Cutting

Reforestation

Protection

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1925

Issued July 29, 1922
Revised August, 1925

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

LONGLEAF PINE

By Wicspur R. Marroon, Lxtension Forester, Forest Service

CONTENTS

Page Page
Range and importance___________. pas at GATT Penta dscns kee i ee dena Ian gs gb 39
Rates Of = oO Withee ei Sa se 7) Reforestation, 2. 225225 ee eR ee 40
Production Ofestimibers 2 les se eens 15 | Protection___ DE NG ME OY 54
Production of turpentine and rosin- 26) Timber and livestock____________- 64

Longleaf pine is a southern forest tree of great economic impor-
tance. It is one of our best timber trees, and from it is derived the
bulk of the turpentine and rosin produced in this country. With the
rapid disappearance of old-growth timber, the increasing use of low-
grade lumber, and the rising values of all forest products, second-
crowth pine is coming to be an asset of increasing importance.

Large areas of cut-over lands are being handled in connection with
the farming and grazing industries. On account of the natural wide
spacing of “longleaf pine trees, the grazing of livestock can be suc-
cessfully carried on along with the ; erowing of timber, without in-
jury to either industry, as a double source of return from the land.
Almost daily, new uses and new values are being found for forest
products formerly considered valueless. Questions on how to get
the most profit from second-growth pine are being frequently asked.
To the owner of large timber holdings, as well as to the farmer,
the importance and value of second-growth pine are coming to be
matters of increasing consideration.

The common belief that longleaf pine is slow growing applies only
to old-growth or mature timber, and to that growing on unfavorable
situations, such, for example, as the very dry sand hills and the flat-
woods. It is likewise true of stands that are burned frequently, and
of those that are overcrowded and in need of thinning. The seed
germinates quickly—usually in two to four weeks after it matures
in the fall. Contrary to the popular belief, when sufficient seed trees
are left, young longleaf comes in extensively on cut-over lands, but
the great bulk of it. is killed by fires and hogs.

Longleaf pine is, however, remarkably resistant to fire. Millions
of young trees not over 25 years of age have undoubtedly passed

33126°—25 f!

2 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

through as many as 10 fires. Each fire, however, takes its toll of
living trees and injures and retards the growth of all the others.
Of the trees which survive, large numbers are being bled for turpen-
tine or cut for timber at much too early an age to get the best. money
returns. Protection and forest management mean increased timber
growth and increased profit.

Destructive lumbering and destructive fires are every year creating
in the southern pine region millions of acres of waste and barren
lands. In these idle timberlands is an enormous potential wealth,
and their productive power is not fully realized. Economically, this
condition is an unsettling factor just as serious as the idleness of
thousands of farms or of factories. Forest growth should be en-
couraged on all waste or idle lands and on lands not now in de-
mand for agricultural use and not likely to be during the next half
century, whether on farms or large cut-over tracts.

This bulletin deals not only with the forest conditions on the
upper or higher portions of the coastal plain, where farming is
relatively important, but it is also applicable to the flatwoods, where
only 10 to 15 per cent of the land is in farms and the remainder
mostly in the ownership of large lumber companies. Little atten-
tion will be given to old-growth timber, which is rapidly passing.
The aim is to present the more useful information pertaining to the
growth and value of longleaf pine, the production of timber and
turpentine, the methods of cutting, reforestation, and protection of
second-growth longleaf pine, and the ways of making tracts of land
profitable which will remain idle for many years unless they are
devoted to growing crops of turpentine and timber.

RANGE AND IMPORTANCE

Longleaf pine is generally well known in the localities where it
vrows and is commonly distinguished from other species with which
it is associated. In earlier life, the erect, stout, central stem, densely
covered with leaves (“straw”), is one of its well-known character-
istics. Later and through life it has a straight, clean shaft or trunk.
The leaves are from 8 to 18 inches in length, pendulous, and occur in
crowded clusters of three leaves each, forming the familiar-looking
tufts toward the ends of the branches (PI. I). The terminal buds
are very large and almost white. The cones (“burrs”) vary in
length from 6 to 10 inches—the longest of any of the southern
pines—and, like all the pines, require two full seasons to reach
maturity. The bark is orange-brown, and in mature trees separates
on the surface into large, flat, irregular-shaped plates (Pl. IJ)
made up of thin scales. Fully grown trees reach heights of 70 to
150 feet, and diameters of 2 to 21% feet or occasionally 3. feet. The
trunk is notably straight, slightly tapering, and usually clear of
limbs for one-half to two-thirds of its length.

The natural range of longleaf pine (fig. 1) extends from south-
eastern Virginia southward over the Atlantic and Gulf coastal plain
to Florida and westward to eastern Texas. Commercially the range
is very much less extensive. As a result of lumbering and repeated
fires there remains to-day probably less than one-fifth of the original
stand of longleaf pine, estimated to have amounted originally to
over 400,000,000,000 board feet.

Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE I

Fic. 1.—A heavy crop of longleaf pine cones
bearing seed occurs widely over the South
at intervals of about seven years. The
flowers ‘‘ set’? early in the spring; the seeds
require two years to mature, and are usu-
ally shed in September. Seed crops can thus
be foretold more than a year ahead by ob-
serving the small green cones on the trees in
the summer and fall during their season
of development

Z21I6O2A

Fic. 2.—Foliage and cones (‘‘burrs’’) of the longleaf pine

PLATE I]

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LONGLEAF PINE 5

The largest remaining areas of old growth are found in the five
States bordering on the Gulf of Mexico. Reports from mill opera-
tors owning or controlling practically the entire remaining stand of
eld-growth pine in the South indicate that it is very doubtful
whether at the present rate of cutting the longleaf forests, which
have always been the chief factor in the production of southern
yellow pine, will last for many more years.

The total annual cut of longleaf is not known. According to the
best estimates, the lumber cut is roughly about one-half of the total

7 TH CAR OLNAYY
Te N NSESes EE ot SAQQAY

—_—"_,
°

BOTANICAL RANGE OF
FONGCERBAER-PINE

(Pinus palustris Mil |)

SCALE
100 200 MILES

Fic. 1.—-Outline map of the southern United States, the shaded part showing the
botanical range of longleaf pine. This species of southern pine occurs widely dis-
tributed over the coastal plain from southeastern, Virginia to eastern Texas. Ex-
tensive areas of cut-over longleaf lands occur throughout practically the whole
range. The bulk of the remaining old growth is located in parts of Florida,
Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. Originally, longleaf pine composed
the bulk of what was probably the world’s greatest pure yellow pine forest

southern yellow pine lumber cut, which ranges yearly from 10 to 15
billion board feet. In addition, considerable amounts are cut for
crossties, piling, pulp wood, and fuel wood. The estimated total cut
is, therefore, equivalent to 8 to 10 billion board feet. Continuous
losses of merchantable timber are caused by windfall, turpentining,
insects, fires, and diseases.

Its habit of growth in pure stands over large areas, rather than as
scattered trees in a mixture, and its ability to grow on poor, dry, and
poorly drained soils mark longleaf as a pine of great potential value.
Over its range, generally, longleaf pine is found growing on prac-

6 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

tically all soils except the very wet and the rich alluvial soils, which
are variously occupied by cypress, mixed hardwoods, and slash, pond.
or loblolly pines. Yellow pines have been and still are among the
impor tant sources of wealth in the South. The original timber
is going; but, with a recognition of the evil effects of fire and with a
few essential precautions against it, this timber can be replaced with
young growth, and the land will again come back in large measure to
its former position of economic importance.

SECOND-GROWTH TIMBER

The value of second-growth pine is becoming increasingly recog-
nized as the main body of old growth is cut. “Within the next 10
to 15 years this value will doubtless be widely recognized. Exten-
sive purchases of second growth by investors might be expected in
view of the history of the prices that have been paid and are being
paid for small and often inferior timber growth in New England
and the Lake States.

Second-growth pine has a distinct use and value (Pl. II). Lum-
bermen, who have heretofore regarded themselves simply as manu-
facturers of boards, are coming to have an interest in the question
of a future supply of logs, and during the past few years operators
in various sections of the South have bought large tracts of land
for the perpetuation of their industry. The underlying idea is to
operate continuously on the same tract. The more progressive lum-
bermen regard favorably the buying of good stands of young timber
because it affords a more profitable ‘investment than holding old tim-
ber for 20 to 40 years. A relatively small amount of capital i is tied
up in the combined young timber and cut-over land, and often a
greater return on the ‘investment is possible.

Growth in mature timber is very slow and is offset by losses caused
by insects, fungous diseases, fire, wind, and lightning. Young tim-
ber, on the other hand, is erowing at a good rate and untilizing the
productive capacity of the land. Merchantable stands are coming
to be taxed at an amount nearer their full value. In young stands
the trees that need to be cut out, in order to allow the remaining
trees ample room for growth, vield cordwood, ties. poles. or pulp
wood. Under “ Cutting ” the subject of thinning is discussed. Oper-
ators of turpentine have learned that second growth serves the
purpose. Over considerable sections of the yellow pine region the
lumber industry is now working on second growth.

Extensive areas in the South will not be put to their best use until
they are growing well-stocked stands of young timber. It is in-
conceivable that a section of the country with ‘such a vast area of

natural forest soil could continue for any length of time in a state
of prosperity with timber growing largely eliminated. Any sound
economical policy for the region calls for the right use of the present
forest resources and also for the adoption of public measures which
will insure an income from all lands and a permanent supply of the
raw products so essential to the progress and prosperity of the
people. Cut-over forest land can be made to produce another forest
as good as or better than the original one. It thus follows that the
use of timber and the reproduction of timber can go hand in hand,

LONGLEAF PINE af

provided, of course, that the right steps are taken in accordance
with the natural laws of tree growth.

Cut-over lands on which there are seed trees are worth more than
denuded lands, for the reason that they are earning an income from
the growth of the tr ees, which is accelerated by the increased supplv
of light and soil moisture and from the constantly enhancing value
of the young forest stands. It is claimed by some practical lumber-
men that the value of such lands with young growth will be doubled
within about five years after logging. These factors do not diminish
the prospective value of these “lands for agriculture or interfere to
an appreciable degree with the use of the land for erazing. Lands
that contain some timber are more valuable for farms than are

One sawmill, that cuts mostly longleaf pine, re-
quires daily the timber from about 100 acres, or
yearly that from about 25,000 acres. About 4,000,000
acres of southern pine timber land, it is estimated,
are cut in this country yearly, and about 1,000,000
acres are left fire-swept and practically idle. Is it
not time steps were taken to remedy this situation?
It is not a question of decreasing the rate of cutting
the timber, but rather of stopping fire devastation

and putting the nonproducing acres to work. Mil-
lions of acres of lands now denuded and nonproduc-
tive should be growing trees of use and value.

The supplies of coal, petroleum, and iron are lim-
ited, but not so with wood. A forest is not a thing
to be exploited and then abandoned, but a property
that under right management can be made to yield
fair annual dividends in perpetuity.

Lumber should be among the cheapest of com-
modities, since with adequate forethought and care
the forest becomes, like the air, water, and soil, an
inexhaustible resource.

“skinned ” cut-over lands, because a supply of timber is available for
sale and for home use, there is shade in the pastures, and the trees
make the homes more attractive.

RATE OF GROWTH

During the first 30 to 60 years of its life—the period under special
consideration in this bulletin—and on the better soils or situations
where it occurs, longleaf pine grows at a moderate to rapid rate.

The general rating “of longleaf. as a slow-growing species of pine 1s
the result of the almost exclusive handling and consideration of old
timber, which grows at a slow or very slow rate.

The rate of growth shows wide variations, apparently related
closely to differences in the depth and texture of the soil and its

8 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

supply of soil moisture. Because many of the longleaf pine soils
are subject to periods of extreme dryness, the slow growth in many
natural unthinned stands and the comparatively wide spacing found
in older longleaf stands are often attributed to the competition of
the roots for soil moisture rather than of the branches for light. An
important determining factor in the rate of growth of the indi-
vidual trees is their density, or the number of trees per acre in the
stand, at any specified age. Growth in diameter is particularly
influenced by this condition.

During the first few years the growth of young seedlings con-
sists chiefly in the development of a large root system. A very
stout long taproot, accompanied by several large laterals and many
smaller ones, underlies and supports a very ‘short stem, crowned
with a dense tuft of long, drooping, gr asslike foliage. This period
of apparently little activity 1s very deceptive and has been one cause
of the general impression that longleaf is a very slow grower. Gen-
erally from three to six years are required for longleaf to reach the
height of 3 inches to a foot and develop the requisite root system
for “making the rapid “shoot” upward which follows. Under pro-
tection from fires, it is known that on loamy sand in the upper
Coastal Plain longleaf saplings at 5 years of age reach heights of
2 to 3 feet and at 7 years of 5 to 8 feet. The occurrence of fires
at frequent intervals, usually of about two years, in different sections
over practically the entire longleaf pine belt, and the accompanying
marked effect in checking crowth, should not be overlooked in any
consideration of the rate of. growth.

Since the purpose here is chiefly to consider growth after the
youngest or seedling stage, the germination of the seed and the
early seedling development will be discussed under “ Reforestation ”
in connection with getting young stands started.

The period | of vigorous ‘erowth, during which the longleaf sap-
lings “shoot.” up rapidly, begins at an age of about 5 years and
continues to about 20 to 25 yo At about 7 years, the height of
saplings sometimes increases 2 to 3 feet during a single year. A
erowth of 2 feet a year in well-stocked stands is common over large
areas (fig. 2 and Pl. III), and open-grown trees on average ood
situations not uncommonly grow 8, and sometimes 4 feet yearly. At
the same time, the young trees grow to a diameter (at the ground)
of about 2 inches during the two to four years following the early
preparatory stage. Protected from fire, longleaf saplings require
six to eight years on an average to reach breastheight or 414 feet
above the ground. After the maximum rate of height erowth, at
an age prior to 20 years, the rate gradually diminishes. “It should,
however, be clearly understood that young longleaf pine trees, sub-
jected to hot fires, do not grow at the rates indicated. On protected
old fields in the flatwoods: of eastern North Carolina, measurements
of longleaf pines show that in 35 to 50 years the average trees pro-
duce saw logs 14 to 20 inches at the butt and 20 feet in length.t The
usefulness of these pine trees, however, would begin a little earlier
if they were turpentined, and the thinning out of “the foliage would
also encourage the incoming of the tender grasses which are valuable

1 By W. W. Ashe, formerly in charge of investigations, North Carolina Geological Sur-
vey. Under present methods probably from 10: to 15 feet more of the tree ‘would be
utilized.

Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE III

Fic. 1.—The growth of young pine is being observed and measured on the flat ‘‘ craw-
fish’’ lands at the Coast Experiment Station (near Summerville, 8. C.), a branch
of the Clemson Agricultural College. The trees are numbered, and observations
furnish accurate information upon which to base predictions of future growth and
forest management. Special measures are taken to protect the land from fires ,

Fic. 2.—Soon after the logging, cull trees, short butts, tops, and branches were cut

up into 5-foot lengths for pulp wood. his is good utilization. Along with this

class of material, however, all small pole trees and saplings down to 4 inches
in diameter unfortunately were taken. Some pulp mills in the South are using
little else besides second-growth sap pine—-a practice that is ruinous to the future
forests, and is coming to be realized as such. (Louisiana)

33126°—25——2 9

10 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

for pasturage. This may be considered as about the average of the
better growth to be expected throughout the longleaf pine region.
The soil conditions on old fields are favorable, probably because of
changes in soil structure due to working.

The most useful information regarding the rate of growth is
obtained by measuring the amount of growth actually taking place
in stands approximately even-aged and fairly well stocked. The

{GROWTH IN HEIGHT |

AGE) HEIGHT | YEARLY| YEAR
YEARS, INCHES |GROWTH
| (INCHES)

94| 93-5 — GROWTH UPTO JUNE -22
6 Z

3 BRANCHES (2) (Spring)

9 68.5 RESERVE BUD (Late Summer)
| | :
MID-SEASONAL NODE
27.6
MID-SEASONAL NODE
Sa ees — BRANCHES (2) (Spring)
|
9.6
FALSE = BRANCH (Spring)
ope IE BRANCH FROM RESERVE BUD -
21-6 E
3
| i =a
| 4
x
6} 9.5
.5 |907-1913 +
(SYEARS) [5
| Fee ca Se
| Pras. we ASS a SDE ies
| | (4 STA le >: eras ? Sire) a Cl tayior
Wee Ahi) << Pas ine MASS nS weet:
Fig. 2.—Natural growth of longleaf pine for the past four seasons under fire protection ;

nearly § feet tall in 914 years. Photographed in June during period of rapid upward
growth. (Jasper County. 8. C.)

trees in such stands grow tall, straight, and clean of branches, but
relatively slow in diameter (Pl. II). At any given age, therefore,
the average trees in well-stocked stands will be considerably smaller
in diameter than those of similar age growing in the open. Like-
wise, at relatively early ages—at 30 years for example—an acre that
was half stocked might have trees of saw-timber size, whereas a fully
stocked stand might not have any trees of merchantable saw-timber
SIZeS.

LONGLEAF PINE 11

Table 1 shows, for different ages, the average height and diameter
of longleaf pine ‘trees growing in well- stocked, even-aged stands, on
three different grades of land or situations. These fivures, it is be-
heved, are approximately representative of the rate of growth in
stands of good density over the range of longleaf pine. “They are
based upon the measurement of selected portions of 78 longleaf pine
stands whose locations range from South Carolina to Texas.

TABLE 1.— Average growth of trees in height and diameter, and number of
trees per acre in well-stocked, even-aged longleaf pine stands on various
qualities of land

land land land land land land per acre ?

Years eet Leet eet Inches Inches Inches

15 39 24 10 5.3 3. 6 1.9 550
20 50 34 19 7.0 5. 0 3. 1 450
25 58 42 27 8. 1 6. 0 4.0 393
30 63 48 33 9.0 6.9 4.8 355
35 68 54 39 9.7 7.6 5. 5 328
40 72 58 43 10.4 8.3 6. 2 308
45 AD 60 46 10.9 8.8 6.7 293
50 78 64 49 11.4 9.3 Ue? 280
55 80 66 52 11.8 9.6 Wao, 270
60 82 68 54 ipsal 10. 0 7.8 264
65 83 69 56 12.4 10. 2 8. 0 258
70 84 | 70 57 PR Y/ 10. 4 8.2 254

1 Diameters measured at breastheight, or 419 feet above the ground.

2 The number of trees per acre varies considerably with age, but for any given age averages approximately
the same on the better and poorer classes of land. Not only can the better lands support more trees of a
given size, but the trees are much larger in size at any specified age than on unfavorable situations.

On good-lands, or good situations, it will be seen, for example,
than at 20 years longleaf pine reaches heights averaging about 50
feet; on medium land, about 34 feet; and on poor land, about 19
feet. The medium class of land, for instance, would include the
loamy sands of the middle and upper coastal plains, and the last
class the poorer parts of the flatwoods and the very deep, dry sands.
The corresponding diameters, depending upon the situation, range
from 7 inches down to a little over 3 inches. During the next 10
years, the trees increase yearly in height at the rate of about 1.4
feet (16.8 inches) and in diameter nearly 2 inches. The average
diameter, as shown, usually represents an actual range of 4 to “6
inches, or 2 to 3 inches greater and 2 to 3 inches less. Likewise,
the average height would probably represent a range of 5 feet at
20 years s and as much as 10 feet at 50 years. The average danni:
at breastheight, for example, of trees in a 25-year-old ‘stand on a
medium or Ale of soil is shown to be about 6 inches, and the trees
in that particular stand probably ranged in diameter mostly from

«bout 8 inches down to 4 inches. Table 1 shows that longleaf trees
erowing in well-stock stands on medium situations (land), have
an average yearly height growth of about 17 inches at 25 years, 12
inches at 35, 6 inches at 50, and 4 inches at 60 years; and an increase
in diameter at the rate of about 1 inch in 5 years at 25 years, in 7
years at 35, in 12 years at 50, and in 16 years at the age of 60 (fig. 3).

There should be no misapprehension regarding the time necessary
to grow a crop of pines to a size that is merchantable for timber or

iy BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

turpentine, or about the close relation existing between the number
of trees per acre (tree density) and the rate of growth of the trees
in the stand. The number of longleaf trees per acre for well-stocked
stands does not seem to be widely variable at any given age for the
different classes of situations, and those shown in Table 1 represent
for the various ages about the average for all classes of land. The
number of trees shown for successive ages indicates how tree popula-
tion gradually decreases, because the more vigorous ones crowd out
the others which are unable to keep up in the competition for light
and root space.

GROWTH ON CUT-OVER LAND

Trees of longleaf pine left in logging on the better classes of soils
usually show an accelerated rate “of erowth, sometimes to a very

yrs

40
yrs

20
yrs.

—

Average Diameter (At43 Ft): 5.Oin.__ 6:9ms> 83m = 9.3 in.....10.0in.....10.4in.
Se ee ig ies ae e STi 2 46 He 58 f= 64 66 te Foe
* Volume (R12 BM = 10 ee Oe ee

"Yield per Acre(Ft B.M)..1500. 6000 .._10500 _14500_ _I8000

Fig. 38.—Growth and yield of longleaf.pine on medium soil

marked extent. On thin, poor, poorly drained soils, and on very
deep, dry, sandy soils an absence of stimulated growth following
logging has generally been reported.

In central Louisiana (Winn and La Salle Parishes) acceleration
in diameter growth as high as 200 to 300 per cent has been found.
Trees, for example, that measured 10 inches in diameter when left
in logging and had grown only 1.6 inches during the preceeding 10
years, at the end of 10 years after the logging had increased 3 inches
in diameter. This represents an actual increase in timber volume
of about 200 per cent, or a final volume of three times the former
volume—a rate which held generally true for trees up to 15 inches in
diameter, but fell off considerably for larger trees. With the increase
both in size and stumpage value in the 10 years the value of the 15-
inch tree went from 23 cents to 72 cents, while the 10-inch tree in-
creased its former value six times.

LONGLEAF PINE 13

Another example may be cited. On a tract logged “clean” in
1903, about eight trees per acre were left as culls. They were spike-
topped, crooked, and suppressed in growth, and averaged about 8
inches in diameter breast-high. Within 2 years these trees had started
a rapid growth and for the next 12 years increased at the rate of 1
inch in every 4 years. The average diameter in 1917 was 12 inches.
At the time the trees were left they contained 226 board feet per
acre and in 1917 a total of 803 board feet per acre, or three and one-
half times their former volume—a gain of 250 per cent in less than
15 years. At $5 per thousand feet, 800 board feet would bring $4, a
sum sufficient to cover, for the entire period of 15 years, the cost of
fire protection at 10 cents per year, reckoned at 5 per cent compound
interest, and give a return of 5 per cent compounded on an assessed
land value of $2 per acre. Table 2 shows the growth which actually
took place on the cull trees during a period of ‘15 years following the
logging.

TABLE 2.—Actual growth in volume of cull longleaf pine trees, left in logging,
during the 15 years subsequent to the lumbering, on loamy sand in the
interior coastal plain of central Louisiana *

Volume of trees Growth in 15 years

: (Seribner rule) (1902 to 1917)
Diameter
of trees |
Leen Per cent
1902 1902 1917 | Volume | (based on
in 1902)
Inches | Board feet) Board feet) Board feet) Per cent
eae 104] 80 70° | 700
8 20 | 95 75 375
9 O2ee| 114 82 256
10 | 45 134 89 198
eed 62 157 95 153
ies) 83 186 103 124
See! 110 223 113 103
14 | 142 264 122 86
15) = 185 315 130 70
16 | 235 | 371 136 58
| 300 445 145 48
18 | 375 528 153 41

1Measurements by W W. Ashe, U.S. Forest Service.

GROWTH UNDER FIRE PROTECTION

Under repeated burning, growth is continually set back and
finally most of the saplings are killed. This has, for many years,
been occurring over practically the entire South (Pl LV). Whe
yearly height growth of longleaf-pine saplings from 4 to 12 feet in
height (mostly 6 to 8 feet) was ascertained simultaneously on a
tract burned over yearly, and on an adjacent tract which, after
having been protected for five years, was accidentally burned in Feb-
ruary, 1917, and afterwards protected. ‘The average yearly growth
in height of 100 saplings on each of the tracts duri ing a per riod of
two seasons before and two after the burnings, furnishes good evi-
dence of the effect of protection. (See Table 3 3)

PLATE IV

Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

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LONGLEAF PINE 15

TABLE 3.—Growth in height of longleaf trees from 4 to 12 feet in height, on
lands burned yearly and on protected lands. (Berkeley County, S. C.)

Yearly growth in height.
Growth on
Year On land On pro- Coed
burned tected repararel
over or “‘rough”’ on asls.of
7e9r ‘ l Jae
yearly land unburned
land
Inches Inches Per cent
LOT eae APSE o 11.8 19.6 60
1OLG eee S ey har ae, 12.9 22a 58
TAS D U7 es deeek erect we 15. 0 10. 2 147
LOTS ese see 12.3 18. 1 68
Movaliteso 52.0 70. 0 3 74

1 Except for one flre in February, 1917.
2 Four years.
3 Average.

Thus the two-year average growth of longleaf pine for 1915 and
1916, on the land regularly burned over, was 12.4 inches as com-
pared with 20.8 inches on the unburned land, or a growth on the
burned land of only 59 per cent of normal.

Because of the stimulus of increased light and soil
moisture, a tree measuring 10.4 inches in diameter
at the time of the logging grew during the next 18
years: to a diameter of 18.2 inches, an average of
nearly 1 inch in 2 years. The merchantable length
increased from 48 to 56 feet; the merchantable vol-
ume from 100 to 326 board feet, an average yearly,
increase of 13 per cent and a total increase of 226
per cent. The butt log, which at the time of logging
would have furnished a 4 by 4 stick, now yielded a
10 by 10 timber. The value of the standing tree at
$1 per thousand was 10 cents when it was left in
logging, and in 1920 at $8 per thousand it was $2.60.
The value of the lumber product of the tree in-
creased from $1.70 to $14.75.

After the accidental fire on the protected land, the growth the
following season averaged only 10.2 inches, or about one-half the
usual amount under protection; and the second season after the fire
the growth averaged 18.1 inches, still a little below the general
average.

PRODUCTION OF TIMBER

Second-growth longleaf pine is increasingly used for lumber, cross-
ties (to be given a preservative treatment), cooperage, boxes, crates,
pulp wood, mining timber, and fuel wood. Similar new uses for

small-sized timber with wide rings and coarse texture have been

16 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

successfully found in all the older timber-producing sections of the
country.

The wood of longleaf pine is classed as heavy, hard, and strong.
It has been for many years the standard of the southern yellow
pines, and by far the leading wood of all southern species in point
of amount of production and total value. This applies, of course,
mainly to old-growth timber. Second-growth longleaf timber has
wider annual rings and contains a higher percentage of sapwood.

The amounts of various products referred to in the following
tables and discussion are based upon measurements of sample areas
selected as being representative of the best or ideal condition in
respect to the density or number of trees per acre. Such well-
stocked stands have enough trees so that all the available space and
soil moisture are fully utilized. Fully stocked stands do not occur

Measurements of adjacent young longleaf stands,
cne burned and the other unburned for a period of
five years, showed an average yearly growth under
protection of 18.4 inches, but of only 5.8 inches when
burned over-every year.

A tract of young longleaf saplings, under obser-
vation at Urania, La., after being burned over yearly
for five years, contained longleaf saplings mostly
up to 1 foot and none over 2.8 feet in height, while
in a similar tract protected against fires one-sixth
of the trees were over 2 feet and others ranged up
to 7 feet in height. The two tracts originally con-
tained approximately the same number of longleaf
seedlings and both plots had been continuously pro-
tected against all kinds of grazing.

continuously over large areas but are confined generally to tracts
containing at most only a few acres, such as old fields or the paths cf
tropical hurricanes. The figures of amounts per acre are conse-
quently much. higher than those that would result from the cutting
of ordinary stands. In the use of such ideal tables there is always
great danger of overestimating the amount of timber that is pro-
duced and may be cut from average stands as they are commonly

‘ound.
/ CROSSTIES AND CORDWOOD PRODUCTION

The approximate numbers of crossties and cords of wood (with
the bark and without the bark) produced in well-stocked stands at
different ages are shown in Table 4. These figures should be consid-
ered as only approximate, since various factors enter in to determine
the rate of growth and production of merchantable timber. Three
qualities of situation are shown under the headings of good, average,
and poor land. The yields are based upon the number and sizes of
trees as counted and measured in stands and upon the computed

LONGLEAF PINE 17
number of ties and cords that can be cut from trees of different
sizes; the figures do not represent. amounts actually cut.

The information contained in Tables 5 and 6 will be found useful
in calculating the numbers and grades of ties that can be obtained
from trees of different sizes. The sizes of the standard Ae of
ties are: No. he 6 by 6 inches; No. 2, 6 by 7 inches; No. 3, 6 by 8
inches: No. {6 by. 8 inches: No. 5, 7 by 9 inches. The ae
lengths are 3 ‘and 814 feet. Table 6 shows the number of ties by
grades that can be cut from trees of different sizes, no allowance
being made for defects. For example, trees measuring 15 inches
in diameter at bre astheight and 60 feet in height will, on the
average, cut out three grade No. 2 ties, one grade No. 4 tie, and
one grade No. 5 tie. Table 5 gives the total number of ties without
specifying the grades. Copies of specifications for ties may be
secured from the local railroad agent or may be found in Farmers’
Bulletin 1210, “ Measuring and Marketing Farm Timber.”

TABLE 4.—Crossties and cordwood (pulp wood or fuel wood) produced per acre
by well-stocked, even-aged stands of longleaf pine at different ages. (Ap-
proximate )

Cordwood
Crossties (No. 3, 6 in. by
Age 8 in. by 8 ft.) Wood with bark (fuel Peeled wood (pulp
of wood, etc.) wood, etc.)
stand
Better |Medium]} Poorer | Better |Medium| Poorer | Better |Medium] Poorer
land land land land land land land land land
Years Ties Ties Ties Cords Cords Cords Cords Cords Cords
PRY YS | |S ISAS eS Dae il ee St 24 14 3 19 10 2
30 230 3 Oat a ee ae 49 29 8 39 21 6
40 440 245 50 61 39 17 51 31 13
50 610 385 160 70 48 26 59 39 20
| 60 750 | 510 270 78 55 33 66 45 26
| 70 870 | 620 370 84 62 40 72 51 31
|

of crossties that can be cut from longleaf pine trees of
different diameters and heights

TABLE 5.—Number

[For detailed information by grades of ties, see Table 4,

| Height of tree—Feet

Diame-
ter of 40 | 50 60 70 80 | 90 100
tree!
Total number of ties per tree
Inches
110), 2 9) epee octet tl Le ea ae 1 1 Pio eee APR 2 [Soa = Mpa dl
11 ib 2 2 2 DA iar oe Reel ee
12 2 2 3 3 25 Oot Ss eee
iL Sine [eae reece a nc eA 3 4 26 (Gi (SS Meare a
AA Faies| See 2 A, eet ee 4 5 26 7 8
TGS =| ERs Se Pea 5 6 26 i 8
1am Meter 2 eel [eee iowa 5 6 8 8) 10
ELS ( ie oel| Copa ck aes) ep ay sree al | ME cea 8 9 10 12
Uke Sek jl sey Relig || Sorc ate rl (Dee reece 9 10 1 13
TG Fe here ai, eer ety Ae | Lea Petipa 10 11 12 14
22 () biome [Rete eu eect | eet ee | Nall 11 14 15
|

1 All diameters measured at breastheight, or 414 feet above the ground, and outside bark.
2 See Table 4, which shows the way the ties were worked up into ties of different grades.

33126°—25 =)

18 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Large amounts of longleaf pine are used for pulp wood by the pulp
and paper plants located in the range of the species (Pl. III). Such
plants are located at Roanoke Rapids, N. C.; Bastrop, Bogalusa,
Braithwaite, and Monroe, La.; Moss Point, Miss. ; ; and Orange, exe
The sulphate process of manufacture is used, and a standard cord
of air-dry longleaf pine, containing about 100 cubic feet of solid
wood and weighing about 4,200 pounds when air-dry, will produce
about 1,600 pounds of dry pulp. The weight of “green” wood as
ordinarily handled is variable, depending upon the weather and the
time elapsed since the felling of the tree. The southern- -pine region
oifers a promising field for the future development of the paper
business, particularly for the grade of “kraft,” or heavy wrapping
paper, for which the wood of the yellow pines is well adapted. Re-
cent tests, however, made at the forest products laboratory have
shown the possibility, if proper cooking and bleaching processes
are employed, of using the southern pines for the production of
high-grade book and magazine paper. This kind of paper requires
a Jong-fibered wood, s such as that of the pines, and a short-fibered
wood, such as that of the red gum. Crossties from farm timber
Jands constitute a product of much commercial value. Slack time
during the cool season may often be profitably employed in getting
out ties. In the winter of 1920-21 the cutting of crossties practically
effected the financial salvation of many farmers in various portions
of the South. Sap-pine ties, when treated, show good lasting quali-
ties ¢ and are being used more and more as heart pine becomes scarcer
und more valuable. As young timber grows, it requires more space
for proper development, and the thinnings (see under “ Cutting”)
required in well-stocked stands, at intervals of 5 to 10 years, may
often be made to yield good money in crossties or pulpwood.

TABLE 6.—Numober of crossties by grades that can be cut from longleaf pine
trees of different diameters and heights }

1 The grade is indicated by the smaller numerai shown above and to the right of the numeral giving

the number of crossties of the specified grade.

straight and sound trees, no allowance being made for defect

For example: 1? means one No. 2 crosstie.

The seale is for

LONGLEAF PINE 19

SAW-TIMBER AND WOOD PRODUCTION

Information regarding the approximate contents of individual
trees of different sizes is often useful. The contents in board feet
of saw timber from second-growth longleaf pine trees of different
sizes are given in Table 7. Table 8 shows the contents of second-
growth trees in cubic feet. The actual amount of lumber in logs from
different parts of turpentined and unturpentined trees and the
amount estimated according to the Doyle rule are given in Table 9.

TaBLeE 7.—Preliminary volume table in board feet of second-growth longleaf
pine trees growing in well-stocked stands in the Atlantic coastal plain from
North Carolina to Texas. (Merchantable contents of trees scaled by the
international log rule, allowing for 4&4 ineh saw kerf)

Diameter Total height of tree—Feet
of tree z
breast | | | |
high 40 50 | 60 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 110 Basis
(414 feet | | | |
from ie aes ras
ground) Volume—Board feet
Inches Trees
7 15 20 25 30 | 35 CA a Ue rn ra ae 94
8 25 30 40 45 | 655 6022 esas esate 103
9 30 40 55 65 | 80 Oita) Sa seis eels 81
10 40 55 75 90 110 125 AA Sica |e arate 52
Diets ee 70 95 115 140 165 LS Opes | eee: 54
25 Se ee 90 120 145 | 175 200 230 260 21
Is is eres aee 105 140 175 210 245 280 310 14
4 erate 125 170 210 250 290 330 370 10
[OSC Sees 150 200 245 295 340 390 435 4
Li Gige Pee ae 175 230 285 | 340 395 450 510 1
ASC fan ie eae ee Ne es ed 265 330 395 460 525 OOO Fs ans Sie
aS foe |e ets oe | eae Ne 305 375 450 525 600 670 1
SQ ies Raya | sas east 345 425 510 590 675 UO Ol ee ees
A YY es dara bean eee 385 475 565 655 750 840 eee
Basis 8 48 157 105 82 28 7 |------- 435

For saws cutting 14-inch kerf deduct 9.5 per cent. Stump height, 1 foot; top diameter inside bark, 5
inches. Compiled by frustum form factor method.

TABLE 8.—Preliminary volume table in cubic feet of second-growth longleaf
pine trees, growing in well-stocked stands in the Atlantic coastal plain from
North Carolina to Texas

Diameter Total height of tree—Feet
of tree aise Dee >
breast {
high 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 80 | 90 | 100 110 Basis
(4% feet
above
ground) Volume—Cubic feet
Inches Trees
2 0. 2 0. 2 0.3 (Vea se aes se eee eT Ss Teac | en een [Re | i eke
3 .4 HO afl .9 Ie Mia peasy Se ne es Bee MaDe pe ree
4 ott 1.0 1.3 ewes, DEN Basen ay a et flea | bas an [foe ep 29
5 1.0 1.6 2.1 2577, 3:2 Pa Picco ieclyer hora | areca ba aaa isl LN ae 108
(yd a reece 253 3.1 3.9 4.8 Oeil, (Geer foal [tei oe eee ho Ie ee |e 113
Heal syne 3.1 4.3 5. 4 6. 6 7.8 9.1 HQ HANS tesco tera ace aes 110
Sol earn 4.1 Bead 2 8.8 10. 4 12.0 I g2 tof | encore 105
Oa eae 5.3 eed 9.3 11.3 13. 2 15. 4 17.6 1OUGo|Sasaee 81
QA sate 6. 6 9.1 11.6 14.1 16.6 19. 3 22.0 ZZAN Gis |e 52
[rR Saree 8 11 14 18 21 24 Dies ti\eero Ones |an aes ae 54
pa ces ee 10 14 17 21 25 29 32), 236 40 21
Iga 3e Fc erapeeteescesl ke eee pales 16 20 25 29 34 38 43 48 14
U1 Aln Pera esa) iste 19 24 29 34 40 45 50 55 10
ULF yelper |e Se 22 28 34 40 46 52 58 64 4
iG | eee hss [tran 25 32 39 45 52 59 56 73 il
HTC pes eg | RE ee Ene 36 44 51 59 67 763) 835 |Reee een
11-39] eee [pee ates aye [ponte 42 50 57 66 74 83 93 1
G12) nas (Putt See 46 55 64 74 84 93 WB al es at a se
QON aes Fs eek an | Neer 51 62 72 82 92 103 TRL SEs) eae cleat
Basis | 36 109 153 180 109 81 28 (biscie| | eS e e 703

Volume includes peeled stump, stem, andtop. Compiled by conventional method on logarithmic paper:

20 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

TABLE 9.—Amount of lumber actually sawed out of different parts of turpen-
tined and unturpentined longleaf pine logs of different diameters in band saw-
mill (Louisiana) compared with the volume estimated according to the
Boyle rule

Logs (taken above
Butt logs the butt cut) !
Top

diam- Doyle

eter Turpen- rule

of log | Untur- tined Rough } Smooth
pentined | (boxing), logs logs 2
4 years

Board Board Board Board Board

Inches feet feet feet feet feet
6 Sea eee 20 16 4
7 DH (ice cnc ne Rae 29 24 0)
8 38 32 41 34 16
9 51 42 55 47 25
10 65 53 72 62 36
11 81 67 90 79 49
12 99 81 110 98 64
13 118 96 132 120 81
14 139 114 156 145 100
15 163 131 182 172 121
16 189 151 210 202 144
17 2 Gree Se See 240 234 169
18 245 S| See see ese 270 267 196
19 Died |r Molise 306 304 225
20 SOSA |e esas ene eee 344 256
21 SAD oes |e tates | Core cee 387 289
D2, CaS fee see eee Seo ae a 432 324

1 The greater cut above the butt logs is accounted for by the fact that there was less defect.
2 The smaller cut than that shown under the heading ‘‘rough logs’’ is due to better utilization of the
rough logs.

In considering the amount of saw timber per acre yielded by long- |
leaf pine, it should be borne in mind that the species belongs essen-
tially to the poorer classes of land, large parts of which are either
flat and poorly drained or dry and very sandy. In comparison,
both slash and loblolly pines occupy the more fertile, loamy, and
humus soil. The saw-timber yields refer to what would commonly
be considered as very dense stands, which produce long, clear trunks,
yielding clear, high-grade mater ial, but of relatively small diameters
for specified ages (PL \). Had there been a considerably smaller
number of trees per acre than that shown in Table 1, the trees would
earher have reached merchantable saw-timber sizes, and, therefore,
would have shown larger amounts per acre, at the ages, say, of 30
to 50 years. Denser stands, however, although slower in growth,
give at a little later age a higher total production of timber.

Table 10 shows for different ages of stand and various kinds of
land the approximate total yield of saw timber per acre. The
market is accepting yellow pine lumber of poorer grades. ‘This
change has been rapid since the rise of the extra demand for lumber
in about 1917. Asa result, information regarding the actual cut of
lumber per acre from young stands is frequently desired. The
amount shown under the heading of “mill scale” is that which can
be sawed out by using the tree above a 1-foot stump and down to
a top diameter of 4.6 inches. It is the form of utilization now gen-
eral in parts of New England. Another column shows the amount
of lumber yielded per acre according to the Doyle log rule—which

PLATE V

Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

A well-stocked, second-growth longleaf pine stand, 70 years old, on a farm in Tattnall
County, Ga. The trees average about 70 feet in height and range up to 15 inches
in diameter; they contain a total of about 80,000 board feet per acre of saw tim-
ber. The present owner grew up on the farm and remembers the trees when they
were saplings about 10 years old. The location is within a few miles of the rail-
road, and attractive offers have repeatedly been made to the owner for the timber

to be used as piling and lumber and for turpentining. Fires have largely been

kept out
22)

Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE VI

Tig. 1.—The owner values this old field longleaf pine highly. The trees are mostly
20 to 25 years old, and from 30 to 50 feet in height and 8 to 10 inches in diameter
breast-high—a very rapid growth. It is close to his house and furnishes the farm
With poles, fuelwood, and recently small saw timber., Twice a year the pine straw is
raked off and in part used for fertilizer on the cotton fields and in part sold in
town for stable bedding, as is extensively done in many parts of the South A
section of one tree is shown in Figure 2. The stand is very irregular and contains
only about one-half the full number of trees. (Florence County, S. C.)

Fig. 2.—Section of representative tree in old field longleaf
stand shown in Fig. 1. Twenty to twenty-four year old
trees are 50 feet tall and 7 to 10 inches in diameter at
breastheight. This section, cut at breastheight, shows 16
annual rings. The effect upon growth of a bad fire 9 years
ago will be observed in the ninth ring from the outside.

a (Florence County, 8. C.)

LONGLEAF PINE 23

is in common use in the South—and the difference is striking. Tabu-
lated information of this kind will be found useful in predicting
the amount of growth that may be expected to take place during a
specified period—five years or multiples thereof—upon different
qualities of situation or classes of land. On medium land, for ex-
ample, well-stocked longleaf stands at 40 years of age have been
found containing an average of 6,200 board feet, and these may be
expected to grow 4,200 board feet duri ing the next 10 years, at which
time they will contain a total of about 0: 400 feet. On ood land,
or favorable situations, measured 40-year- “old stands, well stocked
with trees, have contained an average of about 11,000 board feet,
increasing during the next 10 years by about 5,200 board feet, to a
total of 16, 200 feet at 50 years of age. The caution is here repeated
that these are fully stocked stands and very much better than the

average (Pl. VI). The degree of stocking, or the amount of un-
used space in the stand, should be taken fully into account in esti-
mating any piece of timber.

TABLE 10.—Amount of saw timber (in board feet), per acre, grown in longleaf
pine stands of even age, well stocked with trees

Mill scale, or actual cut Doyle rule

Better | Medium] Poorer Better | Medium | Poorer Better | Medium] Poorer
land land land land land land land land land

Board Board Board Board Board Board Board Board Board

Years feet feet feet feet feet feet feet feet feet
30 5, 900 T2003 | See oer 10, 800 5, 700 700 3, 500 1, 900 300
35 8, 500 SHOOOne|Eean eee: 14, 200 8, 200 2, 200 4, 800 2, 900 1, 000
40 11, 000 6, 200 1, 500 17, 100 10, 400 3, 800 6, 200 4, 000 1, 700
45 13, 600 8, 400 3, 100 19, 600 12, 600 5, 300 7, 600 5, 000 2, 500

50 16, 200 10, 400 4, 600 21, 800 14, 400 6, 900 9, 000 6, 100 3, 200
55 18, 800 12, 400 6, 100 23, 700 16, 000 8, 200 10, 300 7, 200 4, 000
60 21, 400 14, 400 7, 500 25, 300 17, 400 9, 500 11, 600 8, 200 4, 700
65 23, 700 16, 200 8, 800 26, 900 18, 800 10, 700 12, 900 9, 200 5, 500
70 25, 800 17, 900 10, 000 28, 400 20, 200 11, 900 14, 200 10, 200 6, 200

The final yields here shown, it should be noted, are the full con-
tents of the stand at the assigned ages and do not include timber
that may have been produced pre eviously, or the intermediate yield,
often a very considerable amount. This intermediate yield is the
product of any thinnings that may have been made (see under “ Cut-
ting,” p. 30) and of the timber that has died out during the life of
the stand. With advance in the age and size of the trees ‘there comes
a natural reduction in the number of trees by the weaker giving way.
The process may be observed in any well-stocked stand in which are
found dominant trees, others that are barely living, and still others
that have died for lack of overhead light, soil moisture, or root space.
If these trees are cut and utilized, the total yield of the stand is
considerably increased, and the stand i is made more profitable.

The following facts concerning a few of the stands actually
measured (see Table 11) will serve as illustrations of what may be

94 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

expected in the way of yields | from well- stocked longleaf stands,
commonly considered locally as “dense” stands:

1. A 23-year-old stand, consisting of 210 trees per acre averaging 8.1 inches
in diameter and 76 feet in height, contained 23 cords of wood (with the bark)
or 17 cords of peeled wood. If all trees measuring 10 inches and over in dia-
meter were cut, the stand would saw out about 2,850 board feet; or if all trees
8 inches and over were cut, it would produce 4,984 feet. By the Doyle log
rule, however, all trees measuring 7 inches and over in diameter scaled only
1,430, or less than one-third of what might actually be sawed ”.

2. A 25-year-old stand, with 560 trees per acre averaging 29 feet in height
and 4.2 inches in diameter, contained 10 cords of wood with the bark on or
% cords of peeled wood. The stand had no trees as large as 10 inches in dia-
meter, but contained about 700 board feet of timber in trees 8 inches and over
in diameter. If the logs in the trees measuring 7 inches and over were scaled
by the Doyle rule, there would be only 160 board feet per acre.

3. A 25-year-old stand, containing 279 trees which averaged 54 feet in
height and 7.6 inches in diameter, contained 30 cords with bark, or 23 cords
of peeled wood. It amounted to 3,579 feet, if it was closely sawed, and if all
trees 10 inches and over were used; or 6,980 feet if all the trees down to and
including those 8 inches in diameter were taken. If scaled by the Doyle rule,
the stand had 2,157 feet.

4. A 50-year-old stand, which consisted of 8304 dominant trees averaging 63
feet in height and 9.2 inches in diameter, contained 55 cords of wood with
bark, or 42 cords without bark. It had 8,565 board feet if closely utilized down
to and including 10-inch trees, or 14,450 feet if the trees 8 inches in diameter
and larger were used. The Doyle rule gave 2,128 board feet. e

5. A 70-year-old stand—an average of two stands of the same age (PI. 1)—
consisted of 265 trees per acre which averaged 68 feet in height and 11.2
inches in diameter, and contained 58 cords of wood with bark or 46 cords with-
out bark. If scaled by the Doyle rule, all trees 7 inches and up showed 9,600
board feet. If cut closely and actually scaled or measured at the mill, all trees
10 inches and up contained about 18,000 board feet, or all trees 8 inches and up
(there were only a few of this class) contained 29,196 board feet.

If the above-described stands are examined, and if reference is made to
Tables 1, 4, and 10, it will be noted, for example, that the 23-year-old stand (1)
consisted of relatively few trees per acre, but that these averaged large both
in diameter and in height. Also, as compared with stands of that age, it
contained about the average amount of cordwood but double the average
amount of saw timber. The two 25-year-old stands afford an interesting com-
parison, showing the effect of the tree density, or number of trees per acre, as
well as the quality of the location. It will be noted that the first stand (2)
contained over twice as many trees per acre as the second (3), and that they
are very much smaller—29 feet in height aS compared with 54 feet, and 4.2
inches in diameter as compared with 7.6 inches. Here the difference in dia-
meters is probably largely due to differences in the density or number of trees
per acre. The two 70-year-old stands (5) show. very nearly the general aver-
age size of trees both in diameter and in height, and slightly less than the
average amount of cordwood and saw timber.

2 By the Doyle rule, small-sized timber usually scales only one-third to two-thirds of the
amount that can actually be cut by careful sawing and close utilization in the log.

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26 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
PRODUCTION OF TURPENTINE AND ROSIN

The bulk of the turpentine and rosin produced in this country
has been obtained from longleaf pine.’ The average yearly pro-
duction for the six years ending in 1919 has been estimated to range
between 23,000,000 and 25,000,000 gallons of spirits of turpentine
and between 700,000,000 and 820,000,000 pounds of rosin. The center
of production has changed, gradually following the timber supplies
from the Carolinas to Florida. The industry is extensive in Florida
and is developing in Louisiana. Second-growth pine now furnishes
most of the yield from South Carolina “and Georgia, and smaller
amounts from Florida and Alabama.

YIELD OF SECOND-GROWTH STANDS

Young longleaf pine has been for many years worked for turpen-
tine, and this is often its greatest and sometimes its only value..
In this respect extensive abuse of young pine has come to be very
general. As long ago as 1900 a considerable amount of the tur-
pentine produced in “South Carolina and coastal Georgia was de-
rived from young stands of longleaf and slash pine. Since the
common practice has been to work young stands heavily, let them
burn freely, and make very little further use of them, the destruc-
tion of young longleaf has taken place on an extensive scale.
Obviously this in part explains the prevailing absence of second
growth.

Only a few preliminary studies have thus far been made in the
amount of naval stores produced by second-growth longleaf pine.
There is much need for accurate information in regard to the
amount of gum yielded by trees of different sizes and ages and by
entire stands of various ages and tree densities.

Table 12 gives a rough approximation of the yields per crop and
per acre of crude gum, turpentine, and resin from the first year’s
working of second- orowth, well-stocked longleaf pine stands.
Gaution 1s necessary, Nomen in using the table, since it should be
regarded as based upon insufficient data to make it final, but it is
probably the best of its kind available. It is not based upon actual
yields from whole stands, but has been computed from two sets
of independent measurements, one relating to the sizes and numbers
of trees per acre of growing longleaf stands (Table 1), and the
other relating to the flow of gum “from a limited number of trees
of specified sizes (see Table 13). On the basis of this information
secured by the Forest Service, United States Department of Agri-.
culture, the table was compiled jointly by the State Department of
Conservation, New Orleans, La., and the Forest Service. It is
included here with the hope that it may be the means of stimulating
the collection of further measurements and the acquisition of more
complete information. The yield of gum per crop is exceedingly

variable, as is well known among operators, depending upon the
locality and region (extending from North Carolina to Texas), the
season, class of labor, and indirectly the market conditions. Hence,
any figures of yield should be used with discretion.

3 The remainder has come from working slash pine, a close associate of longleaf. (See
Farmers’ Bulletin 1256, Slash Pine.)

LONGLEAF PINE Pat

TABLE 12.—Computed production of gum, turpentine, and rosin from well-
stocked second-growth longleaf pine stands, of various ages (virgin, or first
year’s working) 2

1 This table is computed from two different sets of measurements and is not based upon actual, measured
yields of whole stands. The working of small trees and young stands is not good practice except where
trees are to be removed in thinnings or the land is to be cleared for other uses.

2 Production of turpentine and rosin calculated on the basis of 100 pounds of gum yielding 214 gallons
of turpentine (one-twentieth barrel) and 70 pounds of rosin (about one-sixth of a 500-pound barrel).

3 One cup hung on each tree measuring 7 to 9 inches, inclusive, in diameter; two cups hung on about
one-half of the 10-inch trees and on all trees measuring 11 inches and over.

4 In the 40-year-old stand, 35 of the total 65 trees were 2-cup trees; in the 50-year-old stand, 25 of the 45
trees; and in both stands the remainder of the 10-inch class of trees were hung with one cup each.

Table 12 assumes that well-stocked stands are heavily cupped
with one cup to every tree measuring 7, 8, or 9 inches in diameter,
ohe cup on about one-half of the 10- -inch trees and two on the re-
mainder, and two cups on all trees 11 inches and over. The figures
are for the first year’s working. At 30 years, for example, the aver-
age yield per crop (10,000 cups) is shown to be 53,000 pounds of gum,
which makes in turn about 26.5 barrels of spirits of turpentine * and
88 barrels of rosin. This is obtained from 210 cups per acre, each
yielding 5.8 pounds of gum during the season. This number of
cups was hung on 210 trees out of a total stand of 355 trees per acre.
At 40 years, a yield of 34 barrels of turpentine may be expected.
The yield per acre at 30 years was 1,122 pounds of gum, producing
about 28 gallons of turpentine and 1.9 barrels of rosin. These yields
seem to be very fair in comparison with the average of about 55
barrels of spirits per crop yielded by the better class of mature
stands under good working in the Gulf region, and an average for
all timber of about 20 barrels per crop. The inclusion of “small
sizes of trees and very close cupping should not be taken as any
recommendation for operating such young stands as a general prac-
tice. The figures are given as an indication of what might be ex-

4By a coincidence this is the same yield as shown by the 1910 United States census
for the average crop in Georgia, where much of the production is from second-growth
timber.

28 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

pected in working thick stands of young timber before thinning or
clearing up the land.

On the Florida National Forest the longleaf pine of all ages and
sizes, 10 inches and over in diameter, in a certain contract Yielded
a virgin working of 96,000 pounds of gum per crop, which gave 48

The production of turpentine and rosin has shown
a marked downward trend for some 15 years. This
is due chiefly to the exhaustion of virgin timber.
The very wasteful and destructive methods generally
employed with both old timber and second growth
have always meant a total production much below
what would be possible under a more conservative
system. If the rate of decrease continues, within the
next decade or so the United States will lose its com-
manding position in the world’s market and may in
time be unable to supply its domestic requirements.

barrels of spirits and 134 barrels of rosin. This was an average yield
of 9.6 pounds per face, of which 8.3 pounds were dip and 1.3 pounds
scrape. The timber as a rule is old and very slow growing, but was
worked conservatively.

TABLE 13.—Yield of gum in pounds during the first two seasons from. 1-cup
longleaf trees and during the first three seasons for 2-cup trees?

Yield of gum during

season
Diameter
of tree
(breast One-cup Two-cup

high) trees (first | trees (first,
or second | second, or
year) third year)?

1 Based upon measurements and observations of careful working in southeast Georgia by Dr. Austin
Cary, logging engineer, Forest Service.

2 The yield from 2-cup trees is slightly greater the first year but holds up well during the succeeding
years; in “good working it averages about 50 per cent greater yield than 1- -cup trees.

UNPROFITABLE TURPENTINE PRACTICES ®

Working small-sized trees——The figures given in Table 13 refer
to young longleaf pine timber in southern Georgia, and show the
weight of gum in cups ready for the first dip after six streaks. The

> The discussion is based upon studies and recommendations by Austin Cary, logging
engineer of the Forest Service. See also ‘‘ New Method of Turpentine Orcharding,”

Forest Service Bulletin 40. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Government
Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Price, 10 cents.

Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE VII

Chipping at about the midseason of the second year’s working. This represents
average good practice, but a single piece of iron is being much used instead of two
bent gutters. At the rate of one-half inch at each streak, the face moves up the
trunk about 16 inches a year, Including the high face, this permits of 6 to 8
years’ working,

30 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

trees ranged from 7 to 12 inches in diameter (measured at breast-
height, or 4144 feet above the ground); each tree was hung with one
cup and was being worked for the first year. The production for
the season is computed on the assumption that there were six
dippings.

The most noteworthy point here is that a 7-inch tree yields only
about one-half the gum yielded by a 10-inch tree. The 10, 11, and
12 inch trees with 2 cups yielded 50 per cent more gum than trees
of the same sizes worked with only 1 cup each. In operations on
small timber the expense of cups, ‘hanging, chipping, and dipping
is incurred in connection with many trees that yield only about a
quart of gum for a full season’s working. Even smaller returns
than those shown above are not uncommon. In May, 1920, third-
year workings of these small sizes were found that yielded at the
rate of 1 ounce of gum to each four streaks. The conclusion arrived
at from these weighings is that, in general, timber less than 8 inches
in diameter at breastheight, or about 10 inches on the stump, yields
gum in such small amounts as to be considered below a workable
size.

Faces per tree——Observations on virgin crops indicate that the
addition of the second face, when conservatively made and worked
on longleaf pine trees from 10 to 12 inches in diameter at breast-
height, increases the yield of the tree by about 50 per cent over the
yield of one face. However, when trees under 12 to 14 inches in
diameter have been worked with a second face their growth has nearly
stopped. They have often been found to be in a sickly or dying con-
dition. The more observing and practical operators feel justified for
that reason in not permitting a second face on trees less than 15 inches
in diameter; but if a second face is allowed, they require that bars
shall measure at least 4 inches across and that at least 40 per cent of
the surface or circumference of the tree shall remain uncut.

Heavy chipping—For conclusive results regarding the effect of
heavy and hght chipping, reference may be made to the experiments

carried on in Florida by Dr. Charles F. Herty and published by the
Forest Service® (PI. VII). To this may be added some results

obtained by the Forest Service on the Florida National Forest near
Pensacola. In these workings the trees were conservatively cupped,
and chipping was limited to one-half inch in depth and the same in
height. Under these conditions the results per crop of 10,000 cups
from five successive years’ work on a specified body of timber have
been as follows: First year, 46 barrels: second year, 40 barrels: third
year, 41 barrels: fourth year, 38 barrels: fifth year, 41 barrels.

The average season’s production of gum per crop was, therefore,
41 barrels, with a total of 206 barr els. It will be noted that there
was a slight alternation in the amounts, with production the third
and last years equal to the average for the operation. A significant
result was the subsequent death of only 2 per cent of the trees from
dry facing. Private operations in the same locality using the ordi-
nary old-time system commonly lose from 10 to 20 per cent of their
timber and the average vield of gum obtained is approximately as

‘Relation of Light Chipping to the Commercial Yield of Naval Stores.” by Dr.
Chaiies FE. Herty. Forest Service Bulletin 90. For sale by the Superintendent of Docu-
ments, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Price, 10 cents.

LONGLEAF PINE 81

follows: First year, 46 barrels; second year, 38 barrels; third year,
25 barrels; average yearly, 36.3 barrels.

This total yield of 109 barrels in three seasons’ working with an
average yearly production of 36.3 barrels per crop stands in bold
contrast to the result of 206 barrels obtained under similar condi-
tions on the Florida National Forest by the use of better methods
over a period of five years.

SUGGESTED SYSTEMS OF TURPENTINING

A method that is suggested for working fully stocked second-
growth stands starts with the gradual thinning out of the stand by
means of periodic turpentining of the trees to be removed in order
to develop an open forest of large-topped, vigorous trees capable of
being worked for turpentine repeatedly over a period of 30 to 50
years or more.

Beginning when the trees are 25 to 35 years old, the first step
is the removal of the least desirable trees from the stand. These
trees, perhaps one-third of the total number, are worked for turpen-
tine under such a system of cupping as will give the maximum im-
mediate financial returns to the operator. When the turpentine
value of the tree is gone—probably after a working period of five
years—they are cut and utilized. Following the working and cut-
ting of the first lot of trees the remaining stand is again gone
over at an age of 30 to 40 years, and the largest trees are selected
and designated to constitute the final stand. All other trees are
marked for immediate and rapid working under the system of
cupping used in the first thinning operation. After five or more
years of operation these trees are cut and removed from the stand.
This leaves the trees of the final stand which are to receive the
conservative turpentine management and from which the chief and
sustained money yield of the forest is to be expected.

The final stand consists of only the best trees—those stimulated
by the previous thinnings to a state of development much in advance
of trees of the same age, 35 to 45 years—in unthinned stands. They
should be uniformly and widely spaced and stand about 100 trees
per acre. The final stand is now ready for systematia working over
a period of 20 to 30 years. The trees are worked conservatively,
regular intervals of three to five years being allowed for rest between
the successive seven or eight year periods of working up a face.
As the tree grows and the wounds heal, narrow faces may be worked
between the old ones. At the end of the “rotation,” when the trees
are considered mature, or at an age of about 80 years, they are
heavily worked and then cut for lumber or other products.

This system is quite similar to that in use by the French in tur-
pentining their forests of maritime pine.’ The results of seven
years’ operation on the Florida National Forest (1918-1924) indi-
cate that no great difficulty will be found in applying it generally
to second-growth stands in this country.

A modification of the above method, which is believed by some
practical operators to be feasible and promising, follows more
nearly the prevailing custom of turpentining in that the operation

7 For brief description of the French method, see Farmers’ Bulletin 1256, ‘‘ Slash Pine.”

32 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

starts when the largest trees in the stand have attained sufficient
size for working. After being completely worked the trees are cut
and removed, giving space for the accelerated growth of the re-
maining stand. In the working the trees are bled for about four
years (with a relatively narrow face to a height of 6 feet), followed
by a rest for about: three years. This operation is then repeated
twice with a new face each time, representing in all a working
period of about 20 years. If the age of the stand at the start was
30 years, it is now 50 years old. The trees are now cut and utilized,
and another 20-year working period begun, making use of the larger
trees of the remaining stand.

If the yearly burnings in connection with the turpentining de-
stroys most of the young growth which starts, as seems likely, in
order to secure a satisfactory reforestation of the tract, it may be
necessary, In the case of either method of turpentining, to secure for-
est regeneration by the artificial means of seed sowing or by plant-
ing nursery-grown seedlings.

Operating old-growth timber on the Florida National Forest.—
The regulations for turpentine operations on Government-owned
timber on the Florida National Forest ® will afford suggestions to
private owners desiring to work or lease their timber, under methods
of operation that aim to reduce the injury and waste and maintain
the production of turpentine over a maximum period of years. The
enforcement of these requirements has been no obstacle to success-
ful forest management, but rather has proved to be a great help.
Competition for turpentine rights is keen among operators, and in
1919 the bids reached the high mark of $25.70 per 100 cups.

Close observation and study of the best practice of turpentining
has resulted in the regulation of 1 cup on trees measuring from 10
to 15 inches, inclusive, j in diameter; 2 cups on trees 16 to 24 inches;
and not more than 3 cups on any tree. The forest is located
in western Florida, in a region of deep, dry, sandy soil, where only
longleaf pine and southern blackjack oak are able to maintain an
existence and where the pine is mostly mature or slow growing.

The timber, however, is worked for about 14 years out of a total
of 15 to 17 years. The procedure normally is about as follows, sub-
ject to minor variations depending upon conditions: Virgin crop
worked for 3 years, high-face 4 years (sometimes 3) ; a rest period
usually of 3 years (minimum of 1 year); back-cupping carried on
for 3 years, and high-face back-cutting for 3 or 4 years. The first
working is sold, or “if desired, the combined first and second work-
ings together. After the rest interval the same practice of selling
the rights i is used in the back cuppings. The plan is to sell the tim
ber at the expiration of the working, which on one operation on the
Florida National Forest will be completed in 1927.

An idea ou the conditions to which the buyers of turpentine rights
on the national forest subscribe may be had from the following
form. The hold fate type indicates the portions of the agreement
that are filled in separately in each case, and the figures used
represent about average conditions.

8 Initiated by I. F. Eldredge, forest inspector, and for about 10 years carried on under
his direction. This applies to all of the turpentine operations on the Florida National
Forest from 1907 to 1917.

LONGLEAF PINE 33

UNITED STATES DPPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
FOREST SHPRVICE
NAVAL STORES AGREEMENT

We, James F. Elder and Wm. H. Johnson, partners, doing business under the firm name
and style of Elder and Johnson, of Gracewood, State of Florida, hereby agree to work for
naval stores certain timber in the Florida National Forest in accordance with our bid submitted in
pursuance of a notice inviting bids therefor, duly given by publication. Said timber is all the longleaf
pine timber not excepted under the terms of this agreement located on an area of about 640 acres to be
definitely designated by a Forest officer before cupping begins in Sec. 14, T. 1 S., R. 26 W. Principal
meridan, within the Florida National Forest, upon which area it is estimated that 10,000 cups, more
or less, may be placed. In consideration of the granting of this privilege to us we do hereby promise
to pay to the District Fiscal Agent (Washington, D. C.) or such other depository or officer as shall
hereafter be designated, to be placed to the credit of the United States, the sum of Twenty-five hundred
dollars ($2,500), more or less, as may be determined by actual count at the rate of Two hundred and
fifty dollars ($250) per thousand cups iz installments, the first of which shall be in the sum of
not less than $1,000, payable on or before the date of execution of this agreement, the second
in the sum of not less than $800 payable on or before February 1, 1923, and the third in the
sum of the balance then remaining due on or before February 1, 1924, credit being given for
the sums, if any, hitherto deposited with the said United States depository or officer in connection with
this privilege.

And we further promise and agree to work said timber in strict accordance with the following condi-
tions and all regulations prescribed by the Secretary of Agriculture:

1. Timber on valid claims and alltimber under other contract with the Forest Service is exempt from
cupping under this agreement.

2. No tree will be cupped, chipped, raked, or worked in any manner until payment has been made in
accordance with the terms of this agreement.

3. Title to the product of the timber included in this agreement will remain in the United States until
it has been paid for as herein prescribed and removed from the tree.

4. No timber will be cupped except that on the area designated by a Forest officer; and all timber on
that area will be cupped except as herein specified.

5. No marked tree and no tree 9 inches or less in diameter at a point 414 feet above the ground will be
cupped; not more than one cup will be placed on trees from 10 inches to 15 inches, inclusive, in diameter;
not more than two cups will be placed on trees from 76 inches to 24 inches, inclusive, in diameter, and
not more than three cups will be placed on any tree.

6. The depth of streaks will not exceed 1/2 inch, excluding the bark. The width of the streaks will be so
regulated that not more than 1/2 inch of new wood will be taken from the upper side of each streak. The
faces chipped or pulled the first season will not exceed 16 inches in height from the shoulder of the first streak
of the season to the shoulder of the last streak of the season, including both. The faces chipped or pulled
in subsequent seasons will not exceed 16 inches in height, measured in the same way. A No.0 or smaller
hack or puller will be used for chipping or pulling. Bars or strips of bark not less than 4 inches wide in
the narrowest place will be left between faces, and this width shall not be lessened as the faces progress
up the tree. Where more than one face is placed on a tree, one bar between them will not exceed 8 inches
in width. The first streak at the base of the face will be made at the time the apron or gutter is placed.
Not more than one streak will be placed on any face during any week except during June and July, when
faces may be double streaked, provided that not more than one-half inch is added to the height of the face
during the week. - Faces not chipped in accordance with these specifications may be marked out and the
cups removed by the Forest officer.

7. A cupping system satisfactory to the Forest Supervisor will be used, and the cups and aprons or gutters
will be so placed that the shoulders of the first streak will be not more than 20 inches distant from the
bottom of the cup, and the cups first placed will be as near the ground as possible. No wood will be exposed
on any tree by removing the bark below the gutter or aprons.

8. No unnecessary damage will be done to cupped trees, marked trees, or to trees below the diameter
limit. Trees that are badly damaged during the life of this agreement, when such damage is due to care-
lessness or negligence, shall be paid for at the rate of $5 per thousand feet board measure, full scale. ‘Trees
split or windthrown because of deep incisions for raised tins will be considered as being damaged unneces-
sarily. ‘The Forest Supervisor shall decide as to the presence and extent of damage.

9. No cups will be placed later than April 1, 1922, without written permission from the Forest Super-
visor, and all timber embraced in this agreement will be cupped before said date. The cupping will pro-
ceed with all reasonable speed.

10. Unless extension of time is granted, all timber will be chipped, dipped, and scraped, the product
and all cups, aprons, gutters, and nails removed, and each cupped tree thoroughly raked to the satisfaction
of the Forest officer not later than December 31, 1924. ‘Tins will be pulled out, not chopped out.

11. No fires will be set to the timber, underbrush, or grass on the area covered by this agreement without
the written permission of the authorized Forest officer, and during the time that this agreement remains
in force we will, independently, do all in our power to prevent and suppress unauthorized forest fires on
the said area and in its vicinity, and will require our employees and contractors to do likewise. We
hereby agree, unless prevented by circumstances over which we have no control, to place our employees,
contractors, and employees of contractors at the disposal of any authorized Forest officer for the purpose
of fighting forest fires, with the understanding that unless the fire-fighting services are rendered on the area
embraced in this agreement or on adjacent areas * * ™“ we will be paid for such services at rates to be
determined by the Forest officer in charge, which rates shall not be less than the current rates of pay pre-
vailing in the said National Forest for services of a similar character: Provided, That the maximum expendi-
ture for fire-fighting without remuneration in any one calendar year, at rates of pay determined as above,
will not exceed $50; and further provided, That if we, our employees, contractors, or employees of con-
tractors are directly or indirectly responsible for the origin of the fire, we will not be paid for services so
rendered, nor will the cost of such services be included in determining said maximum expenditure for any
calendar year.

It is further agreed that except in serious emergencies as determined by the Forest Supervisor we will
not be required to furnish more than 4 men for fighting fires outside of the area above specified, and that
any employees furnished will be relieved from fire fighting on such outside areas as soon as it is practicable
for the Forest Supervisor to obtain other labor adequate for the protection of the National Forest.

12. All cupped trees will be raked in a workmanlike manner for the space of 214 feet around each tree
during December of each year of the life of this agreement; and, if required by the Forest officer in charge,
a fire line not less than 3 feet wide in the narrowest place shall be hoed or plowed around the area covered
by this agreement in such a manner as to completely isolate it from adjoining lands. Natural firebreaks

03126°—25——_5

34 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

such as creeks, swamps, roads, ete., may be utilized with the consent of the Forest officer in charge. These,
fire lines must be made and receive the approval of the Forest officer in charge before any cups are placed
the first year or new streaks made at the beginning of each subsequent year.

13. Cabins, shelter camps, telephone lines, and other improvements necessary in working the timber
covered by this agreement will be constructed on National Forest land only under special-use permit.

14. If requested by the Forest Supervisor, we also agree to keep an accurate count and record of the
number of barrels of gam and pounds of scrape obtained from the area covered by this agreement and to
report the same upon request.

15. The United States reserves the right to sell or otherwise dispose of and remove or have removed
all dead timber and uncupped living timber from the area covered by, and during the life of, this agreement:
Provided, That the removal of Such material will not, in the judgment of the Forest officer, interfere with
the operations of the purchaser.

16. If during the life of this agreement cups are raised, the nails which had supported them and the gutters
shall be removed within thirty days after the raising of the cups.

17. If during the life of this agreement cups and tins are placed on trees at any point other than at the base
where they are first placed, a two-piece Saw-tooth apron shall be used. In placing these aprons a straight
edged driving blade shall be used and an incision made on each side of the face, which incision shall not
exceed one-quarter (4) of an inch in depth.

If desirable in order to allow cups to fit better, narrow chips, not more than one-half inch thick may be
removed from the ridge in the center of the faces.

18. Complaints by the purchaser, arising from any action taken by a Forest officer under the terms of
this agreement, will not be considered unless made in writing to the Forest Supervisor having jurisdiction,
within thirty (30) days of the alleged unsatisfactory action.

The decision of the Secretary of Agriculture will be final in the interpretation of the regulations and
provisions governing the sale, cupping, and removal of the product covered by this agreement.

19. All operations on the area may be suspended by the Forest officer in charge if the conditions and
requirements contained in this agreement are disregarded, and failure to comply with any one of said
conditions and requirements, if persisted in, will be sufficient cause for the termination of this agreement
and the cancellation of all permits for other uses of the National Forest incident thereto: Provided, That
the Forester may, upon reconsideration of the conditions existing at the date of sale and in accordance
with which the terms of this agreement were fixed, and with the consent of the purchaser, terminate this
agreement, but in the event of such termination the purchaser shall be liable for any damages sustained
by the United States arising from the purchaser’s operations hereunder.

20. No Member of, or Delegate to Congress, or Resident Commissioner, after his election or appointment,
and either before or after he has qualified, and during his continuance of office, will be admitted to any share
or part of this contract or agreement, or to any benefit to arise thereupon. Nothing, however, herein
contained will be construed to extend to any incorporated company, where such contract or agreement
is made for the general benefit of such incorporation or company. (Section 3741, Revised Statutes, and
sections 114-116, act of March 4, 1909.)

21. Theterm “‘ officer in charge,’’ wherever used in this agreement, signifies the officer of the Forest Serv-
ice who shall be designated by the proper Supervisor or by the District Forester to supervise the timber
operations in this sale.

22. This agreement will not be assigned in whole or in part.

23. The conditions of the sale are completely set forth in this agreement, and none of its terms can be
varied or moditied except in writing by the Forest officer approving the agreement or his successor or
superior officer, and in accordance with the regulations of the Secretary of Agriculture. No other Forest
officer has been or will be given authority for this purpose.

24. And as a further guarantee of a faithful performance of the conditions of this agreement, we deliver
herewith a bond in the sum of $1,000, and do further agree that all moneys paid under this agreement
will, upon failure on our part to fulfill all and singular the conditions and requirements herein set forth,
or made a part hereof, be retained by the United States to be applied as far as may be to the satisfaction
of our obligations assumed hereunder.

Signed in duplicate this first day of December, 1921.

(Corporate seal, if corporation.) Elder and Johnson.
By James F. Elder,
A Member of Firm.

Witnesses:

John Dorman.
Richard Rowley.

Approved at Pensacola, Fla., under the above conditions, December 8, 1921.
W. F. Hillyer,
Forest Supervisor.

USEFUL EQUIVALENTS IN TURPENTINING

A few equivalents and values in turpentining operations may be
useful. They should be regarded only as approximate because of
the variable nature of practically every stage of the industry.
Although some of the factors refer only to mature timber, others
seem to be equally applicable to second-growth trees, and all pertain
to the industry as it is being carried on commercially.

1. The yield per tree of crude gum for one season averages from
about 8 to 12 pounds per working cup or face on old-growth trees of
average size. Based upon the figures in a following paragraph (4),
the average yield per cup for a season is from 1 pint to 1 quart of
turpentine and from 4 to 5 pounds of rosin.

2. A crop of 10,000 cups on second growth will generally yield
from 20 to 45 barrels of turpentine and from 56 to 126 barrels of

LONGLEAF PINE 35

rosin (500 pounds each), depending upon the favorableness of the
oy the size and vigor of the trees, and the method of working.

A gallon of spirits of turpentine weighs about. 714 pounds, and
a bar of turpentine contains about 50 gallons.

4. Crude gum or “dip” may be assumed to contain, in round
figures, an average by weight of 20 per cent of turpentine, 15 per cent
of water and trash, and 65 per cent of rosin. One barrel of average
crude turpentine will yield about 10 to 12 gallons of spirits of tur-
pentine. One hundred pounds of clean gum will yield about 21%

COMMON PRACTICES IN TURPENTINING
(Deseription of Plate VIII)

Fic. 1.—There are 240 trees per acre, of which 184 measure from, 7 to 14 inches in
diameter at breastheight, and 56, which are suppressed, measure from 4 to 6 inchesi in
diameter. Some 20 trees per acre of turpentine sizes are too nearly dead from fire for
cupping, and a, good many trees are missing as the result of repeated burnings.

Some of the trees in this working have two faces and leave insufficient width of bars
for the trees to function properly. The result is a marked reduction. in the total pro-
duction. If not disastrously burned. the stand’ will be worked for a third year. If the
stand is afforded protection, the one-face and the two-face trees, which have not become
dry-faced, after 5 to 10 years of rest and growth can. be reworked. If the timber is not
to ke cut at the end of the first or second working, a more conservative working than
here shown. would have been advisable.

At 15 cents! per cup for a 38-year lease for turpentine the stand is yielding the owner
$28.80 per acre, and there will be a cut of some 15,000' board feet of lumber. The effect
ot the fires has been to deplete the stand of almost one-third of the trees which it should
contain, at. the present time. In the picture some effects are clearly apparent. At the
age of 45 years, well-stocked longleaf stands should have about 300. trees per acre all of
turpentine sizes (Table 1).

On the same scale of working as is here operated, these stands should afford about 400
cupsi per acre. At) 15 cents! per cup for the three years, and counting in the cups which
have been lost by fire, the total return. for timber rights would have been about $60, or
an average yearly return for the 45-year period of about $1.35 per acre. The value of
15,000 board feet of second-growth pine, assumed to be $3 per thousand, would add $45
and bring the total average gross income up to $2.35 per acre yearly.

The operation, as it is being carried on, illustrates well the better class of second-
growth stands and the way they are being worked., Thisi one is in Baker County, Fla.

Fig. 2.—This stand of longleaf, with a little slash. pine mixed, is about the same age
and is located near the stand shown. in figure 1. It, however, was boxed, worked for
three seasons, and since then has been, allowed to burn over at random. The trees have
been badly burned; some are gone ‘‘ root and branch,’’ leaving! holes in the top soil as the
only visible mark of where they formerly stood. More than one-half of the trees origi-
nally boxed have been. killed or destroyed. The remaining portion in 1916 was considered
of no value because it was badly burned, insect infested, and decayed. Eight or nine
years had elapsed since the timber was worked. The original tree density was very good ;
now about four trees are left to every ten that were standing when they were boxed and
worked. There are now 55 trees per acre measuring 7 inches or over in diameter. The
growth. of the trees, which, came up in an, old field, has been rapid, and the stand is of
relatively high value. The owner received 10 cents a cup, or from 192: cups per acre (an
estimated number) $19.20 per acre, as the return on, the timber for the period of 40
years of growth.

Under adequate protection during the 10! years following the first working, if the trees
were back-cupped in 1919, and the ‘timber sold at $3 per thousand feet on the stump, the
profits would undoubtedly have been somewhere near four times the amount received.
The treatment of this promising stand represents widspread practice, the folly of which
is beginning to be widely and fully appreciated. This operation is in Baker County, Fla.

gallons of turpentine and 83 pounds of rosin. One gallon of crude
gum weighs 9.2 pounds, and a 50-gallon barrel of gum weighs 460
pounds net.

5. The yield of both turpentine and rosin is notably increased by
the use of the cup system as compared with the boxing method. The
yield of turpentine for two similar crops under investigation for
three years was 151 barrels by cupping, and by boxing 118 barrels
of spirits of turpentine. (Pl. 1X.) Both shallow and light chipping,
as practiced on the Florida National Forest, are effective in increas-
ing the yield of gum.

Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE VIII

¥
es
$
i
}
=

Fic. 1A 45-year-old longleaf pine stand in northern Florida being worked for the
second season with 192 cups on 164 trees per acre. (See description on p. 37.)

BE MALEM PRE

Fig. 2.—The story is told in this picture of the great waste of timber by fire that
very commonly is permitted to follow turpentining. (See description on p. 37.)
G

Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

PLATE IX

Tic. 1.—For the purpose of conserving the yield of gum, this operator is hanging
: cups on timber that has up to this time been worked by a crude boxing method

SRN

Fic. 2.—Effect of deep chipping on longleaf pine about 50 years old in Clinch County,
Ga. In strong winds the leverage is great and the breaking point is mostly at

the top of the face. By careless burning a good many of these faces have been
deadened. It is known that pine timber may be worked for turpentine, if it is

done in a suitable maimner, without causing great injury either to its value for
other purposes or to its rate of growth

38 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

6. If the yield for the first year is assumed to be 100 per cent, the
yields for the following years in per cents for a number of crops were
for turpentine 90, 70, and 62, and for rosin 94, 75, and 70, respec-
tively. This repr esents good working under private practice. Under
Government working on the Florida National Forest there is only
a slight decline, and that occurs in the second year’s production.

7. If the total yield from three years’ operation is assumed to be
100 per cent, turpentine operators formerly counted on obtaining
about 45 per cent the first year, 35 per cent the second, and 20 per
cent the third year.

A publication of the Department of Agriculture entitle ~ Lur-
pentine, its sources, properties, uses, transportation, and marketing,
with recommended specifications ” ‘(United States Department of
Agriculture Bulletin No. 898, 1920), may be obtained upon apph-
cation to the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing
Office, Washington, D. C. Price, 15 cents.

EFFECT OF TURPENTINING TIMBER

It is generally recognized that turpentining longleaf as commonly
practiced renders the tree very lable to subsequent attack and _in-
jury by insects and various fungi, to being felled by wind (PI. IX),
and particularly to severe injury by fires. However, if turpentin-
ing operations have béen carefully conducted by limiting the number
of faces per tree and the depth of chipping, and if adequate protec-
tion has been given, the amount of timber in any way injuriously
affected has been shown to be very small; in one large operation in
central Alabama it was only about 1 per cent of the total stand.

On the Florida National Forest a study was made, at the close of
the third year of working, of several sections of longleaf pine located
on private lands and adjoining portions of the National Forest.
There had been a severe drought during the working season imme-
diately preceding, and the casual observation of a marked difference
in losses of timber suggested the study. On the timber that had been
worked under Government regulations the losses were found to be
about 10 per cent of the total volume of timber, whereas on the pri-
vately operated timber losses were found ranging from 25 to 60 per
cent. Natural causes, such as insects, diseases, winds, and lghtning,
were found to have produced about 4 per cent of the losses. Thus
the result of turpentining was, roundly, a loss of 6 per cent on Govy-
ernment-operated timber and from 20 to 55 per cent on private
workings.

The mechanical properties of the wood are not affected by turpen- .
tining operations. It may be of interest to know that as far back
as 1895 this subject was studied and it was reported that tests and
examinations permitted the announcement without reserve that the
timber of longleaf pine was in no way affected by the tapping for
turpentine. It was further pointed out that in this statement the
chemical as well as the mechanical properties had been considered,
and thus all doubt as to the comparative durability of timber from
bled and unbled trees had been eliminated.

Preliminary studics of the effect of turpentining upon second-
erowth longleaf pine indicate, as a result, some check in the rate of
erowth for an indefinite period of perhaps two to four years fol-

LONGLEAF PINE 39

lowing operations, depending on the severity of the bleeding of the
tree. Locally near the face, growth takes place rapidly on account
of an apparent effort of the tree to heal the wound, making very
favorable conditions of the wood for later working. Additional in-
formation on this particular phase of growth is much needed.

CUTTING

Thrifty, well-stocked stands of longleaf soon become overcrowded,
and a great competition arises among the trees, the foliage seeking
for light and the roots for soil moisture. This should be closely
looked after by the owner. Longleaf does not readily thin itself
by the natural dying-out process, but many of the smaller trees may
live years in a practically dormant condition. The stronger trees
gradually crowd and kill the weaker individuals. If such timber
is left unthinned, big losses may be expected in the potential timber-
producing power of the stand.

With some kinds of trees and forests it is more profitable if the
largest trees are cut and the smaller ones are allowed to grow and
take the places of those that have been cut. This system, however, is
not generally to be recommended for longleaf pine. The method of
cutting believed to be most applicable to longleaf consists in thin-
ning from the bottom upward—that is, in removing first the less
thrifty, overtopped, diseased, and unpromising trees. In crowded
groups good-sized trees should sometimes be removed. The cooler
part of the year affords the only season that is safe against danger-
ous insect menace following cutting operations. (See under “ Insects,
Diseases, and Wind,” p. 42.) Such thinnings should be made as
needed, usually at intervals of 5 to 10 years, each helping in the de-
velopment of the final stand. The purpose of thinning is very much
the same as that of the farmer in chopping his cotton or corn, namely,
to give the remaining plants proper growing space and to secure
the largest amount of the desired product. Trees growing wide
apart in understocked stands may not need more than one thinning
or they may not need any. If young longleaf stands contain unde-
sirable kinds of trees, such as slow-growing, wide-spreading gums
or oaks, which shade out a lot of pines and promise less valuable tim-
ber, these should be cut out much as weeds are eradicated from fields.
This process, known as cleaning, may not be necessary more than
once. The last thinning is followed, at a suitable age and develop-
ment of the trees, by a clean cutting of the stand. The clean-cutting
method is recommended for longleaf, because this species grows
naturally, and probably best, in pure stands or mixed with small
amounts of other pines. Longleaf, apparently, grows fastest into
timber when it comes up uniformly over the land and is kept at uni-
form heights, for it is a species that needs an abundance of light, and
hence must not be shaded by taller tres.

The desired number of trees per acre for a given stand is deter-
mined largely by the quality of the locality or the favorableness of
the situation and by the size and age of the trees. It is, after all,
more a matter of judgment and experience than of rule. (See Table
1.) In the earlier thinnings, when the stand is about 20 years old,
sometimes as many as one-fifth to one-third of the trees should be

40) BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

removed. These usually represent, however, less than one-fifth of
the total timber volume of the stand.

The final clean cutting of the stand should include provisions for

early restocking of the land before oaks and other inferior growth
get a footing. “A good way to do this is to leave seed trees. These
should be the vigorous, full topped, or limby trees, of less value for
lumber. In pr actically all stands they may be found growing alone
in openings, and hence are well rooted and wind firm gas the
storms that may follow the cutting. It is well to spot the trees
with white paint before cutting operations are begun, as is being
done in some operations in the “South. Certain State laws require
this, as is pointed out under “A seed-tree law ” (p. 35). It is some-
times good practice to cut to a diameter limit, as, for example, down
to 12 inches. In this way trees below good mer chantable size will be
left on the ground to aid in reseeding ‘the land and to provide good
material for cutting 5 to 10 years later. In logging timber, often no
profit but a positive loss is incurred by trying to handle trees too
small in size. Good forestry in lumbering operations calls for pre-
serving the young and thrifty trees.

The amount of material secured from the several thinnings re-
quired in well-stocked stands up to an age of 50 to 70 years might
easily be equivalent to one-third of the total amount yielded at the
final cutting of the stand. The value of the timber, of course, would
depend upon its location with reference to transportation facilities
and upon the competition from outside markets. Wherever possible
the trees to be removed in thinnings should first be worked for tur-
pentine, because at times the gum brings more than would be realized
from the later sale of the timber. Progress in building good roads
is rapid, and it will therefore be only a relatively short time before
young pine comes into its own and has a very real value on the
stump. With the higher prices that are being paid for all forest
products, including lumber, crossties, poles, piling, fuel wood, paper
pulp wood, and turpentine rights, the proper disposal of young
timber is well worth looking after and should often more than pay
for the cutting.

REFORESTATION

One often hears it said that the land will never come back to pine.
To a great degree this statement has been justified, and it will be
true so long as the prevailing practice continues and the prevailing
sentiment maintains that the woods “just will burn and must burn.”
Getting young longleaf started, however, is not a serious problem.
The bulk of the cut-over land has some seed-beari ing trees; through-
out much of the South there is probably a sufficient number of seed
trees. Contrary to the general belief, cut-over longleaf lands have
at rather frequent intervals become well stocked with seedling
stands, each in turn of relatively short duration, because of agencies
mostly of man’s making and mostly under his control. Fire and

native hogs have been ‘the undoing of young longleaf pine. Re-
forestation thus becomes lar gely a matter of educating people as to
the destructive nature of fire and hogs and as to methods of pro-
viding the necessary protection. The reforestation of lands from
which all longleaf trees capable of bearing seed have been removed

LONGLEAF PINE 4]

involves the necessity of starting young growth by artificially sowing
seed or by planting small seedlings. Both the natural and ‘artificial
methods will be briefly consider ed.

SEED PRODUCTION AND GERMINATION

Longleaf trees bear seeds at intervals of two to four years. In
open stands some seed is borne almost every year. Apparently about
every seven years heavy crops of seed are produced generally over
the longleaf belt. Such heavy seed years occurred in 1913 and 1920,
and fair crops were borne in 1916, 1921, and 1924. Incidentally, the
production of a heavy crop of seed is accompanied by a shrinkage in
the flow of gum in turpentine operations. An experienced operator,
in charge of one of the lar gest and most up-to-date turpentine plants
in the South, estimated that the shrinkage of crude turpentine pro-
duction in 1920, coincident with the maturing of the heavy seed
crop, amounted to 10 to 15 per cent of the normal production.

The seeds are relatively large, averaging about 7,500 to the pound,
and are rich in food materials. The seeds are provided with wings
which usually carry them away from the tree for distances up to
once or twice its height, and in strong winds as far as several
hundred yards. Compared with the seed of most of the yellow
pines, that of the longleaf is heavy and not widely dispersed. A
reliable observation was reported in the fall of 1920 of an abundant
seeding taking place on the leeward side of old timber at a distance
of about one-quarter mile from the margin.

Like all pines, longleaf requires two growing seasons to mature its
seed. The seed ripens in September and soon falls from the cones.
The normal time for germination is probably from two to five weeks
after the seed falls, or * during October and November. The seed pos-
sesses quick verminative energy and has been known to sprout in
damp weather while it is in the partially closed cones on cut trees,
and frequently while it is in cones lying on the ground. Seed col-
lected in Florida in the fall of 1920 gave a germinative test of 5 per
cent in 5 days, 32 per cent in 7 days, 71 per cent in 2 weeks, and 73
per cent in 17 days. In the better grades of seed probably the good
or viable seed amounts to about 70 per cent, but the average is about
50 per cent. No other species of pine, so far as is known, shows
quicker activity in seed germination and the establishment of the
seedlings (fig. 4).

SEED-TREE METHOD—NATURE’S WAY

If proper methods are followed at the time of cutting, and if a few
good seed trees are left per acre, not a dollar need be spent for seed
to start young longleaf. In order that the seedling may get a good
start, it is necessary for the seed to come in contact with or close
to mineral soil. In low ground, where the soil cover is very heavy
(“rough”) and contains more than a year’s growth, this is not apt to
happen. The necessity then arises for preparing the ground to
receive the seed. Observations show that even in deep grass a few
seeds fall in openings and germinate successfully. In some cases it
may be found advisable, during the winter or early spring before a
good seed crop is anticipated, to burn over lands which it is desired

42, BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

to reforest. This will afford a light grass cover which is probably
more favorable to successful germination than entirely bare soil, such

.
%
Bho
TEL ——
Care SESE,
XC —

Fig. 4.—Early development of longleaf pine.

a. Seedling in October or November from two to four weeks after the fall of the seed.

b. Appearance a few days later, when the empty seed coat has been. shed.

c. By January to March the true leaves (in sheaths with 1, 2, or 3 leaves) are ex-
panding as shown.

d. During the first season after germination the plant develops a very short stem,
above the taproot, supporting clusters of long true leaves. The early seed leaves, or
cotyledons, it will be noted, have been shed.

e. A dense tuft of long, slender, drooping leaves, the whole gradually expanding and
massed on a short, stout stem, gives longleaf pine its characteristic appearance during
the first three to five years. It is this mass of green foliage and the so-called ‘“ asbestos ”
bud that enables longleaf to persist through repeated fires. Below is developed the very
heavy, long taproot and strong laterals, which in other pines usually accompany saplings
2 to 6 feet in height. (From Forest Service Bulletin 138.)

as the seed would fall upon directly after the burning. Where fires
have been of yearly occurrence and in regions of thin grass or other

LONGLEAF PINE 43

sparse soil cover, such measures will be unnecessary. The prepara-
tion of a good seed bed might be tried experimentally by turning in
hogs early in the fall of a seed year, but excluding them in time to
be sure of a sufficient supply of seed on the area. Natural stands up
to 20,000 seedlings per acre in the spring after the heavy seed crop
of 1920 were not uncommon on the Florida National Forest. On
adjacent lands not under Government ownership and having fewer
seed trees, the young forest was on the average only about one-fourth
as dense. Stands of 4,000 to 13,000 seedlings per acre (Pl. X) the
second and third years after seeding are not uncommon.

Although good seed years are generally followed by good stands
of seedlings, it is not always so. Because of the palatability of the

HELP REFOREST THIS TIMBERLAND

Longleaf pine bears seed in quantities only once
every five or seven years.

This is a mast year, and this fall and winter will
produce the only seed in quantity that can be ex-
pected before 1926 or 1927.

On the seed fall of this season depends in large
part the future supply of naval stores and saw tim-
ber of this region.

The young pine seedling is quickly and totally de-
stroyed by fire during the first two years of its life.

Nature will do its part by furnishing and sowing a
bountiful supply of seed. Will you do your part in
helping to prevent forest fires while the seedlings are
being established?

Join us in starting a new stand of timber.

UNITED STATES FOREST SERVICE

Be careful with fire in the woods. If you find a fire
burning, put it out if you can; if you need aid, notify
the nearest forest ranger.

The above poster was used by the Forest Service in 1920. The Government
on its national forests in the South is reforesting its lands by the natural
method of leaving seed trees and protecting the young growth from fires.

large kernels, great numbers of seeds are destroyed by weevils,
birds, mice, rats, squirrels, and “ razorback ” hogs, and to some extent
by cattle, especially when the seeds collect in wagon ruts and other
depressions. It is believed that the practice of shooting hawks and
owls has allowed the various rodent pests to multiply greatly.
Favorable weather conditions during the first six months or so after
the seed falls will greatly increase the number of trees that become
established.

The best trees for reseeding the cut-over lands are, all things
considered, the younger, full-foliaged, vigorous-growing trees.
These trees usually have been standing apart and are relatively very

PLATE X

Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

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Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

PLATE XI

Fic. 1.—Plenty of seed trees were left—the trees left were considered as culls
when lumbered (1902), but unfortunately no protection against annual fires and
hogs had been afforded. The result, after 15 years, is the absence of a young forest
and the loss of considerable old timber by action of fire, insects, diseases, and wind.
This condition apparently has misled many people into believing that longleaf
land would never come back to timber

Fic. 2.—Seed trees and protection on longleaf cut-over lands near by that shown in
figure 1. The young forest of mixed longleaf and shortleaf pines is growing well
and producing from 1 to 2 cords yearly of wood suitable for pulp wood or 300 to
500 board feet of saw timber. The seed trees have been making profitable growth,
as shown on page 14. More trees were left than necessary for seed, but all were
considered culls at the time of logging

SEED TREES AND PROTECTION-—THE ESSENTIALS FOR KEEPING

THE FOREST PRODUCTIVE ae
o

46 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

windfirm; in favorable situations they will increase rapidly in size
after the logging of the other trees. A woodsman can readily
learn to recognize such trees, and they should be chosen and marked
by paint or other means prior to logging. If all slash is cleared
away from the trees, and proper protection from fire is provided,
within periods of 5 to 15 years the seed trees should provide ample
young growth and be of enough value to pay all costs and a fair
rate of interest on the total investment. (Pl. XI.) The prob-
able value of the young-pine stand by the twentieth year should be
sufficient to offset and justify the whole cost of producing the
trees, including the holding of the land. In general, seed trees of
the right kind should cause no loss but rather prove to be a good
investment.

A seed-tree law—As a step in the development of sound forest
principles, the State of Louisiana in 1920 enacted a seed-tree law.
Tt is required that at least one seed tree per acre be left on lands

If cut-over lands have been properly logged, and if
seed trees have been left in the operation and have
been given adequate fire protection, the lands will
become reforested naturally, and the planting of
seed will not be necessary.

There are many millions of acres of southern pine
lands which have been cut so heavily or burned over
so often and so completely that they can not become
restocked naturally, and will therefore lie idle unless
they are artificially reforested by the sowing of seed
or the planting of seedlings.

If these lands were restored to timber production
and were given adequate fire protection they would
produce yearly from 100 to 700 board feet per acre
of longleaf pine.

cut by any individual or company, unless such land is agricultural
in character and will be used for that purpose. A seed tree has
since been defined as a “sound tree of well-developed crown and
not less than 8 inches in diameter at 2 feet above the ground.” The
law covers just about the minimum requirement in this respect. It.
is better if at least three to five such trees per acre are left. The
purpose of the law is to prevent complete denudation of forest land
and yet work no hardship upon the owners. Some chance, at least,
will be afforded of cut-over lands being reforested naturally instead
of remaining idle unless they are restocked by artificial seeding or
planting (PI. XIT).

Ea BoP of leaving seed trees.—On its own initiative a large lum-
ber company in southeastern Louisiana is going further than is re-
guired by law, and is leaving and protecting practically ajl small
trees. The skidding crews are required to save as many small trees
us they can and to throw all slash from the bases of these trees. A
considerable space around the trees is raked. In addition to relying

LONGLEAF PINE Aly

on these groups of the smaller trees, single trees of moderate size
and heavy tops which stand isolated are being left for seed, wherever
needed. ‘These are selected and ringed with paint in advance of
cutting and turpentining.

It is believed that these measures will prove sound from a busi-
ness standpoint. The plan does not put much value at risk, and the
total cost, including the stumpage, is probably 15 to 20 cents per acre.
In themselves the seed trees are likely to prove a good investment,
en account of their accelerated growth, and in addition there is the
enhanced value of the land that contains a good young forest. stand.
The leaving of very old longleaf trees for “seed production has re-
sulted in some losses, because the trees have either died standing or
been blown down. Of those that died, some were killed by lightning
and some by certain insects® which do extensive injury over much
of the South.

SOWING AND PLANTING

Available information may indicate the best lines to follow in
making denuded lands produce an income. Apparently the best
time for artificial seed sowing is soon after the seed matures—during
October or early November. If sown much later, it probably re-_
mains dormant until the coming of warm weather. Meanwhile, the
menace is great from the numerous enemies. Hence, if not sown by
November, the seed should be put in storage in a cool place until
about the time vegetation starts in the spring. The seed is rich in
tood elements and apparently deteriorates more rapidly than that of
some other species of pine. The best method of storing pine seed is
to place it in sealed containers after it is thoroughly air dried. Cold
storage below freezing has also given fair results. If the seed is to
be kept longer than a few months, one of these methods is recom-
mended.

As to the preparation of the soil, plowing and harrowing have
given the best results; but this method is obviously impracticable,
because of the high cost. The results have generally varied with
the degree of preparation of the soil.

A method of sowing longleaf seed which now gives indication of
being successful is to drop about 10 seeds at intervals of 6 feet in
the bottom of furrows spaced 8 feet apart. This makes 940 seed
spots per acre. The seed is scratched in with a hoe or rake and the
soil pressed lightly with the shoe. The soil covering should be not
more than one-fourth of an inch in depth. A little grass or “straw ”
litter scattered over the soil will probably prove helpful. As there
are about 8,000 seeds in a pound, about 114 pounds of seed will be
needed for an acre.

Another method of sowing that has given fair results in looss,
“blackjack” soil consists of drilling in the seed with an ordinary
corn planter or seed drill. The drill should be built low and strong,
and should preferably be of the type that passes every seed in plain
view of the operator. A bull tongue or a scraper may be used, de-
pending upon the character of the soil. A quiet, steady animal,
needless to say, is desirable on account of roots and other obstruc-

® Belonging to the genus Ips. Studies have been made by the Bureau of Entomology,
U. S. Department of Agriculture, to which inquiries should be addressed.

Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE XII

Fic. 1.—Here is going on the complete removal of the forest cover, and it is not likely
to return naturally. After being cupped for two years, practically every pine is
cut for saw timber or pulpwood. ‘The tops and culls are being worked up into
pulpwood; but, regrettably, all the small young trees down to 4 inches are being
taken. This type of logging, with the exception of the close utilization, is widely
practiced over the longleaf belt

Fig. 2.—The South has some 30,000,000 acres of waste and idle land suitable for
producing 100 to 700 board feet per acre of longleaf pine yearly, together with
a steady yield of turpentine. In the development of the country’s resources these
lands are bound to be among the South’s greatest assets

ne THE PASSING OF THE LONGLEAF FOREST

Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE XIII

Fic. 1.—The simple manner of sowing longleaf pine broadcast as conducted in the
fall of 1920 by large holders of cut-over lands in Louisiana. The seed was carried
in sacks and was sown at the rate of 2 to 4 pounds per acre. The cost was $1.50
for the seed (3 pounds) and 15 cents for the sowing, or a total of $1.65 per acre.
The grass has been previously burned off. Experiments, however have not yet
progressed to a point which warrant definite recommendations regarding the best
conditions of grass cover and methods of starting young longleaf forests

Fic. 2.—A part of the 4,000 pounds of longleaf pine seed collected from the heavy
seed crop of 1920 by a large sawmill company in southeastern Louisiana. The
seeds were shaken from cones (‘‘ burrs’) that had opened on the ground in clear,
dry weather, into pans, and brought in and sold by the collectors at 50 cents a
pound. The large membraneous wings are removed from the seed by a rubbing or

beating process

50 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

tions. The seed should be covered lightly by not more than one-
quarter of an inch of soil.

The aim should be to get trees growing at regular intervals of 6
to 8 feet, or from 700 to 1,200 trees per acre. Because of the in-
evitable loss of some seed and seedlings from various causes, there
will be a better chance of a good stand, say, at 10 years of age, if
more than 700 trees are started. Until further knowledge is avail-
able regarding methods of starting young longleaf stands, it will
be desirable to make small-scale test sowings under different meth-
ods, with such variation as may seem advisable to suit local condi-
tions, in order to determine which is most suitable for more exten-
sive operations.

The simplest method of sowing is to broadcast the seed on the land
to be reforested. This is obviously nature’s way, but it requires a
much larger amount of seed than seed-spotting, since some of the
seed is more likely to be eaten and the rest fail to germinate success-
fully. From 2 to 4 pounds may be found necessary for each acre.
After the sowing, if the land is clear enough, a spike-tooth or
spring-tooth harrow should be run over it for the purpose of set-
tling the seed down to the soil. A thin or moderate grass cover
apparently affords shade and protection of a beneficial nature, but
heavy grass often keeps the seed from germinating or prevents the
seedling from becoming established.

During the fall of 1920 a large sawmill concern in Louisiana
collected about 4,000 pounds of seed of longleaf pine and also some
seed of other species. It was obtained in part from dried cones
(“burrs”) picked from trees felled in logging, but mostly by the
cheaper and more satisfactory method of gathering up cones that
had opened on the ground after falling, and shaking the seeds out
into a pan or tub. Incidentally it may be mentioned that the price
paid to the collectors was 50 cents per pound. The seed was sown
broadcast, part on plowed strips spaced 8 feet apart, each made up
of several furrows and afterwards harrowed to work the seed in, and
part on natural and recently burned-over grass land (Pl. XIII).
An average of 2 pounds of seed per acre was used for sowing the
furrow strips and 2 to 3 for broadcasting on the grass land. The
cost for broadcast sowing was 15 cents per pound and for drilling or
harrowing 32 cents an acre. The plowing was done in the late fall
by farmers hired after work became slack on the farm. The areas
seeded were previously fenced against cattle and hogs, and plans
were immediately made to keep fires out thereafter by means of fire
lines and other protective measures.

The planting of longleaf seedlings, because of their very large
taproots, is likely to be more restricted than that of most other species
of pine. The possibilities in this line have not yet been fully tested.
Successful experiments were conducted on a limited scale in eastern
North Carolina by the Forestry Division of the North Carolina Geo-
logical Survey. These consisted in planting (or “transplanting ”’)
in the spring 5-month-old seedlings obtained from freshly gathered
seed sown in a garden bed the previous October. The soil was shal-
low, with a firm subsoil, and this produced a taproot not more than
8 inches in length. At the same time a limited number of 2-year-

LONGLEAF PINE 51

old seedlings were also planted, with very good results. Among the
residents of Southern Pines and Pinehurst, in the “ sand-hill ” region
of North Carolina, it has been common practice to dig up volunteer
longleaf seedlings from 1 to 4 years old and plant them about town
in the winter season, and generally there has been little loss. One
such plantation in Louisiana, about 14 years old, is shown in Plate
XIV. After the first year or two it is certain that the degree of
care necessary for successfully planting young longleaf seedlings
increases greatly, apparently to such a degree as to make operations
on a commercial scale impracticable. Up to the present time the
evidence points to good success from the spring planting of seed-
lings 1 year old, either when grown in prepared soil in garden beds
or when dug up in the woods or old fields.

In general, reforestation by the method of planting 1-year-old
seedlings should be attempted only in unfavorable situations where
such cheaper methods as direct seed sowing have proven unsuccess-
ful. Planting has the advantage of starting the trees in the locations
desired, and thus, if successful, of securing an even stand at the out-
set. Soil preparation may always be expected to result in better
growth, at least for a number of years. The degree and kind of
soil preparation that can be given will vary widely with conditions.
In fairly loose soil shallow holes dug with a mattock or hoe should
be sufficient. Undoubtedly a better method, which should prove
practicable in light sandy soils, would be to prepare strips by plow-
ing two or three furrows together, spacing them at desired intervals
of, say, 8 to 10 feet, and planting the seedlings about 6 feet apart in
the furrow. Soil preparation, although helpful at the start, is
usually not necessary for the growth of seedlings.

Blackjack oak lands.—The presence of much scrub or blackjack
oak on cut-over lands is generally considered to be a great interfer-
ence with the securing of a good natural reproduction of pine. Much
of the oak did not “come in” after logging but was already present
as stunted shrubs hardly noticeable at the time of logging. Undoubt-
edly the oak hinders reproduction by forming a thick layer of leaves
which prevents many seeds from reaching the soil. The absence of
young-growth pine, however, is often directly traceable to the ab-
sence of sufficient seed trees and to repeated fires. This type of oak
occurs most commonly on dry ridges where fires are frequent and
unusually severe. Young pine which gets a start, therefore, stands
small chance of living against such odds, while the oaks sprout and
seem to become more dense as a result of the action of the fire. If
sufficient seed trees were left in logging, and young growth got
started, it is likely that the hot fires would weaken or kill many of
the seedlings in the first few years. A good growth of longleaf
seedlings and saplings has repeatedly been observed among oak
thickets (Pl. X) in various parts of the South.

It may be found advisable to cut out some of the oak and make
openings for the pine to get a start, as has been done by at least
one lumber company in Louisiana. Various preparations, or “ herbi-
cides,” are on the market for use in killing trees, and the Department
of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., upon. request furnishes informa-
tion regarding their preparation and use. In oak thickets where seed
trees are present in sufficient numbers and where no fires have oc-

PLATE XIV

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ALOUALO
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SAUL Poos [PV

WoryeVUEyd O[FUO]

Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

PLATE XV

Vic. 1.—After being protected for a period of five years, this longleaf pine was de-
foliated by fire (in February, 1917) up to a height of about 10 feet. The photo-

graph was taken in the following April, when the new leaves were beginning to
show

Fic. 2.—The same stand as above, photographed at the close of the second season

of growth (January, 1919). The tree growth was notably checked during the first
year (see p. 11), because of the extra drain in completely renewing the foliage.
Only the small stunted ‘ runts,” resulting from a former period of annual burn-
ing, were killed by the fire

ro
vo

54 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

curred in several years, in order to secure pine reproduction, many
people believe that it may be advisable to burn over the land in the
winter preceding the fall in which a good seed crop is anticipated.
This will allow the seed to reach the soil. Protection against fire
should thereafter be afforded. In the absence of good seed trees, at
least an average of one to each acre, artificial methods of seed-sow-
ing or the planting of seedlings must, obviously, be employed.

PROTECTION

PROTECTION AGAINST FIRE

Every informed and right-thinking person knows that the stop-
ping of forest fires is the first step in the reproduction of forests.
Fires in the woods have lost to the South a rich heritage amounting
to many hundreds of millions of dollars. If the lumbermen had
already cut every stick of the original-growth pine, but, if from the
start, fires had been kept down, the South would undoubtedly be far
richer in timber than it is to-day. At best, few fires probably would
have occurred, and some probably always will occur. Public senti-
ment in the South will some day reach the point where fires, so far
as humanly possible, will be eliminated: those which do start will
be attacked and brought under control, and the great area of natural
forest land will be brought into productiveness.

A vast amount of young longleaf pine is killed or seriously injured
by fire every year. The first-year seedling is very susceptible to fire.
The growing sapling is always set back or stunted when robbed of
its tuft of foliage, and, as the result of repeated attacks, it weakens
and dies. The few saplings that succeed in the struggle and reach
pole size are usually worked early for turpentine, and within a
period of five years thereafter most of them become a complete loss
as a result of burning and the subsequent attacks of insects and dis-
eases or of windfall.

The power of longleaf pine to withstand the effect of fire is
remarkable. It is very likely that this exceptional adaptation has
eiven the species the popular reputation of being completely immune
from fire, and even of “thri iving on fires” (PI. XV ). The fact that
many longleaf saplings survive an ordinary fire is no adequate rea-
son for implying that lengleaf is immune and suffers no injury
from fire. Every fire, with probably few exceptions, takes its toil
in the death of a greater or less number of trees, and in addition
causes much injury to practically all the others (Pl. XVI). The
degree of injury varies widely with the size of the tree, season of a
year, amount and dryness of the inflammable material, and velocity
of the wind. Through fire promising young stands have been
repeatedly wiped out from the same tract ‘of cut-over land. A few
stragglers can usually be found, giving a clue to the successive
young stands that at various times have provided the land with the
making of a forest and have been destroyed through the action of
repeated fires.

If fire burns 1 or 2 year old seedlings, they are usually killed.
A quick grass fire under a stiff breeze. however. passes so rapidly
that many 1-year-old seedlings may survive. If fires burn in sum-
mer or fall during dry weather, longleaf seedlings up to 8 years

LONGLEAF PINE 55

old are lhkely to be comely wiped out. From about the second
year up to the fifth year, or at heights up to about 1 foot, longleaf
seedlings appear to be Helceely very resistant to the effects of light
fires, For longleaf pine the zone of greatest injury from fire is
apparently from 1 to 5 feet above the ground, where the heat
blanket is most intense. Trees of these heights are usually from 5
to 10 years old.

The familiar sight of stunted saplings standing alone or in small
groups, huddled for protection on an upturned “ clay root,” or along
the edge of a swamp on cold, wet ground, or in very dry places
where scarcely anything else can grow, gives evidence of the cease-
less pursuit of fires. The effect of protection upon the rate of
erowth, discussed under “Growth Under Fire Protection” (PI.

RIVE YEARS Of BOKRESE EIRES

i Fee Pia Mefen a
ry-3 AS hy 4
be: ae: i A x} ZS ss ee Meee tee oce Loss
RY. an ee : S| .s

a.
il a

ae ‘
ae —_ oS has
ccsNaatl ii ; Th I Vai wil

MORE THAN % OF THE Lit 20 MILLION ACRES OF FOREST LANDS OF ALL
CLASSES WERE BURNED OVER, WITH A LOSS OF OVER 44 MILLION DOLLARS.
THE STATE DID NOTHING TO PREVENT THIS LOSS.

$31,000 LoSS

es 2 QA

LESS THAN I% OF THE Wp MILLION ACRES OF FOREST LAND OF ALL CLASSES
WERE BURNED OVER. THE STATE INVESTED Y2 MILLION DOLLARS IN FOREST FIRE
PROTECTION.

POREST FIRE PROLECTION RAYS

Itc. 5.—Forest fire losses in Georgia and New York

XVIT), is very marked in contrast with the slow growth and accom-
panying stunted development more commonly seen.

The fire problem is great, but undoubtedly it can be solved the
organized cooper ation of the private owner, the State, and the
Federal Government, acting jointly in placing the responsibility and
sharing the cost (fig. 5). The settling of the lands and the develop-
ment of higher types of community or reanization will exert a helpful
economic influence, while the increasing scarcity of old growth and
the advancing prices of lumber and turpentine “will tend to interest
owners to bring their cut-over lands into productiveness. Small
owners are already in a position to afford a good measure of pro-
tection to the old fields, which constitute the source of their local
supplies of timber, and to the cut-over lands, which afford grazing
and help in keeping livestock over the winter.

Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE XVI

GMa,

Fig. 2

Fics. 1 AND 2.—Views taken on opposite sides of a road in Jasper County, S. C.
One side is burned over nearly every year, while the other is protected by a

near-by farmstead and two roadways; the contrast in development and growth is
A count in the burned

probably representative for the whole longleaf pine belt.
stand revealed the fact that the last fire had killed just one-third of the total num-

ber of trees, as is shown by the white tags

e EVERY FIRE TAK ESA Ts OEE

Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE XVII

Fic. 1.—A splendid start for a profitable piece of longleaf pine timber

Vic. 2.—Under fire protection, young longleaf pine grows rapidly and in a com-
paratively short time reaches suitable sizes for turpentining, crossties, or pulp
wood, and later for sawing into boards or other small dimensions. This stand is
from 12 to 15 years old. Many young stands, however, are worked much too

young
RESULTS OF PROTECTION
oT

Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE XVIII

Wie. 1.—A small farmer in east Texas ran a hog-proof fence around a piece of
some 20 acres of cut-over land near his buildings. He excluded hogs for six years
and most of the fires for 12 years. The result, in part, is shown in the above
view; a full stand of longleaf pines 25 to 35 feet high and 8 to 6 inches in
diameter at breastheight. The owner regards the whole thing with much satis-
faction, for he has a rich pasture for cattle and hogs and a yaluable stand of pine
reaching about the size for thinning by turpentining

ig. 2,—Part of the same cut-over tract shown above, viewed in the opposite direc-
tion from the same spot; unprotected from hogs and subject to frequent fires

EFFECT OF FENCING CUT-OVER LAND (OPPOSITE VIEWS

Ke FROM THE SAME PIONT)

Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

PLATE XIX

Vic. 1.—The native piney-woods hog is one of the worst enemies of longleaf pine.
These 2-year-old seedlings were dug up by hogs. In the spring, when the ground
is soft and available food scarce, hogs eat the thick, spongy, succulent bark
around the taproot and larger laterals, thereby killing millions of seedlings annu-
ally. The seedlings during the course of the meal were pulled completely out of
the ground and left in their present condition. Others lost their tops and on
some the roots were skinned and girdled without much damage to the tops

NG 2a
leaf seedlings recently killed by hogs, and 5 living.
rate of 6,080 trees per acre.

(20 years prior) and was again cut for piling 10 years later, but hardly a young
tree has escaped the hogs and fires

—On 1 square rod in eastern Texas, selected at random, were found 38 long-

This is a slaughter at the
The tract in east Texas was cut for logs in 1896

DESTRUCTION BY NATIVE RAZORBACK HOGS
59

60 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
RAZORBACK HOGS

The native or “razorback” hog is one of the greatest enemies of
young long-leaf pine. As an agent of destruction he probably holds
next place to fire. In localities near settlements, where fires are in-
frequent, the hog easily becomes the chief factor in preventing the
reforestation of long leaf. CRI X VIET)

The piney- -woods or razorback hog consumes large amounts of
the seed or mast, but probably his chief offense springs from his
fondness for the thick, succulent bark on the taproot and lateral
roots of young long-leaf pines. In southeastern Texas the writer
counted as many as fifty- two 2-year-old seedlings killed by hogs in
1 square rod, a rate of 8.320 per acre. It is likely that in the course
of one day a hog often destroys as many as 200 to 400 young pines.
Those from 2 to 5 years old probably suffer most, but not uncom-
monly saplings up to 10 years of age are killed. The spring season
is the favorite time for attack, when the swamps are overflowed and
food must be sought on the drier lands. In stripping the bark from
the roots, sometimes the tops are left intact or are bitten off at the

Fie. 6.—Damage by “ razorback’ hogs: A, Taproot stripped 8 inches; B, Seedling with
top: broken off ; C, Seedling pulled up and taproot 12 inches long stripped of all roots

surface of the ground, and at other times the plants are pulled out
of the ground. (Fig. 6 and Pl. XIX.) With the drying and
hardening of the soil, or the exhaustion of the supply of trees, the
razorback’s operations cease for the season. As a rule, a good
stand of young longleaf can be completely destroyed in two to four
seasons.

Although the razorback is widely and generally distributed, es-
pecially where stock laws are not enforced, the number of hogs
present and the amount of damage accomplished appear to be vari-
able, and, in spite of the hog, considerable young longleaf seems to
get through the hog- danger period, only to go down in the losing
battle with fires. Little damage, so far as known, has been reported
from blooded hogs, and with the passage of State-wide stock laws
and the bringing of large tracts of land under farm management,
the necessity ‘for finding means for preventing damage from native
hogs is lessening. In getting young longleaf stands ‘started a good
degree of protection ag ainst this class of hogs, if they are present, Ig
very essential for at least the first five years.

LONGLEAF PINE 61
INSECTS, DISEASES, AND WIND

Various insects are known to attack longleaf pine. Damage by
insects to fertile seeds, before being shed from the cone, has been
reported. The southern pine beetle is well known because of the out-
breaks that have occurred in which large areas of pine timber have
been killed. It seems that the remedy for preventing such losses
in small operations consists chiefly in not cutting timber in the hot
season; or, 1f some must be cut, in removing it without delay and
either piling the brush and burning it in an opening or scattering it
to dry out as quickly as possible. The trees infested with the beetle
should be utilized at once. For information on this subject a copy of
Farmers’ Bulletin 1188, The Southern Pine Beetle, should be re-
quested from the Division of Publications, United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture; or a letter may be addressed to the Bureau of
Entomology regarding this or other insect problems.

A cone-rust disease is known to be the cause of much injury in
parts of Florida and for some distance northward. It attacks the

The question of future longleaf pine forests turns
largely on controlling fires and razorbacks. Mil-
lions of acres of young growth have been and are
being destroyed by these agencies. Is the native hog
worth while?

Two experimental tracts at Urania, La., after five
years of protection against hogs, contained an aver-
age of 6,440 longleaf saplings per acre, as compared
with an average of 8 per acre on two similar unpro-
tected tracts.

first-year cones and kills them after causing them to grow to an
abnormal size. In parts of the palmetto region it is probable that
this disease largely accounts for the scarcity of reproduction. A
red-spot leaf blight is not infrequently seen defoliating small groups
of seedlings before they get above the tall grass. The growth is
checked by this disease, and occasionally seedlings are killed even
when growing in the open.

Wind damage to longleaf pine is heavy, chiefly on turpentined
timber (Pl. IX); and occasionally tropical hurricanes make almost
clean sweeps of timber. One of the largest sawmills in the South
operated for about a vear (1915-1916) on such wind-thrown timber.
The usual loss of old-growth timber from insects and wind is in-
dicated by the results of the measurement of three “ forties” in 1917
and of their remeasurement in 1920.1° The timber consists of about
30 trees per acre, averaging 560 board feet each, or 16,780 feet per
acre. During the 3-year period, the loss was 41 trees, mostly from
24 to 30 inches in diameter, scaling an average of 654 feet each, or

10The timber was located in the north-central part of Louisiana, and the measure-
ments were made by members of the Yale Forest School.

Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XX

Fic. 1.—Cattle grazing on a farm in lower South Carolina, established on flat, cut-
over longleaf ‘*‘ crawfish’”’ lands. The growing of longleaf pine is to be favored,
because it usually grows open enough so as not to interfere with success in live-
stock raising. The plowed furrows mark the margin of a strip that is burned
yearly as a fire guard to protect young longleaf stands. (Berkeley County, S. C.)

Fic. 2.—Longleaf pine stands about 40 years of age on an old field in northeastern
Florida. There are about 90 trees per acre, of which about 50 are cupped for the
virgin crop. The dominant trees are mostly 60 to 70 feet in height and 10 to 15
inches in diameter and would saw out about 6,000 board feet, or about one-half the
yield of a well-stocked stand at this age. The land, however, has furnished con-
tinuous grazing, timber from time to time, and is now furnishing turpentine at
the rate of about 60 cups per acre. The stands are being carefully worked so as
hot to injure the trees. (Baker County, Fla.)

Bul. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE XXII

lic. 1.—Because of fires, only a very small percentage of the young trees ever get
beyond the small sapling stage. The location shown is in Louisiana, only 5 miles
from a large paper-pulp mill which uses over 500 cords of wood daily and will
greatly need supplies of pulp wood within a few years

Iie. 2.—Such timber as this, requiring for growth from 100 to 150 years, if pro-
duced in the future will be grown mostly under State or National control rather
than under private ownership. The State and Federal Governments, cooperating
with the private owner, have a large and important place in any program of

reforestation
63

64 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

an average loss of 222 board feet per acre. Most of the trees were
killed by insects or blown down. Fires, which had run every year,
caused the death of four trees of smaller sizes. No evidence of
unusual wind or insect damage appeared.

TIMBER AND LIVESTOCK

A large lumber company, operating exclusively in southern Missis-
sippi and eastern Louisiana. after a general survey has estimated
that about one-quarter of its cut-over lands, lying mostly on the
upper Coastal Plain is adapted to farming, and that the rest of the
land is better suited to the production of forests. The ereat flat-
woods section, which was originally forested, chiefly with long-
leaf pine, offers little promise of being wanted extensively for cul-
tivated crops. Only about 10 per cent of this flatwoods section is
now in farms. The utilization in the near future of these nonpro-

On the poorer lands no other crop promises to pay
so well as timber growing.

The chief sources of future economic production
on the vast area of cut-over lands of the South will
unquestionably be agriculture, grazing, and timber
srowing. The advantages for investments in the
growing of pine timber in the southern region are:
(1) An abundance of land of relatively low value in
excess of all that can possibly be used during the
next few decades for all other purposes; (2) a very
long growing season, resulting in rapid timber pro-
duction; (3) easy logging and shipping conditions;
and (4) ‘relative proximity to the large northern and
eastern markets,

ductive lands for timber growing and for grazing purposes is unques-
tionably the only logical solution of the problem PISXoe)es
The cut-over lands of the South that are precede idle because
they contain little or no forest reproduction or young growth are
estimated at not less than 30,000,000 acres. Of this amount by far
the greater portion consists of longleaf pine lands, an area equiva-
lent to more than all the forest lands of France. The amount of
permanent * forest soil” in the South, or land which will eventually
be found to be better adapted to forest purposes than to any other
use, is not known, but the area is extensive. Plate XXI shows
the kind of timber which, if it is grown at all in the future, will
probably be produced under some form of public land control or
ownership. Either acting alone or in cooperation with the Federal
Government, the State, after acquiring tracts of the poorer classes
of southern pine cut-over lands. would doubtless be in the best

410. S. Department of Ag riculture Bulletin 827, ‘“‘ The Cut-over Pine Lands of the
South for Beef Cattle Production.’

Bull. 1061, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE XX|I

SECOND-GROWTH LONGLEAF PINE, ABOUT 40 YEARS OLD,
GROWING IN AWELL-STOCKED STAND

The trees are tall and the volume of timber per acre is large. This stand might
profitably be thinned by turpentining and then cutting the trees which should
be removed. If no waste is permitted, such stands yield large money returns

66 BULLETIN 1061, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

position to begin building up forests for a sustained yield of tur-
pentine and lumber. Such action, if taken, would probably be
primarily to show how the thing may be done. It is believed that
at the present rate of development private enterprise in the South
will soon take a serious interest in managing forests of longleaf and
slash pines for continuous production (Pl. XXIT). Gradually the
small owner will adopt the system, making such changes as may
seem desirable to meet the conditions of private ownership.

While it is growing a crop of longleaf or of slash pine for tur-
pentine and timber, much of the land can be grazed without detri-
ment to the growth of the timber. This means of securing a double
scource of Income is open alike to the small farmer and to the large

There are millions of acres of lands in the South-
ern States which will become valuable to the owner
and the State oniy by the growing of pine timber.
The protection and reforestation of these lands mean
permanent industries, permanent homes, good roads,
and good schoois.

land company. If the farmer’s principal business happens to be
the growing of crops, cattle and trees make a good combination for
additional profit.

The best utilization of southern cut-over pine lands and the method
of bringing it about constitute a problem affecting the interests of
owners of farms, large landholders, the State, and the Nation. The
present state of waste and idleness of these lands places a financial
burden upon the owners, and, through the decrease in taxable values,
upon the State and Nation.

It appears practically certain that, however large the demand may
be for farming and grazing lands, vast areas of the poorer classes
of land will remain idle dur ing the next half century or more unless
they are devoted to timber growing.

ORGANIZATION OF THE
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

June 3, 1925

CCTCLOI AO fe AG TUCULCUTE 9 <2 en Le ee es W. M. JARDINE.
AISSUSLOMULS CCRCLON Yo tak a a R. W. DUNLAP.
Directorio; Scientific Works 22 2 ene ees E. D. Bauu.
Director-op weguiatory: Works ie) so 2 ee Water G. CAMPBELL.
Directonop Hatension. Work. 220 <a C. W. WARBURTON.
Dinectomoylnformawon sa. 2 Ses A ee Netson ANTRIM CRAWFORD.
Director of Personnel and Business Adminis-

LROLLON See Be te ee Nees fever cre W. W. StTocKBERGER.
SOUS COMDIP ES SS AES Ns ease cee R. W. WILLIAMS.
WCOthel DULEAU = ear hak OS Os, CuaritEs F. Marvin, Chief.
Bureau of Agricultural Economics___-~----- Henry C. Taytor, Chief.
Bureau of Animal Industry: 2 si 2 JouHn R. Mounier, Chief.
BUGCOUOperORt LNG UStrYa = oars SS WiuuiAmM A. Taytor, Chief.
HORESESCLUICE ame AN ef AS Se es W. B. GREELEY, Chief.
BUGeCO OF CHCMIUSUTY c= ai Fo C. A. Browne, Chief.
IB UUGCO UNO SOULS tie oe Oe oe SS Mitton WHITNEY, Chief.
Bunean of HMLOMolog ye ee L. O. Howarp, Chief.
DURCAU Of. DtOLOGICAl SUTUCY—< 2 = a = E. W. Netson, Chief.
Buea Of, PAvOliC MOOdS = 2 2 a Ae THomas H. MacDonatp, Chief.
Bureau of Home Economics_______-_-___-- Louise STANLEY, Chief.
BS UNCOUZ OED GIR YUNG 22 oes Bee C. W. Larson, Chief.
Office of Cooperative Extension Work_______ ~~ C. B. Smrrn, Chief.
Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory _ ---_---- F. G. Corrre.y, Director.
Ojjice of Experiment Stations-~— = 3 2 E. W. AuuEn, Chief.
DEDUCE seas PS a SE ea lg ey CLARIBEL R. BARNETT, Librarian.
Mederab HOVNCuUllunal BOGnd === 2 C. L. Maruatt, Chairman.
Insecticide and Fungicide Board________-~_- J. K. Haywoop, Chairman.
Packers and Stockyards Administration___-__- Joun T. Caine, in Charge.
Grain Patines Administration: == 2. = 3 J. W. T. Duvet, Acting in Charge:

This bulletin is a contribution from

LOR CS CAS CIULCE = Seis sh ee cea ues Ae eT W. B. GREELEY, Chief.
67

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