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THE 


MADRAS JOURNAL 


OF 


LITERATURE AND SCIENCE. 


EDITED BY THE COMMITTEE 


OF THE 


SMaveras Literary Society 


AUXILIARY ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY. 


- 


Vol. IIT. New Series. 
or, Vol. MIX. Old Series. 


October—December 1857. Jan.—March 1858. 


MADRAS: 


PRINTED BY PHAROAH AND CO. 
ATHENZZUM PRESS—MOUNT ROAD. 


EROS. 1858. 
\ Le Gass 
ra 4 Der. 


¢ 


CONTENTS. 


| I1I.—Notice of the occurrence of Crystalline Limestone in the District of 
Coimbatore. By H. F. Blanford, Esq., of the Geological Sur- 
vey of India. - - - - - - - 
| IV.—Description of a Cyclone at Nellore, on 9nd November 1857. By 

Lieut. John Mullins, Madras Engineers. - - - - 
V.—Notice of the same Cyclone at Cuddapab, on 2nd November 1857. 
: By Lieut. E. Hemery, Madras Engineers. . - - 
| VI.—On the line selected for the Madras Railway. By Colonel T. T. 
Pears, Consulting Engineer. - - - : - 
| VIL.—A List of Neilgherry Ferns. By the Revd. Dr. B. Schmid. - 
| -VIIL.—A List of Neilgherry Mosses. By the Revd. Dr. B. Schmid. - 
IX .—Introductory Report en the Natural History of the Pearl Oyster 

of Ceylon. By E.F Kelaart, M. D. - ° - . 
X.—Report on the Tamblegam Pearl Oyster Fishery. By H.-F. - 


Kelaart, M.D. - - - 2 


| SELECTIONS. 
1.—Moths and Bees. 2.—Mode of protecting Timber from Fire - - 
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 
1.—Scientific Mission to India. 9.—Poisoning with the Seeds of Thevetia 
neriifolia. 3-—Coal in Sciade. 4,.—Death of Mr. Purdie - - - 
OBITUARY NOTICES. 
) 1.—The Revd. Dr. Schmid. 2.—Charles Drew. 3.— Henry Walker = - 


NOTICES OF BOOKS. 

| 1.—Thwaites’s Enumeration of the Plants of Ceylon. 2.—Livingstone’s 
Travels and Researches in South Africa. 3.-—Decandolle’s Prodromus 
Systematis naturalis Regni Vegetabilis. 4,—Hooker’s Journal of 
Botany. 5.—Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society. 


6.—The Plant Scenery of the World. - - : - 
| PROCEEDINGS. 

| 1.—The Managing Committe of the Madras Literary Society and Auxili- 

ary of the Royal Asiatic Society, Thursday evening, November 12th, 

and 10th December 1897. - - - - - - 

| METEOROLOGY. 

| Extract from Meteorological Observations kept at the Madras Observatory 

for October, November and December 1857 . - - 


I.—Report upon the Oils of Southern India. By Lieut. H. P. es 

oe C.G- - - hee 3 Sea) 
II.—Description of the method adopted in the Coimbatore District for 
catching Wild Elephants. By Captain D. Hamilton, Assistant 

Conservator of Forests. = 2 - -- os - 58 


60 


65 


(Oy. 


71 
73 
84 


89 


105 


117 


142 


147 


154 


160 


Wetieg 


CONTENTS. 


XI.—Extract from Report on the Vegetable Products of the Pulney 


Hills. By Lieutenant R. H. Beddome, Assistant Conservator 
of Forests. - - - - - - 


XII.—Notes of an excursion along the Travancore Backwater. By Capt. 
Heber Drury, 45th N. I. - = o : 


XIII.—Numismatic Gleanings. By Walter Elliot, Madras Civil Service. 
X1V.—Notes on various subjects. By Lieutenant H. P. Hawkes, Sub- 


Assist. Comy. General. - = = 
SELECTIONS. 
1,—The Royal Society. 2.—The Geographical Society. - : 5 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCHE. 


1.—The Scientific Expedition of the Austrian Frigate ‘‘ Novara.” 2.— 
Notes and Queries. 3.—Agricultural and Horticultural Society of India. 
4,—The Late Dr. Stocks of the Bombay Army. > = 


PROCEEDINGS. 


1.—The Managing Committee of the Madras Literary Society and Auxi- 
liary of the Royal Asiatic Society, Thursday evening, February 
lith, and 18th March 1808. - ~ - - 


METEOROLOGY. 


Extract from Meteorological Observations kept at the Madras Observa- 
tory for January, February, March, April and May 1898. ayer 


256 


271 


280 


< 


Si 


CONTENTS or Vor. II. 


Page. 
I. A Vocabulary of the Dialect spoken by the Todars of the Nilagiri 
Mountains. By the Rev. P. Metz, German Evangelical Mission. 
(Continued from Page 146, Vol. 1.) - : 


= - l 
II. A Memoir on the Ancient Reservoirs at Aden. By Lieut. R. L. Play- 

fair, Madras Artillery, Assistant Political Resident, Aden. - 95 
III. The Tamil Epic Chintamanf. By the Rev. P. Percival. - 43 


LY. Entomological Papers, being descriptions of New Ceylon Coleoptera, 
with observations on their habits, &c. By John Nietner, Colombo, 
Ceylon, (No. IV.) - - - = a 60 


Vv. Observations.on Provincial Exhibitions, and the improvement of the 
Resources of the Madras Presidency. By J. Forbes Royle, M. D., 64 
VI. Journal of an Expedition over the Anamullay Mountains for the pur- 


pose of examining the Teak Forests, and ascertaining by what line 
the Timber could best be carried to the Coast. By Capt. F.C. Cotton, 


Engineers. - - - - SU = 80 

VII. On the Relationship existing between the Animal and Plant. By G. 
Bidie, M.D., Assistant Surgeon, Madras. & < 3 175 

VIII. Suggestions for a uniform system of Weights and Measures throughout 
India. By W.H. Bayley, Esq., Madras Civil Service. - - 183 

IX. The Study of Living Languages. By Colonel Arthur Cotton, Madras 
Tingineers. - - : - - 214 

X. A mode of taking Stereoscopic Portraits with a common Camera. By 
Lieut, L. Paxton. : - - - - 253 

XI. Report on a reputed Coal Formation at Kota on the Upper Godavery 
River. By Philip W. Wall, Mineral Viewer at Madras. - 256 
XII. On the Oxymel process in Photography. By J. Tawse,Madras. - 270 

SELECTIONS. 

Page. 
1.—New Cinghalese Planss, No. I. - - - - ° 102 
Do. do. do. No. II. - ° * - 273 

2.—ObserVations on Free Labor Cotton of Honduras and Yucatan, in the West 

Indies, and of Western Africa, and Natal; also relative to East Indian 

and Slavegrown Cotton of the United States. By James Banks, late of 
Honduras. - - = - - 110 
3.—Aska Sugar Factory. - = = - 276 

4.—Wood Oil. 2 - 


= = 283 


il CONTENTS. 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. : 


1.—Fall of Meteoric Stones. ~ - : - 130 
2.—Report upon Captain Taylor’s proposed Jetty over the Surf at Madras. 133 
3.—Report of the Committee appointed to examine Messrs. Saunders’ and 


Mitchells’ project for erecting an Iron Pile Pier at Madras. = 135 
4.—Colonel Cotton’s project fora Breakwater at Madras. - - 146 
5.—Appearance of Coal at Nellore . + - - - 291 
6.—Specimens of Cotton and information desired with a view to the Chemical 

investigation of the Cotton Plant. - - - 294 
7.—Graphite in Travancore. - - : c 295 
8.—Memorandum on the Government Garden, Ootacamund. - 297 
9.—Preservation of Timber. - - - - - 3038 

10.—Height of the Himalayas. - - - = 304 
11.—Effects of the Sting of Scorpions. - - =i 58 304 
12,—How to get rid of Musquitos. : - - - 304 
13.—The Mulberry Tree with reference to the culture of Silk. - 305 
14.—The Volvox Globator. - - - - - 3806 
NOTICES OF BOOKS. 
i1.—Oriental. = - > : - - 158,311 
2.—Natural History, - - - - 161,312 
3-—Miscellaneous - = Shes = > - _ 162,312 
PROCEEDINGS. 


1,—Proceedings of the Managing Committee of the Madras Literary Society, 
April 9th, 1857. 186 


2.— Do. do. do. May 14th, 1857. 169 
2 = Do. do. do. June 11th, 1857, 171 
4.— Do. do. do. Aug. 10th, and Sept. 10th, 1857, 315 
METEOROLOGY. 
Extract from Meteorological Observations kept at the Madras Observatory, 
for March, April & May 1857, - 173 


Do. do. do. for June, July, August & Sept. 1857, 318 


CONTENTS oF Vor, ITI. 


Page. 
I.—Report upon the Oils of Southern India. By Lieut. H. P. Hawkes, 
S. A.C. G. - - - - 5 1 
II.—Description of the method adopted in the Coimbatore District for 
catching Wild Elephants. By Captain T. Hamilton, Assistant 
Conservator of Forests. - - : - - 68 
III.—Notice of the occurrence of Crystalline Limestone, in the District 
of Coimbatore. By H. F. Blanford, Esq. of the Geological Sur- 


vey of India. - - - - - - - 60 
IV.—Description cf a Cyclone at Nellore, on 2nd November 1857. By 
Lieut. John Mullins, Madras Engineers. - - - 69 
V.—Notice of the same Cyclone at Cuddapah, on 2nd November 1857. 
By Lieut. EH. Hemery, Madras Engineers. ; - : : 70 
VI.—On the Line selected for the Madras Railway. By Colonel T. T. 
Pears, Consulting Engineer. - - - - 71 
VII.—A List of Neilgherry Ferns. By the Revd. Dr. B. Schmid. - - 79 
VIII.—A List of Neilgherry Mosses. By the Revd. Dr. B. Schmid. - - 84 
IX.—Introductory Report on the Natural History of the Pearl Oyster of 
Ceylon. By E. F. Kelaart, M. D. - = - ait BO) 
X.—Report on the Tamblegam Pearl Oyster Fishery. By E. F. Ke- 
laart, M. D. - - = - - 105 


X1I.—Extract from Report on the Vegetable Products of the Pulney 
Hills. By Lieutenant R. H. Beddome, Assistant Conservator 


of Forests. = - > = - - 168 
XII.—Notes of an excursion along the Travancore Breakwater, By Capt. 
Heber Drury, 45th N. If. - - - - 203 


XIII.—Numismatie Gleanings. By Walter Elliot, Madras Civil Service. 220 
X1IV.—Notes on various subjects. By Lieutenant H. P. Hawkes, Sub- 


Assist. Commissary General. - - - - 249 
SELECTIONS. 
1.—Moths and Bees. - = - = - 110 
2.—Mode of protecting Timber from Fire. : - - 117 
3.—Account of some recent Geological Researches near Cairo. - - 252 
4,.—Letter from Captain Burton, Leader of an Expedition into Eastern 
Intertropical Africa. - - - - - 256 
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 
1.—Scientific Mission to India. : : . : a ey, 
2.—Poisoning with the seeds of Thevetia neriifolia. - - - 140 


8.—Coal in Scinde. - “ - - - 142 


il CONTENTS. 


Page. 
4.—Death of Mr. Purdie - ee = z - 4142 
5.—The Scientifie Expedition of the Austrian Frigate ‘* Novara.” Bie PYF 
6.—Notes and Queries. - - - = =a 9G6 
7.—Agricultural and Horticultural Society of India. - - 268 
OBITUARY NOTICES. 
1.—The Revd. Dr. Schmid. - - - . = AS 
2.—Assistant Surgeon Charles Drew. - - - - 146 
3.—Mr. Henry Walker, Professor of Anatomy, &c. Calcutta. - - 74147 
4,—E. Stocks, Esq., M. D. Bombay Medical Service. - Sri oly 
NOTICES OF BOOKS. 
1,—Thwaites’ Enumeration of the Plants of Ceylon. = =. 1499 
2.—Livingstone’s Travels and Researches in South Africa. - - 149 
3.—Decandolle’s Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis - 152 
4,—Hooker’s Journal of Botany. - - - ». 53 
5.—Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society - Pipe Vy 
6.—The Plant Scenery of the World. - - = eae 6512) 
PROCEEDINGS. 
1.—Proceedings of the Managing Committee of the Madras Literary So- 
ciety, November 12th, 1857. - - - = 2 54 
2. Do. do. do. December 10th, 1857. - 187 
3 Do. do. do. February llth, 1858. - 274 
3. Do. do. do. March 18th, 1858. - 2785 
METEOROLOGY. 


Extract from Meteorological Observations kept at the Madras Observa- 
tory for January, February, March, April and May 1808. - - 


280 


TABLE OF ERRATA In No. V. Vot. III. 


Page. 

4 line last for Portia Nut read Portia Seed. 

6, 4 for Star arise read Star Anise. 

14 Table of Exports opposite Cocoanuts fresh for 5°340°493 sead 340-493 and in 

the same line for 6°333 490 read 333 490. 
Total—for 5:957 999 read 957 999 and in the same line for 7:503 292 read 
Page. 1-503 292. 
20 Add the following Note at the foot of the page. 

Note.—The Numbers appended to each of the Oils throughout this Section refer 
to those of the Index at page 49—many Oils, being of little note, are omitted, 
but their names will be found in the Index. 

138 line last but one—omit the Comma after Turkistan. 


TABLE OF ERRATA In No. VI. Vot. III. 


Page. 
163 line 9 for Shorea robusta read a Dipterocarpaceous tree. 


215 ,, 8 Insert Scevota Taccada before Excoecaria Camettia to which and 
not to the former the succeeding remarks refer. 
218 ,, 23 for houses read waves. 
», 29 for mile pond read Mill Pond. 
219 ,, 1 Add at after shifting. 
224 ,, 12 Note for oboti read oboloi. 
», 13 do for oBedot read oBodot 

226 ,, 15 for two read toc. 
228 ,, last—although should not be in parenthesis. 
230 ,, 9 add of after consist. 

» > 21 for cadeuceus read caduceus. 
234 ,, 20 for th read the. 

» 9» last for off read of. 
209 ,, 9 for Observe read Obverse. 
246 ,, 13 for face read pace. 
257 ,, 38 for be read by. 
258 ,, 16 for till read then. 

ees 4h, add till, after Star. 
261 ., 6 for acacios read acacias. 
263 ,, 1 for loose read lose. 
264 ,, 4 for by read of. 
264 ,, 17 for where read whose. 
265 ,, 9 for accompany read accompanies. 
266 ,, 12 for seriatum read seriatim. 
267 ,, ‘6 omitcomma after fastening. 
267 ,, 25 for by read of. 
2738 ,, 7 for neuralgie read neuralgic. 
273 ,, 14 for taste read state. 
274 ,, 3 for Balsom read Balsam. 
274 ,, 10 for and read of. 


MADRAS JOURNAL 


OF 
LITERATURE AND SCIENCE. 


NO. 5.—NEW SERIES. 


October—December, 1857. 


I. Report upon the Orls of Southern India. By Linu. 
H. P. Hawxss, 8. A. C. G. 


The following Report upon the oils of Southern India has been 
drawn up from notes taken during the formation of a collection of 
oils for the Madras Government. The statistics have been fur- 

-nished by the Civil and Military authorities throughout the Presi- 
dency.* 

The subject may be conveniently arranged under the following 
sections. 


Sect. 1. Oil considered as an article of export trade. 

2. Abstract of oil cultivation in the several districts of 
the Presidency. 

8. A descriptive list of the oils of Southern India. 

4. Remarks on the economical uses of oil in India. 


* Nore.— It will be observed that in many parts, especially in Section 3, this 
report is almost identical with that in Class IV. of the J ury Reports of the Ma- 
dras Exhibition of 1855. This arises from the writer of the present paper having 
been requested to perform the duties of reporter in that section, and from his hav- 
ing embodied in that report all the information on this subject coliected up to that 
date. 


2 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, 
SECTION. I. 
OIL CONSIDERED AS AN ARTICLE OF EXPORT TRADE. 


Although the number of oil producing plants in Southern India, 
is very large, yet upon examination it will be observed, that of 
these but few are culiivated to any great extent; the larger propor- 
tion consisting of trees, shrubs, &c. growing in a wild state, the 
fruits of which are gathered by the poorer classes, and the oils ex- 
pressed as necessity requires. These latter (with some exceptions) 
do not form articles of trade, nor are they usually procurable in the 
native bazaars. 


Of animal oils, that extracted from the liver and other parts of 
various species of fish, chiefly on the Malabar Coast, now forms a 
source of considerable trade; whilst Petroleum is largely exported 
from our Burmese possessions to the manufacturing towns of Li- 
verpool and Glasgow. 


In taking a general view of these substances it seems advanta- 
geous to consider them under the following classes. 
1st Class.—Those plants which are cultivated for the sake of their 


products.—Of these, the oil and cake form in some cases the only 
valuable part, whilst in others, as the Poppy, the plant serves many 


other purposes. This class includes the bulk of the oils export-. 


ed from, and consumed in India, and comprises the following— 
Cocoanut, Gingely and its varieties, Lamp and Castor,* Groundnut, 
Linseed, Ramtill, Mustard erroneously called Rape, and Poppy; 
the essential oils of Cinnamon (from the bark and leaf,) and Cassia, 
Cloves and Sandalwood.{ Fish oil and Petroleum being also valu- 
able commercial products will be considered in this Section, 


First in importance is Cocoanut oil which is yearly exported to 
a large extent from Malabar and the Western Coast, and in smaller 


* Norr.—Throughout this report the word ‘‘ Lamp oil” will be used to denote 
the oil obtained from the large seeded variety of the Ricinus communis used al- 
most exclusively for burning in lamps, whilst the term ‘‘ Castor oil’’ will be un- 
derstood to refer to the medicinal product extracted from the Ricinus communis 
fructibus minoribus. 


+ For the Botanical names of these plants, see Section 3. 


ocT.—DEc. 1857.] Oils of Southern India. 3 


quantities from Rajahmundry and Tanjore. During the last five 
years (from 1850-51 to 54-5) not less than 70,09,818 gallons, valu- 
ed at 15,73,528 Rupees (according to the custom house valuation) 
have been exported from this Presidency, the demand having in the 
same time increased from 6% to 212 lacs of gallons. In addition 
to this, dried kernels have been exported from Malabar alone to the 
value of 23,78,888 Rupees, and the fresh nut to the extent of Ru- 
pees 20,438,669, thus presenting a total of Rupees 59,96,085 in five 
years, or an average of nearly 12 lacs per annum on this one com- 
modity alone. ‘This is exclusive of the dried kernels and fresh nuts 
exported from Rajahmundry, Tanjore and Vizagapatam, which ap- 
pear to be sent chiefly to other Indian ports. 

Gingeley oil and its varieties are next in value as articles of com- 
merce. They are very generally grown in all parts of the country, 
and enter more largely than any other oil into the home consump- 
tion of every class of natives. 

They are exported in large quantities chiefly in the shape of seed. 
The quantity and value of oil and seed exported from the Madras 
territories for the last five years is as follows :— 


Oil, gallons.. 332,384..Rs. 2,05,290 
Seed, cwt.. ..19,54,209..Rs. 23,96,894 


Rupees. .26,02,184 


making an average of 5 lacs of Rupees per annum. Of this a very 
large portion is sent to France as will be seen by the following ab- 
stract of the quantity exported in 1852-53. 

United Kingdom....Seed. Cwt., 12,713 Oil. gall. 42,043 


ROOM crcisis ele soe se s.'wie 35 m9 2 eis 2,968 
MMC O RE rigs ov cca ses! 59° 250 ly 220 5, 
EGU ieicisisic ss lew asses 55 Vic la aes 19,698 
DOMME tek. coecse cc +++ 93 tise, 
Malacca......-seseee0er 39 oo ,, 3,099 
MravanCOle. = sea cde. ay. +s 148, 
BS CIMA ee ee ea o's ete 98 Oras 46 
French Indian Ports. .. ,, Orde. 27 
Ors: 4,232 


Mauritius and Bourbon... ,, 


4, Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, 


“‘ Lamp oil” is grown very generally throughout the country. It 
was exported from Rajahmundry to the value of 32,607 Rupees in 
1854-55; and from Guntoor, Nellore and Tanjore to the value of 
from 10 to 15,000 Rupees each yearly. Little, if any, is sent to 
England. 

The total exports for the last five years are as follows : 


Oil. Gall. 1,97,977 Rs. 98,875 | Seed. Cwt. 99,471 Rs. 1,138,370 
making an average of about 42,349 Rupees per annum. 


Castor oil, extracted from the small seeded variety of Licinus is 
exported to a small extent for medicinal purposes. 


Ground nut oil is exported chiefly from South Arcot and Madras, 
In 1850-51, the demand arose to no less than 1,10,566 gallons, but 
with the exception of the year 1853-54 the export has never sub- 
sequently much exceeded half that amount. 


The abovementioned oils and seeds, until within the last few 
years comprised the bulk of the exports from this Presidency. Now 
however the following begin to be exported. 


Mustard seed, to the amount of Cwt. 50,746, Rupees 11,5,477 
has been shipped during the last five years, from the Ganjam and 
Vizagapatam Districts. 


The cultivation and export of Linseed is on the increase. It is 
sent from the Guutoor, Nellore and Masulipatam Districts to the 
value of from 2 to 9,000 Rupees per annum. 


The manufacture of Fish oil has lately become a very valuable 
source of industry. The trade is chiefly confined to the Western 
coasts, although small quantities for home consumption are made 
in the Northern Circars. Omitting the year 1854-55 which is un- 
favorable on account of the failure of fish, the average value of this 
export for the last five years, is Rs. 78,126. | 


Petroleum is sent from our Burmese possessions, but no correct 
statistics are at present available. 


The oils of Cassia, Cinnamon and Sandalwood are chiefly export- 


ed from the Western Coast, the wood from which much of the latter 
is extracted, is obtained from Mysore. 


oct.—pbEc. 1857.] Ozls of Southern India. 9) 


2nd Class.—Those plants, &c. which grow spontaneously and are 
found in sufficient quantities to admit of the produce becoming an 
article of inland trade. 

These are generally to be procured in large bazaars and include 
Margosa, Illoopoo, Pinnacottay, Kurunj, Coorookoo, Cat amunak, 
Piney tallow, Gamboge butter, the various Wood oils, the essential 
oils of Lemon grass, Roosa grass, Cageput and Camphorwood. 

The increasing attention which has been given to this subject 
has resulted in the manufacture and export of the following oils, 
which were previously unknown to the market. 

Piney tallow exported to the value of Rupees 4,350 in 1854-55 
from Canara. 

Lemon grass and Roosa grass oil exported from Malabar and 
Travancore (sometimes under the fictitious name of Oil of Geranium 
or Verbena. ) 

Gamboge butter, employed successfully as a lubricating agent 
for Railway carriages. 

Illoopoo, Margosa and Pinnacottay EEpoL ted to a limited extent 
for household purposes. 

3rd Class.—Those plants &c. which grow spontaneously but to a 
limited extent in many parts of the country, the oils from which are 
sometimes extracted by the poorer classess for home consumption 
and are seldom procurable in the bazaar. 

This class comprises the oils of Safflower, Belgaum wallnut, 
Poovana, Neeradimootoo, Addale (J. Glauca), Country-cress, 
Cheeronjie, Cucumber, Melon and Pumpkin, Coorgapilly, Stercu- 
lia, Wild olive, Cheeroo pinnacottay (Cal. colaba,) Sandal seed, 
Mooroogana tallow, Naga Sumpaghy and Caat Urraloo.* 


4th Class.—Those plants &c. from which small quantities of oil 
are extracted chiefly for medicinal purposes and perfumery, includ- 
ing Soap nut, Cashew nut, Ben nut, Cotton seed, Silk Cotton seed, 
Sweet Fennel, Rosebay, Malkunganee, Hemp Seed, Portia nut, Vis- 


* For the Botanical names of these plants, see Section 3. 


6 Oils of Southern India. [NO. 5, NEW SERIES, 


cid Cleome, Thortay, Fenugreck, Abelmoschus seed, Gutta Percha 
seed, Croton, Bryony, Colocynth, Wild cummin, Bonduc nut, Mi- 
musops, Moodooga, Thevetia, Oodul, Garlic, Sunflower, Wild al- 
mond, Star arise, Gayapa, Nutmeg (wild), Thorny Trichilia, Cy- 
perus, Thorn apple, Condamminee, Sand box tree, Saul seed, Hu- 
genia, Belleric Myrobalan, Chebulic Myrobalan, Kikuel, Bergera 
Keenigii, Balanites Gigyptiaca, Radish seed, Cabbage seed, Car- 
damom, Poondy, Cordia, Girghitly, Jogyhulloo, Nux Vomica, 
Marking nut, Cashew husk, Oleum nigrum, Tobacco seed, Alli- 
gator pear oil, Cinnamon tallow, Cocculus oil, &c. &c. This class 
will also include, Neat’s foot oil and oil of wax. 


Excepting Croton oil which is manufactured for medicinal pur- 
poses to a small extent, none of the oils of the last two classes form 
articles of trade. 


A reference to the table of exports will give a good idea of the 
extent of the trade in these commodities, the total value of oils and 
seeds exported for the last five yearsisas follows: (For the items 
vide Appendix A.) 


Year 1850-1 Rupees §8,11,057 duty 24,331 


vy) SRS: 642,439 19,273 
ee ISEEES 11,31,578 O47 
a Ag 53-4 15,58,222 46,746 
ERS 5 4e5 11,41,617 34,248 


A duty of 3 per cent. is levied on oils and oil seeds of all sorts, 
yielding an average annual revenue (for last 5 years) of 31,709 Ru- 
pees. 


The quantity of the four principal oils annually imported into 
Great Britain is as under. 


Palm oil. Cocoanut oil. Castor oil. Olive oil. 
1848 Cwts. 510,218 Cwts. 85,463 Cwts. 4,588 Tons. 10,086 
1849 493,331 64,452 9,681 16,964 
1850 448,589 98,040 20,738 
1851 608,550 55,995 F 11,5038 


1852 523,231 . 101,863 x 8,898 


oct.—pDEC. 1857.] Orls of Southern India. 7 


The total value of oils exported from India exhibits an annual 
increase, the demand however for the various items of which the 
whole export is composed, fluctuates considerably. 


In 1848-49 the quantity of oil shipped was less than in the pre- 
ceding year, but Linseed and Ground nuts first formed regular ar- 
ticles of export. 3 


In 1849-50 the demand for Cocoanut oil was doubled, that for 
Ground nuts trebled, and that for Gingely much increased. 

In 1850-51 Gingely was exported to twice the amount of the 
previous year, and Ground nut continued to be largely shipped. 
Fish oil, was also made in large quantities. 


In 1851-52 there was an increase of one-third in demand for Co- 
coanut, and of 100 per cent. for Fish oil, but Ground nut declined 
to one-third of its former export, Gingeley oil and seed also decreas- 
ed, the latter to the extent of nearly one half of the former demand. 
This was on the whole a bad year for this branch of trade. 


In 1852-53 there was a further increase in demand for Cocoanut 
oil which now more than doubled its export for 1850-51, also an 
immense increase in the export of Fish oil of upwards of 300 per 
cent. Mustard was exported to five times its former figure and 
Lamp oil and Ground nut advanced, Gingeley oil and seed remain- 
ed the same as in 1850-51. 


In 1853-54 the demand for oils of all sorts consequent on the 
war rose to an enormous extent, the quantity of ail oils exported and 
especially of Fish, Ground nut and Gingeley, increased largely. 


In 1854-55 the demand decreased considerably in consequence 
of the large supplies sent the previous year. 


A remarkable specimen of the rise and progress of a new branch 
of industry is to be seen in that of the manufacture of Fish oil, the 
export of which has increased from 3,500 gallons in 1847-48, to 
7,21,095 gallons in 1853-54. 


From the above summary it will, I think, be sufficiently evident 
that the discovery or introduction of new articles of produce how- 
ever desirable, is by no means so indispensable as is so often sup- 
posed, Efforts should rather be made to extend and improve the 


8 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, 


cultivation of those oil seeds for which there is already a steady de- 
mand. The oil cultivation seems in a remarkable manner to ac- 
commodate itself to the demand, and there is but little fear of a de- 
ficiency of supply as long as remunerative prices are offered. 


SECTION II. 


ABSTRACT OF OIL CULTIVATION IN THE SEVERAL DISTRICTS 


OF THE PRESIDENCY.* 
NORTH ARCOT. 


The principal oils of this Collectorate are Gingeley and Lamp, 
both of which are cultivated very generally throughout the District. 
Castor, Cocoanut and Ground nut are produced to a limited extent. 

The plants yielding Kurunj and Brumadundo also grow sparing- 
ly, the latter from its cheapness being frequently used in this and 
other collectorates to adulterate more expensive oils. 


Exports, none. 
SOUTH ARCOT. 


Ground nut is the chief oil produced and exported in this Dis- 
trict. Gingeley oil is also sent in tolerably large quantities to Eu- 
rope, but the demand for both appears to fluctuate considerably. 
Mustard oil and seed have been lately exported, and the cultiva- 
tion is on the increase. Cotton is grown on from 15 to 20,000 caw- 
nies of land, but’the oil of the seed is not extracted. Illoopoo oil 
is prepared to a limited extent and sold at Rupees 25 per Candy, 
and oil is obtained from both kinds of Physic nut and burned by 
the poorer classes. 


* NotE.—The difficulty of obtaining accurate statistics of Agricultural Produce 
in India is very great; the system of sowing several crops in one field also tends 
to augment the labour. Although therefore the following returns are believed 
to represent a very fair approximation to the average amount of cultivation and 
export, yet too much reliance should not be placed upon these figures. As re- 
gards prices also some idea may be formed of their fluctuation and of the impossi- 
bility of basing any calculations on such data, by a return received from North 
Arcot, in which the prices of the same oil are shown to vary to the extent of one- 
third in different towns of the district, 


_ ocT.—pEc. 1857.] Oils of Southern India. 9 
' Exports. 
1850-1 1851-2 | 1852-3 | 1858-4. | 1854-5. 
NAMU&S. 


——— | | | eee || 


No. Rs Nolo Bs-4 Now Re: (No. b Rs. Now Rs: 


CUDDALORE. 


Cocoanut Oil..|Candies. 6 0} 0 0 0 0} 0 0} 35] 1,860 
Cocoanut ICer- 

’ MENS SS Sistaics Do. 0) 0}; 0 0 0 0 0; 610 368 
Gingely Oil....|° Do. 311/12,154)/103 391 1 41; 3384/14,3832; 13 728 
Gingely Seed...iGarces, 0 109; O 92 0 One 0 6 0 
Lamp Oil..... Do. 0 ise G 0 0 0 0 67 0 0 
Ground nut Oil| Candies. |1,428/42,831|382/ 11, 120| 1,038) 28,754) 640] 2,759/2,393) 18,672 
Ground nuts..|Garce. 0 109; ¢ 92 0 0 0 0 
Mustard Oil.../Candies. 0 0; 0 0 @ 0 0 24 0 0 
Mustard Seed..|Garce. 0 0| 0 0 58 667| 62 823 0 0 
Pinnacotay Oil/Candies. 0 0; 0 0 0 26 0 0 0 0 
Porto Novo. 

Gingely Oil...|Candies. Bi) 3 2a0 Bi) daa 8} 329) 0 0 0 0 
{Gingely Seed..|Garce. 0 0} O 12 0 0 0} 0 0 () 
Lamp Oil .. .|Candies. 0 0} 0 0 0 740) 28 0 0 
Ground nuts../Garce. Q 0; 0 3 0 140 1 154 0 1G 
|Margosa Oil..|Candies. 0 Bad 37 0 a a) 0 0 69 

Total...| e+ | 50,263] «.| 12,012} .. |380,004| .. |48,441} .. /21,658 


/ 


BELLARY. 


The cultivation of Lamp and Gingely seeds extends over 88,950 
and 7,177 acres respectively. Linseed, Safflower and Iloopoo oils 
are obtainable in small quantities. The Cocoanut oil consumed 
in this district is chiefly made from imported nuts. 


CANARA. 


Cocoanut oil and kernels, Gingely seed, Fish oil, Cassia and 
Sandalwood oils form the staple oil products of this district. Piney 
tallow has of late risen rapidly in demand. Fish oil is largely 
made and exported. 


This district is moreover rich in oil bearing trees, many of the 
oils of which if obtainable in sufficient quantities, appear likely te 
become valuable. A list of some of these is subjoined, 


10 Oils of Southern India. 


[NO. 5, NEW SERIES, 


TABLE OF Exports. 


1850-1 1851-2 1852-3 1853-4 1854-5 
NAMES. ; 
No. | Rs. | No.| Rs | No.| Rs. | No.|. Rs. | No.| Rs. 
Cocoanut oil...|Candies. 6| 381]; 18} 838) 20) 914} 22) 1,082) 103) 5,932 
Cocoanut ker- 

NOMS earaeeis Do e oy 238 182 4, pee BD 1,345) 29 857| 83) 3,117 
Gingely oil.. Do. 129 2 86! 48) 2,671 
Gingely seed... “|In. Mads. |2 at 4, 307 | 08 3; 584 Jap 989 3,584|4,052 5,382|3,778 9,045 
Castor oil...... Candies. 3 13 ; 207 4) 196 2 13 6 306 
Castor seed.....{In. Mds 0 ) 19 19 0 0 0 0 
Fish oil........|Candies 82) 1,632 53 1137 1,144|18,214|2,996| 61,284; *75| 1,988 
Linseed ......./In. Mds 0 0 0 0 0 0 0} 189) 4,202 
Cassia oil......|Candies 11} 2,445 4) 1,127 8} 2,159 3 964 5| 1,590} 
Sandalwood oil.| Do. 14'38,946| 13/86,722,; 16)42,552| 23) 65,203) 28) 81,495] 
Pinnacotay oil.| Do. Zi) LOW 3 18 4 7 3}~ 115 8 112} 
Piney tallow...| Do. 0 0 0 6 ) Zi 3 23} 71] 4,350 

ToTAL.. 50,159|  «» |47,739] .. |69,126) .. 1135,109 114,858 


ae 


ongequent on the failure of the fish the quantity of oil exported this year was small. 


List of Medicinal and other oils, §c. produced in Canara. 


VERNACULAR NAMES, 


Mooroogana oil... 


Arasinagoorghy oil... 
Thoronagulloo oil 
Kungan... 


@rcaane 


Cat Ghaitoom. fn aceeiee e ee 
Girghitly.:. .. ae) < pee 


Nagasumpaghy. .. 
Thortay.. 


Jogyhulloo. . eens inte 2 
OOUGY (OM arent ict 
SUMCOMAY. same ss mies 
Mahnalod .. casein ose 


.|Mesua ferrea... 


BOTANICAL 


Nene REMARKS. 


x altsed as a cure for cattle 
wounded by Tigers. 
Garcinia pictoria...|Lamps and Food. 
Dalbergia.,.... ?|/For skin diseases. 


.|Celastrus panicu- For ulcers and wounds. 


lata. 
?| For sores in cattle. 
P'Extracted from the pulp of 
the tree and considered va- 
luable in Rheumatism. 
> Fcr Lamps, sold at 4 Rs. per 
maund. 
. ?|For sores. 
2 For skin diseases. 
Myr istica “Malaba-|Of two sorts, extracted from 
rica. the seed and fruit. For 
burning in lamps. 
?| For skin diseases. 
°/For lamps. 


Soorty (or Neeradimoo-|Hydnocarpus ine-|For cutaneous diseases. 


too). 


CatUrraloo( wildCastor) 


brians. 
?}For lamps andin medicine. 


a 


oct.—DEc. 1857.] Oils of Southern India. 11 
CHINGLEPUT. 


As there are no exports from this district, the oils in most gene- 
ral request for local consumption are those chiefly grown. Gin- 
geley is sown to the extent of about 3,700 acres, Lamp oil 830 
acres, and Illoopoo is produced over about 890 acres of ground. 
In addition to the above, small quantities of Ground nut, Castor, 
Pinnacotay, Brumadundeo, Cat amunak and Neeradimootoo are 
produced, but not to a sufficient extent to form articles of trade. 


COIMBATORE. 


The Cocoanut oil used in this Collectorate is imported from Paul- 
ghaut. Gingeley and Lamp are grown for home consumption, 
Kurunj, Neem and Illoopoo trees grow wild, and the oils of the seed 
are extracted by the poorer classes. 

CUDDAPAH. 

Lamp oil seed is cultivated to the extent of about 75,000 acres, 
yielding 120 measures per acre, and Gingeley to the amount of about 
10,000 acres, yielding 150 measures per acre. The Cocoanuts grown 
in the district are sold for culinary purposes, and the Cocoanut oil 
consumed on the spot is extracted from kernels imported from Ca- 
nara. 

Kurunj, Linseed, Safflower, Illoopoo and Cat amunak oils are pre- 
pared in small quantities. 

GANJAM. 


The relative proportion of land under cultivation in this district, 
with the following oils, appears to stand thus. 
Cocoanut........ 12,098 acres. 
Giueeley. tuts 0 Owod 
Miistandes. ce. 2,006 
Ramtilly......-. 2,700 
For some years past, large exportations of Gingéley oil have been 
made by French merchants. 
The Ramtill is said to be chiefly used (on account of its cheap- 
ness) to adulterate the Gingeley and Castor oils, for this purpose 
it is mixed with those seeds before being put into the oil press. 


12 


Cocoanut oil is largely made at two places in the district, but 


Oils of Southern India. 


little is exported except to Moulmein. 


Kurunj oil, though rarely made, is sometimes exported to Madras. 
Mustard oil is extracted to a small extent, the seeds however are 


exported largely 


— ee meee | coe eo eee OSS 


Cocoanut oil.. 
Cocoanutker- 
NCIS gaisietee 
Gingeley oil.. 
Gingeley seed 
Rape seed.... 
Lamp oil.. .. 
Lamp oilseeds 
Ramtill: =. < ci. 
Mustard oil.. 
Mustard seed. 
llloopoo oil.. 
Illoopoo seed. 
Wood oil.... 


TOTAL. 


* In addition to this, 2(),000 dry nuts valued at 300 Rupees, and large quantities ef the 
fresh nut for edible purposes, are produced annually. 


With the exception of a little Linseed, Lamp is almost the 


TABLE oF Exports. 


[No. 5, NEW SERIES, 


1850-1 1851-2. 1852.3. 1853-4. 
Mds.| Rs. |Mds. Rs. Rs. |Mds. Rs, 
6) 45 0 0 26] 260 Slower! 
0 0 0 0 10 15 2) 1,209 
46 248) 36 0 34 87 
41,659,51,433 60,267 100,480/145 531 949,561 107, On6 174, 982 
0 q 0| 27663| 2°290] 4,764) 3,97 
Elie en) Q 0 "30 7 
135} 135 0 0 
661| 551i 34 28 
6 0 0 0 
8,697|13,045] 5 31 7,966 
318| 2,123 0 
0 0 . 0 
0 0 0 0 


51,538|57,697 65,639! 


108,923 170,73 732 277,27 2761116, 588 187, 209 106, 106,121 168,892 } 


GUNTOOR. 


only oil plant cultivated in this district. 


exported by sea and land. 


Linseed is sown rather extensively in furrows on the borders 
of fields in the Western Talooks. 


Other oils, such as Cocoanut and Gingeley, are imported from Ra- 


jahmundry and other districts. 


< 


The quantity of land 
under cultivation with this latter is 31,242 acres, the produce being 
about 4,400 candies, of which 1,400 candies have been annually 


1854-5. 
Mads. | Rs 
34, 261 
0 0 
160| 187} 
92,592/150,431 | 
4,223) 3,519] 
58| 246] 
116) - 116] 
1,014, 845} 
0 0} 
7,874 11,812] 
48] 823 
0 0 
0 0 


ocT.—pDEc. 1857.] Oils of Southern India. 13 


TABLE OF EXPoRTs. 


1850-1, 1851-2. 1852-3. 1853-4. | 1854-5. 
NAMES a Lea aad ed EN 
Mds.| Rs. (Mds. | Rs. | Mds.| Rs. |Mds. | Rs. | Mds. | Rs. 
Lamp andi | 
Castoroil..| 47! 316 78} =520 73; ~=490 47) 314 40} 279 
Lamp and! 
Castorseeds 8,326 13,136 17,858|27,292) 16,364. 25, 095 |28,174|38,891)21,133)28,672 
Linseed..... 1 462 1,594) 1,609) 1,777| 3,414| 3,583) 2, 956 3, 208| 583 659 
Tora. . 9,835 15,046 19,545 29,589 19 sali 29,168 31,177 49, 413121 ,75 629, 610 
KURNOOL. 


Lamp oil is most largely produced in this district The extent of 
cultivation is 26,200 acres, and the average crop (at 140 measures 
per acre) is 36,68,000 measures. Gingeley covers about 8,050 acres, 
the average produce is estimated at 80 measures per acre. Castor 
oil (medicinal variety) does not thrive well, and is therefore but little 
cultivated, Illoopoo and Safflower oils are produced in small quan- 
ties. 


MADURA. 

Gingeley and Lamp are the chief oil products of this district, the 
cultivation of each being 14,653 and 11,046 acres respectively. 
Illoopoo, Neem and Kurunj are extracted to the extent of from 
one to three thousand gallons annually, and Brumadundoo and 
Cat amunak in smaller quantities. 

TaBLE oF Exports. 


1850-1 1851-2 1852-3 | 1853-4 | 1854-5. 
NAMES. MeN isl eS IMB YR a i, AS 

No. Rs. No. | Rs. No. |Rs. No.| R. |No. |Rs. 

Gingeley oil..|wt. | 18} 102} | 66) 7| 72) 0| O| a; 18 
Gingeley seed. Cwt. 0 0 0 OO OV 20 CO me Ole. 0 
Lamp oil.....|Cwt. 99| 165 19) 143] 650} 363] 120] 864) Oo] 6 
Lamp oil seed |Cwt. Mier: 19 0 Oe Ole Oh} sais 13 Olea 
Margosa oil..|Cwt. 9 90 0 Oe Oa Gh <O2 hae () Oe 
Total...| 67; 456) 241 199| 67| 435| 167| 947/11 13 


MALABAR. 
This district, so rich in natural productions of every sort, yields 
a great variety of substances from which oils may be derived. 
Up to this time sufficient data asto the extent of cultivation, 


inary pro- 


wu 
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= 
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et 
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— 


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Oils of Southern India. 
is su 
d table will give the best idea of the ord 


th 
those oils which are likely to become valuable articles of trade. 


ing 
joine 


lucidat 


The sub 


&c. has not been obtainable, but the interest which has been evinced 
ducts of the district. 


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ocT.—DEC. 1857. ] Oils of Southern India. 15 
MASULIPATAM. 

Gingeley and Lamp oils are the staple products of this district, 
the former is said to be cultivated to the extent of about 10,000, 
and the latter about 15,000 acres. There are but few cocoanut 
plantations, this oil is therefore chiefly imported, but there is am- 
ple room for the introduction of this productive cultivation. 

Fish oil is made for local consumption from fish caught on the 
Colar lake and on the coast, it is chiefly burnt in lamps by the 
lower classes, but the manufacture appears deserving of encour- 
agement. Small quantities of Castor, Kurunj, Margosa and Bra- 
madundoo are also made. 


TABLE oF EXPporRTs. 


1850-1. | 1851-2. | 1852-8. | 1853-4 | 1854-5. 
NAMES. MC. Ga. als oe ee 
No. | Rs.| No. | Rs.| No. | Rs.} No. | Rs.| No. | Rs. 
Cocoanut oil Candy Di 90 0} 60 Ue ats) 20; 0 see 
Cocoanuts...| Do. 3} 0 0} 0 oO’ 0 t} 60 0} O 
Cnet | Do. Cec). 7 lees! ol 77 ole Seal: g 
Gingele y | 
seeds......|Garce. 0) ee 0 oO a) OF 0 5| 0 
Lamp Oil ae Candy. o| 60 2) 0 Ties 20. ou 0 46; 0 
Lamp seeds..|Garce. 9} 0 12 0; 230} 0 42; 0 48) 0 
Linseed oil. .;|Candy. 0) i 1 0) Or. 0 Bile) Gi 0 
Ghee)... .a22 Candy. 57| 0 36) . 0; 1,209; 0; 427; oO; 180) 0 

Totak. . 69} .. : SBR -- | 1,404] .. 606] .. 275 
NELLORE. 


Lamp-oil is grown in this Collectorate to the extent of 12,500 
acres. 

The cultivature of the Gingeley seed covers on an average about 
1,000 acres. Margosa oil is made to the extent of about 1,600 
Maunds, and Illoopoo about 5,000. Brumadundoo, Cucumber 
and Linseed are all produced to a limited extent in the Ongole 
Talook. 

TABLE OF Exports. 
1851-2. 1852-3. 


|) 


Cwt. | Rs. | Cwt. | Rs. Cut. | Rs. Cut. | Rs. Cwt.| Rs, 


Gingeley oil.. i! 243, 846) 35 313 18 121 50 438) dl| 450 
Gingeley seed.|11,411/120,445) 8,123) 74,369 2,085 17,233} 1.869} 7,209; 395; 978 
Lamp oil.. "197 uP "54 9 "939 1,897 187' 1,470 158} 1,275} 163)1,196 
Lamp seed. . “15, 121/118, 550 240,961 76, 660 23,042)169, 784 15,076) 90, "450 3,004 1} 
Linseed.. ... 0 "739 117 689, 242) 1 496 127 "741 We ee-25 
Cucumberseed go 0 0 Gee Tae 5259) ld Aaa Olan 4 


(eens 0 See ome ee | ee | ee ee | eee | 


Total.| 26,972 237 1122249, 457 153,9 936 96, 188 190,093|17,291\100, 187 3,990]2, 653 


—— = 


1850-1. 1853-4. 1854-5. 


Cocoanuts 


talooks, and might be planted to a large ex- 
Castor, Kurunj, and Margosa oils are also pre- 


pared for local consumption. 


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FIGS |826 


RAJAHMUNDRY. 


In this district the oil seeds principally grown appear to be those 


Oils of Southern India. 
of Gingeley, Cocoanut and Lamp. 


° 


are TOWN in various 


Of Lamp and Gingeley upwards of 14,000 acres each are said to 
tent if necessary. 


be cultivated, and considerable quantities of the latter seed have 


within the last few years been exported to France. 


16 


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OcT.=—-DEC. 1857.) Oils of Southern India. ee 


SALEM. 


Lamp and Gingeley are cultivated throughout the district, the 
former to the extent of 39,300 acres, yielding on an average 160 
measures per acre, and of the latter 18,525 acres yielding 150 
measures per acre. Ramtill is also cultivated in the Oosoor, Den- 
kencotta and Tripatore talooks. MJloopoo, Cat amunak, Kurunj, 
Neem and Brumadundoo grow spontaneously, and the latter is said 
to be also cultivated to a small extent. 


TANJORE. 


Cocoanuts form the chief oil product of this fertile district, the 
quantity of ground under cultivation being estimated at 4,369 
acres, producing on an average 5,447 nuts per acre. 


Next in importance are [loopoo grown over.6,000 acres, Castor 
occupying 1,493 acres, and Gingely cultivated to the extent of 1,207 
acres. Pinnacotay and Ground nut oils are produced to a limit- 
ed extent. A great variety of Medicinal oils &c. are obtainable in 
this district. | 


TABLE oF EXPpoRTs. 


1850-1. 1851-2. 1852-3. 1853-4 1854-5. 
NAMES. 


No. | Rs. | No. Rs. | No.| Rs. | No.| Rs. | No. Rs. 


Cwt. 54| 549 169, 1,712} 125] 1,264; 64} 647)18,104|19,194 
No. (41,875)  580/29,375| 384 0 0 0 0) 0 0 
Gingeley oil..|Cwt.| 623) 6,288 455 4,588| 556| 5,609/1,085|10 966} 202] 2,765 
Gingeley seed../Cwt.| 67 176] 81! 226| 265) 691/7,654/20,925 0] 0 
Lamp oil. oe. “| Owt. 796) 5,707) 1,175) 8, na 1,866| 9,797; 448/16,124| 2,268)16,264 
Lamp seed . Cwt. 1 3 0 () 0 0 0 0 0 
Illoopoo oil. vOut 5 27 4 36 De et ae 0 0 3 35 
Margosa cil....:Cwt.} 109} 857| 1,207] 1,002} 35] 1,689) 46} 362) 197) 1,546 
Pinnacotay oil. ‘Cwt. 12 84 92| 210] 130| 866 0 Ol Si Ak 30 
Pinnacotay seed Uwt. 10 19 46} 108] 88) 153) 10 30 12 2) 
Ground nuts... Cwt. 72) 165 42 96| 866] 1,002} 90! 299 15 60 


- a Fre | a es ee eee San clan 


14,454... 16,791 21,182" .. 149,358 39,915 


Cocoanut oil... 
Cocoanuts .... 


otal. 


TINNEVELLY. 


The oils in general demand for local consumption are here large- 
ly cultivated. Lamp to the amount of 34,785 acres and Gingeley 
18,222 acres. 


18 Oils of Southern India. [NO.5, NEW SERIES, 


Illoopoo oil is procurable in large quantities (about 16,000 Gal- 
lons,) and if advances are made to the manufacturers of Wood oil, a 
good supply is obtainable, the quantity however at present extract- 
ed for home consumption is very small. 


Castor, Safflower, Margosa, Pinnacotay, Kurunj, Brumadundoo, 
CAt amunak and Poovana oils are all procurable in quantities vary- 
ing from 5 to 250 Gallons. 


TABLE OF EXPoRTs. 


1850-1. 1851-2. | 1852-3. | 1853-4. | 1854-5. 
NAMES. SAE 7 ee PE 
No. | Rs. | No. | Rs.| No. | Rs. | No. | Rs. | No. | Rs. 
By Sea. 
Gingeley oil.|Mercal 40; 107 15| 67 69) 180 oa ae 143} 135) 365 
Gingeley 
BEGG i <<), 0; 0, 0 0 50 36 ss ae ae 1,887 
Lamp oil Do 0 0 0 0 44 3 108 
Lamp oil | ! 
Seed... 6: Do. 6) C 0 2) 1 a 28 
Margosa oil..| Do. 5) 42) 431107 94) : 170 
To Travan- 
core. 
Gingeley oil.!Mercal} 1,094| 2,872) 591)1,553| 1427) 3 . 2,020) 4, 303) 1,171) 3,075 
Gingeley 


seed...ee-| Do. { 14,462) 9,900) 5,043)/3 Toate, ar) 14, 52 17, ee 14, 2 iG Aa iar 
Lamp oil....| Do. 72| 189 14 0 
Lamp seed..} Do. 363} 148) 190 od 0| 
Margosa oil..| Do. 19! 48 01290 6 0 
Margosaseed Do. oe 474 Oo} 60 0 
Tora |  S, US71B| Le BSE ee 118,839! .. [21,063 11,171 


TRICHINOPOLY. 


Most of the oils usually grown are produced in this district. The 
supply however being insufficient to meet the local demand, the de- 
ficiency is imported from Salem, Coimbatore and the neighbouring 
Collectorates. 


VIZAGAPATAM. 


According to the returns furnished from this district the follow- 
ing appears to be the proportion in which the several oils therein 
mentioned are cultivated. Owing however to the great difficulty of 
obtaining correct information, these numbers must be considered 
only as an approximation. 


19 


OcT.—DEC. 1857.] Ozls of Southern India. 


Lamp oil 40,000 acres, Gingeley 27,000 acres. 


Mustard, 25,000 acres, Putty Gingaloo 10,000 acres. 


Ramtill, 3,500 acres. 


Tlloopoo, Margosa, Brumadundoo, and Cat amunak oils are also 


procurable in quantities of from 200 to 1,000 maunds. 


cg aren ae Ena ee a pene gE ee a bt mt RD REL ot et et ORAL NAA A ER REY RR tel 


OFS'76) °) LZLG0c! "GLE OLIN. "= APeSisel =° \C8GGrl) of | avnOT 
0 0 0 0 Sol {8% 0 0 0 0 ‘SPI | °° TEO WO}OIH 
0 0 0 0 ial I 0 0 0 0 “SPIN | ‘SSvis UOT 
i Nerd 0 0 0 Oo 0 Oe (0 ion cst Oe ‘SPIN |" “Tl Bsoa'y 
GLO OLFILS OLL'S [660% |IT6 FZ \ZGL'TT |G0L 91/698 -L |PLP FT |1289 | “od [pees pregsnty 
O1E'h FSGS [OST |g99'oT |PeL'G j96s's FS 09 {Sher j0GG'S |syeavg|**poos duiey 
ee |9L {ZZy'T (882 |Pes‘t {416 1901'S |E90°T |SIT j2¢ ‘SPIN |" “109889 
pure dwurey 
GL  |8SS‘OT/GFO'ST [99091 \290'% [910° |FC0‘T [9FO'T |FOS*T SPST jsyereg)** pees odery 
0 0 0 0 Isl [28h |00¢'T 008 (0 0 | ‘sp (7° ** rode 
9GP‘BLIGGL ‘0G 6SF TOT FSP'OL [986 SELILIL G8 |h6Z°LL/COPGF|898 60T6IS ‘OL | syereg ke 
197% POI {2SI'T 999 0F0'S OTOL jLeh [81S [20r'G |ZOL> | “SPIT! Aopo8uty 
0 () 089° 000‘0LZ|160'9 0¢8"E9F)0 0 189°% |G¢7 499) “ON |" *‘s}nUBvOD0p 
KG MWA 0 0) Ov tT 0 0 0 0 "SPIN [10 JNUBOD0H 
‘SY | ‘ON | ‘SU | ON | ‘SU | ‘ON | ‘SH | ON | ‘SH | “ON 
Pee aes ee ‘| “‘SHINVN 
"G- F981 PSG81 | "S-Z981 “C198 "1-098 


‘SLUOUXY LO MIAVY, 


MALWA. 
Opium being the staple product of this province, Poppy oil and 
seed (the former at 9 seers, and the latter at 25 seers per Rupee) 


are procurable to a very large extent, 


Poppy oil is here more ge- 


nerally used than any other both in Lamps and as food. 


20 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, 


Mahowa oil selling at 1 anna 6 pie per seer, and a little Mus- 
tard oil are the only other oils made in this province, excepting two 
very inferior ones extracted from the seeds of the Ramayen and the 
Kunjee (Dalbergia ?) and burnt in lamps by the poorer classes. 


MYSORE. 

Lamp and Castor, Gingeley and Ramtill appear to be the chief 
oil products of Mysore. 

Most of the oils however in Classes 2 and 3 are procurable. Of 
these the Kurunj, Brumadundoo (largely used for lamps), Cat amu- 
nak and Neem are the principal, the latter is said to grow most 
plentifully in the Chittledroog Division. 

The Poppy is cultivated in the Chickmugaloor talook, and Lin- 
seed, Safflower and Mustard in various parts of the country. San- 
dalwood oil is largely made. Cassia, nutmegs and pepper grow wild 
in the jungles. 

The Garcinia pictoria is plentiful in the jungles in the West of 
Mysore, and yields a valuable solid oil. A very sweet tasted edible 
oil is also obtainable from the seeds of the Chirongia sapida. 


SECTION III. 


DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF THE OILs oF THE MADRAS PRESIDENCY. 


> 


Crass 1. 
No. 1. Cocoanut oil. (Cocos nucifera.) 


The Cocoanut Palm grows almost every where within the tropics. 
It is plentifully cultivated in the districts of Malabar and Canara, 
Ganjam and Rajahmundry. 


The oil is generally prepared from the dried kernel of the nut, 
by expression in the ordinary Native mills. When carefully made 
it is colorless; solid at low temperatures but possesses a rancid dis- 
agreeable smell. 


When required for edible purposes, the kernel of the fresh nut 
is taken, rasped and mixed with a little boiling water. This yields 


oct.—DEC. 1857.] Oils of Southern India. QI 


by pressure a milky fluid which, on being boiled until all the water 
has evaporated, produces a clear edible oil. Only just sufficient water 
to moisten the pulp should be added, asa larger proportion pro- 
longs the operation and deteriorates the product. When fresh 
prepared, this oil is comparatively free fromsmell, but it speedily 
 aequires an unpleasant odour; many attempts have been made to 
divest the oil of this smell, which renders it inapplicable for the 
perfumers’ use, but only with partial success. 


The prices of this oil vary most considerably in different parts of 
the country.. For the quarter ending 31st October 1854, the max- 
imum and minimum prices at nineteen large stations in all parts 
of the Presidency were Rs. 8-5-4 at Jubbulpore, and Rs. 2-14-0 
at Bangalore, per maund. The average of twenty-one large stations 
in the Madras Presidency gives Rs. 4-9-5 per maund or about £41-2 
per ton. The market value of ‘ Cochin oil” in London in January 
1855 was £46-10 per ton, the average being from £46 to £48. 


It is used very largely in England in the manufacture of candles 
and soap. For the candle maker the stearine is separated from the 
olein, the former product being used for candles, for which itis most 
applicable on account of the high temperature required to fusevit. 
The olein is then made over to the soap boiler for conversion into 
soap. Soap made from Cocoanut oil is lighter than water, and con- 
sequently floatsin that medium, whilst from its being the only soap 
which will dissolve freely in salt water itis usually called “‘ Marine 
soap.” 

In India this oil is made into soap by boiling with a proper pro- 
portion of dhobies’ earth, salt, saltpetre, quicklime, and water. It 
is also burnt in lamps by the higher classes, used for anointing the 
body, and in cookery. 


The best oil is exported from Cochin and the neighbouring ports 
on the Malabar coast. It usually fetches 20s. per ton more than the 
Ceylon or Coromandel coast article. The average annual quantity 
exported from this Presidency from 1850-1 to 1854-5 is about 
14,10,963 gallons. Of this by far the largest portion is sent to the 
United Kingdom and France, the remainder finding its way to Ara- 
bia, Mauritius, Bombay and the French (Indian) Ports. 


22 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEWSERIES, 


The Cocoanut palm thrives best near the sea coast, although it 
sometimes grows favorably on inland plains, the soil of which contains 
a large proportion of silex and soda or salt which are the sub- 
stances chiefly required for its nourishment. In South America salt is 
largely used as amanure. The tree begins to bear about the 7th 
or 8th year, the annual produce being from 70 to 100 nuts. Atthe 
Tanjore local Exhibition in March 1856, a bunch of Cocoanuts con- 
taining no less than 70 nuts on a single stalk was exhibited. Each 
tree is calculated toyield at least 24 gallons of oil per annum, and the 
coir obtained from the nuts is estimated to yield one fourth of the 
value of the oil, whilst the oil cake is very valuable for cattle and as 
amanure. The Hlephant beetle (Oryctes Rhinoceros) is a great 
enemy of this tree, it begins by nibbling the leaves into the shape 
of a fan, and then attacks the main shoot into which it bores, and 
unless speedily extracted, infallibly destroys the tree. 


No. 2. Guingeley oil. (Sesamum orientale.) 


The Sesamum and its varieties are grown throughout the coun- 
try. So universal is the use of this oil, that its name in almost 
all the vernacular languages signifies ‘* the oil.” 

The mode of extraction sometimes adopted is that of throwing 
the fresh seeds without any cleansing process, into the common 
mill and expressing in the usual way. The oil thus becomes mixed 
with a large portion of the coloring matter of the epidermis of the 
seed, and is neither so pleasant to the eye nor so agreeable to the 
taste as that obtained by first repeatedly washing the seeds in cold 
water, or by boiling them for a short time until the whole of the 
reddish brown coloring matter is removed, and the seeds have be- 
come perfectly white; they are then dried in the sun, and the oil ex- 
tracted as usual. 


In expressing this oil, the Natives of the Northern division always 
add the bark of the Tanghedi (Cassia auriculata), or the Babool 
gum to the seed to be pressed, this is probably done with a view of — 
enhancing the value of the cake, which is used as an article of food 
for man and beast. 

The value of this oil in England was £47-10 per ton in January 
1855, and £49 to £53-10 in January 1856. In different parts of 


ocr.—pDxc. 1857 j Oils of Southern India. 23 


the Presidency, the price of this oil varies from Rs. 1-5-0 to 
Rs. 6-0-0 per maund of 25 lbs. In South Arcot it is procurable at 
| Rs. 27-12-5 per candy. 

The prices per maund at the undermentioned stations, for the 
quarter ending 31st October 1854, were as follows: 


BEA LP! Rus. Bs 

SOONG 5 0 0 OO DR OR Peo se.0 Madura. ccs <3 0. 8149 
Pet OU cass... . 0 -? S| Mangalore....ci..... 4 1 8 
eerie o. 2 0 | Nagpore:..)........ 112 9 
Beraampote:......... 2 8 0O.| Palamcottah..,...... 412 0 
Cmnanorenwy.c...s 6 0 01 Paulghaut........6.0 3.7 0 
Siddajaiecss...4...; 215 Oj] Samulcottah........ 210 8 
Pdoulna) 65... ae een ©. .0)| Secunderabad... .... 2.3.11 
MO MUNGOtese ess. 1.5 0 | Trichinopoly,....... 4 1 8 
Madtas. <'..,< i. Mee seco £4 OH Nellore a ys vacua (3) 145.0 
Mesuiipatmess...,. o 0 O| Vizagapatam......... 3 2 0 


In England this oil is chiefly used for the manufacture of soap, 
and for burning in Table lamps, for which itis better suited than 
Cocoanut oil, owing to the lower temperature at which it congeals, 
although the light it givesis not so bright. In India it is chiefly 
used in cooking, for anointing the body, for making soap, for burn- 
ing in lamps, &e. by the dyer to brighten and fix his colors. 

The following tables will show the quantity and the destinations 
of the exports of this oil. 


Year 1847-8. Year 1848-9. 
Oil....Gals. 19,520 Rs. 14,776 Oil....Gals. 52,721 Rs. 36,294 
Seed. »,Qr. 17,518 Rs. 160,134 Seed, Cwt. 1,44,125 Rs, 299,412 

Year 1852-4. Year 1854-5. 
Gals.....- 119,180 Rs. 73,635 Gals..... 17,1389 Rs. 12,720 
Cwt ....1,198,079 Rs. 693,760 Owt..... 167,324 Rs. 431,726 

Seed. Oil. 


Exported to the United Kingdom Cwt. 12,718 Gals. 42,048 
CNPOUU Tidal s eases cccccscceseecs 590 — 2,968 
PRAMICO siya sss oe co os aS Sica ne rc eePD) 
Me EC ralesla se iiss se) axe Oo alse 6 vivic ge sc» « 741 — 19,698 
BROMUS ose 'e'ea/e sisle aie eials se che Veo cine ce 113 
RMC EA ee re os cera chee tale ele ile ce 88 — 3,598 
RCAC ONC. «ssc cece cc ccusest eros d 148 
Mauritius and Bourbon..sesssegeveeee ve = 4,232 


é 


24 Owls of Southern India. [NO. 5, NEW SERIES,. 
No. 3. Bastard Gingeley ail. (Sesamum orientale var.) 


The “second sort Gingeley” sometimes called “ bastard Gin- 
geley’”’ is extracted from a variety of the Sesamum above mentioned. 
It differs but little from the true Gingeley; the quantity of oil yielded 
by an equal amount of seed is somewhat less, but there appears to 
be no difference in the quality of the product. 


The following remarks upon the cultivation of the true Gingeley, 
and its varieties in the Rajahmundry district, have been furnished 
by. F. Coplestone, Esq. . 


Gingeley, or first sort Gingeley. (The black seed.) This is the pro- 
duce of the Hill-country called Reddyseema in the Rajahmundry 
district. Itis generally sown at the commencement of the mon-— 
soon (June) and ripens in four months, 160 seers of seed yield 50 
seers of oil which is clear and sweet. ‘The current value of the 
seed is Rupees 50 per candy of 500\bs. 


Bastard Gingeley, or second sort Gingeley, is the worst variety of 
this plant, the seeds are of mixed colors, white, red and black. It 
is usually sown in the month of Chyteari (April) and ripens in three 
months, 160 seers of seed yield 35 seers of oil, which is of a brown 
color and bitter. The current value of this seed is 35 Rupees per 
candy of 500|bs. | 


White Gingeley, is sown inthe month of Myglam (January, Fe- 
bruary) and ripensin three months andahalf. The oil is clean and 
sweet, 160 seers of seed yield 44 seers of oil, the current value of 
the seed is 44 Rupees per candy. 


Pyroo Nosvooloo is the red seed sown generally on the islands 
called Lunkaloo. It ripens in three months, 160 seers of seed yield 
45 seers of oil. The current price of the seed is Rupees 42 per 
candy. The term “ Pyroo” is applied to the season after the gene- 
ral harvest in January, viz. February, March, and April, and 
has no reference to these seeds except as indicating the time of 
their sowing. 


The exports of this oil and seed are included in those of Gingeley. 
No. 4. Lamp oil. (Ricinus communis fructibus majoribus.) 
The oil obtained from the large seeded variety of the Ricinus: 


oct.—peEC. 1857.] Ozls of Southern India. 25 


communis has obtained the above name from the fact of its being 
used almost solely for burning in the commonest lamps and for 
feeding torches. 

For this purpose the seeds are sometimes partially roasted to 
coagulate the albumen and liquify the oil, and then pressed in the 
ordinary mill, or boiled with water, or the roasting process is omit- 
ted ; in either case the coloring matter of the husks of the seed and 
other impurities gives the oil a dark color, and if the roasting pro- 
cess is carried too far, a slightly empyreumatic odour is communi- 
cated. 


By carefully shelling the seed and rejecting all impurities, the 
Natives prepare a clear oil for medicinal purposes (by boiling) near- 
ly equal to that extracted from the small seeded variety. 

The price of this oil varies in different parts of the country from 
Rupees 1-10-0 to Rupees 8-13-6 per maund of 25 lbs. The aver- 
age of nineteen large stations in all parts of the Presidency for the 
Quarter ending 31st October 1854, was Rupees 2-8-6 per maund. 


It is chiefly used for burning in lamps, and from its viscidity and 
drying qualities only in those of the simplest description. 

The average export of this oil for the last 6 years has been 
97,561 Gallons per annum. 

Lamp oil made into a kind of palmine by agitation with nitrie acid, 
is largely used as a lubricating agent for Railway locomotives in 
India. 


No. 5. Castor oil. (hicinus communis, fructibus minoribus.) 


The small seeded variety of the Ricinus communis is supposed 
to yield the best product, and is therefore universally employed in 
preparing the oil exported to Europe for medicinal purposes. 

The fresh seeds after having been sifted and cleaned from dust, 
stones, and all extraneous matters, are slightly crushed between 
two rollers, freed by hand from husks and colored grains, and en- 
closed in squares of clean gunny or canvass. The packets of seed 
then receive a slight pressure in an oblong mould which gives an 
uniform shape and density to them. The “ bricks’ as they are 


26 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, 


technically called, are then placed alternately with plates of sheet 
iron in the ordinary Screw or Hydraulic press. On the application 
ofa gradually increasing pressure, the oil exudes through the pores of 
the gunny and is received into clean tins. Water in the proportion 
of a pint to a gallon of oil being added, the whole is boiled until 
the water has evaporated, the mucilage will be found to have sub- 
sided and encrusted, the bottom of the pan whilst the albumen soli- 
dified by the heat forms a thin layer between the oil and the water. 
Great care must be taken to remove the pan from the fire the 
instant the whole of the water has evaporated, which may be known 
by the bubbles having ceased, for if allowed to remain longer, the 
oil which has hitherto been of the temperature of boiling water or 
212°, suddenly rises to that of oil or nearly 600°, thereby heightening 
the color and communicating an empyreumatic taste and odour. 
The oil is then filtered through blanket, flannel or American drill, 
and put into cans for exportation. Itis usually of a light straw 
color, sometimes approaching a greenish tinge. 


The cleansed seeds yield from 47 to 50 per cent. of oil. The fol- 
lowing is the result of experiments made at Madras and Calcutta 
to ascertain the per-centage of oil in Castor seed (January 27th, 
1853.) 


Calcutta—1,400lbs. of seed yielded kernels and raw oil as follows : 


< 


Kernels. Oil, 
LSC SSOLb see cis ae OOelbs: wivece (OOSLBS. 
MC SOP ia rcrpatte ESAlbS Mare eee 872 l]bs. 
ord sort 020.) PG4lbS. a. ies evo 


Making a total of 980lbs. of Kernels and 483lbs. of Raw oil from 
1,400lbs. of seed. 


Madras—1,400|bs. of seed yield raw oil as follows: 


Ist sort. 818lbs. 
2nd sort. S88lbs. 
Std sort. 74lbs. 


Making a total of 480lbs. of oil from 1,400lbs. of seed. 


The cost of the Madras oil is as follows:— 


ocr.—peEc. 1857.1 Oils of Southern India. QT 


1,400lbs. of seed at Rs. 3-5-0 per bag of 164lbs. Rs. 27 3 4 
Husking and selecting Kernels and cooly hire...... oO! eo 
Crushing, moulding, pressing, boiling.,,.......000 dee [pats | 
Filtering and Sundries....... 5H. choo 580-016 cog PN toy 4) 
Overseer’s pay, Godown rent.......... Joh 66 Gc Bh, (G5 a98 
300 Empty Quart bottles, Corks, &c.............- 34 4 8 
Cleaning and Packing Charges.........cs00+ Beeiocue 4 8 0 


—t 


Total Rees Foo 6 


Deducting the price of the bottles, this gives an average of annas 
1 pies 4<7per quart of first, second, and third sort oil. 

This oil is chiefly used as a mild purgative, and by Natives for 
anointing the head. Soap of good quality may be made from if, 


but the cost and disagreeable smell which it communicates, preclude 
its general use. 


The average export from the year 1849-50 to 1852-3 was 11,325 
gallons per annum. 


The method of extracting this oil by the boiling process is thus 
given by Ainslie. ‘“ The seeds are boiled for two hours in water, 
dried for 3 days in the sun, husked and pounded. They are then 
boiled in fresh water until the whole of the oil has risen to the 
surface.” 


Castor oil being entirely soluble in highly rectified alcohol of sp. 
gray. °825, any adulteration of it with other fixed oils may be ascer- 
tained by dissolving a sample in 8 times its weight of spirit, the 
fixed oil is not dissolved but floats on the surface. This however 
is not an infallible test. | 


No. 6, Ground nut oil. (Arachis hypogea.) 


The Ground nut or “ Manilla” nut, and the oil extracted there- 
from, has of late years been exported to a considerable extent. It is 
now grown in all parts of the Peninsula. The oil is seldom used by 
the Natives, although large quantities of the nut are eaten after 
being slightly roasted over a charcoal fire. The cleaned seeds yield 
about 43 per cent. of a clear straw colored edible oil possessing a 


28 Oils of Southern India. [xo. 5, NEW SERIES, — 


slight bean-like taste and smell, which makes a good soap, indeed 
it is a perfect substitute for olive oil in all its uses. 

Its value in London in January 1855 was £47-10 per ton. In 
North Arcot, where it is largely cultivated, the oil is precurable at 
from Rs. 1-8-0 to 2-12-0 per maund. In the Nellore district the 
seed costs 1-8-0 per maund, and in Tanjore about 200 acres are cul- 
tivated with this plant yielding annually 75 candies of oil at Rs. 2-6-0 
per maund. In the year 1848-49, 37,000 gallons of this oil were 
shipped, but in the two following years the exports exceeded 
1,00,000 gallons. It however fell to 75,207 gallons in 1852-3. 


According to Simmonds, 1,950 parts of seed give 1,405 of blanched 
kernels and 703 of oil, by cold pressure. It is produced to a very 
large extent in Africa, from whence England and France draw large 


supplies. 


No. 7. Linseed ol. (Linum usitatissimum.) 


The seed from which this oil is expressed has long been culti- 
vated to a limited extent at Nagpore, Bellary, Guntoor and other 
parts of the Presidency. Itis usually sown in furrows on the bor- 
ders of fields, and the extent of cultivation is consequently difficult 
to ascertain. 

The oil is seldom used for painting in India perhaps from an im- 
pression which seems to be general, that the oil obtained from In- 
dian seed is inferior to that imported from England: It will how- 
ever be found on experiment, that this arises from the former hay- 
ing been imperfectly freed from the mucilage which prevents its 
drying, or from some admixture of a non-drying oil. 

In the year 1852-3 English Linseed oil to the amount of gallons 
4,552 valued at Rs. 8,763 was imported into Madras, whilst at the 
same time 1,045 cwt. of the seed was exported hence, mostly to 
England. The fact that it can be made on the spot equal in qua- 
lity and considerably less in price than the English article, needs 
only to be known to be taken advantage of. It would be necessary 
to guard against its adulteration with any of the greasy oils, which 
would of course infallibly destroy its drying properties. 

The value of this oilin England was from £61 to £66 in Ja- 
nuary 1856. Itis said tobe procurablein Bellary at Rs, 3-8-0 per 


oct.—pDEc. 1857.) Ourls of Southern India. 29 


maund. It was imported into England in 1851 to the amount of 
608,986 Quarters. 


Some energetic efforts have been made to improve the cultivation 
of Linseed in the Punjab chiefly for the sake of fibre. The Agri- 
Horticultural Society having obtained a grant of money from Go- 
vernment offered rewards for its cultivation, and a considerable in- 
crease immediately took place. 


In 1853-4 there were 3,485 acres under cultivation in eight 
districts, whereas in the next year no less than 19,039 acres were 
so taken up, and it is estimated that the whole cultivation through- 
out the Punjab during that season was 50,135 acres producing 
146,508 mds. of fibre, and the increased produce of seed is esti- 
mated at 130,000 mds. valued at 160,000 Rs. The seed sold by 
auction atan average rate of Rs 4-6 per maund of 80lbs.” (Specta- 
tor, Oct. 14, 1856.) 


The following extract froma late number of the “ Sindian’’ 
newspaper, will give some idea of the progress made in Linseed 
cultivation in Scinde. 


“‘ We are glad to observe that the growth of Linseed in Scinde is 
attracting the attention of the authorities. Major Wormald tried 
an experiment at Jemadar-ka-Landee, and gives a very favorable 
report, which has been placed by the Commissioner in Scinde at the 
disposal of the Press. We have seen a specimen of the Linseed, 
and the following is a description of its culture and growth. 


“‘ At Landee, the quantity of land prepared for seed was 4,658 
square yards, on which was sown 126lbs. of Linseed, part on the 
28th October, and the rest on the Ist November 1856. In four 
months the crop was pulled up and stacked; and the produce was 
one thousand pounds of Linseed, being as far as may be judged, 
much above the average yield of flax crops in different parts of 
Kurope, and certainly finer Linseed than any yet seen here. A sample 
of this Linseed has been forwarded to Mr. Warwick, a merchant in 
Kurrachee, who pronounces it to be very fine. It is intended that 
the sample be forwarded to Bombay, when an opinion will be formed 
on it by competent judges. 


30 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, — 


‘The stalks of thisseed grew strong, and ranged from two to three 
feet. No opportunity has as yet been afforded of converting the stems 
into flax, and as the stackage will not deteriorate from their quali- 
ty, opportunity may be found to complete the experiment. 


“ Major Wormald, from past experience, considers the soil in the 
Mulleer Valley particularly suited for the growth of Linseed and 
Flax, and feels confident that if cultivated on a large scale a for- 
tune might soon be realized. 

“ The ten-fold yielding of this valuable seed in the Mulleer valley, 
owing to rich soil, should operate as an inducement to the Com- 
missioner to promote the growth of an article, that bids fair to make 
so respectable a figure in the revenue of the Province. The sample 
we have seen appears to possess the properties of the best kind. 
The seeds are small, bright, grayish-brown, slippery, elongated 
bodies, containing a full amount of that mealy, oleaginous albumen, 
which yields the oil in such abundance. In short we consider the 
specimen we have seen as well worthy the attention of those whose 
hearts are with the prosperity of Scinde.”’ 


No. 8. Ramil oil. (Verbesima sativa or Grurzotia oletfera. ) 


This sweet tasted edible oil is plentiful in the Mysore, Vizaga- 
patam, Nagpore and Ganjam districts. It is used for nearly the’ 
same purposes as the Gingeley oil, and from its inferior quality and 
low price is frequently used to adulterate both this and Castor oil. 
Tt is exported from Ganjam. | 


The oil is said to mix with colors as well as linseed and to dry 
without litharge, although a little improves it. 


No. 9. Mustard oil. (Sinapis varieties.) Improperly called 
“ Rape’ in India. 

Five or six kinds of Sinapis are cultivated in various parts of 
Southern India. The seed is chiefly used asa condiment, but the 
oil which is sometimes extracted is much prized by the Natives, and 
apart from its edible qualities is supposed to possess many virtues. 
The different kinds of seed yield from 28 to 36 per cent. of a bright 
yellow edible oil, having a strong smell and aslight taste of mustard. 
The average price of Mustard seed in eighteen large stations, in all _ 


ocr.—DEC. 1857.] Ovls of Southern India. 31 


parts of the Presidency for the quarter ending 31st October 1854, 
was Ks. 1-2-8 per maund of 25lbs., the maximum being Rs. 1-11-6 
at Cannanore, and the minimum As. 10-6 at Nagpore. In Vizaga- 
patam it costs Rs. 208 per sicca garce. 


The oil is not exported, but the seeds have been annually shipped 
as follows: 
Years ) 1847-8. 1848-9. 1849-50. 1850-1. 1851-2. 1858-4. 1854-5. 
Cwt.. } Bees), 6767. 9,435 9,909 16075. — is 
Although seldom procurable in the market, this oil is neverthe- 
less generally made, and usedin cooking and in the manufacture 
of pickles, condiments, &c. It is considered by the Natives supe- 
rior to all other oils for anointing the body which it is supposed to 
invigorate. 


In medicine itis sometimes given internally as a remedy for fla- 
tulent colic, but is more frequently applied as a rubefacient, and as 
a cure for burns and wounds. 


Rape oil (Srassica) properly so called, was imported into Eng- 
land in 1851 to the amount of 107,029 Qrs. or 21,606 tons from 
France and Germany, the oil is valued at £34 per ton. 


No. 10. Poppy oil. (Papaver somniferum.) 


The Poppy is largely cultivated throughout Malwa and the Opium 
districts, where the drying oil obtained from the seed is more ex- 
tensively used than any other, both inlamps and asfood. The fol- 
lowing statistics regarding the cultivation of the Poppy plant, are 
furnished by C. Timmins, Hsq., Sehore. 


“‘Thereare three lacs of beegahs under Poppy cultivation in Malwa, 
the average produce of seed per beegah being two maunds,*each of 40 
seers, or 82lbs, which gives a total of 6,00,000 maunds of seed worth 
from Rs. 1 to 12 per maund. From these six lacs, deduct 11 seer per 
beegah required for seed, and there remains 5,90,623 maunds of seed 
for oil. The oil extracted from 1 maund of seed being about 13 
seers, the above quantity of seed would yield a total of 1,91,952 


* Notr.— The seer in use here is more than three times the weight of the Ma- 
dras seer. It weighs 324 ounces, that of Bombay being 111 oz., and Madras 10 
ounces. 


32 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, 


maunds of oil, which sells at from Rs. 4-8-0 to 5 Rs. per maund or 
£40-6 per ton. The whole of the oil at present made here appears 
to be consumed in Malwa. Mr. Anson, the first Assistant to the 
Governor General and Superintendent of the Opium department at 
InJore, concludes that 5,000 maunds might be available for export 
at Indore alone. : 


‘* The hire of a cart from Indore to Bombay would be about 20 or 
25 Rupees. The carts are much smaller than those used in the Ma. 
dras territory, and will carry from 20 to 24 maunds. There would 
appear to be no difficulty in establishing an export of this oil, pro- 
vided there were a remunerating demand for it; the extent of sup- 
ply must however be regulated by the demand for Opium, the high 
price obtainable for which alone supports this expensive and hazar- 
dous cultivation. 


«« Perhaps Calcutta presents greater facilities for the export of the 
seed or oil from the advantage of the water carriage afforded by the 
Ganges and other rivers of Bengal ; but the railway now progressing 
from Bombay will materially facilitate the transit of goods from this 
part of India, but as before remarked the production of Poppy oil 
must ever be dependent on the demand for opium which may pos- 
sibly be extensively affected by the extraordinary revolution now 
progressing in China. 

By simple exposure to the rays of the sun, in shallow vessels, this 
oil is rendered perfectly colorless. It is supposed by the Natives 
to produce sleep and strengthen the brain. Poppy oil is peculiar- 
ly suitable for mixing with paints; ‘ with white lead it leaves a 
beautiful surface which does not afterwards change by the action 
of light into a dirty yellow.” 


See 


Crass 2. a 
No. 11. Margosa or Neem oil. (Azadirachta Indica and Meha 
azadirach. 
Two species of the Neem grow in Southern India. The Azadi- 


rachta Indica, or white flowered Neem, is exceedingly graceful, 
and forms an excellent ayenue tree. The Melia azadirach or Per- 


ocr.—pkEc. 1857.] Orls of Southern India. 33 


sian lilac, is a tall wide-spreading tree, of quick growth, the branches 
of which are very brittle and liable to be broken in high winds. 
The blossoms are of a lilac color, possessing a very sweet smell, and 
the fruits as well as the extracted oil of both varieties are much alike. 


A bitter principle prevails in all parts of the tree, and is present 
in the oil, which is much used by Native practitioners as an anthel- 
mintic and vermifuge, and externally as a liniment in rheumatism, 
headache, &c. it is of a deep yellow color, unpleasant smell, and bitter 
taste ; it forms an article of export, although the demand fluctuates 
considerably. Besides the uses above mentioned, itisalso burnt in 
lamps, and is knownin the market by the name of the “ bitter oil.” 


No. 12. Illoopoo and Mahowa oils. (Bassia longifolia et species.) 


Several varieties of the Bassia yield semi-solid oils known by 
thesenames. The B: longifolia isthe most common in Southern India, 
and although the oilis seldom to be met with in the bazaar, yet 
large quantities of the seeds are gathered, and the oil extracted for 
private consumption. Excellent candles and soap may be made from 
it, and as asubstitute for butter and for burning in lamps, it is much 
employed by the poorer classes. It is sometimes exported in small 
quantities. 


The Bassia butyracea is abundant in the hills of Kumaon, and 
produces an oil known by the names of Fulwah, Phulwarah, Choo- 
ree fooliel and Phooliel ka tael. This solid oil dissolves readily 
in alcohol, and is said to keep an indefinite time without becoming 
rancid. 


No. 18. Pinnacotay oil. (Calophylium inophyllum.) 

The fresh seeds of the “ Alexandrian laurel’ when shelled and 
subjected to pressure, yield a dark green oil ofa peculiar odour. Old 
seeds yield a higher colored and thicker product, It is occasionally 
shipped in small quantities to Ceylon, but cannot be considered a 
regular article of export. Itis burnt in lamps. 


No. 14. Kurunj ol. (Dalbergia arborea.) 


This oil, which in some parts of the country is used toa large 
extent in adulterating lamp oil, is expressed from the seeds of a 


o4 Ouls of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, 


tree common in most parts of India. Its fluidity at ordinary 
(Indian) temperatures renders it very suitable for burning in lamps, 
whilst its comparative cheapness leads to its use as an adulteration 
with other more expensive oils. 


No. 15. Coorookoo or Brumadundoo oil. (Argemone mexicana.) 


This pale yellow limpid oil may be obtained from the round 
corrugated seeds of the “ prickly poppy” which was originally intro- 
duced from Mexico in ballast, but now flourishes luxuriantly in all 
parts of Southern India. It is especially suited for lamps, and is 
also employed in the process dying red thread, and as an external 
application in cutaneous diseases. The seeds yield 123 per cent. ofoil. 

W. Hamilton, Esq. uw. p. remarks of this oil, ‘ that the Materia 
Medica hardly presents a more valuable purgative, or one which 
answers so many apparently conflicting circumstances at one and 
the same time. In that excruciating complaint, so common in all 
climates, colic arising from constipation of the bowels, 30 drops of 
the oil taken upon a lump of sugar allay the pain as if by magic, 
throw the patient into a profound sleep, and after a little time pro- 
duces a copious and unpainful evacuation of the bowels. ‘The mi- 
nuteness of the requisite dose, the instantaneousness of the relief, 
and the mild and gentle though effectual action it produces upon the 
intestinal canal, seem peculiarly to adapt it for cases of Cholera, su- 
perseding the use of Chloroform and Opium for subduing the cramps 
and mitigating the more urgent symptoms.” 


No. 16. Cdtamunak oil. (Curcas purgans.) — 


This oil has of late been exported to Europe as a substitute for 
Linseed oil, but the results of the experiment have not as yet trans- 
pired. The shrub is plentiful all over the Presidency, and the oil 
can be obtained in some parts of the country for little more than 
the expense of the collection of the seeds and cost of extraction. 
It is used by the Natives in lamps, &c. 

“ Under the name of “ seed oil” ithas been imported into Eng- 
land to the amount of nearly 1000 tons per annum from Lisbon, 
where it was first used by the contractor in lighting the public streets, 
and so useful was it found, that it soon usurped the place ofall other 
oils. It has been found to answer in England for cloth dressing, 


oct.— DEC. 1857.] Orls of Southern India. 35 


which in consequence of the irregular supply of olive oil makes it 
a valuable acquisition, the only objection to its employment being 
its highly drastic property.’’ (Simmonds.) 


No. 17. Piney tallow. (Vateria Indica.) 


The Vateria Indica or Doopada tree, grows plentifully in the jun- 
gles of the western coasts, and besides the product under consideration 
yields a resin nearly equal to copal, and a valuable building wood. 
The oil which is perfectly solid even in hot climates, is prepared by 
cleaning the seeds, then roasting and grinding them into a mags. To 
five seers of seed 12 seers of water are added, and the whole is boiled 
until the oil rises to the surface. Remove the oil, stir the contents 
of the vessel and allow it to stand until the following day, when a 
further portion of oil will be found on the surface. 


This substance has been pronounced by the Railway Agent very 
suitable for the lubrication of the wheels and axles of Railway car- 
riages, it is not however at present procurable in sufficient quantity 
to be used for that purpose, except to order. It is equally appli- 
cable to the manufacture of soap and candles. The next mention- 
ed oil is very similar in quality to the above. 


No. 18. Gamboge Butter. (Garcinia pictoria.) 


A semi solid oil obtained from the seeds of the Garcinia pictoria, 
growing abundantly in certain parts of Mysore and in the Western 
coast jungles, especially near Cooly Droog. The oil which is pro- 
curable in moderate quantities, is prepared by pounding the seed in 
a stone mortar, and boiling the mass until the butter or oil rises to 
the surface; or by first roasting the seeds, and then proceeding as 
above. Two anda half measures of seed should yield one and a 
half seers of butter. 


In the Nugger division of Mysore it is sold at the rate of As. 1-4. 
per seer of 24 Rs. weight, or £36-6 per ton, it is used asa lamp oil, 
and by. the poorer classes as a substitue for ghee. The butter thus 
prepared does not seem to possess any of the purgatiye properties of 
the Gamboge resin. 


36 Ouls of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, 


Crass 8. 


No. 19. Safflower oil. (Carthamus tinctorius.) 


The Carthamus is principally grown for the sake of the dye 
yielded by the petals of the flower, oil is however plentiful in the 
seeds and is expressed to a small extent. In Europe it is in demand 
for the manufacture of fancy soaps, &c. It grows plentifully in black 
cotton soil in Mysore and Tinnevelly. The oil which is of a clear 
yellow color, is edible. 


No. 20. Belgaum Walnut oil. (Aleurttes triloba.) 


The tree which produces the Lumbang or “ candle nut” grows 
plentifully in Hyderabad, Mysore and other parts, also in Ceylon 
where the oil is called ‘‘ Kekune,” and in the Sandwich Islands where 
it is named ‘ Kickui.’”’ (Szmmonds.) 

The iree is very prolific, and the nuts yield so large a per-centage 
of oil, that when strung upon a thin strip of bamboo and lighted, 
they burn like a candle. (£iddle.) 


No. 21. Poovana oil. (Sarcostigma Kleiniz.) 


This oil is as yet known only in Tinnevelly, Travancore and the 
Western coast. It has a very peculiar but not disagreeable odour, 
is burnt in lamps, and sold in the Tencausy talook of Tinnevelly, at 
Rs. 4 per maund. It is known in Travancore under the name of 
Poovengah. 


No. 22. Neeradimootoo oil. (Hydnocarpus inebrians.) 


This tree is produced abundantly in Travancore, and is met with 
on the Eastern side of the Ghats, especially near Shencotta at the 
entrance to the pass leading to Quilon. The oil is also known 
under the various names of Jungle almond, Maroty, Tamana, Mara- 
vettie, Neervittie and Soorty. It isin great repute amongst Native 
medical practitioners, and the oil appears somewhat drastic. The 
kernel has much the taste of the Brazil nut, and the shell, although 
differing from it in other particulars, has the same corrugated sur- 
face. It might probably be found very useful in the arts, as it much 
resembles Almond oil, but is much thicker. The seed yields 44 per 
sent. of oil, and cost As. 2-6 per seer at Madras. 


oct.—DEO. 1857.] Oils of Southern India. 87 
No. 28. Addale oil. (Jatropha glauca.) 


This seed is somewhat smaller than that of the ricinus, which 
however it much resembles. It grows wild on waste lands in South 
Arcot, and is cultivated in Tinnevelly, where the oil sells at Rs. 2-8 
per maund. It is limpid, of a light straw color, and if procura- 
ble in sufficient quantities, would prove a very serviceable lamp oil. 


No. 24. Cress seed oil. (Lepidium sativum.) 


The Tamil name of the seeds of this plant, is the same as that of 
the Linseed, probably from its being like it of a mucilagenous na- 
ture. Its qualities and uses have yet to be ascertained. 


25. Cheeronjee oil. (Chirongia sapida vel Buchanania latifolia.) 


The kernels of this nut mixed with milk are eaten by the higher 
classes of Natives to promote fatness. They abound in a straw- 
colored, sweet tasted and limpid oil, which, although edible, is sel- 
dom extracted. The tree grows plentifully in Mysore, Cuddapah 
and other parts. Dr. Riddle states the method of separating the 
kernel from its shell to be as follows : 


‘‘ The fruit, when ripe in May, is gathered and soaked in water 
to soften the outer pulp which is then rubbed off by the hand. 
The little nut, after being dried in the sun, is broken between a 
common ‘ chuckee’ or mill, such as is used for grinding wheat, 
it is then shifted and winnowed.”’ 

No. 26. Cucumber seed oil. (Cucumis sativa.) 

No. 27. Melon seed ott. (Cucumis meio.) 

No. 28. Pumpkin seed oil. (Cucurbita pepo.) 

The various species of the Cucurbitaceze are extensively cultivat- 
ed in the dry beds of rivers, or on sand banks in their vicinity, in 
all parts of India. The seed is sown in the hot weather, and the 
fruit perfected before the rains. Oilis made from the seeds in the 
Masulipatam and Guntoor districts, but the bulk of the fruit is sold 
and eaten before it arrives at maturity. 


No. 29. Coorgapilly oil. (Inga dulcis.) 


The “ Manilla tamarind” is extensivly used in all parts of the 


38 Oils of Southern india, [No. 5, NEWSERIES, 


Presidency as a hedge plant. If permitted however, it grows to a 
small sized tree, the pods of which contain several flattened black 
seeds, from which an oil of the consistence of castor oil may be 
extracted. . 

No. 80. Sterculia oil. (Sterculia fetida.) 

The seeds of this forest tree yield by expression a clear oil 
containing much stearine. 

No. 31. Wild Olive oil. (Pootrunjiva Roxburghi..) 

This tree grows plentifully in Mysore and Canara, the fruit much 
resembles an Olive, and the kemel contains an olive brown oil. 

No. 82. Cherroo Pinnacotay oil. (Calophyllum colaba.) 

A. clear yellow oil obtained from this tree was forwarded to the — 
Madras Exhibition of 1855 from Cochin. 

No. 83. Sandal seed oil. (Santalum album.) 

The kernel of the nut of the Sandal wood tree, yields by ex- 


pression, a viscid oil, which does not give much promise ofusefule 


ness. 

No. 84. JMoorgana tallow. ( : Py 

This valuable substance, which, even at high temperatures, is 
perhaps the most solid oil with which we are acquainted, is produced 
in Canara. If procurable in sufficient quantity and at a moderate 
cost, if would be doubtless an excellent material for the manufac- 
ture of candles, &c. - 

On the Western coast it is used medicinally as a cure for cattle 
wounded by tigers. 


No. 85. Naga sumpaghee oil. (Mesua ferrea.) 

This oil is procurable in Canara, at Rs. 4 per maund. It is 
chiefly used as a Lamp oil, and as a healing application to sores. 

No. 86. CGturraloo oil. { Ei, 


An oblong, flattened and corrugated seed sent from Canara under 
the names of “Wild Castor seed” hag not yet been identified. 
It yields alamp oil, 


oct.—pic.1857.] Oils of Southern India. 39 
Crass 4. 


No. 37. Soapnut ol, (Sapindus emarginatus.) 


This oil is extracted from the kernels of the seed, and ig used 
medicinally. 


No. 88. Cashew nut oil. (Anacardium occidentale.) 


The nuts of this tree yield by expression a very sweet tasted 
edible oil, much superior to European Olive oil, but not so cheap as 
the Ground nut oil. The nuts howéver being generally roasted 
and eaten, the oil is seldom expressed. 


No. 39. Ben nut oil. (Moringa pterygosperma. } 


This oil has long been considered valuable on account of the long 
period which it may be kept without contracting rancidity. This 
quality, as well as the very low temperature required to freeze it, 
renders it exceedingly useful to the watch maker and perfumer. 


The tree grows in all parts of the country, and flowers at all 
seasons, the blossoms, green and ripe fruit being often seen on the 
same tree at the same time. The young leaves and green legumes 
are eaten both by Natives and Huropeans, and the rasped root forms 
an excellent substitute for horse-radish, to which circumstance it 
owes its common name of “ horse-radish tree.”’ The oil is seldom 
manufactured in India. 


No. 40. Cotton seed orl. (Gossypium species.) 


The seeds of the various varieties of Gossypium contain a large 
proportion of oil, but the remains of the fibre adhere with such 
tenacity to the seed of almost all the varieties at present generally 
cultivated in India, that it is found to absorb the whole of the oil 
expressed, from which it cannot be separated without much difficulty. 
The oilis consequently never made in India, although the seed is a 
nourishing food for cattle. Should however, any of the varieties of 
Cotton with loose seeds, such as the G. aewminatum come into ge- 
neral cultivation, the oil would then become of much importance. 

At present this oil is manufactured at Marsellies from seed im- 
ported from Africa, and could some cheap and easy method of 
ridding the ordinary cotton seed from the adherent fibre be de- 


40 Oils of Southern India. (no. 5, NEW SERIES, — 


vised, thousands of maunds of seed which are now comparatively 
useless, could be worked up. 


No. 41. Silk Cotton seed oil. (Bombaz.) 


A dark brown but clear oil, is obtained by expression from the 
seeds of the silk cotton tree, the pappus of which is sometimes used 
as a stuffing for pillows, although it is by some supposed to pro- 
duce deafness. 


No. 42. Sweet Fennel oil. (Nigella sativa.) 


The black aromatic seeds generally known by the name of “ Siah 
Danah” yield by expression a dark colored fragrant oil. 


No. 43. Jtosebay ol. (Wrightia antidysenterica.) 


Various parts of this plant are reputed to possess medicinal vir- 
tues. The oil obtained by expression from the seeds, is of a deep 
red color and viscid consistence, probably possessing some of the 
medicinal properties of the seed. 


No. 44. Malkungunee otl. (Celastrus paniculata.) 


The oil expressed from the seeds of this shrub is of a bright scar- 
let color, and when mixed with other ingredients and subjected to 
destructive distillation, yields an empyreumatic product useful in 
Beri-beri. ‘ 


No. 45. Hemp seed oil. (Cannabis sativa.) 


Obtained by expression from the seed of the common hemp which 
is cultivated in several parts of the country for the sake of the intox- 
icating drugs it yields. In Russia the oil is much used for lamps 
but it is comparatively unknown to the Natives of India. 


No. 46. Portia nut oil. (Thespesia populnea.) 


From 8 to 10 per cent. of a deep red and somewhat thick oil is 
obtained by expression from the seeds of this tree, which grows in 
great abundance in the vicinity of Madras and other parts of the 
Presidency. Itis extensively planted as an avenue tree for which its 
quick growth and the beauty of its flowers render it a general fa- 
vorite, it is howeyer very liable to injury from high winds (as may 


ocT.—DEC. 1857.| Ozls of Southern India. 41 


be seen on reference to the Journal of the Madras Literary Society. 
No. 1. New Series.) The greater injury almost invariably suffered by 
trees grown from cuttings, has been frequently remarked. The 
wood is said to be capable of being worked, when fresh cut. The 
juice is used on the western coast as a remedy for various cutaneous 
affections. 


No. 47. Vuscid Cleome owl. (Cleome viscosa. )* 


This warm and pungent little seed when subjected to a very pow- 
erful pressure, yields 13 per cent. of a light olive, green limpid oil. 


No. 48. Thortay oil. ( ?) 


Is obtainable in ‘small quantities in Canara, it is a solid oil and 
used as a native remedy for sores. 


No. 49. Fenugreck oil. (Trigonella feanum grecum.) 


The fresh seeds of this plant are said to yield a small per-cent- 
age of oil. 

No. 50. Abelmoschus oil. (Abelmoschus ficulneus.) 

In addition to its fibre, for which the plant is used, the seeds 
yield a smali quantity of oil. 

No. 51. Gutta percha seed oil. (Isonandra gutta.) 

Yielded by expression. Oil but little known. 


No. 52. Croton oil. (Croton tighum.) 


This well-known medicinal oil, the use of which as a drastic pur- 
gative appears to be on the decline, is seldom extracted in India, 
the powdered seed, being usually administered by native practiti- 
oners. It is also used in veterinary medicine. 


Nos. 53 and 54. Bryony and Colocynth oils. 


These plants grow wild in most parts of the country. The seeds 
are collected by shepherd boys, and boiled to obtain the oil, which 
is only used for lighting purposes. 


* Now Polanisia tcosandra, W. and A.—Ep. 


42 


No. 55. 


Oils of Southern India. [xo.5, NEW SERIES, — 


Wild Cummin oil. (Vernonia anthelmintica.) 


This black seed grows plentifully in Mysore, and yields an oil, 
which however is never prepared for sale. 


The following oils being used only in Native medicine, an enu- 
meration of their names will be sufficient. 


No. 56. 
No. 57. 
No. 58. 
No. 59. 
No. 60. 
No. 61. 
No. 62. 
No. 63. 
No. 64. 
No. 65, 
No. 66. 
No. 67. 
No. 68. 
No. 69. 
No. 70. 


No. 71. 


Bonduc nut ol. (Guilandina bonduc.) 
Mimusops ott. (Mimusops elengt.) 
Moodooga oil. (Butea frondosa.) 
Thevetia oil. ( Thevetia neriifolia.) 
Oodul oil, (Sarcostigma Kleinii.) 
Garlic oil, (Allium sativum.) 
Sunflower oil. (Helianthus annuus.) 
Wild almond ol, (Terminalia catappa.) 


Star anise ott, (Lllicium anisatum.) 
5 


Gayapa oul, : 
Wild nutmeg oil. (Myristica malabarica.) 3 
Thorny trichiha oil. (Trichilia spinosa.) Empyreumatic. 
Cyperus or Mat grass oil. (Cyperus junerfolius.) 
Thorn apple oil. (Datura stramonium.) Empyreumatic. 


Condamunnee oil. (Abrus precatorius.) 


Sand box tree oil. Huracrepitans. The seeds of this 


tree (which has been introduced from Jamaica,) yield by expression, 
a clear oil. The whole tree, abounds in poisonous matter, but it has 
not yet been ascertained whether the oil possesses similar proper- 
ties, the tree grows in the Horticultural gardens. 


No. 72. Saul seed oil. (Shorea robusta.) 


In places where this tree abounds, the oil is expressed from the 
ripe seed, vulgarly called the * dammer tree nut.” 


oct.— DEC. 1857.] Ozls of Southern India. A$ 


Woop OILs. 
91 #0 100. Wood oils. 


The class of substances called “‘ Wood oils” form the connecting 
link between the oils and resins of the natural kingdom. They 
consist of a volatile oil, holding in solution a resin, and are gene- 
rally classed under the head of Balsams. They are obtained from 
various trees of the order Dipterocarpez, some of which also yield 
the dammers of commerce. 


The mode of extracting the oil, is similar to that adopted for ob- 
taining the solid resin. It is best described, in the words of a con- 
tributor to the Madras Exhibition of 1855, who says ‘ About the 
end of the dry season, that is in March or April, several deep in- 
cisions are made with an axe into the trunk of the tree, anda 
good sized piece, scooped out. Into these holes, fire is placed and 
kept burning until the oil begins to run, when it is received into a 
bamboo, and allowed to run slowly drop by drop.” 


The oil, when freshly obtained from the tree and allowed to rest, 
Separates into two layers, the upper consisting of aclear chesnut 
eolored liquid balsam, and the lower being a flocculent deposit of 
the more solid resin, of a light ash color. 


They are much used as natural varnishes for in-door work, but 
are very brittle, and require constant renewal. Perhaps the admix- 
ture of a certain proportion of some drying oil, would remedy this 
defect. They are said to be used also in the manufacture of Li- 
thographic inks. 


These oils are chiefly imported from our Burmese possessions 
and the Islands in the Straits of Malacca, and are usually known 
by the name of the districts, from whence they are brought. 


The Camphor wood oil is a purely volatile substance, without 
any admixture of resin. Itis the produce of the Dryobalanops 
Camphora. Itis used in the Straits as a substitute for turpen- 
fine, and sells at 15 to 20 cents a bottle. 


Many substances called ,, wood oil’? by Native doctors, are little 


else than varieties of tar obtained by the destructive distillation 


44 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, 


of chips of various woods. For the names of these see Index to 
Section 3. 


MInuRAL OIL. 


101 Petroleum or naptha. 

Naphtha is a limpid colorless oil, which is collected in wells, or 
pits dug into certain clay soils in Media and Persia. It is also 
found in the European state of Parma, and is used to illuminate 
the city of Genoa. 


A substance similar to this product is obtained during the pro-« 
cess of making coal gas, and is called coal naphtha. It is a sol- 
vent of India rubber and is extensively used in the arts. 


Petroleum is a more solid product, produced largely in our Bur- 
mese possessions near Rainanghong. It is burnt in lamps, and 
used instead of tar for shipping. 


ANIMAL OILs. 


102 and 108. Fish oils. 


The only oil of any importance which comes under the head. of 
animal oils, is fish oil, which is largely prepared on the Western 
Coast. Forthe mode of preparation, see “ Jury Reports Madras 
Exhibition of 1855, page 39. : 


104 and 105. Neats foot oi and oil of waz. 


These two oils are seldom prepared, the former is, however, some- 
times used for softening leather, and the latter, which is an empy- 
reumatic product, obtained by the destructive distillation of wax, is 
used in Native medicine. 


VOLATILE AND PERFUMED OIts. 
106 to 133. 


Of these the only oils, made in any quantity, are those of Le- 
mon grass, Roosa grass, Citronelle, Bishopsweed, Cinnamon, 
Cassia bark and Cajeput. Their properties and uses are well 
known. A list of the oils, in this class which are sometimes 
used to a small extent in Native medicine, will be found in the 
Index, The oil from the Guava leaf is said to be used in Ceylon. 


ocr.—DEc. 1857.] Orls of Southern India. : 45 


The exports of Citronelle oil, from Ceylon are as follows : 


1850 86,0480z, £3,344 
1851 114,9590z. £5,742 
1852 181,780o0z. £2,806 


INDEX TO SECTION III. 


VEGETABLE FIXED OILS. 


{ 1 Cocoanut oil. Cocos nucifera. 

j 2 Gingeley oil. Sesamum orientale. 

i 3 Bastard gingeley oil. Sesamum orientale. variety. 
saa | 4 Lamp oil. Ricinus communis. fr. maj : 
ua y 5 Castor oil. Ricinus communis. fr. min. 
< } 6 Groundnut oil. Arachis hypogea. 

3 7 Linseed oii. Linum usitatissimum. 
| 8 Ramtill oil. Guizotia oleifera. 
9 Mustard or ‘‘rape’’ oil. Sinapis species. 

|. 10 Poppy oil. Papaver somniferum. 

( 11 Margosa or Neem oil. Melia azadirach, and 

q 


Azadirachta Indica. 
12 Illoopoo and Mahowa oils, _ Bassia species. 


e | 13 Pinnacotay oil. Calophyllum inophyllum. 
w t+ 14 Kurunj oil. Dalbergia arborea. + 
@% 15 Coorookoo or Brumadun- 
5 doo oil. Argemone Mexicana. 
16 Cat amunak oil. Curcas purgans. 
| 17 Piney tallow. Vateria Indica. 
18 Gamboge butter. Garcinia pictoria. 
( 19 Safflower oil. Carthamus tinctorius. 
20 Belgaum walnut oil. Aleurites triloba. 
21 Poovana oil. — ? 
22 Neeradimootoo oil. Hydnocarpus inebrians. 
23 Addale oil. Jatropha glauca. 
24 Cress seed oil. Lepidium sativum 
25 Chironjee oil. Chirongia sapida. * 
e | 26 Cucumber seed oil. Cucumis sativus. 
zi } 27 Melonseed oil. melo. 
<= ) 28 Pumpkin seed oil. Cucurbita: citrullus. 
c> | 29 Coorkapilly oil. Inga dulcis. 
| 30 Sterculia oil. Sterculia fetida. 
31 Wild olive oil. Putranjiva Roxburghil. 
| 32 Cherroo piniacotay oil. Calophyllum calaba. 
33 Sandal seed oil. Santalum album. 
34. Mooroogana tallow. 
35 Naga sumpaghee oil. Mesua ferrea, 
36 Cat urraloo oil. Jatropha.— 


* Now Buchanania latifolia, W. and A.—Ep. 
+ Pongamia glabra, W. and A.—ED. 


46 


Crass. 4. 


Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, 


( 37 Soap nut oil. 

38 Cashew nut oil. 

39 Ben nut oil. 

40 Cotton seed oil. 

41 Silk cotton seed oil. 
42 Fennel flower oil. 

43 Rosebay oil. 

44 Malkungunee oil. 

45 Hemp seed oil. 

46 Portia seed oil. 

47 Viscid cleome oil. 

48 Thortay oil. 

49 Foenugreck oil. 

50 Abelmoschus seed oil. 
51 Gutta percha seed oil. 
52 Croton oil. 

53 Bryony oil. 

54 Colocynth oil. 

55 Wild cummin oil. 

56 Bonduc nut oil. 

57 Mimusops oil. 

58 Moodooga oil. 

59 Thevetia oil. 

60 Oodul oil. 

61 Garlic oil. 

62 Sunflower oil. 

63 Wild almond oil, 

64 Star anise oil. 

65 Gayapa oil. 

66 Nutmeg (wild) oil. 
67 Thorny trichilia oil. 
68 Cyperus bulb oil. 

69 Thorn apple oil. 

70 Condamunnee seed oil, 
71 Sand-box seed oil. 

72 Saul seed oil. 

73 Eugenia oil. 

74 Belleric myrabolan oil. 
75 Chebulic. do. oil. 
76 Kikuel oil. 

77 Balanites AXgyytiaca oil. 
78 Radish seed oil. 

79 Cabbage seed oil. 

80 Cardamom oil (fixed.) 
81 Poondy oil. 

82 Cordia or Nochie oil. 
83 Girghitly oil. 

84 Jogyhulloo oil. 

85 Nux vomica oil. 

86 Marking nut oil. 

87 Cashew husk oil. 

88 Oleum nigrum oil. 
89 Tobacco seed oil. 

90 Alligator pear oil. 
(902 Cinnamon tallow. 


* Now Thespesia populnea.—Ep. 


Sapindus emarginatus. 
Anacardium occidentale. 
Moringa pterygosperma. 
Gossypium sp. 

Bombax malabarica. 
Nigella sativa. 
Wrightea antidysenterica. 
Celastrus paniculata. 
Cannabis sativa. 

Hibiscus populneus.* 
Cleome viscosa. 


Trigonella foenum grecum. 
Abelmoschus ficulneus. 
Isonandra gutta. 
Croton tiglium. 
Bryonia callosa. 
Cucumis colocynthis. 
Vernonia anthelmintica. 
Guilandina bonduc. 
Mimusops elengi. 
Butea frondosa. 
Thevetia neriifolia. 
Sarcostigma Kleinii. 
Allium sativum. 
Helianthus annuus. 
Terminalia catappa. 
Illicium anisatum. 
Swietenia ?? 
Myristica malabarica. 
Trichilia spinosa. 
Cyperus juncifolius. 
Datura stramonium 
Abrus precatorius. 
Hura crepitans 

Shorea robusta. 
Eugenia. 

Terminalia bellerica. 
Terminalia chebula. 
Bergera keenigil 
Balanites Ai.gyptiaca. 
Raphanus sativus. 
Brassica oleracea. 
Elettaria cardamomum. 
Sebestana officinalis. 


—= 


Deere 


Srychnos nux vomica. 


Semecarpus anacardium. i 
Anacardium occidentale. e: 
Celastrus &c. 7 
Nicotiana tabacum. a 
Persea gratissima ne 


Cinnamomum Zeylanicum. 


ocT.—DEC. 1857. ] 


Woop OILS. 
91 Teakwood oil. 
92 Wood oil from Pegu. 


93 do. Rangoon. 
oe do. Chittagong. 
95 do. Moulmein. 


96 Shemanathee wood oil. 
97 Sissoo wood oil. 

98 Camphor wood oil. 

99 Wood oil. 
100 Wood oil. 


Minerat Or. 
101 Petroleum and Naptha. 
Anima. OIts. 
102 Fish oil. 
103 Fish liver oil. 


9 oe Neats foot oil. 


Oils of Southern India. 


47 


Tectona grandis. 
Dipterocarpus alatus. 
do. 
do. 
do. 
Seth ia indica. 
Dalbergia sissoo. 
Dryobalanops camphora. 


i 


s 


eel 


ae SSS Gee 


VoLATILE AND PERFUMED OILS. 


105 Oil of wax. 
106 Cinnamon bark oil. 
107 Cinnamon leaf oil. 
108 Cassia oil. 
109 Clove oil. 


110 Lemon grass oil. 
111 Roosa grass oil. 
112 Cajeput oil. 

113 Camphor tree oil. 


Crass. 2. Crass, 1. 


115 Fennel flower oil 
116 Nutmeg (wild) oil. 
117 Sassafras oil. 
118 Bishop’s weed or omum oil. 
119 Cardamom oil. 
+ 120 Cummin seed oil. 
121 Spikenard or jatamansi oil. 


(114 Anise seed oil, 


= | 122 Cuscus root oil. 
zd 123 Tobacco leaf oil. 
< | 124 Sweet flag oil. 
ts | 125 Pepper oil. 


126 Cubebs oil. 

127 Lime peel. and leaf oil. 

128 Orange flower, or neroli oil. 
129 Orange peel, and leaf oil. 
130 Citron peel, and leaf oil. 
131 Mustard oil (volatile. ) 

132 Sandal wood oil. 

183 Guava leaf oil. 


| gaia 


. 
Cinnamomum Zeylanicum. 
do. 
Cinnamomum cassia. 
Caryophyllus aromaticus. 


Andropogon schcenanthus 
Andropogon iwarancusa. 
Melaleuca cajaputi. 
Dryobalanops camphora. 


Pimpinella anisum. 
Nigella sativa 
Myristica malabarica. 
Sassafras officinale. 
Ptychotis ajowan. 
Elettaria cardamomum. 
Cuminum cyminum. 
Valeriana jatamansi. 
Anatherum muricatum. 
Nicotiana tabacum. 
Acorus calamus. 
Piper nigrum. 
Piper cubeba. 
Citrus limonum. 
Citrus aurantium. 

do, 
Citrus medica. 
Sinapis species. 
Santalum album, 
Psidium pyriferum. 


N. B.—This list is not to be taken as by any means including the whole of our » 


indigenous oil plants. 


48 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, 
SECTION IV. 
REMARKS ON THE ECONOMICAL USES OF O1Ls IN INDIA. 


The value of the commercial oils of India, being already so 
generally known to Merchants and Manufacturers, both at home 
and in this country, any remarks on this head would be superflu- 
ous ; it remains, however, to consider in what ways, we may become 
the consumers as well as the exporters of oils. 


I would more particularly refer to their uses in the raw state for 
currying leather and making buff, for burning in lamps, for lubri- 
cating machinery, for anointing the person, and as an article of 
food,—to their value in asomewhat modified form, as a vehicle for 
paints, and varnishes,—and lastly to their employment in the ma- 
nufacture of candles and soap. 


Oil—as used for currying and buffing leather.—Lxperience has 
shown that the kinds of oil most suited for the preparation of 
leather, are those derived from the animal kingdom. Of these, fish 
oil, neats foot oil, and the solid fats of oxen, sheep and pigs, are 
those most generally used. Some one of these, or a mixture of se- 
veral of them as the case may be, is rubbed over the underside of 
the tanned skin whilst still wet. The leather being then hung up 
in an airy loft to dry, the evaporation of the moisture enables the 
composition to penetrate through the substance of the hide until 
it appears on the surface or grain side, The beef, mutton and pigs 
fat used in this process are procurable with difficulty and at high 
prices. 

At present, but little leather is curried in India, and the de- 
mand for these substances is consequently limited, but should this 
branch of trade rise into importance (of which there can be no 
reasonable doubt,) and should hides be tanned and finished on the 
spot, instead of being sent to Europe in the raw state, and re-im- 
ported when dressed, the supply of these substances will become of 
greater moment, and it will be a question for the practical manu- 
facturer to decide, whether it is more to his interest to pay the cur- 
rent Indian prices, or to import his materials direct from Australia, 


Fish oil, however, is procurable in abundance at reasonable prices, _ 


ocT.—prc. 1857.] Ozls of Southern India. 49 


indeed, the Indian article has entirely superseded the use of English 
oil, which, until the establishment of this manufacture on the Western 
coast, was imported at a high price for the use of the Government 
Buffing establishment at Hoonsoor. 

A comparison of the price of the Indian and English article is 
shown below, and as regards quality, it has been found that the Na- 
tive oil, if made with care, is fully equal to the English product. 


Cost of English oil per gallon Rs. 2 4 0 

Cost of Malabar oil per gallon Rs. 110 O 

The saving thus effected in this one article alone, in this large 
establishment, is very great. 


Oil—as used for burning in lamps.—Almost all the oils procur- 
able in India, are burned to a greater or less extent by the native 
population in the rude contrivances which serve as lamps. For 
the finer description of European lamps, however, only the fluid 
non-drying oils should be used. Of these Cocoanut, Ground nut, 
Coorookoo, Kurunj, and a few others are to be preferred. The first 
is decidedly the best, but in cold climates, it requires to be mixed 
with a due proportion of some other oil to prevent its tendency to 
congeal at low temperatures. Drying oils, such as Castor, Lamp, 
and Linseed oil are unsuitable for these lamps, as the oil becoming 
viscid, clogs the tubes; they may, however, in common with many 
other sorts of oil, be burned with advantage in open vessels or nighé 
lamps. Some of them emit much smoke. 


In the preparation of these oils for burning in lamps, much im- 
provement might be effected. Excepting Cocoanut, the generality 
of oils as sold in the market, are contaminated with mucilage and 
extraneous substances, which much impair their burning qualities. 


The usual mode of purifying oil, is to add to 100 parts of oil one 
part of Sulphuric acid, and agitate the mixture ; the acid immediately 
attacks and chars the slimy parts of the oil. In half an hour add 
50 parts of water with agitation, and allow the whole to settle for 
some days. Decant the clear oil, and wash with water to get rid 
of the acid. The same object may be effected in a less degree by 
keeping the oil for some time ina quiet place, this improves it by 


50 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, 


allowing the mucilage to subside ; for this reason, old oil is prefer- 
able to new for lamps. The manufacture of oil gas for illumi- 
nating purposes must not be passed over in silence. Oil dropped 
on ared hot surface is instantly converted into gas, (oil gas) and 
With the aid of very simple machinery, can be made by the most 
inexperienced person. It was at one time made to some extent in 
England, but the high cost of the oil and other causes, led to its 
abandonment in favor of coal gas. 

Oil,—as a lubricating agent.—Any of the fluid non-drying oils, 
may be used as lubricants for machinery. For fine work, the Ben 
oil (Hyperanthera moringa) being free from any disposition to ran- 
cidity, 1s to be preferred, but for Railway carriages, a more 
solid substance, such as Piney tallow or Gamboge butter is 
more suitable. At present, however, a composition prepared by 
agitating lamp oil with nitric acid, for which the maker holds a pa- 
tent, is employed successfully. ‘The Gamboge butter, has been re- 
ported on favorably, by the Railway agent, as ‘ very clear and free 
from grit, and suitable for lubricating axles.’”’ A more extended 
experiment with this substance is in contemplation. A locomotive 
engine is said to consume between eighty and one hundred gallons 
annually. A mixture of grease and tar is used for Native carts. 


Oil—for anointing the person.—As an application for rendering 
the skin supple, which in tropical climates, is an almost indispen- 
sible necessary of life, any of the greasy oils will answer. Those 
generally preferred by the natives are Cocoanut, Gingeley, and 
Mustard oils. The former has been sometimes used by the Euro- 
pean perfumer in the manufacture of scented oils for the hair, but 
the difficulty of preventing its acquiring the well known disagreea- 
ble odour, or of disguising it with the most powerful scents, is the 
chief objection to its use. The Moringa or Ben oil, from the great 
length of time, it keeps without acquiring rancidity, is well suited 
to the perfumer’s use. | 

Oils—as articles of food. Oilis largely used as an article of 
food in all tropical countries, and as the qualities of most edible oils 
are well known, little need be added on this head further than to 
recommend greater cleanliness in the expression, and a more profita- 


ble use of the oil cake; which, however, valuable as a manure is 


SE SS TS TT ES Cl ST TS SS Dee a ee ee ™é 


ocT.—DEC. 1857.] Odls of Southern India. 51 


still more useful for fattening cattle. As an ingredient in salads 
and similar dishes, for which it is used to a limited extent by 
Huropeans in India, there is every reason to hope, that the native 
product, will ere long entirely supersede the imported article. 
Numerous indigenous plants such as the Poppy, Mustard, Gingeley, 
Ground nut, Chironjie, Cucumber, Cashew nut, &c. yield oils fully 
equal to the best product of Italy, with the advantage of superior 
freshness. Indeed, they are even now frequently used in preference 
to the English oil, and the only bar to their general adoption, is the 
difficulty of getting them extracted, in a pure state by the native 
press. | 

It is a well known fact, that a large portion of the oil pre- 
pared from seeds yearly exported from India, is consumed as 
** salad oil” in Europe, and part finds its way back to India, under 
the same name, although the fresh product is procurable on the spot, 
at a tenth part of the price of the re-imported article. The amount 
of Salad oil imported at Madras during two years was as follows: 

In 1849-50, Galls. 268, value Rs. 1,139. 

In 1850-51, Galls. 399, value Rs. 1,809. 

The imports of Olive oil into England in 1851 amounted to 
20,783 tons of 252 gallons each. 

O1l,—as used im the preparation of woollen cloths, §¢.—As a dres- 
sing for woollen cloth, oilis seldom if ever used in India, nor indeed 
is it probable that it ever will be, many of the indigenous oils, are 
however well suited for this purpose. 

Orl,—as @ vehicle for paints, varnishes, §c.—Poppy and Linseed 
oils, are in general repute in Europe for paints and varnishes. 
The former may be cheaply prepared in the opium districts of 
India, and from its perfect clearness and limpidity (when bleached) 
it 1s most valuable to the portrait and miniature painter, whilst 
the price at which it can be made renders it available for more 
common descriptions of work. From the fact, of no vegetable 
oils, (except wood oils,) being used as ingredients in paints by the 
Natives of India, it has not yet been ascertained which of the many 
varieties procurable in various parts are useful for this pur- 
pose. 

Linseed, as will be seen on reference, to the first part of this 


52 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEWSERIES, 


port, is now becoming a large article of produce and export trade, 
the oil however still continues to be imported from England, for the 
publicservice and private use. Trials have been made of the relative 
value of oil, obtained from seed grown in the country, and of the im- 
ported article, the results of which, have established the perfect 
similarity of the two products, there are however several precau- 
tions to be observed, in the preparation of this oil, the neglect of 
which has caused the country article to be less esteemed. The oil 
must be obtained perfectly pure, and unadulterated by the admix- 
ture of any greasy oil,which would of course destroy its drying qualities 
and render it useless for paint, it should not therefore be prepared in 
a press which has been used for other oils, unless it has been 
first thoroughly cleansed, a matter of some difficulty with the ordi- 
nary native press. To render the oil drywng, the process although 
very simple, is one which requires some practice to succeed fully. 
It is generally effected by boiling 100lbs. of Linseed oil with 1b. 
litharge, and maintaining the mixture for an hour at a temperature 
of 100. Cent. Indian oil thus prepared, is perfectly equal to that 
obtained from England for paints and varnishes. The imports of 
Linseed oil, and the exports of seed for the last six years, have been 
as follows. 
OIL IMPORTED. 
In 1849-50 Gallons. 1,311 value Rs. 2,623 from England 


1850-51 ,, 2,832 6,358 ~ do. 
1851-52  , 2,898 5,978 do. 
1852-53, «= 4,582 8,763 do. 

6,505 13,060 do. 
Fe eas 237 474 from Indian ports. 


2,879 5,270 from England. 
668 1,883 from Indian ports. 
SEED EXPORTED. 

1849-50 Cwt. 401 value Rs. 1,539 


1854-55, 


1S50-51 oy vie ae R01 2,271 
1851-52 ,, 1,067 2,927 
1852-53 ,, 1,106 3,275 
1858-54 ,, 2,898 9,588 


1854-55 Quarters 293 5,914 


ocr.—pDEC. 1857.] Orls of Southern India. 53 


The imports of Linseed oil into England in 1851, amounted to 
Quarters 608,986. 


As a great variety of pigments and of resins for varnishes are 
procurable in India, the present large item of imports under the 
head of ‘‘ paints and colors’’ might be materially diminished. 


The wood oils of India are in themselves natural varnishes, being 
composed of a mixture of a resin and a volatile oil, they are not 
however so durable as the Linseed oil varnish, being more brittle 
and liable to scale off, though they answer well for in-door work ; 
the addition of a due proportion of any good drying oil, would 
perhaps render them more durable. 


Oil,—as used in the manufacture of Candles and Soaps. We now 
proceed to consider oils in a higher state of manufacture, or when 
converted into candles and soap. 


As regards the former article, it is doubtful whether candles can 
be manufactured in India at a sufficiently remunerating price to en- 
able a local company successfully to compete with the imported 
article. This question indeed is one for the practical manufacturer 
to determine. Candles might be made with ease, but to make them 
cheaply would involve a large outlay for machinery, &c. The im- 
ports of wax and candles (almost entirely the latter,) and the ex- 
ports of bees’ wax are as follows. 


IMPORTS. 


1849-50 lbs.62.720 Rs. 45,953 from England. 


1850-51 ibs. —— Rs. 4,778 from England. 


: Ibs. —— Rs, 2,549 from Bengal and Bombay. 
1851-52 lbs.52,478 Rs. 28,720 from England. 
a 6,272 Rs. 4,178 from Bengal and Bombay. 
(1bs.85,866 Rs, 18,213 from England. 
1853-52 
lbs. 2,977 Rs. 1,808 from Indian ports. 
1853-54 lbs.41,914 Rs. 21,690 from England. 
. a. 4,255 Rs. 2,869 from Indian ports. 
lbs.61,386 Rs. 31,528 from England. 
1854.55 5 
Ibs.10,194 Rs. 3,739 from Indian ports. 


54 Oils of Southern India. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, 


EXPORTS. 
1849-50 —Ibs.2,64,096 Rs. 1,12,270 
1850-51  1bs.3,13,697 Rs. 86,614 


1851-52 i Gade Rs. 95,286 to England. 
lbs.1,07,260 Rs. 44,726 to Bengal and Bombay. 
lbs.2,82,000 Rs. 99,718 to England. 

1852-98 a 65,609 Rs. 27,083 to Bengal and Bombay. 

Ibs. 43,000 Rs. 15,484 to England. 
MENS ths. 10,602 Rs. 38,760 to Indian ports. 
1853-54 


lbs.1,89,886 Rs. 76,834 to England. 
lbs. 19,776 Rs: 16,377 to Indian ports. 
lbs. 85,615 Rs. 31,054 to England. 
Ibs. 87,010 Rs. 35,646 to Indian ports. 


Candles. 


1854-55 Wax... e 


IMFORTS RE-EXPORTED. 
1849-50 lbs. 10,976 Rs. 4,048 
1e505 2 24127 8 8F 
1951252 5° 44820 3966 
1852-53, 6,660 ,, 2,623 the larger proportion went to Pegu. 


Soap.—The ingredients for making soap are ever at hana, and 
available to the most humble workman. Although the quantity of 
this substance used by the native population is, it is to be feared, 
very small, yet the trade would afford ample employment, to a large 
establishment. A large quantity of the common chunam or coun- 
try soap, is imported from Bombay, and sold at 1 anna per lb., 
and upwards. The amount of hard soap annually manufactured in 
England is stated to be 58,400 tons, of which about 17,800 tons, 
are made from palm oil, which is imported for this and other pur- 
poses to the extent of 50,000 tons per annum. 

We are not, however entirely without soap manufactcries in 
South India; Messrs. Kohlhoff, and Prudhomme at Tanjore; Dr. 
Flynn, and C. Bauloo Moodelly, at Madras, make soap to a greater 
or less extent. Mr. Kohlhoff of Tanjore, who manufactures soap 
on a large scale, (chiefly from Illoopoo oil,) for exportation to the 
Mauritius, as well as for local sale, at 80 Rs. per candy, of 500 lbs., 
has kindly placed the following remarks on the relative value of 
soaps, made of various Indian oils at my disposal. I can also add 
my testimony, to the superiority of the soap made from Illoopoo oil, 


ocr.—prc. 1857.] Orls of Southern India. 55 


according to his method over all other soaps; fora quantity of this 
soap, exhibited by Mr. Kohlhoff at the Madras Exhibition of 1855, 
was purchased and kept in an open place exposed to all weathers 
till the present time, (June 1857.) It does not appear to have sen- 
sibly diminished in weight, or to have been affected by heat or damp, 
but remains perfectly firm and good, whilst English bar soap, under 
the same circumstances has shrivelled up to two-thirds of its origi- 
nal size. I prefer it therefore to ordinary English bar soap,which does 
not stand the test of extremes of temperature, nearly so well, 


Mr Kohlhoff observes—‘* Cocoanut owl soap is of inferior quality, 
if exposed to damp it will melt away, and if allowed to dry it will 
shrink, wherefore it is the object of the manufacturer to prevent 
loss by making only such a quantity at a time, as he is likely to sell 
immediately. Castor oil soap is too clammy, and from its offensive 
smell, is unfit for use. Gingeley and ground nut oil soap, are like 
each other, they are certainly better than the Cocoanut oil soap, but 
not so good as thatmade from J//loopoo owl, which is decidedly supe- 
rior to all. Pinnay ot soap, may be considered as good as that 
manufactured from Gingeley and Ground nut oils for washing 
linen, &c. but it has a dirty brown color which is unfavorable to 
the seller. Margosa ol soap is on a par with the above in utility, 
but may be classed with the Gingeley and Ground nut soaps in point 
of color, which will be a pale yellow, but the smell of the Margosa 
soap is unpleasant.” — 

The process of manufacturing the above mentioned soaps, is as 
follows: ‘ Two cisterns being built one above another, two-thirds 
of chunam, mixed with one third of Fuller’s earth is pressed very 
tightly into the upper cistern. Water being poured thereon, the lye 
will slowly filter through, and be received into the lower reservoir. 

About two-thirds or three-quarters of this lye (according to the 
nature of the oil, employed,) is mixed with the oil, and allow- 
ed to remain three days with occasional stirring. The whole is 
then boiled in a copper cauldron, until the soap separates from the 
lye water. A small quantity of pure cold water, is then poured 
in and stirred up to clarify. The soap is then poured into moulds, 
and cutinto bars, when cold. When sufficiently dry, itis smoothen- 
ed and ready for sale.” 


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58 Method of catching [no. 5, NEW SERIES, 


II. Description of the method adopted in the Coimbatore 
District for catching wild Elephants. By Captain D. Ha- 
MILTON, Assistant Conservator of Forests. — 


I beg to enclose some rough sketches (Plates I, II, III and IV.) 
referring to the late Elephant Hunt, which, with a brief description, 
may be of some interest, showing the method adopted in the Coim- 
batore District for capturing wild Elephants. 

The spot selected for the hunt on this occasion, was at the en- 
trance of a valley (vide Plate I) at the foot of the Neilgherries near 
Seermoogay, where are the remains of an old Coopum or Kraal. 
The situation was an excellent one, for the river on one side, and 
steep hills on the other, left only a narrow gorge at the entrance of 
the valley; so that once having got the Elephants into the valley, 
it appeared easy enough to drive them into the Coopum. 


The Coopum consisted of a circular trench 280 feet in diameter, — 


(vide Plate III) the breadth of the ditch being 18 feet, narrowing at 
the bottom to afew inches; the depth 10 feet. The causeway at the 
entrance 17 feet broad was composed of blocks of light wood, and 
earth. The object of using wood was to enable the causeway to 


oct.—pDEC. 1857.| Elephants in Coimbatore. 59 
be quickly demolished on the Elephants entering the enclosure. 
From the entrance strong palisadings were erected (vide Plate IV.) 
diverging in one direction towards the river, and in the other to the 
foot of the nearest hill, the length of the right palisading (looking 
from the Coopum) was 600 feet, that on the left 800 feet consist- 
ing of stems of trees firmly fixed in the ground and strongly bound 
together. 2,800 of these stems were used in forming the palisadings, 
beyond them strong abattis were laid down, extending on the right 
side 2,900 feet and on the left 3,200, For 400 feet on each side be- 
hind the palisading, a ditch 5 feet 7 Inches broad and 3 feet 6 
inches deep was dug; beyond this, a ditch 4 feet by 4 feet was 
continued, but on the zmner sede of the palisading and abattis, on 
the right side te the distance of 310 feet and on the left 180 feet, 


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This completed all the preparations with the exception that on the 
day of the drive, the whole of the palisadings were covered with 
green branches, to conceal them from the Elephants. All trees 
and bushes were left standing, and the causeway was made to look 
as like the natural jungle as possible, the ditch at the sides being 
carefully concealed by bushes. 

It took several days to bring the Elephants into the valley, (vide 
Plate IT) above the Coopum, as they have to be moved in the di- 
rection required, without alarming them. Parties had to be sta- 
tioned, day and night watching certain passes, to stop the herd from 


60 Crystalline Limestone [No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


proceeding in any direction but towards the valley; at nights a line 
of fires are lighted for this purpose. On the day of the drive peo- 
ple are stationed at intervals outside the palisadings and abattis, 
to drive back the Elephants if they attempt to break through. Two 
small bon-fires are made on each side of the entrance, within the 
Coopum concealed by bushes, and the moment the Elephants enter 
two men are ready to rush in and light them; faggots which have 
been previously collected and piled near the entrance, are quickly 
thrown on and soon two immense fires are formed which effectual- 
ly prevent the Elephants attemping to recross the causeway, while 
a number of coolies detailed for the purpose are demolishing it. 


Muskets, rockets, crackers, tom-toms and horns are used in the 
drive, which combined with the shouting of several hundred men 
is enough to intimidate the boldest Elephant from charging back, 
but itis difficult to get Natives to believe this. Every thing de- 
pends on their having good leaders. : 


Besides those employed in guarding the enclosures, and driving 
a number of men are placed on the flanks beyond the arms or en- 
closures of the Coopum, as soon as the drive commences they light 
small fires, the Elephants have such a dread of fire, that if well- 
driven, on seeing the fires on each side of them, they are sure to 
make straight for the enclosure. 


Ill. Notice of the occurrence of Crystalline Limestone in 
the District of Coimbatore. By H. F. Bianrorp, Esa. 
of the Geological Survey of India. 


During the progress of the Geological Survey of the Neilgherry 
Hills in the months of June to November of the current year, my at- 
tention was called to some specimens of Crystalline Limestone col- 
lected by Dr. Cleghorn and Capt. Francis, Engineers. This discovery 
of limestone, which is of the greatest interest both in an economical 
and scientic point of view, induced me to avail myself of an early 
opportunity to visit the locality in question, in order to ascertain 
the nature and extent of the mass of limestone, from which the 


ocr.—DpDEC. 1857.| in the District of Coimbatore. 61 


specimens were obtained. ‘The chief results of the examination 
are embodied in the following notice. 


The whole surface of the district of Coimbatore as well as the 
Mysore table land, and indeed the greater part of S. Western India 
is composed of a vast spread of Schistose or foliated rocks, such as 
Gneiss, Hornblende Schist, Mica Schist, &c., aclass of rocks term- 
ed Metamorphic by Sir Chas. Lyell, (although such a term must be 
regarded as premature until their really metamorphic nature i all 
cases be firmly established.) The mineral characters of these rocks 
are extremely varied, but they consist for the most part of Quartz, 
Feldspar, Hornblende and Garnet, intermixed in various propor- 
tions, one or more of these minerais being occasionally entirely ab- 
sent. Mica which is one of the constituents of true Gneiss is only of 
exceptional occurrence in the district in question. The foliation (or 
system of laminz) in which the constituent minerals of schistose 
rocks are arranged, is well marked over the greater portion of the 
Coimbatore district, but is far less distinct on the elevated plateau 
of the Neilgherry Hills, and occasionally disappears altogether, 
so that were it not that such non-foliated rocks pass invariably by 
insensible degrees into others in which a foliated character is dis- 
tinctly discernible, they might be easily mistaken for Syenite, 
Greenstone or some other kind of Plutonic rock, an error into 
which previous observers have generally fallen. The foliation 
wherever apparent conforms toa general strike in the direction | 
KE. N. E., W.S.W. onthe plateau of the Neilgherry Hills, and 
such is also its direction in the vicinity of Coimbatore. In other 
portions of the district it varies considerably and towards Bhovani 
it has a North Western strike. Granite veins of small size, are 
occasionally seen cutting through the foliated rocks, which form 
the surface of the low country, but on the hills generally no trace 
of Granite or any of the allied Plutonic rocks has been detected. 
A few small dykes of Basalt being the only intruded rocks of the 
elevated country. 


About 5 miles to the south of the Civil station of Coimbatore, 
_ alow broken ridge of hills characterised by a peculiarly jagged 
outline occurs crossing the road to Palghat and running in an E. 


62 Crystalline Limestone [No. 5, NEW SERIES, 


N.E. direction. These hills consist of thin alternating bands of 
crystalline, limestone and gneiss, the banded structure of which 
is absolutely coincident with the foliation. Here and there small 
contortions occur in the rock, which are rendered very strikingly 
visible by the erosion of the intercalated band of the limestone 
from atmospheric causes, and it is this unequal erosion which has 
given to the hills themselves the jagged appearance already allud- 
ed to. 


The range of hills ceases suddenly about half a mile to the east 
of the road where the rock becomes much contorted, and an ex- 
posed surface of pure crystalline limestone, unmixed with Gneiss 
extends for the space of about 200 yards, between the hills and the 
cultivated land beyond. ‘The limestone is largely crystalline, being 
composed of an agglomeration of small rhombohedrons of Carbo- 
nate of Lime, the characteristic cleavage of whichis frequently 
very distinct. In color, it is usually of a pale mottled grey, fre- 
quently passing into pink, and occasionally becoming nearly white. 
It is intersected by a few minute veins of Granite, which have ap- 
parently been intruded while the limestone was in a molten condi- 
tion, so that by slight movements in the fluid mass, they have 
been drawn out and twisted into peculiar thread like forms, re- 
sembling those frequently seen in the intermixture of two colors on 
the marbling trough of a bookbinder. In general, the rock is very 
eompact and blocks or slabs, of almost any required size, might be 
quarried without much difficulty. i 


From this spot, which is the most easterly point at which the 
limestone is at present known to occur, it passes westwards form- 
ing a band of 30 or 40 yards in width in the substance of the 
schists, into which it graduates along its northern edge, forming 
the banded rock already described, while its vertical extent is pro- 
bably very great. It has been traced for a distance of about 7 
miles along the foot of the range of hills already mentioned, which 
to the West of the Palghat road, become very elevated and form a 
ridge of about 2,000 feet in height above the general surface of the 
surrounding country. Ata point about 2 miles west of the village 
of Ittrumudday, the line of Railway from Madras to Beypoor, cuts 


ocT.— DEC. 1857.] a the District of Coimbatore. 63 


the band of limestone and passes to the westward along its outcrop, 
and in some of the small cuttings, good faces of the rock are ex- 
posed. The blocks obtained from the cuttings, are used for rubble 
work in the construction of the bridges, &c., on the line. Further 
to the west the limestone band penetrates the Walliar jungles, 
beyond which point it has not been traced, but it is not improbable, 
that it extends much further in the same direction, 


It is unnecessary here to enter upon any theoretical considera- 
tions with respect to the limestone, as these will be treated of at 
length, in connection with the Geology of the surrounding coun- 
try, in the Report now preparing for publication, in the “‘ Memoirs 
of the Geological Survey of India,’’ but a few words on the econo- 
mic importance of the discovery may be here fitly added. 


As a building material, limestone such as that now described is 
capable of a two-fold application. It may either be used in the 
form of rough or worked stone, or may be burnt in some form of 
kiln for the manufacture of lime and cement. Asa building stone, 
the Coimbatore limestone would be perhaps one of the cheapest 
and most durable materials, that could be used. Being extremely 
soft and very massive, large blocks could be quarried and dressed 
with great ease, and as from the purity of the stone, it is but little 
liable to weather or decompose, as is seen on the mere inspection 
of the stone in situ, dwelling houses or public buildings construct- 
ed with it would require no stucco, and would thus present a more © 
sightly and imposing exterior than an ordinary pucka building, 
and at the same time, a considerable saving in the expenditure for 
repairs would be effected. This saving alone would in a few 
years more than cover the original difference of cost. For inter- 
nal decorations of a simple character, the limestone is well adapted, 
as it is susceptible of a high polish, and by employing slabs of va- 
rious colors, very beautiful walls, pavements, &c., might be construct- 
ed. It would not be applicable for highly decorative work, such 
as small mouldings or carved ornaments, since owing to its large- 
ly crystalline structure, it would be liable to chip, but this very cha- 
racter imparts to it a transparency which would much enhance the 
sbeauty of a polished slab. It is, however, possible that extended 


64 Crystalline Limestone &c. [NoO. 5, NEW SERIES, 


research might discover limestone, of a finer grain in some portion 
of the band. 


For the manufacture of lime, the limestone is well adapted. The 
lime obtained from it would be very pure, and of the class termed 
rich limes which require the admixture of a certain amount of clay 
to make them set rapidly. Hitherto, kunkur only has been used 
for the manufacture of lime, in the Coimbatore district, and for lo- 
cal purposes this undoubtedly answers extremely well, but asit no 
where occurs in any great thickness, and is distributed in irregular 
patches over the surface of the country, the supply of lime obtain- 
able from this source is limited. It is probable also that in the event 
of the limestone being quarried for building purposes on a large scale, 
the small fragments and chippings burnt on the spot and packed 
in casks or air-tight boxes, would be cheaper material for convey- 
ance to a distance, than the kunkur which is not only a very bulky 
material, but in this district generally occurs on dry arid ground 
where but little fuel is available. 


For the production of iron, the ores of which are abundantly-dis- 
tributed over some parts of the Coimbatore district, the limestone 
is eminently fitted, and the neighbouring jungles of Walliar and 
the Malabar Coast yield a plentiful supply of fuel. 


Finally, the limestone is admirably situated as regards facility of 
transport to distant localities. The Railway from Madras and Sa- 
lem to Beypoor, passes as above-mentioned for some distance along 
the band of limestone, so that the cuttings of the Railway are in 
the stone itself. Were quarries opened along the side of the line, 
the blocks of dressed stone might be placed on trucks in the quarry 
and transported without expense of reloading to any point on the 
line, while by transporting to the Cauvery and transferring to boats, 
the stone might be easily conveyed to Trichinopoly and other 
places in that district. 


z 
. a 


oct.—Dp«c¢. 1867] Cyclone at Nellore. 65 


IV. Description of a Cyclone at Nellore, on 2nd Novem- 
ber 1857, By Lizvur. Joun Mutuins, Madras Engineers. 


Nellore was visited yesterday (Nov. 2nd) by a hurricane of un- 
usual violence, which has devastated the station, and the surround- 
ing neighbourhood, and done an enormous amount of damage to 
property of every description, both public and private. 


The sky on Friday and Saturday, the 30th and 81st ultimo, 
had a leaden appearance, which made the Natives think that there 
would be a high wind. On Saturday night and Sunday morning, 
(1st Nov.), there were moderate showers with a strong wind from 
the west, and towards evening the wind had increased to half a 
gale. The aneroid and mercurial barometers were both falling, and 
at 4 past 9 ep. m., the former showed afall of .*,ths of an inch and the 
weather was what is generally called by seamen ‘‘ very dirty.”’ 
From this time to 0°45 a. m., the wind continued to increase, and 
was then blowing a heavy gale, with a good deal of rain. The 
aneroid barometer had fallen very nearly ,3,ths since 3 past 9 or 
4;ths altogether ; a little before 4 the gale had increased to a hur- 
ricane, trees on all sides were being torn up or broken off, and it 
was only with great difficulty that doors and windows could be 
kept shut. The hurricane continued to increase until % to 5, 
when the gusts were terrific, the aneroid had fallen ,?,ths of an 
inch in 4 hours, and was still going down rapidly. Shortly after 
2 past 5 I fell asleep, and on awaking at $ past 6, I found to my 
surprise that there was a perfectcalm, but on examining the aneroid, 
I found that a further fall of nearly ;,ths had occurred during the 
preceding hour, and in 10 minutes more a further fall of ,',ths took 
place. I then knew that we were in the centre of a cyclone, and 
that before long the wind would recommence with probably equal 
fury. All this time the direction of the wind was from west and 
northwest, and ultimately about north north west, as nearly as 


66 Cyclone at Nellore. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, 


could be judged by the result of its operations on the houses and 
trees. The scene out of doors was, at this time, one of utter de- 
solation ; out of many hundreds of trees which the night before had 
stood covered with the rich foliage of this period of the year, three- 
fourths were blown down, and nearly all the rest stripped of branches 
and leaves. ‘Tiled houses were more or less unroofed, walls had 
fallen and were crumbling, balustrades of terraced houses were in 
a ruinous state, and the low country was flooded. 

I started off to look at the Tank, which I was afraid must have 
sustained serious injury, and I hoped to be able to get back before 
yhe gale became again serious. On the bund I found Captain 
Ritherdon and the Tahsildar, together with several peons and some 
of the Ryots. The Tank was but little injured, but there was a 
heavy swell running against the revetment, and the waves were ~ 
breaking high over the Calingala. I had barely reached the bund 
when the gale came on again with great violence, and in 2 or 3 
minutes a hurricane set in which exceeded greatly in its violence 
what we had felt early in the morning, the wind being from south 
east. The massive stone gate way of a small Hindoo temple, si- 
tuated on the bund, afforded some shelter, and here we were 
forced to remain as no man or animal could for a moment have 
withstood the wind, asit was then blowing, and the sheets of water 
that were driven over the bund, were enough of themselves to pre- 
vent any hope of forcing our way to the nearest house, which was 
not more than about 300 yards distant. The Pagoda was built 
many years ago, when the bund of the Tank was much lower, and 
as this latter has been raised, a thin bund strongly rivetted on both 
sides with stone has been built up between the Pagoda compound 
and the Tank. On this wall, the waves which by this time were 
something terrible, soon began to tell, and in 20 minutes the wall 
was breached in several places and the court of the temple was 
deluged with waves andspray. The spot at which Captain Rither- 
don and myself stood was within 4 or 5 yards of the edge of the 
bund, the state of which and the effect of the waves upon 
it were anxiously watched, but so thickly was the water blown 
over the bund, that frequently many minutes elapsed ere the front of 
the bund could be distinguished, and as it from time to time ap- 


oct.—DEc. 1857.] Cyclone at Nellore. 67 


peared, it became evident that the rivetment was fast falling, and 
the earth work in rear washed away. This state of affairs continu- 
ed for about one hour, during the whole of which time no object 20 
yards distant had been visible, and the trees immediately in front 
of the temple, which were too deeply embedded in the earth to be 
uprooted, had been reduced to mere shapeless stumps. About this 
time (4 to 9) the wind began to shift a little to the eastward, and 
we then knew that, if the bund could hold out a little longer, no 
further serious damage would occur to the part on which we were 
standing. ‘The change in the direction of the wind rendered how- 
ever our position, on the outer pial of the doorway, no longer ten- 
able, and we sought refuge in the middle recess, with the Tahsildar 
and the other natives. The wind continued to shift still more to 
the eastward, and the houses abovementioned in a few minutes 
again became visible. ‘The moment the spray and wind had suffi- 
ciently subsided, we quitted the Pagoda which by this time was by 
no means a safe place, though probably deemed by us more inse- 
cure than it really was, and made the best of our way against the 
gale, until the shelter of some walls enabled us to get ona little 
faster, and thankful were we when we again stood on the main land, 
after crossing, with considerable difficulty, the piece of ground 
and bridge over the surplus channel, which before had intervened. 


~When I reached home, at § past 9 o’clock, I found the ba- 
rometer had risen - ths, and by 10 o’clock,ths more towards fair 
weather had been attained. The hurricane rapidly subsided into a 
strong gale, and from that to a moderate one, and by 3 past 11 or 
12 a fresh breeze only remained, blowing from the east by south 


and south east, and from that point it has continued to blow ever 
since. 


I cannot say exactly what the barometer stood at for the 48 
hours preceding the setting in of this terrible hurricane, but I sub- 
join the readings taken by me during the night of the first, and 
morning of the second November; they will give a fair idea of 
the extent and character of the barometric fluctuations, and I sub- 
join the reading at 12 noon this day, which will show the usual 
state of this particular barometer in fine weather. 


68 Cyclone at Nellore. [NO. 5, NEW SERIES, 


Aneroid Barométer. 


1st) 9: 30° PN 2 Ore 
2nd 0 45 a.m. 28: 6 wind from N W. with a good deal of rain. 
| 301 2 80 


SO) op 27:25 blowing hard from south and south east. 
SOs: 27°70 a terrific hurricane from 8 to 9 A. M. 
0 , 28-00 
Ta10 45 7 8610 
ord 12 0 noon 28:50 


Se ee 
OES Ge ORG 
4530 97-63 
4 40° 4, 27°55 hurricane at its height. 
i OR Oe i 
Hy OTGO 27°16 a lull from 6 o’clock to 4 past 7. 
6 40 a.m. 27°08 
7 
9 
0 


— 


strong gale but breaking fast. 


The above observations show that between 9°30 p. m. of the Ist 
and 6:40 a. m.of the second, the barometer fell 1 inch, and il 
hundredths, and that the total fall from the fair weather average 
was | inch and ;,ths, a fluctuation which is I believe enormous, 
and far exceeding that of the gale of last year, which amounted to 


23 : 
55 ths of an inch only. 


In the afternoon I visited most parts of the residents’ lines, 
a portion of the town, and the tank, and on every side there was 
nothing but desolation ; many of the roads were entirely blocked 
up with trees, every tiled house was more or less damaged, in some 
cases hardly a tile being left on the exposed side; skeds built on 
substantial laterite pillars were levelled with the ground ; the in- 
terior of the Church presented a sad spectacle, the doors and win- 
dows had blown open, and the benches had been thrown about by 
the wind like feathers, the bocks were lying in the water in pieces, 
the register which had been in the vestry was lying torn and spoilt 
under the communion table, the harmonium was blown from near 
the main entrance to the other end of the Church, where it remain- 
ed among the ruins of benches and tables, the roof of the Church 
was laid bare of tiles for about 4 of its area, and to crown the des- 


oct.—brEc. 1857.] Cyclone at Nellore. 69 


truction, the N. W. pinnacle (15 feet high) of the tower fell from 
a height of 60 feet through the roof of the west aisle, (the Church 
is built north and south), even the boards supporting the pulpit 
cushions and the brackets of the wall-shades were broken by the 
benches, which appear from the marks on the walls and pillars to 
have flown about in all directions. The Court house, place of arms, 
Public Bungalow, Jail, the new Engineer’s Office, and the work shops, 
in fact every tiled building suffered damage, and even the best 
houses in the place were barely habitable, owing to the wind hav- 
ing, in some cases, blown in the doors and windows, and in others 
blown out the glass or forced the rain through the venetians. » The 
pillars on the Annicut, recently built to carry the Telegraph wire, 
which were 18 feet high and which were elliptical in plan, the dia- 
meters at base being 43 feet and 2’, and at top 27’ and 1’, were 
blown away ; one being broken off at the base, another at 7’, and 
the third at 10 feet from the base, and the lower portions of the 
latter two were so much injured, that they were carried off by the 
river, when it had risen to about 5 feet above the crown of the 
Annicut. At Nellore, very little loss of life appears to have 
occurred, which is the more wonderful as many houses were blown 
down, and some were crushed by falling of trees. Reports have not 
yet been received from the neighbouring country, but the dead cat- 
tle of all descriptions, both in the tank and in the river, show that 
the destruction of animals has been very great. 

When I visited the Annicut this morning, I found 103 feet | 
of water going over its crown, and the marks on the guage showed 
that more than 11 feet had been reached. The superintendent in- 
formed me that, up to 4 past 11 a. mM. yesterday, the water was 
below the crown, but that it then commenced rising and in a couple 


’ of hours had risen to 7 feet above the crown, and about 12 mid- 


night it reached its highest level. The Head sluice recently erect- 
ed has enabled us to control the water in the Jaffersaib Channel, 
but the Head of the Survapully Channel being open, owing to the 
non-sanction of the estimate submitted last year for bringing it 
under the Annicut main Channel, and closing the old head, the 
flood has found its way in at this point, and inundated the country 
to the east and south-east of Nellore, thereby doing much injury 


70 Cyclone at Cuddapah. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, 


to the tanks as also to the fields and young crops. This flood is 
almost entirely due to the bursting of tanks to the westward of 
Nellore. 

The Nellore tank is breached in two places, but only at the 
shallower portion, and there will be no difficulty in retaining a full 
supply. The rivetment is very much injured, however, and in many 
places for 4 or 500 yards, at a length, will have to be entirely re- 
built. Breaches were in many places imminent, but altogether the 
bund has withstood the severe trial very well, as in addition to the 
force of the wind, it received during yesterday, the drainage of a 
large tract of country and the whole of the water of Mooloomoody, 
Condlapoody and Ambapoor tanks, which breached during the 


storm. 


V. Notice of the same Cyclone at Cuddapah, on 2nd Novem- 
ber 1857. By Lizut. E. Hemery, Madras Engineers. — 


The following account of a storm which visited the town and 
neighbourhood of Cuddapah, on the 2nd instant, may not be unin- 
teresting. vo 

Sunday the Ist was calm with light clouds from the north east ; 
at sunset, the sky became completely overcast, and towards morn- 
ing of the 2nd, the wind shifted to the north-west from which quar- 
ter it was blowing furiously at 6 a. m. accompanied by very heavy 
rain. 

The storm increased in violence up to noon, and from that time 
until 4 p. m. it blew a perfect gale, the rain continuing to fall with- 
out the slightest intermission. 

Towards evening the wind went round to the south-west and 
south, it then gradually fell, the rain ceased and by midnight it was 
quite calm. ; 

I am happy to be able to report that the tanks, bridges and 
other public works in the immediate vicinity of Cuddapah, have 


ocr.—DrC. 1857.] On the line selected for the M. Railway. 71 


sustained little or no injury, the native houses however in the town 
have been greatly damaged, and many ofthe roads were impassable 
this morning owing to the number of uprooted trees lying across 
them. 
The following observations of the Aneroid Barometer were made 
during the day. 
November 2nd, 6 a.m. 29°425 
9a.M. 29°35 
Noon. 29°27 
MOSER Which 8) 7 
4p.mM. 29°18 
S8p.mM. 29185 
November 3rd, 8 a.m. 29°45 


4°58 inches of rain were registered during the day at the Civil 
Hospital. 


VI. On the line selected for the Madras Railway. By Co-— 


toneL T. T. Pears, Consulting Engineer. 


(The Editors having learned that the article by Colonel A. Cotton in the 
3d No. New Series, of this Journal, had elicited certain observations ad- 
dressed to the Government, by the Consulting Engineer for Railways, on 
those portions which had reference to the Madras Line, applied to the 
Author for permission to insert them, on a question affecting so much the 
progress of this Presidency. The Paper not having been prepared in the 
Ist instance for publication, Col. Pears expressed some hesitation in com- 
plying with their request, but at last consented, disclaiming any wish to 
enter into controversy—-Ep. M. J.) | 

My attention has been drawn to a report, printed in the Mad- 
ras Journal of Literature and Science, No. 42, April to June 1857, 
by Colonel Arthur Cotton of the Engineers upon the subject of 
the proposed pier ; but discussing mainly the subject of a break- 


72 On the line selected for the [No. 5, NEW SERIES, 


water, and alluding, incidentally, to the Madras Railway in the 
following terms. 


‘* Without a harbour at either end and merely as a line connect- 
‘‘ing the East and West Coast of the Peninsula, I look upon this 
‘work as one of the least important lines on which 3 millions 
‘‘could have been spent, assuredly nothing of any consequence 
‘* either in goods or passengers will ever be conveyed by it from 
** one Coast to the other, and at least 200 miles of it are perhaps 
‘‘ about the least productive line of country that a Railway could 
**’be carried through in India. Further, it is proved beyond all 
** question that the passenger traffic is the main source of profit 
‘**on Railways and that the great mass of passengers only travel a 
‘* few miles (the average for all England is 13) that is they go to 
‘the next town and back—strange to say this Railway of 450 
*“miles is not to pass through one of the few towns (only 7 and 
‘* all but one very small) which lie near its route so that it looks 
‘‘as if the ultimate object had been to make a Railway not to 
** carry the people.” 


As this expression of opinion, though not given in relation to any 
question proposed in the Railway Department, has been before Go- 
vernment, I consider it right to offer a few remarks upon it. 


The Madras Railway is here spoken of as being without a 
harbour at either end, and, therefore, one of the least important 
lines on which 3 millions could have been spent. As there are no 
harbours on this Coast, and none deserving the name, unless it be 
Sedashegur on the other, south of Bombay, it would be difficult 
to say which would be the more important line that Colonel Cot- 
ton would have proposed. A natural harbour is doubtless a very 
good thing ; but that in this part of the world, a considerable trade 
may be carried on without such, is proved by the large and in- 
creasing commerce of Madras. Moreover, the fact that Nature has 
denied harbours to the Peninsula of India, does not appear a suf- 
ficient reason for the Government denying its inhabitants the bene- 
fit of Railways to bring their produce to the Coast. 


Colonel Cotton then goes on to state, that the Railway ‘‘is 
not to pass through one of the few towns (only seven and all but 


ocT.—DEc. 1857.] Madras Railway. 13 


one very small) which lie near the route,’’ and observes, that itlooks 
as if the object was to make a Railway not to carry the people. 
That the towns referred to are all, but one, very small, is a circum- 
stance sufficient in itself, one would suppose, to account for the 
fact of which he complains, viz., that no great sacrifice has been 
made with the view of leading the trunk line of rail through them. 


I have the highest respect for Colonel Cotton’s public character 
and abilities, and of those who will read these remarks there are 
few probably who do not entertain the same feelings. It is im- 
possible, that any observations can fall from an Officer of his cha-. 
racter and position, without leaving their impression upon the 
minds of many, especially of those who have not been accustomed 
to the consideration of such subjects. 


In reference to the passenger traffic, and in order to show 
its nature and importance, Colonel Cotton asserts, that it is prov- 
ed beyond all question, that the passenger traffic is the main source 
of profit on Railways, and that the great mass of passengers only 
travel a few miles. 


In the first place, I have never seen the former fact proved, 
and it is prima-facie opposed to Colonel Cotton’s recorded opi- 
nions, upon the extreme cost of speed—the passenger traffic being 
carried at a much higher rate than the ‘‘ goods.’’ It is known too, 
that in England the receipts from goods have been increasing yéar 
by year, faster than those from passengers ; and in the Parliament- 
ary reports for 1855, it is stated that whilst in 1849, the propor- 
tion of the passenger traffic* to the goods traffic was as 53 to 47, 
(the passengers in excess), in 1855, the passenger traffic is repre- 
sented by 44, and the goods traffic by 56. In Scotland the aver- 
age receipts for goods traffic are very nearly two-thirds of the total 
traffic, andit is added ‘‘the preponderance of the goods traffic 
over passenger traffic is more marked in the manufacturing and 
mineral than in the agricultural districts,’’ that is, in those very 
places where the collection of men in large towns would lead us 


to expect the contrary. 


* i, e. the gross receipts. 


T4 On the line selected for the [No.5, NEW SERIES, 


Again, Colonel Cotton is, as far as I can_ learn,~inyerror ia 


naming 18 miles as the average distance travelled by passengers 
for all England of all classes. In the report for 1855, the average 
receipt from passengers (exclusive of season tickets) is 19°20 pence, 
the average fare per mile 1°28 pence. The average distance tra- 


velled is a = 15. For the United Kingdom it is 14°9. 


But I follow this no farther, because J think it very un- 
sound to build systems and theories for India upon English ex- 
perience. Take for example the statement regarding the prepon- 
derance of passengers and goods traffic. Ifin one and the same 
country, as England, there be different lines of Railway, some 
making their chief profit from passengers, some almost wholly 
from goods (and one of the latter the Taffvale has been long dis- 
tinguished as one of the most profitable works in England); if this 
be the case there, we may well look for a difference in this respect 
in different countries. 


No two countries would be found to offer more different pros- 


pects toa Railway than England and India; the one confined. 
within narrow limits with a dense and wealthy population, active- 


ly engaged in manufacture and as such collected in large towns, 
whose existence is secured by permanent and natural causes; the 
other a country of vast extent, with scanty and scattered popula- 
tion, wholly engaged in agriculture, or in commerce connected 
therewith—the few large towns scattered widely apart, existing in 
dependance upon accidental and ephemeral causes. 


The difference between the aim and prospects of a Railway, 
or system of Railways, in a manufacturing and in an agri- 
cultural conntry is, as great as this, that in the one case the atten- 
tion would be immediately directed to the large towns—the seat 
of mineral and manufacturing wealth—in the other the object 
would be to drain, as completely and cheaply as possible, a large 
tract of country of its agricultural produce. 


The latter is the case with us here. The line running inland 


from Madras seeks thus to serve directly the inland districts 
of North-Arcot, Salem, Coimbatore, and Malabar; while until the 


ocr.—puc. 1857] Madras Railway. 75 


other lines are formed, it indirectly serves those of Mysore, Bel- 
lary, and Cuddapah on the one hand; Trichinopoly and Madura 
on the other. 


The first point to be aimed at, therefore, is to get a good main 
line through these districts. If considerable towns are found in 
the way (Colonel Cotton says there is but one), the Railroad should 
be taken to them if it can be done, without disproportionate sa- 
crifice of expense, either in increasing the length or the difficulties 
of construction. 


What amount of sacrifice should be made with this object will 
depend upon circumstances now to be noted. 


The size of the Town. 
The probable duration of its existence. 


The probable effect of its distance from the rail on the traffic of 
the line. 


I shall first consider the last point, viz., the probable effect of the 
distance at which a line passes a town upon the traffic. This de- 
pends mainly on the passenger fares. It depends also on the cha- 
racter of the country and condition of the people, by which the ave- 
rage distance travelled by the inhabitants is affected. 


Thus, if the fare by rail is § the expense of travelling by road, 
it will cost a man, living three miles from a station the same in go- 
ing to a point on the line 5 miles off in a direct line, whether he goes 
by high road or by rail. If the place be more than 5 miles off, it 
will be cheaper to go by rail if less, dearer. 


Now the average distance travelled by rail by passengers in Eng- 
land is shown to be 15 miles. Colonel Cotton has stated it erroneous- 
ly at 13, and has unreasonably, I think, taken this as a data for 
Railways generally all over the world, but nothing can be more 
clear than that in this, as in all other respects, but in this respect, 
preeminently, the traffic in this country must differ from that in 
England. 


There, we have a large wealthy population dwelling within nar- 
row limits, and a land thickly studded with populous Towns and: 


76 On the line selected for the [no. 5, NEW SERIES, 


villages. On this vast expanse of country, large towns are few 
and far between, and the population scantier and more scattered. 


According to our last half-yearly return, the average distance 
travelled on a line 65 miles in length was 38 miles; what will it 
be when we have it complete 450 miles ? I have no doubt that the 
average will be above 30, even though the fares should be reduced. 
as I trust they will. 


That the line should pass 24 or 3 miles from Wallajahnug- 
gur and 4 from Vellore does not, in my opinion, affect the traffic — 
coming from those towns in the slightest degree. It may, but itis 
a question whether it does affect even the traffic between those 
two particular places. This depends on the fares also. A man 
can travel, even at the present high rates, cheaper and quicker by 
rail between those two towns than he can by the high road. All 
other traffic from them to any point on the line 10 miles and up- 
wards, from each of their respective stations, would take to the rail. 


But, is the short and insignificant passenger traffic, between 
those two towns, sufficient inducement to change the course of the 
line of Railway, and adopt one less beneficial to the districts at 
large, a worse and more expensive line, crossing the -Palar at a much 
more inconvenient place, and cutting up a large amount of valua- 
ble land on the right bank of that river? I think not. 


These towns do not in the least degree resemble the large towns 
of England. They possess not one element of permanency. These 
the only two of any considerable size along the line, owe their 
existence to causes that may cease at a moment, and will cease ere 
long. 

In an agricultural country like this, the large towns are chiefly 
local market towns, or emporia of agricultural commerce. They 
are singularly uniform in size and importance; sacred temples, the 
contiguity of Civil and Military stations, being the circumstances 
that generally give one such town importance over another. 


Take Vellore the largest town on the line of Rail. It owes its 
present extent wholly to three causes. Itis a local agricultural 
mart, a Military station, and it is a rendezvous for a great portion 
of the traffic from the inland districts en-route for the coast. 


ocT.— DEC. 1857] Madras Railway. An 


It possesses no manufactures, no mineral deposits, not one ele- 
ment of permanency or stability. Of the three main sources of its 
present populousness, the Railway is certain to destroy one, to ma- 
terially curtail another, while a few strokes of the pen, in the shape 
of an Extract Minutes of Consultation, would at once remove the 
third. 

The effect of the Railway, had it run right through it, would 
have been precisely the same, as it will be now, entirely to destroy 
its business and importance as an emporium of trade, with the dis- 
tant provinces, with Mysore, Bellary, Salem, &c. The same effect 
has been produced by Railways in England in numteriess cases, 
some of which have fallen under my own immediate observation, 
The large traffic that now passes into Vellore from Salem, Banga- 
lore, Mysore, and Bellary, will, as the rail advances towards those 
places, be conveyed at once through it, and the number of people 
now residing there, connected with this traffic, will disappear. 


Had the line run right through these two towns, it would have 
been the same; nothing would be left them but the importance 
due to a Railway station, and even this would be a fall from their 
present condition, considered merely as local agricultural centres, 
since stations, on each side of them, within 6 or 8 miles, would draw 
away much of the business that, in the present state of the com- 
munications, passes into these towns. 

Nothing will remain to give Vellore special importance, but 
its Fort and its Garrison; and it is not probable that the latter will 
ever be considerable. 

The other towns near which the line passes are Gooriathum, 
Vaniembady, Tripatoor, Salem, and Coimbatore. To some of 
these it passes quite close, but the same principles apply. Insome 
cases, as Salem, it appears a positive good that the station should 
be 2 miles away, on a high and apparently healthy spot, to 
which many traders will be attracted leaving the present town, 
which like many others in this country, seems to have been plant- 
ed on the most unhealthy spot that could have been selected. 

I think for the reasons I have now given that the present 
towns, existing wholly upon temporary and accidental causes, as 


78 On the line selected for the M. Railway. {No. 5, NEW SERIES, — 


the proximity of roads, passes, European stations, &c. are by no 
means deserving of the same consideration that is due to such 
towns as Birmingham, Manchester, and Liverpool; to sea ports, 
or to the abodes of men clustered round, and upon, an inexhausti- 
ble supply of Coal and Iron. 


These towns of ours have no local products, every article 
now brought out of them is due, not to the town itself, nor to the 
people in it, but to a tract of country of which it has hitherto been, 
but which the Railway station will in future be, the centre. 


I would not needlessly compel the few who may remain, when 
the busy through traffic has disappeared and passed by the rail, 
to shift their dwellings to a station 2 or 3 miles off, but the sacri- 
fice to them is inconsiderable, compared with that to the Company 
in selecting a worse and more expensive line, merely to accommo- 
date a town anda group of people, destined to melt away under 
the operations of the Railway itself. 


The Railway has to do with a great agricultural District, and 
whether it lies a few miles this side, or that, the business com- 
ing into it will be the same, depending, as the sphere of its opera- 
tion depends, on its ‘“‘ rates and fares.” 


It has often occurred to me, as a thing to be borne in mind, that 
the distribution of the inhabitants of this country has not attained 
to any thing like a normal state. Had we laid down Railways in 
England 300 years ago, the lines then laid might have been useful 
even now, but they would certainly not be of the first importance. 


We have seen within short spaces of time, collections of human 
beings rise and disappear with political changes; and we may be 
quite sure that whatever particular course they follow, few changes 
will be more marked than that which must follow the introduction 
of Railways through these agricultural districts, with stations at 
every 6 or 8 miles. 


The men engaged in trade, however, distributed now, must and . 
will cluster along the line. Such towns as Wallajahnugegur and 
Vellore, established under, and due to, a totally different order of 
things, must and will, to a great extent disappear. 


ocT.—pDxEc. 1857.} A list of Neilgherry Ferns. 79 


Individuals may, and some must, of necessity suffer from such 
changes as these, but no man can doubt the ultimate benefit to the 
country; and if the change be necessary there is in this country 
some satisfaction in the thought, that a new, and, we may hope, a 
more enlightened and enterprising class will owe their rise to the 
Railways, while the opportunity will not be lost of introducing into 
the towns thus springing up a new, more healthy, and more civiliz- 
ed description of dwelling. 


VII. A List of Neilgherry Ferns. By the late Dr. B. 
SCHMID. 


[These Ferns were partly collected by Dr. B. Schmid in the 
years 1831-35 for Professor Zenker of Jena; partly by Dr. Weigle 
for Dr. Kurr of Stuttgart, and the Lycopodiacee by Mr. Perrottet. 

They were described by Professor Kunze, in the Linnea, Vol. 
VIII., July 1851. The Professor’s last labour before his death ; 
The capital S. indicates that the plant was found by Schmid him- 
self, and W. that it had been collected by Weigle. | 

OPHIOGLOSSER. 

1. Ophioglossum Schmidi, (Kunze,) Nova species, sent by 8. 
Boirychium lanuginosum, (Wallich) sent by S. and W. 
GLEICHENIACEZ. 

3. JMeriensia dichotoma, (Sw. syn. fil.) sent by S. and W. 

Syn. Gleichenia dichotoma, (Hooker sp. fil. 1, p. 12.) 


OSMUNDACEZ. 
4, Osmunda regalis, (Linn.) 8S. Baron Hiigel found it in Emo- 
dus. 
PoLYPODIACER. 
5. Aecrostichum angulatum, 8. Blume in Java. 
6, “i decurrens, (Desv.) Philippines and Nilagiri in 


Wallich’s herbarium. ) 


3. Gleichenia Hermannt, Wall, 4. Osmunda Leschenaultii, Wall.—Ep. 


0 


16. 


We 
18. 
GE 
20. 


21. 
22. 


23. 


24, 


25. 
26, 


A list of Neilgherry Ferns. [no.5, NEW SERIEs, 


Acrostichum stigmatolepis, (Fée.) In Delessert’s herbarium 
“from Nilagiri;”’ Perrottet. 
Leptochilus lanceolatus, (Fée.) Perrottet in 1838. 
Hemionttis cordata, (Roxb.) sent by S. and W. Hook. and 
Grev. ic. fil. t. 64. Rheede Hort. Mal. 12, t. 10. 
Gymnogramma totta,(Schlechtendal). \ Very little different 
var: mollisima, (Kunze.)G.Schmidii, >from that of Ma- 
(Zenker’s manuscripts.) deira and Abyssinia. 
és bifurcata, (Kaulfuss’ herbarium.) sent by S. 
i leptophylla, (Desv.) sent by S. is smaller than the 
specimens from South Europe, Teneriffe, Madeira, 
Mexico, Egypt and Abyssinia. 
Ampelopteris firma, (Kanze.) 8. and Hugel, No. 2152. 
Grammitis attenuata, Kunze.) 8. Nov. species. 3 
Selliguea involuta, (Kunze) Syn: Grammitis involuta, (Don, 
Blume, Hooker and Greville.) 
os var: cuspidata, Grammitis cuspidata, (Zenker’s Plante 
Indice) sent by 8. and W. 
Synn : Loxogramma, (Presl.) Antrophyum, (Blume,) FI: 
Jav: p. 87. 
Polypodium (Pleopeltis,) mediusculum, (Kunze,) Nov. sp. 
sent by S. and W. : 
Polypodium (Pleopeltis,) sent by W. 


= linearis affine, S. also Nepaul. 

a (Phymatodes,) (Presl.) Nov. sp;-S. W. séerile. 

. (Drynaria) oxylebium, (Wallich) 8S. W. in Ne- 
paul, Wallich. in Emodus, Higel. 

As (Drynaria) quercifolium, (Linn.) S. 

; carpophyllum, (Zenker’s manuscript) S. W. 

Nov. spec. 

aa pyrrhorachis, (Kunze,) 8. W. 


Niphobolus sticticus, Kunze.) Nov. sp. 8. W. Leschenault, 
also from Emodus. 
os reese +s «Spec. stetiliey S: 
Blechnum orientale, W. 


21. The true Linnean species, Fl, Zeylanic¢a.—ED. 


oor.—pxc. 1857.] A list of Newgherry Ferns. 81 


Pale 


28. 
29; 
30. 
ol. 
32, - 
30, 
34. 
30. 
36, 


37. 
38. 
39, 
40. 
41, 
42. 
43. 
44, 
45, 


46. 


a7. 
48. 


49. 
50. 


Asplenium (Actiniopteris) radiatum, (Sw.) Syn: Blechnum 
radiatum, (Presl ) 8. Hook. Icon. t. 975. 


- Zenkerranum, (Kunze,) Nov. sp. S. 

3 Jalcatum, (Retz) S. also in Ceylon and Java. 
decurrens, (Kunze) Nov. sp. 8. 

93 brachyotes, (Kunze) W. also in South Africa. 

s opacum, (Kze) Nov. sp. W. 

Bs camptorhachis, (Kze) Nov. sp. 8. 

i emarginato-dentatum, (Zenker’s M.S8S.)8. N. sp. 
a umbrosum, (Klfs.) W. also from Brazil, Martius. 
S lunulatum, (Sw.) 


»» var: sphenolobium, (Kunze) 8. W. 
» jfimbriatum, (Kunze) Flora Af. Austr: Natal. 
Emodus. 
,, var: leptophyllum, (Kze) S. W. 
a Jurcatum, (Thunberg, Kunze) 8. W. 
tenuifolium (Don) S. W. larger than the Natal 
form. 
Allantudia solenopteris, (Kunze) 8. W. 
5» var: pusilla, (Kurr.) 
», LMieldingiana, (Kze) Nov. sp. S. Fielding received it 
from Emodus. 
2 Species doubtful. “W. 
Diplazium lasiopteris, (Kze) W. 
»»  nigro-paleareum, (Kze) 8. N. sp. 
», ajuvenile, sterile specimen, the roots mixed up with 
one similar to Pteris Blumeana (Kze addy, 
I have not yet seen the like.) 
Pieris geraniifolia, (Radd: fil: Brazil) S. W. also, Nepal, 
Chill, Java. Hook. ic. t, 915. 
»  Cretica, (Linn) 8, W. 
»,  DBlumeana, (F. Ag.) 8. W. (Pteris normalis, Blume, 
Java.) 
»,  lanuginosa, (Bory) S. also Mascarenhas. 
multi-auriia, (F. Ag.) Leschenault on Nilagiri? 
grows in Ceylon. 


29, Burm. Zeyl. t, 43; Rheed. Mal. 12. t. 18,—Ep. 


82 


51. 
52. 
53. 
54, 


O65. 


56. 


57. 


58. 
59. 


60. 


61. 
62. 


63. 
64. 
65. 
66. 


67. 


_ Alist of Neilgherry Ferns. [no. 8, NEW SERIES, 


Pteris palearia, (Roxb:) S. 
Adiantum hirsutum, (Bory) S. 
4»  aethiopicum, (Kze.) 8S. W. At the Cape, Australia. 
5 me veneris, 
: 1, normale, 8. 
2, latissimum, (Kunze) also Bory i in Algiers, and 
Hay in Emodus. 
Cheilanthes dealbata, (Don) Nepal, 8. ‘ir, 
farinosa, Hook and Grev : 
farinosa, var: pallida-sulphurea W. Kurr. 
Wallich in Nepal, Hay in Emodus; Higelin Karli; 
Cuming in Luzon; Zollinger in Java. 


33 


bulbosa, (Kunze) S. “ valde insignis,” similar to 
Ch : elegans (Desv.) 

6 Dicksonioides, (Endlicher) 8. W. 

var: phyllochlaena, (Kze.) 


23 


PA resistens, (Kze.) 8. Nov. Sp. 
Lindsaea cultrata, (Sw) 8. W. 
var: pallens, (Wallich’s Catalogue). 
Davaliia tenuifolia, (Sw.) 
5 var: B segmentis latioribus, S. W. 
Nephrolepis tuberosa, (Presl). S. W. also Bourbon, Java. 
Aspidium (Cyrtomium) anomophyllon, (Zenker, Plantae In- 
| dicee,) S. W. 
var: macroptera and microptera, but intermediate forms 
are not wanting. : 
ae atratum, (Wallich) S. W. 
= (Nephrodium,) caudiculatum, (Sieb.) W. Nov. Sp. 
_ ¥ Xylotes, (Kunze.) 8. Nov. Sp. 
5 a ochtosts, (Kze.) S. W. N. Sp. also 
near Mercara, found by the Revd. Mr. Metz, 
and sent to Hohenacker. 


% (Dicharium A. B.) Donianum, (Spr.) S. 

» Syn. Wallichianum (Spr.) ,,_~—s paleaceum (Don.) 
patentissimum (Wall.) ee palentissima, 
Pr, tent. Pterid. 


oor.—pec. 1857.] List of Neilgherry Ferns. 83 


68. 


69. 


ee 
ae 


72. 
73, 


74, 
76, 
76. 


77. 
78. 


Tos 


80, 
81, 


82, 


Aspidium Weigleanum, (Kze.) W. Nov. Sp. (Nephrodium 
procerum, Don. prod, fl. Nep.) 
5 (Nephrodium) Canariense, (Al. Braun) perhaps 
the same. 
», SyD Aspidium elongatum, (Willd. Sp. pl. R. Brown in 
: H. Kew; Hook. and Grev. ic. t. 234. 
if ees ae) . a doubtful species. W. 
- ( 4,  ) seabrosum, (Kze.) Nov. Sp., 8S. W. (A 
tree fern ?) 


5 (Polystichium) palmipes, (Kze.) 8, W. 
Ae ( 5 >) brachypterum, (Kze.) S. W. 
var. major, laxa, 8. Metz (in Hochenaker.) 
Se see 5  ) subinerme, (Kze.) W. N. Sp. 
55 ( >»  ) tacticopterum, (Kze,) 8. Nov. Sp. 
4p ( 9»  ) mucronifolium, (Bl. ? Java) W. Hay on 
Emodus. 
(over looked.) 
66 ( 4 ) Wallichanum, (Pr.) S. Syn. Asp. seto- 
sum,( Wall.) Polystichum setosum, Schott. 
Hooker’s Asp. Wallichii and Sprengel’s 
Asp. Wallichianum are both erroneous. 
9 ( 5 ) parvifolium, (Kze.) 8. W. Syn. Poly- 
stichum conifolium, (J. Sm.) Cuming, 
the specimens from the Philippine Islands 
are more robust. 


CYATHEACEA, 


Alsophila crinita, (Hook. ic. Plantarum t. 671.) S. 
3 latebrosa, ( Wall.) Penang, Assam. 
3 var. Schmidiana, smaller than the normal form. 


- HYMENOPHYLLACEA, 


Trichomanes Schmidiana, Zenker’s MSS. (in Dr. Taschmer’s 
Dissertation) similar to 77. filicula (Hook) Ni- 
lagiris? and still more to Tr. intramarginale, 
(Hook. and Grey.) ic. fil, t. 211. Perhaps a 
dwarfish form of Tr.Schmidianum, from Ceylon? 


84 A List of Neilgherry Mosses. [No.5, NEW SERIES, 


LYCOPODIACEA. 
83. Lycopodium alorfolium(Wall. cat. 129) Spreng. monograph 
des Lycopodees, Hook ie, fil. t. 223. 


84. 5. subulifolium, (Wall. cat, 114) Perrottet. 
Syn. Lyc. Nilagiricum, Spreng. 1, p. 58, n. 42. 
85. 5 serratum, (Thunberg) ; Spreng. Perrottet, also in 
Java, Japan. 
86. i macrostachys, Hooker’s Herbarium, Spreng. 1. 1 


II. p. 30, n. 496. 
Syn? Lyc. Phlegmaria, Kunze’s Herbarium, given by 
Koenig from East India, also in Ceylon. 


87. x cernuum, (L. Spreng. monogr. 1, 79) Perrottet and 
Kurr. 

88. es clavatum, (Linn. Spreng.) Hooker’s Herbarium. 

89. a Wightianum, (Wall. cat. 2184, Syn. Lyc. sabin- 


aefolium, Kunze) in fil, Zollinger. 
90. Selaginella vaginata, (Spreng.) Perrottet. 


Se a radicata, (Spreng.) W. Perrottet. 
92. os caulescens, (Spreng.) W. 
93. »  pennula, (Spreng. Voyage Bory.) Perrottet. 
94. ey tcnera, (Spreng.) Syn. Lyc, ornithopodioides, 
(Wall cat. 2186.) 
CauicuT, 24th January, 1857. *B, SCHMID. 


* The Manuscript not being always legible, some errors may have crept inte 
this interesting Catalogue.—Ep. M. J. 


VIII. A List of Neidlgherry Mosses. By Dr. B. Scumip. 


| These were collected by Mr. Perrottet, described and named 
by Montagne in 1842, others found by Dr. B. Schmid, described and 
named by Dr. Charles Miller of Halle in Prussia, in the Botan- 
ische Zeitung, 1852-54. Mr. Perrottet collected principally about 
Kaity, and at Neddoowuttam and Kotagiri. Dr, Schmid explored 


ocT.—pic. 1857.] A List of Newdgherry Mosses. 85 


exclusively in the basin of Ootacamund. The Mosses marked } 
were collected by Mr. Perrottet ; those without a mark were col- 
lected by Dr. Schmid; those marked * were found by Mr. Perrot- 
tet and also by Dr. Schmid. |—Ep. M. J. 


Class II. CLEISTOCARPI. 


Tribe II. BrucHtIacez. 
Genus II. Astomum. 

1. Astomum denticulatum, C. Mill. 
Class III. STEGOCARPI. 


Sub-class I. AcRoOcARPI. 


Tribe VIII. FisstDENTEZ. 
Gen. I. Conomitrium. 
2. Conomitrium serratum, C. Mull, Synops. II, p. 527. 
Gen. II. Fissidens. 
3, Fissidens Schmidii, C. M. similar to F. crispus. 
% 4, »  anomalus. Montagne, Annales des Sciences Na- 
turelles, 1842, No. 36. 


Tribe Xl. FUNARIOIDEZ, 


Gen. I. Funaria. 
* 5, Funaria hygrometrica, Hedwig. 
70. »  physcomitroides, Mont. about Kaitie. 
Gen. IV. Lntosthodon. 
% 4% Entosthodon Perrottetii,C. M. Kaitie. 
8. si diversinervis. C. M. a very fine species. 
9. a submarginatus, C. M. 
Tribe XV. BryaczEa. 
Gen. I. Mielichhoferia. 
10. Mielichhoferia Schmidii, C. M. 
; Gen. IL. Bryum. 
#11, Brywm Neilgherrense, Mont. (Dr Schmid’s specimens have 
larger nerves set. ) 
12. ,,  ollingert. Duby. 
718. 5,  Montagneanum. C. M. Brachymenium pendu- 
. lum, Mont. Muse. Neilgh. No. 48, 
14,  ,,  apalodictyoides. C.M. 


86 A List of Nelgherry Mosses. [NO, 5. NEW SERIES, 


15. Bryum lamprostegum. C. My 
16. 5  porphyroneuron. C. M. 
Lite »  rugosum. C.M. a pretty, remarkable species. 
18. » exile. Dz. et Molkh. 
19. »,  jlaccidisetum. C.M. a pretty species. 
#20. »  argenteum. L. very frequent on earth and wood. 
21. »  Schmidi. C.M. 
722. »,  leptostomoides. Mont. Dodabetta on Rhododendrons. 
23. »  ¢clavariaeforme, C. M,. 
24. » velutinum. C.M. 
25. »  trematodonteum. C.™M. 
Tribe XVI. DiIcRANACEA. 
Gen. VI. Dicranum. 
26. Dicranum involutum. CO. M. 
27. im nivale. C.M. 
DAS ie vk Saas flagelliferum. OC. M. 
29. As albescens C.M. 
+30. a caudatum. C. M. 
31. o tricolor. C. M. 
32, 53 erythrognaphalon. C. M. 
33. Ap Schmidii. ©. M. 
34, Sp nodiflorum. C.M. 
Tribe XVII. LErroTRICHACEAE. 
Gen. VI. Angstromia. . 
35. <Angsiromia phascoides. C.M. ‘ 
36. - Schmidii. C. M. 
Gen. VII. Leptotrichum. 
137, Leptotrichum plicatum. C. M. humid wood behind Avya- 


ee eee eee 


lanche. 
Gen. IX. Trematodon. 
388. Trematodon Schmidii C. M. a pretty species. 
39, 99 paucifolius. C, M. hitherto only found in Java. 
Tribe XVIII. BarrRaMiacEsz, : 
Gen. IV. Baritramia. 
740. Bartramia Roylii. C. M. 
141. if macrocarpa. C. M. 
42, a dicranacea. C, M. 


oct.—DeEC. 18d7.] A List of Neilgherry Mosses. 87 


145. 


57, 


+58. 
159. 
+60. 


‘61. 


+62. 
+63. 


Tribe XIX. Porrtorpresm, 
Gen. VII, Barbula: 
Barbula orthodonta, C. M. 
Schmidii. C. M. 
Gen. VIII. Ceratodon. 
Ceratodon stenocarpus Br. and Sch. about Neddoowuttam, 

Gen. XI. Zygodon. 

Zygodon acutifolius. C, M. 
Zygodon tetragonostomus. <A. Br. Java, Blume. 
cylindricarpus. C.M. 
Schmidii C. M. 

Gen. XIII. Orthotrichum. 
Orthotrichum Schmidii, C. M. 

Gen. XV. Macromitrium. 
Macromitrium Perrottetii, C. M. Kaitie. 
squarrulosum. C. M. 

ie Schmid. C.M. 
a, Netlgherrense. C. M. 


39 


39 


33 


uncinatum. C. M. 
Gen, XXI. Grimmia. 
Grimmia Neilgherrensis. C. M. 
Class HII, STEGOCARPI. 
Sub-ClassI. AcRocaRrrt. 
Tribe. LEUCOBRYACE. 
Leucobryum Neilgherrense. C.M. 
Tribe MNIOIDER. 
Sub-tribe PoLyTRICHACEA. 
Polytrichum ( Catharinella) Neesii. C. M. 
3 ( Cephalotrichum) perichetiale. Mont. 
. (Pogenatum) microstomum. R. Br. P. urni- 
gerum Montg. in Muse. Perrottetii. 
Sub. Class II. PLEUROCARPI. 
Tribe. HYyPoPTERYGIACE. 
Hypopterygium (Euhypopterygium) Struthiopteris. Brid. 
Syn. II. 4, 
. Gras ) tenellum. C. M. 
- ( Rhacopilum) Schmidii. 


88 


64. 


165. 
66, 


67. 


68. 


+69. 
+70. 
File 
#72, 
¥73, 
74. 
75. 
76. 
aa. 
78. 
49: 


ie) 


80. 


+81. 
*89, 
¥83. 
#84, 
#85, 
86. 
Siz 
88. 
89. 
90. 
+91, 
+92. 


A List of Netlgherry Mosses. [no. 5, NEW SERIES, 


Tribe. MNIADELPHACEG. 
Mniadelphus Montagneanus. ©. M. 
Tribe. HyPnorpEs. 
Subtribe. NEcKERACEZ. 
Rhegmatodon orthostegius Mont. Kaitie on bark of trees. 
Fabronia ( Eufabronia) secunda. Mont. 
me Ce; )) Sclumiai a Cr le 
Neckera (uneckera, Rhystophyllum,) aequalifolia. C. 


Mets. <p: 
is (Entodon) plicata. C.M. 
af (33,.., ) Lernotichi CMe 
(Pterigynandrum) julacea. Schw. 
& ( = ) Indica. C.M. 
7: (Harrisonia) macropelma. C. M. 


i (Papillaria) leuconeura. OC. M. 

* ( » ) plicaefolia, C.M. 

- ( .. ) breviramea. C. M. 

~ ( »  ) hispida, n. sp. Dioica ? 

et (Pilotrichella Schmidii. n. sp. 
Pilotrichum (Meteorium) punctulatum, n. sp. 

oe ( a ) reclinatum, n. sp. 

Hookeria (Lepidopilum) Utacamundiana. Mont. 
Hypnum (Aptychus) subhumile. OC. M. 

i (Taxicaulis) albescens, Schw. 

ae (Isothecium) Buchanani. Hook. ~ 

Sp (Pliacaria) Neilgherrense. ©. M. 

93 (oes ) paraphysale, n. sp. 

53 (Tamariscella) blepharophyllum, n. sp. 


>» ( »  ) pristocalyx, n. sp. 

2» ( 3 ) tamariscellum, n. sp. 
= (Hypnodendron) Schmidii, n. sp. 
(Anomodon) consanguineum. C. M. 

5 (Homomallia) secundum. Mont. 


(To be continued. ) 


oct.—DEC. 1857.] The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. 89 


IX. Introductory Report on the Natural History of the 
Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. By H. F. Ketaart, m. p. 


[This interesting Report is republished from the Ceylon Overland Observer, 
not only with reference to its intrinsic value, but also to its important bearings 
upon the Pearl Banks belonging to the Madras Presidency, which have long been 
in an unsatisfactory state.|—Ep. M. J. 

Having understood that some account of my researches into 
the Natural History of the Pearl Oysters of Ceylon, is desirable, 
even at this early period of my labours, I shall endeavour briefly 
to sketch a Report, that can only be considered in the light of an 
Introduction to a more extensive and prolonged series of observa- 
tions ; which, if means are afforded me, may be brought to a more 
speedy conclusion than I have any prospect of doing at present. 

Before I proceed to detail the results of my researches, since 
I was commissioned by His Excellency the Governor, in March 
last, to undertake this desirable investigation, I have to acknow- 
ledge the great facilities which the aquarium gives, for the inves- 
tigation of the natural habits of Molluscs, and other moderate- 
ly sized fresh and sea water animals. Without glass aquaria and 
a powerful microscope, I should not perhaps have obtained even 
that information on the minute anatomy and habits of the Pearl 
Oyster, which is embodied in this Introductory Report. Soon 
after my appointment, I ordered out large glass aquaria and other 
apparatus, which will be of service hereafter, to myself, or to those 
who may be engaged years hence, in reporting to Government, 
from time to time, the natural condition of the Oysters in their 
various banks. In the mean time, I have made use of large glass 
globes and Ceylon manufactured aquaria, made of thick crown 
glass, Roman cement and slate, purchased from the Naval Store. 
Large chatties too, and tubs, are also in use. The Oysters thrive 
best in chatties, but these do not afford the same opportunity of 
seeing their habits as glass sided aquaria. I have also, in addi- 
tion to the above named means of observation, had perforated 
wooden boxes, with a few Oysters in each, deposited in various 


90 The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, 


depths of the sea; and latterly, I have used large canoes (ballams) 
for the same purpose ;—lastly, though perhaps of most importance, 
I have had unexpected facilities of observation among the several 
small beds of Oysters found in the inner Harbour of Trincomalie. 
They are found of all ages and sizes, and various depths and dif- 
ferent kinds of banks; so that no Naturalist has perhaps ever had 
the same opportunities of observing the habits of the Pearly Mol- 
lusc, as I have at present. 

I cannot do better, than correct at the outset, some popular 
errors regarding the anatomy of the Pearl Oyster; and this I may 
perhaps do most simply, by describing, in a popular form, the ex- 
ternal and internal structure of the species of Mollusc producing 
the best Pearls of Ceylon. 

The Mollusc, generally known as the Pearl Oyster, found in 
the Banks of Arripo, Chilaw, Trincomalie Harbour, and other 
parts of the Island, does not belong to the same genus as the edible 
Oyster of Europe, although, in its internal structure it has a re- 
semblance to it. The Pearl Mollusc resembles more the Mussel 
tribe than the Oyster ; more particularly, as it has, like the Mussel, 
a byssus or cable by which it attaches itself to foreign sub- 
stances, or to others of its kind. The only source of infor- 
mation that I know of on this subject, available to the Ceylon 
student, is to be found in ‘“ Lebeck’s Account of the Pearl 
Fishery of Ceylon, 1797,”’ to be seen in the Appendix to Captain 
Steuart’s book. The description Mr. Lebeck gives, is very im- 
perfect, and excites a smile in the modern Nataralist; but this 
imperfection is excusable, in any account written in the infancy of 
the science of Conchology, and when the Microscope was scarcely 
ever applied to anatomical studies of shells ; at least not in Ceylon. 
The most glaring error in that description is the mistaking of 
‘‘ bluish spots’? on the foot for “ eyes,’ and the “ ovaria’’ for 
“Jungs.” This Mollusc has no eyes; and the lungs, or gills, are 
in the front, far away from the stomach, and occupy the middle 
space between the hinge and the anterior edge of the shell, easily 
seen when the valves are open; they look like four, or two pairs, 
of whitish (in a few specimens the gills are of a black color) semi- 
lunar combs or bands, stretched from side to side. - 


ocT.—pEc. 1857.] The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. 91 


I have carefully examined Oysters of all ages, and have no- 
ted the structure of the shell, and of the animal within it: which 
will form the subject of illustration in a future Report. In this, I 
shall briefly describe the animal; as it is of the greatest importance, 
that a correct knowledge be first obtained of the animal structure, 


before a physiological account of its habits can be properly un- 
derstood. — 


Meleagrina margaritifera, Lamarck, ) Mytilus margaritiferus, Linn. 
Pearl Oyster, Ene. Avicula radiata, Leach. 


Pintadine mere perle, Fr. »  Mmargaritifera, Sowerby. 


Mutu Chipi. Tam. & Syne. »  meleagrina, Blainville. 


Conchologists have long agreed, that Lamarck was right in sepa- 
rating the “* Pearl Oyster,” par excellence, from the old genus Avi- 
cula, of which there are several species in Ceylon, some producing 
valueless pearls of a dusky blue and blackish colour. The only de- 
scription of the Pearl Oyster of Ceylon I have access to, is La- 
marck’s, in his “* Histotre Naturelle des animaux sans Vertebres,’’ 
and that, too, is only of the shell. 


‘“‘ Meleagrina, testa subquadrata, superne rotundata, fusco virente. 
Albo radiata, lamellis per series longitudinalis imbricatis, supertoribus 
majoribus.”’—Lamarck, vol. 7, p. 107. 


The Ceylon shell is a variety of that above described. The 
white radiating lines are alternated with rays of a red or black co- 
lour. Doctor Templeton made it appear, that the Ceylon variety 
corresponded with Leach’s description of his Avicula radiata. lam 
more inclined to believe, that they are only accidental or occasional 
varieties. The shell however, appears to attain a larger size in Ame- 
rica, and in the Persian Gulph, than in the Seas of Ceylon. In the 
largest Ceylon shells, the red or black radiating lines become obso- 
lete. If they are permanent varieties, they are both found in Cey- 
lon. I havea faint recollection of having seen both varieties on the 
Peari banks of Arripo. 1 had also a small perfectly white Pearl 
Oyster ; this may be an Albino specimen or Lamarck’s Meleagrina 
albina. M. testa alhida, irradiata, obsolete squamosa; auriculis 
duabus semper distinctis, originally found on the coasts of New Hol- 
land and Van Diemen’s Land. 


92 The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. [no. 5, NEW SERIES, 


On removing the animal from the shell, the whole of the internal 
part is seen enveloped in amembrano-muscular covering, called the 
“¢ mantle,” and known popularly in Ceylon as the “skin.” The free 
border of the mantle lining each valve, dips downwards, to meet 
with a similar veil on the opposite side; thus forming a kind of dou- 
ble fringed veil. The one set of tentacular fringe, in immediate con- 
tact with the shell, is composed of hairy tentacles, looking horizon- 
tally forwards; the other, about three-eighths of aninch apart from 
the former, and lining the edge of the mantle, from side to side, 
looks downward, and dovetails with the tentacles of the opposite 
flap of the mantle. These tentacles consist of a series of long 
and short flat filaments—the long ones having lateral filamen- 
tous projections. The tentacles are exceedingly sensitive; and 
one would almost give them the power of seeing; for not only the 
touch of a feather, but the approach of one when the animal 
is lively and in good health, makes them draw forwards, and 
perfectly shut out the intruder. As these molluscs have no organ 
of sight, I have no doubt that the delicate nerves which are dis- 
tributed through the mantle and its tentacular processes, possess 
in some degree the sense answering to vision in other animals, as 
well as of touch; foran Oyster will be observed rapidly to close 
its valves on the approach to the aquarium ofa lighted candle, or 
even the approach ofa hand, or the shadow of a person, near the 
glass sides of a vessel in which it is confined. I should not, ina 
popular Report, advert to this physiological subject, but that the 
senses of the Oyster have a great deal to do with its habits, not only 
in the aquarium, but also in its native bed. Were it not for these 
delicate fringes surrounding the mantle, the softer parts of the 
Oyster would easily become the food of a host of carnivorous 
creatures abounding in the sea; and many more Pearls would 
drop out of the shell, than do now with such sentinels at the en- 
trance of its external rim. The mantle is the only organ the ani- 
mal has for the formation ofthe shell. The increase of the lateral 


dimensions of which, and the formation of the pearly nacre, and - 


the Pearls, depending upon the condition of this important invest- 
ment, Ifitis injured, the pearly matter is not secreted in such 
abundance over the shell, or if by some cause it becomes retracted 


Ps 


a 


; 
; 
7 


ocT.—DvEc. 1857.) The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. 93 


the shell does not grow rapidly, and the mother-of-pearl lining is 

jagged at the edge, and is not of the usual brilliant colour. How- 
ever, its temporary retraction facilitates the ingress of sand and 
other irritating particles, which doubtless become the nuclei of 
many pearls, as will be hereafter observed. The forepart of the 

mantle is coloured and rayed like the shell. The colouring matter 
is secreted by glands found in these parts. The glandular secre- 
tion serves the purpose of increasing the lateral and longitudinal 
dimensions of the shell. It is after this is deposited, that the 
pearly secretion (nacre) is applied to the inner wall of the shell, 
which, concreting or solidifying, increases its thickness. The 

pearly fluid is secreted by nearly the whole external surface of 
the mantle. It will be thus clearly understood, that when a grain 

of sand or the larva of an insect is introduced between the mantle | 
and shell, it will become covered over with the pearly secretion ; 

which always going on, is augmented at the part where the foreign 

matter lies. ‘This phenomenon I have detected with the aid of the 

Microscope in the very earliest stage. 


About one and a quarter inch from the rim of the shell, is seen 
a pair of gills like four segments of a circle, or semilunar combs, 
stretching transversely from one side to the other, the convexity 
looking forwards. ‘There is a vacant space between the concave 
surface of the gills and the body of the Oyster. The adductor mus- 
cle, called ‘* grizzle,” is now seen, covered over with a delicate 
membrane. This muscle is attached to theinner surface of both 
shells. On one side (the left, when the Oyster is placed with the 
hinge next the observer) is seen a short, conical, tubular, sharp- 
pointed prolongation ; this is the terminal end of the intestines ; 
it looks ike a sharp-pointed claw. The intestine is short: leav- 
ing the stomach, it winds round the adductor muscle, and termin- 
ates, as | have just remarked, on the side opposite to where the 
mouth is placed. There is always an unclosed space, between the 
edges of the mantle, when the tentacles are brought together, ad- 
mitting of the free passage of excrementitious matter; and it was 
through the same opening between the mantle, that I observed, on 
one occasion, the ova escape, in a cloudy stream, which continued 
to pass into the water for nearly 15 minutes. I failed to detect the 


94 The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. [No.5, NEW SERIES, 


immediate part of the animal through which the ova found their 
exit ; and I have not been able to detect a regular oviduct. The 
ovaria, when distended with ova, cover nearly the whole of the 
stomach, heart, and liver, and project even on the conical cecal 
process of the stomach, and also on the base of the foot. The sto- 
mach is very small, placed in the centre of the liver; the esophagus 
is very narrow, scarcely admitting a moderate sized probe; it is 
about 3 lines long. The mouth situated near the hinge, behind the 
foot and byssus, is a horizontal slit, of about 3 lines in length, in 
the duplicature of the lower pair of labial palps. These palps are’ 
large, broad, truncated anteriorly, and rounded on the sides; the 
inner surface plaited, or rather grooved. The sense of feeling, or 
touch, is no doubt by this rugose structure, greatly increased. The 
palps serve the animal as organs of touch, if not of taste; they also 
serve to collect food, and give the animal the power of rejecting in- 
digestible particles of matter, or such substances as might prove 
injurious. 

T have, through the Microscope, ascertained the kind of food Pearl 
Oysters live on. This consists of minute alge or weeds, animal- 
cules and shells, called Foraminifera. Diatoms also, those minute 
vegetables forms which can scarcely be detected with the naked eye, 
are found growing on the external surface of the shell; wherea 
host of infusorial and microsopical objects likewise find a pasturage. 
So that the Oyster may be said to carry on its back, the food upon 
which it lives. The siliceous internal skeletons of these Diatoms, 
I have detected in the excrementitious matter of the Oyster. It 
will be a subject for future inquiry, whether any of these sharp- 
pointed skeletons do not permeate the coats of the mantle, and thus 
become nuclei of Pearls. Ihave, on examination of “ seeding” 
pearls found the skeleton of a Navicula, (species of Diatom) among 
the ova; but whether this proceeded from the stomach of the ani- 
mal, or got there by passing under the mantle, it was not possible 
for me to determine. ) 

The Pearl Oyster, like other Bivalves, (Conchiferze) are Mo- 
neecious, or rather hermaphrodites ; though, properly speaking, 
they can neither be said to belong to one or two sexes, for, with the 
exception of the presence of ovaria (or egg bags,) no other sexual 


oct.—pec. 1857.] The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. 95 


organ has been yet discovered. Doctor Johnson, in his valuable 
work on Conchology, remarks on Conchifere, ‘‘ that every indivi- 
dual is sufficient to its own felicity.’”’ But however correct this 
may be, regarding the feeling of sexual gratification, it is clearly 
established by M. Rudolph Wagner, that in some Acephalous bi- 
valves, as likewise in Twunicata, Gasteropods and Polyps, the ova- 
ries of some individuals contain a milk fluid, instead of ova ; and 
that this milky fluid contains spermatozoa (seminal animalcules). 
I have now to add the Pearl Oyster (Meleagrina Margaritifera) 
as another of the bivalve species of Mollusc, which has individuals 
with spermatozoa or seminal fluid, in organs similar to those which 
in a larger number of individuals contain ova, or eggs. It will 
not, perhaps, be necessary further to discuss this important sub- 
ject, than to remark, that the Native diver’s idea, that ‘‘there are 
male and female Pearl Oysters,’ is not altogether fabulous. The 
important part which the male Oyster must play in the formation 
of banks of Oysters, is self-evident, if it can be clearly established, 
that the ova absolutely require the vivifying influence of a male 
fluid. I have not seen more than three or four individuals with 
this milky fluid, in 100 Oysters; nor have I yet satisfactorily 
made out any difference in the characters of the shells of the two 
supposed sexes. The Native diver’s opinion quoted by Captain 
Steuart and Mr. Lebeck, viz., that ‘‘the large flat ones they call | 
males, and those that are thick concave, and vaulted, they call 
females, ‘‘ Peedoo Chippy,” is not borne out by my microscopical 
observations. I found well formed ova in Oysters which were 
broad and flat. It is quite possible, however, that in the course 
of this investigation, some external marks may be discovered, by 
which the male Oyster can be distinguished from the female. From 
the very small number of males (about 3 to 100) to females, I 
can easily fancy, that if by some natural or artificial cause, the 
males are destroyed, the banks will not be enlarged ; and that 
in time they will become extinct, i. e., supposing the majo- 
rity of Naturalists are correct in their present view of the 
Dicecious character of Oysters. It is just as likely, that Mr. 
Garner’s opinion will ultimately prevail ; viz., “‘that the or- 
gans called ovaria, do at certain periods, secrete the seminal fluid, 


96 The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. [xo.5, NEW SERIES, 


which impregnates the ova contained in them and is then dis- 
charged as an excretion by the oviducts.’’ To this observation of 
Garner I have to oppose the fact, that not a trace of ova was seen 
in the ovaria of the supposed male Pearl Oysters, which were dis- 
tended with the milky fluid at the time when the ovaria of other 
Oysters were distended with ova. 

The last, though not the least important part of the animal, 
is the foot. This important member, which has so many useful 
services to perform in acephalous molluscs, requires a more than 
ordinary consideration. It is that long, brown, leech-like mem- 
ber, which is seen when the animal is at rest coiled up in a corner 
on the right side, above the byssus which, when protruding out of 
the shell, and moving about, gives one the popular idea of a tongue. 
It is of a dark brown colour above, and whitish beneath ; in mid- 
dle age itis speckled. It is composed of longitudinal and trans- 
verse muscular fibres, the latter interlacing between the former, 
which proceed in two columnar masses from each side of the ad- 
ductor muscle; between the bundles or fibres, are placed the ab- 
dominal viscera. From its base is sent off, posteriorly, a glisten- 
ing white fibrous band; this is attached to the duplicature of the 
mantle, near the angle of the valves. Thus, the foot is seen to be 
admirably adapted for locomotive powers; and also serves, by its 
connection with the adductor muscles, to lengthen or shorten the 
cable or byssus. The foot, in a full sized Oyster, is about two 
and a half inches long when extended ; at rest, it-is not more than 
one anda halfinch in length. It is broad at the base, tapering, 
to a conical point ; the upper surface is rounded and smooth, the 
lower flattened and grooved. The groove extending from the base, 
terminates at the point in an oval cup-like fosset. This groove is ~ 
lined by a secreting membrane, and is an exact mould for the for- 
mation of the byssus, at the will of the animal. When it finds a 
necessity for making one, the foot is protruded out of the shell, and 
with the tip it seeks out a spot, where it can rest the terminal disc 
of the groove. If not satisfied with the substance or position of © 
the stone or any other matter on which it rests, it removes to an- 
other more suitable spot ; for a few minutes (say five or six, if the 
animal is strong) it rests, and is then retracted within the shell, 


ocT.—DEC. 1857.} The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. 97 


leaving behind a strong fibre with an oval disc, of the form of the 
groove inthe foot. This whitish fibre is attached tothe base of 
the foot at one end, and tothe rock, or to the shell of another 
Oyster, at the other. In a day or two, this fibre becomes ofa bronz- 
ed greenish colour, and looks like hair, with abroad flattened oval 
root attached to the rock. This process is again and again repeated, 
at intervals of a few minutes, tilla sufficiently strong cable is form- 
ed. Ina large Oyster, removed from the sea, upwards of fifty such 
fibres form a thick strong cable or byssus, which is attached to the 
base of the foot by a bifurcated fleshy root. The animal cannot de- 
tach the byssus from the rock to which it is attached, but it has 
the power of casting it offits own body and leaving it behind, (like 
aship letting slip her cable and anchor in astorm, and sailing off 
to sea) in order to make another byssus, either on the same rock, or 
on any other convenient place. 


I observed all this process in the aquarium at a very early period 
of my investigations ; and was not surprised to find, that the Pearl 
Oyster having nearly the same organs as the Mussel, should form 
and reform its byssus. But I was agreeably satisfied in learning by 
these observations, that Captain Steuart, in his valuable and inter- 
esting Monograph on the Pearl Fisheries of Ceylon, was incorrect 
in denying to the Pearl Oyster this faculty. He states, that “ ¢tzs 
not believed that the Pearl Oysters have the power to detach them- 
selves, or to remove at their own will,” Thave not only satisfied my- 
self, and many friends whohave seen the Oysters in the aquaria 
which I have established, that the Pearl Oystercan detach or unmoor 
itself, but likewise that it walksaway with its foot foremost, and the 
shell behind ; and does not, as Captain Steuart observes, “move with 
its hinges in advance.’ ‘This “ shuffling’? movement alone attracted 
Captain Steuart’s attention, but it is an unimportant one; as all 
bivalves without a byssus have it, and it is independent of the will 
of the animal, owing to the valves being opened and closed for the 
purpose of respiration. How imperfect must Captain Steuart, a 
candid inquirer, now say, have been his long observations, when 
the Oyster is seen, night after night, taking a walk round the in- 
side of a chatty, or mounting the glass side of a vivarium, forming, 
here and there, a byssus. It is most unfortunate, that he and 


98 ' The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. [No. 5, NEW SERIES. 


others should not have made these observations, (which are so sim 
ple in their nature, but yet conclusive of the possibility “ of érans- 
lating Pearl Oysters from their original rocky beds to other more con- ~ 
venient locations.” 


Who can tell what the results might have been, had Dr. Wright’s 
views been carried out? I know of my medical brother’s Report 
(made I believe in 1803), only from the brief notice taken of it in 
Mr. Boyd’s observations, and quoted by Captain Steuart, in the 
Appendix to his work (page 58). Mr. Boyd’s observations clearly 
indicate, that Dr. Wright proposed, some thirty years ago, the 
transplanting the animals to places convenient for fishing them, 
when they arrive at maturity. Hither Dr. Wright did not observe 
the facility with which the Oyster reforms its byssus; or he was 
misunderstood by Mr. Boyd, who remarks further on, “ that surely 
as the animal has not the power of regaining its adhesion, after 
it is once detached, it cannot, when once broken away from its 
attachment, fix itself again, and must either perish, or be carried 
away by the current,” | 

Now, it is very gratifying tome tobe able to speak positively 
on this subject; and this I do hopefully, as I have observed the 
Pearl Oyster detaching itself spontaneously from its old moorings, 
in a glass vivarium and attaching itself to another part of the 
glass vessel, not once only but have noticed, that some Oysters 
will go through this process a dozen times, in less than a month. 
In addition to the above related facts, I have successfully established 
a colony of Pearl Oysters near Fort Frederick, in the open sea, at 
various depths; and have also Oysters which have been living for 
several months in wooden boxes, finger glasses, glass globes, chat- 
ties, and large canoes, sunk in the sea. Some were thrown into 
the sea, after being removed from the inner harbour and kept in 
my house in chatties and tubs for two and three days. The byssus 
of most of them had been broken and torn from the rock. These 
they have cast off, and are now living attached to each other, and to 
pieces of coral, and to rocks, exposed to all the influences of the 
sea. | 

When an Oyster is first put into a vivarium, it sickens, 7. é., 
the mantle becomes retracted, and a collapse is observed ;—in a 


ocr.—pEc. 1857.] The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. 99 


few hours it revives, but with few exceptions, it is on the third or 
fourth day, that the portion of byssus attached to the foot of 
the animal is shaken or cast off, and the animal puts out its 
foot and forms another near the spot where it lies; or walks, 
by a snail-like motion of its foot, to, or up the side of the 
glass, to the level of the water, and there fixes itself. Some of the 
Oysters which were thrown into the sea, are now seen growing 
on the sides of rocks, four and five feet from the bottom. 


I am not surprised at these results, for the edible Oysters, with 
out a byssus, have been known for ages to bear translating with 
advantage, If Oysters in artificial beds in England can live and 
breed. I see no reason why the Pearl Oyster should not do the 
same, and like the edible Oyster, yield a large revenue; or prove 
remunerative to private individuals, who may undertake the esta- 
blishment of new banks. 


I have one other subject, connected with the interior eco- 
nomy of the Pearl Oyster, to report upon; and this the miscros- 
cope which Government aided me in procuring, has enabled me to 
investigate very satisfactorily. 


My observations commenced about the middle of March last; 
although I was not officially connected with the Ceylon Govern- 
ment till the first of May. I have ever since made monthly obser- 
vations regarding the fecundation of Oysters; with the following re- 
sults. In March, and all through April, May and June, every Oys- 
ter I opened, young and old, contained ova in the ovaria, except 
the few which had the seminal milky fluid ; so that the Meleagrina, 
like the edible Oyster is in spawn almost from its birth, a precocity 
serving a useful purpose no doubt; and its practical bearing easily 
understood. From July to the present date, the Oysters examined 
did not all contain ova; some of the ovaria were only half full ; 
others contained a very small quantity. It will be very inter- 
esting to proceed with these monthly examinations, and to as- 
eertain, whether the Oyster is only in spawn at certain periods of 
the year; and, if possible, to determine whether it spawns more 
than once in twelve months. Nearly all the 100 Oysters from the 
Pearl Banks of Arripo, kindly sent to me by Mr. Vane, contained 


100 The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. [no. 5, NEW SERIES, 


ova, their form preserved, although saturated with arrack. Under 
the microscope the ovum is seen to be pear-shaped ; each measured 
3-1000 part of an inch in diameter, at its broadest part ; longitudi- 
nally it is 6-1000 with a short pedicle attached. I have calculated, 
with the micrometer, the number of eggs contained in the ovaria of 
an Oyster of five or six years of age, and I find that there cannot 
be less than twelve millions. Leuwenhoeck states, that ten million 
eggs exist in one European edible Oyster. If we consider how 
few of these millions of eggs can arrive at the mature condition of 
a living Oyster, and the great demand that man makes upon the 
species for his gratification; we can only see in this great fact, the 
bountiful provision made by the Creator for a wise and beneficial 
purpose. 

In concluding this first Report, I shall briefly recapitulate 
the important discoveries I have already made. 


(a) The Pearl Oyster is more tenacious of life, than any bi- 
valve Mollusc I am acquainted with. It can live even in brackish 
water, and in places so shallow, that it must be exposed for three 
or four hours daily to the sun, and other atmospheric influences. 


(5) That it has locomotive powers, beyond any idea which can 
be formed from former observations. 

(c) That the power of moving from place to place, is inhe- 
rent, and absolutely necessary, in early life, for the due perform- 
ance of the animal functions. This is obvious from the fact, that 
if a cluster of young Oysters stayed permanently in one place, ad- 
hering to each other, the growth of the animal, and particularly of 
the shell, would be prevented. 


(d) That the Pearl Oyster will move about in search of food, 
if the locality, in which it is originally placed, is not rich in its na- 
tural supplies. 


(e) That it will move from its original situation, if the water 
becomes impure, either from the decomposition of vegetabie or 
animal matter, or muddy ; and, probably too, if there is a large in-. 
flux of fresh water. | 

(f) That if the water is agitated to an inordinate degree, the 
Oyster will leave its old mooring place and seek another. 


oct.—pDeEc. 1857.] The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. 101 


(g) That a thunderstorm will kill some in an aquarium. 
(Query,) Have thunder storms similar fatal effects on Oysters 
lying deep in the sea? 

(4) That the animal can unfix itself from its byssus; and that 
crabs, shrimps, and other creatures, force them to form a new 
byssus, by nibbling through the old one. 


(7) That it can re-form its byssus at pleasure, if in good 
health and condition. 


(j) That it can live for along time, without forming a bys- 
sus; and that it will re-form a byssus when it has recovered 
strength. 


(k) That the power of re-forming its byssus, is not to confine 
the young animal; but that the largest living OysterI have seen, 
can re-form it in an aquarium, as well as in the depths of the sea, 
but not so actively as the young and middle aged. 


(2) Pearl Oysters are gregarious in their habits. In placing 
several young Oysters in different parts of an aquarium, they will 
sooner or later be found attached to each other. The older ones 
have also this desire ; but their heavy shells impede their motion, 
and they are contented to remain apart from their fellows. 


(m) That taking the foregoing facts into account, there ap- 
pears to be no reason why Pearl Oysters should not be translated 
from their native beds, and made to colonize other parts of the sea. 


(n) That the young, aswell as the old, are in spawn from 
March to September ; and that probably there is no stated period 
for spawning. 


The whole occupation of the Oyster, when fixed to a spot, 
appears to be, keeping its valves open, and admitting food to 
its mouth. For several hours the valves remain open, they then 
close for a few minutes, or for an hour or two, then open again. 
At night, the valves remain generally open till towards daylight, 
when they close, and remain so till the sun shines brightly over the 
horizon. Itis during the early part of the night, or soon after 
sunset, that they exercise, when required, their locomotive powers. 
Ihave watched the Oysters in aquaria for nearly a whole night; 


102 The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, 


and they appear to be then active in moving and attaching them- 
selves to new localities. During the day, I have only seen, on one 
occasion, an Oyster form anew byssus. This nocturnal habit, is 
doubtless instinctive precaution; for should Oysters move during 
the day, they are more likely to become the food of fishes, and 
other animals which prey upon them. ‘Their movements are in- 
stinctive, and guided by the sense of touch. Darkness suits them 
better than daylight, of the difference of which they are very sen- 
sitive. 

Most of the Oysters in which I have found Pearls, had ex- 
ternal marks of having been retarded in their lateral growth, and 
displaced in early life from their fixed position on a bank. I am 
inclined to believe, that Oysters which have abundance of food, 
and are not disturbed, remain fixed for the last two or three years 
of their growth to one spot. These are less likely to have a large 
proportion of pearl bearing individuals among them. This of course 
requires more extensive practical observation, either on the beds in 
the harbour of Trincomalie, or on the Pearl banks of Arripo. 

With reference to the formation of Pearls, I have nothing 
new to add to the accounts found in the best modern books on the 
subject ; except that one, which modifies the view taken by Sir E. 
Home; viz. that Pearls are formed from abortive ova. I believe 
the ova left behind in the ovaria, are not the nuclei of Pearls, but 
that the ova which escape through the distended coats of an over- 
grown ovarium, and are imbedded in the interstices of the mantle, 
become nuclei of Pearls formed in this situation. Ihave repeated- 
ly examined seed, or young pearls, in process of formation; and 
with a magnifying power of 1°5 inch lens, I was able to see dis- 
tinctly, the outlines of two and three ova through the first or super- 
ficial layer of nacre, surrounded by groups of ova. It can be rea- 
dily understood how an overcharged ovarium will, by some acci- 
dent, or spontaneous evolution, have its coats ruptured, allowing 
the ova to escape and become inserted in the contiguous attenuated 


parts of the mantle. As Pearls are more usually found imbedded 
in the mantle near the hinge, the most likely place where the ova- 


rium is liable to rupture, I consicer this very conclusive of the 
new theory I have here proposed. I may also observe, that I 


. 


oct.—pkc. 1857.) The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. 103 


have seen the vestiges, or cicatrices, in the mantle where the 
Pearls once existed. Though Pearls originate in the mantle, 
when large they work their way out, and lie loose between it and 
the shell; or become attached to the ‘* Mother-o’-Pearl”’ surface 
of the latter. I have no doubt that Pearls can work their way 
out from this position, and be found entangled in the meshes of 
the byssus. I also consider it very possible, that an over-distended 
ovarium is one of the causes of Pearls being discharged from the 
Oyster and lost. If this be really the case, it will easily account 
for the singular fact, that a sample of Oysters, fished in the month 
of October, will yield alarger proportion of Pearls, than a batch of 
Oysters fished from the same bank in the months of April and May 
ofthe following year. These observations are somewhat sugges- 
tive, and can be improved upon by future investigation. 


I have now drawn to a conclusion this Report, which, I fear, 
has extended to a greater length than will suit the patience of the 
reader. But the subject being one which has been so long neg- 
lected and so little understood, I hope that the Government which 
has engaged my services, if they do not consider my endeavours as 
already productive of some practical results, will, at least, see in 
these researches, glimpses offuture success. Itis due to Sir Henry 
Ward, here to acknowledge my grateful thanks, in which my bro- 
ther Naturalists in all parts of the world, I am sure, will join for 
the gracious manner in which my humble services have been re- 
{ained, for investigating, fundamentally and practically, the Natural 
History of a species of Shell, which from the darkest ages of the 
world to the present, has been considered of inestimable value in 
producing one of the richest of gems. Time was, when the product 
of Pearl Oyster fisheries founded cities in South America and the 
Red Sea. Rut what is the state of the Islands in the Red Sea, 
*‘ whose merchants were princes”? They are now thinly inhabit- 
ed by amiserable race of fishermen. The sites of some of the Oys- 
ter banks in South America are not even now known; they have 
been destroyed by being overfished. New beds are doubtless form. 
ing in localities to be yet known to future generations. Ceylon 
Pearl banks were once on the point of sinking into the same state, 
but, for the subsequent observance of more caution, I was present 


104 The Pearl Oyster of Ceylon. [no.5, NEW SERIES, 


at two of the largest fisheries ever made off Arripo in 1835 and 
1836. The Oysters fished during the first half of the fishery were 
full sized, and yielded a good price, most of the speculators making 
handsome profits. Government was encouraged to pursue the 
fishery; young Oysters were taken up; many of the purchasers, 
inflated with former gains, purchased readily, and were ruined ; 
and, I believe, to this day, these over, or prematurely fished banks, 
have not been very productive, although twenty years have since 
elapsed. Ifthe same incautious and unscientific plan were adopted 
on the Oyster banks in England, similar results would soon be per- 
ceived there. Nota ‘native’? would be had in London, nor even 
a cultivated one seen any where. If Government desires to have 
a steady, and not a precarious revenue, from Pearl Oyster fisheries, 
let good laws protect the beds already known, and those thatare now 
forming ; and let means be adopted to secure their increase and 
srowth. In one year more Oysters are consumed in England, than 
were fished on the banks of Arripo last year; and this consump- 
tion is repeated year after year, without exhaustion ; simply be- 
cause the natural laws having been once found out, they are allow- 
ed tooperate fairly. It will indeed be a very great source of sa- 
tisfaction to me, if any of the natural laws I have described in this 


Report, suggest to Government, an improved system of manage- 


ment. 

My attention has also been directed to the Natural History of 
the Tamblegam Oyster, Placuna placenta. I have a few still alive, 
which were translatedin May last. If this Oyster can be success- 
fully translated, the whole of Batticaloa lake might be converted 
into a large Ostrearlum. The Placuna placenta has no byssus, and 
can, therefore, be more readily transported. Their removal from 
their native beds, does not necessarily destroy the internal parts. 
About one-third of the Pearl Oyster (eleagrina,) die from being 
injured by the force necessarily applied when detaching them from 
the rocks to which they adhere. 

I have also lately ‘* doctored’? some Pearl Oysters, according to 
the plan adopted by the Chinese, in the case of the large fresh 
water mussel; but which method, I believe, has never been at- 
tempted with the real Pearl Oysters. Time, and further experi- 


. a : ila a <4 FR teat . & ae 


? 
= - 


x 
et ie 


| 


oct.—pec. 1857.] Pearl Oyster Fishery. 105 


ence, are required, to ascertain the results of this practice in Cey- 
lon. Dr. Gray, of the British Museum, has, I believe, by the ap- 
plication of the same means, succeeded in producing Pearls in the 
edible Mussel or Oyster of England. It may therefore be hoped 
that I shall eventually succeed with the Pearl Oyster of Ceylon, 
All that I can at present say, is, that they do not die under the 
operation, and that they are still living, having also reformed new 
byssuses. ‘This is the only way the period required for the forma- 
tion of good sized Pearls can be ascertained. There are some 
other points in the natural habits of the Pearl Oyster, which I re- 
serve for future Reports, as precipitate conclusions may mislead 
the Government. 


X. Report on the Tamblegam Pearl Oyster Fishery. By 


EK. F. Ke.aart, M. D. 


The Oyster found in the Tamblegam lake, and from which Pearls 
are obtained, is the Placuna placenta, ‘‘ Vitre Chinoise’ of some 
French writers, and the “‘ Window Oyster’ of English travellers 
in China—the shells, from their semi-transparency, being used for 
windows. The Placuna belongs to the same family of Conchifer- 
ous Molluscs as the edible Oysters of Europe and of this country. 
It has no resemblance (except slightly in the animal structure), 
to the shells of the Arripo Oyster (Meleagrina.) When full grown 
the valves (shells) measure, at their broadest transverse diameter, 
from 5 to 7 inches ; and their longest longitudinal diameter is about 
the same ; some, halfan inch more. They arrive at maturity soone,; 
than the Maleagrina margarttifera, and like the Aripo Pearl Oys- 
ter, the young also have ova. Iam not able from my own obser- 
vation (having been only a few months engaged in these researches) 
to say, in how many years this Oyster arrives at perfection. 


106 Pearl Oyster Fishery. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, 


But from the appearance of shells of all sizes, and the history of 
the Tamblegam Pearl fisheries since 1839, I should say, that in 
three years, this bivalve Mollusc attains its adult age; and, that 
after that, it dies. It appears to thrive best in brackish water, but 
a large influx of fresh water (from rivers) kills them. Instances 
have been known, when a large number of young and old Oysters 
died in Tamblegam lake, during some very rainy seasons when the 
rivers which empty into the lake brought down an unusual quanti- 
ty of fresh water. If ever the channel, which was once proposed 
to be cut through the neck of land which connects the lake with 
the Trincomalie harbour, is made, this cause of mortality will more 
rarely occur, perhaps never again exist. 


From the flattened formation of the shells, Pearls are very lia- 
ble to drop out when the animal reaches its full growth ; 1 would 
therefore fix, as the best period for fishing, the time when the ani- 
mal has closed its supposed two year’s age, or when the a mea- 
sures from 53 to 6 inches in transverse diameter. 


I have inspected the Tamblegam bank this week, and am sorry 
to report, that there is no prospeet of even an average good fishery 
before the middle of 1859. The banks have been overfished. The 
Natcha Cooda bank is completely destroyed. The renter in 1846, 
left scarcely any Oysters behind, and this portion of the bank will 
consequently be unproductive for many years, possibly yield none 
again, unles Government should re-stock it. 


Nothing could have been more prejudicial to the interests of the 
Government, than to have leased out the bank by the year. The 
Government Agents who could have acted so unwisely as to lease 
out to Native renters a small bank of Pearl Oysters for three con- 
secutive years, without any stipulation as to the size of the Oys- 
ters to be fished, must have lost sight of the natural laws of re- 
production and multiplication of species, known even to the Na- 
tive divers. It is therefore very gratifying to observe, that the — 
present Government Agent, Mr. Morris, takes great interest in my 
researches ; that he is alive to the importance of the Naturalist’s | 
opinion, and has recommended that all young Oysters be thrown 3 
back into the lake ; a measure which I had the opportunity of sug- 


oct.—pec. 1857.] Pearl Oyster Fishery. 107 


gesting to his Excellency the Governor in March last, but which, 
I believe, was only partially acted upon, during the last Pearl 
fishery at Aripo. 

I watched the number of Oysters fished during the two days I 
was lately at Tamblegam (Keenear), and have to report, that 
there could not have been less than 30,000, on each day. More 
than two-thirds of this number were young, and had better have 
been left in the lake for another year or more. The renter is evi- 
dently maxing the most of the few months he has yet liberty to fish 
or rather ruin the bank. The Tamblegam Wanniah, and all the div- 
ers, whom I questioned on the subject, stated that in the early 
part of the present year, more than 50,000 Oysters were fished daily. 
It is therefore impossible to arrive at any other conclusion, than 
that the former renters misrepresented the state of their finances, 
from the Pearl banks, when they got Government to remit some 
portion of the rent, and had the fishery resold for a smaller sum, to 
another Native,—a relative, I am informed, cf one of the original 
renters. 

All Oysters are very prolific, and the Placuna is not an exception 
to the rule; for, at the lowest calculation, in three years, there 
must have keen fished from this bank, upwards of 18 millions of 
Oysters, supposing that there were only 200 fishing days in each 
year. The renters’ share must have been (allowing five shillings 
for each thousand Oysters) nearly £2,250, from which, deducting the 
three years rent, viz. £901, they must have derived a profit of at 
least £1,250. To this profit must be added another source of gain, 
(a very ingenious one) from the divers’ share of Oysters. The diver 
is allowed half the quantity fished, but he is not permitted fo sell 
the Oyster at the best market, or to the highest bidder. He is 
obliged to open the Oysters when fresh, and sell to the renter all the 
Pearls, at a fixed rate, which the renter takes good care shall be 
below the market value. Any plan therefore, which may relieve 
the diver of this grievance, will, 1 am sure, be thankfully welcom- 
ed by at least 20 individuals, whose chief means of living is by 
diving for Pearl Oysters. 

Oysters of upwards of two years of age, (i. e. about six inches 
broad) are worth a¢ least ten shillings a thousand, but if there is 


108 Pearl Oyster Fishery. [No.5, NEW SERIES, 


any competition, they may be sold for even fifteen shillings a thou- 
sand; for although the Pearls they produce are about two-thirds 
less in value than those from the Aripo Pearl Oyster (Meleagrina), 
the quantity obtained in 1,000 Oysters, is at least three times more 
than what is obtained in a similar number from the Aripo banks. 


Upon these circumstances, I have to submit for the future guid- 
ance of Government, the following proposals : 

1st. That the banks be allowed to remain undisturbed fer eigh- 
teen months after the termination of the present fishery. 

2nd. The future fisheries to be conducted by Government Of- 

ficers, and the Oysters sold to the highest bidder. 

8rd. That the fishery be held only for two or three months in 
the year; say April, May and June, and that a sufficient number 
of boats be employed daily, so as to have the matured Oysters dur- 
ing this fishing period. 

4th. ‘That the banks be carefully watched, and placed under the 
immediate supervision of the Tamblegam Modliar, to whom a per- 
centage might be promised on the net profits of each fishery which 
yields to Government more than £500. I suggest this per-centage, 
well knowing, that any extra work thus thrown upon a Native of- 
ficial, will be badly performed, unless paid for according to the 
value of his labour. 

5th. Thatno Oyster under 54 inches broad, be allowed to be re- 
moved from the banks. ‘ 

6th. Thata fourth share of the Oysters fished be bond fide the 
divers’ share, which they shall be at liberty to dispose of to the best 
advantage for themselves. 

7th. That those parts of the Tamblegam lake which have been 
denuded of Oysters by over-fishing, be re-stocked with young Oys- 
ters, found in the shallow parts of the lake, or near its margin; 
which if leftin their present position, are very likely to be clan- 
destinely removed at night, although the banks may be strictly 
watched. : 

8th. That Government endeavour tofishup the Oysters by dredg- 
ing, instead of the present pernicious method of divers walking over 


most parts of the banks, searching for them with their feet ; by | ; 


which means, they crush the young Oysters and destroy the spawn. 


oct.—pEc. 1857.] Pearl Oyster Fishery, 109 


This Oyster, having no byssus, is not attached to any hard sub- 
stance ; nor is if cemented, like some of the edible Oysters, by the 
hinge, or by one of the valves, to any subject, but lies either flat 
on the mud, or is fixed loosely in a semi-vertical position, with the 
wedge-shaped hinge buried in the mud. It follows, therefore, that 
they can be removed with great facility with the ordinary Oyster 
dredge. 

The young Oysters taken by the dredge can be returned imme- 
diately to the lake; or collected and then deposited in some suita- 
ble place, previously selected by the supervisor. 


I have no doubt, in my own mind, that by proper supervision and 
care, the Tamblegam lake Oyster Fishery, may be made to yield in 
a few years, at least £1,500 every second year. For the last 18 
years, the average annual revenue to Government was only £344, 


In order to secure this revenue for future years, it is necessary 
that the present renter’s proceedings be watched ; and, that he be 
obliged strictly to observe the condition of his bond, viz: ‘‘ That 
the Fishery of the said Pearl banks shall be carefully and prudently 
carried on by the Renter and others, his servants, so as to cause no 
damage or injury to the said Pearl banks.” 


If, in the opinion of the Government, the above condition does 
not enjoin the renter to prevent divers taking up young Oysters, I 
think it will be worth while to pay him £50 or mote, and take his 
lease from him ; for at the rate he is now fishing, and bringing up 
daily 5,000 or 6,000 young Oysters, scarcely more than eight months 
old, and which cannot yield more than six-pence worth of Pearl in 
each thousand, even if they do that, the bank, which now promises 
to give a tolerably good fishery in June 1859, may, like the Natcha 
Cooda bank, be unproductive for many years. I would therefore 
suggest, that a Government Officer be immediately sent to the 
fishery to prevent further mischief being done. 


I cannot help again observing in this Report, that it is worthy 
the attention of Government, to stock the various salt lakes of Cey- 
jon with this species of Oyster. The lakes of Calpentyn, Putlam, 
Batticaloa and Hambantotte, if stocked with the ‘‘ Window Oys- 
ter,” will yield a very handsome revenue. I have availed myself 


110 Selections. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, 


of the present opportunity to remove about 1,200 middle-aged 
Oysters (which the renter gave me) to Yard Cove in Trincomalie 
harbour, where the muddy bottom promises to be suitable for breed- 
ing them. But the experiment should be made on a larger scale, 
to test the full value of translating these Oysters to new localities ; 
this I am not able to do from want of funds to meet the necessary 
expenses. I have already, in my former Report on the Natural 
History of Pearl Oysters, reported, that some of the Oysters, which 
were placed in other parts of the sea in May last, are still living. 


SELECTIONS. 


On a true Parthenogenesis in Moths and Bees; a Contribution to the 
History of Reproduction in Animals. By Cart Turopor Ernst 
‘Von Sizsoxtp, Professor of Comparative Anatomy in the Uni- 
versity of Munich. Translated by Wm. Dattas, F.L.S., &c. 
&c. London: Van Voorst. 1857. 8vo, pp. 110.* 


Among themany revelations of modern science, few have attract- 
ed more attention, or excited greater interest among naturalists, 
than the phenomena of Parthenogenesis ; whether, with Owen, we 
regard this term as the appropriate designation of the alternation 
of dissimilar generations ; or, with Siebold (and this, in our opi- 
nion, is the more correct), we restrict its application to the pro- 
duction of offspring ‘‘ sine concubitu’”’ from perfectly formed mo- 
thers. With regard to the former, Chamisso, as early as the year 
1819, found in the Salpe (a group of tunicated molluscs) that — 
many species which are associated in long chains give birth to in- 
sulated individuals, which in their turn produce concatenated off- 
spring ; and these remarkable observations have been confirmed 


* Dublin Quarterly Journal of Medical Science, May 1857, p. 403. 


oct.—pEc. 1857. | On Moths and Bees. Ill 


by all who have examined these and kindred forms ; and from the 
researches of Sars, Steenstrup, Siebold, and others, we arrive at 
the conclusion, that, in many of the forms of lower existence, 
animals produce offspring, which at no one time of their develop- 
ment resemble their parents ; but which, however, in their turn 
bring forth a progeny which revert in their form and nature to the 
parent animal, so that the maternal animal does not meet with its 
resemblance in its own brood, but in the descendants of the second, 
third, fourth, or even more remote degrees of generation ; and this 
has been proved to be the case in many of the Medusz, Claviform 
Polypes, Salpz, many Entozoa and Aphides; and, according to 
the assertions of some naturalists, in all the lower classes of ani- 
mals; so much so, that we cannot avoid inferring that many ani- 
mals described as belonging to distinct species are but the alternate 
generation of known forms. The phenomena of:alternation of 
generation differ essentially from metamorphic changes ; in meta- 
morphosis we have changes taken place in the same individual ; 
while in alternation of generation, or metagenesis, different and 
many individuals arise and are separated from the parent ; besides, 
in the course of metagenesis, in many instances metamorphosis 
also takes place. In metagenesis we observe that in one alterna- 
tion are produced distinct ovaries and ova; in the others the de- 
velopment does not take place from ova, but by a process of gem- 
mation; and in the isolated Salphe, a remarkable organ (Stolen 
proligerum) has been described, whence are developed the catenat- 


ed offsprings. 


These facts have gone far to solve a difficulty felt by some op- 
ponents to the ‘‘ development theory ;’’ it has been stated by the 
ingenious author of the ‘‘ Vestiges,’’ that if animals have not been 
developed since the creation, our first parent should have had de- 
posited in their structure either all the human entozoa or their ova. 
The phenomena of metagenesis, however, may lead us to infer, 
that all human entozoa may be but alternate forms of those ani- 
mals found in other creatures or elsewhere, and this is actually the 
case with one entozoon ( Cysticercus fasciolaris) which in one form 
is found in the cat, in another in the rat or mouse. In true par- 


112 Selections. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, 


thenogenesis, phenomena ofa totally different nature are exhibited 
—phenomena, the belief in the occurrence of which, did it rest on 
individual or questionable testimony, would gain but slight assent 
among the learned, but when we find such an array of names of 
naturalists who have mainly contributed to the advancement of 
natural science, all bearing testimony to the facts as related by 
Siebold, we cannot withhold our belief, that in many cases perfect 
offspring can arise ‘‘ sine concubitu,’’ from animals fitted for a 
union of the sexes, and that in one species of insects at least the 
sex of the offspring depends on the entrance of spermatic filaments 
into the egg. 


In the study of this most interesting work, we are struck with 
the circumstance, that science is often retarded by general or 
sweeping assertions, although emanating from high authority. 
When Castellet, in 1795, reported to Réaumur, that he had found 
that a moth of Bombyx mori (silk-worm) laid perfect eggs, though 
unimpregnated, he received the laconic reply—‘‘ ex nihilo nihil 
fit.”’” How different in a similar case was John Hunter’s reply— 
‘* But did they hatch ?” for naturalists have not long been familiar 
with the circumstance that unimpregnated females will sometimes 
lay eggs; but these have hitherto been supposed to have been in- 
variably incapable of being developed into a perfect animal. A 
common example of this is the occurrence of pullets’ eggs, but 
these are notoriously incapable of being developed by incubation. 
At first blush we might be led to infer that reproduction without 
fecundation was impossible, so contrary does it appear to the usual 
course of nature, both in the vegetable and the animal kingdom. 
We observe what careful precautions are taken that the sperma- 
tozoa should reach their proper nidus uninjured: how many pro- 
visions are found to hedge around the safety of the pollen! Ex- 
ceptional cases, however, do occur in the vegetable kingdom. The 
Czlebogyne, for instance, a dicecious plant from Australia, has © 
produced fertile seeds at Kew, although the female only is known — 
to botanists ; and M. Lecoqg had deduced from some experiments 


of his own, that similar phenomena occur sometimes in hemp, 


spurge, &c. Our author seems to have been fully aware of the 


ocT.— DEC. 1857.) On Moths and Bees. 113 


great caution required in carrying on an investigation of this kind, 
and to have devised his experiments accordingly. 


In his introduction, he describes the seminal receptacle found in 
female insects. The existence of such a receptacle in bees, explains 
how it is that a queen, fertilized by a single coitus, after discharg- 
ing a number of eggs in the first year, may again, in the following 
year and still more subsequently, lay eggs capable of development, 
because the seminal filaments are preserved in this receptacle un- 
injured, and in a quantity sufficient for successive broods. Siebold 
reviews at length the cases of alleged true parthenogenesis or ‘‘ Lu- 
cina sine concubitu,’’ which are to be found recorded by many 
observers, and shows that errors may have occurred in the obser- 
vation of these cases; one of the earliest on record is that of Al- 
brecht, who in 1701 wrote a treatise—‘‘ De insectorum ovis sine 
previa maris cum femella conjunctione nihilominus nonnunquam 
foecundis.”” He took a brown pupa, which he preserved apart, 
and yet the moth evolved therefrom laid fertile eggs. He says: 
—‘* Cum masculum huic papilioni haud adfuisse certus essem, et 
propterea ejus ova subventanea et sterilia esse judicarem, vix am- 
plius eorum habui rationem relictis interim iisdem oscitantius et 
sine omni curh sub dicto vitro per totum tempus hyemale.”’ Dr. 
St. Blancard is stated, too, in 1696, to have had a spider 
which for four consecutive years laid eggs from which young 
spiders escaped, ‘‘ although no male spider had ever appeared in 
the business.”’ Dumeril, Bernoulli, Treviranus, Burmeister, and 
others have made similar observations, but in all these instances 
the possibility of mistake has been shown by Siebold. This au- 
thor then enters upon experiments which he performed on somesac- 
bearing Lepidoptera, particularly Solenobio lichenella and triquet- 
relia, and by taking every precaution he convinced himself, and 
doubtless his readers also, that true parthenogenesis occurred in 
Pyschides. Examples in the honey bee next came under his no- 
tice, and in these investigations he was greatly assisted by the dis- 
tinguished apiarian, Dzierzon. From accurate observations of the 
habits of bees, as well as from careful dissections, Dzierzon arriv- 
ed at the singular conclusion, that drone eggs require no fecunda- 
tion, and that true parthenogenesis is normal in these insects. 


114 Selections. | NO. 5, NEW SERIES, 


In the ‘ Bienenzeitung”’ of Hichstadt, 1845, he thus expresses 
himself :—“ Presupposing what will be referred to and proved in 
the following numbers, that the queen (female bee), to become 
good for anything, must be fertilized by a drone (male bee), and 
that the copulation takes place in the air.—I express the convic- 
tion, from which all phenomena and mysteries may be perfectly 
explained, that the drone eggs do not require fecundation; but 
that the co-operation of the drones is absolutely necessary when 
_ worker bees are to be produced.’’ Again—‘‘ In copulation the 
ovaries are not fecundated, but the seminal receptacle, that little 
vesicle or knot, which in the young queen is filled with a watery 
moisture, is saturated with semen, after which it is more clearly 
distinguishable by its white colour ; the activity of the ovaries in 
the normal state commences only after copulation, but it is not 
necessarily caused thereby ; hence many unfecundated queens lay 
no eggs at all, while others lay only drone eggs ; and even workers 
do the latter, although, from their want of a seminal receptacle, I 
regard them as quite incapable of copulation. Iam convinced 
that such eggs are sufficient for the production of drones, whilst 
the egg from which a queen or worker is to be developed must 
come in contact with the seminal receptacle.”’ In another place 
he thus writes :—‘‘ The queen has it in her power to deposit an 
egg just as it comes from the ovary, and as the unfecundated mo- 
thers lay it; or, by the action of her seminal receptacle, to invest 
it with a higher degree, a higher potency of fertility, and awaken 
in it a more perfect being, namely, a queen or worker.” 

Baron v. Berlepsch, of Seebach, has also contributed much to 
establish this theory of Dzierzon and by liberally placing his 
hives, furnished with Dzierzon’s moveable comb-supports, at the 
service of Siebold, enabled the latter fully to confirm Dzierzon’s 
views. Baron v. Berlepsch also performed three experimenta 
crucis: in the first he contrived the exclusion of a queen at the 


end of September, when there were no longer any males, and this — 


queen, early in the ensuing year, furnished 1500 cells with a drone 
brood, the subsequent accurate dissections of Leuckart proving 


that this queen was a virgin. The second experiment exhibited 


considerable ingenuity. Knowing that a high or a low tempera- 


ocT.—DEC. 1857.] On Moths and Bees. 115 


ture causes the movements of spermatozoa to cease and become 
inert, he subjected a queen to a very low temperature in an ice- 
house ; she recovered, and afterwards laid thousands of eggs, yet 
from all these were only males evolved. The third experiment 
was performed with the crossing of Italian and German bees. 
These, although of the same species, are found to differ most re- 
markably in appearance and disposition, and in the mixed breed 
which resulted, the drone offspring without exception presented 
the same variety as the queen-mother, thus affording a very strong 
negative proof that drone eggs do not require the interposition of 
the male bee. This matter has, however, been subjected to fur- 
ther proof by Leuckart and Siebold, for they examined freshly 
laid eggs, and in numerous instances they detected spermatic fila- 
ments in or on worker-eggs, while none could be found in drone- 
egos. The experiments of Siebold upon this point seem to have 
been conducted with great nicety and care. He says :— 


“I soon convinced myself that there was no possibility of discovering 
the delicate seminal filament between the granulo-vesicular yelk-masses, 
the linear object to be sought for was too subtle to be capable of discovery 
with certainty amongst the many mutually-crossing outlines of the yelk 
vesicles ; after various vain endeavours to render the interior of the bee’s 
egg accessible to an inquiring eye, I came at last to the idea of employing an 
artifice which I had soon acquired by practice, and which allowed me to 
survey at least a portion of the inner space of the bee’s egg with great 
clearness an tranquillity. I crushed a bee’s egg quite gently with a very 
thin glass plate, and so that it was ruptured at its lower pole, opposite to 
the micropylar apparatus, and the yelk gradually flowed out at this spot, 
by which a clear empty space was produced at the upper pole within the 
micropylar apparatus, between the egg-envelopes and the yelk which was 
retiring downwards.’ 


Having thus microscopically examined the new-laid eggs of 
bees, he arrives at the following conclusion :— 


‘“‘ Amongst the fifty female bee-eggs examined by me with the greatest 
care and conscientiousness, thirty furnished a positive result ; that is to 
say, in thirty I could prove the existence of seminal filaments, in which 
movements could even be detected in three eggs; ofthe other twenty eggs, 
twelye were unsuccessful in their preparation.”’ 


116 Selections. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, 


There was some difficulty in procuring drone-eggs for the pur- 
pose of examination, as the season was late ; however, as Baron v. 
Berlepsch spared neither trouble nor his hives (of which he had 
104 in his bee colony), twenty-seven drone eggs were procured, 
and of these the author states :— 


‘‘T examined these twenty-seven drone-eggs, which might have been 
about twelve hours old, and which agreed perfectly both in their appear- 
ance and organization with the female eggs, with the same care and by the 
same method, with which I had treated the female eggs, and did not find 
one seminal filament in any single egg, either externally or internally.” 


Three of these only were unsuccessfully prepared, and the same 
queen, both before and afterwards, laid eggs from which worker 
bees were developed. 


In the latter part of his work, Siebold enters on the considera- 
tion of the occurrence of true parthenogenesis in the silkworm 
moth, and details some very interesting observations on these in- 
sects. Ona patient review of this subject, we can hardly with- 
hold our assent from the propositions laid down by the author, 
and these views are considerably enforced by the strange facts de- 
tailed by other observers. in regard to the prevalence and the ab- 
sence of one or other sex among insects. Leon Dufour has stated, 
for example, that he never obtained a male insect of Diplolepis 
gallee tinctorum, of the genus Cynips. 


= 


A priori we should say, that this was a topic from which we could 
expect nothing of practical utility of industrial application, and 
yet we are told that Dzierzon and other in the bee colonies have 
turned it to material advantage. 


[The importance of the results contained in Von Siebold’s work, induc- 
ed Professor Goodsir, of Edinburgh to communicate an abstract to the 
Royal Society. Mr. Dallas, soon afterwards published an able translation 
of the work itself.}—Ep. M. J. 


ocT.—DEc, 1857.] Mode of protecting Timber from Fire. 117 


On a mode of protecting Timber from Fire. By Mr, Asst. 


[This Valuable Memorandum is specially worthy of the attention of 
Res‘dents in Burmah and the Tenasserim Provinces, where the frequent 
occurrence of fire has proved so destructive, and where any arrangement 
insuring protection against the conflagration of wooden or thatched build- 
ings Would be most important ]—Ep. M. J. 


From F. A, ApBew, Esq., Chemist of the War Departmert, Wool- 
wich, S. H., 30th July 1857; to the Secretary East India 
Company. 


I have the honor to address you upon a subject which I have 
been strongly recommended by Colonel SanpyHam, Commanding 
Royal Engineer at Chatham, to bring to the notice of the Honora- 
ble Court of Directors of the Kast India Company. 


During the late War, I was called upon by the Engineer autho- 
rities to suggest some simple, cheap, and efficacious means for 
protecting wooden hutting from fire, and at the same time, I was 
instructed by the Secretary of State for War, to examine into the 
merits of certain proposals laid before him for the same purpose. 

The result of my experiments on this subject was the prepara- 
tion of a protective material applicable even after the erection of 
huts, in the same manner as whitewash, tar, or paint, and which 
was shown to afford such important protection to wood in case of 
fire, that experiments upon a proper scale were ordered by Lord 
PanmuRE to be tried at the principal camps in Great Britain, and, 
at the same time, permission was given me by his Lordship to pa- 
tent the material of which permission, however, I declined to avail 
myself. ; 

It was subsequently arranged by the Inspector General of For- 
tifications, that a full trial of the value of the material should be 
made by Colonel SanpuAm and myself at Chatham. The accom- 
panying abstract from the professional papers of the Royal Engi- 
neers contains a copy of our joint report to Lord PANMURE on the 
results of these experiments to which I beg most respectfully to 
call the attention of the Honorable Court of Directors. 


118 | Selections. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, 


Unfortunately, by the time that the merits of the protective 
coating in question were properly established, the huts at the va- 
rious camps had been already coated with tar or other materials 


which did not admit of removal from the wood, except at consi- 


derable expense. 


The silicate of soda and lime coating has however been tried and 
applied to a small extent at Aldershot and at Alderney. 


Fifteen tons of the silicate of soda have moreover been sent by 
Government to China for the purpose of coating the hutting. 

The advantages of the material referred to for coating timber 
may be embraced under the following headings. 


Istly. The simplicity of its application, 

Qndly. The circumstance that it forms an excellent protective 
to wood against weather, and may therefore be employed asa sub- 
stitute for tar or paint. , 

The colour of the coating itself is nearly white ; a small admix- 
ture of an ochre serves to remove the glazing nature of the coat. 

Srdly. The cheapness of the material, the cost of coating ten 
- square feet not exceeding two pence. 

4thly. - The great efficacy of the coating as a means of protection 
against fire, as demonstrated by the experiments detailed in the 
accompanying report. 

Although personally impressed with the idea, that a knowledge 
of the existence of the material in question, open to general use 
without reserve, and emanating indeed from Government itself, must 
be of importance to the Honorable East India Company, I hesitat- 
ed to adopt the step I am now taking, until I had consulted Colo- 
nel SANDHAM, who urged me strongly to lose no time in bringing 
the subject to their notice. 


I beg to enclose a copy of the directions for preparing timber 


with the material which have been drawn up by desire of the In- 


spector General of Fortifications and to state that it will afford me 
pleasure to give any further information on the subject that it is in 
my power to afford should the Honorable Court of Directors feel 
desirous of taking it into consideration. 


“ie 


oot.—DpEC. 1857.] Mode of protecting Timber from Fire. 119 


From F. A. Apet, Esq., Chemist of the War Department, Wool- 
wich, §. B., 27th August 1857. 


I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 
26th instant, informing me that the Court of Directors of the Ho- 
norable East India Company have directed copies of my commu- 
nication of 30th ultimo, and of printed directions to be enclosed to 
the several Governments in India. 

With reference to the concluding paragraph of your letter re- 
ferring to my statement as to the employment of silicate of soda in 
China, I beg to observe that from the quantity sent out (15 tons) 
and from the correspondence which I had at the time on the sub- 
ject with the authorities at the War Office, there is no donbt that 
the silicate and lime is to be used in China as the coating material 
for the wooden erections required at the stations there, and has 
_ not been sent out as a matter of experiment. 


Having heard that the great risk of fire arises from the thatch- 
ing employed for the roofs of hut buildings in India,—I am anx- 
ious to state for the information of the Directors and of the Go- 
vernment of India, that the silicate of soda admits of very simple 
application to the thatching as a protective material. 


_ The thatching would require soaking for a short time previous 
_ to use in a solution of silicate, and the thatched roof when dry 
_ should receive a thin coating of lime or clay stirred to a cream 
_ with solution of silicate. 


It would probably be found advisable to renew the exterior coat- 
_ ing of wash after the rainy season. 


I beg again to express my readiness to furnish every information 
_ which may be required on the subject. 

| Remarks on the Protection of Wood from Fire. By F. A. ABEL, 
| Esq., accompanied by a Report from Colonel Sanpuan, R. E., and 
himself. 


|» The attention of practical men has been for some years past di- 
rected, from time fo time, to the importance of affording to wooden 
erections some degree of protection from the effects of fire; and 


120 Selections. [NO. 5, NEW SERIES, 


numerous plans nave been proposed, and to some extent tested, 
for lessening the combustibility of wood, and for covering its sur- 
face with a protective coating more or less unalterable by fire. 


The simple application of lime or clay-wash, for example, has 
been found to afford some slight protection to wood, although the 
tendency of such materials to peel off the surface of the wood (into 
which they do not in any way penetrate), by exposure to heat, and 
the rapidity with which the coating is destroyed by atmospheric 
influence, render them very ineffective agents. 


Several processes have been patented, even recently, for the pro- 
tection of wood from fire. Some idea of the general nature of such 
processes will be conveyed by the following extract from an official 
report made on this subject :— 


“The importance of obtaining an effective method of reducing 
the combustibility of wood, or even of protecting its surface from 
fire, has led to an examination into some of the methods of ac- 
complishing this, which have been lately [patented, and of the ge- 
neral nature of which the following is a brief statement. 

I.—“ Mr. Maugham’s Patent consists in saturating dried wood 
with an aqueous solution of phosphate of soda and muriate or sul- 
phate of ammonia, in certain proportions. 

“Tt is believed by the patentee that these salts will be so affect- 
ed by each other, and by the action of heat, that the fibres of the 
wood will be protected by an incombustible coating, while a quan- 
tity of vapour will be generated by the volatilisation, and partial 
decomposition, of the ammoniacal salts, which will possess the 
power of extinguishing flame. 


“‘ The same objects are believed to be obtained by— 


Il.—* Lieutenant Jackson’s Patent Process, by which wood is im- 
pregnated with a solution of salts of zinc and of ammonia. 

‘‘The same means are adopted in both of these processes for 
saturating the wood. 


“Tt is packed into large cylinders from which the air is then 
exhausted, the liquid being afterwards forced in with a pressure 
of 100 to 200 lbs., which is maintained during one or two hours. 


ocT.—pDEC. 1857.] Mode of protecting Timber from Fire. 121 


It is the same method as that employed in patent processes for 
preserving timber from decay. 


“IT am not aware whether Mr. Mauauam’s process hasbeen sub- 
mitted to any extensive practical test. Numerous experiments 
were however instituted on Lieutenant JAcKson’s process, under 

| the direction of Mr. BRuNEL. 


«‘ Specimens of seventeen different kinds of wood were prepared ; 
corresponding pieces being kept unprepared, and others covered 
with a coating of paint. Their powers of resisting fire were tested 
by piling the prepared, unprepared and painted specimens round a 
_ perforated sheet iron surface, filled to the top witha bright coke 
| fire. 

“In most cases the prepared wood resisted the action of fire for 
a longer period, and, when removed from the fire, ceased burning 
_ sooner than the unprepared specimens, 


_ “Itwas also evident that light porous woods were more effi- 
ciently protected than those of a denser character. 


“‘ There is no doubt therefore that the combustibility of wood is 
_more or less diminished by either of the above methods of treat- 
_ ment, although the protective action must be ascribed to the in- 
_ destructible compounds with which the wood is to some extent im- 
| pregnated, far more than to the vapours evolved by the decompo- 
sition of the small quantities of ammoniacal salts forced into the 
wood. 


“ Although by the impregnating process adopted in the above 
| patents, the preparative solution is believed to be forced into the 
very centre of the wood, it is essential, if such a result is to be 
obtained, that the solution should be weak, since it is impossible 
to force strong saline solutions thoroughly into wood. 


“Tt is evident that the protective action of the salt cannot, under 
_ these circumstances, be very powerful. 


_ “Were it possible, on the other hand, to employ stronger so- 
| lutions, the expense of the processes would be considerable. 


= The necessity of costly apparatus for impregnating the wood is 
also a matter of serious moment.”’ 


122 Selections. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, 


The patentees of some of the wood-preserving processes go s0 
far as to state that they are enabled to render wood incombustible 
or uninflammable, and such statements have tended to lead to the 
presumption that a thoroughly effective protecting agent should 
have the power of depriving wood of its combustibility. 


It will be readily understood, however, that even if a piece of 
wood could be most thoroughly impregnated with a solution of 
some strength, of matter unalterable, or at any rate only fusible, 
by continued exposure to heat, the amount of protective material 
thus deposited in the pores of the wood, although it might be con- 
sidered to surround each particle of fibre, would not prevent the 
destructive distillation of the wood by the effect of heat, the result 
of which would be the disengagement of inflammable vapours from 


the wood, and its ultimate complete ignition, if maintained fora — 


sufficient period in the vicinity of highly heated or burning matter ; 
or, if on the other hand, the protective agent employed be conver- 


tible by heat into vapours possessing the property of extinguish- 5 


ing such fire as they may completely surround, such vapours might 
have the effect of partially or completely extinguishing the fire in 
a piece of ignited wood, after its removal from the source of heat or 
fire, but otherwise the volume of vapour generated from the prepa- 
ration used, would be but slight, as compared with the inflamma- 
ble vapours evolved from the over-heated wood, and would have 
no perceptible effect on the combustion of these, while the scorch- 
ed, or charred, woody fibre would be less efficiently shielded from — 
the effect of flame than by the coating formed from an indestruc- 
tible preparation. 


It does not therefore appear reasonable to expect more from the ~ 
most efficient protective coating or impregnating material than— 

Ist. That it should considerably retard the ignition of wood, 
exposed for some length of time to the effect of a high cempem 
ture, or of burning matter in its immediate vicinity. 


2nd. That ifthe vapours which the wood will emit, by con- — 


tinued exposure to heat, become ignited, the flames thus produced ‘ 
shall not readily affect the fibre of the wood, and shall cease almost _ 


directly on the removal of the wood from the source of heat; and 


eoT,—DEC. 1857.] Mode of protecting Timber from Fire. 128 


3rd. That prepared surfaces of wood, when in actual contact 
with burning unprepared wood, shall have little tendency to ignite, 
and thereby cause the fire to spread. 

In addition to such processes as those above referred to, in 
which the protecting material is forced into the wood by the ap- 
plication of considerable pressure, trials have been made with 
agents of different kinds, in solutions or baths, in which the wood 
was steeped, or allowed to soak, for some hours, so that it might 
be in a slight degree impregnated with the material, or that a 
superficial coating of the protective might, at least, be formed. 

Some of these methods have been made the subject of experi- 
ments by order of Lord PanmuRrg, with a view to test their merits. 

One, proposed by W. C. Satomons, of Paris, consisted in immer- 
sing the dried wood alternately, in two baths; the one containing 
three parts of acid sulphate of alumina, and one part of glue, 
dissolved in six parts of water; the other consisting of two parts of 
dry chloride of calcium, one part of glue, and seven parts of water. 

The objects which the inventor wishes to attain, by the use of 
these solutions, are, firstly, to impregnate the wood slightly with 
one of the salts (the chloride of calcium, for example), and then, 
by immersion of the wood in the second bath, to effect the decom- 
position of the first salt by the second, in the pores of the wood. 

Thus the chloride of calcium and sulphate of alumina should 
become converted into sulphate of lime, and chloride of aluminum ; 
the former an almost insoluble substance, the latter a soluble 
deliquescent body, possessing the property of converting the glue, 
employed, together with the salts, into an insoluble body—a species 
of leather, 


The pores of the wooden surfaces are therefore, by the treatment 
in question, to be filled up by particles of a substance nearly inso- 
luble, and unalterable by heat, which, together with the soluble 
salt, also present, are to be protected and united by means of the 
precipitated glue, which dries up to a hard, horny substance. 

The experiments made with this process showed that the glue 
employed in the solutions greatly impeded the penetration of the 
wood by the saline matter, and also caused the decomposition of 
the salts to be very partial. 


124 Selections. [NO. 5, NEW SERIES, 


The protective property of the coating formed on the wood, pre- 
pared by this process, was not found to be considerable, while the 


expense of the materials was great, as compared with others equal- 
ly efficient. 


The successful results obtained on the Continent by the applica- 
tion of alkaline silicates, as protective materials, led to an exami- 
nation into the comparative value of the cheapest of these, the 
soluble silicate of soda, as an agent for decreasing the combusti- 
bility of wood. 


The property possessed by the soluble alkaline silicates, of being 
readily softened by hot water, and thus converted intoa state of 
solution, while they are but slightly affected by cold water, renders 
their application to wood, either in the form of a bath, or asa 
wash, very simple. Their dilute solutions being readily absorbed 
by wood the surfaces of the latter, as it dries, assume the form of 
a hard coating. 


The experiments made in the first instance with the silicate of 
soda, and the results obtained, are described in the following ex- 
tract from the official report :— 


«Various specimens of dry wood were prepared with silicate of 
soda, by being soaked for a few hours in a weak solution, 


“‘ Upon examining the interior of these, after the removal from 
the bath and subsequent desiccation, the silicate was found to have 
penetrated about a quarter of an inch on all sides. 


“‘ On piling the above over a fire, together with specimens of un- 
prepared wood, and others that had been prepared by different 


processes, the superiority of the silicate of soda, as a protective 
agent, was fully established. 


* Some specimens of wood were then simply painted witha 
moderately strong solution of silicate, and afterwards placed, to- — 
gether with unprepared wood, in a pool of coal-tar naptha some of — 
the latter being thrown over the surfaces of the wood. 


Uupon the results of these experiments being reported, an or- 9 
der was issued by Lord Panmurs to have the proposed process for 


ocT.—DEc. 1857.] Mode of protecting Timber from Fire. 125 


the protection of wood from fire, practically tested at some of the 
camps or stations. 


It was ultimately arranged that a proper trial of the process 
should be instituted at Chatham, under the direction of Colonel 
SanpHam, R. E. 


The nature of the experiments performed at Chatham, and the 
results obtained, are detailed in the following official report :— 


Report on Experiments at Chatham, from Colonel Sanpuan, R. L., 
and F. A. Apet, Hsq., lst March 1856; to the Inspector Gene- 
ral of Fortifications. 

Sir, ; 

We have the honor to inform you that some experiments with 
silicate of soda applied in conjunction with lime-wash, as a means 
of protecting wood from fire, and of retarding its combustibility, 
have been made at Chatham, on a sufficient scale to determine 
practically the value of this agent, if applied as a preservative to 
camp-huts. 


The following is an account of these experiments, and of the re- 
sults obtained. 


A small single-boarded hut was built in the model Battery, the 


material used in its construction being of the description usually ~ 
employed for camp huts. 


It was provided with one door, and a window-opening on one 
side, closed by a shutter.* 


After the hut was completed, certain portions of it were prepared, 
on the 8th and 9th of January, with the silicate of soda in the fol- 
lowing manner : 


* The hut was 14 feet by 10 feet, 6 feet high at eaves, and 9 feet at ridge ; it 
was constructed of $ inch deal weather boarding, on quarters and rafters of deal, 
3 inch by 2 inch Door, 6 feet 6 inches by 2 feet 9 inches, of 1 inch deal, and win- 
dow 8 feet by 2 feet, closed by ashutter of Linch deal. Floor of 1 inch deal, on 
fir joists, 4 inches by 2 inches, the upper surface of floor being 6 inches above the 
ground. Both sides of the walls from oe to s, and from v tom, were prepared. The 
insides of the portions a 6, cd were painted with common oil paint in three coats, 
that at a b being laid on the prepared part, while that at c d was laid on the un- 
prepared part. 


126 Selections. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, 


___ Plan of Hut. 1st. The wood was washed 
| over with a somewhat dilute 
solution of the silicate ofsoda, 
applied in the manner usually 
adopted for whitewashing 
s walls. 


Window. 9nd. After an interval of 
about two hours, a coating of 
thick lime-wash was applied, 
over that of the silicate. 

3rd. On the following day 
the prepared portions of the 


N. door. 
interior of the hut received, upon the lime, asecond application 


of the solution of silicate of soda, a little stronger than that first 


applied. 
Shortly afterwards the exterior prepared portion of the hut was 
similarly coated with the silicate. 


The prepared wood therefore received.— 
Ist. A coating of dilute silicate of soda, which penetrated 


slightly into the wood, generally to the depth of about ,'5 inch. 


2nd. A coating of thin lime wash, and 

8rd. <A second coating of silicate of soda, which, acting chemi- 
cally upon the lime, formed a hard protective coating with the lat- 
ter on the wood. . i 

Two opposite corners of the hut, with about one-third of each 


side, and a corresponding portion of the roof, were left unpro- 
tected. 


One side of one of the unprotected corners of the hut received 
three coats of paint; a similar coating was applied, over the pro- 
tective coating, to one side of a prepared corner. Some pieces of 
plank were also prepared with the silicate of soda, and lime, as des- 
cribed above. 

Experiments with the prepared hut were unavoidably deferred 
until the 12th of February, 1856. During the interval the hut had 
been repeatedly exposed to very heavy rains ; but although the light 


wood'of which it was constructed was eventually completely saturat- = 


( y 


“ 


} 


! 


\ 


oot.—peC. 1857.] Mode of protecting Timber from Fire. 127 


ed with wet, the coating onthe wood was not in the slightest de- 
gree injured, and could be removed, by knocking the wood, only in 
one or two places in the roof, where the surface of the boards was 
very rough, and the coating consequently less perfect. 


EXPERIMENT 1. 


A fire of wood, charcoal, and coke was kindled ina tall iron stove 
provided with numerous large openings in the sides, so as to adimit 
of a great escape of heat in the neighbourhood of the boards. 

*“ Immediately on the ignition of the naphtha, the wood was sur- 
rounded by flames, which soon fired the unprepared pieces, whilst 
those coated with the silicate only ignited after a time at the edge, 
and were scorched or baked by the heat, but not burned. 

‘* A wooden hut, similar in construction to those at Aldershot, 
having been erected in Woolwich Marshes, for the purpose of 
testing the value of Phillips’s Fire Annihilator, advantage was tak- 
en of the opportunity thus offered for trying,to some extent, upon 
a larger scale, the merits of the silicate as a protective. 

*‘ Shortly before the experiment took place, an application was 
made to me, by the officers of Royal Engineers, for the preparation, 
in some way, of a portion of the building with a protective agent. 

** One part was painted, inside and out, with a mixture of lime 
and alum, which, however, was not found upon experiment to act 
as an efficient protective against fire. 

*‘ Another part of the hut was painted, inside and out, three 
times, with a solution of silicate of soda. 

“ Unfortunately for the fairness of the experiment, the building 
was constructed with a double boarding, so that it was only possi- 
ble to coat or impregnate the planks, on one side. Nevertheless, the 
value of this agent was established beyond doubt. 

*‘ A large heap of shavings was lighted in the interior of the hut, 
against the coated portion of the wall. The flames played fiercely 
upon the latter for some minutes, but only succeeded in kindling 
one edge of a plank, and that portion did not blaze, but smoulder- 


ed for a short time. 


128 Selections. [NO. 5, NEW SERIES, 


“‘ By the heat of the fire, the salt was drawn to the surface of the 
wood, and fused, forming a glazing upon it. 


“* Subsequently, when the whole building was destroyed by fire, 
after unsuccessful attempts to extinguish it by means of the “ An- 
nihilators,” the fierceness of the flames was such, that few mate- 
rials could have withstood it: yet, of the exterior coated portion 
of timber, several planks remained. 

** Upon examining these, the unprotected surfaces which had 
been directly exposed to the fire were found to be completely char- 
red, but this charring had extended only to the point to which the 
silicate had penetrated from the other side of the plank. 


“*‘ This experiment is considered to have proved that the silicate 
of soda is a very valuable protective agent, and that, even when 
simply applied as a paint, it will serve to protect wood for a consi- 
derable time from fire, and to retard greatly the spreading of a con- 

flagration.”’ 

Shortly after the experiments above described were made, the 
possibility suggested itself of rendering the coating of silicate less 
destructible by exposure to wet, of increasing its efficiency as a 
protective, and of rendering its application more economical, by 
combining with its use that of ordinary lime-wash. 

Some pieces of plank were prepared in the following manner ; 
a dilute solution of the silicate of soda was firstapplied with a brush ; 
when this had thoroughly soaked into the wood, and dried, a thick 
lime-wash (made by slaking some lime, and reducing the hydrate 
to a smooth wash of the consistence of thick cream) was applied, 
and lastly, after the planks had been exposed to the air for two or 
three hours, they were painted with a second solution of silicate of 
soda, somewhat stronger than that first used. The effects of the 
liquids thus applied, both upon the wood and on each other, will be 
more particularly pointed out in a report subjoined. 

Several experiments, precisely similar to those described below, 
were made with the prepared planks, the results proving most sa- 
tisfactorily that the protective coating resisted toa remarkable de- 


gree the action of heat, evinced no symptom of peeling off the high. | 


ly heated surface of the wood, and protected the fibre to a great 
degtee from the influence of flame playing upon its surface. 


oor.—pDeEc. 1857.] Mode of protecting Timber from Fire. 129 


The durability of the coating was tested by exposing prepared 
surfaces of wood to a continuous stream of water, and to heavy 
rains, for a considerable period. It was found that the rain had no 
effect upon the coating; in the other more severe test, the mate- 
rial was only to some extent removed, after a time, on that spot 
where the jet of water first impinged upon the wood. 


A trial was made of the firmness of the coating, by applying 
heavy blows to the surface of the wood; the covering was only dis- 
turbed in one or two places, where the lime had been laid on rather 
too thickly. 


The stove was placed in a prepared corner of the hut, at a dis- 
tance of about 10 inches from the sides, and the fire was speedily 


raised to a sufficient degree to render the sides of the stove red 
hot in several places. 


About one hour and a quarter elapsed, after the stove was well 
alight, before those portions of the sides nearest to the hottest parts 
of the fire evinced any sympton of igniting, although the wood was 
scorched, and to a great extent baked, in several places: those por- 
tions becoming at last so hot on the outside, that the hand could 
scarcely be placed against them. 


At this point, the prepared side whick had been painted, became 
ignited, the vapours emitted from it, by the baking of the wood, 
being very considerable. The remainder of the heated corner in 
flamed instantaneously, but the flame was not so powerful as that 
covering the painted portion. 


After the first burst of flame from the prepared planks, produc- 
ed by the ignition of the vapours baked out of the wood, the fire 
went down considerably and made but very little progress. Now 
and then a small burst of flame was seen on the outside, issuing 
from between the joints of the weather-boarding, but it was soon 
evident that the fire could only with great difficulty seize perma- 
nently on the prepared surface of the wood, and that it only spread 
very slowly by creeping along between the overlapping portions 
of the planking, which were unprotected, and between the quarter- 


130 Selections. [NO. 5, NEW SERIES, 


ings and the planks, where the surfaces of the wood could not be 
reached by the brush in the process of preparation. 

Some pieces of plank, which had been piled against the stove 
in the building, having become inflamed, as also a small portion 


of the flooring, which was not prepared, a pail of water was thrown, 
from the doorway, at the stove, whereby the fire from the planks 
was extinguished ; the water, however, scarcely reached the sides 
of the hut and did not affect the fire in the stove. 


About an hour after the corner of the hut had been kindled, the 
stove, which had some time before partly fallen from some of its 
supports, so that it actually leaned against one side of the hut, pro- — 
truded from the opening ultimately formed in the corner by the — 
fire, which, though not interfered with, had confined itself almost ; 
to the immediate vicinity of the highly heated stove. | 


The latter was now removed from the hut through this opening, 
and a short time after, a little water was used to extinguish the 
fire which had been communicated to that part of floor over which 
the stove had been standing. 


The fire which was burning here and there very slowly, in the 
corner of the hut, was left untouched. 


EXPERIMENT 2. 


Soon after the experiment above described had been commenced, : 
and before the fire in the stove had produced any effect upon the a 
hut, a pile of shavings and wood, with a little tar, was made in the = 
opposite prepared corner of the hut, upon some loose prepared x 
planks (laid down to save the unprepared flooring of the hut,) and, 
this having been kindled, a fierce fire was maintained for about — 
ten minutes; the flames licking the sides of the hut and a portion 
of the roofing. . 


At the expiration of that time, the sides and upper corner of the ~ 
hut were perceived to be burning in a few places, at the edges of q 
the weather-boarding. A short time afterwards the pile of fire 
was withdrawn, upon which the prepared surfaces of the wood 3 | 
immediately ceased burning, and it was found that the fire had’ — 


ocT.—Dpxc. 1857.| Mode of protecting Timber from Fire. 131 


only to a slight extent seized permanent hold of the corner, in 
three places. 


1st. At the bottom where two planks overlapped : the fire was 
soon extinguished spontaneously at this point. 

2nd. About half-way up the corner between the back of the 
quartering and the weather-boarding, where the fire continued to 
smoulder on, consuming the unprepared portion of the wood in 
that spot. 

ord. In the upper corner, immediately under the roofing. At 
this spot, there was necessarily a considerable portion of wood (the 
backs of the joists, wall plates, and planking) which could not be 
reached by the preparation, and which therefore served as a hold 
for the fire. 


It was interesting to observe how in this, as in the experiment 
first detailed, the fire slowly crept along those small portions of 
wood which had escaped preparation, in the protected corners 
(i. e., the overlapping edges of the weather-boarding, and the 
backs of the quarterings) ; while the prepared surfaces of wood ex- 
hibited no tendency to carry the fire along, and were only con- 
sumed when in contact with other burning matter, or when sur- 
rounded for a length of time by flame from unprotected portions 
of the wood. 


Although, at the expiration of about three hours, portions of the 
two opposite corners of the hut were still burning ; and frequent 
gusts of wind served to fan the fire, it was found that the hut 
could be left, without fear of the fire spreading so as to become 
unmanageable. 


Upon our returning to the hut, after the lapse of about half an 
hour, the fire was still found smouldering here and there in both 
corners, having extended very little farther along the unprotected 
portions of the wood, as above described, particularly between 
three of the joists, and in the corner immediately under the roofing. 


The effects of the fire were watched for a short time longer, 
and the few burning places in the prepared corners were then 
extinguished by the applieation of a little water from a mop, 


‘ 


132 Selections. [wo. 5, NEW SERIES, 


The above experiments showed that although the attempts to 
kindle the protected corners of the hut had ultimately succeeded, 
in one instance, by the maintenance of a fierce fire for several 
minutes against the wood, and in the other by the immediate vici- 
nity, and even actual contact, of a highly heated stove with the 
wood, for a great length of time.— 

Ist. The prepared surfaces of wood, having been thoroughly 
baked, only burned as long as they were in close contact with 
burning, or highly heated matter, or for an instant when exposed 
to a powerful current of air; and did not possess any tendency to 
lead the fire along, this being only effected by the unprepared 
portion of the wood : 


2nd. At any period during the four hours, for which time the 


fire was allowed to exert its uncontrolled effect upon the prepared 
portions of the hut, the burning parts of the building could have 
been with ease extinguished, by means of a couple of pails of 
water. 


EXPERIMENT 3. 


While the experiments with the hut were being carried on, some 
pieces of prepared and of unprepared planking were piled together 
in two similar heaps in the open air, and a fire of shavings and 
wood-chips was made up under them. < 


The comparative tardiness with which the prepared planks in- 
flamed, and the difference in time required to effect the actual 
ignition of these and that of the unprepared planks was very evi- 
dent, as was also the case with pieces of planks which had been 
piled up against the sides of the stoves in the building. 


The prepared boards upon which the fire had been Kept up in 


the corner of the hut were also examined, and found to be but 


little affected by their protracted contact with burning matter. 


The wood had only caught at the edges, and was found smoul- | a 


dering there in two or three places. 
By submitting the glimmering portion to the blast of a ‘bellows 


a small flame was produced, which went out immediately on the a 


removal of the current of air, 


ocr.—pDuc. 1857.] Mode of protecting Timber from Fire. 133 


EXPERIMENT 4. 


In order to have convincing proof of the advantages of the pre- 
paration in retarding the ignition of wood, it was resolved to make 
experiments, similar to those described as Nos. 1 and 2 ; to observe 
the difference in time required for the ignition of the wood in the 
unprepared corners of the hut, and to ascertain the comparative 
power of the fire to extend, in these parts. 


A fire was kindled in the stove placed in one of the unprotected 
corners of the hut. In about ten minutes after the stove had be- 
eome thoroughly heated, the sides of the hut burst into flames, 
which at once rose to the roofing above, and kindled portions of it. 


A heap of wood and shavings was lighted in the opposite un- 
prepared corner, and in two or three minutes this portion of the 
hut was m flames. 


The unprepared wood having been once kindled, the fire spread 
so rapidly as to be quite unmanageable in a few minutes, the 
flames completely filling the interior of the hut. But even under 
these circumstances, when the intense heat and fierce flames from 
the burning portions soon spread the fire to the prepared parts of 
the hut, it was remarkable how the flame crept along between the 
crevices and overlapping portions of the planks where the wood 
was unprepared, so that the prepared surfaces were always tho- 
roughly surrounded by flame for a considerable time before they 
ignited. Some portions of the prepared planking, of which the 
wood had probably imbibed a rather larger quantity of silicate, in 
consequence of its greater porosity, offered great resistance to the 
fire to the very last. 


We consider the experiments above detailed to have afforded 
conclusive proof ona practical scale, of the considerable power 
possessed by silicate of soda, applied simply as a coating, in con- 
junction with lime, of retarding the inflammability of wood. 


It is, of course, impossible even by the thorough impregnation 
of wood with various substances, to deprive it of the property of 
burning ; the only results to be attained by the use of a protective 
material are,— 


134 Selections. [vo. 5, NEW SERIES, 


Ist. To shield the substances of the wood itself in a great 
degree from the effects of neighbouring fire, or of the vapours which 
will issue from over-heated wood, and burn on its surface, and.— 


2nd. To deprive the wood to a considerable extent, of the 
power of carrying the fire along, thus rendering necessary the con- 
tinued application of heat or fire from another source (such as an 
over-heated stove or unprotected portions of wood) in order to 
effect its thorough ignition. 


An examination of the experiments just described will show that 
these results are obtained by the application of the silicate of soda 
to the wood. This substance may be obtained in any quantity ata 
very reasonable rate and the method of applying it is so simple, that 
the wood may be properly prepared with it by ordinary workmen. 


It appears to us important that, if its application to new Camp 
huts should be determined upon, the wood to be employed in their 
structure should be completely coated with the preparation, before 
the erection of the buildings, in order to give the latter a fair chance 
of resisting the action of fire, reaching the wood from any quarter. 


But even in buildings already erected, it isof importance that those 
portions which are in any way liable to possible exposure to heat 
or fire (e. g. the portions in the vicinity of stoves), should receive 
the very considerable protection which would be afforded by the 
application of the silicate coating, any covering of paint or paper 
having first been remcved. 


We beg to give it as our opinion that the efficiency of the protec- 
tive agent in question has been sufficiently tested to obviate the 
necessity of further trials upon a large scale, and submit, in con- 
clusion, that while the extensive employment of light wooden build- 
ings for huts and temporary workshops, renders the application of 
some protective material to the éerior of these, at any rate, a 
matter of great importance, it is of equal consequence that such an 


agent, if adopted for use in the service, should be easy of applica- 


tion and inexpensive, and that its employment should be as com- 
pletely under the control of Government as that of any ordinary 
coating material. | 


oct.—DEC. 1857] Mode of protecting Timber from Fire. 135 


The above report was accompanied by a communication relating 
to the cost of the application of the silicate coating, in which it 
was stated that, provided the silicate of soda employed has been 
prepared with especial reference to this application (2. e.so as to be 
readily and completely misceable with water,) one pound of the 
material is sufficient to prepare a surface of wood of ten square 
feet; while the wholesale price of the silicate, in the form ofa 
syrup of acertain degree of concentration, is twenty pounds per 
ton ; so that the cost of the silicate, required to prepare the wood, 
is at the rate of about two-pence for a surface of ten square feet. 


Experiments are just now being carried on, with a view to im- 
part to the silicate coating the appearance of paint, by combining 
the use of different colouring matters with that of the lime. 


The following are the directions adopted for general guidance, 
in preparing wood with the coating of silicate of soda and lime. 


DIRECTIONS FOR COVERING TIMBER WITH A PROTECTIVE CoAT- 


ING OF THE SILICATE OF SoDA AND LIME, 


Materials emgloyed.—The silicate of soda, must be in the form 
of a thick syrup, of a known degree of concentration, as manufac- 
tured by Messrs. Srmpson and Co., Kennington Road, London. 


The lime-wash should be made by slaking some good fat lime, 
rubbing it down with water until perfectly smooth, and then di- 
luting it to the consistency of thick cream. 


Treatment of the Wood.—The protective coating is produced by 
painting the wood, firstly with a dilute solution of silicate of soda; 
secondly, with the lime wash ; and lastly, with a somewhat stronger 
solution of the silicate. 


The surface of the wood should be moderately smooth, and any 
covering of paper, paint, or other material should be first removed 
entirely, by planing or scraping. 

A solution of the silicate, in the proportion of one part by 
measure of the syrup to three parts of water, is prepared in a tub, 
pail, or earthen vessel by simply stirring the measured proportion 
of the silicate with the water, until complete mixture is effected. 


136 Selections. [NO. 5, NEW SERIEs, 


The wood is then washed over with this liquid, by means of an 
ordinary white-wash brush, the latter being passed two or three 
times over the surface, so that the wood may absorb as much of 
the solution as possible. When this first coating is nearly dry, the 
wood is painted with the lime-wash in the usual manner. ~ 


A solution of the silicate, in the proportion of two parts by mea- 
sure of the syrup to three parts of water, is then made; anda 
sufficient time having been allowed to elapse for the wood to become 
moderately dry, this liquid is applied, upon the lime, in the manner 
directed for the first coating. The preparation of the wood is then 
complete. If the lime-coating has been applied rather too thickly, 


the surface of the wood may be found, when quite dry, after the © 


third coating, to give off a little lime when rubbed with the hand. 


In that case, it should be once more coated over with a solution of _ 


the silicate, of the strength prescribed for the second liquid. 


Directions for Covering Timber with a Coating of the Silicate of Soda 
and Lime, as a Protective from Fire. 


MatTERIALS EMPLOYED. 


THE SILICATE oF SopA must be in the form of a thick syrup of 
a known degree of concentration, and is diluted with water when 
required for use according to the prescriptions given below. 


The lime-wash should be made by slaking some good fat lime, 
rubbing it down with water until perfectly smooth, and diluting it 
to the consistency of thick cream. 


TREATMENT OF THE Woop. 


The protective coating is prduced by painting the wood, firstly 
with a dilute solution of Silicate of Soda; secondly with the lime- 
wash; and lastly, with a somewhat stronger solution of the Silicate. 

The Surface cf the wood should be moderately smooth, and any 
covering of paper, paint or other material, should be first removed 
entirely, by planing or scraping. 


A solution of the Silicate, in the proportion of one part by mea- 
sure of the syrup to four parts of water, is prepared in a tub, pail ; 


or earthen vessel by stirring the measured proportion of the Silicate 


S 
t 
a 
7 
; 
=] 
> 


oct.—pxc. 1857.] Scientific Intelligence. 137 


first with a very small quantity of the necessary water until a 
complete mixture is produced, and then adding the remainder of 
the water in successive quantities, until a perfect mixture in the re- 
quisite proportions is obtained. 

The wood is then washed over with this liquid, by means of an 
ordinary white-wash brush, the latter being passed two or three 
times over the surface, so that the wood may absorb as much of 
the Solution as possible. When this first coating is nearly dry, 
the wood is painted with the lime-wash in the usual manner. 

A solution of the Silicate, in the proportion of one part by mea- 
sure.of the syrup to two parts of water, is then made as above des- 
cribed ; and a sufficient time having been allowed to elapse for the 
wood to become moderately dry, this liquid is applied, upon the 
lime, in the manner directed for the first coating. The preparation 


of wood is then complete. If the lime coating has been applied 


rather too thickly, the surface of the wood may be found, when 
quite dry after the third coating, to give off a little lime when rub- 
bed with the hand. In that case, it should be once more coated 
over with a solution of the Silicate of the first-named strength. 


(Signed) F. A. ABEL, 
Royan ARSENAL Wooutwicu. Chemist of the War Department. 


NotEe.—[The Marquess Origo, Commandant of the firemen at Rome, dipped 
the dresses of his men in a solution of Sulphate of Alumine and Sulphate of lime. 
Clothed in these suits, and their faces covered with incombustible masks, they 
traversed burning buildings without injury. Journal of the Royal Institution of 
Great Britain, 1831, p. 164.]—Ep. M. J. 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 
Scientific Mission to India. 


An important paper has just been read to the Academy of Sci- 
ences on a mission sent to India and Upper Asia in 1854, by the 


‘King of Prussia and the East India Company. The members of the 


mission consisted of three brothers, MM. Herrmann, Adolphus, and 


138 Scientific Mission to India. [no.5, NEW SERIES, 


Robert Schlagentweit, two of whom, MM. Herrmann and Robert, 
returned in June last; the third, M. Adolphus, is still among the 
Himalaya mountains, and is expected soon to return, v4 the Pun- 
jaub and Bombay. During the winter of 1854-55, these enterpri- 
sing travellers visited the region lying between Bombay and Ma- 
dras ; in the following summer M., Herrmann explored the eastern 
parts of the Himalaya, the Sikkim, Bhootan, and Khasia mountains, 
where he measured the altitudes of several peaks. The highest of 
all the summits known throughout the world appears, by his mea- 
surements, to be the Gahoorishanka, situatedin the eastern portion 
of Nepaul—the same announced as such by Colonel Waugh, but 
called by him Mount Everest, because he hac been unable to ascer. 
tain its real name in the plains of Hindoostan, where he effected 


his measurement. This peak is somewhat more than 29,000 feet 


in height, and bears another name in Thibet, where it is called Chin- 
gopamari. The other two brothers penetrated by different roads 
into the central parts of the Himalaya, Kumaon, and Gurwhal; 
they then visited Thibet in disguise, entered the great commercial 
station of Gartok, explored the environs of Lake Mansarowr, and 
that remarkable crest which separates the waters of the Indus from 
those of the Dihong, often erroneously called the Burrampooter. 
They ascended the Ibi-Gamine, 22,260 feet in height, that being 
an altitude never before attained in any part of the world. After 
having been separated from each other for a space of fourteen 
months, during which M. Robert ascertained that the table-land 
of Amarkantak, in Central India, which is generally stated to be 
8,000 feet above the level of the sea, is not more than 3,300 feet 
in height, the three brothers again met at Simla, previous to com- 
mencing the operations intended for the summer of 1856. M. 
Adolphus, on leaving that place, crossed the Himalaya, went over 
Thibet, Baltistan, and visited the interesting spot where several 
mountain crests meet, and the Hindoo Koosh joins the range lying 
to the north of India. He then returned to the Punjaub through 


the valley of Cashmere. MM. Herrmann and Robert proceeded 
to Ladak by different routes. Under good disguises, they were 


rey Toa eat Bar a 


enabled to penetrate into Turkistan, proper by crossing the Karako- — 


ram and the Kuenlun mountains, and descending into the great 


oct.—pec. 1857.] Scientefic Intelligence. 139 


valley of Yarkand, a region never visited before, not even by Marco 
Polo. Itis avast depression of between 8,000 and 4,000 feet, 
separating the Kuenlun, on the northern frontier of India, from 
the Syan-Chane, or mountains of Central Asia, on the southern 
border of Russia. They then returned to Ladak, and entered into 
the Punjaub by different routes through Cashmere. After a two 
years’ negotiation, M. Herrmann was, at the commencement of 
1857, admitted into Nepaul, where he determined the altitudes 
of the Machipoora and Mount Yassa, which have hitherto been 
vaguely called the Dhawalaghiri, which means nothing else but 
“snowy crests,’ and is applicable to all snow-capped mountains. 
M. Robert proceeded to Bombay through Scinde, Kutch, and Gu- 
zerat, where he surveyed the chain called the Salt Range, and de- 
termined the changes effected in the course of centuries in the 
course of several rivers. Before returning to Europe, he stayed 
three months in Ceylon. M. Adolphus visited various parts of the 
Punjaub and Cabul, previous to returning to the Himalaya, where 
he still is. The chief results obtained from this careful explora- 
tion of Asia are the following:—The Himalaya mountains every- 
where exercise a decided influence over all the elements of the 
magnetic force ; the declination everywhere presents a slight de- 
viation, causing the needle to converge towards the central parts of 
_ that enormous mass, and the magnetic intensity is greater than it 
would be anywhere else under an equal latitude. In the south of 
India, the increase of the magnetic intensity from south to north is 
extremely rapid. The lines of equal magnetic intensity have a re- 
markable form, similar and perhaps parallel to those of certain 
groups of isothermal lines. The three travellers have collected all 
the materials necessary to ascertain this important fact. Irregular 
local variations in terrestrial magnetism are rare in those regions, 
In the Deccan and Behar the rocks are magnetic. On the Hima- 
laya, at altitudes of 17,000 and even 20,000 feet, the daily maximum 
and mimimum variations of the barometer occurred nearly about the 
same hours as in the plains below. Again, at the above altitudes, 
the inversion of the curves of daily variation, which is met with on 
the Alps, does not take place. At the altitude of 17,000 feet, the di- 
minution of transparency produced by a stratum of air of the thick- 
nessof 3,000 feet is no longer distinguishable by the eye. During the 


140 Scientific Intelligence. [No.5, NEW SERIES, 


dust storms which frequently occur in India, the dise of the sun is 


seen of a blue colour; if small bodies are made to project their — 


shadows on a white surface under such circumstances, the shadow 
is of an orange colour—that is, complementary to blue. The trans- 
parency of the waters of the Ganges, the Burrampooter, and the 
Indus was tested by letting down a stone into them, which generally 
became invisible at a depth of from 12 to 15 centimetres (5 to 6 
inches), showing that they are overcharged with earthy particles, 
for in the sea near Corfu a stone is visible to the depth of 50 feet, and 
in these as under the tropics it remains visible at a depth of 30 feet. 
— Limes, 23rd October, 1857. 


Poisoning with the Seeds of Thevetsa nerefolia. 


The following extract from a communication by Dr. Douctas 
Macracan to the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, is worthy of at- 
tention, detailing the history of two cases of poisoning by a shrub, 
common in our gardens, known as the exile or yellow Oleander. Dr. 
J. Batrour, Bengal Army, was called by the Native doctor to see 
his own children, reported to be suffering from obstinate vomiting, 
and narrates as follows: i 

‘¢ Upon investigation, it turned out that, they had found the seeds of a 
shrub called by the natives Cheen-ke-kunér or the Chinese Oleander, said 
to be the Jatropha multifida, or one of the physic nuts ; they had broken 
the nuts, and finding the kernels bitter, had played at ‘ Doctors,’ and had 
each eaten about one whole nut. (A younger boy, said to have eaten 
half a nut, did not suffer at all.) This was about noon, at three they eat 
their dinner, in their ordinary style, and were free of complaint ; they ap- 
peared quite well when I left them, about a quarter past six, to go out te 


dinner, but soon after began to feel unwell, for they refused their tea. The. 
principal peculiarity in the action of the poison was the style of vomiting ; 


no retching nor straining, but a single gulp, without much apparent dis- 
tress, and then an immediate return to the recumbent posture, and a state 
of somnolence. The pulse in No. 1 was very weak as well as slow, and I 
was anxious about him for some time, The taste of the kernels is extremely 
bitter—a persistent aloe flavour—and in this also I think it differs from the 


A 


ocT.— DEC. 1857.] Scientific Intelligence. 141 


_ description given of the physic-nut, which is stated to be sweet like al- 
monds.—Joun Batroug. | 


A single glance at the specimens, which the letter enclesed, sufficed to 
show (that they had nothing to doe with Jatropha multifida, but) that they 
belonged to one ef the Apocynacee, and ashort search through the Univer- 
sity Herbarium enabled me to identify the plant as Thevetia neriifolia, 
Juss. Ann. Mus. 346. 


This is a species well known throughout India, more commonly under 
its older_synonyme of Cerbera Thevetia, Linn. It occurs in almost all 
the collections from India, which are in the University Herbarium. In 
Hamilton Buchanan’s Catalogue, where it forms No. 718, under Willde- 
now's name of Cerbera Thevetia, there is the following account of it :—- 


‘ Hab. in hortis Magadhae. Simillima certe plantzee que, ex America, 
alata, in horto botanico prope Calcuttam colitur, et perhibent Brahmani 
plantam in scriptis suis antiquis bene esse cegnitam.’ 


On the tally, however, accempanying the specimen to which this refers, 
there is written— 


‘ This really was introduced by Dr. Roxburgh, but is called the yellow 
oleander, and supposed to have come from Nepal. Patna, 22d April 1812.’ 


The affirmation made in the catalogue, that it resembles a species brought 
from America, appears to be true; for, on comparing it with a Cerbera 
from Peru, in the University Herbarium, sent as Cerbera peruviana (Ma- 
thews’ Catalogue, 442), I can see no trace of difference between the two 
plants,” and this is the opinion maintained in De Candolle’s Prodromus, 
where, under Thevetia neriifolia, are given not only Cerbera Thevetia, 
but ©. peruviana, as synonymes. 

O’Shaugnessy states that Cerbera Thevetia is ‘ said to be powerfully fe- 
brifuge, two grains being affirmed to be equal to a common dose of Cin- 
chona.’, [ Beng. Dispensatory, p. 447. ] 


Dr. B. subsequently wrote “ that young M—, one of the poisoned, whe 
had been subject to ague up to the time of eating the seeds, has had none 
since. ‘True, the aguish tendency was much weakened, but perhaps the 
poisoning did him good.” 

Almost every Indian plant pessessed of bitterness, is said, if not in 
India, at least in books, to be reputed febrifuge ; and as to its effects on 
young M——, it need hardly be remarked, that a periodic disease, espe- 
cially if on the wane, might be readily broken up by any agent producing 
such a commotion in the constitution as in this case, 


142 Scientific Intelligence. [No, 5. NEW SERIES, 


There can be little doubt that, whether febrifuge or not, the Thevetia is 
possessed of very active properties. ‘The symptoms, at first sight, seem to 
be those of a narcotico-irritant, the irritant action predominating ; but, 
from Dr. Balfour's description, I am inclined to doubt their being narcotic 
in the true sense, the somnolence, etc.. being more like that of exhaustion 
from a violent acrid; the peculiar vomiting was perhaps an action of the 
stomach itself, unaided by the abdominal muscles and diaphragm. We 
might well expect the plant to be possessed of dangerous qualities of some 
sort, considering its affinity with the very acrid Cerbera Manghas of the 
East Indies, and the still more deadly C. Tanghin, the ordeal poison of 
Madagascar, of which, if we are to believe it, ‘a kernel not larger than an 
almond is sufficient to destroy twenty people.’ ”’ 


[This notice, contains an important addition to our knowledge of an indigenous 
Medical plant, the bark of which isa reputed febrifuge, but the seeds are thus 
proved to be a Narcotico-acrid poison.]|—Ep. M. J. . 


Coal in Scinde.—It gives us much pleasure to learn that the coal 
diggings near Kotree is daily progressing favorably ; up to the 
6th instant, Mr. Inman, with his staff, had completed exactly 100 
feet in the Great Experimental Shaft, and passed through a three 
feet seam of beautiful coal, full of bitumen and gaseous principle ; 
the coal is so good, that it works with great advantage in the 
smithy, and has the peculiar property of rendering the hard harsh 
brittle English iron, soft and malleable as silver. Colonel Scott and 
Captain Delisle both visited the place, and were highly pleased at 
the coal prospects of Sind. The sinking is now carried on through 
a hard ferruginous white sandstone not perfectly formed. Strange 
to say, not one drop of water had touched the shaft at this depth. 
—Sindian, Jan. 138, 1858. 


Death of Mr. Purdie. On October 10, at Trinidad, William 
Purdie Esq., for many years Government Botanist of this Colony. 
The deceased was widely known for his exertions in his peculiar 


province, in making which he had visited nearly every portion of 


the Island, and carried out long investigations with no small degree 
of endurance. 


Governor Keate has selected Dr. Kruger, a gentleman long re- 
sident on the Island, of considerable scientific attainments and well 
acquainted with Tropical Botany. 


- OCT.—DEC. 1857.] The late Dr. Schmid. 143 


OBITUARY NOTICES. 


Since the last issue of this Journal, we have had occasion to la- 
ment the death, of the Venerable Doctor Bernnarp Scumip, 
formerly of the Church Mission, who died at Calicut, on Ist Octo- 
ber 1857, at the advanced age of 70. This erudite Missionary 
came out to India in 1817, and whilst labouring in his high calling 
corresponded with several Savans in Germany, as Baron von Hv- 
GEL and Nees von EsEnBECK; with Sir Wm. Hooxer, of Kew, 
and with Dr. Wiaut, of Madras. 


In the fourth volume of this Journal isa notice of Zenker’s 
‘‘ Plante Indicae,”’ quas in montibus Nilagiricis collegut Bernhard 
Schmid. Folio Jena. 1835. 


Two decades only of this work appeared, in consequence of the 
early death of Dr. ZENKER, Professor of Botany at Jena, who 
had undertaken the publication of the extensive and valuable ma- 
terials transmitted to him by our lamented friend. The publica- 
tion of a serial in Saxony which depended for support upon Indian 
subscribers, was attended with many difficulties, but the 20 colour- 
ed Illustrations were executed in a superior style, the Analysis by 
Scumip, andthe Botanical Descriptions by Zenker. At page 
336 of the same volume of this Journal, is a short article ‘* The 
Study of Botany recommended,” which is very characteristic of the 
simple minded Missionary. 


We find from Manuscripts placed at our disposal, that about this 
time, to use his own words ‘“ from the burning climate of Tinne- 
velly, incessant labour, and the great discouragement experienced in 
my work, my health failed.” He left his post very reluctantly first 
for the Neilgherry Hills, and afterwards for Germany. During his 
sick leave he was not idle, and the following are a few of the Lite- 
rary productions printed chiefly whilst he was on the Neilgherries. 


1, “ English Orthoepy or Pronouncing Spelling Book” (small 
Dictionary) for Tamulians.”’ 

2. A second Edition of Translation of Baxter’s Saints’ Rest. 

3. Translation of the two First Books of Thomas a Kempis. 


144 Obituary Nottce. [NO. 5, NEW SERIES, 


4, English Tamil Grammar, compiled for the Palamcottah Se- 
minary. 

5. A Treatise showing where the different Descendants of Noak 
settled (as far as certainly known,) and taking particu- 
lar notice of all nations and countries mentioned in the 


Scriptures. 
6. A Chronology of Universal History. 
7. Introduction to do. 22 pages. 


The following passage in his private Journal, will illustrate the 
character of the man. 


“‘ My health failing entirely, I was constrained to apply for leave 
to go to Europe for the recovery of my health, whilst waiting on the 
Hills for a reply from England, two families of the Aborigines set- 
tled near my house, in order to learn Tamul from me, and one of 
them with the avowed intention to be by means of the Tamul, in- 
structed in Christianity. Whilst teaching them Tamul, I compil- 
ed a Vocabulary of their language, containing above 400 words, 
from which it is clearly established that their speech is an ancient, 
rude dialect of the Tamul. Dr. Cozz intended to print it, but my 
strength was so exhausted that I was unable, much as I wished it, 
to write out a fair copy before sailing.”’ 

When, in 18386, his leave to Germany having been sanctioned, and 
he was preparing for the voyage, he writes “ God found it good 
to take away by death, my three sons within four months. I had 
now quite given up my work among the Tamulians (although not 
among the Todawars,) and I occupied my mind, by writing an Eng- 
lish Treatise ‘ on the Relationship of Languages and Nations,’ 
in which I embodied the results of my philological inquiries and 
observations during the last 28 or 30 years. This occupation was 
a relief to my mind in my heavy and unexpected affliction. The 
treatise was printed in the Madras Journal of Literature and 
Science, 1837, Vol. V., p. 133. After my arrival in Germany, I : 
made a free translation of it, which was printed at the expense of 
the Director of Instruction, Dr. Niemeyer, the successor in office 
of Aug. H. Franke of Halle, in order to recommend thereby the 
Mission cause to the attention of the Students in German Univer- 
sities, and of the German Literary Public in general.” Again, he 


ocr.—puc. 1857.] The late Dr. Schmid. 145 


writes in a letter to a friend. ‘‘ During the year 1840, the exhaus- 
tion of my nerves and of my bodily strength was so great, that it 
was quite out of the question to undertake any stated official duties, 
even if procurable. In the Winter of 1840-41, I had an attack of 
influenza which retarded my recovery. In May 1841, I went there- 
fore to Almenau, a cold water bathing place, and submitted to the 
most rigorous homceopathic and hydropathic regimen for 18 
months, entirely abstaining not only from wine and beer (which I had 
scarcely touched since my return to Germany, much less spirits,) 
but also from the use of tea, coffee, pepper and every kind of sti- 
mulants ; and my stay there restored me to that degree of healthy, 
and comparatively youthful appearance, which made you overlook 
my grey hairs.” 

In the end of 1845, Dr. Schmid returned from Europe, and 
subsequently resided at Ootacamund, and devoted his leisure hours 
mote especially to the study of Cryptogamic plants. We received 
nota month before his death, the List of Neilgherry Ferns de- 
scribed by Professor Kunze in the “ Linnea, Vol. 8, July 1851, and 
a Catalogue of Neilgherry Mosses, named and described by Dr. 
Charles Miller of Halle in Prussia, in the “ Botanische Zeitung” 
1553 and 1854. These lists we have thought it desirable to pub- 
lish in the present No. of this Journal ; they will prove useful to 
the explorers of these elevated regions, as the Specilegium Neilgher- 
yense of Wight terminates with the Labiatz. 

A Genus of Acanthaceae, allied to Meyenia and Hexacentris, bears 
the name Schmidia, and was one of the latest discoveries of Dr. 
Wight. Several specimens of Ferns and Mosses were also named 
in honor of him by his German friends, 


Dr. Schmid presented to the University Museum of Jena, a piece 
of the fossil wood of Trivacary, near Pondicherry, which has been 
described and figured ina German dissertation on Fossil woods by 
Professors Schleiden and EE. Schmid of Jena. A copy of this work 
was presented by the authors to the Library of the Madras Museum 
in 1856, containing lithographic figures of the following fossil 
woods. 

Psaronius Cattai. 
Peuce Sibirica, Pl. II. 


146 Obituary Notice. [no.5, NEW SERIES, 


Peuce pauperrima, (Schleiden.) 
ap nc ells 
»  Aipseriana, 
» Australis, (Unger.) 
»»  Schmidiana, (Schleiden) 


the last being the specimen referred to. The following passage 
occurs in the ‘Musee Botanique de Baron Delessert,”’ p. 433, 
‘Le reverend Bernard Schmid, Kcclesiastique de Weimar, attaché aux 
missions evangeliques, et qui a longtemps sejourne dans |’Inde, a 
parcouru les Nil-Gherry, et a fait avec soin des herbiers de plantes 
de ces montagnes, il a visite principalement Konnor, Kota-Gherry, 

Outa-Kamound, etc.’ 


We had scarcely heard of the removal of this venerable Mission- 
ary, when we received the sorrowful tidings of the decease of ano- 
ther Indian Botanist and friend, intelligence, which was much more 
sudden and unlooked for, and particularly affected the writer of 
these lines. 


II. Cuarzs Drew, Assistant Surgeon, was educated at Plymouth 
and afterwards at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. He subsequently 
settled at Wiveliscombe, Devon, as a County practitioner, when he 
was advised in 1854, to compete for admission into the Honorable 
Kast India Company’s Medical Service, he succeeded and stood high 
in theList. He brought anote to us from Dr. Hooker of Kew men- 
tioning his acquirements in Botany. A few months afterwards, he 
acted for a short time as professor of Botany, Medical College. Mr. 
Drew was as a Member of our Society, energetic and indefatigable 
not only as regards the study of the Indian Flora, but with respect 
to all subjects coming under his observation, whence he thought 
he could derive useful information. 

He was a skilful Histologist, and has left a Book of Botanical 
drawings executed by himself in a superior style, showing that he 
had carefully studied and accurately delineated the minute structure 
of several little known Genera. He adopted the excellent practice 
of devoting a short time daily to the Analytical study of plants. 
Last year, Mr. Drew, in the capacity of Secretary to the Local Ex- 
hibition of Calicut, discharged his duties most efficiently. A notice 
of his search for the Gutta Percha Tree of Wynaad will be found at 


‘oct.—pxe. 1857.] The late Mr. Walker. 147 


p. 169 of the last volume of this Journal. He had just been ap- 
pointed tothe Forest department, where his careful habits of inquiry, 
and his exactness gave the promise of his being a valuable assist- 
ant. Putting private feelings aside, we could not refrain as editing 
this Journal, from recording the early death of this earnest and 
hopeful Naturalist. It is worthy ofremark, that Mr. Drew first sug- 
gested the preceding notice of Dr. Schmid, which he himself wag 
well qualified to have undertaken, but it devolves upon the Editor 
to chronicle both the old and young. 


II, Mz. Wanker. Among the losses that have recently been sus- 
tained in the scientific circle of India, few are more to be regretted 
than the late Henry Waker, who filled the chair of Physiology 
and Comparative Anatomy, in the Calcutta Medical College. After 
two years of frequent illness and repeated warnings, which unfor- 
tunately were neglected, he was induced to leave India on Sick 
Certificate in March last. It was too late. Shortly after his arrival 
in London, he became rapidly worse, and sunk under an attack of 
the most recent form of his ailments, disease of the kidneys, on the 


22nd May, 1857 at the age of 53. 


Mr. WALKER was born of humble parents at Huddersfield, where 
he received his early education, and choosing the profession of 
Medicine, he served his apprenticeship to a Surgeon of that town. 
He afterwards prosecuted his studies in London, Paris and Berlin, 
where he was for three years, the pupil of the eminent Physiologist 
Muuusr, and imbibed that taste for comparativesAnatomy, which 
he afterwards pursued with such vigor. 


It was not till 1839, when he had attained the mature age of 36, 
that he received his appointment to the Bengal Medical Service. 
His first employment was that of Civil Surgeon at Gowahatty in 
Assam, where he devoted himself with ardor to the study of Natu- 
ral History. Two years later, he was nominated by Lord AucKLAND, 
Surgeon of the Body Guard, in which capacity he accompanied 
Lord ErLenBorovuaeH, in the Gwalior Campaign which led to his 
being appointed personal Surgeon to the Governor General, a post 
which he continued to fill under Lord ELLENBOROUGH’S successor, 
He attended Lord Harpina@e throughout the Sutle] Campaign, for 


148 Obituary Notice. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, 


his services during which he was thanked in the General Orders 
of 14th February 1846, and received the offer of the Superintending 
Surgeoncy of the Gwalior Subsidiary Force, one of the most lucrative 
posts in the service. Influenced, however, bya desire to take part 
in the organization of the Medical College, which had been for 
some time projected, he preferred waiting for the establishment of 
that Institution, which took place towards the close of the following 
year. He was then appointed Professor of Anatomy and Physiolo- 
gy, and notwithstanding an ill judged reduction of the salary, which 
left him in very straitened circumstances, he devoted himself with 
the ardor of his character to the advancement of the Institution 
and to the improvement of his class, resisting the temptations of 


private practice, which his high professional attainments would — , 
have ensured, that he might apply himself more exclusively to his 


Collegiate labors. In 1855, he was appointed Professor of Compara- 
tive Anatomy, in addition to the Department he already held, but 
he refused to be made Principal of the College out of delicacy to 
his colleagues, whom from a too scrupulous feeling he felt unwil- 
to supersede. 


It was shortly after this, that his health began to fail, and he was 
only prevented by want of means occasioned by the niggardly salary 
attached to his appointment, from having recourse to the advice 
again and again urged upon him, of recruiting his shattered health 
by returning home. - 

Every year during the College vacation, he repaired to the Coast 
of Arracan, for the purpose of studying the numerous remarkable 
animal productions in which a tropical sea so richly abounds. His 
notes and dissections accompanied by elaborate drawings of Mol- 


luscs, Annelides and Radiated Animals were prepared with sedu- 7 


lous care and scrupulous accuracy. His researches among the 
naked Molluscs, particularly in the families of the Nudz, Tecti and 
Infero-branchiata, and the Zunicata, were rewarded by the discovery 
of numerous new and interesting forms, which he investigated with 
singular patience and success. The collections amassed during 
eight years of continued labour, contain a store of materials of the 
greatest value in some of the least known departments of Zoology, _ 
which he fondly hoped one day to give to the public himself, but ra 


oct.—pxc, 1857.] Notices of Books. 149 


which it is hoped, will still be suffered to see the light. It is 
earnestly to be desired, that the task of editing his papers may be 
committed to competent hands, for we are well assured that if 
adequately treated, they will pove a lasting and worthy monument 
of one who Was eminent not only for the zeal and ability which 
distinguish the votary of science, but for those high minded, disin- 
terested and generous qualities that do honor to the man, and which 
in him were carried to an almost morbid extent. 


NOTICES OF BOOKS. 


Thwaites’s Enumeration of the Plants of Ceylon. 


Under the above title, we are happy to find from the Kew Mis- 
cellany, that Mr. Thwaites is preparing a work on the plants of 
Ceylon, giving a correct list of all the hitherto described species, 
together with generic and specific characters of such as are new. 
The enumeration will comprise (we understand) the Phanerogamia 
and Ferns. We should be glad to find, that it includes the lower 
orders of Cryptogamia also, for there is no man better able to un- 
dertake the Flora of that Island, or to develope the resources of 
the Colony. 


The list of species, indigenous to the Island, as contained in the 
Peradenia Herbarium is nearly 3,000. Dr. J. D. Hooker, assists 
Mr. Thwaites in determining the correct nomenclature by verifying 
his species in the magnificent collection at Kew. The description of 
the new species will be in Latin, but the notice of ‘‘ uses, &c.’’ in 
English. Mr. Thwaites is now on a tour through Bintenne and the 
Eastern parts of the Island, enlarging his knowledge of their vege- 
table productions, with a view to a general introduction to the 
Enumeration. 


Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa, by David 
Livingstone, LL.D., D. C. L, London, John Murray, Albemarle 
street, 1857, 8yo. pp. 688. 


150 Notices of Books.  [No, 5, NEW SERIES, 


The publication of Dr. Livingstone’s Discoveries, has rendered 
it an easier task than usual to name the most important book of 
the year. The demand for copies has surpassed all experience in 
works of a similar description. We learn from the English Press — 
that the avidity with which both the mercantile and the reli- 
gious world have seized upon its information, may be expected, 
in time, to produce the most gratifying result. It is understood 
that Dr. Livingstone will depart for Loanda again immediately. 


Of the Tsetse, a venomous fly, we have the following extraordi- 
nary history. This insect, the Glossina morsitans, “is not much 
Jarger than the common house-fly, and is nearly of the same brown 
colour as the common honey-bee ; the after part of the body has a 
three or four yellow bars across it; the wings project beyond this 
part considerably, and it is remarkably alert, avoiding most dex- 
terously all attempts to capture it with the hand, at common tem- 
peratures ; in the cool of the mornings and evenings it is less agile. 
Its peculiar buzz when once heard can never be forgotten by the 
traveller whose means of locomotion are domestic animals ; for it 
is well known that the bite of this poisonous insect is certain death 
to the ox, horse, and dog. In this journey, though we were not 
aware of any great number having at any time lighted on our cattle, 
we lost 43 fine oxen by its bite. We watched the animals carefully 
and believe that not a score of flies were ever upon them. A most 
remarkable feature in the bite of the tsetse, is its perfect harmless- 


ness in man and wild animals, and even calves solong as theycon- 


tinue to suck the cows. We never experienced the slightest injury 
from them ourselves, personally, although we lived two months in 
their habitat, which was in this case as sharply defined as in many 
others, for the south bank of the Chobe was infested by them, and 


the northern bank, where our cattle were placed, only 50 yards > 


distant, contained not a single specimen. ‘This was the more re- 
markable, as we often saw natives carrying over raw meat to the 
opposite bank with many ésefse settled upon it. The poison does 
not seem to be injected by a sting, or by ova placed beneath the 
skin, for when one is allowed to feed freely on the hand, it is seen 
to insert the middle prong of three portions, into which the pro- 
boscis divides, somewhat deeply into the true skin; it then draws 


é 


ocT.— DEC. 1857] Notices of Books. 151 


it out a little way, and it assumes a crimson colour as the man- 
dibles come into brisk operation. The previously shrunken belly 
swells out, and if left undisturbed the fly quietly departs when it is 
full. A slight itching irritation follows, but not more than in the 
bite of a mosquito. In the ox, this same bite produces no more 
immediate effects than in man. It does not startle him as the gad- 
fly does; but a few days afterwards the following symptoms su- 
pervene: the eye and nose begin to run, the coat stares as if the 
animal were cold, a swelling appears under the jaw, and sometimes 
at the navel; and, though the animal continues to graze, emaciation 
commences, accompanied with a peculiar flaccidity of the muscles, 
and this proceeds unchecked until, perhaps months afterwards, 
purging comes on, and the animal, no longer able to graze, perishes 
in a state of extreme exhaustion. Those which are in good con- 
dition often perish soon after the bite is inflicted with staggering 
and blindness, as if the brain were affected by it. Sudden changes 
of temperature produced by falls of rain seem to hasten the pro- 
gress of the complaint; but in general the emaciation goes on un- 
interruptedly for months, and do what we will, the poor animals 
perish miserably. When opened, the cellular tissue on the surface 
of the body beneath the skin is seen to be injected with air, as if a 
quantity of soap bubbles were scattered over it, or a dishonest awk- 
ward butcher had been trying to make it look fat. The fat is of a 
greenish-yellow colour and of an oily consistence. All the muscles 
are flabby, and the heart often so soft that the fingers may be made 
to meet through it. The lungs and liver partake of the disease. 
The stomach and bowels are pale and empty, and the gall-bladder 
is distended with bile. The symptoms seem to indicate what is 
probably the case, a poison in the blood ; the germ of which enters 
when the proboscis is inserted to draw blood. The poison-germ, 
contained in a bulb at the root of the proboscis, seems capable, 
although very minute in quantity, of reproducing itself, for the 
blood after death by ¢setse is very small in quantity, and scarcely 
stains the hands in dissection. I shall have by and by to mention 
another insect, which by the same operation produces in the hu- 
man subject both vomiting and purging. The muie, ass, and goat 
enjoy the same immunity from the ¢sefse as man and the game.” 


152 Notices of Books.  [N0.5, NEW SERIES, 


Scarcely less surprising is his account of African Melons. ‘‘ But 
the most surprising plant of the Desert is the ‘ Kengwe or Keme’ 
(Cucumis caffer), the Water Melon. In years when more than the 
usual quantity of rain falls, vast tracts of the country are literally 
covered with these Melons ; this was the case annually when the 
fall of rain was greater than it is now, and the Bakwains sent trad- 
ing parties every year to the lake. It happens commonly once 
every 10 or 11 years, and for the last three times its occurrence 
has coincided with an extraordinarily wet season. Then animals 
of every sort and name, including man, rejoice in the rich supply. 
The elephant, true lord of the forest, revels in this fruit, and so 
do the different species of rhinoceros, although naturally so diverse _ } 
in their choice of pasture. The various kinds of antelopes feed | 
on them with equal avidity, and lions, hyzenas, jackals, and mice, 
all seem to know and appreciate the common blessing. These Me- 
lons are not, however, all of them eatable; some are sweet, and 
others so bitter that the whole are named by the Boers the ‘ Bitter 
Water-melon.’ The natives select them by striking one Melon 
after another with a hatchet, and applying the tongue to the gashes. 
They thus readily distinguish between the bitter and sweet. The 
bitter are deleterious, but the sweet are quite wholesome. This 
peculiarity of one species of plants bearing both sweet and bitter 
fruits occurs also in a red eatable Cucumber often met with in the 
country. It is about 4 inches long, and about 14 inch in diameter. ‘ 
It is of a bright scarlet colour when ripe. Many are bitter, others — 


quite sweet. Even Melons in a garden may be made bitter by a & 


few bitter Kengwe in the vicinity. The bees convey the pollen 4 
from one to the other.”’ 


Decandolle’s Prodromus Systematis naturalis Regni Vegetabilis.— 
We have just received the second part of the fourteenth volume, 
comprehending Thymeloeacece by Meisner, and Santalacece by 
Alph. deCandolle, two volumes more are expected to complete the: 
Exogens. Professor Anderson undertakes the difficult task of 
elucidating the Salicaceous order. Dr. Buek of Hamburg, to 


whom Botanists were indebted for an admirable index of the first — 


seven volumes, has now in the press a second index up to the end ~ 


oct.—DE¢. 1857.] Notices of Books. 153 


of the 13th volume, thereby doing good service to the cause of 
Botany. It is computed that the 14 volumes actually complet- 
ed, contain 50,509 species, arranged in 4,525 genera. The first 
volume was commenced in 1822. When the work is finished, we 
will have a complete systematical account of all plants known at 
the time of publishing the several volumes. 


Hooker’s Journal of Botany.—We find from the December 
Number of the Kew Miscellany, that Sir William Hooker’s very 
useful Journal has ceased to appear. Under one form or another this 
veteran Botanist has published since 1827, much of his most in- 
teresting correspondence with men of Science and travellers of 
every grade and in every clime. We fear that the cessation of this 
periodical will be felt by very many besides ourselves. The Jour- 
nal of the Linnean Society, and the Annals of Natural History in 
London, and the New Philosophical Journal in Edinburgh are now 
the remaining media through which communications on Natural 
History may be brought before the public. 


Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society.—Six num- 
bers of this admirable serial have reached us, appearing quarterly 
and containing papers on Natural History read before the Society, 
and not inserted in its ‘*‘ Transactions.’’ The Zoological and Bo- 
tanical Papers are separately paged, so that either section may be 

taken separately. 


The ‘‘ Journal of Proceedings’’ for the present year is sold to 
the public at 12s. for the entire Journal, or 8s. for either the Zoo- 
| logical or Botanical section taken separately ; the separate num- 
bers being charged 3s. for the whole, or 2s. for either section. 
_ There are some valuable Zoological papers by Professor Owen and 
others—and a series of sketches of the Natural Families of Indian 
Plants, ‘‘ Preecursores ad Floram Indicam,”’ by J. D. Hooker, m. p., 
and T. Thomson, m. p., which we hope to give in the selections 
of our next number. 


| 
| 


The Plant Scenery of the World; a Popular Introduction to Bo- 
tanical Geography.—By John H. Balfour, a. M., mu. v., &c., and 
Robeft Kaye Greville, x, u, p., &c, with Illustrations, 


154 Proceedings. [NO. 5, NEW SERIES, 


We are enabled to announce with great pleasure the prospective 
appearance of this work, which is intended to illustrate something _ 
in the style of Humbold’s ‘‘ Aspects of nature,’”’ the physiognomic 
effect of certain species, and families of plants in representing the 
scenery of different parts of the Globe. The descriptions will be 
aceompanied with Chromo-lithographs of great artistic merit. 


Any persons possessing drawings or photographs of interesting 
plants, such as would be easily recognized in a picture, will confer 
a benefit upon the authors by permitting them to be copied. The 
Editors of this Journal will be happy to receive, and forward any 
such contributions. 


PROCEEDINGS, 


The Managing Committee of the MapRAs LiTERARY SoclETY and 
Austliary of the Royal Asiatic Society, Thursday evening, Novem- 
ber 12th, 1857. 


After the usual accounts exhibiting the state of the Society’s 
Funds, the Secretary read a letter from Lieut. H. P. Hawkes, — 
drawing the attention of the Society to the facility afforded by the ~ 
electrotype process for obtaining perfect fac-similes of Coins, Seal . 
rings, Cameos, &c. The three specimens forwarded, one froma 
Gutta Percha Medal, one from a Cameo, and the thirdfroma Cliche _ 
Medal were laid upon the Table and attracted much notice. The = 
impression from the Medal especially was found to be very sharp, 
and the manipulation of all appeared very creditable. 


Mr. Hawkes having understcod that the Society had under con- 
sideration the advisability of purchasing the Stacey Collection of 
Coins, kindly proposed, should any coins be found wanting to com- “ 
plete a series,"to make electrotype impressions of such of the miss- 
ing coins as might be found in private Cabinets, and to complete — 
the Society’s collection. 

Resolved to inform Mr. Hawkes that it was the Asiatic Society — : 
of Calcutta that had in contemplation the purchase of the Stacey — 


ocT.-—DEc. 1857.] Proceedings. 155 


Collection, and that this Society was only requested to aid in the 
same. The Committee nevertheless appreciate Mr. Hawkes’ kind 
offer. 


Read a letter from Mr. H. Smith, Superintendent of the Govern- 
ment Press, soliciting the publication in the Society’s Journal, of 
certain specimen copies of Plants*in illustration of a new develop- 
ment of Nature printing. In addition to the impressions forward- 
ed with the letter, a large folio book of illustrations was laid upon 
the table, and attracted great admiration. In clearness, in sharp- 
ness of outline, and in accuracy of representation Mr. Smith’s pro- 
cess particularly excels. 


The most successful representations appear to be those of the 
Ferns, Grasses, and specimens requiring minute and delicate out- 
line, like Mollugo Cerviana, the impression of which is admirable ; 
or complicated details such as the reticulated venation of leaves. 
But Mr. Smith’s excellence of manipulation has also enabled him 
to overcome the difficulty of printing from the most succulent and 
fleshy plants. The print of the common Yercum or Madar (Calo- 
tropis gigantea) is particularly happy and exhibits clearly all the 
botanical details. A leaf of the prickly pear (Opuntia Dillenié) is 
equally successful. He has even carried his experiments into the 
animal kingdom, and exhibits printed pictures of a Snake anda 
Bat, the characteristics of which are shown with surprising clearness. 


- Considerable discussion arose in the Meeting as to how far the 
discovery is due to Mr. Smith. Mr. 8S. in his letter gives a precis 
of the different processes of Nature printing that have been at va- 
rious times resorted to, and claims for his own plan that it excels 
all others in simplicity and efficiency, and is capable of a much 
more extended application. Its distinctive peculiarity, he tells us, 
consists in the impressions being obtained direct from fresh unpre- 
pared plants. Mr, Burgass however recollects similar impressions 
being exhibited two or three years ago at the Polytechnic at Home, 
but not being aware of the exact modus operandi, which is part of 


* Vide Plates 5 and 6 of this Number. 


156 Proceedings. [No. 5, NEW SERIES, 


the point at issue, he cannot positively pronounce as to what credit 
Mr. Smith is entitled to in the question of discovery. 


Major Wilson observed that"the process referred to by Mr. Bur- 
gass was probably that exhibited by Mr. Cox at the Polytechnic 
Institution under the name of the Foliographic Press, for Printing 
from fresh leaves and plants. Major Wilson stated that one of 
these Presses was in his possession, and that he had frequently taken 
impressions of leaves with it, the process appearing to be identical 
in all respects with that described in Mr. Smith’s paper. Major 
Wilson sent for the prospectus of Mr. Cox’s invention, of which 
the following is a copy :— 


** The Foliographic Press for printing from Nature being a new . 
and exceedingly simple machine for printing fresh leaves, ferns, _ 
feathers, lace &c., invented and sold by G. I. Cox, at 134, Great 
College Street, Camden Town, and the Royal Polytechnic Institu- 
tion. Press, Roller, Pot of Ink, and Sheet of Carbonised Paper 
5s. 6d. small; 8s. 6d. large.”’ 


Direction for use. 


‘‘ Put a leaf between the fold of the Carbonised paper. Pass - a 
the Roller five or six times over each outside surface; open the 
fold and extract the leaf, which has now become impregnated with 
ink. Then place it between the fold of a cledn sheet of writing — 
paper, which is now to be introduced under the leather flap and 
pressed by passing the roller once over the surface, when an ac- ; 
curate and beautiful impression will be the result. 


The carbonised paper is made by dabbing the ink evenly over a 
the surface of ordinary writing paper, with a dabber made of wash _ 
leather. 


It is advisable, previous to using a leaf, to roll it slightly be- 
tween a sheet of blotting paper, to absorb the extraneous damp or 
moisture.’”’ 


The Meeting were of opinion that tne principle of both process- — 
es was the same, but Mr. Smith has the merit of having deyelop- 


ocT.—DEC. 1857.] . Proeeedings. 157 


ed its application more fully, so as to obtain larger and finer pic- 
tures as well as of having extended it to more difficult objects, 
and particularly to reptiles and animals, which seems not to have 
been attempted before. 


The Committee beg to acknowledge, with thanks, the receipt of 
the following bocks and papers: 


From the Chief Secretary. 

1. Geological Papers on Western India. 

2. Atlas do. do. 

3. Selections from the Records of the Madras Government, 
Railway Correspondence. 

4, do do India No. 23 on Tea Cultivation. 

5. Indian Journal of Arts and Sciences, Vol. 1, No. 4. 

6. Cyclopedia of India, Parts 8, 9 and 10. 

7. Description of the method of catching Wild Elephants in 
the Coimbatore District, by Captain D. Hamilton. 


From the Government of Bombay. 
8. Bombay Magnetical and Meteorological Observations for 1856. 


From the Authors. 
9. Note sur Les Rubaiyat de Omar Khaiyam par M. Garcin 
de Tassy. 
10. La poesie Philosophique et Religieuse chez les Persans, 
_d’apres le mantic uttair, ou Le Langage des Oiseaux de Farid 
Uddin Attar par M. Garcin de Tassy. 


The Managing Commitiee of the Mapras LITERARY SocrETY and 
Auaary of the Royal Asiatic Society, 10th December, 1857. 


Mr. Elliot read a notice of the Gold Coins stated at page 114, 
~ Volume I, new series ofthe Journal, to have been found at Madura. 
They comprise 49 specimens, of which 28 have been bought for 
the Government Central Museum, 20 were purchased by a Gentle- 
man at Madura and sent home, and a single one was obtained by 
Mr. Elliot himself. The whole are gold pieces of the kind called 
_aurer, belonging to the times of the earlier Caesars from Tiberius to 
| Domitian, as follows: 


158 Proceedings. [ NO. 5, NEW SERIES, 


Of Tiberius 6, Claudius 8, Agrippina 3, Elder Drusus 2, Younger 
Drusus 5, Nero 17, Caligula 1, Domitian 5, Nerva 2. 


The Secretary read some interesting Remarks by Mr. Jesse Mit- 
chell on the distribution of fresh water Polyzoa. 


Mr. Mitchell observes that Professor Allman in his recent work 
entitled ‘a Monograph of the Fresh Water Polyzoz,” has stated 
that although found at an altitude of 6000 feet, these Jnfusoria are 
not met with beyond the limits of the temporate Zone. z Now, Mr. 
Mitchell has himself taken them in Madras, and gives a very inter- 
esting description of one he captured in considerable numbers ad- 
hering to the roots of the common Duck weed or Lemna in the 
month of September last. 


These when placed in a Polyp-trough under a one inch objec- — 


tive, exhibited groups of Polyzoa inhabiting tubular cells attach- — 
ed to the root of the plant and to each other. The head of the 
animal which was transparent and hyaline and furnished with a 
double row of cilice upwards of forty in number, was protruded 
from the cell in the act of feeding, and the whole process of cap- 
turing, swallowing and digesting its prey was distinctly visible. It 
seemed to prefer the smaller kind of Infusoria rejecting the large 


Rotatoria, which were drawn into the vortex of the cilice by their 2 


rapid motion, an operation which it effected either by driving off 1 | 
the intruder by blows of the tentacula, or if this failed by retiring 2 


into the cell, when the vibratile action of the cilice was suspended 4 j 
and the unwelcome visitor escaped. Mr. Mitchell believes that a 
both this and other species will be found abundantly on the roots __ 


of Lemna and other fresh aquatic Plants. 


The Committee beg to acknowledge with thanks the receipt of © 
the following books. 


From the Chief Secretary. 


1. Cyclopeedia of India, Parts 11, 12, 18, 14 and 15. : 
2. A Treatise on the Small Pox, by W. C. Maclean, Eisq., M. D. 3 
3. Extract from M. C., relative to Silicate of Soda and Lime as _ 

a Protective from Fire, 7 


oct.—pkEc. 1857.] Proceedings. 159 


Catalogue of the Government Central Museum. 

Report on the Railway Department. 

Report on the Civil Dispensaries. 

On Indian Infanticide, by the Rev. John Cave Brown. 

Report on a reputed Coal Formation at Kotah, by P. W. 
Wall, Mineral Viewer. 


Orage eee 


™ 
4 


160 [No. 5, NEW SEP 
Extract from Meteorological Observaiil| 
DAIL Ii 
OcTOBER 1807. NovEMBER. | 
. |x o.:| THERMOMETERS. = OUS 
= lea g |Saa 
Als Sle Means al ce p = ie oh 
B50, q/2/ 2) 3 | 8 Bee 
Roo Dry |Wet aeia | & roe} pe =| HOO 
lrvehes CE Wass’ ior 2 Tas. Inches a 
1 | 29-831] 84-9] 78°1|95°6| 79:2, s | 0032|Hazy | 29°739) 77-8] 72-4) 8% 
2| .851/82:0|77-0/92-5| 72-41 sE| -750|Clody.| -851|75's| 76-2) 87 
3 93:2|76°8,s 8 w 916 80:1] 76°8| 87 
4 | -880| $3'1|77:2\94:°6| 79: lw Nw) ....| do | -921/79-7/76-5! 8am 
5 | -885| 83:8} 77°3| 962/782 ssw| ....|Hazy | -919|79°7|76-6| Ste. 
6 | -856| 84:0| 77°7| 92°9) 79:8) s = . | do | -913] 78-4) 74-6) 
7 | -876| 83:4|77-2|91:0| 788) = | ....|Clear. : 
8 | -901) 83-3} 76°7| 92:0) 78-5 = by s| ....|Hazy | -961| 77°7| 72:0} Bifh.. 
9 | -905|833|768/91-6790/ m | ....| do | -973|77-5/70-81 | i 
10 90°9/79-4n by x) “043 949) 76°2) 70-7] 8: 
11 | -860) 79-0| 75-4] 886] 75-4) w | 3:391|Clody.| +991] 76°1) 69:1] Sift... 
12. | 833) 77-0| 74:8] 85:8] 75°4| ww E| 0:667| Ovest.| 30-041] 75°8| 69:1) Bie. 
13 | .881/ 79:5|76-3| 88:3] 77-1] zs | 981; do | -049| 76-6|68-3| BH 
14 | -947| 76-6] 74°9| 84:5, 75°41 by HB} 3-073] do Sip... 
15 | 891} 76-8) 74:8 85:2 751jnne| 1292) do | -017| 75-2\71:7| BUR 
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17 8791771] 5 ie 29:992| 77°91 73 8 : 
18 | :888| 80°0| 76:8 87°8/77-0] s & | -022/Hazy | -987| 76°7|71- a‘ 
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21 886] 77°7| 75°83] 82:4) 75:0, Nw E}| 955] Ovest. at 
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24 79:0] 73-6] x w | 18-039 929) 75°8) 70:3) SUM 
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29 | 805/76 °6| 72°)| 84:9) 72°6IN NW do 995) 7671) 714 
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31 | 82:0) 745Iwnw] ‘O10} $| &|: | J 
3 29°854'79-6 |75'7 | 87-3] 76°4 87°726 29-948] 76-6) 71-7] 
= | um 


Oo 3 THERMOMETERS. ; 
3-5'3|———___—___—_ 3 
Bee Means. i ae fl GO : PI 
re es Eg 
2s Dry |Wet s/s | & Be nlline 
Inches| ° | 0 x © Ins. 
30029] 75 7| 68°7| 81:9) 71:2} N B ...|Hazy 
038) 75 9,68°5| 822'70°3) NE do 
*040| 74°35, 67-5) 82:1/69°5|N NE! ....| do 
-066'75°3! 66°5| 83°1/70-2) wz | ....| do 
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JAN.—MAR. 1858. ] 163 


Saag 


XI. Extract from Report on the Vegetable Products of the 
Pulney Hills. By Lrnvt. R. H. Beppome, Assistant Con- 
servator of Forests. 


(Communicated by the Madras Government. ) 


Ihave completed my tour in the Pulney range, and have thorough- 
ly explored all the slopes and the forests on them. Inmany places, 
there has at one time been a considerable quantity of Teak, and 
Blackwood (Dalbergia latifolia, and D. sissoides,) also on the north- 
ern slopes, Cungilium (Shorea robusta,) almost all the large trees of 
these timbers have been long since felled. Teak and Blackwood 
saplings are yearly springing up, these are felled, when their scant- 
ling is about that of aman’s arm, and used as posts, &c., the natives 
prizing the Teak especially as they say, that the white ants will not 


touch it. Whilst I was at Pulney, I saw ten young Teak saplings, tik 
none of them perhaps thicker than my arm, brought in by the wood- | 
cutters, and sold to an overseer as posts fora shed that he was | 
building near the public bungalow, saplings that would have yielded HW 
magnificent timber years hence. On the slopes near Pulney, and ‘ 
between that place and Verupatchy, I observed a great quantity of 
timber cut and being carted away, chiefly Vengay, ( Péerocarpus mar- 
supium,) and Veckalie (Conocarpus latifolius,) some logs of good 
"size. On the lower slopes in this direction, there is a scattering of 
_ Teak. There is also Blackwood, of this tree I observed a great 
many saplings, about the foot of the ghat which ascends to Cowa- 
jee, and for some way up the rocky slopes, they are being felled, 
however, by the wood cutters. I saw one large tree of this timber 
being carted away from the jungles, though I did not succeed in 
finding any trees of size, standing. 


Ascending to Poombary from Pulney there is a very extensive 
alpine basin with high hills all round, in this, and the ravines and 
valleys formed by the spurs to the West of it, below Ulloorankun- 
vay, | found no Teak: the timber, particularly in the large basin, 
has been much destroyed. 


Note.—Dr. Wight visited the Pulney Hills, his observations will be found in i 
this Journal, Vol, VY. p. 280, (1837.) "| 


R 


164 Vegetable Products [No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


The timber here is chiefly the following : 
Pterocarpus marsupium. (Vengay.) 
Conocarpus latifolius. (Veckalie.) 

Grewia tilizfolia (Tarrada.) 

Emblica officinalis. 

Briedelia. 

Terminalias, 2 : scarce. 

Acacia Sundra (Baga.) 

Acacia odoratissima. 

Dalbergia latifolia (Todakuttay) scarce and poor. 


Of the two Acacias, I observed several trees that had been fell- 
ed and were being cut into small logs. 

On the slopes far down below Kookul in a northerly direction, 
the jungle has been much cut, there has at one time been a good 
quantity of Cungilium (Shorea robusta) in this locality, there are 
however, only a few poor trees now left standing. ‘This timber is 
most greedily sought after by the Natives for house building. Fur- 
ther down on the spurs near the plains, and below a hill called the 
Koombootookee mallay, I found Teak. 

I visited the Mungapatty valley, lying to the West of the Pulney 
range, here the timber has been much destroyed, to make way for 
cultivation. There is no Teak here. Down the slopes to the 8. 
W. towards the Aggamullay hills, I found that the jungle had been 
much cut, the spurs in some places are pretty thickly wooded, but 


there is nothing of any value now standing. The slopes about 3 | 


Wollangum have been considerably cleared for cultivation. On 
the lowermost spurs and small rocky hills between this village and — 
that of Vellay covay (near Periakolum) I found here and there 
straggling Teak trees, and signs of a good deal having been cut, 4 

A good quantity of Teak has formerly been cut, about the pass 
from Periakolum up to the Kodakarnal, none however now re- 
mains. . 

All this Western portion of the Pulnies up to the Permaulmallay 
and Cowanjee comprizes the higher range, and is generally called 
the Verupatchy Hills. 

The higher ranges are from six to seven heanans feet in height, | 
the plateau at the top consists of undulating grassy Hills, similar to 


JAN.—MAR. 1858.] of the Pulney Hills. 165 


the Neilgherries, the grass is short and every where dotted with 
beautiful Orchideous plants (amongst which Platanthera Susanne, 
and lutea are very conspicuous,) Ophelia, Exacum, Pedicularis, 
Gentiana and many other plants peculiar to a high altitude. With 
the exception of the sholas, the higher ranges are free of any jun- 


gle or trees, save here and there a few scattered trees of “ Rhodo- 
dendron arboreum.” 


There are a good many sholas up the higher range, chiefly situat- 
ed, where there are springs or water-courses, some of these are 
very thick, and several of enormous extent, the three largest 
upon the higher range are. The Kookul shola (situated close to 
a village of that name) which extends over two hills, on the north 
Western face of the Pulnies. The Minmoordi cornal shola situat- 
ed at Pattoor on the southern side, and a large shola situated be- 
tween that and Kodacarnal. The timber in these sholas is exten- 
sively cut by the inhabitants of the Hills. The following are trees 
common in the sholas on the higher ranges. 


Cyminosma pedunculata. 
Millingtonia pungens. 
Rhododendron arboreum. 
Hedera obovata. 
Hedera rostrata. 
Hedera racemosa. 
Meesa Indica. 
Myrsine capitellata. 
Olea robusta. 

Bs Sp. 
Cinnamomum iners. (much felled by the Natives.) 
Magnolia.—? (a magnificent tree) 
Michelia Pulniensis, 
Syzygium. Sp. 
Dodonza Burmanniana. 
Rottlera peltata, 

i tinctoria. 

Pittosporum floribundum, 
Bentinckia condapana. 

Symploces, Sp. 


166 Vegetable Products [no. 6, NEW SERIES, 


Lauracee. 4 large trees. 

Elcocarpus oblongus. 

Monocera glandulifera. Enormous trees. 
Monocera tuberculata. 


Kooragoo marum. > 

Kooravoo. ? 

Velle Ore. ? 

Noorle. 

Wellatos. ? (ploughs always made of this.) 


Gnidium eriocephala. 
' There were other trees not in flower, with which I am quite un- 
acquainted, amongst these I have little doubt, there are valuable — 
timbers to be discovered. The Lime and the Orange are also found 


apparently indigenous. 
The chief products ofthe higher ranges are Rice, Mustard, Gare 


Wheat, Barley, Vendiam (Zrigonella Fanum Grecum.) 


Tennay (Selaria Italica) together with Lablab vulgaris, Limes, 


Oranges, Peaches and a few Plantains are also grown. A great 


number of low country Natives, have settled on the Pulney Hills. 
The Hill tribes are the Poliars and the Koonoovers, these latter 
tribes are most abundant on the lower Pulnies. 


From Cowajee which is situated at the foot of the Permaulmal- 
lay, the highest peak of the Pulnies, I descended to the lower range 
of the Pulnies, or as they are often called the Tandigoody and Ve- 
rupatchy Hill, they are I should judge about 4 to 5000 feet above the 
sea, or perhaps rather more. In the Arepatty valley below the Per- 
maulmallay there is a good deal of scattered jungle, the timber has 


been largely felled; the timber most common there, is the Zermi- 


nalia chebula, the Vengay, (Pierocarpus marsupium) and the Vecka- 
lie (Conocarpus latifolvus. ) 

The vallies between Vilputty and Cowajee are more or less wood- 
ed, I here also found Cungilium (Shorea robustz) but no good trees » 4 
of it left standing. The Warre bakee river runs through this valley — 
and there is a fine fall. 
trees, the only ones that have apparently escaped the general des- 
truction. Theslopes down to Tempollium are extensively wooded, 4 
and there is Teak and Cungilium, almost all destroyed, howeyer, — 


Near Pussinkud I saw a few large Teak — q 


JAN.—MAR. 1858.] of the Pulney Hills. 167 


the Cungilium is?I know still cut, and I have no doubt the Teak 
saplings also when any are found worth cutting. On the slopes 
near Pullatoor, Sandal wood is also found in small quantities. 


The lower Pulnies are much more wooded, than the higher range, 
they are almost every where covered with a rather stunted jungle 
of Trees. The following trees are most numerous, 


Conocarpus latifolius (Veckalie.) Erythrina Indica. 
Terminalia chebula. Veryabun- Sclerostylis atalantioides. 


dant. Atalantia monophylla. 
Bignonia xylocarpa, Gmelina arborea. 
Sterculia guttata. Zizyphus xylopyrus. 
Cathartocarpus fistula. Grewia tilicefolia. 
Emblica officinalis. Canthium umbellatum. 


The trees are generally rather stunted, I observed a good quan- 
tity of the black dammer tree (Canariwm strictum) towards Tyem- 
pollium. The hill people never extract the dammer, and are ap- 
parently ignorant of the uses of the tree. 


The cultivation on these lower ranges is very considerable, com- 
_ pared to that of the higher ranges, about Pumukad and Tantigoo- 
_ dy, all the vallies are under cultivation. 
The chief products of the lower ranges are Turmeric, Plantains, 
| Mustard, Castor Oil, Vendiam. (Trigonella Fenum Grecum.) 


Cumboo. (Penicillaria spicata.) 

Ragee (Hleusive coracana. ) 

Varagoo (Panicum miliaceum.) 

Tennay (Setaria Italica.) 

Mangoes, Citrons, Limes, Oranges, Cardamoms. 


_ The shola forests in the vicinity of Tandigoody and Perryoor are 
‘very extensive, and contain tress of enormous size. The black 
dammer and the wild nutmeg trees are abundant. These sholas, 
however, are daily disappearing before the Plantain groves. To 
prepare a‘Plantain grove, a large tract of shola is burnt down, this 
forms a fine soil for the Plantain, acres of fine shola are destroy- 


ed annually in this manner. 


168 Vegetable Products {No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


Near Tandigoody, Cardamoms are also cultivated to a great ex- 
tent. To form a Cardamom grove the small trees and underwood 
are burned, but the larger trees are left standing. 


The following plants yield valuable fibres for rope, &c., and are 
much used by the Natives in the lower ranges. 


Kat murke nar. (grows to a tree.).......Gnidia eriocephala. 

Wolica mati. ee leper OGM OED 0 oeeees- Grewia Asiatica. 

Surke nar..... bow sieee's vs iss viee's sc oe 6 OLOWid MAUULING@ lam | 

Artocarpus integrifolia is most abundant in all the sholas of the © 3 
lower ranges, particularly at Perryoor and Paucheloor. 

The following timbers are much used by the Natives here. 

Nawar....... (Hugenia jambolana.) 

Maiglan...... (Vitex alata.) 

Cottam pallam. (Terminalia catappa.) 

Kammalla.... (Gmelina arborea.) 


The timber of Gmelina is highly spoken of. 


The mace round the wild nutmeg (Palmanee Kam) is used by — 
Natives to color their teeth. A Beer is made from the raggee 
(Hleusine) the flowers of Vitex negundo are used as a hop to fer- : a 
ment it with. Into the toddy which they draw from the Caryota 
urens, (a tree very abundant here,) they fling in some of the bark 
of Olea robusta which immediately causes fermentation. 


Girardinia Leschenaultiana, aplant yielding a valuable fibre is most > @ 
abundant here, the natives however, are ignorant of its use. a 
The leaves of Dodonzea Burmanniana are bound on swellings pro- . 
duced by Sprains, &c., it is said with great effect, a decoction of the 
leaves is given internally in cases of leprosy. 


Folyeonunmis peace aa steie ce tha tts 


Acalypha Indica......,.....+... p used medicinally, 
Flowers of Kalanchoe grandiflora. 


The sholas are very thick about Paucheloor and less destroyed, — 
apparently than at Pandigoody. The black dammer tree is ver 4 | 
abundant here. There has atone time beena good quantity of Teak 
on the slopes between Periyur and Verupatchy and also on the 


JAN.—MAR. 1858.] of the Pulney Hills. 169 


slopes below Paucheloor, itis now almost entirely destroyed. There 
is Blackwood also, which is still at times cut and carted into Din- 
digul and Madura for sale. I did not myself observe any large 
trees of this timber standing, and as I was over a great portion of 
these jungles, there cannot be much left. 


Flora of the Pulney Hills, as observed in September and 
October, 1857. By Lizur. R. H. Beppome. 


RANUNCULACES. 
Clematis Gouriana, 
4 Wightiana, 
=< Munroii, sholas at Kodakarnal. 
Anemone Wightiana, 
Ranunculus reniformis, 
Pa Wallichianus, common. 
Naravelia Zeylanica, 


| MAGNOLIACES. 
_ *Michelia Pulniensis, | very common (Shemboo.) 
| Magnolia sp. a beautiful tree common in sholas, 
[ ANONACEZ. 
| Guatteria cerasoides, 
SCHIZANDRACES. 
| Hortonia sp. near Perryar. 
| MENISPERMACE, 
Cocculus villosus, lower slopes. 
ai glaber, 
‘ macrocarpus ? (only in fruit.) 


Clypea hernandifolia, very common. 


Notre.—Local Catalogues such as this ‘“‘ Flora Pulniensis’’ are of great use, 
illustrating the Geographical distribution of the plants of Southern India, and are 
specially commended by Dr. Royle in his observations on Provincial Exhibitions. 
)}—Ep. M. J. 


* M. Nilagirica (Zenker) in Hooker and Thomson’s Flora Indica, 


170 Flora of the [x o. 6, NEW SERIES, 


BERBERIDACER. 
Berberis tinctoria, 


Leschenaultii, 5,000 to 8,000 ft. 
CRUCIFERZ. 

Nasturtium Madagascariense, 

Cardamine Borbonica, 

Sinapis juncea, 


39 


CAPPARIDACES. 
Gynandropsis pentaphylla, 
Cleome monophylla, 
Polanisia icosandra, 
Cadaba Indica, 


Capparis horrida, Tomer clones 


»  imcanescens, 
jae @kanidis, 
RESEDACER. 
Reseda alba, common about Kodakarnal. 
FLACOURTIACE A. 
Flacourtia sapida, slopes towards Verupatchy. 
Hydnocarpus inebrians, 
VIOLACER. 
*Viola odorata, scentless. ) very common on the higher — 
>  Patrini, ranges. 4 


Tonidium enneaspermum, é 
DROSERACER, 

Drosera peltata, 

Parnassia Mysorensis, commonin moist ground near Kodacarnal. 

POLYGALACEZ. 1 

very coammon shrub, 5,000 feet and up-— 


Polygala arillata, 
wards. 


33 


‘Wiallichiana, ee in the grass on the highest. 


ranges. 
AA ciliata, 
os rosmarinifolia, 
Wightiana ? 
oe nov. sp.? asmall shrub, slopes near Periyur. | 


* Viola Wightiana, (Wall.) 


JAN.—MAR. 1858]  Pulney Hills. 171 


CARYOPHYLLACES. 
Stellaria media, moist places on the highest ranges, 
Cerastium Indicum, very common. 


Arenaria sp. 


Mollugo? sp. 
MALYVACES. 
Urena sinuata, 
ae lobata, used by the Natives as a fibre. 
Pavonia Zeylanica, covered with clammy pubescence. 


Lebretonia procumbens, lower slopes. 


Hibiscus micranthus, do. 
aA hirtus, do. white variety. 
‘a lampas, very abundant. 
Af Surattensis, lower slopes. 


, aculeatus, (Hoxb,) This is H. furcatus, (W.and_4.)but very 
different from H. furcatus, (2oxd.) 
a plant common in Central India. 


w 


2: canescens, slopes near Pulney. 

3 sp. (near Vellay covay) erect, shrubby, 
covered all over with shining hairs, 
leaves cordate, serrate, 3-5 lobed, 
petioles the length to twice the 
length of the leaves, involucel 4 
to 7 leaved, generally 5, segments 
narrow, acuminate, calyx deeply 5 
cleft, segments 3 nerved, acuminat- 
ed, purple streaked. Flowers short 
peduncled, axillary, afterwards in 
terminal racemes,elongated. Seeds 
glabrous with a few tufts of hairs. 

Perhaps “ H. lunarifolius’ but the 
involucel is generally 5 leaved never 
10, the calyx is like that_of “ canes- 
cens.” 

+4 erlocarpus, slopes towards Pulney. 


172 Flora of the fx. 6, NEW SERIES, 


Abelmoschus angulosus, 7 .4.The involucel is spathiform, and splits 
into 4 leaves, I have however often 
observed it in 4 leaves from the com- 
mencement, and never assuming the 
form of a spathe, I believe it to be 
the same as Hibiscus tetraphyllus, 
(Roxb.) which is common in central 


India. 
ys moschatus, 
Lagunea lobata, 
Abutilon polyandrum, much valued as a fibre. 
a Asiaticum, slopes. 
. Indicum, do. 
Sida humilis, do. 
acuta, do. 
BoMBACE. 

Sterculia guttata, yields a fibre, which is hardly distin- 
guishable from that of “8. villo- — 
sa,’ the valuable Elephant rope of — 
the Anamallays. 

a UrenS, 
Kydia calycina, 
Eriochleena Hookeriana, Lower ranges, very abundant. 
TROP ZOLACER. 

Tropxolum sp. very abundant. near Poombary, 

run wild? 
TILIACEA, 


Corchorus trilocularis, 
Triumfetta sp. 
Grewia abutilifolia, (Surke nar) used as a fibre. 
3 villosa, 
»,  tilieefolia, 
», Salvifolia, : 
Asiatica, . (Valce nar) used as a fibre. At the — 
Anamallays, valce nar is applied to 
Sterculia villosa. 


JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Pulney Hills. 173 


Grewia hirsuta, 

sha SP: Leaves roundish, rhomboid, 8 nerved, 
cordate at base, unequally toothed, 
slightly scabrous, peduncles axilla- 
ry, 1,2 flowered longer than petioles, 
bracteoled at base, sepals twice as 
long as petals, recurved, petals 
sharply bidentate, stigma 2 lobed, 
style clavate at apex, longer than 
stamens, nuts 1-3 shining. 


ELHOCARPACEA. 
Elzocarpus oblongus, 
Monocera tuberculata, very large trees, in sholas. 


4 glandulifera, Do. glands not always present. 
DIPTEROCARPER. 
Vatica sp. (Cungilium) vallies amongst the hills 


and slopes. Wood much prized by 
the natives. 


TERNSTR@MIACER. 
Cleyera gymnanthera, sholas. 
Cochlospermum gossypium, 
OLACACER, 
Gomphandra polymorpha, near Poombary. 
Stemonurus foetidus, do. 
AURANPIACES. 
Atalantia monophylla, 
Limonia acidissima, avery pretty wood. 
. alata, in sholas. 
Glycosmis pentaphylla, 
Feronia elephantum, 
Aegle marmelos, 
Citrus sp. 
: is very prickly climber, with ternate 
ees leaves, the fruit is eaten. 


HyPERICACER. 
Hypericum Hookerianum, very common, higher ranges. 


74 Flora of the [No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


GUTTIFERA. 
Garcinia sp. sholas. 
MALPIGHIACES. 
Hiptage Madablota, near Tandigoody, 
SAPINDACER. 
Cardiospermum canescens, lower slopes. 
a halicacabum, ,, A 
Sapindus emarginatus, +p 9» 


from the plains to the highest level, 


Dodonocea Burmanniana, < j 
> ¢ common also in the sholas. 


MILLINGTONIACER. 
Millingtonia pungens, in sholas, common. 
MELIACEZ. 
Melia azedarach, near Perryur. 
Mallea Rothii, 
CEDRELACEZ. 
Chloroxylon Swietenia, lower slopes. 
AMPELIDACEZ. 
Vitis quadrangularis, 
ae setosa, 
aN tenuifolia, : . 
. ap { gland-tipped, deep purplish, serrated — 
_ leaves. ‘ | 
p sp. Poombary valley. 
3 Rheedii, 
99 sp. 
GERANIACES. 
Geranium affine, very abundant. 
LINACES. 


Linum Mysorense, near Shambaganoor, common. 


BALsAMINACE. 
Impatiens Balsamina, 
of) arcuata, 4 
» Leschenaultii, in drying, this species tinges the paper 
a bright pink color, (Common at — 
Kodakarnal.) 


eee ee eee ee ee ee th ee ae del) atte oe te 


JAN.—MAR. 1858.] 


Impatiens albida, 


99 


93 


99 


5 ee 


campanulata, 


dasysperma, 


nov sp. 


tomentosa, 


fasciculata, 
viscida, 
NOV, sp. 


Pulney Hills. 175 


common in hill streams 5,000, to 7,000 


feet, grows to 16 or 18 feet high, 
flowers very large, of a delicate rose 
color. I never saw them white as 
described by Dr. Wight, nor does 
his plate give much idea of the plant, 
as it grows on these hills. 


in sholas very common, 6,000 to 7,000 


feet, flowers beautifully mottled 
with pink. 


capsule slightly pubescent! this 


species is readily known by the 
eurved mucro at the conjunction 
of the 2 upper sepals. 


sholas at Kodakarnal, 7,000 feet, 


glabrous, leaves alternate, lanceo- 
late acute, petioled, bristly serrate, 
racemesas long orlonger thanleaves, 
4 to 14 flowered pedicels, longer 
than petioles witha large cordate 
(convex on outside) bract at the 
base of each. 2 upper sepals wing- 
ed at their conjunction. Spur long, 
incurved with gland-tipped point, 
flowers of a uniform crimson. A 
very beautiful sp: quite unlike any 
described or figured. 

Impatiens Phenicea. 


Kodakarnal about streams, the whole 


plant is sometimes quite glabrous, 
7,000 feet. 


the commonest species on the hills. 
Kodakarnal in streams, 7,000 feet. 
(summit of Permaulmallay, in streams 


8,000 feet.) Stems 4 angled, sul- 
cated, slightly hairy, leaves opposite, 
serrate, long petioled above a few 


176 Flora of the [wo. 6, NEW SERIES, 


hairs, below glaucous, peduncles, 
longer than the leaves, smooth 
viscid, bearing 7-9 flowering race- 
mes at their apex, pedicels with a 
gland tipped filiform bract at their 
base, lateral sepals small, spur 
rather long, capsule gibbous, streak- 
ed with purple, flowers very small 
pink. A very small species, the 
whole plant not more than 4 
inches high. . 
Impatiens Pulmensis. 


OXALIDACER. 
Biophytum sensitivum, 
Oxalis corniculata, 
ZYGOPHYLLACER. 
Tribulus lanuginosus, Lower slopes. 
RUTACEZ. 
Cyminosma pedunculata, sholas. (very common.) 
: ZANTHOXYLACES. 
Toddalia aculeata, slopes towards Verupatchy. 
PITTOSPORES. - 
Pittosporum floribundum, Poombary (common.) 


CELASTRACEZ. 
Celastrus Heyneana, (Poombary valley.) 
Huonymus angulatus, (sholas) a very elegant small tree. 
RHAMNACEA, 
Zizyphus glabrata, slopes. 
»  _xylopyra, %» 
a Csnoplia, Ng 
TEREBINTHACE 2, 


Semecarpus Anacardium, 
Mangifera Indica, lower Pulney ranges. 
Odina Wodier, do. do, 


JAN.—MAR., 1858.] Pulney Mills. 177 


BURSERACE®. 


Canarium strictum, yields a black dammer, the na- 


| Abundant on the lower Pulnies, 
tives however never extract it. 


Garuga pinnata, 
Protium Roxburghianum, leaves pinnate. 
SY Fah Leaves ternate, much used for hedges; 
MoRINGACEA. 


Hyperanthera Moringa, about villages. 


LEGUMINOSZ. 
Sophora glauca, 
Crotalaria rubiginosa, 
a Wightiana, several forms of this, if they are all 
one species. 
A sp. f Stipules wanting, leaves very narrow, 


linear, with their upper surface as 
well as whole plant densely cover- 
ed with blackish hairs, vexillum 
with a tuft of hairs, otherwise si- 
milarto ‘ anthylloides.”” Common 


near Poombary. (a form of anthyl-. 
loides.) 

a anthylloides, 

a Mysorensis, 

: longipes ? agrees well with the description of 
that plant, except that the legumes 
are pubescent, (a large shrub, com- 
mon near Puttoor.) 

us paniculata, slopes near Pulney. 

Gy superfoliata, near Tandigoody. 

5 juncea, 

Leschenaultii, very common, 

Ae sericea, 


> montana, (Aoxd.) (only differs from sercea in the sti- 


pules and bracts, but so far is cone 
stant, ) 


178 Flora of the [wo. 6, NEW SERIES, — 


Crotalaria nov. sp. Herbaceous, erect,glabrous, leavesvery 
(6. Verrucosee,) narrow, linear, very obscurely nerv- 
ed, tapering at the apex into apoint. 
Stipules wanting, racemes terminal, 
many flowered, bracts adnate to the 
rachis, (asin the stipules of some 
Phaseoleee, ovate with along acumi- 
nation, calyx cleft to the middle, 
upper lip bifid, legume with a short 
thick stalk, oblong, broader up- 
wards, glabrous, many seeded. 
Flowers yellow, a very distinct _ 
species, apparently new, arare plant. 
Crotalaria elegans. 
ms Wallichiana, very common. : 
», nov. Sp.? (6. Verrucosee,) suffruticose, erect, leaves orbicular, 
smooth on the upper surface, wnder — 
surface and stems densely covered — 
with white woolly hair, stipules very — 
large, lunate, transverse, racemes ; 
terminal, calyx (cleft to the middle, — 
upper segment bifid,) pubescent, — 
bracts ovate with along acumina- ~ 
tion, legumes glabrous, many seeded, — 
flowers yellow. 12 to 15 feet. Poom- 
bary ghat. | 
Crotalaria lanata. | 
(7 Diffusee,) A very pretty procumbent species, — 
with hirsute legume, very common amongst the grass at 
Poombary and elsewhere, with 7 
very long terminal racemes of large ~ 
brilliant yellow flowers, perhaps a 
form of ‘C. Evolvuloides.”’ | 


gy, MOV.pSDs et Herbaceous, erect, much branched, — 
glabrous leaves lanceolate. | 
= Acuminated, attenuated at the base. — 


Stipules wanting racemes terminal or — 


JAN.—MAR. 1858. Pulney Hills. 179 


axillary, few flowered, bracts mi- 
nute, calyx cleft to the middle, upper 
segment deeply bifid, legumes ob- 
long, broader upwards, pubescent 
12 seeded, flowers blue, (has much 
the appearance of C. verrucosa ata 
distance, but has no stipules, and 
the leaves differ much,) arare plant, 
near Cowanjee. 


Crotalaria coerulea, 


: This species is very common on the 


Anamallays. 
. albida, common. 
ey viminea, 
4 globosa, 
A umbellata, near (Shambaganoor. ) 
5 Notonii, near Vilputty. 
“A clavata, Periyur slopes towards Canavaddy. 
4 Grahamiana, Poombary valley (very common.) 
Trigonella Fenum greecum, much cultivated. 
Pycnospora nervosa, (not common. ) 
Indigofera viscosa, 
55 pulchella, a very common shrub. 
: tenuifolia, 
Pk trifoliata, 
by parviflora, 
if Wightii, 
- sp. 
Clitoria Ternatea, 
Dumasia congesta, very common. 
Shuteria vestita, ? perhaps these 2 species might be 
= glabrata, } united, 
Notonia (Johnia) Wightii, lower Pulnies. 
Pseudarthria viscida, e » very common, 


Tephrosia tinctoria, 
oS) purpurea, 


i. a Flora of the [wo. 6, NEW SERIES, 


Smithia sensitiva, 


5, racemosa? Poombary ghat. 

Uraria hamosa, abundant lower ranges. 
Desmodium triquetrum, 

latifolium, 

.. Gangeticum, 

a Wightii? 

45 recurvatum, 

a gyrans, 

én polycarpum, 

on rufescens, very common 4,000 to 7,000 feet. 

A strangulatum, very common. 

i triflorum, 

Re parvifolium, 


Dicerma pulchellum, 
Alysicarpus bupleurifolius, 
iS styracifolius, 
Abrus precatorius, 
Rhynchosia densiflora, lower slopes. 


» (Phyllomatia), sp. Calycine segments longer than the ] 
1 seeded legume. 


5, suaveolens, at Punnikal. 
Flemingia congesta, 
Ph Grahamiana, - 
Phaseolus Pulniensis, a pretty sp. in the grass near Poom- — 


bary and Kookul. Flowers lilac, 
large, fragrant. 


Hs trinervius, 
A sublobatus, 
& sp. twining to a great extent, stipules — 


adnate, stems strigose, leaves on 
long petioles, trifoliate, terminal 4 
one ovate oval, lateral ones obli- — 
quely ovate, very unequal sided, — 
above harsh adpressed pubescence, 

below downy, peduncles longer 

than petioles, thickened, 3-4 flow- — 


JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Pulney Hills. 181 


ered at apex, flowers from glandu- 
lar knobs, legumes terete, covered 
with brown hairs. Flowers very 
large, lilac and fragrant, very com= 
mon. Can this be P. caracalla ? It 
is certainly wild. 


be trilobus, 
2% sp. (Poombary valley) flowers white, le- 
gumes compressed. 
- Dolichos glutinosus, (Poombary valley.) 
Sinensis, 
Lablab vulgaris, 
Parochetus major, moist ground, higher ranges. 
Canavalia gladiata, 
ey virosa, 
i. mollis, 
Mucuna (Citta) atropurpurea, at Tandigoody. - 
re prurita, 
Cantharospermum pauciflorum. 
= albicans, (Poombary ghat.) 
Be. 8D: very long filiform-racemes. 
Dunbaria, sp. (Poombary ghat and Vellaycovay, 


This sp. I cannot ideatify with 

3 any of Dr. Wight’s, the calyx is 

| not herbaceous, nor are the bracts 
| 8 toothed, the vexillum is as 
i muchreflexedas in “ Kennedya.”’ 


Cylista scariosa, | 
Cyanospermum tomentosum, Poombary valley, 
Erythrina Indica, 
Butea parviflora, 
»  frondosa, 
Pongamia glabra, 


Dalbergia latifolia, 
Pee) SISSOldes, 
, volubilis, 


ri paniculata, 


182 Flora of the [No 6, NEW SERIES, 


Brachypterum scandens, 
Pterocarpus marsupium, 
Inga xylocarpa, 
Dichrostachys cinerea, 
Prosopis spicigera, 
Acacia Sundra, 
>  Jatronum, 
Som amata, 
3  odoratissima, 
>»  Speciosa, 
>  ntsia, 
3,  pennata, 
Guilandina Bonduc, 
Ccesalpinia mimosoides, Perryur (very common. ) 
AS seplaria, : 
Tamarindus Indica, 
Cassia fistula, 
>> auriculata, 
» occidentalis, 
» Lora, : 
A MOSS: 
9 pumila, 


o 


3 Obtusa; lower slopes, 
Bauhinia Malabarica, a 


>,  Tacemosa, 
»  variegata, (at Vellaycovay.) 


RosacEz. 
Rubus lasiocarpus, from 3,000 feet. 
»  rugosus, from 5,000 feet. 


»  gowreephul, 
Fragaria elatior, 

i Indica, 
Potentilla Leschenaultii, 
Rosa involucrata, 
Photinia Lindleyana, 


SALICARIACEZ, 
Ammania sp. 


SAN.—MAR. 1858.]  Pulney Hills. 183 


Lagerstroemia microcarpa, 
CoMBRETACE, 
Terminalia Catappa, 
x Belerica, 
Py Chebula, 
as tomentosa, 
a paniculata, 
Conocarpus latifolius, 
Gyrocarpus Jacquini, 
M EMECYLACER, 
Memecylon sp : 
: MELASTOMACER. 
Sonerila Rheedii ? 
Osbeckia Wightii, 
i Leschenaultii, 
ee, hirsutissima, 
a Zeylanica, 
MyRrTAcE&. 
Rhodomyrtus tomentosus, Very common, berries eaten. 
Syzygium jambolanam, 


29 Sp. 
Eugenia sp. 
Careya arborea, 
ONAGRACEA. 
Jussiea repens, 
Ludwigia parviflora, 
Circcea sp. Common in grassy places near the 
large Kookul shola. 
CucURBITACER, 
Coccinea Indica, 
Bryonia Garcini, Lower slopes. 
bas laciniosa, 
+ scabrella, 
» ? Hookeriana, 
Momordica charantia, Dicecious? Leaves 3-5 lobed, sca- 
Trichosanthes ? brous above, downy beneath, with 


hard tipped serratures, female flow- 
ers racemes with large glandular 


184 Flora of the [No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


laciniate bracts, sometimes solita- 
ry, or 2 together in the axils of the 
leaves with one lanceolate bract, 
stigma 38-4 cleft, 3 sterile filaments 
inserted low down in tube of corolla. 
Male flowers with a large and more 
laciniate calyx, filaments 3 (rarely 
4) quite distinct, inserted on the 
gibbous upper part of the tube, 
anthers united, corolla very hairy on 
the inside, tendrils 2-3 cleft, flow- 
ers white. Berry globose. | 
At Tandigoody andPerryor. (Nat- 
chantalle. ) 

PASSIFLORACEA, 

Passiflora Leschenaultii, 


PoRTULACACES. 
Trianthema decandrum, 
CRASSULACER. 
Kalanchoe grandiflora, Flowers used medicinally. 
*UMBELLIFERZ. 
Hydrocotyle polycephala, Sholas (very common.) 
Sanicula elata, 5 


Bupleurumramosissimum, Abundant in the grass on the higher — 


ranges. 
Pastinaca sp. Do. do. do. 
Pimpinella Candolleana, Do. do. do. 
ARALIACES, 
Hedera rostrata, Sholas. 
Hh racemosa, do. 
rs obovata, do. very common. 
LoRANTHACE®, 
Viscum verruculosum, 
Fe angulatum, 
i grossum, P 


* Heraeleum pedatum, (Wight) may be added, see Icon. t. 342. 


JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Pulney Fills. 185 


Viscum moniliforme, (On ‘* Rhododendron arboreum,”’ very 
common, glabrous, leaves ovate, very 
obscurely nerved, thick, opposite, 
racemes axillary or terminal, many 

. flowered, pedicels short, one small 
Loranthus (Symphyan- } bract embracing the calyx. Calyx 
thus) sp: nov. ? entire or nearly so, corolla glabrous, 
ventricose at base, equally 4 cleft to 

below the middle, segments cuneate 


linear, berry oblong, flower deep 


-— 


dull orange color. 


»,  loniceroides, at Cowangee. 

. buddleoides, common on the lower ranges. 

. sarcophyllus, common. 

- amplexifolius, leaves with a transparent margin. 

is Candoileanus, at Kodakarnal. 

53 cuneatus, very common. 

a8 Euphorbie, growing on Euphorbia antiquorum, 


near foot of hills. 
(Lower slopes growing on ‘ Salva- 
dora Indica’’ rarely on ‘‘ Cordia po- 
lygama ?’’ Glabrous, branches very 
woody, leaves nearly opposite 
or approximated in threes, very 
long, linear, often much curved, of 
a thick texture, short petioled at- 
tenuated at base, obtuse or slight- 
ly acute, racemes axillary, or from 
the axils of fallen off leaves, many 
flowered, pedicelled, one bract em- 


c sp. nov. ? 


OSE ty) UPS, ey anes de eet eS 


bracing the ovary, calyx entire or 
nearly so, corolla curved, apex split 
into 5 segments, one third the 
length of the tube, segments, linear 
acute, ovary oblong crowned with 
calyx, flowers whitish with the seg- 
ments green, 


eer ae tee SE 


186 Flora of the [No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


CAPRIFOLIACES. 
Viburnum acuminatum, common at Poombary. 
5 capitellatum, a5 
Lonicera Leschenaultii, very abundant. 


RuBIACEE. 
Nauclea parvifiora, % 
Musseenda frondosa, 
Gardenia lucida, (pissanee) in sholas. 


Randia dumetorum, 

»,  uliginosa, 
Griffithia fragrans, slopes towards Verupatchy. 
Wendlandia Notoniana, very common. 
Hymenodyction excelsum, 


Hedyotis stylosa, a 
a articularis, | 
ny pruinosa, \ higher ranges only. 
5 monosperma, 
ns affinis, J flowers very fetid. 
5 Burmanniana, 
i Heynii, these 2 little plants are common in — 
+ dichotoma, hilly places in Central India. 
a aspera, lewer slopes. 
Lasianthus venulosa, sholas Kodakarnal, (berries blue.) 
*: SP» Kookul sholas, (flowers very fetid, ber=- 


ries black.) 
Canthium umbellatum, grows toa good sized tree. (lower 


Pulnies. ) 
3 parviflorum, 
Psychotrium ambiguum, 
- sp. Sholas. 


Grumilea congesta ? 
Bigelowia lasiocarpa, 
c. Roxburghiana, 
Spermacoce hispida, 
Knoxia corymbosa, very abundant. 
»  Wightiana, in the grass near Poombary. 


JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Pulney Hills. 187 


GALIACEZ. 
Rubia cordifolia, very abundant. 
Galium asperifolium, 
»  Requienianum, 
. VALERIANACER. 
Valeriana Leschenaultii, Poombary ghat. 
»  Hookeriana, Cowangee hill streams. 
DIPSACE. 
Dipsacus Leschenaultii, | common. 
CAMPANULACES. 
Campanula Alphonsii, common. 
5 fulgens, 
_ Wahlenbergia agrestis, © very common. 
- perotifolia, 
LOBELIACES. 
Lobelia trichandra, a very common plant. 
S trigona, 
PYROLACES. 
Pyrola sp. Kodakarnal. 
HRICACER. 


Gaultheria Leschenaultii, (Moorcherree) berries eaten. 
Rhododendron arboreum, very abundant. 
VACCINIACES, 
Vaccinium Neilgherrense, \ behinionl slrane: 
Leschenaultii, ¢ 
P Poombary ghat, axillary spikes of 
green flowers. 
ULMACEA. 
Celtis orientalis, from the plains to the highest ele- 
vations, 
STYRACE, 
Symplocos Gardneriana,  sholas. 
i pendula, Kodakarnal, banks of streams. 
EBENACEA. 
Maba Neilgherrensis, 


AQUIFOLIACE, 
Monetia tetracantha, 


188 Flora of the [No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


APOCcYNACE. 
Carissa Carandas, 
Ophioxylon Neilgherrense, near Puttoor. 
Vinca pusilla, fields. 
Wrightia tinctoria, 
Alstonia venenata, 
Ichnocarpus frutescens, 
Kchites sp. slopes near Pulney. 


LOGANIACEE. 
Strychnos nux-vomica, 
Gardnera Wallichiana, sholas. 
Fagrea Coromandeliana, 
ASCLEPIACEE. 
Hemidesmus Indicus, 
Holostemma Rheedianum, 
Calotropis gigantea, 
Sarcostigma brevispina, 
- Sp. 
Deemia extensa, 
Cynanchum pauciflorum, Kookul. 


Tylophora mollissima, common. 

sf tenuissima, sholas. 
Hoya viridiflora, i 

5)  paucifiora, a rare and beautiful parasite. 

Ceropegia intermedia, 

a, acuminata, 

o6 tuberosa, _ slopes towards Verupatchy. 

juncea, lower slopes. 

a elegans, (Root fibrous, leavesremote, lanceolate, 


| tapering tu a long point, slightly 
hairy, covered with minute dots, ra-_ 
| cemes cyme like, axillary, 2—6 flow- 

= sp. ered, flowers very large, greenish, 
upper part of tube and segments 

speckled with purple, segments of ~ 

calyx, very narrow and acute, 

nearly allied to C, Decaisneana, a 

_( bulbous plant. 4 


JAN.—MAR. 1858]  Pulney Hills. 189 


(Stem filiform, with a few narrow 
‘ linear leaves near the apex, hardly 
two lines broad, flowers bell shaped, 
Caralluma ? drooping, purple. (Poombary val- 
ley.) I unfortunately lost the only 
1 Specimen that I found of this curi- 
| ous little plant. 
Boucerosia diffusa, on rocks. 


OROBANCHACES. 


#iginetia pedunculata, flowers of a most lovely deep blue, 
; parasitic on the roots of a grass. 
Oligopholis tubulosa, Kodakarnal shola. 


Campbellia sp. Tandigoody sholas. 


GENTIANACEE. 


Gentiana verticellata, 
Ophelia elegans, ; higher ranges, 
»,  Griesbachiana, glands on the petals most abundant 


very hairy. in the grass. 
Halenia Perrottetii, borders of sholas common. 
Exacum tetragonum, 
.. Perrottetii, abundant near Poombary, a very 


beatiful species. 
(herbaceous, erect, glabrous, leaves 
| opposite, broadly ovate, stem clasp- 
1 ing,5—7 nerved, suddenly acumi- 
J nated, 2 bracts about the centre of 
z eA 1 the peduncles, flowers very large of 
oats deep blue. Poombary and Koda- 
| karnal. (Introduced into gardens at 

\. the latter place.) 

a pedunculare, 
Canscora diffusa, 


SoLANACE.Z. 


Solanum sp. Shrubby, erect, leaves petioled, ovate 
lanceolate, acuminated at bothends, 


190 Flora of the [wo. 6, NEW SERIES, 


stems and every part but the flow- 

ers coveredwitk longish weak hairs, 

flowers axillary 2-3 together, on 

peduncles a little longer than the 

petioles, berries small, 6 seeded, In 

sholas, grows to 12 feet high. 
Solanum ferox, higher ranges common, 

»  giganteum, do: Grade: do. 

> indicum, 

> rubrum, 

»» pubescens, Lower slopes (flowers purplish.) 7 
Datura fastuosa, 
Physalis minima, 4 

»»  Peruviana? The Brazil cherry (so called,) is wild — 
all over the hills ; it has I suppose 
been introduced. 


OLEACES. 


Olea robusta, Bits of the bark are thrown into the 
toddy extracted from Caryota urens, 
to cause fermentation. 


CoRDIACER. 
Cordia myxa, Lower slopes. 
»  polygama? > » near Chattrapatty. 
*CoNVOVLYULACES. 
Evolvulus alsinoides, 
Porana racemosa, a rare plant, slopes near Cowangee. 
Convolvulus rufescens, common on the higher ranges, 6 to 


7,000 feet. 
Calofyction speciosum, valleys and slopes. 4 
Ipomea Wightii, common at Puttoor and Poombary; 
(I have since found this flowers very large, (the calyx and F 
sp. on the plains at the leaves are much like those of 9 
Anamallay.) I. pilosa,) 6 to 7,000 feet. 


® Of these only 3, viz. Ipomea Wightii, I. nov. sp?2, and Convolvulus rufescens — 
inhabit the higher elevations. 4 


 JAN.—MAR. 1858. | Pulney Hills. 191 


Ipomea pilosa, } 

., hispida, 

dentata, on the 

» striata, 1 slopesofthe 

5, . staphylina, an enormous climber. hills ariel 

A pes tigridis, in valleys. 

a pileata, 

25 tuberculata, 

a obscura, 

Po MON. Sp: > Procumbent, stems, leaves and calyx 
strigose, leaves alternate, distant, 
narrow, cordate, flowers axillary, 
solitary, short peduncled, calyx with 
the 3 outer sepals, ovate, the 2inner 
linear, and longer than the outer 
ones, 2 bracts below the calyx, cap- 
sule——-, flowers lilac, rather large; 
in the grass near Puttoor, 6,000 
feet. 

Hewittia bicolor, Slopes. 
Pharbitis nil, Lower Pulnies. 
Rivea cuneata, do. do. 
», bona nox, Slopes. 
Argyrela aggregata, - 
pomacea, » 
hirsuta? se 
Aniseia uniflora, Alpine vallies 3,000 feet. 
PLUMBAGINACEZ, 
Piumbago Zeylanica, 
PRIMULACES. 
-Lysimachia Leschenaultii, (very common.) 
Anagallis latifolia, (fields. ) 
Micropyxis tenella, (Kodakornal. ) 
MYRSINACEZ. 
Mesa Indica, very common in Sholas. 


Kmbelia Tsjeriam-cottam, at Vilputty and Perryur, 
Myrsine capitellata, in sholas, common. 


192 Flora of the [No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


Ardisia humilis, sholas. 
a pauciflora ? sholas at Kookul. 
JASMINACER. 
Jasminum revolutum, 
9 brevilobum, higher ranges, all common. 
s rigidum, 
3 sp. lower slopes. 
SALVADORACE. 
Salvadora Indica, lower slopes. 
HHRETIACEZ. 
Ehretia aspera, Pautcheloor slopes. 
39 sp. = 39 93 
Heliotropium Rottleri, lower slopes. 
BoRAGINACEZ. 


Trichodesma Zeylanica, lower slopes. 
Cynoglossum furcatum, higher ranges. 


LAMIACEA. 

Ocimum sp. 
Orthosiphon sp. 
Plectranthus Wightii, common. 

35 sp. (obovate bracts.) 

» sp. tek g 
Coleus barbatus, very common. 

»» Spicatus, at Perryur. 
Anisochilus albidus, 

is purpureus, 

“ sp. on rocks, with silvery leaves. 

a Sp. a large shrub, with cordate serrate 


leaves, vely common. 
Pogostemon rotundatum, 


: sp. 
9 Sp. 
Dysophylla auricularia, 
Micromeria biflora, higher ranges, common. 
Melissa umbrosa, sholas, common. 


Prunella vulgaris, at Poombary. 


Bee 1858) Pulley Hills. | 19g 


Scutellaria violacea, very common. 
yy) Sp. 
tee: aetuifolia, Common in the grass on the higher 


ranges. 

pee bitlora, 

ae) cephalotes, 

a oD: Lanceolate serrate leaves, dense capi- 
tate or axillary heads of flowers, 
whole plant densely covered with 
deflexed brown hairs. 

Leonotis nepetefolia, 
Teucrium tomentosum, 


VERBENACES. 
Stachytarpheta sp. Slopes near Pulney, most abundant, 
flowers blue, 
is sp. common near Perryur, a handsome 


plant with lilac flowers, not unlike 
S. mutabilis. 


Bouchea? Lower slopes. 
Lantana Indica, Very common, 
Vitex negundo, Perryur, flowers used to ferment a 
beer that the natives make from the 
Ragee. 
cevey, alata, 


Premna Wightiana, 
», cordifolia, 
3, tomentosa, 


Slopes near Verupatchy. 


Tectona grandis, Lower slopes. 
Gmelina arborea, Wood much valued by the natives, 
Peryur. 


» Clerodendron infortunatum, Sholas. 


4 serratum, a very common plant. 
|. Callicarpa Wallichiana, Sholas. 
PEDALIACE. 
Pedalium murex, Lower slopes. 
GESNERACES. 


Klugia sp, (Lower lip of corol 3 lobed.) 


194 Flora of the [No. 6, NEW SERIES, _ 


Alischynanthus Ceylanica, A beautiful and rare parasite, the 
leaves are those of a Hoya. 
Didymocarpus tomentosus, Very common, 500 feet up to 6000. 


. BIGNONIACEE. 
Stereospermum sp. There is a tree of this sp. in the 
Madras Horticultural Garden, it 


does not appear to be described. 
Bignonia xylocarpa, 


ACANTHACES. 
Thunbergia fragrans, Very common. 
Dyschoriste littoralis, (Lower slopes.) 
Dipteracanthus patulus, 95 55 


Phlebophyllum Kunthia- ae common in the grass on tho — 

num, higher rangese 
Stenosiphonium Rusellia- 

num, near Kodakarnal. 
Strobilanthes micranthus, Poombary in hedges. 
Asystasia Coromandeliana, 

. sp. apparently with bright yellow flowers. 
the same as the above. 


Barleria buxifolia, Lower slopes. 
Bs cuspidata, zs 
33 Sp. 33 >) 5 
»  prionitis, Be 5 
= sp. avery large shrub 15 to 20 feet high, - 


with ovate lanceolate, acuminate 
leaves, perfectly covered with very 
large blue flowers; a very hand-_ 
some sp. Poombary ghat, sholas 
near Vilputty. 
Blepharis Madraspatensis, 
Crossandra infundibulifor- 
mis, very common. 3 
Endopogon ? ? This like “‘ Endopogon strobilanthes’’ 
has the corolla of Endopogon but — 
has 4 stamens; shrubby, leaves 


JAN.—MAR.1858.] Pulney Hills. 195 


opposite, ovate, serrate, generally 
very unequal in size,long petioled, 
minutely dotted and covered with 
a harsh pubescenee, flowers from 
axillary peduncled capitate heads, 
surrounded by broad hairy bracts, — 
flowers pale blue. Kookul, com- 


mon in hedges close to the village. 
Hemigraphis latebrosa, 


Rostellularia procumbens, borders of sholas. 
99 Sp. 

Eranthemum montanum, 
Adhatoda Vasica, 

betonica, 
-Rhinacanthus communis, 
Rungia pectinata, 

7" ? a shrub in Kodakarnal shola. 
Rhaphidospora glaber, lower slopes. 
Andrographis Wightiana, in sholas. 


“i Neesiana, do. 
SS paniculata, 
Bs viscosula, in sholas. 
Leptacanthus ? in sholas below Kookul ghat. 
ScROPHULARIACES. 


a pretty yellow flowered annual, com- 


Verbascum ? mon in the grass on the higher 
ranges. 

Limnophila sp. 

Torenia Asiatica, moist places, very common. 

Vandellia crustacea, 

Bonnaya sp. fields near Vilputty. 


Buddlea discolor, 
Striga densiflora, 
,», ? orobanchioides,? yellow flowers. 
Gerardia delphinifolia, very common. 
Pedicularis Zeylanica, most abundant on the higher ranges. 


196 Flora of the [No. 6, NEW sERIZS, q 


UTRICULARIACER. 
Utricularia Wallichiana, 
3 humilis, 
a racemosa, 
NycTAGINACE. 
Boerhaavia procumbens, 
Me humilis, 
Pisonia aculeata, lower slopes. 
he Bee AMARANTACEZ. 
Achyranthes aspera, 
5 sp. 
Euxolus caudatus, lower slopes near Pulney. 
Psilotrichum nudum, is oe es 
/frua floribunda, . 
Amaranthus frumentaceus, (A flour is made from the seed. 
Celosia pulchella, | 
5 argentea, 
CHENOPODIACEZ. 


Chenopodium ambrosioides, An abundant weed about Perryur. 4 


POLYGONACEZ. 
Polygonum Nepalense, Kookul in fields. 
33 Chinense, Very common, used medicinally. 

Rumex Nepalense, Kookul. ‘ 

BEGONIACES. 
Begonia dipetala, Abundant. 

LAURACES. 

Cinnamomum iners, Sholas very common. 


Alseodaphne semicarpifolia, Sholas. 
Cylicodaphne Wightiana, 
Tetranthera tomentosa, 

and 3 other trees of this order. 


: MYRISTICACEX. 
Myristica sp. ' (Palmanee kam.)- 


- tomentosa? the mace round the nut is used by 


93 
the natives to color their teeth. 


JAN.—MAR. 1858. | Pulney Hills. 197 


ELEAGNACES. 
Elzagnus latifolius, very common, the berries are eaten. 


THYMELACEZ, ; 
grows to a tree in the Kookul shola, 
Gnidia eriocephala, much used by the natives as a fibre, 
and called Kat murke nar. 
SANTALACEA, 
Thesium Wightianum, near Kodakarnal. 
Osyris Wightiana, the bark is eaten like suparee with 
chunam, it turns the saliva red, a 
common shrub. 


Santalum album, near Pullatoor. 
ARISTOLOCHIACER. 
Aristolochia Indica, 
es acuminata, 
HUPHORBIACES. 
Euphorbia Rothiana, 
Be trigona, | 
3 antiquorum, 
oe fecal, aiteee slopes, 
Me Nivulia, J 
Dalechampia velutina, common near Perryur. 
Tragia involucrata, 
is sp. densely covered with reddish hairs, 
(at Poombary common.) 
Acalypha Indica, 
= 5 a shrub, slopes towards Verupatchy. 
Macaranga Indica, (Arboreous, dizecious, leaves opposite, 


oblong, lanceolate, attenuated at 
both ends, serrate towards apex, 
glabrous—below covered with re- 
Claoxylon sp. ~ sinous dots, spikes axillary, male 
flowers glomerate, (not amentace- 
ous), spikes about the length of 
leaves—styles 3, capsule tricoccous 
U muricated. 


198 Flora of the [wo. 6, NEW SERIES, 


Givotia Rottleriformis, very common. 
Ricinus communis, 


Rottlera peltata, a common tree. 
ia tinctoria, 
Baliospermum polyandrum, 
Briedelia spinosa ? lower slopes. 
= sp. do. 


Cluytia collina, 

Phyllanthus, 2 species, 

Melanthesa turbinata, 

Emblica officinalis, very common. 

Perryur—a large shrub, opposite, — 
lanceolate, shining, serrate leaves, — 
dense amentaceous axillary spikes. 


Glochidion ? 


very common on the higher ranges. 
common about Tandigoody, a sa 


Sarcococca trinervia, 
Reéidia floribunda, 

plant. 

leaves and stems covered with a few ; 

Macrea Rheedii? i silvery hairs, especially below, 4 

margins ciliated. . 

(shrubby, erect, stems angled, glabr- 3 

ous, leaves nearly sessile, oval, 

»» «SP. 4 whitish below, margins revolute— : 

| female pedicels half the length of 

L the leaves. 


URTICACEZ. 
Urtica vesicaria, sholas at Tandigoody. 
Laportea terminalis, a severely stinging plant. 


Girardinia Leschenaultiana, stings severely. Flowers used ne 
dicinally, very common, 


Elatostema cuspidata, abundant. 
Pilea trinervia, 
Bo Sp: 
Splitgerbera? with very large caducous stipules. 
Pouzolzia, 8 species, a 
CANNABINACES. 


Cannabis sativa, 


JAN.—MAR. 1808.] Pulney Hills. 199 


MoRACEA. 
Dorstenia Indica, at Tandigoody. 
Covellia ? (Ficus), an enormous climber. 
Ficus, 8 or 9 sp. all trees, 
ARTOCARPACES. 
Artocarpus integrifolia, | abundant in sholas on the lower 
ranges. 
Conocephalus niveus, common, lower range. 
Trophis aspera, lower slopes, common. 
ANTIDESMEACE. 
Antidesma paniculata, 
PIPERACES. 
Peperomia Wightiana, very common. 
ps Dindigulensis, 
er reflexa, 
Piper attenuatum, 
» Wightii, 
CHLORANTHACES. 


Sarcandra chloranthoides, 


DioscoREACE, 
Dioscorea tomentosa, 
ss pentaphylla, roots eaten. 
3 sp. 
SMILACES. 
Smilax Zeylanica, sholas near Cowangee. 
» maculata, very common, apolymorphous species. 
CYCADACEZ. 
Cycas circinalis, 
ORCHIDACEZ. 
Liparis olivacea, on rocks. 


99 atropurpurea, 
Oberonia Arnottiana, 
»  verticillata, 
He sp. aminutesp. Permaulmallay (on trees) 
8000 feet, 


200 


Microstylis Rheedii, 
Ae versicolor, 
Dendrobium filiforme, 


Coelogyne corrugata, 
Pholidota imbricata, 
Ania latifolia, 


Eulophia ramentacea, 


Vanda Roxburghil, 


Saccolabium guttatum, 


i Wightianum, 


/@rides Lindleyana, 
Sarcanthus filiformis, 
Cymbidium aloifolium, 
Polystachya luteola, 
Calanthe Perrottetii, 


Satyrium sp. 


Platanthera Susanne, 


* lutea, 
- iantha, 
ys affinis, 


Peristylus exilis, 


Habenaria peristyloides, 


Sait elliptica, 

55 plantaginea, 

Ae longicalcarata, 
35 montana, 

“ Lindleyana, 


Ate virens, 
Josephia latifolia, 


Spiranthes Australis, 


Flora of the 


[No. 6, NEW SERIEs, 


on trees in sholas on the Permaul- 
mallay. 

on rocks near Vilputty. 
beautiful plant.) 


(A most 


e. 

rare, slopes between Kodakarnal and : 
Velaycovay. 
lower slopes. 


at Poombary. 
on rocks near Tandigoody. 


very common in sholas. (A most beau- 
tiful species.) 4 | 
very abundant all over the highesl : 
ranges, flowers a lively pink. | 7 
at Kookul and Shambaganoor, very” 
common in the grass. 4 
similar places to the last. 
Kookul ghat, a rare plant Se 
near Kookul. 


the commonest Orchid on the hills. _ 
common. 


apparently more than one species, in 
grass near Kodakarnal, 


—san.—mar. 1858.)  Pulney Hills. 201 


XYRIDACER. 
Xyris Indica, 
CoMMELYNACES. 
Commelyna polyspatha, 

“3 Bengalensis, 
Dictyospermum protensum, in sholas, 
Aneilema paniculata, — 

Cyanotis cristata, 


ee pilosa, 
JUNCACER, 
_ Juneus sp. 
: ss sp. 
3 MELANTHACES. 
Disporum sp. 
Gloriosa superba, 
LILIACES. 
Lilium Wallichianum, very abundant higher ranges. 
Sanseviera Zeylanica, lower slopes. 
Anthericum tuberosum, 
Asparagus racemosus, 
Phalangium sp. 
Ophiopogon Indicus, 
Peliosanthes sp. — 
PONTEDERACEZ. 
Pontederia vaginalis, 
ZINGIBERACEZ. 


Zingiber squarrosum, 
Curcuma montana, 
Elettaria Cardamomum, much cultivated. 
Hedychium coronarium, banks of streams abundant. 
% + variety with straw colored flowers, 
Costus speciosus, 
MARANTACES. 
Canna ‘sp. Sholas at Tandigoody. 
AMARYLLIDACER, 
Crinum sp. 


202 Fiora of the Pulney Hills. [No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


Hi yPpoxXIDACE2. 
Curculigo orchioides, 
- sp. 
; ARACE. 
Arum sp. Poombary well, 
ESE Sholas near Kodakarnal. 
PANDANACEZ. 


Pandanus odoratissimus, 


PALMACEZ. 
Areca, (Kat pan.) 
Caryota urens, Lower ranges, a fibre is made from 


the peduncle. 
Borassus flabelliformis, about villages, lower ranges. 


Bentinckia condapana, Sholas. 

Pheenix sp. 

Cocos nucifera, rare about villages. 
EqQuisETACE. 

Equisetum sp. Poombary valley. 


GRAMINACEZ AND CYPERACEZ. 
Are both abundantly represented on these hills. 


BRYACEZ. 
This order is abundant. 2 
LYcoPODIACEZ. 
Five or siX species, 
OPHIOGLOSSACEZ. 
Several species, 
PoLYPODIACER. 


Between 40 and 50 sp. all I believe Neilgherry forms. 
I have not attempted to name the Composite, in the above cata- 
logue, there are many of the larger Neilgherry forms, 


The above is not supposed to include nearly all the flora of the 
sholas (or moist woods) of the higher ranges, especially the trees, 
few of which were in flower at the period of my visit to these 
mountains, 


tet 


JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Notes of an excursion, &c. &c. 205 


XII. Noles of an excursion along the Travancore Backwater. 
By Captain Heper Drury, 45th N. I. 


During a recent trip by water from Trevandrum to Cochin, it 
struck me that a few notes descriptive of what may be seen in the 
course of a hundred and thirty miles of the Western Coast might 
not be altogether devoid of interest. The country Iam about to 
describe lies within the kingdom of Tranvancore, the southernmost 
portion of Malayala, formerly known as the kingdom of Kerala, 
which comprised what is now designated Malabar and Canara, in- 
cluding the principalities of Travancore and Cochin. Travancore 
may be said to commence at Cape Comorin, and to include a nar- 
rowslip of territory lying between the Ghauts and the sea extending 
to within 20 miles of the town of Cochin, the total length being 
about 175 miles, and the breadth varying from 25 to 70 miles. The 
farthest distance, viz., from Cochin to a mountainous peak on the 
east boundary has been calculated at 75 miles, averaging about 35 
miles throughout the entire distance, the total area comprising from 
600 to 700 square miles, and within these limits is a country diversi- 
fied by scenery of the most unparalleled beauty, rich and teeming 
with the products of nature. The high mountain land which forms 
its eastern boundary is covered with dense forests, while the peri- 
odical rains which render the soil so fertile, cause the most profuse 
vegetation to spring up, giving a charming appearance of freshness 
_ and verdure unknown to the inhabitants of the eastern coast. 

As it is not my purpose to write a description of Travancore, I 
proceed at once to record such features or incidents as I noted in 
the journey recently undertaken. There are two routes on leaying 
Trevandrum for the north, one by the road, and the other by the 
eanal. I chose the fcrmer, for the canal is long, tedious and unin- 
teresting, whereas by land the distance is only eleven miles to 
Cunneapooram, where you at once reach the open backwater. The 
road is-througha fine semi-cleared jungle, rich in Botanical products, 


| _and though not thickly populated, a few villages occur at distant 


intervals, the largest of which are Ooloor and Wulleecotum, To 
a person arriving from the Coromandel Coast, the aspect ofa vil- 


204 Notes of an excursion along [No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


lage in this part of the country cannot fail to excite surprise and 
interest, awakening associations of comfort and cleanliness, if not 
of a superior stage of civilisation, to which the tree-less and half- 
deserted villages on the other side of the Ghauts present a sad 
contrast. The great ambition of the Travancoreans, even of the 
lowest class, is to possess a garden, wherein they can grow with 
searcely any trouble or expense, the few necessaries of existence. 
Nature too flings her stores with such a liberal hand that little 
care is requisite in rearing the vegetable products which these 
people live upon. Hence it is that a Travancorean village is 
a series of huts, enclosed in gardens wearing an eternal verdure ~ 
fresh and cheerful to the eye. The peculiar trees which succeed q 
so well in this moist climate, combine to render the Nair cottages | 
and gardens most picturesque and comfortable. In one small en- 
closure may beseen grouped together the graceful Areca Palm 
(Areca Catechu,) the Jack tree (Arlocarpus integrifolius,) with the 
Pepper vine (Pzper Negrum) climbing up its bark. The Sago Palm 
(Caryota urens), the Talipot Palm (Corypha umbraculifera), besides 
the Cocoa palm, Plantain, Tamarind and Mango trees, &c. These 
gardens are protected by mud walls or hedges of different heights, 
and are traversed by little lanes and bye ways. That such too has 
been the custom for centuries, may be known from an ancient* 
book in my possession whose author describes them much as they 
are in the present day. Of the Nairs he records. ‘ They inhabite 
no Towns, but dwell in houses made of earth invironed with hedges 
and woods, and their waies as intricate as into a laborinth.”’ These 
Nairs—the principal inhabitants of Travancore—have, I am inclin- 
ed to think, degenerated from that martial valour for which their — 
ancestors were once sorenowned. Lightly clad, and witha remark- | 
able fairness of complexion, they appear to partake more of an | 
effeminate disposition than that described by earlier writers. It is 


a known fact that a Nair cannot, as a rule, bear transplantation — | 


from his native soil. Ina foreign country he pines away and dies; 


yet in former days the habits of the Nair were peculiarly military | 


and he was trained to hardship and the exercise of war from his 
earliest youth. The above quoted author remarks on this point. 


* Johnson’s Relations of the most Famous Kingdom in the World, 4to, 1611. 


JAN.—MAR. 1858.] the Travancore Backwater. 208 


** It is strange to see how ready the Souldiour of this country is 
at his weapons: they are all gentile men and tearmed Naires. At 
seven years of age they are put to school to learn the use of their 
weapons, where, to make them nimble and active, their sinnewes 
and joints are stretched by skilful fellows, and annointed with the 
oyle Sesamus : by this annointing they become so light and nimble 
that they will winde and turn their bodies as if they had no bones, 
casting them forward, backward, high, and low even to the aston- 
ishment of the beholders. Their continual delight is in their weapon 
perswading themselves that no nation goeth beyond them in skill 
and dexterity.’’ This description would be more applicable to a 
Parthian horseman or Roman Athlete than to the mild and delicate 
looking Nair of the present day. 


But the most peculiar feature in the domestic life of the Nair is 
in the institution of marriage, and the customs which result from 
his mode of observing this ceremony, so different from nearly all 
other nations of the world. The ceremony of marriage (the term 
ig a complete misnomer,) is performed at an early age by one of the 
near male relations of the family, usually by a cousin. When the 
forms attendant upon this nominal union have taken place, all 
communication between the youthful pair ceases, and the girl re- 
turns to her relations. On arriving at or near the age of maturity, 
a more real ceremony is performed, when another husband pre- 
ssents himself, and this couple now become man and wife; but 
should the husband after a certain period not be pleased with the 
lady of his choice, he has the option of returning her to her parents 
or relatives, when both are at liberty to seek a fresh union in other 
quarters. No disgrace is attached to this proceeding, nor is the 
summary divorce and violent disruption of the marriage tie in any 
way illegal. There isin point of fact, no actual marriage such as 
we understand the sacred institution, and it is in consequence of a 
custom so abhorrent to our feelings of propriety, and one so sub- 
versive of everything which should create and strengthen the ties 
and relationship of domestic life, that in cases of heirdom either to 
the throne of the royal family, or the succession to property, the 
descent is recognised only inthe female line. The nephew, not the 
son, becomes the heir. Truly the remark which Telemachus mekes 


206 Notes of an excursion along [No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


to Minerva is most worthily appropriate to the Nair race.* From 
so strange a custom the moral tone of the inhabitants may be better 
conceived than} described. The same practice obtains, I believe in 
Nepaul. 

Returning from this digression on the Nair race, I come again to 
speak of the road I was traversing and which I remarked was one 
full of treasures for the botanical collector. It is a garden of wild 
plants the whole way, for scattered on either side are 

‘ The living herbs, profusely wild, 


O’er all the deep green earth, beyond the power 
Of Botanist to number up their tribes.’ 


In enumerating afew of the trees and shrubs, which are met 
with, perhaps I may convey some idea of the Flora of these parts. 
Among the most conspicuous trees are many fine specimens of the 
Vateria Indica with its large panicles of white flowers, and bright 
green leaves whose veins are so prominently marked. It is well 
known that this tree, (commonly called the Piney Varnish tree,) 
yields a valuable Dammer resin. The Piney Gum or Indian Copal, 
as it is sometimes termed, is much used in these parts for varnish- 
ing doors and window frames, candles have also been made of a 
solid oil contained in it. The experimental manufacture which 
was conducted by Dr. Wight succeeded, but the cost of transmission 
to England precluded the hope of profit. The-Resin flows sponta- 
neously or is procured by making vertical and horizontal incisions 
in the bark, from which in the course of 12, or 24 hours it exudes 


very freely. The Natives state there are two varieties of this tree, 


one growing at the foot of the hills yielding a different colored 
dammer, but this I suspect is a mistake; and there is little or no 


difference in the trees, but that the difference in the color of resin — j 


is owing to local causes, probably from the season in which it is 
procured. It is probable that the ‘ green’ dammer is obtained 


* <¢ Stranger! I tell thee true ; my mother’s voice, 
Affirms me his, but, since no mortal knows 
His derivation, I affirm it not.” 


Hom. OdyssI. 216. Cowpers translation. 
+ For a fall detail of this extraordinary custom of the Nairs, see Buchanan’s 
Journey Vol. 2. p. 411, 513, 


JAN—MAR, 1858.] the Travancore Backwater. 207 


from the Vatica Tumbagaia, a tree which I know from speci- 
mens before me, yields a dammer *resin; of a beautiful light green 
colour. Another resin similar to the Piney is yielded by the Cana- 
rium strictum, a tree very plentiful at the base of these mountains 
but which has hitherto attracted less notice than it deserves. Allthe 
above trees belong to the natural families of Dipterocarps or Tere- 
binths, both peculiar for yielding resin. Another handsome tree 
with dark green foliage growing here is the Hebradendron gambo- 
gioides. ‘This and several Garcinias are common in these jungles. 
A considerable quantity of Gamboge exudes spontaneously in 
largish tears from the trunk, but the quantity procurableis much in- 
creased by incision. ‘The Natives eat the fruit of some of the Gar- 
cinias with much relish, The Embryopterts glutinifera, or wild Man- 
gosteen is herefound. ‘This tree is very like the Mangosteen in 
appearance, and if introduced in gardens would be very ornamental. 
The viscid juice which surrounds the seeds is used by carpenters as 
a useful glue, but the fruit is quite uneatable. The Arlanthus Mala- 
6aricus isnot uncommon. ‘The resin which exudes from the bark 
is known as Muttee pal, and is said to be a sovereign remedy in 
dysenteric affections. It has very balsamic properties. The Calo- 
santhes Indica, Macaranga Indica and tomentosa are plentiful. — 
The glutinous fluid which flows from the petioles and branches 

_when broken off exudes from both the above species of Macaranga. 
The large leaves of M7. tomentosa are hoary beneath with a soft white 
down, and are used in the bazars for wrapping spices, and similar 
articles, for purchasers. dlstonia scholaris, Plumiera acuminata, 
Odina Wodier and other large trees, are most deserving of men- 
tion, while conspicuous among lesser shrubs, is Gloriosa superba 
with its bright orange and yellow flowers so curiously arranged 
creeping from bush to bush, decidedly the most gorgeous of Indian 
creepers. The root is said to be poisonous. The Memecylon 
amplexicaule is a tropical shrub, which when its flowering stem of 
deep blue florets is in full blossom, cannot be sufficiently admired. 
The Mussenda frondosa with its white calycine leaf, contrasting so 
strongly with its orange coloured petals, Zabernemoniana crispa, 


* For information as to the varictics of Dammer, see Jury Report of Madras 
Exhibition.—Ep, 


208 Notes of an excursion along [No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


Dodonea angustifolia, and Connarus monocarpus are also in abund- 
ance here. This latter shrub has flowers of exquisite fragrance, and 
is constantly in blossom The black seed is surrounded by a yellow 
pulpy aril which is used by the Natives in the following cases. 
There is a kind of worm which attacks their feet when bathing in 
tanks or walking in muddy places and by the application of the 
aril of this seed the worm is either destroyed or expelled. A pretty 
flowering shrub along the road side is the Osbechia aspera and a 
smaller species the O. virgata. Carissas are very frequent, the Holos- 
temma Rheedit, a charming creeper may occasionally may be met with. 
It is the Adakodien of the Hortus Malabaricus. Asa creeper for 
trellis work few Asclepiads could vie with its elegant flowers in 
beauty, Asystasia Coromandeliana, (a variety with yellow flowers 
like our English Primrose,) and a beautiful epiphyte the Vanda 
spathulata of a deeper yellow still are common. But I have no space 
to enumerate all the beauties of Floras that might be gathered in a 
ramble through thesejungles. Among others may be found Lvésea 
Zeylanica, Careya arborea, Syzyguum Zeylanicum, Ixora coccinea, 
Vitis lanata, Gratiola monmera, Cyanolis axillaris, Bryophyllum 
calycinum, Morinda exserta, Caliiearpa lanata, Smilax ovalifoha, &c., 
&c. On reaching Cunneapooram, there is great abundance of the 
Calophyllum spurium, which tree is easily recognised by its young 
leaves being of a reddish brown hue, giving a singular appearance 
to the forests at the season of the year when they begin to sprout. 
At this time (October) the tree is in full flower. 


At Cunneapooram the back-water commences. Here a hybrid 
kind of boat for the reception of the Palankeen was in readiness. 
This is called a Jangadum, and consists of two canoes lashed to- 
gether with a platform over them. Upon this latter flooring the 
palkee is placed, and the whole is urged lazily through the water, 
two rowers and two men with long bamboo poles. The water here 
is rather wide in some places—but not deep. The banks are lined 
with the Cocoa palm andlow brush-wood, There is no object of 
interest until you come to the town or rather village of Anjengo, 
formerly a place of some note in our early commercial relations 
with these parts, but now a desolute and almost deserted spot. 
Anjengo, a corruption of two Tamil words ‘“ Unjee Tenkal” the 


JAN.—MAR. 1858.] the Travancore Backwater. 209 


five Cocoa trees. The remains of the Fort are close to the water 
edge, now filled with rubbish and jungle. 


At Anjengo was for many years an English factory. It rose into 
importance upon the decline of Quilon, and was one of the last re- 
tained by us on this Coast. The Portuguese were the earliest pos- 
sessors of the spot and the ruins of their Church still exist.* In its 
palmiest days Anjengo must have beena lively place. ‘ The for- 
tress,” says Forbes, “contained store houses, accommodation for the 
garrison and apartments for the chief who was a member of coun- 
cilat Bombay. The civilians and military officers resided in to- 
lerable houses &c.’’ At the present day a few scattered houses 
tenanted by East Indians and Natives are all that remain of this 

once gay and merry station. The place still belongs to the East 
India Company, and is now chiefly famous for the manufacture in 
painted wood of the different castes of the inhabitants of the coun- 
try. These are creditably executed, a male and female of each 
sect, about 8 or 4 inches in height, draped and ornamented, and 
on the whole faithful representations. A complete set costs about 
40 or 45 Rupees. Great quantities of Lemon grass oil are manu- 
factured at this place. The oil is distilled from the leaves of the 
Andropogon citratum, common in the country. As a remedy for rheu- 
-matism this oil is much valued. An East Indian located here is a — 
fair Taxidermist, and keepsa collection of stuffed birds and animals 
for sale. Of the latter may be chiefly procured the wild Cat, (Fels 
Chaus,) Civet, (Viverra Zibetha,) Mongoose (Ichneumon mungos,) 
Flying squirrel, (Scruroplera oral,) Malabar squirrel (Sciurus maxi- 
mus) &e., and among the rest that curious fish the Sea horse (Hip- 
pocampus,) Which is caught in great numbers on the Coast. 


One or two celebrated characters have claimed Anjengo as their 
birth place. Robert Orme, the Historian of Hindostan, first saw 
light in this remote spot. He was educated at Harrow School, 
became a member of Council at Madras, and died in England at the 
advanced age of 73 years. It was at Anjengo that was born Mrs. 
Elizabeth Draper, an East Indian, the wife of one of the Councillors 
of Surat, and the lady to whom Sterne addressed the well known 
* letters to Eliza.” Ihave heard of people stopping at Anjengo to 


* Forbes’ Oriental Memoirs, 


210 Notes of an excursion along [No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


visit Eliza’s tomb, under the idea that the defunct lady reposes in 
the spot of her birth, but alas for the disappointed pilgrim, Eliza 
enjoys a marble monument ina church in Bristol, far from the 
land of her nativity. | 

A few miles beyond Anjengo the water communication ceases. 
A strip of elevated land about six miles in breadth runs out to the 
Coast, ending in an abrupt cliff of laterite about 250 feet in height. 
Travellers land at a small village called Coletotum, where bearers are 
in readiness to carry them to the opposite side where the back-water 
is again reached. The road used is partly the sea beach itself, and 
partly the summit of the cliffin land. About a quarter of a mile from 
Coletotum there is a Bungalow situated on the clifis built by the 
Sircar for the accommodation of Traveliers and from this spot the 
view is extremely beautiful. To the Eastward rises the magnifi- 
cent line of Ghauts, to the South are the windings of the Back- 
water dotted occasionally with small Islands whose banks are 
adorned with thick groves of the Cocoa Palm, Mango, Jack tree, 
and other features of oriental scenery. The whole landscape is 
peculiarly striking and picturesque. To the west is the sea-board 
stretching from Quilon on one side to the low cliffs beyond Tre- 
vandrum on the other. I have said before that the cliffs here are 
composed chiefly of laterite and are known as the Verkullay cliffs. 
Immediately below the laterite formation of the surface are seen a 
series of various coloured clays and sandstones, and below them 
again a remarkable deposit of lignite which crops out in hori- 
zontal seams of some extent the base being washed by the breakers: 
This latter deposit extends for many miles along the coast being 
found at Cannanore, Mangalore, and other places.* It can be ap- 
plied to no use asa fuel though of vegetable origin. Below the 
lignite some specimens of fossil limestone have been discovered 
by General Cullen. In several places, the laterite here assumes 
many curious forms having all the appearance of fossils, both animal 
and vegetable. It has not however, yet been proved that laterite 
is a fossiliferous deposit, and some persons are inclined to think that 
the result arises from the action of the rains on a clay highly im- 


* A notice of this lignite from the pen of the late Capt, Newbold will be found 
in Vol. xi. p. 239, of this Journal—Ep. M. J. 


JAN.—MAR. 1858.] the Travancore Backwater. 214 


pregnated with iron, which ia perforated by certain minute insects 
and becomes indurated by exposure tothe atmosphere. This is a 
curious point to be decided by Geologists. But the age, formation 
and history of the laterite is still a gqwestio vexata, and until more 
light is thrown upon the origin of so extensive a deposit, we must 
remain in partial ignorance of its contents. A few scattered shrubs 
are seen on these cliffs. A species of Barlerza with pretty blue 
flowers is frequent. It makes an excellent border plant in gar- 
dens. The Pandanus odoratissimus grows plentifully here also. 
There appear to me to be two distinct varieties of this shrub. 
One has a more bushy head, the leaves are darker colored and the 
spinal processes are disposed at shorter intervals than in the other, 
which is more open and lax in appearance and the spines are thick- 
ly set together. As a plant for binding the banks of canals, &c., 
itisinvaluable. On the right hand side, about midway after leaving 
the Bungalow lies the village of Paroor, where there is a famous 
Pagoda and artificial tank. Near this is a mineral spring which 
deserves to be better known. The water of this spring was former- 
ly brought to Anjengo for sale. It was near Paroor on the banks of 
the Attengalriver, that a former *Rajah of Travancore encamped for 
ten years in order to dispute the passage of the Rajah of Quilon. His 
patience was rewarded after so long a delay by the capture of the 
latter Prince and the annexation of his territories to Travancore. 
Paroor too was the scene of an action in later times betweeen the 
British forces and the troops of the Travancore Rajah commanded 
by the Dewan. A force moved out from Quilon under command 
of Colonel Chalmers: proceeding to Paroor, he made a successful 
attempt to dislodge the enemy from theirsituation. The Nairs 
though far exceeding in number the handful of British troops op- 
posed to them, fled in confusion leaving several guns behind them. 
This took place during the troubles in 1809. ‘Two or three miles 
beyond Paroor, the backwater appears once more in view and boats 
are in readiness at a place called Eddavah. This was formerly a 
Danish factory, and the English Governor of Anjengo built a villa 
there in which he occasionally came to reside. The village now 
consists of a few shops and fishermen’s huts inhabited by Moplahs 


— 


* Bartolomeo’s Voyage to Hast Indies. 


212 Notes of an excursion along [No. 6, NEW sERIng, 


and Christians. From Eddavah to Quilon the distance is about 
12 miles, a journey performed by boats in 3 or 4 hours. There is 
nothing remarkable in the voyage unless it be several slightly ele- 
vated terraces at short intervals which have much the appearance 
of ancient sea beaches. The uniformity of level is remarkable, and 
the distance from the present sea line not being great, would 
perhaps occasion the Geologist no great difficulty in arriving at 


the history of their origin. 


Quilon at present garrisoned by a Corps of Native Infantry, was 
formerly* a place of some importance. It is variously spelt Col- 
lam, Coulam and Coilon, signifying in Tamil ‘language ‘ a tank.”’ 


It was built, says Bartholomew, in 825 after Christ, and was for- 


merly a city of considerable note. The natives of Malabar begin 


their era at the period of its foundation saying ‘‘ so many years 


3 


after the foundation of Collam.’ 
spacious fortress here, near the modern town of Tangancharey. It 


The Portuguese built a large and 


is now quite in ruins. Quilon at one time had an independent 
prince of its own known by the title of the Rajah of Tangancha- 
rey. He was subdued and taken prisoner by Vira-Martanda, Ra- 
jah of Travancore in 1764, when his territory was annexed to the 
latter kingdom. 


One of the earliest accounts of Quilon is found in the travels of 
Marco Polo, who lived in the fourteenth century. Discoursing on 
the several products of this country, he especially alludes to the 
manufacture of Indigo which he asserts was made here of superior 
quality and in great quantities. He gives the process of its manu- 
facture as follows. ‘They procure it from a herbaceous plant 
which is taken up by the root and put into tubs of water where it 
is suffered to remain till it rots, when they press out the juice. 
This again being exposed to the sun and evaporated leaves a kind 
of paste which is cut into small pieces of the form in which we see 


_ 


Marco Polo’s Travels, p. 410, Bohn’s Ed. 


* ‘¢ About two hundred years ago, the Town was rich, and great and populous ; 


traded to by many Indians, enlarged by the Samoryn, and able to number a hun- 
dred thousand inhabitants; of such repute it then was for situation, trade, and 
fidelity of the Cowlamites. But now, the period of her excellency is outrun ; for 
Calicut first, and then Gow have not only monopolized but attracted the trade of 
ee well as other parts thereabouts.” Sir Thomas Herbert’s Voyage, p. 339, 


JAN.—MAR. 1858.] the Travancore Backwater. 213 


it brought to us.”’ This rude process of the early manufacture of 
Indigo is, as the English Translator has remarked, pretty correct. 
Indigo to a slight extent is still made at Quilon, though at the pre- 
sent day the place is more famous for its lace manufactory. That 
it was.a place of bustling trade in early time is apparent from the 
author above mentioned for he says, ‘‘ Merchants resort thither 
from various parts of the world such for instance as the kingdom 
of Mangi and Arabia, attracted by the great profits they obtain 
both wpon the merchandise they import, and upon their returning 
cargoes. Many of the animals found here are different from those 
of other parts. There are tigers entirely black, and various birds 
of the parrot kind, some of them are white as snow, with the feet 
and back red, others of a diminutive size, &c.’’ The ‘ black tiger’ 
is the dark spotted cheetah found in the neighbouring jungles.’’— 
Bartholomew, who wrote some 3 or 400 years later, alludes to the 
commercial activity of Quilon. ‘In this city, there were formerly 
a great many weaving looms as well as manufactures of cotton and 
stone ware. Even at present the most ingenious artists reside at 
Collom. Cotton, pepper, ginger and’ other kinds of merchandise 
are carried hither by water, and deposited in ware houses.’’ Proba- 
bly Anjengo and subsequently Allepey eclipsed Quilon as a com- 
mercial emporium. 

At one time a considerable force was maintained at Quilon in- 
cluding a European Corps with artillery. The grave yard at 
Tangencharey is filled with tombs of deceased officers and sol- 
diersof a Queen’s Regiment formerly stationed there. During the 
troubles in 1809, an action was fought here between the Bri- 
tish and Travancoreans. This took place under Colonel Chalmers, 
then commanding the forces. He moved out to meet the ene- 
my, who were approaching from the side of Trevandrum and 
were commanded by the Dewan in person, amounting to nearly 
30,000 men with 18 guns. The engagement which ensued was of 
short duration. In less than five hours the insurgents were total- 
ly defeated losing nearly all their artillery and leaving a large 
number of slain on the ground. Such was the battle of Quilon.* 


* The Nairs were again defeated here in a brilliant engagement by Colonels 
Picton and Stewart, who dispersed and utterly disorganised the rebel force and 
captured all their artillery in 1810. 


214 Notes of an excursion along [No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


The residency here, built by Col. Munro, is charmingly situat< 
ed on a slightly rising ground overlooking the back-water. It 
is a lovely spot, and the park like appearance of the grounds at the 
back of the house add considerably to its beauty. The garden is 
spacious and well laid out, the walls skirting the water, and to- 
wards the south is a small bay on one side of which is seen the 
house allotted by the Sircar to the officer commanding the station 
and immediately opposite the house of John Liddell Esq., both 
prettily situated at the bank and sourrounded with Casuarinas and 


other trees. 


On leaying Quilon, the scenery of the back-water becomes more 
romantic and pleasing. lLaterite cliffs, about fifty or sixty feet 


high, rise on either side enclosing little bays with calm and deep | 


blue waters. These cliffs are very picturesque. Small shrubs 
among which are Mussenda, Ixora, Osbeckia, &c. cover the broken 
sides and fallen fragments of rock half lying in the water, while 
the level summits are occupied by gardens, plantations, or small 


patches of cultivation. Immediately on leaving the Residency, will 


be seen on the left hand side at the apex of one of these jutting 
cliffs, a small obelisk enclosed by a group of Casuarinas. This was 
erected as a tribute of affection by a Captain Gordon to the me- 
mory of afavourite dog, which was drowned near the spot. Be- 
yond this on another rising ground is a tiled Bungalow, charmingly 
situated in a bay known familiarly as Loch Lomond. An officer 
detached from the Nair Brigade to take charge of the out-posts 
formerly resided here. It has been unoccupied for many years, 


though occasionally made use of as a place for picnics and plea- | 


sure parties from Quilon. About halfa mile beyond this the water 
opens out into a spacious and beautifulbay. Into this extensive 
sheet of water pours the Tiruvalla river, and there is an outlet to 
the sea at its Western extremity known as the bar of Neendacara. 
The extent of the bay is very considerable, enough to contain half 
the navy of England, and in fact it is one of the largest harbours 
in the Peninsula. Unfortunately the water is very shallow which 
has been the great drawback to its use; what improvements engi- 
neering science might accomplish under European superintendence 
it is impossible to say, but could this noble inlet from the sea 


i 


JAN.—MAR. 1858.] the Travancore Backwater. 215 


ever be made available for the purpose of ship building the advan- 
tages would be incalculable. The river would float down timber 
direct from the forests, and the possession of a harbour of refuge 
like this on the Western Coast would be beneficial in the highest 
degree to the interests of Commerce. 


The banks of the water are covered with many interesting plants, 
and among them will be found Bruguiera, Rhizophora, Cerbera Odol- 
lam, Dilivaria ilicifolia, Excoecaria Camettia, Scevola Taccada, &c. 
The latter shrub (Rheede calls it arbor excelsa) contains a very acrid 
caustic juice of which the Natives are greatly afraid. With much 
difficulty I persuaded them to collect a small quantity. If the juice 
gets into the eyes the pain would be intense, perhaps causing loss of 
sight. Other trees* found here are Alstonia scholaris, Calosanthes 
Indica, Terminalia catappa, Ailanthus Malabaricus, while in the 
low lands and paddy fields Spheranthus hirtus, Utricularia, Sphe- 
noclea Zeylanica, and Asteracantha longifolia are common two or 
three miles beyond Quilon, the scenery becomes more tame and. 
monotonous, the passage being sometimes through canals occasion- 
ally expanding into broad sheets of water. The sea beach at times 
is very near, the sandy hillocks peeping out here and there between 
the strips of jungle, or Cocoa palms and fishing villages. The 
sands are partly covered with [pomea pes-capre, Spinifex squarrosus 
and Dactylon lagopoides. ‘The singular Mangrove tribe is common 
along the backwater. It is curious to remark the wonderful pro- 
vision of nature displayed in this family of plants for the preser- 


* The Revd. H. Johnston lately furnished us with a list of Orchids found by 
him in the Travancore Forests, which appropriately finds a place here.—Ep, M. J. 


Pholidota imbricata, 


Saccolabium rubrum, 


Evia paucifiora, Cotionia macrostachys, 
Celogyne corrugata, rides Lindleyana, 
Dendrobium filtforme, Wightiana, 
——_—— Mmacrostachyum, Sarcanthus paucifiorus, 
= ramosissimum, Polystachya purpurea, 
— barbatulum, Cymbidium aloifolium, 
Bolbophyllum tremulum, —— triste, 
—_——-—— Neilgherrense, Geodorum dilataium, 
Lichenora Eulophia virens, 


Arundina bambusifelia, 
Vanda spathulata, 


Josephia lanceolata, 
latifolia, 


Roxburghii, Habenaria Jerdoniana, 
Wightiana, | Podochilus Malataricus, 
Saccolabium Wightianum, and others not determined. 
— gultatum. 


— papillosum, 


216 Notes of an excursion along [No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


vation of the species. Take for example the Kandelia Rheedii and 
see the long pendulous roots hanging from the boughs, perhaps the 
only instance of the kind where the seeds actually begin to germi- 
nate before falling from the parent branch. When of sufficient 
length, should they not reach the water, they drop off, and sink 
by their own weight in the soft muddy bottom, from whence the 
new plant springs up. Now were the seeds to drop off at once 
when ripe, as in other plants, the stream would naturally carry 
them away, but by this wise yet simple adaptation of means to an_ 
end, the plants have the power of increasing to an indefinite extent, 
in situations where their utility is required and appreciated. The 
mangrove tribe has an extensive range being found in all tropical 
countries in salt marshy places, along the shore of the sea. 


About twenty miles from Quilon to the left hand is the village 
of Porcaad, the Dutch had a factory here, and it was formerly a 
very populous place, but its importance as a pepper depot decreas- 
ed on the rise of Allepey. Some miles beyond Porcaad, and with- 
in twelve miles of Allepey, on the right hand side at a place called 
Ambalapuley, the traveller will remark a curious stone image the 
size of life, standing half out of the water, and apparently in a 
running attitude. It hasa singular appearance. I could never 
ascertain anything beyond its legendary history, for stories tell 
that itis the image of a murderer whose victim was a woman he 
had slain in the vicinity: After the commission of the foul deed, 
he attempted to escape by running through the water to the oppo- 
site side, but the hand of avenging justice turned him into stone * 
on the spot, where he has remained ever since. The image ofa 
man apparently in the act of running is very remarkable. For- 
merly the boatmen when passing by the haunted locality used to 5 | 
cross themselves and mutter the name of their patron Saint Anthony a 
as they quickly glided by the image of the murderer. : 


Proceeding along from Ambulapuley there are extensive rice- % 


fields on either side, as might naturally be expected in a tract of i 
country so flat and so abundant in water. The physical configu- — } 


The Mangrove tribe are most numerous at the Equator, asin Sumatra. Hel- 
fer collected 17 species in the Tenasserim Provinces.—ED. M. J 


JAN.—MAR. 1858.] the Travancore Backwater. 217 


ration of Travancore is not favourable to the production of large 
quantities of rice except in certain parts. Patches of cultivation 
in the hollows between the undulating hills are met with far amid 
the interior forests to the very base of the hills, but it is only in 
level tracts like those near Allepey, and the Southern district of 
Graneel and Calcaud that very extensive sheets of rice cultivation 
occur. The rest of Travancore, in spite of its natural capabilities, 
is still allowed to remain desert and uncultivated. Why are all 
these fine lands permitted to exist in their primitive barrenness ? 
With a noble water communication from one end of the country 
to the other, with creeks and rivers pouring into this inland sea 
from every side, yet no effort is made to take advantage of such 
admirable facilities for the development of the natural resources of 
the country. British enterprise is not wanting for the undertak- 
ing under favorable circumstances, but until sufficient protection 
is ensured to the speculator by the Native Government, Travan- 
core must remain a sealed country inregard to trade and improve- 
ment, when it may be hoped that a happier era will dawn upon the 
people. General Cullen has proved by the successful establish- 
ment of gardens at different elevations, (Vailey Makay and else- 
where,) how well the cultivation of such products as the following 
prosper, viz., Potatoes, wheat, coffee, sugar, nutmegs, cloves, cocoa 
&c., all of which thrive and yield abundant produce. 


Allepey, Aulopolay, or Alapushe, as it has been variously named, 
is the present commercial port of Travancore, and the principal 
depot for salt, Cardamoms, Pepper, Teak-wood and other products 
of the country. It is reached by a canal leading from the back- 
water nearly due west, the length being about three miles. This 
canal is entirely artificial, and is crossed by several bridges, facili- 
tating trade and communication to and from the northern and 
southern sides. Pievious to entering the canal there is a very 
deep basin, some 40 or 50 feet in depth, inhabited by alligators of 
of enormous size, which may often be seen basking on the banks, 
It was in this pool that at the beginning of this century the 
reigning minister threw such hapless Europeans as chanced to fall 
into his hands, first sewing them up alive in sacks, and then in- 
dulging in the pastime of casting them into the deep waters to 


218 Notes of an excursion along [No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


become the prey of the monsters at the bottom. The banks 
of the canal leading to Allepey are fringed with several in- 
teresting plants. The Lantana Indica, with its pale pink, orange 
and white varieties of flowers, is strikingly beautiful. The 
scarlet festoons of the Barringtonia acutangula, and the gorgeous 
golden spikes of the Cassia alata are chiefly conspicuous, large 
specimens of the Z'erminalia Catappa overhang the banks, while the 
Pandanus so admirably adapted for retaining the soil and prevent- 
ing its gliding into the water is plentifully planted. The large 
kind of dock, the Colocasia nympheifolia, with its finely reticulated 
leaves is thickly growing at the waters edge. Of this latter plant, 
there are two kinds, to all appearance similar, but one is cultiva- 
ted for the sake of its roots, which are eaten, while the other is not. 


The cultivated species is I believe the Caladium evatum, the Ka- 


rinfola of Rheede. 

Important as Allepey is to the Travancore Government asa 
commercial depot, from the facility of an inland water communica- 
tion, which enables the forest products to be brought to the very 
doors of the godowns established for their reception, yet undoubt- 
edly its greatest advantage as an emporium arises from the singu- 
lar natural breakwater formed in the open roadstead, and which 
consists of a long and wide bank of mud, the effect of which is so 
completely to break the force of the houses, that large vessels in 
the stormiest weather can securely anchor in the open roads, where 
the water is as calm as a mile-pond. Itis this extraordinary de- 


posit which has earned for Allepey the name of “ mud bay.” The — 


origin of this deposition of so large a quantity of mud in the open 


sea about two or three miles from the shore, and so many miles ~ 


from any bar or outlet from the backwater has never been satifac- 


torily accounted for. From the circumsiance of there being no a 


natural outlet for the vast accumulation of waters which are poured 


down from the various mountain streams into the basin of the back- 7 


water, nearer than thirty six miles on either side, it is not impro- 
bable that there exists a subterraneous channel communicating with 
the sea from the backwater through which the large quantity of mud 
is carried off and thrown up again by the sea in the form of a bank. 


See Captain Coape’s Voyage to the Hast Indies. 


rete 
neh wae 


. ig: nah ai 
ee 


oe ae 


fe. Fey = or ee. aan ‘, £2 ate t -, ae 
ee ee Be near ee ra ag i ain jeg PATS 3 : 
z « ra r ha ae a = Ue E a a <. te, © 


JAN.—MAR. 1858.] the Travancore Backwater. 219 


Being subject to tidal action the bank is more or less shifting 
certain seasons but not toa material extent. Itimparts a dirty brown 
colour to the water for a considerable distance, and close to the 
shore the water is usually of a thickish consistency being deeply 
impregnated with mud and slime. But whatever may have been the 
origin of this mud bank, it creates a natural harbour for shipping as 
secure as any land-locked bay in the world. Allepey is 54 miles from 
Quilon and 36 miles from Cochin. It is the last place of any im- 
portance on the route. After leaving it the backwater opens out 
into a large and very spacious bay stretching across to the eastward 
to a distance of ten miles or more. The low coast on the oppo- 
site side cannot be seen from the boat’s deck, though the ghauts 
rising in the back ground to the height of 4 or 5,000 feet are clearly 
visible and form a grand boundary to the landscape. From hence to 
Cochin the backwater is of varying width, containing small islands, 
which with the main-land are buried in the everlasting Cocoa palm. 
Occasionally to the east a clearer view is obtained, and the distant 
mountain chain and thick jungle at its base afford a striking and 
beautiful prospect. About mid-way on the right hand side is the 
town of Vyekkum a place of considerable sanctity. There is a large 
pagoda here dedicated to Shiva. Vyekkum was a place of refuge to 
the Brahmins and other Hindoo sects flying from the licentious sol- 
diers of Tippoo when the latter invaded the Cochin territories in 
1788-9. On, on, nothing but water and Cocoanuts till at last the 
Residency at Balghetty embosomed in tufted trees is sighted ata 
distance, and to the left the shipping in Cochin harbour and the bust- 
ling busy town of Cochin itself about two miles away. 


Brundisium longe finis charteque vieque, 


220 Numismatic Gleanings. [no. 6, NEW SERIES, 


XIII. Numismatic Gleanings. By WattzeR E.tior, 
Madras Civil Service. 


No. l. 


Although considerable attention has been paid of late years to 
the investigation of the Hindu and Mahomedan coins of India, 
numismatologists have confined their researches chiefly to those oc- 
curring north of the Nerbudda and in the trans Indus provinces ad~- 
jacent the N. West frontier. But whilst the writings of Prinsep, 
Professor Wilson, Cunningham, Thomas, and others, give ample 
details of the historical results deducible from the ancient coins 
which have been discovered in Upper India and Bactria, scarcely 
any notice has been taken of those of the south. 


A principal cause of this neglect is probably to be found in the 
comparatively uninteresting character of the coins themselves. 
Although sufficiently numerous and of very diversified types, they 
rarely present an intelligible legend, and hardly ever a date. 


As subjects of historical inquiry therefore, their value is propor- _ 
tionably small. Something however may still be gleaned from 7 
them by the patient investigator of pastevents. The localitiesand _ 
extent of range in which they are found, the variations in the ty- 4 
pical symbols of a series, and the occasional occurrence of a name 
or title, afford data for drawing conclusions, which in the dearth of 


historical records are far from unimportant. 


Southern India presents the extraordinary spectacle of a people 2 { 


who have carried the art of composition to a high degree of cul- eq 


tivation without having produced a single work of a really histo- 
rical character. The cheritras, paitiyams, kat’has, van'sadvalis, dan= — 


dakaviles, mahatmyas which profess to record historical facts are ! 


hittle better than mythological romances, filled with chronological : } 
extrayagancies and preternatural fables. | 


JAN.—MAR. 1858. ] Numismatic Gleanings. 221 


The only trustworthy data now extant from which a knowledge 
of former events can be gathered, are the contemporary records 
offered by deeds of gift inscribedon stone and copper and by coins. 
Scattered, obscure and imperfect facts derived from these sources 
supply almost the whole of the knowledge we possess of the earlier 
southern dynasties and kingdoms. 


It is the object of the following papers to draw attention to the 
latter of these fields of inquiry and by stimulating a more general 
and combined investigation of the coins of southern India, to col- 
lect and digest the information which may be extracted;from them. 


A large collection of Hindu and Mahomedan coins was formed 
by Col. Mackenzie chiefly though netexclusively in the south, which 
is deposited in the India House Museum. From it duplicates were 
furnished to the Asiatic Society of Calcutta, but most of these have 
been lost. The original cellection contained upwards of 5,000 spe~ 
cimens, the list of which including a few European coins, occupies 
from pages ccxxIv. to ccxxxtIx. of the second volume of Wilson’s 
Catalogue. The Central Museum at Madras contains a pretty 
good collection derived from the cabinet transferred to it from the 
Literary Society, greatly enlarged and extended by the present in- 
defatigable Curator. These are the only public cabinets of any 
extent with which we are acquainted. But several private col- 


lections of varying importance are known to exist, the contents of 
which it is important to ascertain. 


The first published notice of coins belonging exclusively to 
southern India, occurs in Moore’s Hindu Pantheon, where, in 1809, 
the author figured 23 specimens from a small collection procured 
by Major Price at the prize sale of the contents of Tippoo’s trea- 
sury, after the capture of Seringapatam. Moore has also describ- 


ed and figured a series of Mysore coins in his narrative of Little’s 
Detachment, p. 465. 


In 1832, Prof. Wilson inserted a paperon the coins deposited in 
the Museum of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, in which he included 
observations on those received from the Mackenzie collection. 
This was printed in the XVII. Vol. of the Asiatic Researches and 
is accompanied by figures of 53 specimens. The descriptions are 


222 Nususmatic Gleanings. [wo. 6, NEW SERIES, 


extremely short and throw little light on the subject. The speci- 
mens of southern coins which fell in the way of James Prinsep 
were not likely to be overlooked by such a zealous numismatolo- 
gist. They appear to have been but few and are included in his 
plate of Ceylon coins published in the Journal of the Asiatic Society 
in the year 1837.* These together with such other incidental re- 
ferences as have fallen in our way, will be duly noticed in their pro- 
per places. 


We possess no data to show at what period the use of a coined 
currency as a medium of exchange was introduced into India. But 
this we know, that the art of stamping metal with a die for such a 
purpose, came into Asia from the west. Long previous however 
to the introduction of a die-coinage, the employment of pieces 
of metal stamped or punched with various symbols was general 
throughout India. Itis true that a punch or wedge (in French 
coigne whence the modern term coin) was also used in the fabri- 
cation of the earliest known coins of Europe. But this was al- 
ways done in conjunction with a die or matrix on which the piece 
of metal was placed and an impression obtained by means of a 
smart blow with a hammer on the wedge. One side only of the 
coin therefore was stamped, the reverse exhibiting the marks of the 
wedge in the form of one or more square cavities. 

The oldest Hindu coins, on the other hand, are distinguished by 
numerous small indented symbols cut on the punch itself and evi- 
dently struck at different times, the later ones often obliterating 
those which had been previously impressed. And this mode ap- 
pears to have continued without the introduction of. any interme- 
diate process until superseded at once by an improved die-coin- 
age with perfect reverses. 


European writers assign the earliest known employment of wedge 
struck pieces by the Greeks, to the middle of the 7th Century B. C. 
The piece of metal was generally of a spherical shape which be- 


came somewhat flattened after being struck. Ofthis kind are the 


staters of Melitus, the drachmas of Egina called aayeva or thick, 


* Vol. Wa. Fal. OX 


JAN.—MaR. 1858.] Numismatic Gleanings. 223 


the gold and silver darics, &c. The use of double dies appears to 
have been adopted by the Greeks about the 4th Century B. C. 
The art was transported by the Macedonian conquest into central 
Asia. From the Bactrian colonies, it passed into Hindustan and 
appears to have been carried across the Indus about two centu- 
ries before the Christian era. 


The first known exemplars of such improved coinage are those 
of the monarchs of the Sah dynasty, whose coins of the size and 
form of a hemidrachma, are described by Prinsep as the Surashtra 
group. So servileis the imitation that an attempt has even been 
made to retain an imperfect, and now unintelligible Greek legend 
on the obverse, whilst the letters on the reverse exhibit an antique » 
form of Dévanagari. But the skill of the die-cutter rapidly de- 
teriorated and the workmanship soon became barbarous, till it as- 
sumed anew and purely Hindu type in the coins of the Gupta 
dynasty. The eraassigned to the Sah Kings by the latest autho- 
rities is from about 180 or 170, to about 50 B. C.* 


The progress of the art towards the south and east was very 
slow. It did not come into general use south of the Nerbudda 
until the fifth or sixth century. But this refers rather to the pre- 
cious metals, for leaden die-struck coins are found in considerable 
numbers, which appear to date somewhat earlier. Up to the 
beginning of the present century the money of the trans-Gangetic 
nations was noting more than lumps of silver, like the sycee of the 
Chinese. China, although so much in advance of all other Asiatic 
nations in the arts, did not possess a stamped coinage till after the 
Christian era. Smooth pieces of metal which served rather for 
weights than for currency, date according to Chinese authorities 
from Kieng-Wang who reigned B. C. 524, but the earliest known 
piece with the name of a sovereign is attributed to the Emperor 
Wen-ti of the lesser Sung dynasty who flourished A. D. 465.} 


* Thomas, Jour. R. As. Soc. Vol, XII. p. 45. 


+ 1. Hager, Description des Medailles Chinoises. The oldest known 
representatives of value in Eastern countries were shells. The cowry, 
cyprea moneta, even yet serves for purposes of small change in parts of 


224 Numismatic Gleanings. {No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


The coins described in this paper are for the most part stamped 
Of Buddhist with emblems peculiar to the worship of Buddha. 

comme. They have therefore been classed generally as Bud- 
dhist coins, and these again have been divided into ’saldka or punch- 
coins* and die-coins. 


> 


India as well as in Siam, China, Japan, and great part of Africa and the 
radical character or key in the Chinese words for “ silver,’ “ money,” 


“* riches,” “ precious,” 


** expense,”’ &c., is poet or “ shell.”’ The export of 
cowries has always formed a principal article of trade from the Maldive 
Islands and the east coast of Africa. Nails and bars of metal have alse 
been made to serve the same end, Tavernier found pieces of twisted 
wire called laris, [from the province of Lar in Persia] in general use as 
money, on the Malabar coast. Thunberg saw them likewise in cir- 
culation in Ceylon, and Knox describes a similar kind [p. 197,] “ which 
all people by the king’s permission, may and do make : the shape is like a 
fish hook, they stamp what mark or impression on it they please.’’ These 
seem to resemble the Celtic rings feund in Britain and the obolz of the 
' Greeks, which were nothing more than £abob-skewers— ofehor —a hand- 
ful of which or about six, made a drachma from OpaTtew ‘to grasp with 
the hand.”’ 

The knife and tile money of the Chinese, in the form of a scimitar or of 
a plummet, described by Du Halde [II. 1€6 and 168 &c.,] and by Hager 
[pp. 85 and 41,] was of asimilar but more elaborate description and the 
gold kopang of Japan, still in use, is simply an oblong plate of gold with 
the angles rounded off. 

In the Manikyala Tope, General Ventura found specimens of shell- 
money, @. ¢. of the cowry, (J. A. S. B. Vol. III. Pl. XXI. f. 17,) together 
with the spherical flattened ingot (Ib. Pl. XXII. f. 25,) Indo-Scythian and 
Sassanian coins, all of which had been deposited in the mound at the same 
time. In another tope opened by General Court, Roman denarii of An- 
tony and Julius Cesar and coins of some Roman families were found asso- 
ciated with Indo Scythic pieces of Kadphises. 


In Abyssinia pieces of rock salt serve for money. Dr. Barth found stripes 


of cotton called farda and shirts called déra employed for the same purpose : | 


in Bornou. 


* Jas. Prinsep calls them ch’hdp or “stamp” coins, J. A. S. B. III. 44, 


Col. Stacy chungahs, Ib. p. 433, see too the same Journal I. 394, IV, 621, 
629, 


JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Numismatic Gleanings. 225 


The prevalence of the Buddhist faith over the whole of India for 
two or three centuries before and fora still longer period after 
the Christian era, sufficiently explains the preference shown to 
such symbols. 


Extensive Buddhist remains can still be traced throughout the 
Madras Presidency. <A principle seat of this sect, appears to have 
been on the banks of the Kistna in the Northern Circars. The 
ruins of one of the most magnificent dehgopes ever constructed, 
can still be traced at Dipaldinni, between the ancient city of D’ha- 
ranikotah and the more modern town of Amaravatiin the Guntoor 
district. From this were obtained the interesting sculptured mar- 
bles now deposited in the Government Central Museum. A very — 
few years ago, amound or tope was demolished by the Collector to 
procure materials for the repair of aroad at Gudiwadah in the 


Masulipatam district, from which several curious Buddhist relics 

. were disinterred and two other topes (one of them at B’hattiprolu 
in Guntoor) still exist in the same part of the country. Several 
stone vases containing crystal caskets filled with similar remains 
were discovered by the Zemindar of Pittapoor in digging up the 
foundations of an ancient temple about the year 1842-3. The 
articles were sent to the Literary Society by the Zemindar, at the | 
request of Sir Henry Montgomery, then at Rajahmundry, and are 
now in the Government Central Museum. They were figured in 
Pl. 2 of the XVth vol. of this Journal, but through some oversight, 
no descripticn of the plate appears to have been inserted. 


Dr. Stevenson has distinctly proved that the great pagoda of 
Jagannath at Pooree where the pilgrims eat indiscriminately food 
prepared by the lowest castes, and where as with the Buddhists, all 
distinction of caste ceases, was originally a Buddhist temple. The 
same may be asserted of Conjeveram where the principal place of 
worship, that dedicated to Kamakshi Dévi was doubtless inthe first 

instance a Buddhist fane. So firmly was the Buddhist religion estab- 
lished in Kalinga (the old name of Telingana) that Asoka thought 
it unnecessary to issue some of his more stringent edicts in that 
province.* Nor are similar indications of this creed wanting in the 


a — 


* Journal Asiatic Society Bengal, Vol. VII. 269. 


226 Numismatic Gleanings. [No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


south. The Buddhist edifice at Negapatam, known as the Puduvél 
gopuram, is well known. Curious Buddhist sculptures have been dis- 
covered at Nalliyur and Kalugu or Kazhugu malai in the Tinnevel- 
ly district, and many traditions of the destruction of the Samanar 
at Uraiyar near Trichinopoly and in other‘parts of the country, dur- 
ing a great religious persecution, are still extant. We may con- 
clude therefore that Buddhism flourished generally and in great 
splendour throughout the whole of southern India, nor does it seem 
to have been exterminated until some centuries after the Christian 


era, 


The coins which we have classed under this head, comprize the 
Of the Saldka or Oldestknown descriptions of Indian metallicmonies. 
Punch coins. hey are either spherical lumps of metal slightly 


flattened by the act of striking [Plate VIII. figs. 3 to 5]; or thin 
pieces of irregular shapes, as if cut from a large plate of the size 

required to meet an occasion or as if trimmed to reduce them 

when two large, | figs. 54 to 27]. <A third description are of a more 

perfect character, their shape circular, their weight uniform, and 

the symbols upon them more regulary impressed, | Plate VIII. jigs 

28 to 38]. The transition from these into die coins, | figs.31 and 

30] is easy and evident. 


The symbols impressed on all these descriptions of coins are 
very various, but for the most part have reference to the Buddhist 
creed. Others are of a general character such as figures of animals. 
In no case do they evince a connection with the existing Hindu 
mythology.;~ Those on the flat silver pieces appear to have been 
long in use, the surface of the coin being completely covered with 
them. Some have been impressed over others of more ancient date 
partially or wholly obliterating them, and others have been wholly © 
worn out from lapse of time [ fig. 2.] An ingenious suggestion — | 


*Ellisin Trans, Madras Literary Society, p. 17; Taylor’s Cat. Mac- | 
kenzie MSS. in Madras Journal Literature and Science. | 


+ In the note attached to the list of this kind of coins in the Mackenzie — 
collection, the Lingam is said to have been traced, but in the many speci- | 
mens we have examined from all parts of India, we have never beenableto 
dete ct it— Wil, Cat. I], ccxxvii. | 


JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Numismatic Gleanings. Q27 


to account for the origin of such a practice has been offered by a 
writer in the Numismatic Journal. ‘‘ As the act of impressing a 
seal or signet,’’ he observes, ‘‘ was an understood sign of solemn 
compact, from the most early periods, and as engraved seals and 
signets were undoubtedly in general use long anterior to the in- 
vention of coinage, it appears highly probable, that the ori- 
ginal idea of impressing a stamp on uncoined lumps of gold 
and silver was derived from the common application of a seal to 
wax. ‘The earliest coins may be therefore looked upon as pieces 
of sealed metal ; which in fact they are, it being well known that, 
at first, coins were impressed only on one side. No device that 
could be imagined, was so well adapted to the peculiar necessity 
of the case, or so likely to satisfy the public mind, as the impress, 
by public authority, of the symbol of the tutelar divinity of their 
city or of some equally sacred and well known emblem.’’* 


An explanation so obvious can hardly fail of being accepted,— 
supported as it is by the very general practice still extant in 
Eastern countries where the custom of hoarding money prevails, 
of using private stamp-marks. We possess several specimens both 
from India and China which are covered with such ciphers, the 
only difference between them and the pieces represented in the 
plates being, that the marks in the one case are private in the 
other public. So general is this habit that it is constantly neces- 
sary to call in such defaced pieces for recoinage. 


The flat silver pieces represented in Plates VII and VIII are 
found in all parts of India. Those figured were received from Cud- 
dapah, Madura, Coimbatore and Nagpore. In the Mackenzie ca- 
talogue they are recorded as having been obtained in Hindustan, 
about Patna, at Cawnpore, at Hoogly, also at Nellore and generally 
in the Telugu districts. A large hoard was discovered in Septem- 
ber 1807, at the opening of one of the ancient tombs known by 
the name of pandu-kulis near the village of Chavadi paleiyam in 
Coimbatore, thus identifying the employment of this kind of money 


* Burgon: Inquiry into the various representations stamped on ancient 
money. Num, Jour, vol, 1. 


228 Numismatic Gleanings. [No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


with the aboriginal race whose places of sepulture are scattered 
over every part of Southern India. And about four years earlier 
a pot full of the same pieces was dug up at Pennar, also in the 
Coimbatore province, among which was found a silver denarius of 
Augustus, which proves that they were current at the commence- 
ment of the Christian sera. 


A single example (fig. 53) of the same kind of money in cop- 
per was found among a quantity of Buddhist coins from Oojain. 
This is the only example we have met with of atrue punch coin 
in baser metal, but smooth and worn pieces of copper of similar 
shape and appearance are by no means rare. 

Description of The coins figured in Plates VII and VIII re- 
ates. 


present the oldest descriptions of Hindu money 
extant. 


Figures 1 to 5 are of the simplest kind, spherical, square or ob- 
long pieces of metal with hardly the vestige of a device. 


Fig. 1. A silver piece of somewhat peculiar form, from the an- 
cient site near Behat in the Ganga-Jamna Doab discovered by Cap- 
tain Cautley in 1834, when excavating the Ganges canal.* It 
weighs grains 26°85. 

Fig. 2, A flat quadrangular piece of copper with merely the 
trace of a mark, from Mahamallaipur or the Seven Pagodas. Others 
of the same shape and appearance are perfectly smooth. The 
weight differs considerably, the heaviest of six was grains 40°75, — 
the lightest, grains 26°35. 

Fig. 8. A spherical ingot of copper very slightly flattened, ex- { 
hibiting four indistinct indentations: weight grains 31°325, . 

Fig. 4. A gold piece very similar to the last but having less of 
the spherical form. It is from the cabinet of Lieutenant H. P.  § 
Hawkes, 12th M. N. I. and weighs grains 51:05. 


Fig. 5. One of three coins of the same description as Figs. | 
8 and 4. They were procured in the Soonda division of Canara, — 
and weigh from grains 52°05 to 52.3, the average being 52:2. The — 
indented marks (although) somewhat more elaborate than in the | 


* Journal Asiatic Society Bengal, Vol. III. pp. 43, 221. 


-JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Numismatic Gleanings. 229 


preceding specimens, are too small to allow of their import being 
recognized. 


Figs. 53 to 27 belong to the second description of punch-coins. 
They are of various weights ranging from grains 40 to 55. The 
first only, fig. 54, is of copper and weighs grains 51°45. The rest 
are all of silver and their weights as follows : 


Figs, 6 and 16 grs. 41.4 Figs. 23 grs. 48 9 
9 41.95 17 49.8 
24 45. 13 bis 49.85* 
13* 45.4 21 50.225 
22 46.35 10 50.75 
19 47. 26 00.8 
18 47.1 11 51.65 
25 47.2 U 02.4 
15, 47.45 12 52.8 
a7 48.1 8 52.9 
20 48.24 10 04,2 


‘The most common symbols are those of animals. Thus the ele- 
phant occurs on figs. 8, 12, 13 (on both sides), 14 (twice), 15, 
ii, 16, 21, 27. 

A dog, always in the same form, with his forelegs half crouching, . 
as if in play, is found on figs. 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 
21, 26. 

The figure of a bull is impressed on figs. 17 and 20. 


Fish occur in many forms as in figs. 6 and 10, where they 
appear to be fixed on skewers; in figs. 22 and 23 a fish appears to 
be associated with a serpent or eel ; in figs. 24 and 25 a large fish 
is in the act of swallowing a small one, and in fig. 24 the fish is 
pierced with several transverse rods. 


The fish has always been a celebrated symbol in the south. It 
was the ensign of the Pandyan dynasty who are thence called Mina- 
vars and their standard the Minkodi. It also occurs on Buddhist 
seals. . 


* By a mistake of the engraver these though distinct haye been numbered as 
one coin. 


230 Numismatic Gleanings.  [NO. 6, NEW SERIES, 


Of the symbols more particularly associated with the worship 
of Buddha, the chakram or wheel is the most prevalent and oc- 


curs on every coin, sometimes in the form of a disk surrounded 
by rays, sometimes with rays alternately resembling an umbrella 
and a loop containing the crescent shaped termination of a Bud- 
dhist chaitya. 


The chaitya emblem is also of frequent occurrence its most com- 
mon form being a pyramid of two arches surmounted by a third 
or the pyramid may consist three or more tiers of arches. Exam- 
ples occur on figs. 9, 10, 12, 22, 23 and 26. 


The uppermost arch of the chaitya is often surmounted by a 
ball and crescent, but is not so represented on any of the coins now 
figured. The ball and crescent however is met with frequently, | 
either single, as in figs. 16 and 19 or associated with other emblems, 
as in the case of the chakrams already mentioned and on figs. 19 
and 27 with a plough. It is also found on the Sah coins of the Surash- 
trian series where it has been conjectured to represent a numeral.* 


The tree sacred to Buddha (Ficus religiosa) is seen on figs. 9, 12, 
18, and 26. 


On 54 and 11 are represented a symbol which has been com- 
pared to a cadeuceus and which also bears some resemblance to the 
numeral taken for 9 on the Surashtrian coins. It occurs likewise 
on the Behat Coins.{ 


On fig. 18 and several others (not figured) is a bow and arrow 
on fig. 7 a hand,§ &c. &c. 


The next class of coins contains those represented by figs. 28 to 
85. Here the execution is better and thereis a gradual transition 
from the use of punches to that of a matrix or die embracing the 
whole surface, but on one side only, and then to the employment 
of a double die with impressions on both sides. 


* Jour. R. As. Soc. Vol. XII. p. 36. 
+ Ibid. also Jour. As. Soc. Beng. VII. p. 349—354 and Pl, x1x. 
{ Jour. As. Soc. Beng. III. Pl. xxv. Fig. 1. 
§ Ibid. VII, Pl. x1. Fig. 2. 


JAN.—MAR, 1858.] Numismatic Gleanings. 231 


They are known generally by the name of mddas and tankas* as 
padma tanka, hamala mdda. All the examples we have met with 
are of gold. They are generally, but not always irregularly cup- 
shaped, the obverse being concave, the reverse convex, The ob- 
verse generally exhibits five impressions in relief, a central or nor- 
mal one surrounded by four others subsequently applied. The 
symbols are for the most part of a Buddhist character. 


Figs. 28 and 29 are examples of a kind not unfrequently met 
with to which the name of padma tankas more particularly belongs. 


“Obverse ; normal symbol a lotus or padma, the sank’ h or sa- 
cred shell on one side, on the other a weapon witha legend in 
Nagari characters, a large portion of which has been lost in the 


* This term seems to be taken from the Tamil word SRIELD 4 verbal 


noun signifying that which is heavy, hence applied to gold as the heaviest 
metal and more especially to the finest gold or that of 104 touch. The 
term may still be recognized in the Telugu word tankam e205 ooo and 
the Dak’hani {3 taka which to this day are used to signify a sum of six- 
teen paisas or dabbs (equivalent to annas 5, pice 3,) and in the native 
name fora mint tenkasala. In Shakespear’s dictionary the meaning of 3 


taka is given as “‘a copper coin equal to two paisa.’’ But no such 


coin is known in the Dak’han or the Northern Circars now, the term being 
applied to a mere nominal expression of value, remarkable for its refer- 
ence to the 16 or anna sub-division of a normal standard. Wilson derives 
the word tankasala from tanka ‘‘ an instrument, a weight equal to 4 
mashas,’’ as ifit were a pure Sanscrit word in which the hard Nagari 
t takes the place of the soft Tamil Ss: It is probable therefore that the 


Tamil term comes originally from the Sanscrit and this is the more likely, 
because the old Tamil name fora mint is gH y° 7 1h kambattam a 


word which by the way, Dr. Caldwell also derives from the Sanscrit. 
Comp. Gram. p. 57. 


The word mdda is the Telugu term for a half pagoda. It occurs fre- 
quently in that sense in old inscriptions as does the old term for a pagoda 
| gadyanam. In the Lilavate the weight of a gadyanam is stated to be 48 
gunyjas. ‘A gunja, the red abrus seed, averages about 2 grains. A mdda 
therefore should weigh 48 grains. Most of our specimens exceed that 
standard, though some not greatly. 


232 Numismatic Gleanings. [No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


periphery. The intermediate symbols are likewise imperfect, but 
are probably the same as those which will be afterwards described 
as frequent in this kind of coin resembling the letter gy Rev. plain. 
The weapon occurring with the legend on two of our specimens 
is a bow, ona third a fork. Professor Wilson has figured two 
from drawings in the Mackenzie collection,* one of which has a 
sword, the other a mace. The legends which are more perfect in 
his figures, he reads Srz Sri Mahadéva, but this version does not 
correspond with the drawing. On our exemplars the words appear 
to be Sri-rdma. In neither case do they afford evidence of origin. 
They were obtained from Banawassi in the province of Soonda, 
and weigh from grains 57:55 to 58:3. Colonel Mackenzie’s are 
noted on the drawings as from Tripati and Honaver, but Professor 
Wilson believes them to be identical with those entered in the ca-. 
talogue under the name of “ kamala mudras from Banawassi.” 


Figs. 30, 31, see below. 

Fig. 82, obverse: central or normal symbol nearly obliterated, 
on one side a vase with a ball resting on its mouth which may refer 
to the kama-kumbha or vase of desire, the Hinda cornucopia, a 
common emblem on Buddhist coins and sculptures; opposite to it 
the letters 220% which in modern Telugu reads vyaya; inthe in- 
termediate spaces a scroll like the Telugu letter 9) with the tail - | 
prolonged so as to pass twice round the letter itself or it may be 
Sri Ba : 

Reverse plain ; with asingle indentation or fixing-point? near — 
the edge. 


From the western coast: weight grains 58:2. 


Fig. 33. Obverse: although in good preservation, and the im- F 
pression sharp, it is difficult to discover what the symbols refer to. 4 


The normal design presents a number of dots over the whole sur- a 


face, some larger, some smaller. In one specimen they may almost 


be taken for rude representations of four sinhds or lions. Some 


of them are cut by the lateral stamps, one of which contains imper- q 
fect Telugu letters of antique form, too indistinct to be read; the | 


* Asiatic Researches, Vol. XVII. p. 594, Pl. rv Figs. 88, 89. 


JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Numismatic Gelanings. 233 


opposite symbol is unintelligible and between them are the double 
tailed a) or Qo. 

Reverse smooth : five of these were obtained in the Ceded Dis- 

tricts near Kurnool, and weigh from grains 54°25 to grains 54°55. 

Fig, 84. Obverse: central symbol indistinct. Of the lateral 
ones the ys are replaced by a circular figure prolonged into two 
points like a bud or seed, with two or three encircling lines; in 
Nagari characters are the letters gdmaga or rdmaga and below 
the sank’h shell and chakram, now sacred to Vishnu. 


Reverse plain ; weight grains 43.90. 


385. Obverse : ceniral figure, Krishna, as the muralid’hara or 
flute-player; on either side the double tailed 9) or (@) ; above, 
the sun and moon with a tricuspid symbol between them; below 
unintelligible. | 

Reverse plain ; unique, from Tanjore ; weighs grains 53:25. 

The figure of Krishna in the same character occurs not unfre- 
quently on small copper die-coins of Raja Raja Deva Chola. 


Fig. 81. Obverse: a single symbol covering the whole surface 
and representing a chakram or wheel with eight rays which are of 
two forms alternating with each other, in the manner of those on 
the flat silver coins already described. The coin being worn these 


are not clearly shown in the engraving. 


Reverse: four small indentations near the periphery, one of 
which is flanked by two smaller, deeper cavities, one on each side. 
These are simple while the larger ones contain a point or dot in 
relief. 

From the Dharwar district in the Southern Mahratta Dodb ; 
- weight grains 66-9. 

This appears to bea true die coin with an impression on one 
side only. 


Fig. 30. Obverse;a seat or chair, on which rests a sphere or 
cushion surmounted by three other spheres, the whole in a shrine or 
portico of a temple; on either side a portion of a vase, like the ha- 


234 Numismatic Gleanings. _—_[No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


ma-kumb’ha, may be perceived and above the sides of the portico, 
representations of the lotus. This is a subject of frequent recur- 
rence in Buddhist sculptures, and may be seen repeatedly on the 
sculptures from Dipaldinni in the Central Museum. 


Reverse : a scroll or arabesque of foliage. This appears to have 
been adopted very generally for the reverse of the earliest double 
die coins of which we shall find repeated instances as we go on, 
from all parts of the country. 


From the Ceded Districts ; weight grains 60:1. 


These last examples conclude the series of the earlier descrip- 
tions of coinage, by bringing us to the introduction of a more im- | 
proved system of mintage. But it willstill be necessary to recur 
to earlier and less perfect specimens in describing future plates, in 
which it has been found necessary to arrange the pieces with re- 
ference to the prevailing type represented on them, in default of 
means for ascertaining their connection more accurately, on histori- 
cal and chronological data. 


eee The lion is one of the most favorite symbols 
Sinha type. represented on Buddhist sculptures. It forms 
the crowning ornament of th celebrated lat’hs or columns of north- 
ern India, the most remarkable of which are the Allahabad column, 
those of Bettiah, Bakra &c., described in the Journal of the Asia- 
tic Society of Bengal.* It occurs prominently among the orna- 
ments of ancient and modern dehgopes. Among the marbles from 
Dipaldinni in the Central Museum are statues of the lion which 
occupied the summits of lat’hs or pillars at the gateways of the 
edifice and representations of winged lions, reviving associations 
with the Arian origin of the founders of Buddhism, appear in bold 
relief on the friezes, in the same collection. It was to be expected 
therefore that this animal would form a favorite symbol on the 
coinage of the sect and Plate 1x. exhibits examples of its applicas 
tion to such a purpose. 


Figs. 34, 35, 36a, all of gold, bring us back to the punch-coins. 
Obverse off 34 ; normal symbol a swastika or cross with the limbs 


* J. A.S. B. III. 105, 482, LV. 121, 125. 


JAN.—MAR. 1858. ] Numismatic Gleanings. 235 


bent at right angles in the same direction, surrounded by four 
punched impressions of lions, which a herald would describe as 
passant regardant. Reverse the scroll ornament, [vide fig. 30, | 
and two indented marks. 


Figs. 35, and 36a, only differ in the normal symbol which in the 
former is a padma or lotus, butin the latter the form intended to 
be represented is not distinctly defined. 


These were all obtained in the Southern Mahratta Country and 
weigh respectively grains 58°825—58°525—58°45, 

Figs. 365. and 37, are representations of two gold coins, which 
with eight others were found at the village of Hevali in the south- 
ern Konkan in 1844, and were presented by the Government of 
Bombay to the Asiatic Society of that Presidency from whose 
Journal the figures are copied.* They belong clearly to the same 
type as figs. 34—36a. | | 

Fig. 366, obverse; normal figure, a lion passant, with four si- 
milar lions subsequently impressed on the four sides between two 
of which is the symbol described above as resembling the letter 
or (32) and between the two others, one stamp containing letters 
and another opposite to it of some unintelligible device. This 
coin is interesting as exhibiting eight separate stamps besides the ~ 
central one, which from the drawing appears to have been also 
impressed by means of a punch. 

Reverse; not figured, but as two of the coins are stated to have 
been quite plain in the reverse, this was probably one of them ; 
weight stated to be 63 grains. : 

Fig. 37, obverse ; a single figure of a lion passant, regardant, 
with a legend in old Telugu or Canarese letters below. 

Reverse, a scroll or arabesque of foliage in the centre, surround- 
ed by a circle of dots, and that again by an outer circle in which 


an ornament resembling the Greek letter @ or a circular buckle, 
alternates with a trefoil. 


This type to which the majority of the Hevali specimens appear 
to have belonged, has all the appearance of being a die-coin, but 


* Vol. II. p. 63, Pl. x11. figs. 1, 2, 3. 


286 Numismatic Gleanings. [No. 6, NRW SERIES, 


the two indentations conjectured to have been fixing-points, occur 
near the edge of both. Dr. Bird reads the legend balya sri, but 
it more nearly resembles the Canarese word sri-ga or sri-ma. The 
scroll on the reverse he appears also to have considered to be let- 
ters, which he reads as giving the name Rudra and hence identi- 
fies them with Pratapa Rudra Deva, the last King of the Kakateya 
dynasty of Warangal. We consider however that these coins be- 
long to anearlier age than the 13th century, the period during 
which Pratapa Rudra flourished and should be inclined to ascribe 
them to some of the older dynasties, as the Kadamba, which about 
the fifth or sixth centuries ruled at Banawassi and other places 
on the western coast, in which quarter all the specimens hitherto 
discovered have been found. The weight of allis stated to be 
about 63 grains. 

Figs. 38, 39, 40, 42, 45, 46,47, are gold fanams from various 
parts of the country. 


Fig. 38, obverse; a lion passant with a swordin front. Reverse ; 
a legend in an old form of Nagari which may be read ush, a word 
to which no meaning attaches. — 


Three of these were found at Bezwada in making excavations 
for the anakat and were received from Captain Orr. They belong 
to the same type as fig. 48—50, and weigh exactly grains 6°8. 


Fig. 39, obverse ; a lion passant, reverse the Telugu letter 0, 2%. : 


This was obtained from Cuddapah and weighs grains 5°85. We 
also possess an example in silver precisely similar in device and 
weighing grains 5:45. 


Fig. 40, obverse ; a lion passant gardant, reverse a legend in 
old Nagari {)3 83 which may be read s77 déva or sri dema. 


These are from the ancient city of Chandragiri, near Tripati. 
They weigh 38 grains. [See No. 47. ] | 


Fig. 41, by anerror of the artist in engraving the numbers,a _ 
single No. 36, has been affixed to two distinct coins which have — 
therefore been subsequently distinguished asa and 6, and No.41 | 
has been omitted altogether. 


JAN.—MAR. 1858. | Numismatic Gleanings. 237 


Fig, 42, obverse ; a lion passant : reverse; a Telugu legend, very 
indistinct ; from Vengipuram ; weight grains 5°99. 

Figs. 43 and 44, two silver coins; obverse; a lion passant: re- 
verse ; the words which from a collation of three specimens appear 
to be rdj ad’hi rdja in somewhat modern Nagari character. These 
are from Canara and weigh grains 10:7 to 11. 


Fig 45, obverse ; alion passant: reverse; in old Telugu the 
word # mba for mba, a name of Parvati or Durgi. 


It has been worn as an ornament, and the weight grains 7:525, 
does not give its true value. 


Fig. 46. A lion passant. Reverse, the Canarese letter aS che, 
which may stand for Chella or Chellappa Raya, a name of Vishnu: 
under which he is worshipped at Mélkottai in Mysore.* 


Fig. 47, obverse ; lion passant gardant: reverse; plain. This be- 
longs to the same type as fig. 40, but has been represented much 
too large; it weighs only 3 grains to 3:1. 


Figs. 48, 49, 50, 52, belong to a type of copper coins occurring 
extensively in the Masulipatam district and corresponding with fig. 
40. The locality and general character lead us to attribute them to 
the early Buddhist dynasty of Vengi, the ancient name of southern: 
Telingana, the capital of which was situated near Ellore.t Of these 
early sovereigns we possess scarcely any historical traces: The 
names of two of them Rajah Vachi Varma and Nandi Varma ate 
given in the inscription printed in the volume of Madras Jour- 
nal already referred to, The Chalukyas of Rajahmundry; an offset 
from the dynasty of the same race already established at Kalyan, 
appear to have effected their entrance into Telingana Balaghat, by 
the conquest of Végi about the 6th century. 


* Taylor’s Cat. Rais. Or. MSS. I. p. 510. 
t+ See a notice of this ancient city in Madras Journal, vol. XI, p. 304. We 
have since visited the spot which is about five miles north and a little west of Ellore 
on the road to Nagpore, via Badrachalam and exhibits extensive remains of walls 
and fortifications with the ruins of the Chitrarat’ha Swami-gudi still bearing the 
same name. Twosmall modern villages occupy a trifling portion of. the an: 
cient site which are still called Pedda Vegi and Chinna Vegi. 


238 Numismatic Gleanings. [No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


a 

Fig. 48, obverse ; a lion passant with a sword in front and above 
a Telugu legend OdSwy fk, which may be read Pavamasi. 

Reverse ; three si’Aambas or poles? From Bedwadah; weighs 
grains 4°15. 

Fig. 49, obverse ; a lion passant with an indistinct symbol over 
his head and a flower over his uplifted forefoot. 

Reverse ; a sword with a broad truncated point resembling the 
khanda oy national weapon of Orissa and a Nagari legend which 
may be read Ratadeva-tidria or Raltadeva gupta? Unique; from 
Dipaldinni. 

Figs. 50 and 52, obverse ; a lion passant with a sword above and 
a symbol like those on the reverse of fig. 48 in front; [the two 
latter are wanting in fig. 52. | 

Reverse; on both, (that on 50 being imperfect,) a symbol which 
may designate either the vase of plenty, [| kama-kumbha| with can- 
delabra on either side or it may represent a dehgope with its accom- 
panying pillars or s?’hambas. 

These coins are generally very thick and much oxidised; 
sometimes they are found to be partiaily plated with silver or other 
white metal and are then in better preservation ; they occur numer- 
ously throughout the Masulipatam district, but from their great 
age, perfect specimens are rare. - 

Figs. 51 and 59, are small leaden coins which have been intro- 
duced to illustrate fig. 54, the one exhibiting the lion, the other the 
elephant. They are not uncommon about Amaravati. 

Fig, 53, a leaden coin from Dipaldinni: obverse; a lion with the 
tree symbol in front: reverse ; the chaitya symbol; weight, grains 
226°9, [see fig. 57. | 

Fig. 54, a square copper coin, having a remarkable coincidence 
with a class of coins occurring in the Panjab and Affehanistan.* 


Obverse; a lion passant: reverse; an elephant with a chaira or — 


umbrella and another small symbol above. Others instead of the 


* J. A.S. B. IIT. Pl. rx. F. 19, 1V. Pl. xxxv. Figs. 50, 51. Wilson, Ariana 
Antiqua, P. 415, Pl. xv. Figs, 26, 27, 28, and Pl. x1x. Figs. 11, 12. 


 FAN—MAR. 1858.] Numismatic Gleanings. 239 


elephant have an ankis or elephant-goad, a bow or other implement. 
They were found at the village of Kurupad in Guntoot. A similar 
square coin of lead with a lion on the obverse and the reverse blank 
like fig. 51, was obtained from Dipaldinni. 

Fig. 55, is a gold coin copied from Moor* who saw it in the 
Gabinet of Major Price by whom it was purchased at the sale of 
Tippoo’s property after the capture of Seringapatam. It was 
probably therefore found in Mysore. 

Observe ; anondescript animal which Moor calls a lion, but which 
resembles rather the fabulous monster having the body of a lion 
with an elephant’s trunk and tusks; in Tamil called ydi: ; in Sanscrit 
Sarab’ha a sword or mace over the back anda cross or flower under 
its feet. 

Reverse; a legend inCanarese which having been copied by one 
ignorant of the language is too incorrect to be read although se- 
veral letters are recognisable. 


Fig. 56, a copper coin; obverse, the face of alion: reverse, a 
sword between thesun and moon. The swordisof the peculiat 
short form so often represented on Hindoo sculptures. 

Fig. 57, a square leaden coin from Dipaldinni resembling fig. 53; 
but without the tree symbol. | 

Leaden coins of this description are very common in the neigh- 
bourhood of D’haranikotah and Amaravati, of all sizes, often like 
fig, 51, with the reverse plain. Wilson has figured two from the 
Mackenzie collection of this description} said loosely to have been 
found at Mahamallaipuram and Nellore, but more probably at 
Amaravati. The lion bears a striking resemblance to that on the 
coins of the Bactrian kings Agathocles and Pantaleon} and again 
on those of their barbaric successor Azes. But Wilson calls the 
animal on the coins of the former a panther and that on the latter 
only, a lion. The former however both in attitude and general 
form is almost identical with the animal represented on these leaden 


* Hindu Pantheon, P. 434, Pl. 104, Fig. 7. 
+ As. Res. XVII. Pl. v. Figs. 117, 118. 
{ J. A.S. B. III. Pl. ix. Figs, 17,18. Wilson Ariana Ant, Pl. vi. Figs. 7, 8, 9, 
11 and Pl. vit. Figs. 8, 9. 


240 Numismatic Gleanings. [ No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


coins. They are of all weights and sizes. Thisone weighs 14:4. 
We have received them frequently from the districts of Guntoor 
and Masulipatam along the valley of the Kistna. 


Fig. 58, is copied froma MS. drawing of Col. Mackenzie re- 
presenting a silver coin with the note “ from Sehore, November 
ASI. 


Obverse; alion passant. Reverse; a Nagari legend which may 
be read Sri tarpt deva. 


Fig. 59; see Fig. 54. 


Fig. 60, a leaden coin in the Government Central Museum 
where there are two specimens, numbered 40 and 41. 


Obverse; a lion passant. Reverse; the short, straight, Indian 
sword; on the other, the reverse is different, but is very indistinct 
and resembles a large S shaped scroll. 


Fig. 61, belongs to a type of which several specimens have 
been received from the Salem district, and of which a more ex- 
tended notice will be given hereafter. This particular one has 
been selected for this plate, because the figures both on the ob- 
verse and reverse are connected with the series now under review. 

Obverse; a lion sitting on his hind quarters (sejant, gardant) 


between two pillars on his right and a chakram elevated on a pillar 
on his left. i 


Reverse ; a bow and arrow as in fig. 13 of the punch coins. 
Fig. 62, a copper coin from an uncertain locality. 


Obverse ; a lion passant regardant. Reverse; a pagoda resem- 4 
bling a Chinese temple or it may be intended for a rat’ha or idol 
car. 


In the preceding series we have seen the elephant appearing con-= 


sae as jointly with the lion on the Buddhist coins of 


Elephant Type. Bactria and of southern India, and also as the 
Bull Type. 


most frequent symbol occurring on the punch ~ 
coins in Pls. viz. and v111. In the following examples, the samé 
animal is represented as the typical figure of the series with various 
Buddhist symbols on the reverse. 


sAN.—MAR. 1858. | Numismatic Gleanings. 241 


Fig. 63. Is a copper coin of square form received from the 
ancient site of Wurrioor [ Uraiyur]| near Trichinopoly. 


Obverse; an elephant. Reverse; a cross in a heart shaped dia- 
gram without motto or accompaniment of any kind; weight grains 
111-45. 

Figs. 64, 65, two copper coins from Dipaldinni. 

Obverse; an elephant with uplifted trunk anda legend: re- 
verse; the four-limbed chakram. 

Fig. 66, a small copper coin, from the Masulipatam district. 


Obverse ; an elephant with a staff over the neck and a radiated 
border: reverse; a series of lines and dots intended perhaps for 
a temple or portico. This coin forms a link connecting the ele- 
phant with the lion series of the (supposed) Vengi dynasty. 

Fig. 67, a small copper coin of more modern date. 

Obverse; an elephant with one hind leg outstretched as if 
kicking and the tail raised over the back. 

Reverse; an upright rod with some resemblance to an ankus, 
but much defaced or it may be a candelabra, or pillar between two 
rings. 

The posture of the elephant connects it with a more recent 
series having a Telugu legend on the reverse, which will be describ- . 
ed hereafter. 

Fig. 68, a copper coin, also more modern. 

Obverse ; a female figure seated, with a lotus in either hand and 
two elephants pouring water over her. 


Reverse ; indistinct, but apparently two or three lines of what 
may be Nagari characters too much defaced to be read. 


The sitting figure under the modern name of Gaja Lakshmi may 
be frequently seen as an ornament in the centre of the lintels over 
the doors of ancient temples and also over the sluices of old tanks. 
It appears to be an undoubted Buddhist emblem, although claimed 
by modern Hindus as appertaining to their mythology. Fig. 73 
belongs to the same type. 

Fig. 69 to 72, are leaden coins, of similar type to figs. 64 and 65. 

Obverse ; an elephant with uplifted trunk and traces of an im- 
perfect legend: reverse ; the four-limbed chakram, 


Q49 Numismatie Gleanings. [ No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


Several specimens of this type have been found at Dipaldinni, 
Gudiwadah and other places in the Guntoor and Masulipatam dis- 
tricts, and in 1826, a large hoard was discovered in the lands of 
the village of Magalli, within three or four miles of kasbah Nandi- 
gam. ‘The head of police on the 4th August reported to the ma- 
gistrate that the Munéru river, having overflowed its banks, had 
washed away the soil and laid bare some earthern pots filled with 
leaden coins which weighed altogether about 105 lbs. They were 
sent to Masulipatam and lay for many years in the treasury. The 
greatest portion consisted of the elephant type, but a few were 
found with the figure of a bull. 


Fig. 73, obverse; an elephant passant: reverse; a female figure 
seated holding alotus in either hand, this appears to be a repre- 
sentation of the Buddhist deity Padmavati. 


The important position occupied by the bull 
both in Buddhist and Sivaite mythology renders 
it a favorite symbol with the votaries of both creeds. Accord- 
ingly we find a great number of coins impressed with its image. It 
was early adopted by the successors, of the Greek conquerors of 
Bactria, appearing with a conspicuous hump on a square copper 
coin of Philoxenes about 130 B. C. and a few years later on the 
more elegant round and square hemidrachmas of Apollodotus with 
an elephant on the reverse.* It occurs frequently on the coins of 
Azes, also associated with the elephant and again with the lion, 
camel &c. and on those of Kadphises the first Indo Scythian prince, 
standing behind a figure of Siva.t With the extension of the Si- 
vaite creed in India its symbolic adoption became almost universal. 


The Bull series. 


Fig. 75, is a leaden coin found in the sea shore between Maha- 
mallaipur and Madras with a bull on the obverse, and the reverse 
plain: weight 88 grains. 


Figs. 76 and 77, are copper coins belonging to the so called 
Vengi series. They are found in the same part of the country but 


* Wilson, Ari. Ant. Pl. 11. fig. 18, Pl. Iv, figs. 14,15, Pl, vit. figs. 8—10. J. A. 
S. B. Vol. IV. Pl. xxi. fig. 2, Pl. xx1r. figs. 1—8. Pl. xxut. fig. 28, Pl. xxv. 
fig. 5. 

+. Ar. Ant. Pu 350, Pl. xt. 


JAN.—-MAR. 1858. | Numismatic Gleanings. 243 


less numerously and exhibit the same general character. It is diffi- 
cult to say what the central figure on the reverse is meant to signi- 
fy. Wilson figures a specimen of this series from the Mackenzie 
collection with the same reverse, but an elephant on the obverse, 
which thus serves as link between figs. 76 and 77—66—and 48, 
50,52. The weights of these are—fig. 76 grains 64:9—and fig. 


77 grains 86°5, but small quarter pieces also occur varying from 
grains 10 to 25. 


Fig. 78, is composed of a sort of inferior white metal with a bull 
on thé obverse and the reverse plain, weighing grains 30°75. It 
was found near Palaveram with several others of similar descrip- 
tion, some having the bull obverse, others a horse, all of which ~ 
came into the possession of Lieut. Col. F. Clerk, late of the 8rd 
or P. L. I. Regt. from whom the specimen here figured was receiv- 
ed. Prinsep describes a similar kind of money among the relics of 
Behat, the composition of which he calls white bronze, and the ge- 
neral aspect and execution of which bear a strong analogy to this 
and the succeeding figures.* 


Figs. 79 to 89, belong to aremarkable series of very thin and 
frequently much broken copper coins found along the sea-shore, 
after the sand has been disturbed by storms or high winds, to the | 
south of Madras, in company with Roman, Byzantine anda few 
Chinese coins, The figures are often struck with considerable 
elegance, the obverse being always a bull sometimes with a short 
legend and various reverses, as a chakram or wheel in figs. 79, 82, 
and 83; a ship with two masts like the modern d@’honi save that it 
is steered by paddles from the stern, in fig. 81, 88; a tree in 80; 
a bow, in 84; acrab in 85; a fish in 87. The reverses of 86 and 
89 have not been recognized.{ ‘The leaden coin fig. 74 has been 
introduced from its resemblance to figs. 81 and 88, It was found 
near Allamparva between Sadras and Cuddalore. 


There can be little difficulty in attributing this series to the 
aboriginal people of Dravida-desam, the Curumbars and their 


* J. A.S. B. Vol. III. p. 229, Pl. xvitt. figs. 11, 12. 
+ We have a leaden coin from Dipaldinni of the Sinha series with a similar 
reyerse and four undulatory lines for the water symbol. 


244 Numismatic Gleanings. [ No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


princes of the Pallava race* who were overcome and destroyed by 
the natural son and successful general of one of the Cholas (pro- 
bably of Raja Raja Chola or Rajendra Chola) and their country 
incorporated with the Chola dominions under the names of Ton- 
damandalam and Jayam-konda-Chola-mandalam about the eighth 
or ninth century. | 

These coins therefore may be assumed to have been struck in 
the seventh and eighth centuries. The frequent representation of 
a ship, as in figs. 74, 81 and 88, indicates the existence of commer- 
cial pursuits, and the fact that all the specimens in our possession 
have been picked up on the sea shore at different points between 
Madras and Cuddalore, and that they occur with copper coins of 
the lower Roman Empire and with Chinese money shows that the 
commerce must have been tulerably extensive. The following 
extract from the Revd. W. Taylor’s analysis of the Mackenzie 
MSS. throws some light on the subject. The volume in which it 
occurs appears to be a collection of traditions connected with the 
ancient history of Tondamandalam, made for Col. Mackenzie: 

‘“‘ After the deluge the country was a vast forest inhabited by wild 
beasts. A wild race of men arose ; who, destroying the wild beasts, 
dwelt in certain districts. There were then, according to tradition, no 
forts, only huts; no kings, no religion, no civilization, no books; men 
were naked savages: no marriage institutions. Many years after, the 
Curumbars arose in the Carnatic country: they had a certain kind of 
religion; they were murderers; they derived their name of Curumbars 
from their cruelty. Some of them spread into the Dravida-désam as far 
as the Tonda-mundala country. They are now found near Uttramalur ; +} 
but more civilized. They ruled the country some time, but falling into 
strife among themselves, they at length agreed to select a chief, who 
should unite them altogether. They chose aman who had some know- 
ledge of books ; who was chief of the Dravida country, and was called 
Camanda Curumba-prabhu, and Palal (Pallava?) Rajah. He built a 
fort in Puralur.{ He divided the Curumba land into twenty-four parts 
and constructed a fort in each district. Of these, the names of ten are— 


* Mad. Jour. Lit. and Sc. Vol. XIII. p. 52 and Pt. ii. p. 43. 

+ A tower in the Chingleput District 40 miles W. of Madras.—W. E. 

+ Now Poral or Pozhal or Madayaram, the yillage at the Red Hills, near © 
Madras.—W. E. 


JAN.—MAR. 1858. | Numismatic Gleanings. 245 


Puralur, the royal fort, Callatur, Amur, Puliyur, Chembur, Utthikadu, 
Kaliyam, Venguna, Icattukottai, Padavir. While they were ruling, there 
was a commerce carried on by ships. As the merchants of Caveripum- 
patnam sought trading intercourse with them, the Curimbas built the fol- 
lowing forts (stations) for trade: Patti-pulam, Sala-cupam,* Sala-pakam, 
Meyur, Cadalur, Alampari, Maracanam ; whence, by means of merchants 
from Caveripum-patnam and the Curumbar, a commercial intercourse by 
vessels was carried on. They flourished in consequence ; and while with- 
out any religion, a Jaina (Buddhist) ascetic} came and turned them to 
the Jaina credence. The Basti which the Pural king built after the 
name of that ascetic, is still remaining together with other Bastis, and 
Some Jaina images in different places ; but some are dilapidated and some 
destroyed, by the hatred of the Brahmans. They were similar to the 
Jainas of the present day. ‘They were shepherds, weavers, lime-sellers, 
traders. While living thus, various kings of civilized countries made in- 
roads upon them, as the Chola and Pandiya kings, and others ; and being 
a wild people who cared not for their lives, they successfully resisted their 
invaders, and had some of the invading chiefs imprisoned in fetters, in 
front of the Pural fort. Besides they constrained all young people to 
enter the Jaina religion ; in consequence of which vexation a cry arose in 
the neighbouring countries. At length Adondai of Tanjore formed the 
design of subduing them, and invading them, a fierce battle was fought 
in front of the Pural fort, in which the Curumba king’s troops fought, _ 
and fell, with great bravery ; and two-thirds of Adondais’ army was cut 
up. He retreated to a distance overwhelmed with grief; and the place 
where he halted is still called Cholan-pedu. While thinking of returning 
to Tanjore, Siva that night appeared to him in a dream, and promised 
him victory over the Curumbas, guaranteed by asign. The sign occur- 
red; and the Curumba troops were the same day routed with great 
slaughter: the king was taken, the Pural fort was thrown down, and its 
brazen (or bell-metal) gate was fixed in front of the shrine at Tanjore. 
A temple was built where the sign occurred ; and a remarkable pillar of 
the fort was fixed there: the place is called Tiru muli vasal; A sort of 
commemorative ceremony is practised there. After a little more fight- 
ing, the other forts were taken, and the Curumbas destroyed. Adondai 
placed the Vellazhar{ as his deputed aurhorities; having called them 


* Sala-cupam now Salvan-cupam near the Seven Pagodas, Cadalur is the 
modern Cuddalore of our maps, Alampari is Alamparva.—W. FE. 

+ Probably one of Asokas Buddhist Missionaries.—W. E. 

t The Vellalar or Vellazhar are still said to be of foreign origin and are also 


246 Numismatic Gleanings. [No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


into the country to supply the deficiency of inhabitants from the Tuluva- 
desam (modern Canara). They are called Tuluva-Veilazhar to the pre- 
sent day. Some were brought from the Chola-desam, still called Chola 
Vellazhar. He called from the north certain Brahmins by birth, whom 
he fixed as accountants. The Kondai Katti Vellazha, were appointed by 
him. He acquired the name of Chacravarti from rescuing the people from 
their troubles. The name of Curumba-bhumi was discontinued; the 
country was called Tondamandalam ; and common consent ascribes to 
Adondai the regulation of the country.’’} 

The mention of the brazen gates which it was thought worth 
while to carry away to Tanjore, the execution of the coins and the 
superiority of the older sculptures at the Seven pagodas, as on the 
rat has, prove that the arts had kept face with commerce and that 
the Curumbers must have attained a considerable degree of civili-. 
zation. 


Fig. 90, the concluding coin of this plate has been introduced 
on account of the similarity in form and execution of the bull with 
those just described and as forming a link with the Chola series 
of coins to be noticed hereafter. 


Obverse ; a standing figure rudely designed, the right hand rest- 
ing on amace or sceptre, the left raised. 
Reverse ; a bull with a crescent over its back. 


The association of the horse with military operations has at all 
times and in all countries caused it to be embla- 
zoned as a distinguishing mark of warlike na- 
tions. Although not peculiar to the Buddhists it was a favorite 
symbol and occurs on many coins of the period of their ascendancy. 

Figs. 91 and 99 have been selected for their more perfect 
reverses from a number received from Cuddapah. 

Obverse ; a horse with an anchor-shaped symbol above anda 
sphere or circle in front. 


The Horse Type. 


called the Ganga Kula. A similar tradition exists in Canara of the emigration 
of the cultivating class from Ahech’hatra at the instance of an early Kadamba 
King. The tradition in the extract seems to refer to a second emigration of this 
same tribe.—W. E. 

t+ Mad. Jour. Lit. and Sc., Vol, VII. p.316. Jour. As, Soc. Ben., Vol. VII. 
p. 408, 


JAN.—MaR, 1858.] Numismatic Gleanings. 247 


Reverse ; a dehgope of three tiers surmounted by a crescent, by 
its side the sacred tree, below which is the wavy line supposed to 
designate water* with dots in the undulations. 

These are large leaden pieces, weighing grains 105'7 and 116°75 
and of indifferent execution, the figure of the horse being rude 
and stiff. 

Figs. 92, 96, and 98, obverse; a horse with a legend extending 
round the whole periphery : reverse; the four-armed chakram. 


These which are also of lead, are found in the Guntoor district, 
about Dipaldinni and its neighbourhood. They are only half the 
size of the preceding specimen, and the design is remarkably good, 
but owing to the softness of the metal few of the letters retain their — 
sharpness. The weight of the two larger pieces is, of the one, 
grains 82:2, of the other 09°75 that of the smaller or quarter pieces 
like fig. 98, is grains 14°1 to 20 and 22. 


Figs. 93 and 97, are square copper coins, locality whence pro- 
cured unknown. In execution and faulty design they resemble the 
Cuddapah specimens. The symbol in front of the horse in fig. 97 
appears to be an altar; the design on the reverse is an ornamental 
band. They weigh grains 51°35 and 60:3. 

Fig. 94, is a circular coin of white metal found at the same time | 
and place, and in all respects similar to the bull coin fig. 78. 

Obverse ; a horse with a sphere in front and a small portion of 
the letters of a legend visible above. 

Reverse ; the base of the sacred tree and a part of a dehgope 
only visible, with the line designating water below, as in figs. 
91 and 99; weight grains 39°75. 

Fig. 95, a small copper coin from an uncertain locality. 

Obverse ; a rude figure of a horse : reverse; a padma or lotus. 

Miscellaneous From fig. 100 to 108 are coins of a miscella- 
Types. neous character but of Buddhist origin. 

Fig. 100 and 101, in lead, have on the obverse, a dehgope, below 
which is the symbol of water, and the latter a svastzka in addition, 
with a legend much defaced. From Dipaldinni where they are 
tolerably common ; weight from 70 to 90 grains, 


* Jour. R. As. Soc., Vol XII. p. 25. 


248 Numismatic Gleanings. [ NO. 6, NEW SERIES, 


Fig. 102, a copper coin, locality uncertain. 


Obverse ; a female figure (Padmavati?) seated ani holding a 
lotus in each hand (see figs. 68 and 73.) Reverse; a non- 
descript symbol resembling spiked poles between two ladders ; 
[See reverses of figs. 76, 77. ] 


Fig. 103, a thin copper coin from the sea shore near Madras. 

Obverse; a dog: reverse; four dots within a circle. This isa 
unique specimen, and the only example that has been met with of 
such an animal serving for a monetary device, but Prinsep has 
figured several pieces from the Stacy collection in his plate of 
- earliest Hindu coins* in which a dog is the principal figure. The 
weight of this is grains 43°9. 

Figs. 104, 105, 106 and 107, are leaden coins from Dipaldinni 
similar to figs. 100 and 101, but in which the chatiya emblem 
assumes the form of a solid mound or dehgope. Fig. 105 is a re- 
markable, unique specimen of large size weighing grains 224°15, 
having on the obverse the dehgope surmounted by a crescent, the 
water symbol beneath, and the padma and sank’h shell on either 
side with a legend extending round the edge but the letters much 
flattened and the outlines pressed into each other. Reverse; the 
four-limbed chakram. 

Fig. 108, is a very thick copper piece with a plain reverse, the 
obverse exhibiting the base of a chatiya of two rows, the third and 
uppermost being omitted and with a dot in each of the arches. It 
fills the whole of the upper part of the field which is deeply exca- 
vated, the lower half containing a circle andcrescent. ‘This has 
more the character of a weight than of a piece of money. It is ex- 
actly equal to grains 105°35. 

The remaining figures 109, 110, 111 and 112 represent copper 
seals picked up on the sea-shore with the coins figs. 75 to 89 and 
therefore attributable to the old Buddhist inhabitants of Maha- 
Malleipuram and its dependencies. The use of material of which they 
are composed and which accounts for their acquisition and appear- 
ance here, is illustrated by an injunction occurring in M. Csoma 


* Jour. As. So. Ben. Vol. LY. p. 628 and Pl. xxxv. figs. 34—36. 


JAN.—MAR, 1858. | Notes on various Subjects. 249 


Kérési’s analysis of the Dulwa portion of the sacred Thibetan work 
entitled the Kah-gyur where the 11th leaf of the 10th Vol. is thus 
epitomised :—“‘ Seals are permitted to priests—excesses in regard 
to seal rings. They are forbidden to have them of gold, silver or 
precious stones. They are prohibited from wearing rings. But 
they may keep seals or stamps made of copper, brass, bell-metal, 
ivory and horn.”’* 

Fig. 109 is a quadrilateral seal having an animal on each of its 
sides and on its face viz., a horse on the face and on the sides 
two tigers or lions, a fish with a crescent and a monkey. 

Fig. 110 is circular and has the vase of desire [Kama-Kumbha] 
on its face. 

Fig. 111 also circular, exhibits an animal something like a frog, 


between two candelabras, and 


Fig. 112, a cock. 


XIV. Notes on various Subjects. By Lizutenant H. P. 
Hawkes, Sub-Assist. Comy. General. 
No. 1. Entomoloyy. On the best material for lining an entomo- 


logical cabinet. 

The unsuitability of English-made cabinets for use in India, is 
a source of much trouble and annoyance to the Indian Naturalist. 
The mere form of the case is of very secondary importance, pro- 
vided portability has been ensured ; 80 also is the material of which 
it is constructed, although where there is a choice, én is to be pre- 
ferred from its being safe from the attacks of white ants; but it is 
chiefly on the dining of the cases that the value of the cabinet de- 
pends. The principal things to be destred in a good lining mate- 
terial are, that it should afford a firm hold to the pins which con- 
fine the specimens, that it should be unaffected by changes of tem- 


* As, Res. Vol. XX. Pl. 86, 


250 Notes on various Subjects. [No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


perature, that it should be sufficiently cheap and easily procured, 
and lastly, that it should not afford harbour to insects. : 


A cabinet lined with a material that does not give a sufficiently 
tenacious hold for the pins is worse than useless. In the jolting of 
a voyage or march a large and heavy insect gets detached, is rat- 
tled about the case amongst the other specimens, and destroys in 
a few hours the labours of years. 


Cork is the material in most general use in England for this pur- 
pose, and is procured in large sheets which are cut to the requisite 
thickness, and after being glued to the bottom of the case, the 
whole is covered with a sheet of paper. In a cool climate this an- 
swers sufficiently well, but in India the sheets of cork too often be- 
come detached by the heat, whilst the numerous pores which per- 
forate it in every direction, afford abundant shelter to myriads of 
insects, which speedily destroy the contents of the case. 


Shola commonly called pith (the stem of the Gischynomene as- 
pera) is frequently used in India, as is also the very soft wood of 
the Erythrina Indica, but with the same results. Solutions of ar- 
senic or corrosive sublimate will preserve all these substances for 
a time, but as far as my experience goes, no amount of these drugs 
will secure them from destruction for any lengthened period. 


The substance which I have used with the greatest success, meets 
all the requirements of a good lining materiai. It affords a very 
tenacious hold to the pins, is unaffected by ordinary changes of 
temperature, is procurable in every bazaar, and affords no harbour 
toinsects. In addition to this, it does not require the application 
of any poisonous solution, being in itself indestructible by vermin. 
The receipt is as follows : 


& Common rosin or dammer,....;...7-..... 16 ounces. 
Yellow wax........ Sete wR wat Rimes Bee Bile 8 cs 
AUN pPeN tHe Yet ae EG areal cok eer seer eee | Fi 
Camphor....... ME ee es cu. ae as 


Pound the rosin and melt it slowly, then add the wax, and when tho 
roughly incorporated take it off the fire, and add the camphor previously 
dissolved in the turpentine. 


To apply this composition, place the box, case, or drawer on a 
level surface, and when the liquid has cooled down a little, pour 


JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Notes on various Subjects. 251 


it into the case until it stands about 3th of an inch thick. When 
the mixture is on the point of hardening, cover it with a piece of 
white or colored paper previously cut to the required dimensions. 


os pe 


No. 2. Entomology. On an artificial method of preserving & 
collection of duplicates of Lepidoptera in a portable form. 


Those who devote their spare hours to the study of the various 
branches of natural history in India, whether they prefer entomo- 
logy, ornithology conchology or botany, cannot but have found, 
that the constant movements to which we are most of us subject, 
are a great impediment to these pursuits. 

Collections of specimens in either of these branches are general- 
ly bulky, and the care, anxiety and expense involved in their trans- 
mission from place to place, do much to counterbalance the plea- 
sure which these pursuits are calculated to afford. Any plan 
which tends to decrease the bulk of these collections, will, I am 
sure, be acceptable to collectors, and with this end in view, I pro- 
ceed to recommend the adoption of a simple plan examples of 
which as a pastime many of us have no doubt seen, but of the 
extended application of which in the manner now proposed, I have 
never witnessed an example. We have our books of ferns, mosses 
and sea-weeds, and why should we not have a book of butterflies, 
which, independent of its portability and beauty, would be one of 
the most lasting ways of securing examples of these delicate insects. 

I must premise however that the plan which is to a certain ex- 
tent artificial, is intended to be applied simply and solely to the pre- 
servation of duplicates, and can never supersede or replace a collec- 
tion of the perfect insects. 

The mode of procedure is as follows. Chose a well bound blank 
book of convenient size, and having ready at hand a phial of isin- 
glass size, (made by dissolving isinglass in alcohol) a pair of fine 
pointed scissors, and a camel’s hair pencil, select the duplicate spe- 
cimens which are not required in your cabinet, and cut off care- 
fully the four wings close to the point of insertion. Lay then on 
a page of your book in the most natural attitude, and if you have 
two specimens of the same butterfly, show both the upper and 


202 Selections. [wo. 6, NEW SERIES, 


under sides of the wings. Trace the outline of the wings as they 
lie on the page with a fine lead pencil, then remove them gently 
with a camel hair brush, and cover the space within the pencil 
mark with a coat of size; replace the wings carefully, cover them 
with a piece of paper and press them with a marble slab or heavy 
weight. When dry remove the weight, and take away the skele- 
ton of the wing, the whole of the delicate feathers will be found to 
have adhered to the paper in their natural order. With a brush and 
colors insert the body in the space between the wings, and give 
if necessary, a coat of size over the whole. The effect may be much 
enhanced by adding drawings of the larve and pupz as well as 
of the plants on which they are usually found. 


A collection of duplicates of many thousand specimens may in 
this manner be preserved within a very small compass, it has 
moreover the advantage of being indestructible by insects is very 
convenient for reference, and, although it can never supersede the 
cabinet, it forms a most convenient auxiliary to it. 


SELECTIONS. — 


The Royal Society. 


Art the last meeting of the Society, a paper was read, entitled, An 
Account of some recent Researches near Cairo, undertaken with the 
view of throwing light upon the Geological History of the Alluvial 
Land of Egypt, by L. Horner, Esq., V.P.R.S. 


This communication, which followed a previous memoir on the 
same subject, details at considerable length the results of the ex- 
amination of the various soils and other substances obtained by ~ 
numerous borings and shafts sunk in the vicinity of the statue of — 
Rameses and across the valley of the Nile, in the parallels of 
Memphis and Heliopolis. The following are the chief facts made 
known by the excavation shafts and borings. 


JAN.—MAR,. 1858.] The Royal Society. 253 


On examining the results of ninety-five excavations and prob- 
ings of the alluvial land, it appears:—1. That the alluvium is of 
two principal kinds: first and chiefly, an argillaceous earth or 
loam, more or less mixed with fine sand of various shades of color, 
being the true Nile mud or sediment; and, secondly, pure quart- 
zose sand, derived in a great measure from the desert, which is 
swept by violent winds through the gullies in the hills on either 
side, but chiefly from the Libyan range. 2. That the Nile sedi- 
ment found at the lowest depth reached, is very similar in com- 

‘position to that deposited by the inundation water of the present 
day. 3. That in no instance did the boring instrument strike 
upon the solid rock which may be presumed to form the basin » 
between the Libyan and Arabian hills, which contains the alluvium 
accumulated through unknown ages, from the time when this de- 
pression in the earth’s surface was formed, and the waters of the 
Nile first flowed through it. 4. Thatexcept minute organisms 
discoverable only by a powerful microscope, few organic remains 
were met with, and that those forms were recent land and _ river 
shells, and bones of domestic animals. 5. That there has not 
been found a trace of an extinct organic body. 6. That at the 
same levels great varieties in the alluvium have been found in ad- | 
joining pits, even when the distances between them are very mo- 
derate. 7. That there is an absence of all lamination in the 
sediment. When the author first undertook these interesting 
researches, he expected that sediment, slowly deposited on the 
land from nearly tranquil water, would present in sections a lami- 
nated structure—more especially as an able observer, the late 
Captain Newbold, stated that he had met with such an arrange- 
ment of the alluvial soil. It was therefore with no small surprise 
that on examining the soil from the excavations at Heliopolis, no 
such laminz could be discovered, and in none of the excavations 
or borings has such a structure been met with in a single instance. 
There can be no doubt that a layer of sediment must be deposited 
upon the land, but as soon as the waters have subsided, the sun, 
the wind, and cultivation combine to break it up. From the 
earliest times when the Nile Valley was inhabited by man, the 


254 Selections. [No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


alluvial land fertilized by the sediment from the annual inunda- 
tion must have been cultivated in the returning seasons. The 
next following flood softens the hardened mud of the preceding 
year, and it is considered that this softening of the soil is one of 
the most fertilizing effects of the inundation. The very primitive 
and simple system of cultivation at the present day is, most pro- 
bably, the same which has been followed for unknown ages, for it 
is said that in Egypt nothing changes. As the subsiding inunda- 
tion level continues to expose to air and light the surface on 
which the sediment has been deposited in insulated patches of the 
uneven ground, the Fellah, wading in mud begins to throw seed 
upon them in contour lines, his light boat bringing to him his seed 
corn. As the retreating waters expose more land, as soon as it is 
sufficiently drained another zone of ground is sown, and so on until 
the lowest parts have received the seed, which must be cast be- 
fore the surface begins to crack, and after it has been cast it is 
beaten down into the mud with a flat piece of wood attached to 
the end of a pole. During the dry season, when vegetation withers, 
and the underground water has subsided, the ground cracks in 
to numerous and deep fissures, forming the usual polygonal figures 
we see in dry mud or clay, affording receptacles for the flying sand. 
For three or four months in every year the surface of the valley 
stript of vegetation, in the state of adry powder, is swept by violent 
winds, raising clouds of dust. By these combined causes, there- 
fore, every trace of the deposited layer must be effaced. Instances 
of lamination and alternation of clay and sand, such as those 
mentioned by Captain Newbold, are not unfrequently met with 
on the banks of the river and at the entrances of canals, but 
they are local occurrences, caused by eddies and currents. 


A further result of these researches is, that there are occasional 
accumulations of soil, the materials of which are only remotely 
derived from the inundation water and the storms of desert sand. 
In the neighbourhood of old buildings and on the sites of earlier 
buildings, where these have been constructed of crude bricks, the 
soil, to a considerable depth, may have been derived from the dis- 
integration of these bricks. The soil thus derived would have 


JAN.—MAR, 1858.]| The Royal Society. 200 


nearly the same aspect as the natural deposit of Nilemud. In the 
excavation at Heliopolis crude bricks were seen to have been the 
origin of the soil, these by visible rectangular lines chequering the 
sides of the pit. This last appearance, however, must be a rare 
occurrence, for the action of the inundation water softens the bricks 
and causes them to melt, as it were, into a homogeneous mass. 


And finally, in nearly every part of the ground penetrated, arti- . 
ficial substances have been found, such as fragments and particles 
of burnt brick and pottery, and in the area of Heliopolis and Mem- 
phis fragments of statues and other sculptured stones. By far the 
most interesting Aimd of this nature was obtainea from the lowest 
part of the boring of the sediment at the colossal statue of Rameses. 
at a depth of thirty-nine feet. The boring instrument brought up a 
fragment of pottery, now in the author’s possession. Itis about 
an inch square, and a quarter of an inch in thickness, the two sur- 
faces being of a brick-red colour, the interior dark grey. Accord- 
ing to Mr. Horner’s deductions, this fragment, having been found 
at a depth of thirty-nine feet (if there be no fallacy in his reason- 
ing,) must be held to be a record of the existence of man 13,375 
years before a. D., 1858, reckoning by the calculated rate of in- 
crease of three inches and a half of alluvium in a century—11,517 
years before the Christian era—and 7,625 before the beginning as- 
signed by Lepsius to the reign of Menos, the founder of Memphis. 
Moreover, it proves, in his opinion, that man had already reached 
a state of civilization, so far, at least, as to be able to fashion clay 
into vessels, and to know how to hardenit by the action of strong 
heat. This calculation is supported by the Chevalier Bunsen, who 
is of opinion that the first epochs of the history of the human race 
demand atthe least a period of 20,000 years before our Eraas a 
fair starting point in the earth’s history. 

An appendix to Mr. Horner’s valuable paper contains, among 
other matters, a description of the microscopic organisms in the 
Nile sediment: and the memoir is accompanied by various plans 
of the excavations and borings, with sections of the alluvium 
pierced through. 


The author acknowledges with gratitude the assistance he has 


256 Selections. [No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


received during the course of these interesting researches, whieh 
have extended over several years from our Consul in Egypt, the 
Hon. Charles Murray—from the late Viceroy, Abbas Pasha—and 
especially from the able engineer, Hekekyan Bey, who was educat- 
ed in England, and of whom Mr. Horner gives a very interesting 
biographical memoir. The entire expense of the researches carried 
on during three seasons, of some original surveys, and the prepa- 
“ration of various maps on a large scale, and many drawings, amount- 
ing altogether toa very considerable sum, have been, with great 
liberality, defrayed by the Egyptian Government. The expense of 
analysing the soils sent to England was met by a grant of money 
from the Royal Society.—Suturday Review, Feb. 23. 


The Geographical Soctety. 


At the meeting of the Bombay Geographical Society held on 
the 21st January, the following letter from Captain Burton was laid 
before the meeting. The various references contained in it were 
made at the suggestions of the Committee of the Society in the 
correspondence with Captain Burton, and with Government in 
December 1856 :— 


Zanzibar, May 25th, 1857. 


Sir,—I have the honor to acknowledge receipt of your official 
leter dated the 8th December 1856, conveying to me, by order of 
the Geographical Society of Bombay, certain suggestions regard- 
ing the expedition into Eastern intertropical Africa, which I have 
been appointed to lead, and to express my gratitude for their valua- 
ble instructions and recommendations. : 


During my last preparatory journey from Mombator, on the 
Panjan river and thence by land to Fuga, the capital of an interest- 
ing mountain district—Usambara—I left at Zanzibar for com- 
parison a barometer in charge of Mr. Frost, Medical Officer to the — 
Consulate, the instrument (by Adie) obligingly lent to me by the 
Secretary of the Bombay Geographical Society. It would have 
done scant service during a coasting voyage, and on a rough 


jJaN.—MAR. 1858.] The Royal Society. 257 


mountain tour, so delicate an instrument would certainly have 
come to grief. I took with me four thermometers be Newman, of 
which one, a B. P. Thermometer, was rendered useless by the 
mercury setting in the upper bulb, consequent upon expansion of 
air carelessly left in it by the manufacturer. I have now in all 
four strong Nutt’s Thermometers, in good condition, and two B. 
P. ditto, one used by Captain William Smyth, R.N. in crossing 
the borders, and kindly given to us by Colonel Hammerton. 
These even should the ‘*‘ Adie’? be broken, and the instruments 
recommended by the Medical Board Bombay not arrive in time, 
will suffice to determine with tolerable accuracy the altitude of the 
Unyamisi Lakes. As regards sympisometers, they are found by 
the long experience of Naval officers, and the accurate hourly ob- 
servations of a staff of recorders, to be useless by reason of their 
extreme sensitiveness on this coast within 6° or 82 N. and S. of 
the Line. This however might not be the case on land. 


For a reference point of known pressure, I am happy to say we 
can now confidently apply to Zanzibar. Mr. Apothecary Frost, an 
able and accurate observer, has during the last ten months filled 
up Meteorological tables with the Barometer,—probably the same 
instrument sent by the Bombay Geographical Society in 1847,—. 
with Thermometer attached and unattached, wet and dry bulb, 
evaporating dish, and with the rain gauge. As the Society seems 
to take an interest in these observations, I have the honor to trans- 
mit copies with which Mr. Frost has obliged me. 


I now proceed to answer your letter paragraph by paragraph. 


For enquiries into the hydrology of the region which we pur- 
pose exploring, I shall be careful to provide myself with a dish 
anda gauge. The professionally learned however must not be 
exacting in their demands for observation. These African ex- 
plorations present peculiar difficulties, An expedition into the 
Hastern Interior is a small campaign, in which the traveller is 
beset by all the troubles, hardships, and perils of savage warfare. 
He must despair of studying “ infusoria,” unless at least he haye 
nothing else to do. 


258 Selections. [No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


The Missionaries and all acquainted with the country have 
wondered at our using instruments at Usambara :—the dazzle of 
a sextant makes every man thirst for your blood. The climate 
also is hostile to the traveller in more ways than one. Captain 
Spike, my well tried and energetic companion, has twice suffered 
severely from sickness, jungle fever and catarrh,—in consequence 
of exposure to dise whilst taking observations. The simplest geo- 
graphical operations become at times impossible. During our two 
days and two nights at Fuja, a dense poll of clouds overhung the 
sky, the rains had set in, though the half of February had not till 
elapsed; we never saw the sun, and we could not find even a star 


we had descended the hills. In these regions, the traveller’s chief — 


study must be to make things easy, to take all easy, and do only what 


is easy. I doubt the route crossing any great mountain ridge as you _ 


suppose: it leads, say the Arabs, with a steady rise and an occa- 
sional ascent, between the coast and lake. Asregards our alti- 
tudes on the way, we can boil Thermometers and register the 
Barometer ;—for objects off the line of march we must depend 
upon compass bearings, a Pedometer horse-line and vertical angles 
observed with a large or small sextant. Ihave the honor to for- 
ward a few specimens of the coast formation : but for the sickness 
which cut short our journey, our collection would have been less 
meagre. The mountain zone, like Zanzibar and its adjacent Is- 
lands, is a mass of corallines, often shelly and coated with red, 
yellow and black argillaceous soils, rendered fertile by decayed 
animal and vegetable matter. In some places there are distinct 
sea-beaches rising 100 to 150 feet above the alluvial plain. In 
others I could find none. 


From Mombas to the Panjany river (the tract called in Sawahil 
“‘Mrima” or the Mountain Region) stretches a broken line of 
sandstone at some distance from the coast, and varying from 700 
to 1,200 feet above the sealevel. The interior is gneiss, quartz 


and sandstone, with detached hills of tufas and grey granite: the. 


latter is so micaceous that the Belooch garrison cannot banish 


their belief that it contains gold. As at Madagascar no limestone _ 


appeared, and the result of enquiry is a doubt of its existence. | I 


JAN.—MAR. 1858.] The Geographical Society. 259 


inspected many wells and excavations upon the coast, and rarely 
saw either blue clay or tree roots underlying the gravel. The 
habitat of the Cocoanut is chiefly the Coralline coast, but it extends 
along the Panjany river, and bears fruit at least 30 miles from the 
sea ; wherever it is found at any distance from the main stream the 
natives judge water to be near. 


The ripe Copal (called Gum Animi in the London market) is the 
most interesting production of Eastern Africa. This semi-fossil is 
not generally ‘‘ washed out of streams and torrents,” but dug up 
especially during the rains by the Sawahili of the coast and the 
savages of the interior. There is, however, a kind of gum called 
by the natives—who deeming it the Egesta of whales, know no use 
for it—“ Damar.’ Found upon the sea, especially about Cape ~ 
Delgado, it floats, whereas copal sinks, in water : it may be unripe 
gum washed from the shore during the wet monsoon. The whole 
of this coast produces the real copal of commerce in different de- 
grees of excellence. Specimens have been brought to Zanzibar from 
Brava and Magdishu (Magadoxo). Small quantities are found in 
the Rabai hills behind Mombas, and the tree grows in the jungle- 
patches which studthe range. From Panjany southwards for 80 
miles it is plentiful, at distances varying from three hours’ march 
to two days’ journey from the coast. It would be impossible for 
us “ to trace the position and circumstances of the extinct forest, 
of which it now constitutes the principal remains.”’ Such an in- 
vestigation would require at least two months’ voyaging along and. 
dwelling upon the fatal sea board. In most places, I am told, there 
is now no sign of a tree. 


Of Gum Copal these regions supply two great varieties : 


1. Raw, popularly called “Jackass Copal,’ is, 1 venture to 
opine, the gum which, exuding from the trunk or branches of the 
live tree when injured by elephant or man, fall to the ground, and 
either infiltrated, or was covered by successive layers of soil. Like 
a common resin it is softened by spirit, and becomes viscid in the 
solution used for washing ripe copal. This variety is exported in 
considerable quantities from Zanzibar to China, where, it is said, 
the people have discovered and retained to themselves the secret 


260 Selections. [ No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


of working it. At Bombay and Surat, itis made into an inferior 
varnish for carriages and palanquins. 


2. The ripe or true copal—a semi-fossil, doubtless the product 
of forests overthrown by gradual decay by the upheaval of the coast 
or by some violent agency of the elements. This is proved by the 
fact, that pieces of the gum are met with embedded in wood, which 
crumbles to dust under the touch, and by its “ goon-skin,”’ which 
is the impress of sand or gravel. There are many varieties of co- 
lour, caused probably by the embedding strata, the clearest and 
most transparent fetches the highest price; then follow the nume- 
rous and almost imperceptible gradations of light amber, lemonand 
dark yellow, red and tufas. I have seen a specimen of tender green. 
Sometimes the gum, like Sicilian amber, contains drops of water, | 
bees, tics, flies and other insects, delicately and completely presery- 
ed, and disproving a remote antiquity. 


Without entering further into theory, I will simply describe two 
visits which I made to the Copal-diggings. On the 10th May, I 
rode out from the Town of Zanzibar upon the Mony road. One 
mile east of the town lies a low sandy plain covered with sedgy 
grass, and pitted with holes two or three feet deep, from which 
copal had been dug. The place is about a mile from the shore, 
apparently but few feet above high-watermark, and bounded land- 
wards by a sandy nullah. Passing the palace of Mony, some one 
hundred yards, I was shown a torrent bed, where during the rains 
copal is said to be brought down and picked up by slaves. Thence 
turning towards the interior we rode up the rising ground, to judge 
by the eye, about one hundred feet above the level of the sea, for a 
mile anda half into an estate, belonging to the prince, and called 
Rauzah. Here were many traces of copal diggings. The soil is a 
dark vegetable mould varying from a foot to a foot and a half in 
depth, based upon blue clay, the raised sea beach. This clay be- 
comes exceedingly fat and adhesive, clogging the bar the deeper it — 
is excavated; itis mixed throughout with fibres, said by the ne- 
groes to be roots of the Cocoanut tree half decayed, and of bright 
red: blood colored bits of earth also variegated the faint blue co- 
lor, and at a depth of about two feet anda half, water began to 


JAN.—MAR. 1858.] The Geographical Society. 261 


exude from the greasy walls of the hole. The copalis here found 
in the vegetable soil overlaying the blue clay. 


On the 13th May, I started from Saadan, a haven on the main- 
land, opposite Zanzibar, in company with the Akida-ao, or Mucud- 
dum of the copal diggers. Passing over an alluvial plain, covered 
with rank vegetations, acacios, thorns and spear grass, after walk- 
ing three miles I was shown the copal tree. Itis growing ina 
thicket upon a flat covered with toddy ana fan palms, but no cocos ; 
it stands about thirty feet high, and measures in girth three feet. 
Gum exuded from the bark, and in securing the specimen of the 
wood herewith forwarded, we were pitilessly assailed by a large. 
ginger-colored and semi-transparent ant whose very bite drew 
blood, The copal tree is rare on this part of the coast: within the 
space of several hundred yards I saw two only. 


Another mile brought us to a distinctly defined sea beach rising 
about 150 feet in a swell from the plain, marked bya regular line 
of quartz and quartzose pebbles and crowned with luxuriant thickets, 
The soil is sandy, and here as on the flat below are frequent traces 
of the copal digger. Our guide was induced to cut a stick to 
sharpen it, and to scrape up the earth which produced several bits 
of gum. One of the slaves dug a pit about three feet deep ; the 
color of the sand became redder as he went lower, crimson fibrous 
matter appeared, and presently the ground seemed to be half co- 
pal, half sand. He assured me that there is no subsoil but this 
red sand, and that his people never dig deeper than a man’s waist. 


The whole of this land from Panjan to Mboamaji may be called 
the copal coast : it affords an apparently endless supply of the 
gum. Copalis obtained by scraping the sand, even in places 
washed over by high tides, and often when digging holes, to fix 
the poles of houses, the people come uponit. That of Saadan is 
poor compared with the produce of Wande and the Southern har- 
bour. On the mainland it costs half price of what is paid upon 
this Island, and the lazy inhabitants of the villages can never be 
induced to dig whilst they have a handful of food remaining. 


The copal tree (Vateria Indica? or Hymencea Vermicosa ?) is 
still found in the Island and on the mainland of Zanzibar, It is not 


262 Selections. [No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


as was supposed a small and shrubby thorn nine foot high ; from 
its towering stem canoes sixty feet long have been made anda 
single trunk has sufficed for the kelson of a brig. The green 
wood is gummy; whole flakes at times adhering to the saw. 
When dried it is well veined of a light tint, and has been used for 
the pannels of doors: when oiled-and polished it darkens to a 
yellowish-brown. Its small branches freshly cut make good and 
pliant sticks for chastisement. 


I have the honor to forward the best specimens procurable of 
the superficial soils, in which the gum is chiefly found, the under- 
lying blue clay, the reddy earth that is found mixed with the 
latter, a piece of copal, branch and leaves, and a bit of the gum 


here called ‘‘ Damar.’’ Unfortunately the copal tree was not 


in flower or fruit : the people assured me that it bears a berry not 
unlike a grain of Indian Corn. 

The merchants of Zanzibar (mostly Germans and Americans) 
are not likely to throw away an ounce of serviceable copal, and 
they have consulted the ablest European Technologists upon the 
subject of preparing it to the best advantage. Supply certainly 
no longer meets demand, but that golden rule of political economy 
full of exceptions in civilised regions, in these latitudes becomes a 
sad fallacy. There is an inexhaustible supply upon the coast 
of East Africa, but ‘‘hands’’ are wanted. When there is little 
rain and the ground is hard, the lazy savage will not dig. More- 
over ‘‘ Kizkazy copal’’—excavated in the N. E. or dry monsoon 
—annoys merchants by the difficulty of washing off the hard sand 
which adheres to its surface. Whenever upon the coast there is 
either a blood feud—and these are a legionary host—or a drought, 
or a famine, or a pestilence, the people strike work and dollars 
are offered in vain. 

I must leave, Sir, to your ingenuity the task of remedying these 
evils. European labourers cannot be employed, the climate of 
East Africa, as has been abundantly proved is not less injurious 
to our constitutions than the worst parts of the Western coast. 
Indian coolies, the only procurable hands, would fear to face the 
wild men, some of whom I believe to be inyeterate canibals. If 


Ss ra 


JAN.—MAR. 1858.|] The Geographical Society. 263 


they did summon courage they would loose their lives, and justly 
enough, for trespassing upon other people’s property. A large 
gang (say 500) of good fierce negroes from Kilva (Quiboa) and 
the southern parts, might be taught to use a proper mattock 
instead of the child’s plaything now employed, and each man 
woul doubtless procure twelve or fifteen lbs. per diem; but the 
Imaum’s Government would probably object, as a late treaty 
enables it todo. The Lawahili Mtua Mkuba or muccadum of 
the copal diggers would require propitiation, and to prevent the 
‘labourers running away, it would be necessary to enter into ar- 
rangements with all the chiefs of tribes, villages, and harbours. 
It is to be feared that such an operation, commercially speaking, 
would not pay. Willingly therefore as I would wish that highest 
of meeds, the gratitude of my fellow countrymen, by reducing the 
price of carriage-varnish, I must fairly confess it to be beyond 
my powers. ‘The sole remedy for the manifold diseases of this 
Bona Terra with its Malaguns is time:—perhaps an occasional 
East African expedition might be administered to advantage. 


We have, I am happy to say, shaken off the miasmatic fever of 
the coast, and are ready to set out again when the rains show any 
signs of abating. Dr. Steinhauser has not yet joined us, but we 
are in hourly hopes of the welcome event: his presence will be a 
no small comfort in a sickly climate, and where we must expect 
to suffer from the hardships, exposure, and various incidents of 
African exploration. 

I have the honor to be, Sir, 
Your most obedient Servant, 
Ricuarp F. Burton, Bombay Army, 
Commanding E. A. Expedition. 


264 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 


Lhe Scientific Expedition of the Austrian Frigate “ Novara.” 


His Imperial Austrian Majesty’s Frigate Novara is now in the 
Indian seas on her voyage by circumnavigation, having arrived from 
the Cape of Good Hope and Rio de Janeira. The vessel left Trieste 
in April 1857, with instructions to be absent for 3 years. 


The staff of Savans attached to this exploring expedition is 
composed of the following gentlemen. 


1. Dr. Carl Scherzer, known through his travels in Central and 
North America, performed in company with Mr. Moritz Wagner. 
The narrative of his visit to Nicaragua, Paraguay, &c., under the 
auspices of the British Government has been published both in 
German and English: he accompanies the expedition for the pur- 
pose of making Ethnological and Statistical Inquiries. 


2. Dr. Ferdinand Hoch Stetter, Member of the Geological In- 
stitution of Austria, Physicist and Geologist to the Expedition, son 
of the traveller where Abyssinian plants were distributed to the 
subsribers to the Uris ttineraria. This gentleman has published a 
variety of Geological and Mineralogical researches, amongst which 
is a Geological map of Bohemia. [fe is in charge of numerous sets 
of valuable lithographs, and of duplicate collections of minerals 
supplied by the Geological Institute of Vienna, with a view to re- 
ciprocal interchange with the Scientific Societies of Hastern Asia. 


8. Dr. G. Franenfeld, the Custodier of the department of In- 
vertebrate Animals in the Imperial Museum at Vienna. He accom- 
panies the Expedition as Ist Zoologist, especially for the lower 
classes of animals. He is well known from his travels in Egypt, 
his Report upon Gall Nuts, his description of the parasites on 
Cheixoptira, &c., published in the Transactions of the Zoological 
and Botanical Association of Vienna. Heisa most indefatigable 
Naturalist. Franenfeld and Hoch Stetter were specially selected by 


JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Expedition of the ‘‘ Novara.” — 965 


the Academy of Sciences to accompany the Expedition, and it was 
not originally intended that there should be any other Naturalist. 
However, by order of the Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian, Lord 
High Admiral of the Indian Navy, and Prime Mover of the voyage 
of the Novara, Dr. Scherzer already named, and the following gen- 
tlemen were added. 


4, Mr. J. Zelebor,in charge of the Ornithological Department, 
of the Imperial Museum, an able Ornithologist and Taxidermist, 
accompany the Expedition as 2nd Zoologist, specially for the 
higher classes of animals. He has travelled in Persia and Egypt, 
whence he brought back a remarkable collection of live animals. 
Mr, Zelebor was on the point of starting for the West Coast of 
Africa for the special purpose of bringing back a live specimen of 
that extraordinary monkey Zroglodytes Gorilla, (the great Chim- 
panzee,) when he was ordered to join the Expedition of the Novara. 


5. Dr. Schwartz, one of the Physicians on board, was added to 
the staff of Naturalists for the purpose of making Medical Inqui- 
ries and Botanical collections. He has already obtained many ob- 
jects of great value, amongst which may be mentioned the skeleton 
of a Bushman from South Africa. 


6. Mr. A. Felineck, of the Botanical Garden at Vienna, attach- 
ed to the Expedition as Seed-Collector and Conservator of Vegeta- 
ble Products. 


7.~.Mr. Selleny, one of the most talented Painters in the Aus- 
trian Capital. 


8. The whole Expedition is under the charge of Baron Wullers- 
derf, himself an eminent Astronomer and Physicist. He was for- 
merely Director of the Observatory at Venice. These Naturalists 
have been furnished with printed instructions, compiled by the most 
eminent Savans in Austria. The venerable Humboldt himself con- 
tributed a long list of Physical and Geological Inquirenda, The 
Expedition will make a stay of some weeks amongst the Nicobar 
Islands, the two larger ones of which are to be surveyed. The Fri- 
gate will then proceed to Java, New Zealand, &c. 


266 Scientific Intelligence. [No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


NoTES AND QUERIES. 

[The following propositions have been submitted, relative to a system 
of Notes and Queries, by Lieutenant Hawkes, and we think their adoption 
will be followed by the receipts of much curious and interesting informa- 
tion. 

Measures are, however, about to be adopted whereby a less lengthened 
period will elapse between the receipt of, and reply to, any queries. 

Any communications intended for insertion, in reply to the questions 
now submitted should be forwarded to the Secretaries of the Society with 
the least practicable delay. 

All questions received will be published at the Monthly Meetings of the 
Society and entered seriatum in all future numbers of the Journal under 
the special head of Notes anp QurErigs. | 


RULEs. 


(1) Notes and Queries submitted by correspondents should be 
confined to those of a scientific and literary character; the queries 
should be put, and the answers given in the plainest and most con- 
cise form. As several communications will frequently be sent in 
answer to the same query, the substance only of these will be given ; 
except where the answers differ in material points, when the opi- 
nions of each writer will be recorded. 


(2) Correspondents in forwarding Notes or Queries should au- 
thenticate their letters, not only for the satisfaction of the commit- 
tee, but chiefly as a means of communicating with the writer should 
further enquiry be necessary. The name of the correspondent 
will be appended to his first communication, and his initials to all 
subsequent notes, &c. 


(3) Notes and Queries will be numbered separately and conse- 
cutively. 
Nore. 


(1) On Mr. Rarey’s system of horse-taming—Aa American 
paper intimates that it is cognizant of the peculiar secret possess- 
ed by Mr. Rarey, and used by him in subjugating the most vicious 
horse. ‘* Thechiefsecret,” according to the Advertizer, “ consists 
in raising one of the forefeet of the horse doubling the knee and 
keeping a strap round the fetlock fastening the foot close to the 


JAN.—MAR. 1858.] Notes and Queries. 267 


arm or shoulder, the horse then stands upon three legs. Having 
next put on a surcingle, pass a long strap or rein through the sur- 
cingle and fastening one end of it around the fetlock of the other 
forefoot, attach the other to the surcingle after the animal is 
thrown, so clesely as to deprive it of the use of the limb. In this 
item the treatment may be varied in fastening, the second fetlock 
to the arm or shoulder, after the animal is down. This plan 
“‘ says the Advertizer’’ is successfully practised by many skilful 
horsebreakers in Western New York, and the horse yields to the 
necessity of the case, his spirit of opposition is broken’”’——( From 
the Home News, 17th March, 1858.) H. P. Hawkes. 


QUERIES. 


(1) On the effect of the venom of the Cobra on the Mungoose.— 
Have any of our readers been witness of an encounter between a 
Mungoose and a Cobra or other venomous snake, if so what was the 
result ? This query being put in the hope of ascertaining whether 
or not the Mungoose is naturally uususceptible of the effects of the 
poison (as some suppose) it would be necessary therefore that the 
eye-witness should have satisfied himself that the snake was actu- 
ally in possession of fangs anda poison bag uninjured, that the 
Mungoose was undoubtedly wounded, and that it was kept long 
enough after the encounter to prove the inertness (or otherwise) of 
the poison on its system. H. P. Hawkes. 


(2) The Demia extensa as an antidote for snake bite.—Are there 
any well authenticated cases of the cure of the cobra bite, by the 
inward administration, or outward application by the Demia exten- 
sa (or Cynanchum extensum) which is called in Tamil Velt-parutte 
and Ootamani, and in Telugu Gurutii? HH, P. H. 


(3) The Company's monogram.—What is the meaning of the 
numeral 4 which surmounts the Company’s monogram. H. P. A. 

(4) On the meaning of the word “ Mylay.’—The word mylay, 
milay or meille is used in connection with many Indian coins, as 
the mylay fanam, cash, &c. What is its meaning? If derived from 
Mylapoor as some suggest, how can its presence on the most re- 
cent coins struck in Mysore, be accounted for? HH. P, HZ. 


268 Scientific Intelligence. [NO. 6, NEW SERIES, 


(5) A concretion found in teak trees.—A peculiar concretion re- 
sembling lime or gypsum is occasionally found in the heart of teak 
logs. It generally collects in what carpenters call a “ shake’ in 
the wood, but with this exception the logs are perfectly sound, and 
no communication whatever with the external air has been observ- 
ed. Isits chemical constitution the same as that of the “ tabas- 
heer’ or bamboo salt. HH. P. #1. 


(6.) On the curing of tobacco.—The very great difference in 
quality of the tobacco of various parts of India is said to be attri- 
butable entirely to the mode of curing. Is this correct? could any 
of our readers give a detailed account of the mode of cultivation, na- 
ture of cure, and more especially of the mode of curing adopted in 
their own neighbourhood. The process of curing the Lunka and > 
Trichinopoly tobacco would be especially interesting. H. P. H. 


(7.) On Burmese coins.—Do any bona fide Burmese coins exist? 
if not what is the currency in use? H. P. H. 


Agricultural and Horticultural Society of India. 


[At the request of the Committee of the Madras Branch of this Society, 
we insert the following notice of the Premia for 1858, offered by the Ben- 
gal Society. 


The importance, in an economic point of view, of the subjects thus 
brought forward, cannot be exceeded by any intelligence of a scientific 
character. 

We trust that the long continued exertions made by this Society, and by 
the Government of India, may yet eventuate in the development of those 
resources, in which India is so rich, and which if drawn upon more large- 
ly may yet be the means of advancing her national prosperity and the 
wealth of her inhabitants. 

The Premia for Essays are particularly interesting, and we trust that the 
liberal prizes offered may produce works of general and popular utility. — 
The Fibres, paper materials, and substitutes for Gutta Percha, are all sub- 
jects of importance to every one interested in this country, and we are 
confident, that our own Presidency will not be backward, in the deyelop- 
ment of these articles as commercial products.’’] 


SAN.—MAR. 1858.] Agri. and Hort. Society of India. 269 


List oF PREMIA FoR 1858. 


Premia for certain Articles of Raw Produce, &c., Fibres 
(substitute for Flax.) 


For?the production of any new vegetable fibre, which can be 
successfully applied to all the purposes for which flax is now used, 
and of which not less than 10 maunds to become the property of | 
the Society.—Rs. 1,000, and Gold Medal. 


Fibres (substitute for Hemp.) 


For the production of a quantity of any vegetable fibre, which 
can be successfuily applied to the purposes for which hemp is now 
used, and equally strong and durable, and of which not less than 
10 maunds to become the property of the Society.—Rs. 500, and 
Gold Medal. 


Fibres Rheea. 


_ For the production of at least 25 maunds of Rheea fibre, the 
whole to be the produce of the party tendering it, and of which 5 
maunds to become the property of the Society, to be accompanied 
by adetailed statement of the process followed in its cultivation 
and after preparation, and the cost of the same. The quality to 
be approved by the Society, and the fibre to be in a fit condition 
for the English market.—Rs. 1,000, and Gold Medal. 


NV. B.—In the event of there being more than one competitor, 
the premium to be adjudged to the best specimen. 


Cotton (Exotic) long staple variety. 


For the production of at least 10 maunds of good merchantable 
cotton, raised from foreign seed of the black-seeded long staple 
kind.—Rs. 1,000, and Gold Medal. 

Cotton (Indigenous. 

For the production of at least 5 maunds of cotton raised from in- 
digenous seed, of a quality superior to that now exported, and 
such as is likely to prove a substitute for the Upland Georgia or 
New Orleans cotton of the United States of America.—Rs. 500, 
and Gold Medal. 


270 Scientific Intelligence. [NO. 6, NEW SERIES, 


NV. B.—The producer or producers of the above cotton must 
submit to the Society a statement of the mode of cultivation and 
cost of the same. 

Substitute for Gutta Percha. 

For the discovery and production to the Society of any new sub- 
stance, the produce of India, which can be successfully used as a 
substitute for Gutta Percha.—Rs. 500, and Gold Medal. 

Materials for Paper-making. 

To the producer of at least 6 maunds of fibre suitable for ma- 
nufacturing into fine paper, such as will prove an efficient and eco- 
nomical substitute for rags or other materials at present employed 
in India for that purpose.—Rs, 500, and Gold Medal. 

Quinine-yielding Plants. 

To the introducer of twenty healthy plants of South American 
Cinchonas, of the kind or kinds known to yield the best description 
of bark.—The Gold Medal. 

Madder. 

For the production of at least 5 maunds of Madder, raised in 
any part of India, of which 1 maund to be the property of the So- 
ciety.—Rs, 500, and Gold Medal. 

N. B.—This prize to be renewed for three years, in the event of 
a specimen or specimens not being sent in by 3lst December 1858. 

Substitute for Gunny Cloth. 

For the production of acheap and efficient substitute for gunny 
cloth, suitable for packing sugar or grain, of which a piece of 36 
yards in length, by 2 feet 3 inches in breadth, or thereabout, to be 
submitted to the Society.—Rs. 500, and Gold Medal. 

Premia for Essays on certain subjects. 

For an approved Essay on the following subjects :— | 

1. For the best practical Essay on the production and relative 
cost of the various oil seeds of India, suitable for export.—A pre- 
mium of Rs. 500. 

2. For the best practical Essay on the present state of the cul- 
tivation of the date tree in Bengal, and on the best mode of in- 


JAN.—MAR. 1858.] The late Dr. Stocks. 271 


creasing its production and improving the manufacture of its sugar. 
—A premium of Rs. 500. 


3. For the best practical Essay on the present mode of culti- 
vating and manufacturing Indian fibre, yielding plants known in 
commerce, such as jute, sun, &c., with practical suggestions for 
their improvement.—A premium of Rs. 500. 

4, For the best practical Essay on the present mode of culti- 
vating and preparing the various tanning products of India, with 
practical suggestions for their improvement.—A premium of 
Rs. 500. 

Prize for a Gardener's Vade Mecum. 


To any person who shall produce on or before the 31st Decem- 
ber 1858, the best practical treatise on gardening as applicable to 
Lower Bengal, or a Gardener’s Vade-Mecum, the sum of Rs. 600. 

The work must afford full directions for the culture of vegeta- 
bles, fruits, and flowers, whether indigenous or such as have been 
introduced into Lower Bengal to the present time, giving practical 
hints on grafting, budding, pruning, and transplanting, with des- 
criptions of soils and manures best adapted to certain plants; a 
calendar of operations in the kitchen, fruit, and flower garden, for 
every month throughout the year must be added, as also a copious 
alphabetical index. 

N. B.—The Rules of competition for Essays the same as pub- 
lished in 1856. 

A. H. BhecHyNpDEN, 


Secy. A, and H, Society. 


MezrcaLFe Hatt; 
Calcutta, 
Aprii 1858. 


The Late Dr. Stocks of the Bombay Army. 


We are indebted, for the following interesting notice of the late 
Dr. Stocks, to Vol. yz. of Hookgrn’s JouRNAL oF Botany, In 


272 Scientifie Intelligence. [No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


giving it insertion we cannot fail to record our deep and sincere 
regret atthe loss of one of the most distinguished Indian Bota- 
nists, we trust that Dr. Srocx’s researches, into the Natural His- 
tory, §c., of Scinde, may not be lost; but, that their publication” 
may be undertaken, by some one competent to present them to the 
public, with that care which their interesting nature and undoubt- 
ed merit equally deserve. 


Our contemporary thus records the death of *JoHN ELLERTON 
Stocks, Hsq., M. D.. BomBay Mepican SERVICE. 


This event took place at the residence of a relative, where he 
was on a visit (with an unmarried sister), Samuel Watson, Esq., of 
Cottingham, near Hull (his native town) at the early age of thirty- 
four. He received his medical education at University College, — 
London, and profited more than most students by Dr. Lindley’s 
Botanical Lectures. He entered the East India Company’s service 
on the Bombay Establishment, and was soon appointed Vaccinator 
in Scinde, and afterwards Inspector of Forests there. His travels 
in Scinde and Beloochistan were frequent and extensive, and he 
took advantage of them to improve his knowledge of the Botany 
of all this remarkable region, which he showed to have a close affi- 
_nity in its vegetable products with Arabia and Egypt. His collec- 
tions of specimens were very extensive, and well prepared; and 
the drawings, done by native artists, under his ‘immediate inspec- 
tion, are no less so. On Dr. Gibson’s visit to England, about three 
years ago, Dr. Stocks was appointed during his absence to the 
important duties of Conservator of Forests and Superintendent of 
Botanic Gardens in Bombay, which gave further opportunity of 
pursuing his Botanical researches, both personally and by means of 
Collectors. His ambition now was to turr these large collections 
to account, and to come to England, where alone he could deter- 
mine the correct nomenclature of the Genera and Species, and. 
where he hoped to publish the new plants, and to distribute his 
specimens in the manner that would be most beneficial to the cause 
of Botany. 


* Hooker’s Journal of Botany, Vol. VI. p. 308. 


JAN.—MAR. 1858. | The late Dr. Stocks. 213 


Dr. Stocks accordingly came to England on furlough, bringing 
his collections with him, and made Kew his residence, and here 
he had been busily engaged since the early spring, in comparing 
them with authentic specimens in the Kew Herbarium, and pre- 
paring them for publication. Unfortunately his constitution had 
been undermined by his great labours inthe unhealthy climate of 
Scinde ; he was subject to intense neuralgie pains in the head and 
neck, and a change of air and scene was deemed desirable. He 
accordingly spent afew weeks with relations in the Isle of Man; 
and on his way thence to Cottingham he caught a cold, which was 
succeeded by fits of apoplexy which, in a very few days, terminated 
fatally, on the afternoon of Wednesday, the 80th August. 


Dr. Stocks had brought to England materials, in a very forward 
taste, for a general work on the Natural History, manners, cus- 
toms, arts, manufactures and commerce, agriculture, &c., &c., of 
Scinde, which it is yet hoped may be found worthy of publication. 
Great talent and great research had been bestowed onit, and the 
information it contains is much of the same nature as that of the 
late Dr. Francis Buchanan Hamilton’s History of the Mysore, but 
possessing the further advantage of being written in a lively and 
agreeable style, and rendered doubly valuable from the amount of 
Scientific knowledge of the highest stamp brought to bear upon it. 
Few men of his years were more extensively read in all subjects 
connected with the improvement of India, than Dr. Stocks. In 
that country his death will be much felt, and sure we are that to 
his personal friends the loss is irreparable, for he possessed a most 
kind and amiable disposition. 

Like Mr. Winterbottom, Dr. Stocks was more gratified by being 
useful to others than in coming forward as an author; and it was 
only by the urgent entreaty of his friends that he could be induced 
to appear in that capacity. Most, if not all, that has yet been 
printed from his pen, we have been privileged to publish in our 
Botanical Journals. In the ‘“ London Journal of Botany,”’ Vol. vii. 
p. 539, will be found some notes on the Botany (chiefly economic) 
of Scinde, describing some of the numerous vegetable products he 
had presented to the Museum at Kew. At page 550 of the same 
volume, is a most lively and spirited letter, written during “a Bo- 


274 Proceedings. | No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


tanical excursion to Shah Bilawul, in Beloochistan.” In the pre- 
sent Journal or ‘“‘ Kew Garden Miscellany,” Vol. i. p. 257, is an 
excellent Memoir on two Balsom-trees (Balsamodendron) of Scinde, 
B. Mukul and B. pubescens, with two plates. In Vol. ii. p. 808, 
will be found an excellent general sketch of the Botany of Beloo- 
chistan, written after a second journey into that country. In Vol. 
ili. are descriptions and figures of two new plants of Scinde. Vol. 
iv. contains descriptions of thirty-seven Beloochistan plants, chief- 
ly new species. His last communication will be seen at p. 314 of 
the same volume ‘Notes on the Botany and the Government 
Gardens of Bombay.” 


PROCEEDINGS. 


The Managing Committee of the Mapvras LitERARY Society and 
Auxiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society, held their usual Monthly 
Meeting at the Club House, on Thursday the 11th February at 
past 6 o'clock P. M. 5 


The Honorable Walter Elliot, Esq., in the Chair. 

Read a Letter from M. Haidinger, Director of the Imperial Geo- 
logical Institute of Austria, with a Memo. of Publications present- 
ed to the Society, viz :— 

1. Transactions of the Imperial Geological Institute Vienna, 
Vols. I, III. 

2. Annual Report of the Imperial Geological Institute, Vols. 
I, VI. 

3. Natural Historical Transactions published by Haidinger, 
Volsoaynyv. 

4. Notes on the Communications of the Naturalist of Vienna— 
Vols. I, VII. 

These valuable works relate to the Natural Sciences generally 
but to Geology more especially, and are beautifully illustrated : 


JAN.—MaR. 18058.] Proceedings. Q75 


many of the Lithographs being coloured, and some of them are 
Chromo-Lithographs. 

Read a letter from Mr. H. Smith, Superintendent of the Govern- 
ment Press on the subject of Nature Printing, in which Mr. Smith 
with reference to the remarks which took place in discussion at a 
former Meeting, claims for his process a greater degree of origina- 
lity than was then supposed to be his due. Mr.S. points out that 
the essential difference between Mr. Cox’s process and his consists 
in this, that the ink is applied directly to the object and that the 
impression is produced by vertical pressure, whereas in the other 
it is obtained by the action of Rollers. The correctness of this 
distinction was fully admitted, and the more clear delineation of 
Mr. Smith’s impression was illustrated by examples which met 
with the Society’s approbation. 

It was resolved that the following Institutions should be added 
to the list of those with which the Society exchanges its publica. 
tions. 

The Imperial Geological Institute—Vienna. 

The Royal Academy Science—Berlin. 

The Royal Society—Edinburgh. 

The Linnzan Society —London. 

The Royal Irish Academy—Dublin. 

The Committee beg to acknowledge receipt of the following 

paper from the Chief Secretary, Report of the Vegetable Products 
of the Pulney Hills with Catalogue of the Flora, by Lieut. R. H. 
Beddome, Assist. Conservator of Forests. This interesting com- 
munication will appear in next No. of the Journal.* 


The Managing Committee of the Mapras Lirrrary Society and 
Auxiliary of the Royal Asiatic Society, held their usual Month- 
ly Meeting at the Club on the evening of Thursday the 18th March 
1858. 

The Honorable Walter Elliot in the Chair., 
The usual monthly statement of the Society’s Accounts was read 
and passed. 


* Vide page 163, 


276 Proceedings. [N0. 6, NEW SERIES, 


Mr. Elliot exhibited to the Meeting, specimens of the curious 
genus Sagitta, the precise position of which in the Animal King- 
dom has not been determined, some, as Huxley, regarding it as 
approaching the Annelide, others, as the late Professor G. Forbes, 
considering it more closely allied to the Molluses, while a third 
party are inclined to view its nervous system as exhibiting an affi- 
nity with Crustacea. 


These were received from Captain Toynbee of the Gloriana, 
with a number of minute Pelagian shells also shown to the Meet- 
ing. Mr. Elliot regretted that the departure of the Gloriana pre- 
vented Captain Toynbee from exhibiting the numerous beautiful 
drawings, executed during his Voyage, of microscopic marine ob- 
jects, indicating many new forms of Crustacea, Tunicata, Acale- — 
phe and Molluscs, which he would otherwise have done. He had 
however transmitted through Mr. Elliot for presentation to the So- 
ciety, a MS. Translation from the German of some portions of 
Vogt’s letters on Zoology, relating to these families, which he had 
found of use in his own researches. It was resolved that these 
papers should be printed in the Journal. 


Mr. Elliot also read letters to his address from Messrs. Herman 
and Robert Schlagentwait, the former giving an account of the 
progress made in completing their calculations and arranging their 
collections, the latter proposing some Rules for the Orthography 
of Indian Names which they have proposed adopting in their forth- 
coming Publications. 

The printed list of the Materials forwarded with their letters, 
contains 43 Volumes, the result of their own labors, and 88 Vo- 
lumes of Observations communicated by others, “a most precious 
portion of which they add, particularly distinguished for their ac- 
curacy, is from your Presidency.” 

The Title of their work as fixed by the Court will be “ Results 
of a Scientific Mission to India and High Asia,’ and will consist 
of about 9 Volumes with 50 Plates, chiefly containing positive 
scientific matter, one Volume only being devoted to general des- 
criptive Memoirs in the form of Humboldt’s Views of Nature, and 
all personal adventures being excluded. 


JAN.—MaR, 1858. | Proceedings. QT7 


The following is a list of the 43 Volumes of their own obser- 
vations &c. | 

Vol. 1. Itinerary. 

Vols. 2, 3, 4. Route Books. 

These Volumes treat of almost every portion of the British Pos- 
sessions in the Kast of the Countries contiguous to them. The 4th 
Volume contains routes communicated by the Foreign Office, 
Calcutta. 

Vol. 5. Comparison and correction of the Instruments. 

Vols. 6, 7,8. Topography and Trigonometrical Measurements. 

Vols. 9,10, 11, 12. Astronomical determination of Places and 
Magnetical Observations. 

Vols. 18, 14, 15, 16, Hypsometrical Observations and indica- 
tions of the Barometer. 

Vol. 17, 18, 19. General Meteorology and degrees of tempera- 
ture of the Air. 

-Vol. 20. Rain, Height of Clouds. 

Vol. 21. Optical phenomena of the Atmosphere, Observations 
upon Dew, Glaciers. 

Vol. 22. Degrees of temperature of Rivers. 

Vols. 23,24. Degrees of temperature of the earth at different 
depths. 

Vol. 25. Observations on the Physical state of the Sea. Por- 
tions of Sea water and River water for analysis. 

Vol. 26. Observations upon Springs. Cold and hot Springs. 

Vols. 27, 28, 29, 30. Geological Observations. 

Vols. 31, 32. Geological Collections. 

Vols. 33, 34, 35. Hydrography of rivers. 
Vol. 36. Observations on the temperature and depth of subter- 
raneous waters. 

Vols. 37, 38. Measurings of the different races of men. 

Vol. 39. Geographical Vocabulary of the names of places. Ety- 
mological and Hthnographical Remarks. 

Vol. 40. Zoological Remarks. Zoological Collection, Ethnogra- 
phical Collections. 

Vol. 41. Geography of Plants, periodical phenomena of plants, 
Snow limits, 


278 Proceedings. [No. 6, NEW SERIES, 


- Vol. 42. Diameter of trees. Names of trees and plants, also the 
use of plant. Collection of Plants. 

Vol. 43. Letters and reports to His Majesty King Frederick 
William IV. and to the Honorable Court of Directors of the East 
India Company, and to Alexander Von Humboldt. 

These are merely the Headings of the different Volumes. The 
detailed Catalogue is in the Library of the Society. 


The Scientific observations have been made in all parts of the 
British possessions in the East and Highlands of Asia, and with 
every variety of instrument. 


Among other matters of interest, Mr. Herman Schlagentwaite 
stated that he had prepared a valuable Ethnographic Series of Casts 
of Heads of the various Indian races amounting to about 25, which — 
had been executed in copper by the Galvano-plastic process with 
great success, and a specimen of which he had forwarded by the 
Overland Mail, but it has not yet been received. 

He adds that no tidings have been received of their brother Adol- 
phe since May last, which was a source of great anxiety to them. 

Mr. Robert Schlagentwaite’s Orthographical Remarks related 
chiefly to the use of the proper equivalents for the letter * * * 
which English writers usually represent by 7 & ch, but which the 
Germans prefer expressing by dz & ts. This subject was referred 
for report to the Sub Committee of Papers. 

Lieut. H. P. Hawkes forwarded the first of a series of Papers 
which he proposes submitting to'the Society, entitled ‘* Notes on 
various subjects.”’ 

Those contained in the present communication are : 

1. On the best material for lining entomological cases. 

2. On an artificial method of preserving duplicate specimens of 
Lepidopterous insects in a portable form. 

These were referred to the Sub-Committee of Papers. 


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280 [No. 6, NEW SERIE! 
! 


Extract from Meteorological Observations pe 


DAILE 
JANUARY 1858. FEBRUARY 1858. 
E es THERMOMETERS. : 8 es THERMOMETERS. 
< Se Means. : = A Sf Means. ; 
A 1220 4/d] 2 | 8 | €@ [eee B Se ee 
6 263 |Dry |Wet 5 sa | = cS 3 iA = 63 Dry |Wet =a |e = ee ol 
imchesiacal cls 2 Ins. Tice ? | Cee, 2 Ins: 4 
1 | 30-104) 74:4| 69°6|81:7| 7041 wnE| ....|Clody.| 30 046) 72°0| 67-2} 83-1/638] & ST 
2 82:5/67-0|\nnzE| .... -055| 72°3| 66°6| 84-6/64-7|nSu| .. qui! 
3| +039] 72:9] 68-4| 82-2} 67-2) nu |! ....|Clear.| 028] 73°4)690| 84:2|67-0] 5s in’ 
4| -004| 72-4) 66-8} 89°8|66°5|} zw E| ... |Hazy | 29-983) 74-4) 69-5} 83°1/67-5| SE | ..-4 
5 | 29-995] 75-2| 66'1| 81°3| 71-6; Ene] ....|Clody.| °975| 78°3| 67-3] 84°3|66°5|ss EB | ood 
6 | 30-012] 75-0] 66°4| 81'8| 70°5| wz | ....| do 85°7|69°3|8 8 B | seed 
71  -001| 73-7| 65:5] 81:9| 69:5] we] ....| do |30:009| 77:7| 72-6] 86°6|73°8| ES =| ....m 
8 |29-957| 75'1| 65°3, 82°3| 721] ne| ....| do | -006|78°0|735| 85°7|72'5| zs H| ...dm)l 
9 81:6] 68:4] wz -005| 76°7| 71:8] 85:1] 69:9] s E-| +». 
10 | -955| 75°5| 69-4| 82°9/75°9] we] ....] do -005| 75'9| 70°6| 85:5] 69 5\ ES E| eee 
11 | .940| 76:4] 71:3] 83-6] 740] wu! _...|Ovest. | 29°982| 768) 72-0} 86°6|70°6)ns E| . 
12 | -947|73'8| 68-9| 81-2687) wwE, ....'Hazy | 950) 777728] 87:5) 72:0) 88 B | «0 
13 | -976| 74:9| 69-0] 82:7| 69°9lm by Nn} ...] do 86°6| 72:7] B by s| « 
14| -993/75-4/69°8 a 70°3lu by x| ....| do | °962|77°8|72°7| 85-7| 72:8] = by s! - ' 
15 | 30-002 74:1] 69-4 82-7 687/eEwE| ....| do | -996|77°8|71-9| 85°6172°3 = | «ed 
16 805 671) uNE| .... 30-041] 76-6] 67-9| 83°9|69°7| = | oven] 
17 | 29-994) 71-6] 67-2) 80°6 65°6] eNz| ....'Clear.| °056) 76°7| 67°3| 84°4|70:0, & | 
18 | -963]71:1] 66:7 80-9] 64°5|= by n x do | :034| 75°5| 67-0) 84°0/ 67-0 = by NI - 
19 { -949|72°3|67-6| 81-4/66-3} ENE] ....; do | .000! 73°5, 66-8] 83°8) 65:9E by nN) ..-. 
20 | -943| 72'0) 67-3| 81-8) 65°3) > temilts do 85'9| 69°8/E by N} sees 
21 | 896) 73-9] 68-4] 84°7| 67-2]? ....{ do |29°994| 77-6] 71-7| 86-4] 74-32 by nj 0-020 
22 | :919|74:4/70:1| 83°1| 685} s ....] do | 30-026] 78°6'72°3| 85-7|/73:5|E by N| ...0 
23 83116791 ESE| eee. 018) 76'8|71:4| 85°7/706) Ej ...s 
24} +963) 74:1] 69-1] 82°7| 67-1 = by s| ....] do [29-974|77°2| 71-1] 86-6) 70-0 by s| ....tmy: 
25 |30-033| 74°7| 69-01 8321683. s B | ....| do | °928|77:3|70°9| 86-4|70-1] usu] ...,iey 
26 | :020\75- 0 69-2| $3°8| 69:3) psu] ....| do "935| 76°9, 71:4| 86:2) 71'3| ES | .... me 


27 | °027| 733) 66-2) 82°7/65°5) Spool) Le 87'7|72°3] ES EB} ne0.| 
28 | °051 743] 683] 82°7/68:0, = Foal ke ‘917| 78°4| 72:8] 87°3)72°6 5s cope 
29 ‘078 ie 67:7, 82°3/66- 2; EN E| eee] do 


30 851 (o°G) RON) wee 
81 | °084/ 75°3) 69:0 83:1| 69 llenz Hazy | 
; ao ae | | a 
2 29'°994/47°0) 68*1) 82°4 ee none. 29°997| 76:2) 70°3| 85°5) 701 ae i 
um 


? This mark signifies that no Means can be tali 


ae 


‘JANS. 


far, 1858.] 


at oS RS i a Cae eee 


pt at the Madras Magnetic Observatory. 


281 


Marc 18358. Aprit 1858. 
Pet Wate AI Saget Us UUme 
THERMOMETERS. Shops, LHW EMO METERS: | 
| Means : a ae Means : # 
[Pry|we B= | F | a | a RRS Dry|wel 2 [S| Ee | & | 
. oe eae 
| Ee nal ee! Ins. Inches| ° | S. SS Ins. 
|| 79-4) 73 7| 89:6] 73:8} 8B "Clear. | 29°891| 83:3) 769] 932/771] BsE| ....|Hazy. 
{)/80-3| 74-3| 896/747; ssu| ....| do | -874/824)75'8| 965/759 Bsn)... Clody. 
|| 80-4 74:5] 909|75°4| SE | -..-|Clody. 91:9) 74°5] ES E| coe. | 
||79°7|73°5| 89-1|74°6) s = -[Clear.| °853] 82'8| 76°7| 93°7/78°3) SE . |Clody. 
|78-5)72°7| 88-4] 71-7, 58 B do | 859 83:5) 77-7] 935/774] ESE] s+ee/Hazy. 
| 87:9] 72°2| 8S | -- 843] 84°6| 77°3| 96°7| 78'4|B bys| ++] do 
j|78°7 73°83) 88°1|72°5| SS E| eeee do -806| 83°41 77-1] 94:6|77-°0] ES E| oe..|Clear. 
f18°7|729| 87°7|726| se |---| do | 831/841) 77-6 952/782) sz) -...) do 
h|77°-7 72:0| 86°8| 71:3) SS B| e+++| do °822| 85°5| 78°3| 99°9| 78°3) s ss | cee do 
| 78:0) 71:7 87:3|70°6|B s BE) ----| do 101°7|81.2\s byE - 
[19-2] 735; 884/734 7 | «+++ do -788| 87-2| 79°38; 99°6|82'4| s | eee.) do 
|| 78°8| 72°7| 90-6] 71-4)? do | °816|86-4'80-6| 96°2|82'9] ss = .|Hazy. 
90-1] 722) BS E| sees 816) 85°5| 79°9| 94°9| 81-7|s by B] ---.|Clear. 
79-5173°7| 99-4|74-4) 2 | - +-| do | °840/85:2|79°6] 94°5/81'4) s u | +...) Hazy. 
78°7|73'4| 88-7|72°1) SSE wees] do | °872| 84:3) 78:9] 93°6| 795] s E .|Clear. 
§0-2174-7| 90°3174:7| ssE |---| do | °894|84:3/78°7| 93°7/ 789) s & ..|Hazy. 
0°8)75°2) 90°6)74°3) SSE! --+| do 94°6)79 ll ESE] -- 
80:2| 74:4} 89-2173: 6 ssu| eves, do | °875/85:0| 79:0] 949/787) us B}] ---.] do 
9:9|73°3| 89°6|73°0) SE Hazy | 857) 84:9, 781 95:0/78°8| ES E| ecee.| do 
91-1) 72°4) BS E -877| 84:9] 77:6; 96.0| 78:9) ESE : do 
79°5|73°7| 90°8|72'1) = Clear.| °902| 83°8]77°2| 94'8| 76-7) HS = Clear 
81-4/75:5] 91°3]75:5, se |---| do | -875/840]777| 942/774) sm | see.) do 
81:6|75°5| 91-4) 75°5| SSE do | -809|84:3|77°5| 94:1|778| BSE do 
§1:5| 75°6| 92-7/74:8) SB do 94:9/79'1| sp | --.- 
180-9] 75°3| 91:3) 74-4) se] ..--| do -772| 85°6| 79°1! 95-6809} su | .--.|Hazy. 
80:9] 75°7| 91:1] 74-6 sae. Hazy | °793| 85°9|79°7| 95°8/80°9] sz | ....| do 
; 91:1|74°5) sz | 814| 86-01 79°5| 95°8| 81-1] by s| ----|Clear. 
819] 76:2| 91:9/77°5| sE | seee| do | °836| 84-4] 79°3] 88:3) 81-9] EN | 0°279|Ovrest 
82:3 761! 91°7|76'1| sSE| s-+-(Clear.| °860| 833} 78'5; 93:8/79'0) ‘361| do 
828] 76:8] 92°7|/ 76:9, ES E| ..| do -831| 83°8| 79°2| 92°4/79-7/E by 8] °192)Hazy, 
83:4|77°3| 92°6|77:8uby N| ..--| do 


= 


Se 


a. : 


j 


}80°2) 74°3 90:1] 73°9 


none. 


the penile state of the Wind. 


one, | | ee | 


99:843| 84°6|78' 4) 99:0) 79°1 


0°832 
8 


| 
| 


May 1808, 
f es THERMOMETERS. | 
aS | Means. 2 
pe ee | Eales ae 
no Dry |Wet pl Ge] | es re S 
Inches} ° fale Ins, 
93'1| 80:5] Sz | 
99-776| 84:3}78 6| 94:0/80-0] s= | 0-014|Clody. 
755|81-3|77-4| 83:5|80°l]| xz | -584|Ovrest! 
°618|78:9|76:'7| 81°7| 777) oN °095| do 
-729|78'1|75'1| 88:8|77'4|s by w| 018] do 
-790|82°3|78°2| 92:9'78°5| ssE} °004|Clody. 
-693| 84-8] 79:3] 95-2] 79 8} s ..|Hazy. 
101:2/81°5) ssn} “779 
-733] 83°8| 78'°6| 93°7|79°0) ? -|Ovrest 
-740| 84 4| 79°2] 98:7; 79°21s byw] ----|Hazy. 
698] 85-6} 79°1] 96:2) 80°3} > ecce} oO 
*667| 85:0] 79:1) 95-3) 81 l/s by = eoee| do 
-663) 84:6| 78:2] 954'79°7| ss u| ----|Clody. 
+683] 85:1] 79°0] 94:4|80°3} ss HB] «ee-|Hazy. 
99°8|82.1)s s w . 
-702| 87-9] 77:7| 100°8| 84°6] > . |Clody. 
-677| 85:5) 77°6| 94:5) 82:2} s w 180 Ovrest 
-606| 83°5| 773] 96-0) 83°2) s w 792| do 
-616| 85°3| 76°6} 97-6) 79'2|  ? eee} do 
-671| 87°7| 76°4| 100-1] 81:2lw bys| »++-|Clody 
-7(0| 87-2) 78°3} 100:2| $1°1 do 
100:4| 81°3 
-740| 87:5] 77:3] 103-7) 81°3 | ‘Haxy. 
765} 88°3] 78-0] 103-9) 82°2 <wapeedaus | 
775| 88:2] 77-7] 1040, 8371 sop hacdoi| 
1/61| 87:2) 77°8| 101-4) 82°] 068) do | 
735| 85:9] 77:11 100°6 80'8 Clody 
*733| 87:0) 78-2| 100-0, 81:5 do 
100-2) 81:7 eee 
-798| 87-9] 78°4) 100°5| 72°38 do 
°787| 89:2) 77°8/103:7'8 2°3 e.|Hazy 
29-713] 852) 77:9} 97:1) 80 9 | 3:03] 
Sum 


AIH AP Ww hd 


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hb bb 
me CF Woe 


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bo bt te 
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Meteorological Observations, &c. &c. [No. 6, NEW SER] 


282 


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— 


INDEX or MATTER in Vor. JI. 


Abelmoschus Oil, 41. 
Adale Oil, 387. 
Africa, Burton’s Kxpedition into Eastern Intertropical, 256. 
Agricultural &c., Society, Premia offered by, 268. 
AJlepey, singular natural mud breakwater at, 218. 
Animal Oils, 44. 
Backwater of Travancore, 203. 
Bartramiacere, Neilgherry Mosses, 86. 
Bees, on a true Parthenogenesis in, 110. 
Belgaum Walnut Oil, 39. 
Ben Nut Oil, 39. 
Bonduc Nut Oil, 42, 
Bryony Oil, 41. 
Bruchiaceze Neilgherry Mosses, 89. 
Bryacee ‘do do, 85. 
Budhism, Remains of, in Madras Presidency, 225. 
Cairo, Account of Geological researches at, 252. 
Castor Oil, 20. 
Cashew Nut Oil, 39. 
Cat amunak Oil, 34. 
Cat urraloo Oil, 38. 
Cheerongee Oil, 37. 
Cherroo Pinnacotay Oil, 38. 
Coal in Scinde, 142. 
Cobra, effect of its venom on the Mungoos, 267. 
Cocoa nut Oil, 20. 
Cocoa nut Oil, the best exported from Cochin, 21. 
Coimbatore, method of catching Wild Elephants at, 58. 
Copal Gum, Raw, from Zanzibar, 209. 
Do do True do, 260. 
Coimbatore notice of Crystalline Limestones in, 60. 
Coins, Numismatic Gleanings, 220. 
Do Salaka or Punch, 226. 
Do Sinha type, 234. 
Do. Elephant type, 240. 
Do Bulltype, 240. 
Do Horse type, 246. 
Do Miscellaneous types, 247. 
Colocynth Oil, 41. 
Company’s monogram, 267. 
Coongapillay Oil, 37. 


284 INDEX. 


Condamunnee Oil, 42. 
Coorookoo Oil, 34. 
Cotton, Seed Oil, 39. 
Cotton Premia for, 269. 
Cress Seed Oil, 37. 
Croton Oil, 41. 
Cucumber Seed Oil, 37. 
Cuddapah, Cyclone at, notice of, 70. 
Cummin wild Oil, 42. 
Cyperus or Mat Grass Oil, 42. 
Cyalheacee Neilgherry Ferns, 79. 
Dicranaceze Neilgherry Mosses, 86. 
Demia extensa as an Antidote for Snake Bites, 267. 
Elephants wild, method of catching in Coimbatore, 58. 
Entomology, on the best material for lining Cabinets, 249. 
Do method of preserving Duplicates of Lepidoptera, 251. 
Essays on various subjects, Premia for, 270. 
Fennugreck Oil, 41. 
Ferns of the Neilgherries, 79. 
Fissidentiee Neilgherry Mosses, 85. 
Funarioidez do, 80. 
Flora of the Pulney Hills, 169. 
Fish Oils, 44. 
Fibres, Premia for, 269. 
Gamboge Butter, 35. 
Gardener’s Vade Mecum, Premia for, 271. 
Garlic Oil, 42. 
Gayapa Oil, 42. 
Geological History of the Alluvium of Egypt, 252, - 
Gingeley Oil, 22. ; 
Do Bastard Oil, 24. 
Gleichemaceze, Neilgherry Fern, 79. 
Gleanings, Numismatic, 220. 
Ground Nut Oil, 27. 
Gunny Cloth, Premium for Substitute for, 270. 
Gutta Percha Oil, 41. 
Gutta Percha, Premium for Substitute for,.270. 
Hemp seed Oil, 40. 
Hymenophyllacee, Neilgherry Fern, 83. 
Hypnoidee Neilgherry Moss, 87. 
Hypopterygiacee do. 87. 
Horse taming. Mr. Rarey’s System of, 266. 
Illoopoo Oil, 33. 
Indigo, process of manufacturing as described by Marco Paolo, 213. 
Kurung Oil, 33. 
Lamp Oil, 24. 


INDEX. 285 


Linseed Oil, 28. 
Leptotrichacese, Neilgherry Mosses, 86. 
Leucobryacez, Neilgherry Mosses, 87. 
Lime and Silicate of Soda, protection of Timber from fire by, 118. 
. Limestone Crystalline in Coimbatore, 60. 
Linnean Society’s Journal, Notice of, 153. 
Lycopodiacez, Neilgherry Ferns, 84. 
Madder, Premium for the production of, 270. 
Madras Railway, on the line selected for, 71. 
Malkungunee Oil, 40. 
Margosa Oil, 32. 
Melon Seed Oil, 37. 
Mimusops Oil, 42. 
Mineral Spring at Paroor, 211. 
Mniadelphacez, Neilgherry Mosses, 88. 
Mnioidez, Neilgherry Mosses, 87. 
Moodooga Oil, 42. 
Moorgana Tallow, 38. 
Mosses of the Neilgherries, 85. 
Moths, on a true Parthenogenesis in, 110. 
Mustard Oil, 30. 
Mineral Oils, 44. 
Mungoos, effect of the Cobra’s venom on, 267. 
Mylay, meaning of as applied to Coins, 267. E 
Naga Sumpaghee Oil, 38. 
Nairs, remarks on, 204. 
_Neatsfoot Oil, 44. 
Neeradimootoo Oil, 36. 
Neilgherries, Ferns of, 79. 
——_—_——— Mosses of, 84. 
Nellore, Cyclone at, Notice of, 65. 
Numismatic Gleanings, 220. 
‘* Novara’ Frigate Austrian Expedition, 264. 
‘Nutmeg wild, Oil, 42. 
Notes and Queries, 206. 
Nature printing, letter from Mr. Smith on, 275. 
Oils of Southern India, Report on, 1. 
—-———— Index to Names &c. of, 45. 
Ophioglossez | Neilgherry Ferns, 79. 
Ommundacexe 
Pearl Oyster of Ceylon Natural History of, 89. 
Paper, Premium for Materiais for making, 270. 
- Paroor in Travancore, Mineral Spring at, 211, 
Parthenogenesis, in Bees and Moths, 110. 
Petroleum, 44. 
Piney Tallow, 35. 
Pinnacotay Oil, 33, 


286 INDEX. 


Plant Scenery of the World by Balfour and Greville, 163. 
Polypodiacex, Neilgherry Ferns, 79. 
Poovana Oil, 36. 
Poppy Oil, 3], 
Portia Seed Oil, 40, 
Pottioidex, Neilgherry Mosses, 87. 
Pulney Hills, Flora of, 169. 
Vegetable Products of, 163. 
Pumpkin Seed Oil, 37. 
Premia for Raw Produce &c., 269. 
Quilon, Notice of, 212. 
—————- Battle of, 213. 
Queries, 206. 
Quinine, Premium for Plants yielding: 270. 
Railway Madras, on the line selected for, 71. 
Ramtill Oil, 30. 
Rosebay Oil, 40. 
Sagitta, specimens of the curious Genus of, 276. 
Safflower Oil, 36. 
Sand box tree Oil, 42. 
Sandal seed Oil, 38. 
Saul seed Oil, 42. 
Scientific Mission, Messrs. Schlagentweit’s, 137. 
Silicate of Soda and Lime vrotect timber Lon fire, 118. 
Silk Cotton seed Oil, 40. 
Soap made with Cocoa nut Oil lighter than water, 21. 
Soap Nut Oil, 39. 
Spring mineral near Paroor in Travancore should be better known, 211. 
Star Anise Oil, 42, - 
Sterculia Oil, 38. 
Sun flower Oil, 40. 
Sweet Fennell Oil, 40. 
Snake bites, on Doemia extensa as an antidote for, 267. 
Teak trees, on a concretion found in, 268. 
Thevetia neriifolia, case of poisoning with the Seeds of, 140. 
Thevetia Oil, 42. 
Thorn Apple Oil, 42. 
Thorny Trichilia Oil, 42. 
Thortay Oil, 41. 
Timber, protection from fire, 117. 
Patents for the above, 120. 
———— Reports on Experiments, 125. 
Directions for covering with Silicate of Soda and Lime, 136. 
Tobacco on the curing of, 268. 
Travancore, backwater of, 203. 


INDEX. 287 


Travancore, full of Botanical Treasures, 206. 
mineral Spring at Paroor in, 211. 
————Forests, List of Orchids in, 215. 
Viscid Cleome Oil, 40. 

Wax Oil, 444. 

Wild Olive Oil, 38. 

Wood Oils, 43. 

Zanzibar, Captain Burton’s visit to, 257. 


INDEX OF NAMES In Voz, III. 


Abel, F. A. Esq., on a mode of protecting Timber from Fire, 117. 
Balfour, Dr. J. reports a case of poisoning by Seeds of Thevetia Neriifolia, 140. 
Balour, T. H. M D., A. M. &c. Plant Scenery of the World by, 153. 
Beddome, Lieut. R. H. Extract from his Report, on the Vegetable Products of 
the Pulney Hills, 163. 
Blanford, H. F. Esg., Notice of Occurrence of Crystalline Lime Stone in Coimba- 
tore by, 60. 
Brown, Revd. J. C. on Indian Infanticide, 159. 
Burton, Captain, Letter from to the Bombay Geographical Society, on an Expe- 
dition into Hastern Intertropical Africa, 246. 
Coplestone, F. Esq., Remarks on the Cultivation of Gingely by, 24. 
Cox, Mr. exhibited, some years ago, at the Polytechnic Institution a Folio gra- 
phic Press for printing from Leaves and Plants, 156. 
Dallas, W. F. L. 8. &c., Translation of a true Parthenogenesis in Moths and Bees, 
by Von Siebold, 110. 
Decandolle’s Prodromus Systematis Naturalis, 152. 
Drew, C. Esq., Assist. Surgeon, the late, Obituary Notice of, 146. 
Drury, Captain Heber. Notes of an excursion along the Travancore Back- 
water, 203. 
East India Company, on the Scientific Mission sent to India by, 137. 
Elliot, Wa'ter, Madras Civil Service, Numismatic Gleanings by, 220. 
Greville, R. Kaye, L. L. D., Plant Scenery of the World by, 153. 
Hamilton, Captain D. Description of the method of catching wild Elephants, in 
Coimbatore, 58. 5 
Hawkes, Lieut. H. P., Report on the Oils of Southern India, 1. 
Do. Notes on various subjects, 249. 
Do. Notes and Queries by, 256, 
Hemery, Lieut. E. Notice of a Cyclone at Cuddapah, 70. 
Hooker’s, Sir William, Journal of Botany has ceased to appear, 153. 
Homer, L. Esq., V. P. R. S. Account of some Geological Researches near Cairo 
252. 
Jackson, Lieut., Patent Process for preserving Timber from Fire, 120. 
Inman, Mr. has completed 100 feet in the great experimental Shaft in search of 
Coal in Scinde, 142. 
Johnston, Revd. EH. Lists of Orchids in the Forests of Travancore, 215. 
Kellaart, E F. M. D., Report on the Natural History of the Pearl Oyster of Cey: 
lon, 89. 
Do. Report on the Tamblegam Oyster Fishery, 10d. 
Livingstone, Dr. D., Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa, 149. 
Maclagan, Dr. D., Communication to the Botanical Society of Edinburgh on poi- 
soning with the seeds of Thevetia Neriifolia, 140. 


INDEX. 289 


Maclean, W. C. Esq., M. D., A Treatise on Small Pox by, 158. 
Maugham, Mr., Patent for preserving timber from fire, 120. 
Mullins, Lieut. J., Description of a Cyclone at Nellore, 65. 
Pears, Colonel T. T. on the Line selected for the Madras Railway, 71. 
Prussia, King of, on the Mission sent to India by, 1387. 
Purdie, W. Esq., Government Botanist at Trinidad, Obituary Notice of, 142. 
Salomon’s, W. C. Mode of protecting timber from fire, 123. 
Schlagentweit, Messrs. on their Scientific Mission to India, 137, 276. 
Schmid, Dr. B. the late. A List of Neilgherry Ferns, 79. 

Do. Neilgherry Mosses, 84. 

Do. Obituary Notice of, 143 
Siebold, Von, on a true Parthenogenesis in Moths and Bees, 110, 
Stocks, J. Ellerton, Esq., M. D. Obituary Notice of, 271. 
Smith, Mr. H. on Nature Printing, 2796. 
Thwaites, M. Examination of the Plants of Ceylon, 149. 
Toynbee, Captain, specimens of the Genus Sagitta received from, 276, 
Von Siebold, on a true Parthenogenesis in Moths and Bees, 110. 
Walker, W. Esq., the late Obituary Notice of, 147. 


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