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The
MAMMALS OF PENNSYLVANIA
With a Discussion of the Biology of Mammals
in General, including Keys to the Orders and
Families, and with Detailed Accounts of All
Species Indigenous to Pennsylvania.
Fully Illustrated.
by
Samuel Howard Williams
Professor of Zoology in the University of Pittsburgh
PITTSBURGH - 192
Copyrighted 1928
by
SAMUEL H. WILLIAMS
To
Remi H. Santens
whose skill in the art of Taxidermy has done
much to further public interest in Natural
History, this volume is gratefully dedicated.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
General Characters of Mammals 13
History and Distribution of Mammals 14
The Hair of Mammals 23
The Color and Color Patterns of Mammals 25
The Habitats of Mammals 28
The Defenses of Mammals 30
Interrelationships Among Mammals 32
Hibernation of Mammals 36
Conservation of Wild Life 39
The Teeth of Mammals 41
The Mammalian Skeleton 43
The Classification of Mammals 52
The Orders of Mammals with keys to identification 55
The Families of Mammals with keys to identification 56
A Classified List of Pennsylvania Mammals 58
Detailed Discussions of Pennsvlvania Mammals 63
\3a^\^(f
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
\Vhite Tailed Deer (Frontispiece) 2
Skull of Deer 44
Skull of Bear 45
Skulls of Fox and Otters 46
Skulls of Rabbit, Mink, Woodchuck 47
Skeleton of a Typical Mammal 48
Animal Tracks 51
Opossum 64
Brewer's Mole 66
Common Mole 67
Starnoscd IVIole 69
Long-tailed Shrew 71
Short-tailed Shrew 72
Big Brown Bat 78
Silver Haired Bat 81
Bats 84
Bear 87
Raccoon 90
Least Weasel 93
Common Weasel (Summer) 94
Common Weasel (Winter Coloration) 96
Bonaparte's Weasel 97
]\Iink ^ 98
Otter 100
Skunk 102
Red Fox 105
Gray Fox 107
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (continued)
Wildcat 109
Woodchuck Ill
Chipmunk 11"!"
Gray Squirrel ' 1 o
Black Squirrel 11/
Fox Squirrel 118
Red Squirrel 120
Flying Squirrel 123
Beaver 125
Deer Mouse (Common ) 128
Cloudland Deer Mouse 129
Red Backed Mouse 134
Meadow Mouse 136
Meadow Jumping Mouse 138
Woodland Jumping Mouse 1 39
Brown Rat 141
Black Rat 143
Wood Rat 144
Muskrat 146
Porcupine 148
Varying Hare 150
Cottontail Rabbit 152
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PREFACE
OR a number of years, the writer 'has felt the
need of a work that deals specifically with
the Mammals native to the State of Pennsyl-
vania. This little Handbook is designed for
Boy Scouts, Hunters and Sportsmen, Nature Study
students and teachers, and for all lovers of the great
outdoors.
An attempt has been made to include all of the
material that the student of mammals needs for a
proper appreciation of the animal w^orld. In order to
include the discussions of the Biology of Mammals,
it has been necessary to reduce all of these to an abso-
lute minimum, so that the*volume might be kept within
a practicable size. In many cases only the interesting
possibilities of the various phases of Mammalian study
have been stressed. The inclusion of many known facts
in these cases would add too much volume for a work
of this kind. Then, too, the student would be robbed
of making many interesting discoveries "on his own."
It is the hope of the waiter that all those for
whom this book is intended will find it practical and
stimulating.
The writer is indebted to his colleagues in the
Zoology Department for many helpful suggestions and
constructive criticisms. Grateful acknowledgment is
due Dr. Audrey Avinofif and the other officials of the
Carnegie Museum for permission to use photographs
■4>t 11 ><:--
of various animal groups, and for placing their collec-
tions at the writer's disposal for photographing and
studying. Mr. R. L. Fricke, of the Carnegie xMuseum,
supplied the photographs of Bonaparte's Weasel and
the Big Brown Bat. The drawings of animal tracks
were made by Miss Ruth Isensee, under the direction
of the author.
The author wishes to thank Dr. H. T. H. Jackson
and his colleagues, in the Bureau of the United States
Biological Survey, for the photographs of the Com-
mon and the Star Nosed Moles.
Mr. Remi H. Santens, Chief Taxidermist in the
Carnegie Museum and Instructor of Taxidermy in the
Zoology Department, has made possible the excellent
phototgraphs, which were taken by Mr. W. S. Coff-
man, under the direction of the author. Mr. Geo. W.
Gordon, with whom the writer has, for many years,
observed the wild creatures in their native haunts, has
been quite helpful in many ways.
While all of these associates have been of great
assistance, the author assumes the entire responsibility
for any errors that have doubtless crept into this work.
<v>i 12 ><*■
THE MAMMALS OF PENNSYLVANIA
The General Characters of INLammals
The mammals belong to the group of the animal
kingdom known as Vertebrates. These are distin-
Laiished by the fact that they possess a Vertebral
Column or Backbone. The group includes the Fishes,
Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds and Mammals. How-
ever, the mammals differ from the others in two im-
portant respects; in the first place, the mammals are
the only animals that possess a coating of hair; second-
ly, the young of mammals are nourished by secretions
extracted from the body of the mother through the
mammary glands which lead to the exterior through
the nipples located on the ventral surface of the body.
All mammals are warm blooded and, although
certain forms like the Whales, Seals and Dolphins
are adapted to living in the water, all are air-breath-
ing. With only two exceptions, the mammals are all
viviparous; that is, they bring forth their young alive.
The exceptions are the Australian Duck-billed Mole
Ornithorhyncus paradoxus and the Spiny Anteater
Echidna. Both of these forms are strikingly unique in
that they retain the primitive habit of laying eggs, as
do birds and reptiles. When the eggs hatch, the young
are taken by the mother and nourished in the usual
way. However, these two forms do not have well de-
veloped mammae and^ mammary glands. The milk in
this case is secreted by modified sweat glands and ex-
udes through pores located on the ventral surface of
the body. It is then licked off by the young animals.
There are other animals which bear living young,
however. This is true of certain snakes, such as the
....>C 13 ><.-
common rattle snake, but among mammals the young
are usually attached to the mother by a placenta and
an umbilical cord, although the Marsupials which
bear their young prematurely lack this cord.
In size, the mammals range from a small Shrew
(CrociduraY^ of Madagascar, which is less than three
inches long, to the massive Rorqual Whale (Balaeo-
naptera Sihhnldii Gray) of the North Atlantic, which
sometimes attains a length of 85 feet. The smallest
American mammal is a shrew Microsorex ivinnemana,
which is about three inches long. The home of this
animal is Virginia.
At the present time there are between 3500 and
4000 mammals known to Science. Of this number
about 1300 are known to inhabit North America. In
Pennsylvania, the group is represented by about sixty
species and subspecies. Formerly there were many
others, but the advent of civilization has reduced their
numbers.
Without wishing to introduce a technical obstacle
to interest in this treatise, the author feels that a brief
discussion of Biological Principles is in place.
The History of Mammals
While it would be utterly impossible to incor-
porate in this discourse a detailed discussion of mam-
malian development, it might be well to indicate some
of the factors that have contributed to the rise of such
a diverse group.
It must be remembered that the animals on the
face of the earth today are the descendants of less
* Henn, A. \\^ "The Range of Size in tlie Vertebrates." Amer.
Nat., March, 1912.
-*H[ 1 4 !«'■-
specialized forms that existed millions of years ago.
This evolution, or development, has proceeded slowly
and is the result of a combination of Biological and
Physical factors. Certainly, Natural Selection, physi-
ological and physical adaptations to food and tempera-
ture, moisture, and topographical variations, have
played an obvious part.
The mammals are the most recently developed
group in the animal world. Moreover, their develop-
ment has been remarkably rapid when it is contrasted
with the development of many other forms. After the
other Vertebrates (Fishes, Amphibians and Reptiles)
had failed, in succession, to maintain the supremacy of
the world, the mammals with a keener intelligence,
which brought with it parental care, have advanced to
a position which is more or less dominant.
Although there is still some difference of opinion
regarding the origin of mammals, the evidence seems
to point to reptilian ancestors. Fossil remains of ex-
tinct, dog-toothed reptiles in the Triassic rocks of
South Africa, appear to possess, structures which sug-
gest that present day mammals and those that preceded
them were, more or less, directly descended from rep-
tilian forms.
As has been shown in every animal group that has
attained a high degree of specialization, the mammals
have undergone a prog^ressive development from sim-
pler ancestral forms. The earliest known mammals
appear to have been of a very small size, arboreal and
insectivorous in their habits. A small Tree Shrew,
living in Africa, is thought to more closely represent
the earliest placental mammals than any other living
creature.
To properly comprehend and appreciate mam-
mals and their relation to the past, it is necessary to
become acquainted with the salient facts of Paleon-
tology, Embryology, Anatomy, and Geographical Dis-
tribution. The word development or "Evolution"
implies change and, since the changes are so slow as to
be imperceptible, it is not easy for the uninformed in-
dividual to comprehend the changes that have, and are
still, taking place, or, to understand the efifects of these
changes upon existing life.
The mammal has its origin in the form of a fer-
tilized egg which develops into an Embryo within the
body of the mother. The embryo remains within the
body and undergoes a further development until the
new animal has attained all of its organs and struc-
tures and until all of the vital processes are differen-
tiated. The length of time for this development within
the mother depends upon the kind of animal, varying
from three weeks in the rat to almost two years in the
elephant.
As the embryo develops, it passes through an in-
teresting series of stages which show, to a remarkable
degree, the stages through which the whole race has
passed. This embryological development coincides
pretty well with the Paleontological evidence, or the
fossil records of the evolution of living things.
The Student of mammals will soon observe th:it
there is a unique distribution of animals over the face
of the earth. While it is obvious that the faunas
of the various continents are characteristic of those con-
tinents, it is also just as obvious that many animnl
groups in continents which are somewhat removed
from one another, are similar in many respects. How
may we account for these relationships?
-*>{ 16 >#-
The study of Geoloi^y indicates that at some time,
in the early history of the world, these continents were
more or less directly connected by continental bridges.
By means of these land connections, which made these
continents contiguous, it was possible for air-breathing
forms to migrate from one continent to another. Con-
sequent Geological changes isolated certain of these
continents, while on the other hand, land areas that
were formerly more or less isolated were connected
through the shifting of the oceans. Combined with
these changes in land and water areas were constant
variations of climatic conditions, such as were pro-
duced through the movement of glaciers and through
the elevation and lowering of land areas by upheaval.
The existing animal forms were, therefore, forced to
endure new and ever-changing conditions and, in the
process of evolution and adaptation, a multitude of
kinds resulted.
As is to be expected, many animals were unable to
meet the situation and, failing in their Biotic response
to the new environment, they perished. Others which
could migrate, probably did so, while still others were
forced to modify their structures and habits of living.
These conditions, ofttimes changing from a warm
climate, with its associated abundance of a particular
vegetation, to a comparatively frigid one, necessitated
either adaptation or migration. When certain forms
could do neither, they p-assed from the living picture
and became extinct. Others were able to move from
unfavorable situations and today we see their descend-
ants holding forth in a tropical setting which, although
somewhat modified, is similar in many respects to that
of their predecessors. Others met the new demands
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by modification of food and body structures. Thus
these rapidly changing conditions forced an accelerated
and diversified development of the mammals.
Evidence of these changes in America are numer-
ous. The tragedies revealed in the investigations of the
pitch lakes at Rancho LaBrea in southern California,
in which the skeletal remains of the Saber-toothed
Tiger and hundreds of other forms no longer existent
have been found, and the discovery of fossil Dinosaurs
in Wyoming, are indubitable records of these Geologi-
cal and attendant climatic transitions.
We have reason to believe that, millions of years
ago, the region between the Allegheny and Rocky
Mountains was the bed of a gigantic ocean which later
shifted its basin, leaving in its wake, a series of lakes,
ponds, streams and swamps, many of which were later
drained or dried up. The available land areas were
immediately claimed by a luxurious growth of vegeta-
tion with which there became associated an interesting
fauna. The fossil remains of the plants and animals
of that time indicate that the climate was of a tropical
or subtropical character.
Far in the North the long winters were producing
quantities of snow and ice which the comparatively
short summers could not melt. The accumulated mass
grew to gigantic proportions and later covered the
whole northern part of this continent. Then this great
ice sheet began to move southward. Naturally, as it
descended, it brought about a very pronounced change
in temperature. This ice sheet, or glacier, which prob-
ably attained a height of two miles in some places
moved across the northern part of New York and the
northern and northwestern part of Pennsylvania, its
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sides extending southward to what is now the dividing
line between Butler and Mercer counties. The termi-
nus of the glacier was in the region now known as the
Beaver Valley.
As the mass of ice moved across the surface of the
ground, its tremendous weight caused it to push thou-
sands of tons of soil before it. Great quantities of rock
and other soil material were gathered in its movement
and these added to its abrasive surface. The cutting
and grinding of this great mass of ice certainly left
indelible marks on the landscape over which it passed.
When the ice began to melt, the soil material at
the terminus and along the sides was deposited. The
material was left in great bank-like formations called
Moraines. As one travels from Butler to Grove City,
he passes over the lateral moraine and suddenly
emerges from the "flat stone country" of the south into
the "round stone country," which marks the glacier's
path. In these moraines are to be found the fossil re-
mains of Corals, Crinoids and other marine animals
that were evidently transported from deposits in
Northern New York, where the upper Devonian rocks
are nearer the surface.
The great quantities of water resulting from the
melting ice, having an insufficient outlet, backed up
the Ohio Valley and formed a large lake in what is
now the city of Pittsburgh. That the whole previous
drainage system of this region was changed, is shown
by excavations in the Schenley District of Pittsburgh.
Below the soil deposited by the glacial lake there is
revealed the p re-glacial gravel which marks the former
bed of the Monongahela River. Prior to the coming
of the glacier, the waters for some distance south of
->:>i 19 >;-.-
Erie flowed northward, but, since the recession of the
glacier, they flow southward into the Ohio river drain-
age system. The Great Lakes were also formed by the
movement and subsequent disappearance of the glacier.
Other evidences of changes that have taken place
in Pennsylvania may be briefly cited. On the summits
of Laurel and Chestnut Ridges of the Allegheny
Mountains one can find many limestone quarries in
which there are the remains of thousands of Brachio-
pods and other marine MoUusks, which indicate the
former limits of the Atlantic Ocean.
In the shales associated with the bituminous coal
beds of the state, in limestone deposits, and scattered
about near the surface of the ground, one can see per-
fectly formed fossil remains of plants that no longer
exist, such as Tree Ferns, small flowering plants, Cala-
mites, and the striking forms of Lepidodendrons and
Sigillarids. These latter plants were of endogenous
character and grew to heights of over one hundred feet.
Their petrified sections are often mistaken for fossil
fishes and snakes. These remnants of extinct forms in-
dicate that another order existed in times long past.
In Jefiferson County, near Brookville, the fossil
remains of giant cockroaches, which were evidently
once abundant, have been found. It is reasonable to
assume that the mammals which were slowly develop-
ing at the time these forms existed were afifected by the
radical changes in topography and climate.
The fossil beds of Pennsylvania have yielded the
remains of Whales, Dolphins, Horses, Elephants, Pec-
caries, Tapirs and many other pre-historic animal
species. All of these testify to the principle of ever-
lasting change.
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To demonstrate that the chanL2;es mentioned above
have not ceased altogether, and to show that, at present
times, changes of a very marked character are still be-
ing effected, it is necessary only to point out the fact
that the level of Lake Erie is continually falling. The
old shore lines, which indicate the former limits of the
lake, are to be seen for many miles from the present
water margins. Prese]ue Isle, a; peninsula extending
into the lake at Erie, has been moving eastward for
over six hundred years and it is still in a state of con-
tinuous motion and change.
On this peninsula old ponds are disappearing
while new ponds are being formed. The w^hole con-
tour of the peninsula, which is now a state park, is so
rapidly changing that these changes may be noted from
year to year.
Both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts are likewise
showing a constant variation. Shore lines are advanc-
ing at certain points and receding at others. Thus, we
see that the old hymn, "Change and Decay In All
Around I See," is an expression of reality.
The Science of Ecology, or the study of organism
and their relation to the environment, has shown that
there is a definite relationship between an animal and
the conditions under which it lives. In fact, it is the
environment which largely determines the animal asso-
ciation to be found in a given place. The significance
of this is emphasized by observing specialized adapta-
tions to water; to burrowing in the ground; to arboreal
existence, etc. If any one of these conditions were to
be suddenly removed, the animals mostly highly spec-
ialized to it would perish. If conditions were to change
gradually the weaker ones would probably perish, but
-..H[ 21 >«-
the stronger ones would continue to live under stress-
ing conditions which would undoubtedly result in
changes in them after a sufficient number of genera-
tions. Naturally all of these modifications bring about
a change in the distribution of animal forms. The
movement of soil from the north, by the glacier, made
conditions favorable for the southward migration of
northerly plants and animals, and we find many things,
notably plants and insects in northwestern Pennsyl-
vania, that are not to be found elsewhere in the state.
Other factors also affect the distribution of life.
Nature has established barriers to migration in the
forms of mountains, lakes, oceans, etc., over which some
forms can not pass. The fauna west of the Rocky Moun-
tains, for instance, differs from that of the eastern slope,
because many creatures can not negotiate the great
heights. Even the birds, which are better equipped
for migration than most other forms, have found the
mountains to be an impassable barrier and only a few
of them are able to fly across. On the other hand, wind,
rivers and water gaps are natural highways over which
the distribution of life is facilitated.
Distribution within a limited area, such as in the
state of Pennsylvania under modern conditions, is a
rather artificial thing. The result of dissemination,
through common carriers and through the activities of
humans themselves, is rapidly being felt, particularly
in respect to destructive organisms. Deforestation,
industrialization and the tendency toward the popula-
tion of all available land areas, has had, and will con-
tinue to have, a pronounced effect upon the distribu-
tion of wild life. All of these factors tend to upset
the balance of Nature and to reduce the numbers of
wild creatures.
Unfortunately, the only attempt to study the mam-
malian life zones of Pennsylvania was made twenty-
five years ago (Rhoads 1903) and, undoubtedly, the
distribution is somewhat altered at the present time.
It is well known that some animals are fairly well dis-
tributed over the state, while others are confined to
comparatively narrow limits. There are numerous
factors which explain both the general and specific lo-
calities of various mammalian forms. Undoubtedly,
the mountains have previously proved an effective bar-
rier to many forms, but the opening of highways has
altered their effectiveness to some extent. On the other
hand, the mountains provide a more suitable set of con-
ditions for some animals that are to be found only with-
in their confines. The great variety of conditions that
obtain within the Commonwealth yield an interesting
fauna.
The foregoing sketchy account of some of the fac-
tors that contribute to the diversification and distribu-
tion of animal groups is given only to indicate the
breadth of Mammalian study. It is hoped that these
scattered suggestions and illustrations will stimulate the
intellectual curiosity of the reader and arouse in him an
aggressive interest. Further details would add too
much volume to this treatise and thus destroy the pur-
pose of the writer. The Classified Bibliography con-
tains a sufficient number of both general and specific
works for ordinary purposes.
The Hair of Mammals
With a few exceptions such as Whales, Dolphins,
etc., the mammals are covered with a coating of hair
of varying length and thickness according to the spec-
-*>C 23 >*-
ies. There are two kinds of hair on a mammal: (1)
the long, coarse, over-hair which is chiefly protective,
and (2) the fine, soft, underfur, which serves to pre-
serve a normal body temperature. There are also
highly specialized hairs, (vibrissae) which are sensory.
The "whiskers" located on the face, and the coarse
hairs often found above the eyes and on the wrist near
the hand, are evidently sensory and aid the senses of
smell, touch and hearing.
The primary purpose of the hair coat is protec-
tive. This protection is effected in two ways. In the
first place, insulation against low temperatures seems
paramount, and secondly, a heavy coat of hair affords
protection from serious injury by the teeth of other
animals and sheds water, thus preventing the body
of the animal from getting wet. Some mammals are
born with a fine, silken coat of hair, while others are
born hairless. The latter are kept warm by contact
with the mother, or by being cuddled together in a well
lined nest. These forms are usually born in warm
seasons or are produced in deep burrows.
No single description could account for all of the
changes that take place in the hair growth of mammals
in general and there are considerable differences
among the types of hair of infancy, youth and ma-
turity, that of an adult usually being coarser. The dis-
tribution of the hair over the body is also variable ac-
cording to the kind of mammal, but it is generally long-
er and more dense on the dorsal surface of the body. On
virtually all forms there are sections of the body which
are devoid of hair, such as under the hind legs, around
the mammae, etc.
-*H[ 24 >-
The length and density of the hair are also regu-
lated by the seasons and mammals are known to have
longer and heavier coats in winter than in summer. In
the Spring there is a shedding or moult of surplus hair,
in some forms there is also another moult in the Fall,
then the winter coat begins to develop and, by the first
snowfall, the creatures are prepared to withstand win-
tery blasts. The shaggy coats of horses and cattle in
the winter are familiar to everyone and are character-
istic of Nature's method of supplying additional
warmth. Trappers always secure skins for commercial
purposes in the winter.
The Color and Color Patterns of Mammals
The average person identifies an animal by its size,
shape and color. While there are a few mammals that
have brilliant colors, they are, as a rule, less gaudy than
birds and many other animals.
Most mammals have a very definite color pattern
which is more or less constant. However, there are
considerable variations in the pattern and in the color
intensity within a species. For instance, one Red Fox
may be considerably duller than another. In a num-
ber of mammals, the young differ widely from mature
individuals. Occasionally Albinos appear. In these
there is a little or no trace of pigmentation and the
animals are white or nearly so. Usually Albinos have
pink eyes due to the fact that there is no pigment to
conceal the mass of small blood vessels present, and
these are responsible for the characteristic tint. Al-
binism is an hereditary character and appears in most
Mammalian groups. Thus we occasionally see w^hite
blackbirds, white crows, w^hite ground hogs, \vhite
-»H[ 25 >#~
deer, and even white bats are not uncommon. Some-
times the change of coloration is due to disease or im-
proper food.
The formation of color and the color pattern of
animals is still a matter of scientific controversy. The
old explanation of the fact that numerous animals have
color patterns which harmonize so well with their sur-
roundings as to render them invisible to their enemies,
seems to have received a jolt. The accounting for this
remarkable phenomenon of protection, as a universal
proof of a definite directive force in nature, appears to
have been based on assumptions too general in char-
acter. With the advance of Physiological experimen-
tation, a number of instances have been shown which
seem to disprove the theory in specific cases. As a re-
sult of these investigations, some Physiological Ecolo-
gists have been rather prone to reject the old idea as
a whole, although there are instances in which they
can not justfy their positions.
There is no doubt that the colors of many animals
lend themselves in a protective way, in that they render
the animals invisible against the backgrounds in situa-
tions where they exist. A specimen which may appear
striking in a Museum case may be practically invisible
in its native haunts. That animals are aware of this pro-
tection, is not to be doubted. No person who has ever
seen a grouse or quail snuggle on its nest among the
dead leaves on the ground, or, who has discovered a
whip-poor-will resting on a dead log during the day,
can doubt that these forms depend, for protection, to a
large extent, on the fact that their color patterns har-
monize with their surroundings. Certain frogs, lizards
and fishes can change their colors to suit the back-
-M. 26 ><♦-
grounds on which they are resting. The well known
Chameleon, sold at County Fairs, possesses this faculty.
Colors have ordinarily been placed into two cate-
gories: (1) Concealing colors and (2) Warning colors.
The purpose of the first is to render the animal invisible
or inconspicuous, while the second is supposed to be a
sign of ferociousness or formidability, by w^hich other
animals are warned to keep away. It is, in other words,
a danger sign. Certainly w^e can not place too much
confidence in the old idea of protective coloration, nor
can we concede to the claims of certain Physiologists
that such a thing does not exist. Modern knowledge
of colors shows that they, and the hair itself, are by-
products of animal metabolism. Thus the colors of
Mammals are definitely dependent upon a number of
factors, Physical, Chemical and Physiological. Tem-
perature, food, moisture and especially light, have
played their part in color production. While all of
these factors show^ more or less immediate efifects, it
must be remembered that definite color pattern did not
originate in a short time, but that its formation is the
result of many generations of gradual physiological
adaptations. There is thus a phylogenetic or racial
factor involved.
Granting that color formation and deposition into
a definite pattern is chiefly physiological, insofar as its
immediate distribution is concerned, it is significant
that the colors of many forms are adaptive. Arctic
birds and mammals in their winter dress are white;
those of desert regions are usually a dull brownish
gray; forest animals are frequently striped; and those
of the open plains are nearly uniform in color. Cer-
tainly, the snow-w^hite coats of the Varying Hare and
--HE 27 ><^-
the Weasel in winter, render these animals less visible
to their enemies when snow covers the ground.
The study of coloration among existing mammals
has led to the conclusion that the primitive pattern con-
sisted of either transverse or longitudinal stripes, and
that it was probably the latter. Many mammals have
young that are spotted or striped one w^ay or the other,
but these stripes and spots disappear as the animal
grows older. The striped patterns are generally sup-
posed to have been adapted to forest conditions.
The fact that certain moths invariably rest on
trees, against which they are extremely difficult to see,
and the fact that many other forms seek the back-
grounds against wiiich they are inconspicuous, prompts
the writer to be reticent in casting aside the idea of a
purposive character in nature. It must be remembered
that many other Zoologists are not willing to accept,
in its entirety, the theory that all coloration is purely
Physiological. There is still considerable evidence of
purely protective colors which seem to be the object
of a purposive creation.
The Habitats of Mammals
The mammals present a very interesting assort-
ment of preferences in choosing places in w^hich to live
and build their homes. Some of them have specially
adapted structures which determine the sort of habi-
tats in which they are to be found. Mammals may be
classified as Terrestrial, Arboreal, Aquatic and Aerial.
Terrestrial animals include those that live on or under
the ground. Animals that live in trees are Arboreal;
flying animals, such as bats, are Aerial. Those forms
like the whales, seals and dolphins, which are structur-
-*H[ 28 ><*-
ally adapted to living in water, are Aquatic. The stu-
dent of Mammalogy will soon observe that each kind
of mammal has its own idea of suitable quarters for
nesting and foraging, although the lack or abundance
of food, together with other factors, will, to an extent,
alter its habits of living.
Some mammals, like the meadow mice and rab-
bits, prefer the open fields; others, like the porcupine
and wildcat, choose densely wooded sections; some
burrow^ in the ground, as do moles and woodchucks;
while certain kinds, such as the Squirrels, prefer, and
are structurally adapted to living in trees. It will be
observed that some mammals are more or less solitary
in their habits, while others, like the beaver and Hying
squirrels, often live in colonies.
Raccoons hunt along the shores of ponds and
streams and feed upon animals that live in shallow
water. On the other hand, the otter and mink do not
hesitate to dive into the deeper waters for fish. The
beaver and muskrat construct their homes out in the
water and are forced to dive in order to secure entrance
to them.
Observation w^ill show that the character of ihe
soil, and even the exposure of the land, will frequently
determine the animal associations with it. There are
some carnivorous animals that have very definite types
of situations in whicKthey build their homes, but they
are forced into all sorts of localities in the pursuit of
food. The fox, for instance, prefers a cave-like re-
treat for its home, but it wanders over hill and dale,
through woods and open fields, in its search for sus-
tenance.
-H 29 >!*-
In recording a situation in which a Mammal is
observed, the student should list all of the factors that
appear in the environment. The Place, County, State
and Date, should always be recorded in a Field note-
book under the name of the Mammal. The field notes
should always indicate whether the animal, its burrow,
or its tracks, were observed in the woods, in the thick
growth along a fence, or in an open field. The nature
of the vegetation should also be noted and records
should indicate: grass, low shrubs, trees, ferns, culti-
vated plants, field crops, moss, etc. The character of
the soil, whether moist or dry and whether clay, sand,
loam, humus, or rocky, should be listed.
Inasmuch as the topographical features effect the
distribution of many animals, the record should state
whether the land is high or low, and the exact eleva-
tion should be given when possible. The field record
should also specifically state whether the animal was
observed on a hillside, in a valley, or on a level plain.
Since many forms prefer the woodland, it would be
well to state whether the animal was seen in the shade
or in the open. Specific localities such as: along a
stream, in a hollow tree, in a cave, etc., should always
be included. The record should further indicate the
activities of the animal such as: swimming, walking
or running, burrowing, or flying. Any observations as
to solitary or gregarious habits should be carefully
noted.
The Defenses of Mammals
It is well, in studying any animal, to consider its
means of self defense. Reference has already been
made to the part that color plays in animal defense. In
-*>C 30 ><;--
addition to protective coloration, animals have other
methods of resisting the attacks of their enemies and for
capturing their prey.
The swift flight of some mammals constitutes their
chief means of defense. These forms depend upon their
ability to outdistance their pursuers. Others have large
teeth and powerful jaws which are quite capable of
seriously injuring their adversaries. Some mammals
have long, sharp claws which can do considerable
damage. A long hair coat, possessed by certain ani-
mals, has been previously discussed from the standpoint
of the protection it aflfords its possessor. Some animals
take to water as a means of escape, and these are usually
well equipped for diving and swimming.
Modified hairs, like the quills of the porcupine,
the scales of the armadillo, and the horns of deer,
serve admirably for defensive purposes. Many forms
are able to scamper up trees or to dart into narrow
underground passages and thus get out of reach of pos-
sible enemies. The borrowing forms invariably have
several exits to insure escape, in case their burrows are
invaded by enemy forms.
Some mammals, such as the skunk, weasel and
otter, emit unpleasant odors to discourage the attacks
of other forms.
There are other aspects of defense which space
forbids discussing, but the student will derive a real
pleasure in discovering the various ways and means
that animals have of protecting themselves against in-
numerable enemies.
->S>C 31 >H«~
Interrelationships Among Mammals
The relationships that exist among animals of all
kinds present some of the most fascinating aspects of
life among the lower forms. No student of animals
should overlook the interesting possibilities of such a
study. In many cases we observe social structures not
unlike those of humans and, in some instances, we can
profit by the efficiency of the cooperative systems which
characterize various animal groups.
However, the interrelationships existing in the
animal kingdom are numerous and sometimes they are
difficult to interpret, but, on the whole, any observa-
tions which lead to an understanding of animal life
will captivate one's interest and contribute to a well
balanced understanding of life in general.
There are many things to be considered when one
attempts to comprehend just what these relationships
are and what they mean. In the first place, there are
the relationships bewteen the sexes within a species. It
is interesting to observe whether an animal is polyga-
mous or monogamus; that is, what animals select new
mates each breeding season, and which ones select a
single mate for life. On the other hand, what part
does the male play in building the nest and caring for
the mother and young, and to what extent does he gen-
erally exercise paternal care for his family. In some
animals the male will fight for both its mate and its
young, he will carry food to the mother while she is
producing and caring for the little ones, and he will,
frequently, stand guard over the home and fight vali-
antly for the protection of his own.
In some groups there are bitter struggles among
rivals for certain females. Oftimes, after the mating
-*4 3 2 ><*-
season is over and after the young have been born, the
male will, if he has the opportunity, kill the young.
In such cases the female drives the male away and does
not permit him to linger about the nest after the young
have been born.
The courting habits of both sexes in all animal
groups are always interesting to observe, as is shown
in the courting of birds, for instance. Frequently the
male is larger, more powerful, and better ee^uipped for
protection than the female. As in birds, the male often
has a more brilliant color and sometimes he has addi-
tional structures which are of purely secondary sexual
character. In birds these structures are spurs, long
tail feathers, crests, etc. In the peacock, for example,
the large fan-shaped tail of brilliantly marked feathers
that distinguishes the male from the female is a second-
ary sexual adornment. In mammals these structures
may be extra hair tufts, a longer and more bushy tail,
larger and longer canine teeth, long horns, etc. Some-
times mammals have scent glands and other means by
which they are able to find one another, and "calling"
is a common method of attraction.
There are some mammals that live singly, or in
pairs. Others live in colonies. Some, like the Wolves,
travel and hunt in great packs, in order that they may
unite in "bringing down" larger animals. These forms
however, do not usually manifest a very great amount
of altruism and, after killing a victim, they will often
indulge in greedy fights over the carcass. Cattle and
horses, as well as other gregarious animals, travel also
in herds, chiefly for mutual protection. In a beaver
colony all of the members will work together in per-
-5>f 3 3 ><*•-
feet harmony in the repairing of a dam that has been
broken.
Although the common rabbit is more or less soli-
tary, it will (like the Beaver which slaps the water
violently with its tail when danger approaches) warn
the rest of the rabbits of approaching danger, by
thumping the ground with its hind feet. The common
deer will likewise raise its tail and flash the white un-
der side as a warning to other deer that might be in
the neighborhood when it hurries away from apparent
danger. The loud screams of many forms, which live
in close proximinity, serve the same purpose.
In every situation there are always a number of
kinds of animals. There are then involved, relation-
ships among animals of different species. Occasionally,
this relationship, between two or more different species,
is a symbiotic one; that is, these species live in a part-
nership that benefits both or all kinds. When different
kinds of animals live in the same region, there is
always a series of antagonistic groups which usually
narrow down to relationships in which only one mem-
ber of an association benefits. This results in a para-
sitic relationship, or, in a relationship between preda-
tor and prey, the one killing and feeding upon the
other. Minks, weasels, otters, raccoons, bears, skunks,
wildcats, shrews and foxes are predators and their prey
consists of rats, mice, birds, squirrels and many other
smaller animals. In nearly all predatory groups, the
predators will feed upon each other, when the oppor-
tunity to do so presents itself.
It is certain that "everything has its Satan" and,
likew^ise, every animal has its enemies. Sometimes
there are certain animals that limit their diet to one
■-:H: 34 >!i-
or a few species of other animals. When there is a
scarcity of food animals, there will naturally be a short-
age of those that feed upon them. It is interesting to
note that when there is a sporadic increase of some
form, as oftimes happens with certain mice, there is
an immediate increase of its natural enemies, such as
owls, weasels and shrews. In the winter of 1926 there
was an abundance of snow^y ow^s in the state of Penn-
sylvania, wiiere this form is usually scarce. In this
case there was probably a scarcity of Arctic Hares, on
which these owls generally feed in their northern
haunts, and the birds moved southward to a place
where there was a greater w^inter activity of animals.
The extermination of any form should not be un-
dertaken unless its habits are well-known, because, not
infrequently, when an animal is exterminated, the
equilibrium of nature is destroyed. When some ani-
mal, which is not seriously pestiferous, has its enemies
eliminated, it will increase with amazing rapidity and
will often become a serious menace.
The greatest weapon that the Economic Zoologist
has in combating a certain pest, is some other animal
that will feed upon it or that will parasitize it. The
most effective checks on destructive animal forms are
always natural ones in the form of enemies. The rea-
son for the increase of pests w^hich have ibeen intro-
duced from other countries is that their natural enemies
were not imported with them. In many cases, such as
the Japanese Beetle and numerous others, the intro-
duced animals are more abundant and, therefore, many
times more destructive here, than in their native lands,
because of the absence of their natural enemies.
L i S R /: i;
There is no doubt that weasels reduce the numbers
of smaller game animals and game birds. For this rea-
son the State Game Commission is endeavoring to ex-
terminate the weasel in order that hunters will have
more game. On the other hand, it has been proved
that weasels keep down the number of rats, mice, rab-
bits and other destructive rodents. Therefore, a com-
plete extermination of the weasel will undoubtedly
cause an increase of these destructive forms. On the
other hand, the extermination of the mountain lion or
cougar and the wolf, as well as the reduction in num-
bers of wildcats, has made possible the increase of wild
deer.
It is, therefore, well for the student of mammals
to consider all of the relationships that exist among
them and to observe carefully the laws of balance in
nature. Information concerning these various aspects
of the interdependence of mammals will be of great
economic value and will certainly make the study of all
wild life more attractive. Only a thorough knowledge
of the habits and activities of animals should guide
man's interference.
This study of interrelationships is tremendous and,
in many cases, much is yet to be learned. While the
foregoing paragraphs merely indicate some of the pos-
sibilities in such a study, it is hoped that enough has
been given to stimulate further observations.
The Hibernation of Mammals
As the winter season approaches, one sees a grad-
ual decrease in the number of living things. From
late August until the first snow fall, there is a general
exodus of forms into the realms of obscurity. Where
do all of these creatures go? Perhaps the migration of
the birds and the disappearance of insects are most
noticeable, but investigation shows that many of the
mammals also have ceased to remain as a part of the
winter contingent.
The ability of birds to travel great distances en-
ables them to migrate to warmer regions to the south-
ward, where life is active all of the year. The insects,
because of their remarkable life histories, are able to
survive the winter in immature stages, such as eggs and
pupae, although some of them have larvae which bur-
row deep into the ground. And some insects, such as
beetles, bugs, and even certain butterflies, (the Mourn-
ing Cloak, for example) hide in protected places in
the adult stage. The snakes, frogs and toads, being
seriously affected by low temperatures and the scarcity
of food, are forced to crawl into burrows or cavities,
or, in the case of frogs, to bury themselves in the mud
at the bottom of ponds, where they remain inactive un-
tile warmer temperatures stimulate activity.
While many of the animals such as weasels, minks,
otters, foxes, rabbits and numerous others are active all
year, there are some forms which are forced by several
factors to retire during the winter months. Some of
these are unable to walk over the heavy snows and are
therefore forced to remain within their homes for
long periods when the unusually thick blanket of snow
persists. Even the cotton-tail rabbit is, at times, un-
able to make suitable progress under such conditions.
On the other hand, the Arctic Hare is provided with
large, broad, feet with extra hair growths, which adapt
the animal to snow travel. The shrews and moles
burrow through the snow.
-*H[ 37 J«^
The red squirrel stores up large quantities of
nuts and seeds for winter use, but the gray and fox
squirrels keep searching all winter long for food.
White-footed mice, jumping mice, meadow mice,
flying squirrels and wood rats also fill their store-
houses for winter use. While these animals are quite
inactive, they do not enter into an unconscious state, but
feed lightly from time to time. The wildcat, like the
weasel and shrew, never stops its predaceous activities.
The beaver and muskrats, while not so active as in
the summer, do venture forth at times during the win-
ter months, remaining within their huts during severe
spells of weather.
However, there are certain forms which feed
voraciously during the summer months and build up
large quantities of fat. When cold weather approaches,
these animals retire to their nests, where they are safe
from freezing, and enter a deep sleep. All of their ac-
tivities and vital processes are reduced to a minimum,
so that their metabolic rate is low. Here they remain
dormant in their seclusion, breathing faintly, and
gradually absorbing the surplus of fatty tissues that
were built up during the summer months.
The bats immediately seek the recesses of caves
and hollow trees when insect life ceases activity. The
raccoon wanders about until late, seemingly reluctant
to give up its regular diet. But. severe weather, which
freezes the ponds and streams, forces it to seek a com-
fortable nest, where it, too, enters the land of Nod.
Long before the raccoon retires from the held, the
woodchuck has entered its winter sleep and, down be-
low the frost line, one may find it in a comatose state,
snuggled against another bed-fellow for comfort.
-*4 38 >*-
Even the bear, not relishing long tramps through
the snow for food which is scarce at this time of the
year, makes an excavation under a tree stump, scrapes
in some leaves for bedding and crawls in. There it
sleeps, ever so lightly, through the severest parts of the
winter, venturing forth occasionally on mild days. It
is interesting to note that bears mate before the hiber-
nating season and the young are born while the mother
rests after a strenuous summer.
Some other forms breed during the winter months
and others, which remain concealed during the winter,
are probably engaged in activities of which we know
nothing. Hibernation is still a fertile held for some
interesting study.
The Conservation of Wild Life
Many animals that formerly inhabited sections of
Pennsylvania within recent times, have passed from
the fauna. Among these may be listed the cougar or
mountain lion, wolf, elk, and probably, the marten.
Even the beaver became so scarce that it was thought
its days were numbered. While the beaver is still
rather limited in numbers, protective laws have en-
abled it to recover some what and present indications
are that it is staging a successful comeback.
Many years ago, game of many kinds was abun-
dant in the state. Indrscriminate killing soon gave evi-
dence that within a short time, little in the way of
sport, could be hoped for. With the vanishing of wild
life came the realization that something had to be done
to prevent extermination of many forms. Consequently,
Game laws regulating the killing of certain animals.
-^ 39 ><5^-
were passed. Unfortunately the habits of many animals
were unknown and many forms, excluded from the
protected lists, were slaughtered in great numbers
because they were thought to have been destructive.
Some of these were completely exterminated before
their real habits were learned. On many of these ani-
mals, bounties were paid by the State. Others fell vic-
tims to the traps of fur hunters. Many animals suffered
from the removal of other forms which served as food,
while still others were unable to cope with the changes
eflfected by the advent and spread of civilization.
At the present time the Game Commission oflfers
bounties on wildcats, foxes and weasels. The menace
of the wildcat has been reduced considerably. The
gray fox which can climb and jump to amazing
heights, is more destructive than the red fox. Both
destroy small game and birds. The weasel is still plen-
tiful enough to be destructive. While certain measures
must be adopted for the control of destructive animals,
the writer insists that it is poor psychology to encour-
age any boy of adolescent age to wantonly kill. The
State Game Commission has successfully introduced
more humane methods of eradication.
In recent years, Pennsylvania has recovered its
former attractions for the hunter. The establishment
of the Game Commission has been largely responsible
for the increase in wild life. Through the efforts of
this body State parks and forests have been acquired.
These have been stocked with wild animals, and excel-
lent methods of protection have been introduced, with
great success. But the Commission realized that a con-
structive program could not be carried out without the
cooperation of the public, so they immediately began
-*H[ 40 ><*-
an educational campaign to enlist this cooperation.
Through the success of their efforts, combined with the
teaching of Nature in the public schools, there has
developed a sportsmanlike attitude on the part of hunt-
ers in general. Today Pennsylvania stands out promi-
nently as one of the great game states in the Union and
we now enjoy the privileges of a Commonwealth well
provided with abundant material for the study of wild
life.
The Teeth of Mammals
In the mammals the teeth display a great variety
of size and form, according to the manner in which
they are used. Inasmuch as mammals are usually some-
what limited in their diets, there have developed den-
titions so remarkable in character that one can differ-
entiate among animal groups, and even determine, to
a large extent, the diets of the various forms by observ-
ing the specialized character of their teeth. Some
mammals are addicted to strictly plant-eating habits,
others limit their food to the flesh of other animals,
w^hile still others are indiscriminate in their feeding
habits, devouring both plant and animal structures and
products. Consequently, there exists a wide variation
in the sizes, numbers, form and distribution of the
various tooth formations in mammalian groups. The
primary function of teeth is to seize and masticate
food. They are also, in many groups, excellent weapons
of defense and offense. The animals w^hich feed on
others are called CARNIVORES, or carnivorous animals.
Those which feed upon insects are called Insecti-
VORES, or insectivorous animals. Those which feed
entirely upon plants are called HERBIVORES, or herbi-
vorous animals. The Fox, Otter, Mink, Weasj
Cat, etc., are Carnivores. Bats, Skunks, Shrews and
Moles, are Insectivores, while Wood-chucks, Squirrels,
Wood rats. Deer, and many Mice are Herbivores. The
beasts of prey have teeth adapted to tearing flesh and
crushing bones; plant-eaters have teeth fitted for crop-
ping plants and triturating vegetable tissues; insect-
eaters have teeth with numerous sharp-pointed cusps,
and some of these animals, like the ant-eaters, have no
teeth at all. Usually, in the different groups of mam-
mals, the number of teeth is fixed and more or less
constant. There are four distinct types of teeth in mam-
mals: (1) Incisors, or front teeth, which are sharp,
and more or less elongated, according to the group.
They are used chiefly for biting and gnawing: (2)
Canines, or eye teeth, of which there is only one on
each side next to the incisors; (3) the PREMOLARS,
called the bicuspids in man, which are the anterior
grinding teeth. These are located just back of the
canines, and (4) the MOLARS, or posterior grinding
teeth. These are the hindermost teeth and have more
nearly flattened surfaces. As a rule, mammals have two
sets of teeth during a lifetime. The first series is tem-
porary and is called the "milk teeth." This series usu-
ally differs considerably from the adult dentition. For
instance, in humans the posterior molars are not present
in the milk or baby teeth. While in man there are the
same number of each kind of teeth in both jaws, upper
and lower, this is not always the case in all animals.
For example, the sheep, which is an herbivorous ani-
mal, has no incisors or canines in the upper jaw, but it
has three incisors and one canine on each side of the
lower jaw.
The structure of mammalian teeth varies so great-
ly that it would be necessary to indulge in a detailed
-^ 42 >«.-
discussion of the materials which compose them, as
well as the origin of these materials, in order to con-
vey a real idea of their true natures. However, it might
be well to direct attention to a few of the more general
features.
The teeth of horses, cattle, beavers, etc., continue
to grow in length for a long time and do not form
roots until late in life. This is because they feed on
abrasive substances and the growth compensates for
the wear upon them. The chisel-like incisors of ro-
dents grow during the entire life of the animal and are
kept at a more or less constant length by use. Should a
wood-chuck, for instance, lose one of its incisors, there-
by leaving the opposing one without a surface to grind
against, the existing tooth would continue to grow in
length until it would eventually lock the jaws and
prevent feeding.
It might be mentioned that the hard enamel is
present only on the front face of the incisors in rodents
and, as the animals feed, the softer portion (dentine)
behind wears away much more rapidly, thus maintain-
ing a sharp, beveled, cutting surface. This is quite
noticeable in Beavers.
The Skeleton
To a person unfamiliar with the Phylogenetic
development of animals, and especially to anyone who
is not acquainted with the details of vertebrate con-
struction, the skeletons of mammals would seem to be
of diverse character. However, a comparative study
of the corresponding parts shows the skeletons of mam-
mals in general, to be remarkably similar in character,
in fact, they are, bone for bone, almost identical. The
Skull of White Tailed Deer
A plant eating animal. Note the absence of canine teeth.
dififerent shapes of mammals are due to the faet that
certain bones may be larger or smaller, and of differ-
ent form, than the corresponding bones in other species.
The mammalian skeleton is composed of two main
portions, the AxiAL, and APPENDICULAR. The former
includes the SkULL, BACKBONE or VERTEBRAL COL-
UMN, Ribs, and Breast Bone or Sternum. The Ap-
pendicular portion is composed of the LiMB BoNES
and the bones attaching them to the TRUNK.
The skull is a highly complex structure, composed
of many parts, most of which are immovably joined
together. It is the seat of the principal sense organs
such as the eyes, ears, nose and mouth. It also affords
a well protected cavity for the Brain, in addition to
carrying the Teeth. The lower jaw is movable and en-
^^i^^iS^B'
Skull of Black Bear
Showing Carnivorous Dentition.
ables the animal to bite off and masticate food. The
section of the skull which carries the brain, eyes and
ears, is called the CRANIUM. The section in front is
called the FACE.
The Vertebral Column, or SPINAL COLUMN, is
made up of a number of separate bones called VERTE-
BRAE. The Vertebrae are articulated together in such
a way as to permit a degree of flexibility and, at the
same time, to impart a rigidity which gives the neces-
sary strength to the Spinal Column, or Backbone. The
function of the Backbone is two-fold: (1) to support
the main part of the body and to afford attachment for
the limbs and tail; (2) to hold and protect the Spinal
Cord, which is the central axis of the Nervous System.
While the Vertebrae differ greatly in form and ap-
pearance, particularly in the region of the Neck, they
are, nevertheless, constructed on the same general plan.
The body of each Vertebra is called the CENTRUM
and the Centra are separated by discs of CARTILAGE or
Skulls of Fox (left) and Otter (right)
(Note the forward position of the eyes on the otter) showing Carnivorous
Dentition.
Gristle, which allow of elasticity. Humans are said
to be slightly taller in the morning than at night, be-
cause of the elasticity of these cartilaginous discs in
the Spine. On the upper surface of the Centrum is an
arch called the NEURAL Arch, which encloses the
Neural Canal, through which runs the spinal cord.
There are five general regions of the Backbone.
They are: (1) the CERVICAL region or Neck, in which
there are usually seven vertebrae. Long-necked ani-
mals like the Giraffe have no more cervical vertebrae
than short-necked ones like the Wood-chuck. The dif-
ference is in the length of the vertebrae; (2) the THO-
RACIC region which includes the vertebrae to which the
Ribs are attached; (3) the LUMBAR region, including
the vertebrae back of the Thoracic region to the (4)
Sacrum, which includes a variable number (2-13) of
fused vertebrae, which appear as a solid structure and
to which the hind limbs are attached; and (5) the
Caudal region, including the vertebrae of the tail.
The Appendicular skeleton consists of the Limb
Girdles and the bones of the Limbs and Feet. The
Limb Girdles are the means of attaching the limbs to
the body in such a way as to allow of mobility. The
-f^ 46 >«-
Skulls of Rabbit (left) and Woodchuck (right)
Showing Herbivorous Dentition, Contrasted Witli the Carnivorous Dentition
of the Mink (center).
shoulder, or PECTORAL GiRDLE, has no direct articula-
tion with the Vertebral Column and is held in place
by Muscles. It is made up of the Shoulder Blade, or
Scapula, and the Collar Bone, or CLAVICLE, although
not all Mammals possess the latter.
The posterior girdle is called the PELVIC GiRDLE,
which is attached to the Sacral Vertebrae, and affords
a solid support for the hind legs. The Pelvis is com-
posed of three parts, the ILIUM, the ISCHIUM and the
Pltbis, which are separated in young Mammals but
fused together in old ones. These three parts are united
in a deep, hemispherical pit called the ACETABULUM,
which receives the head of the Thigh bone in a ball
and socket manner.
The limbs are composed of three segments. In the
Fore limbs they are the UPPER Arm, Fore Arm and
the Hand. In the hind limbs they are the Thigii, Leg
(Shank) and the FoOT. The upper bone in the Arm is
the HUMERL^S, and those of the fore-arm are the
Radius and the Ulna. The fore-foot, or hand, is also
composed of three parts, corresponding to the Wrist,
Palm, or back of Palm, and the FiNGERS. The bones of
the Wrist constitute the CARPUS: those of the back and
palm, the METACARPUS: and those of the fingers or
-^ 47 >«-
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-^ 49 >8-
toes, the PHALANGES. The bones in the hind limb are
somewhat similar to those in the front or fore limbs.
The upper, or thigh bone, is the largest and is called
the Femur. The bones of the lower limb are the TiBIA,
or shin bone, and the FlBULA, which is the outer bone.
The latter is not well developed in horses and rumi-
nants and exists in these as a splint fused to the Tibia.
The foot bones of the hind limb are also similar
to those of the fore-foot, and the three parts are called
the Tarsus, Metatarsus and Phalanges. The upper
bones of the Tarsus are peculiarly modified to form the
Ankle Joint and the Heel.
An animal may walk with the entire sole of the
foot in contact with the ground, as do Raccoons and
Bears. Such an animal is called PLANTIGRADE. When
it walks on its toes, like the dog or cat, it is called a
DiGITIGRADE animal. By studying the manner of walk-
ing in the various animals, one can soon learn to recog-
nize tracks left in mud or snow. Trailing animals is
real sport. Fig (7) shows the tracks of some of the
more common mammals.
This brief description of the Mammalian skeleton
is far from complete, but it is the wish of the writer to
avoid the inclusion of a long list of technical terms and,
too, space would not permit of a full description. This
much has been given to show the general structural
features of mammals. The reader may learn the other
structures and their arrangement from the labeled
skeleton on plate (6).
■>:>C 50 >«<-
k 0 ^ y0
i''\V\
K /
/
1. MUSKRAT
2. Pox Squirrel
3. woodchuck
4. Skunk
TRACKS OP NATIVE MAMMALS
5. Meadow Mouse 9. Rabbit 13. Shrew
6. Deer Mouse 10. Varying Hare 14. Mink
7. Brown Rat 11. Raccoon 15. Pox
8. Weasel 12. Little Chipmunk 16. Red Squirrel,
Classification of the Mammals
In order to differentiate among the constantly
growing list of animals and to establish some method
of naming them that would serve as a universal stan-
dard, Carl von Linne, in 1768, made an attempt to
organize animals of obvious relationship into groups,
according to characters common to a great many indi-
viduals.
While the Linnaen systen has been modified and
improved to a large extent, the present system retains
much of its original character. Too frequently the
mentioning of a scientific name stultifies interest. To
many persons it sounds ^'highbrow," and immediately
they set up an antagonism toward it. But it must be
remembered that common or vernacular names are
wholly unreliable and there may be a dozen common
names for the same creature, even within a limited
area. A person from one part of the range of some
widely distributed form would not recognize the ani-
mal by the common name in another section. Many
people in Pennsylvania at the present time believe that
the woodchuck, marmot and groundhog are three dif-
ferent animals, when these names are all applied to the
same individual.
After all, a scientific name isn't any more difficult
than many other words which we all acquire in our
daily conversations and reading, in a less conscious
way. Such words as crepe de chine, lavaliere, table
d'hote and automobile, are just as foreign in their
make-up and meaning.
As a rule, the scientific name of an animal has a
real significance and one can soon become accustomed
-^ 52 ><^-
to using it in the same manner as he uses the local and
common names.
The chief groups of animals are: PHYLUM, CLASS,
Order, Family, Genus and Species. To these are
frequently added SUBPHYLUM, SUBCLASS, SUBORDER,
Subfamily, Subgenus, Subspecies and Variety, but
for present purposes it is not necessary to involve these.
The Phylum is composed of a great number of
individuals that have some outstanding characteristic
by which all members of the group can be immediately
distinguished. For instance, the Phylum Chordata in-
cludes all animals that have a spinal column, although
the primitive members of the group do not have an
articulated, ossified backbone. All of the Vertebrates
belong to this Phylum. However, it is necessary to dis-
criminate among Fishes, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds
and Mammals, all of which are true Vertebrates. So
the Phylum is broken up into somewhat smaller groups
known as CLASSES, such as PiSCES, AMPHIBIA, AVES
and Mammalia, each of these Classes having some
characteristic that no other class possesses. Since con-
siderable variation exists within a Class, there must be
still more specialized groups in which the characters
are less. Thus the Class is divided into ORDERS. The
Mammals, for example, include many diverse forms,
so the hoofed animals, are placed in one Order; the
Rats, Beavers, etc., which are Gnawers, are included in
another order, and so iorth. The Orders are, in turn,
divided into FAMILIES, so we find the Deer Family a
constituent part of the Order of Hoofed animals.
The Families are divided into GENERA and the
Genera are divided into SPECIES, which indicate indi-
viduals. The Scientific name of an animal is a com-
-H S3 ><*-
bination of the Generic and Specific names, as original-
ly proposed by Linneus. The use of the two names is
called the Binomial System of Nomenclature. The use
of a third name indicates a subspecies. The system of
naming animals in this way is an attempt to distinguish
among closely related individuals. For instance, a fam-
ily may have the generic name of Smith, but, there
being several members of the family, it is necessary to
assign specific names to the various members of the
family, so there may be John Smith, Katherine Smith
and William Smith.
The Classified list of Pennsylvania Mammals on
the following pages will serve to illustrate the organi-
zation of scientific Classification.
->^>C 5-t J<'*
The Orders of Pennsylvania Mammals
There are about fifteen orders of Mammals in the
whole world. In the United States only nine of these
orders are represented. The Pennsylvania Mammals
are grouped into six orders as follows:
1 . Marsuplalia — Opossums.
2. Chiroptera — Bats.
3. TsECTiVORA — Moles and Shrews.
4. Carnivora — Dogs, Wolves, Foxes, Bears,
Minks, Weasels, Raccoons, Skunks, Otters,
and Cats.
5. Rodentla — Rats, Mice, Squirrels, Wood-
chucks, Beavers, Porcupines, Chipmunks,
Rabbits, and Hares.
6. Ungulata — Deer, Cows, Horses, and Pigs.
The following Key will assist in distinguishing the
various orders:
a Marsupial pouch present I. Marsupialia
aa No marsupial pouch
'1 Hind limbs present
M Flying Mammals 2. ClllROPTERA
'2 Non-flying Mammals
'M Feet with Claws and not with hoofs
M Canine teeth present
M Limbs used for running and walking — not
swimming
^1 Canines small 3. INSECTIVORA
"1 Canines large and prominent
4. Carnivora
'1 Canine teeth absent 5. Rodentia
•'2 Hoofed Mammals 6. Ungltlata
-•«>{ 55 y^~
The Families of Pennsylvania Mammals
The Pennsylvania Mammals represent 16 Fam-
ilies which may be determined in the following out-
line:
(1) The Order Marsupialia is represented in the
State, in fact in all America by a single family:
Opossum: Didelphiidae
(2) The Order Insectivora is represented by two
families:
1 . Fore feet very large and modified
for digging: Moles: Talpidae
2. Fore feet not modified for digging,
Shrews: SORICIDAE
(3) The Order Chiroptera is also represented by a
single family: The Bats: VespertilionidAE
(4) The Order Carnivora is represented in the State
by five families, as follows:
a Claws not retractile
b Tail rudimentary: Bears 1. UrsidaE
bb Tail well developed and long
c Feet digitigrade: hind foot with 4 toes: Foxes
2. Canidae
cc Feet plantigrade: hind feet with 5 toes:
Raccoons 3. Procyonidae
aa Claws more or less retractile
b Hind foot with 5 toes: Weasels and Skunks
4. MUSTELIDAE
bb Hind foot with 4 toes: Wildcat 5. FelidaE
-•*►( 56 >«>-
(5) The Order Rodentia is represented by six fam-
ilies:
^1 Tail present
^'l Two upper incisors present
'^1 Tail cylindrical or compressed laterally (except
flying squirrel)
•^1 No quills in the fur
M Not more than three well developed grinders
in each jaw
M Hind legs not elongated : rats and mice
1. MURIDAE
^2 Hind legs elongated for jumping: Jump-
ing mice 2. Zapodidae
^2 At least 4 well developed grinders in each
jaw
^1 Tail long or moderate: Squirrels and
Woodchucks 3. SciURlDAE
^2 Long quills present in fur: Porcupines
4. Erethizontidae
'2 Tail large and flattened: Beavers 5. Castoridae
^2 Four upper incisors present: Rabbits and Hares
6. Leporidae
(6) The Order Ungulata is represented by a single
family, The Deer 1. CervidaE
A Classified List of Pennsylvania Mammals
There are about fifty-nine species and subspecies
of Mammals to be found within the confines of the
State. The nomenclature and sequence is based upon
that used in Miller's "List of North American Recent
Mammals." The list with complete classification is as
follows :
-^ 57 ]H*-
Class MAMMALIA
Order Marsupialia
Family Didelphiidae (Oppossums)
Common Opposum Didelphis virginiana virginiana
Kerr
Order Insectivora
Family Talpidae (Moles)
Brewer's Mole Parascalops breweri Bachman
Common Mole Scalopiis aquaticus aquaticus
Linnaeus
Star Nosed Mole Condylura crlstata Linnaeus
Family Soricidae (Shrews)
Common Shrew Sorex personatus perso7iatus
Geoffroy
Smoky Shrew Sorex fiimeus fumeus Miller
Marsh Shrew Neosorex albibarbis Cope
Mole Shrew Cryptotis parva Say
Short Tailed Shrew Biarina brevicauda brevicauda
Say
Order Chiroptera
Family Vespertilionidae (Bats)
Little Brown Bat Myotis lucifugus lucifiigiis Le-
Conte
Silver Haired Bat Lasionycteris 7ioctivagans Le-
Conte
Georgia Pygmy Bat Pipistrellus siibflaviis siibflavus
Cuvier
-*4 58 >*-
New York Pygmy Bat Pipistrellus siibflavus obscurus
Miller
Big Brown Bat Eptesicus fiisciis fusciis Beau
vois
Red Bat Nycteris borealis borealis Miller
Say's Little Brown Bat Afyor/j subulatus subiilatus Say
Hoary Bat Nycteris cijierea Beauvois
Order Carnivora
Family Ursidae (Bears)
Black Bear (Cinna- Euarctos americanus americaniis
mon Bear) Pallas
Raccoon
Family Procyonidae (Raccoons)
. Procyon lotor lotor Linnaeus
Family Mustelidae (Weasels, skunks, otters)
Marten
Least Weasel
Common, or Long
Tailed Weasel
Bonaparte's Weasel
Mink (Northern)
Mink (Southern)
Otter
Skunk
Maries americana americana
Turton
Mustela allegheniensis Rhoads
Miistela noveboracensis 7iovebora-
censis Emmons
Mustela cicognayiii cicognanii
Bonaparte
Mustela vision visio?i Schreber
Mustela viso7i Mink Peale and
Beauvois
Lutra ca?iadensis canadensis
Schreber
Memphitis 7iigra Schreber
-«»C 59 JH*-
Family Canidae (Foxes)
Red Fox Vidpes fulva Desmarest
Gray Fox Urocyon cinerroargenteus cine-
reoargenteus Schreber
Family Felidae (Cats)
Wildcat: Bobcat Ly7ix rufus rufiis Schreber
Order Rodentia
Family Sciuridae (Squirrels)
Woodchuck: Ground- Marmota monax monax Linn-
hog AEUS
Chipmunk Tasmias striatus striatus Linn-
aeus
Gray Squirrel : Black Sciurus carolinensis leucotis
Squirrel Gapper
Red Squirrel Sciurus husdonicus loquax
(Southern) Bangs
Red Squirrel Sciurus hudso7iicus gymicus
(Northern) pine Bangs
Fox Squirrel (Western) Sciurus niger rufiventer Geof-
FROY
Fox Squirrel (Eastern) Sciurus niger niger Linnaeus
Flying Squirrel Glaucomys volans volans Linn-
aeus
Family Castoridae (Beavers)
Beaver Castor canadensis canadensis
KUHL
Family Muridae (Rats and Mice)
Deer Mouse: White Peromyscus fnaniculatus mani-
Footed Mouse culatus Wagner
C\oud\a.ndDeevM.ouse Perofny sens mayiiculatus nubi-
terrae Riioads
Rafinesque's Deer
Mouse
Fischer's Deer Mouse
Allegheny Cave Rat:
Wood Rat
Red Backed Mouse:
Wood Mole
Pennsylvania Meadow
Mouse
Northern Pine Vole:
Mole Mouse
Muskrat
Black Rat
Roof Rat
Common House Rat:
Brown Rat
Common House
Mouse
Lemming Mouse:
Cooper's Lemming
Mouse
Peromyscus leucopus leucopus
Rafinesque
Peromyscus leueopus fiovebora-
eensis Fischer
Neotoma pennsylvaniea Stone
Evotomys gap peri gap peri
Vigors
Microtus pe7insylvanicus penn-
sylva?iicus Merriam
Pitymys pinetorum scalopsoides
AUDOBON
Ondatra zihethica zibethica Linn-
aeus
Rattus rattiis rattus Linnaeus
Rati us rattus alexandrinus Geof-
FROY
Rattus norvegicus Erxleben
Mus musculus musculus Linn-
aeus
Synaptomys cooperi Baird
Family Zapodidae (Jumping Mice)
Meadow Jumping Zapus hudsoniciis hudsonicus
Mouse Zimmerman
-HS>C 61 >-
Eastern Meadow TjCipus hudsonicus americcmus
Mouse Barton
Woodland Jumping N apaeozapus insignis iiisig^iis
Mouse Miller
Family Erethizontidae (Porcupines)
Porcupine Erethizo7i dor sat urn dor sat urn
Linnaeus
Family Leporidae (Hares)
Varying Hare:Snow Lepiis americanus virginianus
Shoe "Rabbit" Harlan
Southern Cotton Tail: Sylvilagiis floridanus mall nr us
Wild Rabbit Thomas
Eastern Cotton Tail Sylvilagiis floridanus mearnsii
Allen
Order Ungulata (Artiodactyla) even toed
Ungulates or Hoofed Animals
Family Cervidae (Deer)
Virginia White Tailed Odocoileus virginianus virgin-
Deer ianus Boddaert
-*>C 62 ><*-
The Virginia Opossum
Didtlpliis I'injiuiana I'irc/tniana
Although the opossum is one of the commonest
and best known of our native animals, it is surprising
how few people have had the opportunity to observe
it in its native haunts. The writer, while driving
through Schenley Park in the city of Pittsburgh, on a
summer's night, came suddenly upon an opossum that
was leisurely crossing the road. The creature, dazed
by the lights of the car, stopped and remained motion-
less in its path. Dismounting, the w^riter was able to
approach to within a few feet of the animal before it
slowly ambled ofif the highway and disappeared in the
surrounding shrubbery. When one can see the opos-
sum within the heart of a large industrial city, it is
pretty good evidence that it is far from being exter-
minated.
The Virginia opossum usually lives near streams
and lakes in well wooded sections. It is slow moving
and sluggish, and appears to be quite stupid. It is noc-
turnal in its habits and is a very shy animal. Its inter-
esting habit of "having fits" or feigning death when
attacked is w^ell known and has given rise to the saying
"playing 'possum."
The opossum is a Marsupial animal, like the
kangaroo of Austrialia. Its method of producing young
differs materially from the rest of the mammals. The
young, numbering from 5 to 14, are born in a very
much undeveloped state, having not even a well defined
form. They are not attached to the parent by an um-
bilical cord and placenta as are most mammals, and
upon birth they are placed within the mother's pouch
which is located on the belly. Within the pouch are
-*>C 63 >«*■-
Opossum Didelph'is I'irgin'iana I'irt/lniana
the nipples, to which the young attach themselves and
hold fast until development has advanced considerably.
After the eyes are open, and after a coat of fine silken
hair has appeared on the bodies of the young, they
occasionally leave the pouch and crawl about over the
body of the mother, clinging to her hair with their tiny
handlike fore feet. Sometimes, as the mother roams
about, she may be seen with her tail thrown up over
her back and the little ones arranged in a row with
their tails wrapped about that of the parent.
The Virginia opossum is the largest of a large
assortment of species of Marsupials, most of which are
indigenous to Central and South America. It has a
rather heavy coat of hair which is of a dirty gray color,
and often the hairs are tipped with black. The face is
usually lighter in color and the snout is long and
-■«>{ 64 }<*•-
pointed. The ears and tail are naked. The tail is pre-
hensile and is used as a fifth foot. The animal can hang
head downward, suspended by its tail.
The home of the opossum is usually in a hollow-
tree or in a burrow beneath a tree stump, where the
animal remains during the day. When darkness has
settled it ventures forth on its foraging expeditions.
The opossum is an omnivorous creature and feeds on
both animal and vegetable matter. It is fond of vege-
tables and fruits as well as insects and their larvae. It
also feeds upon smaller mammals. Sometimes the
'possum includes chickens in its diet and it undoubtedly
devours nesting birds and their young.
Like many other animals, the opossum is con-
siderably diminished in numbers by hunters and trap-
pers. It is sought as food and for its fur. But it is still
quite common in Pennsylvania. While the opossum
is not always beneficial, it has never been a serious
menace and the writer suspects that its chicken taking
proclivities have been forced upon it by us humans
who generally take what we w^ant. Furthermore, we
are, frequently, considerably less scrupulous in secur-
ing what we desire, than are many of the w^ild animals.
The urge to live is one of the innate instincts in lower
animals as wxll as in humans. It w^ould, indeed, be a
source of great regret were the opossum to disappear
from our fauna.
The opossum attains a total length of thirty
inches, the tail measuring about twelve inches. The toes
are long, slender, and widely spread. The fore feet are
used as hands, w^ith the toes clasping like fingers. There
are five toes on both the fore and hind feet. The first
toe on the hind foot is nailless and the soles of the feet
-ij^ 65 >#•-
Brewer's Mole Parascalops hreiveri
are naked. The teeth, numbering SO are sharp and the
body is heavy set. The general coloration is gray while
the soft undertur is whitish. The cheeks are white;
the top of the head and the region around the eyes are
blackish; the legs, feet and base of the tail are black;
while the ears are black with a yellowish spot on the
upper edge. The males and females are alike and there
is only a slight seasonal variation.
Common Mole
Scalopus aquaticiis aqiiaticus
The mole is a widely distributed mammal which
is little known by the average person because of its
habit of living almost entirely underground where it
digs a series of ramifying tunnels. Its wanderings are,
usually, so near the surface that its burrows may be
followed by the ridges which appear on the ground.
-^ 66 >*-
Common Mole Scalopus aquaticus aquaticus
Note the modified fore feet.
Courtesy U. S. Biological Survey.
The mole feeds on earthworms and insects and
renders a real service in destroying cut worms, wire-
worms, "grubs" and the larvae of other destructive
forms, which seriously injure the roots of growing
plants.
In its search for food, the creature will often
invade lawns and golf courses, where its ridges spoil
the evenness of the short grass, and it does not hesitate
to swim streams when there is a migratory impetus.
The mole nests in a large chamber which is con-
structed along one of its runways. The nest is lined
with soft grasses and dried leaves. There are usually
from three to five young in a litter and, although there
are probably several litters, it is not certain as to the
number of breeding periods in a year.
-«^; 67 >«*-
The common mole is a dark slate color, often
tinged with brown. The fur has a silvery sheen in sun-
light. The under parts are almost as dark as the back.
The mole is a thick set burrowing animal with an
arched spine. The fore feet are large and broad, and
somewhat paddle-shaped for digging. There are five
toes on both the fore and hind feet. The head is narrow
and pointed; the snout is bare; there is no visible ex-
ternal ear; the neck is short; the tail is long, thick and
nearly naked; the eyes are extremely small and not
visible externally; the feet and tail are whitish to pink-
ish; the hair is soft and velvety and is very valuable
commercially; the teeth are sharp and numerous (40).
The sexes are identical and there is no seasonal varia-
tion. The animal is six inches long and the tail, which
is sparsely covered with hair, measures one inch. The
legs are very short.
The Star Nosed Mole
Condylura cristata
The star nosed mole is easily distinguished from
the other moles by the twenty- two fieshy tentacles,
arranged radially around the nose. Its color differs
slightly from the common mole, being blackish or
brownish above, becoming paler beneath. This species
is slightly larger than the common mole, measuring
seven inches. However, the tail is proportionately
longer, totalling almost one-half the body length. In
winter the tail becomes very much enlarged.
While not as common as the preceding species, the
star nosed mole is generally distributed over the State,
inhabiting low marshy regions or low-lying meadows.
In addition to establishing a series of underground tun-
-*^f 68 >«5.-
Star Nosed Mole Condylura cristata
Courtesy U. S. Biological Survey.
nels, this species runs about over the surface of the
ground and it has been frequently seen running about
on the surface of deep snow. It nests about eighteen
inches below the surface in a small chamber along one
of its tunnels. The young, numbering from three to
five, are hairless at birth and receive the kind attention
of the mother for two months.
The feeding habits of the star nosed mole are
similar to those of other species, its chief article of diet
being insect larvae, beetles and the pupae of Sphingid
moths. While the animal is beneficial, its runways are
often used by meadow mice which do considerable
damage to field crops. .The general characters, such as
teeth, feet, etc., are similar to those of moles in general.
Brewer's Mole: Hairy Tailed Mole
Parascalops breiveri
The habits of the hairy tailed mole are similar
to those of the other species mentioned above. It is a
large mole with a short, densely haired tail, by which
it can be readily identified. The nostrils are crescent
shaped and the eyes and ears are so small as to be
invisible. The general coloration is a glistening black
above, becoming pale'r beneath and along the sides.
The hairs on the feet and nose are brownish. The ani-
mal measures a little more than seven inches when full
grown but the tail is very short. The nesting habits,
food, and litters of young are the same as in the preced-
ing species. This is the commonest of the three native
moles.
Common Shrew: Long Tailed Shrew:
Masked Shrew
Sorex pcrsonatus personatus
The shrews are the smallest of our North Ameri-
can Mammals. Their size, combined with their noc-
turnal habits, probably accounts for the fact that they
are the least known members of the class.
Although this species is called the common
shrew, it is by no means the most abundant in Penn-
sylvania. The shrew lives among piles of chips or
stones, or in shallow burrows, and not infrequently in
hollow logs. It is usually mistaken for a mouse or a
mole when seen scurrying through dead leaves. The
shrew is quick and agile and is a deadly enemy of
field mice. While it is classed as an insectivore, it is
rather omnivorous and eats vegetable matter in addi-
tion to insects and their larvae.
While the shrew spends most of its time above the
surface of the ground, it forages in the tunnels of Moles
and other burrowing forms. In winter it tunnels
-^ 70 >«■■■
Long Tailed Shrew: Smoky Shrew Sorcx fumcus fumeus
through the snow in much the same m-anner as do
moles. It does not hibernate.
The habits of the shrew are not completely
known, but it is believed to be solitary, and bears sev-
eral litters of young each year. The common shrew is
chiefly an inhabitant of the mountainous regions of the
State.
It is about four inches long and is covered with a
thick, soft hair which is of commercial value. The
nose is pointed; the eyes are small, but perceptible;
the ears are visible above the fur; the legs are short
and slender; and the body is much thinner than that of
the mole. The fore feet are not modified for digging
as are those of the mole.
The Short Tailed Shrew: Mole Shrew
Blarina brevicauda bravicauda
The short tailed shrew is found in every part of
the State in great numbers. It inhabits mountains,
^•^4 71 >;-
Short Tailed Shrew Blar'tna bret'icauda talpoides
meadows, ravines, marshes, woods and open fields, yet
it is one of the least known of our mammalian fauna.
It is frequently mistaken for the mole, which it
resembles, and certainly, it is often mistaken for the
field mouse. In color it resembles the latter, being a
sooty gray above and an ashy gray below. The fur is
dense, soft and glossy, and the sexes are identical.
The shrew is insectivorous and carnivorous, feed-
ing upon insects and their larvae and field mice.
Great numbers of grubs, wireworms and other root de-
stroyers are eaten by it and it has also shown rather
pronounced cannabalistic tendencies by devouring its
fellows. It has been estimated that the shrew will con-
sume food equal to twice its weight in 24 hours. When
insects and mice are scarce, the shrew will eat nuts and
other vegetable matter.
The short tailed shrew, unlike its long tailed
cousin, digs beneath the surface of the ground, where
->5>( 72 >*-
it is supposed to disturb the roots of food plants, but
its removal of the destructive insect larvae compensates
for any damage it might do. It generally prefers to
remain above ground, however, and may be seen run-
ning over the fallen leaves in the woods, along rail
fences, and even in the open fields.
The shrew nests in an underground shelter, where
the mother constructs a bed of grass and leaves. Mating
occurs early in the Spring and two or three litters of
from four to six young are born during the year.
The short tailed shrew is about five inches long
and the tail measures about one inch. The head is
pointed; the eyes are small; and the ears are quite
short but visible. All shrews have five toes on each
foot, and the fore feet are not modified as in moles.
The shrew emits a fetid odor when captured. It does
not hibernate, but is active all the year round.
The Smoky Shrew
Sorex fumeus fuineus
The smoky shrew is much larger than the com-
mon shrew (Sorex personatus), attaining a length of
almost five inches. The tail measures 1.8 inches. The
body is slate colored above, becoming slightly paler
below. It is similar in habits to the other Shrews.
The Marsh Shrew
Neosorex albiharbis
The marsh shrew is apparently rare in Pennsyl-
vania, its general range being Northeastern America.
There are very few records of this species in the State,
and they are for the Northeastern part. It is quite pos-
sible that it exists in the northern part of the Allegheny
-^ 73 >--
mountains. Certainly, this is the most westerly limit
of its range.
In general, it inhabits the marshy regions and
confines its wanderings to the swampy margins of lakes
and rivers.
The body is a blackish slate color sparingly mixed
with white tipped hairs, and ashy gray beneath. The
animal measures six inches in total length and the tail
is almost three inches long. The habits are similar to
those of shrews in general except that this species evi-
dently is semi-aquatic.
Mole Shrew
Cryptotis parva
This is the smallest of our native shrews, totalling
only three and one-tenth inches. It is apparently not
abundant in Pennsylvania, although no survey of the
shrews has been made for twenty-five years.
The upper parts of this species are dark brown
and the under side is an ashy gray.
Order Chiroptera (Bats)
Family VespcrUlionidae
The bats form one of the most interesting and
most beneficial groups of mammals. They are entirely
nocturnal and, to many people, they are loathesome
and fearful creatures. They are not only misunder-
stood, but dreaded, due to the fact that so many super-
stitions have been built up around them. Of all native
mammals, the bats have been subjected to the greatest
persecution because they are believed to carry bedbugs
under their wings, and are supposed to become inex-
tricably entangled in one's hair. Like all other mam-
mals, bats arc infested with parasites, just as a dog or
cat may be infested with fleas, but the examination of
thousands of live specimens by the author has never
revealed "Cimex lectularis." As to their getting tan-
gled in the hair, such a thing is quite possible but not
at all probable, and certainly it would not be necessary
to cut ofif all of one's hair in order to extricate some
poor unfortunate creature that might become so en-
meshed. The bats have tiny, clinging feet, and on the
apices of the wings they have tiny claws which aid in
crawling and holding on to the rocks or the bark of
trees. These claw^s are located on the bones that corre-
spond to the thumb and inasmuch as they are used in
much the same manner as the latter, the order thus
derived its name. With such an equipment, the crea-
ture could cause some discomfiture were it to alight on
one's head, but no bat ever went around looking for
someone's hair to get tangled up in, and should such
an occurrence take place, there is no doubt that the Bat
would be just as frightened as the victim of such an
experience. Although it is equipped with many sharp
teeth, such a diminutive creature could not inflict any
injury worth w^orrying about.
Bats should be considered among man's friends,
because they are entirely insectivorous. Thousands of
mosquitoes, gnats and May beetles are destroyed by
a single animal within a short time.
While we may have "bats in our attics," they do
not, as a rule, disturb humans, seeming to prefer caves
or hollow trees for their homes. Occasionally, they
will occupy unused chimneys or lofts in barns and,
frequently, they rest under the eaves of a house during
the day or hang head downward from twigs of trees,
but it is seldom that they become pestiferous.
-H 75 J^-
Many people seem to loathe bats because they are
'^Mouse like." In reality, they are not closely related
to the Rodents and occupy an entirely different order.
Bats exhibit a wide variety of habits and struc-
tures. Most of our native forms hibernate during the
winter, but there are a number of species which mi-
grate from the northern regions at the approach of cold
weather, in much the same manner as do birds.
Usually the hibernating forms assemble in great
numbers in caves or in hollow trees where they enter a
comatose state, remaining inactive until insect life
again becomes active. In the caves they sometimes
cover the walls and ceilings, or arrange themselves in
huge clusters, apparently for the purpose of keeping
warm. The writer has spent considerable time in study-
ing hibernation of bats and has found that they are
easily awakened from their sleep and do not hesitate
to bite. A pair of kid gloves, however, proves adequate
protection. When disturbed in hibernation, the bats
will frequently "take to the air." This should be
avoided by persons who are interested in their welfare
because activity stimulates the metabolic rate and
energy is used which the creatures need in reserve for
the long sleep ahead. Since insect life is dormant,
there is no way of replenishing the supply and the ani-
mals starve before Spring.
Bats are characterized from the other mammals
by their flying habits for which they are admirably
adapted. The true, active, flight of bats must not be
confused with the passive, gliding flight of the dying
squirrel.
The bats are mammals which have the fore limbs
modified for flight. The bones of the arms and fingers
-'i>i 76 >*-
are much elongated, forming a frame work over which
extends a membrane which is attached to the sides as
well, and extends from the fore limbs to the hind
limbs.
Bats are true mammals, being covered with soft
hair and possessing the thoracic mammary glands,
through which the young are nourished. The ears are
well developed and prominent. The number of sharp
teeth varies in a number of species.
Bats should receive the kindly protection of man-
kind in general because most of them are beneficial.
That even the Vampire of the Tropics is not nearly so
formidable as it is reputed to be, the writer knows from
experience.
There are possibly eight species of bats in Penn-
sylvania, representing a single family, Vespertilion-
idae.
Common Brown Bat: Big Brown Bat
Eptesicus fuscus fuscits
The big brown bat is one of the commonest of
our Pennsylvania species. It is a dark brown or sepia
color above and the under parts are slightly paler. The
ears and membrane are blackish. The total length of
this species is about four and one-half inches. The tail
is almost two inches, being the same length as the fore
arm.
Like all other native bats, the big brown bat is
insectivorous and it makes its appearance rather late in
the evening. It flies lower than the red bat and rests
during the day in houses, barns, on trees, or under the
eaves of a house. It is supposed to be migratory, and
-v:>C 77 >--
Big Brown Bat Eptesicus fusciis jiisciis
may be, in the northern limits of its range, but in Penn-
sylvania it usually hibernates during the winter in
caves, attics, or hollow trees. In mild winters it oc-
casionally leaves its winter home for short flights.
The big brown bat is a great destroyer of June
beetles, mosquitoes and other night flying pestiferous
insects. It can be distinguished in flight by its size, the
animal having a wing spread of more than twelve
inches. It usually bears two young which may be
found attached to the mother at the beginning of the
hibernating period.
The bats have numerous sharp teeth with many
cusps for crushing the chitinous external skeletons of
beetles and other insects.
-«>C 78 ^-
The Red Bat
Nyctnis hnrealis horealis
The little red bat is the most beautiful of our
native bats and vies with birds for a place among con-
spicuously colored animals. Its general color is a bright
reddish brown, paling to a light yellowish red in some
individuals. There is also a whitish patch in front of
each shoulder. The red bat has a total length of
slightly more than four inches and a wing spread of
nearly twelve inches.
The red bat frequently rests on the trunks or
twigs of trees during the day, hanging head downward,
holding on with its tiny claws, and is the first to venture
forth in the evening, usually making its appearance
before dark. It frequently enters houses and churches
in search of food and it generally receives an unwel-
come reception.
The red bat is the most solitary of its kind and
ordinarily shuns caves where other species congregate
in great numbers, although it sometimes congregates
in clusters probably during the mating period. The
red bat is widely distributed and it migrates from the
Northern regions, as do birds, at the approach of cold
weather.
The red bats have long narrow wings and are
extremely graceful and agile in their flight. Bats are as
careful in their protection of their young as are birds
and mother bats will often raise quite a fuss when the
young are taken from them. The red bat bears from
two to four young, which remain with the mother for
some time, clinging to her body. Quite often the com-
bined weight of these young ones is in excess of the
mother's weight and it is remarkable that she can fly
so well with such encumbrance.
That the red bat sometimes winters in caves in
Pennsylvania has been proved by the fact that the
author found hundreds of them in Delaney's Cave,
near Fairchance, Fayette County, during the month of
February.
The Little Brown Bat
Myotis lucifugus lucifugus
The little brown bat is similar in coloration to its
larger cousin, but its ears and tail are proportionately
longer, although its general size is considerably
smaller, being only three and one-half inches in length.
This species is probably the commonest bat in the
State and the author has seen thousands of little
brown bats hibernating in Bear Cave in Westmore-
land County. While it is said by some writers to ven-
ture forth in mild weather, the writer has observed
their hibernating habits for a period of five years and
in no case did the creature show signs of activity until
late in the Spring.
In some cases the bats arranged themselves on the
walls of the cave in a compact formation for the win-
ter's sleep. At the same time, others formed "clusters"
on the ceilings. Albinos were found among them from
time to time.
The little brown bat has a wing spread of nine
inches and its tail is almost one-third the body length.
There are usually two young in a litter and these re-
main attached to the mother's breasts until they are old
enough to hang up in some secluded spot while the
parent searches for food. This creature may be seen
on summer evenings in the low lying rural sections of
the State.
Silver Haired Bat Lasionyctcris nocti'vat/ans
The Silver Haired Bat
Lasionytteris noctivagans
While it is not particularly abundant, the silver
haired bat is quite generally distributed over the
State. It differs from other bats in that it possesses a
peculiar color which is a brownish black and usually
appears to be more black than brown. The dorsal sur-
face is marked with a scattered mass of whitish tipped
hairs which are more or less abundant in various indi-
viduals, and which gives a grayish or hoary tinge to the
upper surface of the body.
The silver haired bat is frequently more abun-
dant in the swampy regions of the State where it flies
over the water in much the same manner as a swallow,
skimming the surface and picking up floating insects.
It is particularly abundant in the Pymatuning Swamp
in Mercer and Crawford counties. The total length of
the Silver Haired Bat is about four inches.
Say's Little Brown Bat
Myot'is subulatiis suhulatus
This species proximates in size and is simailar in
coloration to the little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus
lucifugus) with which it is apt to be confused. Like
the little brown bat, Say's bat is a pastoral species,
preferring the rural sections in which to live and sel-
dom venturing into city districts where the big brown
bat (Eptesicus fsucus fsucus) holds sway. Say's bat
may be distinguished from the more common little
brown bat by the fact that the ears of the latter are
considerably shorter. Rhoads (1903) says that the ears
of Myotis lucifugus, when laid forward, barely reach
the tip of the nose, while in Myotis suhulatus, the ears
extend considerably beyond the nose when held in this
way. Say's bat seems to have a more limited distribu-
tion in Pennsylvania than Myotis lucifugus and seems
to be more abundant in Western Pennsylvania. Both
of the little brown bats are more likely to be found
in lowland sections of the State.
-*>|; 82 ><:•'■■•
The New York Pygmy Bat
Pipistrrllus suhflai'us ohscurus
The New York pygmy bat, while represented in
our fauna, is evidently not abundant. It is about the
same size as the Georgia pygmy bat, but it differs
somewhat from the latter in coloration, being of a dull
brownish color and having the blacked tipped hairs on
the dorsal surface less conspicuous. Both of the pygmy
bats have eighteen teeth in the lower jaw and sixteen
in the upper jaw.
The Georgia Pygmy Bat
Pipistrellus suhflwuits subflavus
The Georgia Pygmy Bat is not generally distrib-
uted over the State but is more abundant in the low
lying areas of the southeastern and southwestern coun-
ties.
This species measures slightly less than three and
one-half inches in total length and its general color
tone is yellowish with many hairs on the dorsal surface
tipped with brown or black. On account of its size, it
is apt to be confused with the New York pygmy bat,
but the latter is much duller in color and less yellowish.
The tipped dorsal hairs are also much more conspicu-
ous in the Georgia species. Although recorded from
both the southeastern and southwestern sections, it is
probably not very common inasmuch as these sections
represent the northerly limits of its range.
The Hoary Bat
Nyctrris c'tncrea
The hoary bat is not abundant in Pennsylvania,
but it has been reported from every section of the State.
The shape of this species is similar to that of the X.^^!r?r-}r-^
X> OS 4 ^\
/- ^ ^•^ <^ <g
W\ '^•^ /^
V<'\ / ><>
From Rhoades "Mammals of Pennsylvania and New Jersey'
bat (N'ycteris horcalis), but it is larger in size, having
a total length of five inches and a fore arm over two
inches long.
Like the red bat, the hoary bat has the portion
of membrane between the hind legs covered with fur,
but the latter species has blackish bordered ears and
lacks the notch in the lower lobe of each ear.
The color of the hoary bat varies considerably.
As a rule, it is a mixture of light yellowish brown, deep
umber-brown and white, the yellowish brown being
clear and unmixed on the throat, head and under side
of the membrane. The umber-brown predominates on
the back and on the interfemoral membrane; however,
the hairs are mostly tipped with white and frequently
the darker tints beneath are concealed.
The lips, chin and cheeks are sprinkled with short
black hair. The underside is white and, between the
belly and throat, there is a band of light brown. The
hairs on the back are tri-colored, being plumbeous at
the base, light yellowish brown on the upper part and
ending with a tip of silvery white. The red and hoary
bats have four mammae and each species bears from
two to four young.
The hoary bat does not, as a rule, retire to caves
during the day but hangs head downward from the
twigs of trees.
Black Bear: Cinnamon Bear
Euarctos amnicaniis aincrtcanus
Although the Black Bear or Cinnamon Bear is
quite common in the mountainous regions of central
and northern Pennsylvania, it is seldom seen by the
-H 85 >.-
average person. However, it graces every Zoo, and its
"rolling gait" is a source of amusement to young and
old alike. The bear is not a ferocious animal as is com-
monly supposed, and makes a hasty retreat upon the
approach of humans. It will fight viciously when
wounded and a mother with cubs is not an amiable
creature to associate with.
The bear has a remarkably developed sense of
hearing but its eyesight is poor, and it is said to depend
upon its senses of hearing and smell for finding food.
It is classed as a carnivorous animal and does eat birds,
small mammals and, occasionally, young pigs, which it
steals from farms in rural counties. But the bear is also
very fond of fruits, berries and nuts. Honey is one of
its favorite delicacies and since our native bear is an
excellent climber, it is able to rob bees' nests of their
winter supply. In the late fall or early winter, the bear
can frequently be found in forests where the beech tree
abides. It feeds on beech nuts and frequently "roots"
up the ground with its muzzle to uncover buried nuts.
The bear is almost entirely a forest animal but it
frequently wanders into open country and causes con-
cern to farmers who have corn, orchards, bee hives and
little pigs. While the bear is, chiefly, a nocturnal ani-
mal, it wanders about during the day in undisturbed
sections.
A bear hibernates in a cave, in a burrow, or under
the stump of a tree. Here it sleeps lightly for a period,
dependent upon the severity of the winter, and ventures
forth in mild weather. It requires considerable irrita-
tion to awaken some hibernating forms, but the bear
seems to sleep with "one eye open." Unlike most of the
-*>{ 86 >«-
larger mammals, the young are born during the winter
seclusion of the mother. Usually there are two cubs.
The black bear is easily distinguished from other
species of bears by its coat of almost solid color on the
body. This varies from a black to a cinnamon brown;
hence the two names. The underside is always a light
brown while the muzzle is a very light yellowish
brown. The bear is characterized by a thick, heavy
body; short legs; long, sharp, curved claws; naked
soles; and short tail. It is Plantigrade, or flat footed,
and leaves tracks similar to those of a barefooted man.
The bear attains a length of almost six and one-
half feet and stands about three feet high at the shoul-
ders. The black bear has an arched spine, in which
respect it differs from the Grizzly and other species.
The tail is very short, being less than six inches. The
black bear is the only species found in Pennsylvania
and is the smallest of North American bears, but a
full-grown specimen will weigh up to three hundred
and eighty pounds.
The Raccoon
Procyon lotor lotor
The raccoon is one of the most widely known ani-
mals of our native fauna. In the days of political
parades it was the most prominent identification mark
of a certain political party. The fur of the raccoon
has been referred to frequently in connection with the
dress of Daniel Boone and other pioneers whose "Coon
skin" caps were always mentioned. Because of the ease
with which Raccoons can be tamed, they have been
raised in captivity and their development and interest-
ing habits are well known.
-*>{ 88 y^-
The curiosity of the raccoon is not exceeded by
and other native form. Pet "coons" search one's person
carefully, and even vest pockets are not overlooked.
They manifest as much curiosity over a mirror or a
watch as does a monkey.
The raccoon is a nocturnal animal and lives in
the vicinity of streams and lakes, nesting in hollow
trees in well wooded sections. It is very fond of cray-
fish, frogs, mussels and young turtles, and I have seen
it stand on a rock in shallow water with one of its fore
feet inserted under the rock, feeling about for crayfish.
Well-trodden paths along the shores, and the remains
of numerous water animals on projecting rocks and
partly submerged logs, are pretty good evidence of the
presence of the "Coon."
The raccoon invariably washes its food carefully
before eating it and is otherwise cleanly in its habits.
While it usually hunts on the ground, it is an excellent
climber and it is said to eat birds and their eggs. There
is no doubt that it will eat young chickens when they
are available. However, its woodland habits present
few opportunities for chicken dinners. Farmers occa-
sionally complain of the damage done to young corn
which seems to be especially favored by raccoons.
Not only is the raccoon a beautiful animal, but its
fur is quite valuable and it is remarkable that the crea-
ture can survive in face of the demand for "coon skin"
coats created by College Freshmen. It is to be hoped
that women and fastidious youths will find suitable sub-
stitutes for fur and feathers as articles of adornment.
When one thinks of the misery of a trapped ani-
mal that is held fast for days by steel teeth which crush
-*>C 89 >.-
^*-^lE!!:' Jfe ^^^"^^R^iyil^B
1/ ''i-lW^B^^I
11 i^jgp^^i-'^'^cw ■^r^'^^^B
Ink jn^B
Courtesy Carnegit
Raccoon Procyon lotor loior
Museum.
bones and tear flesh, it makes fur garments less attrac-
tive. Ofttimes the captured animal dies of cold, thirst,
starvation, loss of blood, or suffering. And not infre-
quently, its sufferings are ended by brutal beating with
a club. Perhaps a litter of young in a distant nest die
of starvation when a mother fails to return. And after
-*H[ 90 ]^-
all, the creature, held in a vice-like grip, has no chance
whatever to exercise its natural defenses. The thoughts
of such trapped creatures, suffering mortal agony, and
besieged by other predatory animals which often prey
upon them, are enough to keep one awake at night.
The raccoon is a short-haired, long-legged animal
with a broad head, pointed nose, bushy tail, erect ears,
and with five toes on all feet. The soles of the feet are
naked and it is liatfooted or plantigrade, leaving tracks
not unlike that of a small child. The front feet are
used as hands.
The color is a brownish gray with black tipped
hairs on the back. The undersides are a pale gray and
the tail is marked with six or seven black or brownish
rings. The face is a dull w^hite with a distinct white
band above each eye while there are black patches on
the cheeks. These join a black stripe that runs from
the nostrils back over the forehead. The animal is
almost three feet long and weighs up to twenty- five
pounds. There are from four to six young in a litter.
The American Marten: Pine Marten:
American Sable
Mustela amrricana americana
The marten is a long, slender-bodied animal
slightly larger than the mink, to which it is related. It
is said to be an excellent climber and is, therefore, an
enemy of se]uirrels and birds. Unlike the weasel, it
does not kill for the sake of killing and does not enter
cultivated areas. It remains in the recesses of the for-
ests and, in addition to birds and squirrels, it destroys
rabbits, but its chief food consists of small rodents and
shrews. The marten is shy and cunning and travels
about at night.
-•H 91 >««-
The home of the marten is usually under rocks or
in a hollow tree and not infrequently, it occupies the
nest of a squirrel. There is a single litter of from six
to eight young each year.
The marten is about twenty-six inches long and is
somewhat smaller than a cat. The tail, which is in-
clined to be bushy, measures eight inches. The general
body color is an orange brown above with lighter spots
on the throat and breast. The undersides are brownish.
The head of the animal is roughly triangular, with the
nose somewhat pointed. The legs are short and the
soles of the feet are furry. There are five toes on both
the fore and hind feet. The ears are large and promi-
nent and the tail is tipped with black. The sexes are
similar in size and coloration, and there is very little
seasonal variation.
The marten has probably been exterminated, or
at any rate is extremely scarce in Pennsylvania. It is
most likely to be found in the northern and northeast-
ern sections of the State. The fur is very valuable. The
specimen at hand was killed at Winterburne, Pennsyl-
vania.
The Common Weasel: New York Weasel
Musti'la noveboracensis novchoraccnsis
The common weasel is abundant in practically
all parts of the State. A cursory examination of its
teeth reveals its carnivorous habits. No other native
mammal displays a dentition better adapted to captur-
ing and killing other animals than does this little killer
of the night.
The well muscled, powerful jav/s; low forehead;
moderate sized cars; the sharp nose; and the small
-.•:>C 92 ><5.-
Least Weasel Mustela allegheniensis
With Almost Complete Winter Pelage.
eyes, give a rather formidable appearance to the flat
triangular head. The long neck, long slender body and
short legs suggest a strength and agility that compen-
sate for lack of speed.
The serpentine body and short legs are well
adapted to exploring the underground burrows of
other animals, such as mice, on which it feeds to a large
extent. However, the weasel includes rabbits, birds,
woodchucks, skunks and many other animals in its diet,
and great numbers of domestic fowl are killed by it.
The worst feature of the weasel is that it often kills
many times as much as it needs. Whole flocks of chick-
ens, turkeys and ducks, may be destroyed in a single
night and their bodies, with only the head chewed, are
strewn about. As a rule, the weasel sucks the blood, or
eats only the brains of its victims. On the other hand,
-*{ 93 }<*-
Common Weasel Mustela novehoracensis noveboracensis
the Weasel is a great enemy of rats and other destruc-
tive pests.
The weasel usually inhabits the burrow of some
other animal or lives in rocky crevices and hollow logs.
It sometimes digs its own nest but this is thought to be
seldom the case.
The weasel is one of those animals that changes
its coat with the seasons and its summer color is yellow-
ish brown above, with the underside a yellowish white.
The upper side of the tail is the same as the body but
it is tipped with black. In winter the whole body is
white, with the exception of a small black mark on the
tip of the tail.
The ears are of moderate size and the soles of the
feet are hairy. There are five toes on both the fore and
hind feet. The weasel bears from two to three litters
of five or six young each year.
-4>C 9\ ><4.-
A full ^t^rown weasel is about sixteen inches long.
The tail is about one-third the body length and the
hind foot measures two inches. The female is consider-
ably smaller than the male, attaining a length of only
twelve or thirteen inches. They are of the same colora-
tion, however. The fur of the weasel is very valuable,
especially when it is in the winter phase. The pure
white fur is sold as Ermine.
The weasel emits a disagreeable odor when at-
tacked, but it is less offensive and much less efficacious
as a defense than that of the skunk.
The Least Weasel: Allegheny Weasel
Mustela altegheniensis
Although reputed to be quite scarce in Pennsyl-
vania, the least weasel is probably much more com-
mon than is supposed. Its size and clever avoidance of
traps, combined with its shy disposition and nocturnal
habits, probably account for the fact that it does not
figure largely among our native mammals.
Although the least weasel attains a length of
seven inches, its body is extremely slender and its bur-
row can be plugged with the index finger of an adult.
Frequently, the mice it kills have bodies so much
thicker than its own that it cannot drag them into its
burrow.
The habits of the least weasel are similar to those
of other species. It feeds on mice, rabbits and birds.
In the summer the upper parts of the animal, including
the upper jaw, are dark yellowish-brown in color. The
chin is white, while the under side, fore legs and under
side of tail, are a deep ochraceous yellow. The termi-
nal half of the tail on the upper side is of the body
-:>i 95 ><*-
Common Weasel — Winter Coloration
color and is tipped with black. However, there is only
a very small tuft of blackish hairs on the extreme end
of the tail. In winter the animal is entirely white, the
transition from the summer to the winter coat being
more rapid than the change that takes place in the
spring. The least weasels are distinctly circumpolar
in their distribution but are found in the northern hills
of this State and have also been taken in the south-
western counties. The home is in an underground bur-
row and several litters of from five to six young are
born during the year. The animal does not hibernate,
but burrows in the snow, climbs trees, and ventures into
the burrows of other animals, on its winter foraging
expeditions. The anatomical features are similar to
those of other weasels which have been previously dis-
cussed.
It is interesting to note that, in the far north, in-
stead of having two or more litters during the year,
the least weasel has only one litter of from ten to
twelve young annually.
->s>f 96 ><s<-
m-'^^
Bonaparte's Weasel Mustela cicognanii cicognanii
Bonaparte's Weasel
Mustela cicognanii cicognanii
This species, which inhabits the northern counties
and mountainous sections of the southwestern part of
the State, is apparently rather common. It may be dis-
tinguished from the common weasel by its relatively
short tail, which is less than one-third the total length.
This species is, as a whole, considerably smaller than
the common form, attaining a total length of less than
twelve inches.
The general color on the back is a bright chestnut
brown, while the under parts, including the chin and
throat, breast, under sides of the legs and the belly, are
almost pure white, the colors meeting in a distinct line
along the sides. The tail is tipped with black at all
seasons.
..^ 97 ><>-
NoRiHERX MixK Mustela vison vison
In winter the animal becomes a pure white. As in
all weasels, the male is considerably larger than the
female, which is about two inches smaller than her
mate.
Bonaparte's Weasel manifests the same predatory
habits that characterize the weasel in general. It
nests, rears its young, and exhibits a shyness character-
istic of its larger cousin.
The American Mink
Mustela vison vison
The mink is related to both the otter and the
weasel and emits a very offensive odor when attacked.
Unlike the otter, the mink is more or less solitary in
its habits, travelling about alone or in pairs.
The Mink is not a burrowing animal, but occu-
pies the holes made by Muskrats and other burrowing
forms. It lives in the vicinity of water, where it is
quite at home, being a swift and agile swimmer. In
the water the mink feeds on mussels, crayfish, and
■•*>f 98 1<5-
fishes, which it captures with remarkable dexterity.
It is not as aquatic as the Otter, however, and forages
on land, feeding on rats, mice, muskrats, marsh birds
and their eggs, rabbits, and, occasionally, poultry.
The mink is a very valuable fur-bearing animal
and is much sought after by trappers, who have re-
duced its numbers considerably. The mating season
begins in the early part of March and litters of from
three to ten young are born in the latter part of April.
The animal attains a length of about twenty-four
inches. The tail, which is quite bushy, is less than one-
third the total length. The females are much smaller
than the males, although they are similarly colored.
The general color is dark brown, becoming slight-
ly paler beneath and with a whitish chin and throat.
The outer hairs are long, harsh and somewhat glossy
but the dense undercoat is short and soft. The body is
somewhat similar to that of the weasel but the animal
is heavier and much larger. The head is almost tri-
angular in shape and the legs are very short. There are
five toes on all feet, the soles of which are hairy, al-
though the foot pads are naked. The ears are quite
short.
Otter
Lutra canadensis
Although not as common as formerly, the otter is
far from being exterminated in Pennsylvania. The
otter is the largest native member of the weasel fam-
ily (mustelidae). It is a very shy animal, living chiefly
along the banks of lakes and streams, and is remarkably
adapted to living in the water. Usually otters live in
groups of from four to eight, placing their nests under
-^ 99 >*-
Otter Lutra canadensis canadensis
the roots of trees along the streams, or in the banks in
much the same manner as do muskrats. They are short
legged animals that do not migrate well on land. How-
ever, in the water they are extremely graceful and fast.
They swim and dive with ease and are quite adept at
catching fish, upon which they chiefly feed. They also
eat frogs, crayfish and other aquatic animals and some
writers state, that when hard pressed for food, they will
feed upon eggs and poultry. In feeding, the food is
held between the fore paws. Sometimes they make
mud slides on a steep bank and several of them may
play for hours, seemingly enjoying the fun of sliding
into the water. Occasionally they make snow slides
also.
The otter is a very wary animal and is seldom
seen. It is apparently active both night and day. The
otter attains a size of forty inches and its fur is very
valuable. The body is long; the legs are short; the tail
is rounded, being thick at the base and tapering; the
head is broad and somewhat flattened, and the nose is
short and blunt. The eyes are placed forward on the
head and the animal is able to look around above water
-Ml 100 ><*-
without exposing its whole head. The color is a deep
yellowish brown, becoming paler along the sides and
blending to gray beneath. The outer hairs are hard and
glossy while the under fur is dense and soft. The males
and females are similar in color and there is no sea-
sonal variation. The tail is more than a foot in length
and the animal may weigh up to twenty pounds.
In the far north, the otter sometimes hibernates,
but in Pennsylvania its tracks are to be seen in winter
along most streams that have fish. The young are born
in April and a litter contains, usually, from one to four
little ones which remain with their mother until Fall.
The Skunk
Mempliitis nigra
The common skunk or "polecat" is certainly one of
the most beautiful of our native mammals. Its coat is
black, with a broad white stripe down the middle of
the back to the tip of the broad, bushy tail. This band
is of varying widths in different animals and is some-
times very narrow, making the animal appear almost
entirely black. There are two coats of hair on the
Skunk, the outer coat being long and rather coarse,
while the under fur is short and soft. The furs are
much sought after, and bring good prices on the mar-
ket, there being a demand for them in making gar-
ments for women, usually under the name of Hudson
Sable.
But sometimes the most beautiful of creatures are
disagreeable at times and when it chooses to be so, the
Skunk can make things very unpleasant. Beneath the
tail are two glands, one on either side, which are
-*>i 101 >*■-
Skunk Mcmpliitis nigra
equipped with an ejecting apparatus. From these
glands the animal can shoot, for ten feet, a vile smelling
lluid which is yellow in color and which is also capable
of producing a burning sensation on the flesh. This has
proved to be one of the most efficacious means of de-
fense possessed by any animal. The skunk does not run
from anything, generally because it does not have to.
But sometimes such security dulls the intelligence of
animals and the skunk has lost, or never had, the abil-
ity to discriminate among enemies. I have seen one
stand in the path of an oncoming express train and
raise its tail in defiance. Because of this inability to
judge danger, thousands of skunks are killed each year
by trains and automobiles. As a rule, the skunk will
not use its weapons unless disturbed. But when irri-
tated, it turns around, raises its tail, and "lets go."
-^ 102 >.-
However, no defense is impregnable and since
they are nocturnal in their habits, many skunks fall
victims to weasels, foxes and owls, especially to the
great horned owl. The latter seems unaffected by the
odorous fluid and frequently, specimens of these owls,
sent to museums for mounting, reveal evidence of en-
counters with "the most aloof of our native beasts."
The home of the skunk is usually in a burrow in
the woods. Sometimes it utilizes the burrow of some
other animal, that of the w^oodchuck, for instance. Fre-
quently, it occupies a hollow log or stone pile. The
nest contains a bed of dried leaves and grasses and in
the early Spring the female bears from twelve to
eighteen young. The mother may be seen leading her
offspring in a long procession, all in single file, across
a field, as she goes on a foraging expedition at night.
The young make excellent pets and manifest a real
affection for someone who is kind to them.
While the skunk aids considerably in reducing
the numbers of field mice, ''grubs," grasshoppers, bee-
tles and other insects, it occasionally invades the
chicken coop and destroys numbers of baby chicks.
Usually it takes just what it needs at the time, but it
seems to remember the place and frequently returns at
inervals until a whole brood has been taken. There is
no doubt that the animal eats the eggs and young of
ground nesting birds also, but on the whole, there is
much evidence that shows the Skunk to be the farmer's
friend.
The skunk is a little smaller than a house cat. The
head is almost triangular; the tail bushy; the claws
curved for digging; the ears short, and the soles of the
■•*C 103 1#-
feet are naked, or nearly so. There are four elaws on
both the fore and hind feet.
The skunk partly hibernates during the winter
but it does not enter a comatose state as do the wood-
chucks, for example. It is much less active in winter
than in summer but it ventures forth at every mild
break of the weather.
Foxes
The foxes are generally conceded to be the
shrewdest of all our native mammals. Their ability to
outwit dogs and human hunters shows a keenly devel-
oped animal intelligence. The term "sly old fox" is a
complimentary recognition of their cunning. The
manner in which foxes evade pursuers by doubling
their tracks, wading in shallow water, and by leaping
from one tree stump to another, wins the admiration of
the fox hunter. Their habit of breaking the trail so
that their pursuers cannot take it up again, or making
it necessary to do considerable reconnoitering, enables
the animal to frequently make its escape.
Economically, foxes are destructive. They de-
stroy great numbers of quail, grouse, and other ground-
nesting birds. They reduce the number of smaller
game animals, and frequently they cause the loss of
many dollars to farmers in a single night. I have seen,
on several occasions, whole flocks of turkeys, ducks and
chickens destroyed in a short time by these marauders.
The fox does not seem content to kill a single fowl and
devour it but will often slay, apparently for the joy of
killing. Fowls perched on the lower branches of a tree
and on high fences are not immune to danger from
-*>C 104 ><;-■
Red Fox Vulpes fulva
foxes because they jump to amazing heights and one of
our native species can climb.
On the other hand, while foxes destroy game and
domestic animals, they render a certain amount of
beneficial service by destroying field mice, rabbits and
other pests. But the harm they do counterbalances the
good and, under present conditions, it is expedient to
consider our native foxes as economically destructive.
There are two species of foxes in Pennsylvania,
both of them differing somewhat in size, color and
habits, but the end results of their activities are similar.
The fur of both the red and gray foxes is very valu-
able. The black and silver foxes are varieties of the
red fox.
-H 105 J<:-<-
The Red Fox
Vulpes fiil'va
The red fox is generally distributed over the
State, being common in even the southwestern counties,
although it seems most numerous in the mountainous
sections. It is larger than the gray fox and, unlike
the latter, it does not climb. It is about three feet long
and stands about thirteen inches high. The tail is more
than a foot long and it uses it to good advantage when
sleeping. The nose is bare, while the rest of the body
is covered with fur. When the fox sleeps, it makes a
bed of leaves and curls up, drawing its tail around
itself and covering its snout. This prevents the nose
from being frostbitten.
The red fox is considered the keener of our two
species and its fur is the more valuable. From the
author's observations, it seems to be more abundant
than the gray fox, although the present bounty on the
gray fox is higher than that paid for the red fox
The red fox is more cunning, faster, and has more
endurance than the gray fox.
The red fox does not climb trees and usually
nests in an earthen burrow where it bears from five to
ten young in early April. The male attends the female
during the breeding season, which begins in February,
and carries food to her until after the young have been
born.
The red fox is a bright reddish yellow above and
white underneath. The legs and feet are very dark,
sometimes being almost black. The males and females
are alike and there is no seasonal variation. The ears
are erect and pointed, and the tail is tipped with white.
There are five toes on the fore feet and four on the hind
-.•:H[ 106 l^s"-
Gray Fox Urocyon cinercoargenteus cincreoargcntcus
Courtesy Carnegie Museum.
feet. The claws are long, sharp and not retractile. It
is digitigrade.
The Gray Fox
Urocyon cinereoargcntciis cinereoargcntcus
The Gray Fox has a more southerly distribution
than the Red Fox, but it has a general distribution in
-M^ 107 >*-
the State. It can easily be distinguished from the Red
Fox in its size, being slightly smaller, and by its color,
which is an ashy gray above and a buff brown beneath.
There are black facial and tail markings, and, on the
sides of the neck, and across the chest there is a reddish-
brown band. The throat is white and the middle of the
ventral surface is almost white.
The gray fox has many habits similar to the red
fox but it also shows some interesting differences. For
instance, it does not run for many miles when pursued
but usually takes to a tree or "holes up," after confus-
ing its pursuers. For this reason fox hunters prefer the
red fox for sporting purposes. Its habits of climbing
trees adds to the dangers of nesting and roosting birds.
It selects a hollow tree or rocky crevice for its home
and the female bears only from four to five young,
being less prolific than the red fox.
The nose is less pointed and the hair is coarser
than in the latter species. Both the red and gray foxes
are nocturnal and their foraging journeys lead them
many miles from their burrows. The gray fox is said
to jump from nine to ten feet above the ground and in
this way it is able to capture domestic fowl which
roosts on fences and on the lower branches of trees.
Wild Cat
Lynx ruff us ■
The wild cat is an inhabitant of the mountains,
where it is becoming quite scarce. That it is far from
being extinct is shown by the fact that the State Game
Commission paid bounties on 615 of them in 1924.
Many tales of the ferocity of this animal are told, but
it is in reality a cowardly beast, retreating at the least
-M. 108 ><:--
Wild Cat Lynx rufus
sign of danger. However, it is e]uite capable of putting
up a good fight when slightly wounded or cornered.
The wild cat is mostly nocturnal in its habits,
although it wanders frequently during the day, feeding
on squirrels, rabbits, all kinds of birds and, especially,
rats and mice. It is also reputed as a destroyer of deer.
■•4>C 109 >!:-<•-
While the creature is swift in its movements, it does
not, as a rule, pursue its victims, as do foxes and wea-
sels, but it generally lies in wait, crouching on the limb
of a tree or on the ground among the bushes. When an
unsuspecting animal comes within reach, the Wild Cat
pounces upon it. Ofttimes, it utters a loud scream
which startles other animals into activity, thus reveal-
ing their locations to the hunting cat.
The wild cat is a solitary animal and hunts alone
or with its mate. It is most active during the early
evening and morning hours and sleeps during the day
in a cave or hollow tree. The nest is usually placed in
the latter and is lined with soft mosses and grass. There
are from two to four young born in the late Spring
months.
The wild cat has a short bushy tail, long legs and
large feet. The ears are rather prominent and tipped
with black, but they arc not conspicuously tufted.
There is a ruff of hair on each side of the head. The
males and females are alike and there is no change of
color with the seasons.
The color is yellowish brown above, spotted on
the sides with dark brown. There is a brown stripe on
the forehead and one on the back and tail. The under
parts are a creamy white, with black spots. The fur is
dense and soft.
The creature is much larger than a common house
cat, reaching three feet in length, while the tail is only
about seven inches. It is most common in the northern
and central counties.
-*>C 110 }<:-•
WooDCHUCK Marmota
nuix III OH a. \
The WooD-CiircK: Ground-Hog
Marmota monax monax
The wood-chuck or ground-hog is one of the
most widely distributed of the Pennsylvania mammals.
It is a rather large, heavy-bodied, short-tailed, terres-
trial form, with a blunt nose, large rounded head and
comparatively short ears. The short legs make the
body appear to be rather robust. The fore feet have
four well-developed toes and the animal uses these to
good advantage in digging. The hind feet are equipped
with five toes. The color is usually a mottled grey with
a brownish tint, the males and females being alike.
The wood-chuck is a sluggish and somewhat stupid
animal and, as a rule, ft does not venture far from its
burrow. When danger approaches it raises itself on its
hind legs, looks about and immediately "make for
home." While it is occasionally a solitary animal, the
ground-hogs usually live in colonies and the entrances
to a number of burrows are usually grouped within a
-;>C 111 >*-
rather limited space, preferably on the slope of a
meadow. Each burrow usually has a number of exits,
in order to make escape more certain when the animal
is pursued. In close quarters, the t^round-hog chat-
ters its teeth and utters a low whistling sound. It is
chiefly diurnal in its habits and forages in the woods
and in the thick growth around the borders of fields,
feeding on grasses, clover and, occasionally, garden
crops. Because of its habit of placing the rather large
burrow, around the entrance of which it heaps mounds
of dirt, in sections where horses and cattle graze, the
animal becomes somewhat of a nuisance. Farmers in-
sist that running stock is endangered to the extent of
breaking their legs by stepping into the exposed en-
trances of the burrow. For this reason, and because of
the fact that it sometimes becomes quite destructive in
truck patches, farmers wage an incessant war against
it. The ground-hog eats voraciously during the sum-
mer and builds up a large reserve of fat to carry it over
the winter. Instead of storing up food materials, as do
its relatives, the squirrels, the ground-hog hibernates.
At the first approach of frosty weather, the ground-
hogs enter their burrows, where they remain inactive
until the following Spring. As a general rule, they
hibernate in pairs, snuggling together and sleeping
through the long winter months. Because of the in-
activity, they require little food, and the energy is sup-
plied by the excess of fat stored up in the Summer
months. The ground-hog attains a length of about
twenty to twenty-five inches. Its tail is about six inches
long and a large animal may weigh as much as twelve
or thirteen pounds. There is a common superstition that
the ground-hog emerges from its winter sleep about
the first of February and ventures forth from its bur-
-«>f 112 ><:-'-
row. The legend states that, if the sun is shining and
the animal sees its shadow, there will be a eontinuation
of extremely eold weather for six weeks. On the other
hand, if the day is dark, the creature does not see its
shadow and this is supposed to be an omen of the be-
ginning of mild weather. However, the ground-hog
does not emerge from its burrow until the Spring vege-
tation has come to life. After a long Winter's sleep,
the animal is lean and demands an immediate food sup-
ply. In a normal season the female bears from three to
eight young in the latter part of April and, ofttimes,
when the mother is away on a foraging expedition of
her own, the young may be seen playing about the en-
trance of the burrow. The fur of the ground-hog,
being rather coarse, has no commercial value and,
while its flesh is relished by some people, it is not gen-
erally utilized as a food. Lacking these two qualities,
it is not generally sought after by hunters and trappers
and it has therefore been able to multiply in great
numbers. Its chief enemies are dogs, weasels and, oc-
casionally, foxes.
The Eastern Chipmunk
Tasmias striatus striattis
The chipmunk is a splendid example of how cer-
tain forms increase in numbers when man is eliminated
from their list of enemies. While it is virtually a small
edition of a tree squirrel and is probably just as edible,
it is so small, fortunately, that hunters do not molest it
as a rule. Consequently, chipmunks abound in great
numbers and are familiar sights to almost every boy
and girl. The fact that they are gazed upon in a friend-
ly way, by humans, has caused them to exercise little
concern over the presence of a human in their haunts.
->:>C 113 ><*-
Chipmunk Tasmias striatus striatus
They are friendly creatures and even the wild form
can be cultivated by overtures which are not too ag-
gressive. They are usually seen in rocky places where
they intelligently place the entrances to their under-
ground burrows under stones or in other concealed
places. Unlike the ground-hog, the chipmunk is very
careful not to advertise the location of its home by
heaping mounds of earth around its doorway, or by
establishing beaten paths which lead directly to it. The
exterior of the home shows a single tunnel, but a short
distance from the surface of the ground, there may be
several channels running in various directions and, like
the wood-chuck, the animal is careful to provide
more than one exit for escape, in case of necessity.
Sometimes the original opening is closed and one of the
exits is transformed into a "front door." Just how the
animal disposes of the dirt, which is removed in the
making of its home, is still a matter of uncertainty, but
-s>{ 114 >«*-
it undoubtedly takes every precaution to avoid making
the location of the burrow conspicuous. The chip-
munk feeds largely upon seeds, grain and nuts, and he
is often accused of destroying the eggs and young of
ground-nesting birds. The stomach contents of several
specimens revealed insects and the remains of some
small mammals, probably mice. The chipmunk stores
up a large winter supply of food and during the late
summer months, it may be seen busily engaged stuffing
beechnuts and other small fruits into the pouches on
either side of the face. The color of the chipmunk is
a rusty brown, with an occasional tint of gray. There
are five black stripes and two white stripes along the
back from the shoulders nearly to the tail. The under
side is whitish, and the tail is usually darker on the
upper surfaces, showing a yellow fringe along the side.
The tail is broad, flat and moderately bushy and is only
half as long as the body. The head is rounded; the
ears are short, but prominent, and clothed with short
hairs; the body is trim but not slender; the general
coat is short and soft. There is no diiTerence between
the sexes and only a slight seasonal variation in the
color.
Gray Squirrel: Black Squirrel
Sciurus carolincnsis Icucotis
The Eastern Gray Squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis
carolinensis) has a wide distribution in Pennsylvania.
Its home is usually found in a birch, maple, or beech
tree, the entrance being high above the ground. In
summer it will often build an outside house of sticks,
bark, and leaves, lining it with mosses and grasses. It
is placed among the smaller branches and has the ap-
pearance of a crow's nest from the ground.
-^.>{ ns ><:•<-
Gray Squirrel Sciurus carolinensts Icucotis
The gray squirrel does not hibernate and there-
fore, does not lay up a store of nuts, etc., for winter use,
although it does bury acorns and nuts in the ground or
hides them in crevices in trees. The ease with which
gray squirrels become tamed is shown by the numbers
in city parks, where they do not hesitate to search one's
person for food.
The gray squirrels are represented by two sub-
species in Pennsylvania, the eastern gray squirrel
(Scirurus carolinensis carolinensis) which is generally
distributed, and the northern gray squirrel (Scirurus
carolinensis leucotis) which is found only in the north-
ern part of the State. The former is a dark yellowish
rusty brown above, with the hairs on the tail yellow at
their bases, then black, and tipped with white. The
under parts are whitish; the ears are yellowish and
-*>C 116 Ji*-
Black Squirrel Sciurus carolinensis Iciicotis
hairy; the tail is abouthalf the length of the body and
quite bushy; and the length is eighteen inches.
The latter is larger and grayer. The black squir-
rel is a variety of the gray squirrel, and it is more
generally of this species.
-*H[ 117 ]H*-
Fox Squirrel Siiurus niger
The gray squirrels are valuable for their fur and
as game. Their enemies are hawks, mice, foxes, red
squirrels. There are usually hve young in a litter.
Fox Squirrel: Yellow Bellied Fox Squirrel
Sciiiriis nigrr rufi'venter
The fox squirrel is the largest of our squirrels
and is less generally distributed over the State. There
are probably two species of fox squirrels in Pennsyl-
vania. The largest species (Sciurus niger) varies from
a glossy black to a clay color mingled with black above
and a whitish gray beneath. The nose and ears are
white, while the top of the head is black.
The body is large and heavy and the ears are mod-
erately long. The tail is an admixture of black and
yellowish and is approximately one-half the body
-^ 118 JH*--
length. This species is indigenous to the eastern and
southeastern sections.
The more common species (Sciurus n'lger rufi-
ventcr) is not so large as the one above and is less
variable in coloration. The ears and nose are never
white. The under parts are always rufous yellow. This
species has a total length of about twenty-three inches.
It feeds on nuts, seeds, birds and fruit.
The yellow bellied fox squirrel is well distrib-
uted in western Pennsylvania, but it is not at all com-
mon.
Red Squirrel (Southern)
Sciurus hudsonicus loquax
The red squirrel is the sauciest, most active and
most curious of the Pennsylvania squirrel group.
There are many species of red squirrels, and the num-
ber in the State is a matter of some controversy. Inas-
much as there is a wide variation in the color of the
pelage of even a single species, it is difficult to deter-
mine whether some of them, are true species, sub-
species, or only varieties. There are three possible spe-
cies within the confines of the State. The assumption
is based on our knowledge of the geographical distri-
bution of the various kinds. The three that may possibly
exist here are: The eastern red squirrel, or chicka-
ree (Sciurus hudsonicus husonicus), the southern red
squirrel (Sciurus hudsonicus loquax), and the little
red squirrel (Sciurus hudsonicus gymnicus). The
first is supposed to be confined to the Canadian section
but it seems to have migrated southward and is re-
ported from the north central counties of Pennsylvania.
The second is supposed to be the commonest species
-H 119 ><;■<-
South KKN Rkd Squirrel Sciurus Imdsonicus loquax
(or subspecies), ranging from Ontario to the Caro-
linas. The third is reported from the North with
northern New York as its most southerly limit, but
there is also some evidence that it is to be found in the
northern section of Pennsylvania. The differentiation
of these species, or rather subspecies, is not an easy
task.
The habits of all are similar and it is not difficult
to cultivate the friendship of the common red squir-
rel. On a camping trip as we sat down to breakfast
under some pine trees, a red squirrel became quite
curious and sat on a branch above us, chattering away
for dear life. A few days later he ventured down the
tree and inspected some packages on the other end of
our long table, helping himself to rolled oats which
were in a cardboard box. After that we were visited
-»{ 120 ^-
each morniiiL^ and as we ate the squirrel proceeded to
fill himself with rolled oats, which we always placed
there for him. On one occasion he came to the middle
of the table and looked over our breakfast menu. Evi-
dently not liking the looks of our trout and flapjacks,
he returned to the other end of the table and disap-
peared in the box of oats. Within ten days he w^ould
come and feed from our hands. Although accused of
destroying the nests, eggs and young of birds, as well
as exterminating the gray squirrel there is consider-
able evidence to show that the damage done by the
red squirrel is over-estimated. The diet usually con-
sists of nuts, berries, fruits, pine seeds and fungi, al-
though there are occasional cases in which other ani-
mals are eaten. Quite frequently, blue jays and rodents
rob him of his winter supply of food when he is care-
less enough to store it in accessible places. John Bur-
roughs pays tribute to the cleverness which the red
squirrel employs in gnawing butter nuts on the side
where the kernel is exposed and where less labor is
necessary to reach it.
The red squirrel seems to prefer coniferous
woods and is sometimes called the Pine Squirrel. It
nests in a hollow tree or under the roots. In summer
it builds an outside home high above the ground. This
nest is irregular in shape and is composed of leaves
and vines. It resembles an old crow's nest. In fact, the
red squirrel often modifies old nests and utilizes them
for summer nests. It^ is said that he is quite fond of
maple syrup and he is accused of tapping sugar trees.
While it is somewhat of a nuisance in that it does
not tolerate other squirrels in its domain, it is undoubt-
edly the most interesting of the group.
-*jH[ 121 ^i*-
The common chickaree is not more than twelve
inches long. Its fur is short and soft, covering the
whole body including the feet. It is yellowish brown
above in summer and in winter it is more of a chestnut
color. The under side is Vv'hitish with an olive tint on
the sides. The head is somewhat blunt and rounded.
The ears are large and hairy. The tail is as long as the
head and body.
On the southern red squirrel the tail is longer;
there is a noticeable dorsal stripe; and the animal is
larger as a wdiole. The little red squirrel is much
smaller and the tail has an orange-red fringe on the
sides. The fur is an imoortant article of commerce.
Eastern Flying Squirrel
Glaucomys volans <volans
The flying squirrel is so named because of its
ability to glide gracefully from heights and land easily
on the ground or on the lower limbs of trees. It pos-
sesses a peculiar hair-covered membrane of skin on
both sides of the body between the front and hind
limbs. The skin flap is attached to both limbs as far as
the wrist and ankle, and when the animal is ready to
"fly" the legs are extended and the membrane spreads
like a sail. The creature then soars through the air in
a volplaning sort of flight. The strong hind legs enable
the animal to "take off" with a force that carries it to
a great distance. The tail, which is thin and flat, is
turned upwards as the animal alights and thus makes
the landing easy. The stretched membrane serves the
same purpose as the wings on an airplane.
In color, the flying squirrel is grayish brown,
with a rusty tinge above and underneath it is white.
-H 122 ><*-
Eastern Flying Squirrel Glaucomys volans volans
The skin flaps on the sides are of a dark brown. The
head is blunt and rounded and the ears are short. The
tail is about as long as the head and body together.
The hair is soft and of medium length.
The creature makes its nest in a tall tree and lines
it with dried leaves. As a rule, flying squirrels live in
-M 123 ><*-
communities and a number may live together in a
hollow tree. However, each pair usually stores up
their own winter supply of food which is concealed in
another tree from the one in which the nest is placed.
There are usually from three to seven young.
The flying sq^uirrel is a nocturnal animal and it
possesses large glowing eyes. It is omnivorous and eats
nuts, insects and birds' eggs. There is also some evi-
dence to indicate that it will, occasionally, eat young
birds. The animal is easily tamed and makes an excel-
lent pet, but it avoids bright light, and will crawl
under one's coat or into his pocket to avoid it. A full
grown animal may attain a length of 10 or 12 inches.
The males and females are alike and there is little
seasonal variation.
Beaver
Castor canadensis
The beaver is one of the rarest and most interest-
ing of our native mammals. Its spectacular habits
reveal some remarkable adaptations. It is a swimmer,
woodsman and engineer.
The hind feet are webbed for swimming and the
long, broad, flattened tail is used as a rudder. The
great incisors, characteristic of the rodents, serve ad-
mirably in felling trees, and the endurable homes and
dams show a practical knowledge of construction on
the part of the animal.
The beaver is entirely herbivorous and feeds on
the bark of many trees. It is especially fond of the bark
and twigs of the yellow birch, quaking aspen, poplar
and willow. Selecting trees of these species which grow
close to the water, the beaver gnaws around the trunk
M. 124 ]H*-
Beaver Castor canadensis canadensis
near the ground until the tree falls. The branches are
then removed and ofttimes the main stem of the tree
is cut into shorter lengths, so that they may be pushed,
dragged, or rolled into the water.
In making the dam, the beaver selects a small
w^oodland stream. Placing the longer and thicker
stems and branches with their large ends up stream,
the animal proceeds to carry mud and stones which
are piled on the bases. Then the smaller sticks, grasses
and green branches are woven together and the crevices
are filled with mud and stones. The process of con-
struction goes on until the dam is from four to six feet
high. The water backs up and forms a good sized pond
of comparatively still water. In this pond water lilies
and other aquatic plants grow and the beaver feeds on
the roots of these. When the trees along the water's
edge have all been cut down, as happens when the
colony is an old one, the beaver will frequently dig
canals from the pond back to the woods. In these
canals food is transported and the necessity of dragging
sticks and branches from a great distance over land is
eliminated.
-H 125 ><*- /<^>
^^^
Usually there are supplementary dams placed
above and below the main one to reduce the danger of
breaking in rainy weather when the streams are swift.
The dam below the main dam holds the water against
the lower side of the latter and strengthens it.
There are generally a number of beavers in a
colony and when a break occurs in the dam, all of the
members set to work to repair it. Each animal secures
a stick on the shore and immediately swims with it to
the break, where it is carefully placed. The sticks are
placed so that water flows through them and floating
material is caught as in a sieve and helps to plug the
opening in the dam.
The beaver often lives in burrows in the banks of
the pond. These burrows extend for a considerable
distance beneath the bank and generally have their
openings below the surface of the water. The burrow
ends in a larger chamber several feet in diameter.
Usually the beaver constructs a mound-like home
out in the water. This is made of sticks and mud and
varies in size according to the number of individuals
that live in it. The mound is conical and may be as
much as eight feet high and forty feet in circumfer-
ence. Inside the house and above the level of the water
is a chamber in which the animal lives. The entrance
to the hut is through a tunnel, opening beneath the sur-
face of the water. The walls of the house are quite
thick.
In winter the beaver partly hibernates within its
house but ventures forth in mild weather. Food is
stored in the pond for winter use and the sticks from
which the bark has been gnawed are used in reenforc-
ing the dams.
-,>l 126 >-
The beaver is active day and nit^ht and when
swimming it ships the water violently with its tail to
warn others when danger approaches. It is also inter-
esting to note that when a Beaver is cutting down a
tree, it invariably strikes the ground with its tail as a
warning to others in the vicinity, when the tree is about
to fall/
The beaver is the largest of the rodents and may
w^eigh up to fifty pounds. Its color is a dark chesnut
brown on the back, blending to a lighter, almost cinna-
mon, brov/n beneath and on the sides.
The head is rounded and the nose is blunt. The
large orange colored incisors are quite prominent. The
ears are short and the body is thick and heavy set. The
legs are short and each foot has five toes. The second
toe on the webbed hind feet has a double or divided
claw. The beaver has anal musk glands w^hich secrete
a strong-smelling fluid. There are tw^o coats of hair,
the outer being longer and coarser than the soft under
fur. Both the females and the males are alike and there
is only a slight seasonal variation.
The total length of an adult beaver is about forty-
two inches. The tail is about sixteen inches long and
the hind feet measure almost seven inches.
Beavers are apparently monogamists and probably
mate for life. Mating takes place in February and the
young, numbering from three to eight, are born in
May.
At the present time beavers are quite scarce, al-
though a splendid colony thrives in Potter County. The
beaver is fully protected by the game laws of Penn-
sylvania, and it is to be hoped that its numbers will
-*>C 127 ><*-
White Fooiin) Mouse Pfioinyscus maniculatus maniculatus
increase. Recent reports show a rather rapid spread
and there are at least five colonies of Beavers in the
State at the present time.
Deer Mouse: White Footed Mouse
Pcromysciis maniculatus manuiilatus
The deer mouse or white footed mouse, is one
of the commonest and gentlest of wild creatures to be
found in this commonwealth. One can see it at most
any season in the woods and around barns and brush
heaps.
Is is undoubtedly the most beautiful of all our
native mice, being grayish brown above and almost
pure white beneath. It is larger than the house mouse
and has a long pointed nose. The ears are large, hairy,
and prominent. The large eyes and long whiskers make
its face attractive. As a rule, it may be handled with
impunity and within a few days it becomes as tame as
white mice.
-^128 >#-
Cloudland Deer Mouse Peromyscus tnanlculatus nithllcnae
The home of this delightful creature is usually in
the woods where it may add to a deserted bird's nest,
making of it a large globular house of dried leaves,
grasses and vines, sometimes a considerable distance
above the ground. It frequently happens that a num-
ber will occupy the same nest. Rural dwellings and
barns are also utilized for home making.
The deer mouse feeds upon seeds, nuts and
grains. Sometimes it stores large quantities of beech-
nuts, acorns, seeds and corn, for winter use. Summer
camps are invariably visited by the deer mouse and
cereals, flour, and sometimes hide shoestrings, are de-
stroyed by it. It is an excellent climber and runs about
over the branches of trees and shrubs. Some people call
it the wood mouse.
This interesting creature is very prolific and the
female may have three or four litters of from three to
six young in a year. On one occasion the writer sur-
-*>C 129 >.-
prised a number of deer mice in a rather open place.
Three of them darted under a board. When the board
was lifted, all three had their noses pushed into a shal-
low cavity which they had evidently dug in a hurry.
Remaining absolutely quiet, they apparently thought
they were escaping detection although their bodies
were fully exposed. Needless to say, they were not fur-
ther disturbed.
According to some writers, the deer mouse re-
sorts to "singing" for its own amusement or perhaps
for its mate. Who knows?
Fischer's Deer Mouse
Pcromyscus leucopus novcboracensis
Another species of deer mouse to be found within
the confines of Pennsylvania and inhabiting only the
forest regions of the mountains, is Fischer's deer
mouse. This species is more grayish than Rafinesque's
species and there is a greater number of dark tipped
hairs on the back which detract somewhat from the
clearness of the dorsal band or broad stripe that is so
evident in the latter species.
Fischer's deer mouse is not so common and is
generally found in the higher evergreen forests. It is
the same size as Rafinesque's deer mouse and has a
total length of six and five-eighths inches. The tail is
almost three inches long.
Cloudland Deer Mouse
Pcromyscus man'iculatus imhiterrae
The cloudland deer mouse is found only in the
highest mountainous regions of Pennsylvania. It is a
■^ 130 >.-
dull smoky brown color above and is considerably less
white underneath than the common deer mouse.
The tail is slightly longer than the head and body
combined and it is quite hairy, ending with a tuft of
hair at the tip. The animal attains a length of seven
inches, the tail totalling three and three-fourths inches.
Rafinesque's Deer Mouse
Peromyscus leucopus leucopus
The color of this species is much more striking
than that of the cloudland deer mouse. In this species
the dorsal surface is a dark or bright rusty brown like
that of a deer and the undersides are more nearly
white. There is a well-defined dorsal stripe of gray
and black-tipped hairs extending from the neck to the
base of the tail. The tail is considerably shorter than
that of the cloudland deer mouse.
Refinesque's deer mouse is also a good climber
and occupies old birds' nests and hollow trees. It mani-
fests a behavior similar to the common deer mouse
but confines its activities to woodland areas. It is just
about as large as the common deer mouse.
House Mouse
Mus musciilus
This clever creature is to be found everywhere in
abundance. Like the rat, it seems to prefer an intimate
association wath humans and only its size prevents it
from doing as much damage as the rat.
However, it succeeds in doing quite enough harm
and should be continuously fought against. In addition
to adding to the terrors of the female human popula-
-1^ 131 >*-
tion, the mouse persists in destroying foodstuffs and
other materials in much the same manner as do rats.
Being of small size it gains access to many situa-
tions and even the seed in the canary's cage is devoured
by it. Of course, field mice frequently get into the
house also, but in cities it is invariably the house mouse
that one sees and hears. The house mouse nests in fur
garments, old shoes, stove pipes, rag bags, and in almost
every other sort of locality. It begins to bear when
three months old and has a litter of from eight to ten
every two or three months during the year. The nest
is made of soft materials, such as hair, chewed news-
papers and rags.
The house mouse, I believe, is the fastest mouse in
the world. I once had a mouse cage with a pivoted
disc placed at a slight incline. The mice would run on
this until it revolved at a great speed. It worked in the
same manner as a treadmill. When I placed house
mice in the same cage with field mice the former
rotated the disc so rapidly that the field mice could
not keep up the pace and they were thrown off the disc
by centrifugal force. The house mouse iiivarial)lY ate
the young field mice, and later when the young were
finished, they would gradually kill off all of the adult
field mice.
The chief characteristics of the house mouse are:
nose pointed; ears fairly large; tail quite long; body
almost slender; color above, grayish brown with long
black or yellowish hairs unevenly distributed; the un-
der side is a slaty gray. Seldom more than six inches
long, the tail being half the body length.
-*H[ 132 >>-.-
The Lemming Mouse: Cooper's Lemming Mouse
Synaptomys Coo peri
The lemming mouse is found in boggy regions at
a few places in the State. It often uses the runways of
meadow mice and is frequently caught with them. It
resembles the meadow mouse so closely that it is apt
to be mistaken for it. The lemming mouse may be
distinguished by its short tail and by its grooved front
teeth. The head is blunt; the ears are nearly hidden in
the fur, and the legs are short. Its coloration is vir-
tually the same as that of the meadow mouse and the
two sexes are alike. There is a slight seasonal varia-
tion, the summer color being a bufify gray or yellowish
brown lined with black, and the winter color being a
slaty gray. It is about five inches long when full grown.
Red Backed Mouse: Red Backed Vole
Evotomys (/apperi gapperi
Although usually preferring forest haunts, the red
backed mouse is frequently to be found in grassy
fields where it hides under fallen logs or under stones.
It really lives in underground burrows similar to those
of field mice but usually selects dry, well-drained
ground. Its nest is made of fine dry grass or moss and
is placed within a chamber along one of its under-
ground tunnels. Sometimes it nests in a hollow log
and, on one occasion, I found a number of nests under
a slab of corrugated iran. Several litters of young are
born during the summer and each litter may contain
from three to eight young.
The red backed mouse is related to the field mice,
but it seldom menaces crops as do the latter at times.
The distribution of this form in Pennsylvania is some-
M. 133 ><*-
Ri;d liACKii) Mouse Eiwtomys gapperi gapped
what limited to the mountains and the counties border-
ing on them, although it has been reported from Cook
Forest.
It is active both day and night and one may see it
sitting up like a squirrel, holding seeds of berries be-
tween its fore feet and nibbling away in a characteristic
manner. It eats beechnuts, acorns and other seeds, in
addition to young roots, bark and twigs of low shrubs.
Northern Pine Vole: Mole Mouse
Pitymys pinctorus scalopsoides
The pine vole is an inhabitant of the southern
section of Pennsylvania, occurring in the southwestern
and southeastern counties.
It is called the mole mouse because of its bur-
rowing habits. It lives almost entirely beneath the sur-
face of the ground and has its fore feet somewhat mod-
ified for digging. The pine vole confines its activities
->i>4; 134 >«-<-
to comparatively loose soil where it makes a series of
tunnels which ramify in all directions. It frequently
follo\^s corn rows and removes newly-planted seeds.
Occasionally it enters gardens and takes beans and
other seeds. In addition, it does considerable damage
to bulbs and the roots of growing plants. It is particu-
larly destructive to sweet potatoes and tap roots.
The pine vole is covered with a soft, dense fur,
which resembles the coat of the Mole in texture. The
general coloration is rusty brown above and the under
parts are whitish. The ears are short and inconspicu-
ous and the eyes are small. The tail is very short, total-
ling only about one-fifth the body length. The legs are
short and in some ways the animal resembles a shrew,
but the rounded head, blunt nose, and typical rodent
teeth, enable one to easily identify it.
The pine vole nests in a globular mass of dried
leaves and grasses placed in an enlarged chamber along
one of the subterranean tunnels. There are usually
from four to six young in a litter. These are born in
the latter part of March or in the early part of April.
There are probably five or six broods in a year.
The Meadow Mouse
Microtus pennsylvanicus
The meadow mouse is abundant in all parts of
Pennsylvania and, with its relatives, is probably the most
abundant rodent in numbers and species on the North
American Continent. While our common species pre-
fers moist meadows and swampy fields for its home, it
frequently extends its burrows into cultivated fields.
Occasionally it constructs a summer nest under a log
or in a tussock of grass. While it sometimes bears its
-^>i_ 135 J^s.-
Meadow Mouse Mirrotus pcnnsyl-vanicus pennsyl-vanuui
young in the nest above ground, as a general rule, it
has a chamber at the end of the underground burrow
where four litters of from six to eight young are born
during the year. The underground home is bedded
with soft materials of all kinds. It rarely nests in houses
or barns.
The meadow mouse establishes a series of run-
ways which ramify in all directions from the entrance
to the burrow. The runways are kept clear of sticks
and other obstacles, which might impede its progress
in case of a hasty retreat to the burrow is made neces-
sary.
The meadow mouse feeds on growing grass, al-
falfa, seeds, bulbs, root crops and vegetables. When
wheat and oats are harvested, great numbers of mead-
ow mice congregate under the shocks and frequently
do great damage. In the winter they often gnaw the
bark around the bases of young fruit trees and whole
-*C 136 >*-
orchards of young trees have been killed by them. It is
estimated that the mice of the Genus Microtus cause
an annual loss of over three million dollars to Ameri-
can farmers.
The meadow mouse is about seven inches long
and the tail is not quite two inches in length. The body
is somewhat heavier than that of the house mouse.
The head is large and blunt; the ears are barely per-
ceptible above the fur; legs are short, the fur is long,
and overlaid with coarse hairs; the soles of the feet are
naked and each foot has six plantar tubercles.
The sexes are identical in size and color. The
summer coat varies from a dark chestnut brown to a
light yellowish brown above, with a number of coarse
black hairs along the back. The under parts are a
smoky gray slightly tinged with light brown. The feet
are brownish. The tail is brown above and somewhat
paler beneath. In winter the general coloration is
duller and more uniformly gray.
The Meadow Jumping Mouse: Kangaroo Mouse
Zapus finds onius atnericanus
This interesting creature may be readily identified
by its extremely long hind legs; very long tail, which is
one and one-half times the body length ; short fore legs ;
and cheek pouches into which it can stufif considerable
food.
It is yellowish brown in color and has a very per-
ceptible black band running down the middle of the
back due to the presence of many long, shining black-
tipped hairs. The sides are even a brighter hue and
the under sides and feet are white. The dividing line
between the upper and the under sides is sharply
-«>C 137 ><5<-
Meadow Jumping Mouse Zapus hudsonicus hudsonicus
drawn. The tail is dark above and whitish beneath and
is sparsely covered with hair. The head is of normal
proportions and the nose is pointed. The ears are small
and each foot has five toes.
The hair coat may seem rather coarse upon the
first examination, but a closer observation will show
that the main coat is short and fine and that the coarser
long hairs are less in number.
The jumping mouse is well named and it leaps
in a manner similar to the kangaroo after which it is
also named. The tail serves as a prop and aids consid-
erably in locomotion, as is shown by the fact that when
part of the tail is lost through accident, the animal has
considerable difficulty in getting along.
The jumping mouse is a very inoffensive crea-
ture and feeds upon green vegetation, although it sel-
dom becomes a menace in hay fields. It nests in a shal-
low burrow, in hollow trees or beneath boards. The
-M. 138 >*-
Woodland Jumping Mouse N apaeozapus inslijnu j./.w,,,; j
nest is globular and occasionally made of dried grass.
The young are born in litters of five or six during the
latter part of May or in the early part of June. In
winter the animal digs a deep burrow in which it hi-
bernates. Its total length is about eight inches and the
tail is about five inches. The hind foot measures 1.2
inches.
Barton's Jumping Mouse: Eastern Meadow
Jumping Mouse
Zapus Iiunsontus amcricanus
The common meadow jumping mouse has a very
closely related species which is to be found in the
southeastern and southwestern sections of the State.
Like the common form, it may be readily distinguished
by its long hind legs and very long tail. The chief
means of locomotion is by a series of "kangaroo leaps"
which may be as long as eight feet.
All species of jumping mice have summer homes
and winter homes and breed from May until Septem-
ber when they prepare for hibernation.
-H 139 ><■=.-
The summer homes arc above the surface of the
ground and the winter homes are in underground shel-
ters. Barton's jumping mouse is slightly larger than
the common meadow form and is a dusky brown,
tinged with a reddish buff on the back. The sides are
reddish buff and the under parts are almost pure white.
The dark dorsal stripe is less prominent than in the
meadow jumping mouse.
Woodland Jumping Mouse
Naparozapus insif/nis insignis Miller
Like the meadow jumping mouse, the woodland
form has a very long naked tail which it uses to good
advantage in its jumping movements. However, this
species is larger than the other species of jumping
mice and its ears are larger and longer. The wood-
land form has a paler color, becoming almost a buffy
yellow above and does not have an admixture of
brownish gray on the under parts. The tail is tipped
with white. There is also a distinct dental difference
in that the woodland jumping mouse lacks the upper
pre-molar tooth which is possessed by the other Jump-
ing mice of the Genus Zapus.
The woodland jumping mouse lives within the
confines of the forests, in close proximity to a stream.
The creature forages along the banks and its footprints
are commonly seen in the moist sand close to the
water's edge. It is supposed to be entirely a nocturnal
animal and it is the most beautiful of the group of
kangaroo mice. None of the jumping mice become
pests inasmuch as they limit their diet to small seeds,
nuts, grasses and insects.
-«>f 140 }<*-
Brown Rat: House Rat Rattus nori'e(/icus
As winter approaches, the jumping mouse retires
to a spherical nest of leaves and grass which is placed
below the frost line. In the nest the creature curls up
and sleeps until Spring returns.
The House Rat: Norway Rat: Brown Rat:
Gray Rat: Wharf Rat: Barn Rat
Ratius norvecjicus
Certainly the common rat is the most detested of
native animals. The damage done by it amounts to
millions of dollars annually and it seems that nothing
escapes its destructive ravages. Every sort of foodstuff,
flooring, hot house plants, hulls of ships, insulation on
electric wires, lead pipes, books, clothes, grains, field
crops, chickens, birds' eggs, and even little pigs, are
destroyed by it. In addition to causing great damage to
these and other things, the rat spreads fleas, filth and
disease. It is very prolific, having several litters of
from eight to fourteen young each year. The common
rat is not a native of the United States, but was intro-
duced years ago, having been brought here in ships.
It is now quite generally distributed over the world
-*4 141 >^-
and in some countries causes a great mortality through
its spreading of bubonic plague, tuberculosis, parasitic
worms, typhoid and other maladies.
It is a vicious creature and can inflict severe injur-
ies. It nests in sewers, mines, and in the habitations of
man. Sometimes it burrows in the ground and its bur-
rowing has been known to reduce the strength of build-
ing foundations.
It lines its nest with rags, cotton or any other soft
material which it can find or steal. It is normally a
grayish-brown color on the upper part of its body and
a grayish white below. Its ears and eyes are large and
its tail is as long as the head and body. The tail is
almost naked, and the rings of overlapping scales are
quite visible. It is about fifteen inches long when full
grown. The snout is long, pointed and bare at the end.
Black Rat
Rattus rattus rattus
The black rat was probably introduced before
the common brown rat but its numbers have been con-
siderably reduced by the latter. In fact, the black rat
has been completely exterminated in some sections by
the brown rat. There is some claim that in Pennsyl-
vania the black rat has been completely eliminated
from the fauna but this is entirely erroneous.
One evening a friend and I, while walking along
a street in a Westmoreland County town, noticed a rat
in the window of a well-kept meat and delicatessen
shop. Stopping to examine it, we were surprised to
find that it was unmistakably the black rat. Since that
time I have seen it in three other localities. The black
rat is smaller than the Norway or brown rat, and on
->5>C 142 ><«'-
Black Rat Rattui rattus rattus
the dorsal surface it is a rather lead-colored black. The
ventral surface is a slate-colored black. In addition to
the difference in color, the tail of the black rat is
much longer in proportion than that of the brown rat
and the scaly rings on the tail are even more prominent
in the black rat than in the brown rat.
The habits of the black rat are similar to those of
the brown rat except that it does not burrow under
foundations.
Another rat that may be found in Pennsylvania in
scattered localities and in reduced numbers, is the roof
rat or Alexandria rat (Epimys rattus alexandrinus
Geoffroy). It is smaller than the brown rat and proxi-
mates the size of the black rat. Its tail is more than
half the body length while the color is reddish brown
above, blending into a grayish white below. It is ap-
parently scarce.
Wood or Cave Rat
Ncotoma Pennsylvanica
The Pennsylvania woodrat is most common in
the mountainous counties of the State where it lives in
-*t 143 >*-
Wood Rat or Allegheny Cave Rat Neotoma pennsylvanica
(From Rhoads' "Mammals of Penna. and New Jersey")
caves or in rocky crevices. Occasionally it burrows into
the ground under the stump of a dead tree. The nest is
usually conspicuous because of its habit of placing all
sorts of objects about the entrance. Virtually, every
mountain cabin is inhabited by this curious creature
which seems to take delight in stealing objects which
could not possibly serve it in any way. Knives, forks,
spoons, nails and dozens of other articles, left lying
about a hunting lodge, or cabin, will disappear and a
careful search will reveal them to be hidden in all sorts
of places. Dr. Hornaday says that "Seemingly, its
chief object in life is to play practical jokes on man-
kind." One writer had his watch carried away by the
woodrat and recovered it in a nest the following sea-
son. On one occasion the writer, while camping in a
mountain bungalow, was awakened by a scraping noise.
A flashlight exposed a woodrat dragging one of his
bedroom slippers across the floor.
■••*>C 144 ><*-
Mr. George W. Gordon states that in a small cave
in Fayette County he heard a noise beside him and his
flashlight revealed a wood rat within twenty inches of
the lamp. The creature was sitting on its haunches
carefully gnawing the bark from a small twig. When
it had finished it proceeded nonchalantly to wash its
face, not paying any attention whatever to the bright
light.
The woodrat is about the size of the ordinary
house rat but it is easily distinguished from this loathe-
some species by its bufify slate-colored back and white
under parts. Its tail, unlike that of the brown rat, is
quite hairy and sometimes bushy. The under side of
the tail is white. The eyes are large and black and the
ears are large and prominent. The long pointed nose
and long white whiskers add a touch of dignity.
The nests are placed in every sort of location, on
an old cupboard, in a cave and in unused houses; some-
times the nest is placed in the middle of the floor. The
nest is a huge afifair, usually mound-like and con-
structed of sticks, tufted seeds, rags, etc., crudely
heaped together. The animal stores up quantities of
seeds, pinyon and other nuts, haws, wild grapes and
other fruits.
The woodrat is chiefly nocturnal and is a good
climber. While it is usually solitary, several may oc-
cupy the same nest. There are several litters of four
or five young each year;
In some sections of the United States, and es-
pecially in Mexico, the woodrat is relished as a food.
It is seldom a troublesome creature here, although it
has been known to dig up pine seeds that have been
planted.
-•*>{ 145 ><*-
WlmK^BMmmcmi^^aM^l^r^^t^MpBamKBKmmt^tmi
^^HH
KiHiii
MusKRAT Ondatra zlhetJiica zihrt/iica
The Common Muskrat
Fiber Zibctliicus
The muskrat is quite generally distributed over
the State and is sought by many persons for its valuable
fur. It is several times as large as an ordinary rat and
has a rather thick body with short legs. The hind feet
are partly webbed and otherwise adapted to swimming.
The long, scaly, nearly naked tail is flattened on
the sides and serves as a rudder when the animal is
swimming. The color is brown, but of various shades
in different individuals. It ranges from a very light to
a very dark and is always darker on the back. The
under side is whitish. The muskrat lives in swamps,
ponds and streams, and often burrows in the banks of
the latter to construct its nest which is placed in a large
chamber at the end of the burrow. While the chamber
is always above the water level, the entrance may be
beneath it. Muskrats also build large dome-shaped
•.5>|; 14(, ><:•<-
huts two or three feet high and from five to six feet in
diameter. These homes resembles, somewhat, those of
the beaver. The houses are placed in the water away
from the shore and are made of sticks and reeds. The
interior of the house has a floor above the water level
and is reached by diving from the outside. The musk-
rat does not hibernate but spends much of the winter
within its house, although it frequently goes on its ex-
cursions when the ponds are frozen and I have even
seen it swimming beneath the ice. It feeds upon water
plants, crayfish, mussels and, occasionally, fish. It also
stores up roots and other material for winter use and
sometimes invades gardens where it feeds upon culti-
vated plants.
While the muskrat is chiefly nocturnal, it is often
active during the day, and it may occasionally be seen
sitting upon a stone or log, feeding.
The young are born naked and helpless and there
may be from four to thirteen in a litter. Muskrat
tracks may be seen in the grassy regions along ponds
and streams where they have well-beaten trails. The
front feet have four toes and the hind feet have five.
The creature has a total length of twenty-one
inches and the tail is almost one-half as long as the
head and body combined. The hind foot measures three
and one-half inches and the creature may weigh as
much as two and one-fourth pounds.
The Porcupine: Hedgehog
Erethizon dorsatuui Jorsatum
The porcupine is one of the most spectacular of
our common mammals. The specialized development
of many of the hairs into sharp spines or quills from
■■^>l 147 J<^
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Porcupine Erethizon dorsatum dorsatum
a half-inch to three inches in length, make the defense
a formidable one. When danger approaches the porcu-
pine lowers its head, arches its back and appears to be
rolled into a ball. The spines stand up and point in all
directions and the tail is made ready for a vigorous
sweep. When attacked, the tail strikes like a whip and
the enemy receives a large collection of sharp penetrat-
ing needles. Since the spines or quills protect every
portion of the body, its defense is almost impregnable.
-^ 148 ><-
The spines are not firmly attached in the skin and when
their free ends penetrate the skin of a foe, they pull out
and remain firmly imbedded in the victim, being held
fast through the barbs at the tips. The porcupine does
not "shoot" its quills as many people believe.
However, porcupines are not immune to all at-
tacks and many of them fall victims to eagles, owls and
wild cats. The porcupine is a solitary animal and is
chiefly nocturnal in its habits. Being a true rodent, it
is capable of doing considerable damage and it fre-
quently gnaw^s through doors and wooded walls. Camp-
ers who carelessly leave their axes within reach often
discover the handles gnawed the next morning. Most
any wooded object that is handled by humans is subject
to the workings of the porcupine. The creatures ap-
parently do this for the salt left by perspiration.
The usual food of the animal is various in charac-
ter. It devours most anything, and in its woodland
haunts it feeds chiefly upon bark, twigs and fruits. It
climbs trees readily. The porcupine is a sluggish ani-
mal and seldom attempts to make haste, depending
upon its array of spines for protection.
The young, numbering from one to four, are born
in May and are larger than the young of many mam-
mals many times their size.
The favorite haunts of porcupines are evergreen
forests, and they seem to prefer hemlock trees for food.
The Snow Shoe Rabbit or Varying Hare
Lepus amer'icanus 'vire/inianus
This is a rather large species, attaining a length of
19 inches, and it gets its name from its large broad feet
which seem well adapted to snow travel. The hind
-.•:>f 149 ><*■-
Varying Hare Lepus americanus 'virgimanus
In Winter Dress.
feet are provided with long hairs which produce a
snow shoe efifect. In winter the creature is a snow white
color, while in the summer it assumes a color varying
from a grayish to a reddish brown. It is commonly
supposed thatthe hairs turn color with approaching
seasons, but it has been definitely established that the
changes appear with moulting.
The varying hares are chiefly nocturnal in their
habits and rest during the day in crudely made beds of
grass or in depressions in snow. Their activities in-
crease in the early spring when mating begins. Fre-
quently, during the mating season a number of males
congregate in the same place and indulge in bitter
fights. When disturbed they thump the ground with
their hind feet as do most members of this group,
-*.>l ISO ><?<-
probably to warn others of approaching danger. It is
believed by some people that they call their mates in
this way.
The species does not burrow into the ground but
often makes depressions in which the young are placed.
There are usually from three to seven young. The
nests are made of dry leaves and grasses to which the
mother adds a lining of hair from her own body. The
nest is placed under brush or in dense vegetation. The
food consists of grasses, small plants, twigs and buds.
They do not hesitate to enter gardens but they are
found only in the northern part of the State, although
in severe winters they have been killed in Fayette and
Westmoreland counties. It is seldom abundant. It is
distinctly a northern species, although it abides in
southern regions where it seldom assumes the full
white color. A number of these more southern forms
are subspecies. Its most common enemies are the wea-
sels and snowy owls.
Rabbit: Cotton Tail
Syh'ilaffus florldanus mcarnsii
The common "cotton tail" is familiar to every one.
It is so abundant in Pennsylvania that it is often seen in
city yards at night. Probably no other wild creature
delights children as does the rabbit. It figures largely
in their Easter celebrations, and every child has lis-
tened many times to Uncle Remus' tale of "Brer Rab-
bit," and to "Bye Baby Bunting."
Rabbits inhabit the woodlands and the open fields
over which they roam chiefly at night. Hundreds are
killed by automobiles on the roads each year and thou-
sands are shot during the open season. But they persist
-^ 151 >-
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Cotton Tail Rabbit Sylvilagus floridanus mearnsii
in great numbers, sometimes becoming quite a serious
menace to orchards, gardens and field crops. Their
habits of chewing the bark from fruit trees in winter,
and the destruction of alfalfa, vegetables, nursery stock,
etc., make it necessary to keep them in check.
The rabbit may nest in an underground burrow
or in a shallow depression in the ground. Ofttimes the
mother will line the depression with grass, dead leaves,
and hair taken from her own body. In this cozy nest
several litters of from three to six young are born each
year. The nest is covered so well that it is usually hard
to find. As darkness approaches, the rabbit ventures
forth on its foraging expeditions and it frequently be-
comes a victim of foxes, weasels and owls. Sometimes
during the day it sits and sleeps under a bush or in a
-M. 152 ]H*~
"special set up" in deep grass. If disturbed, it scurries
away in a zig-zag manner, its "cottony tail" showing
conspicuously. Usually when danger approaches, the
rabbit will thump the ground with its hind feet to
warn others of approaching danger. The long hind
legs are powerful and capable of rendering quite a
kick. The rabbit differs from the hare in that it is
smaller, has shorter ears and legs, and has a snowy
white under tail.
There are two species of rabbits in Pennsylvania;
both are quite similar in most respects, but the above
described form is more southern in its distribution. The
other species, Sylvilagus floridanus transitionalis, is
generally found in the northern section of the Com-
monwealth.
White Tailed Deer
Odocoileus vlrginianus virginianus
The white tailed deer is one of the best testi-
monials that could be given in support of the State
Game Commission. Not many years ago deer were so
scarce in Pennsylvania that when one was seen, it re-
ceived a prominent place in the news items. Today the
deer abounds in the State and thousands are killed
annually. In some places farmers are complaining of
their numbers and insisting that the open season be
extended.
The deer is certainly the swiftest and most grace-
ful of the larger mammals. The long slender legs and
lithe body make the creature beautiful to look at. The
habit of raising the tail and showing the white under
side in flight is considered to be a warning gesture to
-•^ 153 >-
Brown Bai
Others in the vicinity, and has earned for it the name
white tailed deer.
Only male deer have antlers and these are shed an-
nually. As the young male grows the top of the skull
develops two projections known as pedicles which
serve as a base for the antlers. With the increase in
size and thickness of the skull, the pedicles spread and
do not protrude so prominently. As the animal grows
older, the antlers develop as a soft pulpy mass covered
with skin and fine velvet-like hair. When the full
growth is reached the circulation of the blood is cut
off and the antlers become hard and dry. The animal
then removes the "velvet" by rubbing the antlers on
young trees. This is usually done about the first of Sep-
tember. The size of the antlers depends at first on the
age and physical condition of the buck, but later age
-*C 154 ><5.-
does not usually affect the size. There is no doubt that
the food supply influences the i^rowth.
At first the males are very careful of their antlers
but later when the mating season arrives in October,
the males will light among themselves, often breaking
their recently matured antlers. Sometimes they be-
come inextricably interlocked and death results. The
deer is usually about a year and a half old when its
first set of antlers is mature. The first set, as a rule,
does not have prongs or branches and it is called a
"spike buck." In succeeding years, the number of
branches increases and the best sets of antlers appear
when the animal is about five years old.
The female deer or doe gives birth to one or two
and rarely three young in the early part of May. The
young are called fawns and are possessed of the spotted
forest pattern which seems to render a protection. The
young do not follow the mother for the first few weeks
and, as they grow older, the hair coat develops in full,
the spots gradually disappear until Fall when the coat
of coarse hair is a uniform brown.
There are two pelage phases of our common deer.
In summer its body is a reddish brown with the belly,
under side, tip of tail, inside of legs and throat patch,
white. There is a blackish spot on either side of the
face and a whitish band across the nose. In winter the
body color changes to a grayish or grayish brown. The
hair also becomes longer and stiffen The young are
reddish brown with white spots that persist until the
fifth month.
The deer is from five to six feet long and the tail
measures twelve inches. Its height at the shoulders is
-h: 155 >«*-
three feet and a mature male may weigh from 250 to
300 pounds. The older bucks have enlarged necks dur-
ing the mating season.
The deer is a ruminant or browsing animal, feed-
ing entirely upon vegetable matter such as the buds,
leaves and tender twigs of trees and shrubs. In winter
when food is scarce they will devour Rhododendron,
laurel, hemlock and bark. In extreme cases, the deer
will visit open fields and even mingle among domestic
stock on rural farms. It is interesting to note that the
deer can survive on plants which kill sheep and other
animals.
-4>l 156 J«--
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Adams, C. C.
1902. Post-glacial origins and migrations of the life of the north-
eastern United States. Journal of Geology, Vol. 1, pp. 303-310
and 352-357.
Allen, J. A.
1892. The Geographical Distribution of North American Mammals.
Bulletins of the American Museum, Vol. IV, pp. 199-243.
1892. The Geographical Distribution of the Mammals, considered in
relation to the principal ontological regions of the Earth, and the
laws that govern the distribution of animal life. Bulletin — United
States Geological Survey. Vol. IV, pp. 313-377.
Anthony, H. E., and others.
1917. Mammals of North America. The Nature Lover's Library. Vol.
IV, The University Society, Inc.
Audubon, J. J., and Bachman, J.
1852. The Quadrupeds of North America.
Brown, A. E.
1904. The Zoology of North American Big Game. (In American Big
Game and Its Haunts," by George Bird Grinnell) pp. 52-98, New
York.
Chamberlin, T. C, and Salisbury, R. D.
1906. Geology — Earth History. 3 Volumes. London
Daly, R. A.
1926. Our Mobile Earth. Scribner's.
Flower, W. H., and Lydekker, R.
1891. An Introduction to the Study of Mammals, Living or Extinct.
Adam and Charles Black.
Hahn.
1909. Mammals of Indiana, 33rd Annual Report — Department of
Geology and Natural Resources.
Ingersoll, Ernest
1906. Life of Animal f the Mammalia. MacMillan.
Jordan, David Starr
1914. A Manual of the Vertebrate Animals of the Northern United
States.
KiNGSLEY, J. S.
1926. Outlines of the Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates. Third
edition, revised. P. Blakiston Sons & Co.
-^ 157 J*-
Lankester, E. Ray
1905. Extinct Animals. London.
Lydekker, R.
1898. The Deer of All Lands; A Natural History of the Cervidae.
London.
1896. Geographical History of the Mammalia. Putnam.
Marsh, O. C.
1877. Introduction and Succession of Vertebrate Life in America.
Merriam, C. Hart
1898. Life and Crop Zones of the United States. Bulletin 10, United
States Department of Agriculture — Biological Survey.
Miller, G. S., Jr.
1900. Key to the Land Mammals of Northeastern North America. New
York State Museum— Bulletins. Vol. VHI, Number 38, pp. 59-160.
MOSELY, E. L.
1927. Our Wild Animals.
Needham, J. L.
1913. The Natural History of the Farm.
Nelson, E. W.
1918. Wild Animals of North America. National Geographical Maga-
zine, November and May, 1918.
Rhoads, S. N.
1903. The Mammals of Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Philadelphia.
Rlce, W. deGroot Cecil
1901. Animals; a popular history of wild beasts, exclusively of mam-
mals. Duffield.
Scharff, R. F.
1911. Distribution and Origin of Life in America. Constable and
Co., Ltd.
Schlater, W. L., and Philip L.
1899. Geography of Mammals.
Scott, W. B.
1913. A History of Land Mammals in the Western Hemisphere. Mac-
Millan.
Seton, E. T.
1926. Animals; selected from "Life Histories of North American Ani
mals." Doubleday (The Nature Library).
1909. Life History of Northern Animals.
Shull, a. F.
1924. Principles of Animal Biology. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.
-^_ 158 >•<-
Stone, Witmer, and Cram, W. E.
1905. American Animals. Doubleday.
Sutton, G. M.
1928. The Mammals of Cook Forest. Cardinal (Sewickley, Pa.) Vol.
II, pp. 76-81.
Wallace, A. R.
1876. The Geographical Distribution of Animals. London. 2 Vols.
Waterhouse, G. R.
Ig46-4g. Natural History of the Mammalia. Vol. II.
Woodward, A. S.
1898. Outlines of Comparative Palaeontology for Students of Zoology.
Cambridge.
-^ 159 >*•-
INDEX TO SPECIES
Bat 74
Big Brown 77
Georgia Pygmy 83
Hoary 83
Little Brown 80
New York Pygmy 83
Red '. 79
Say's Little Brown 82
Silver Haired 81
Bear 85
Black 85
Cinnamon 85
Beaver 124
Bobcat 108
Chipmunk 113
Deer, Virginia White Tailed 153
Fox 104
Gray 107
Red :...106
Groundhog 1 1 1
Hare, Varying 149
Marmot HI
Marten 91
Mink 98
Northern 98
Southern _ 98
Mole 66
Brewer's 69
Common 66
Eastern 66
Hairy-tailed 69
Starnosed 68
••*C 161 ><*■-
Mouse 128
Barton's Jumping Mouse 139
Cloudland Deer 130
Common House 131
Cooper's Lemming 133
Deer 128
Eastern Meadow 135
Fischer's Deer 1 30
Kangaroo 137
Lemming 133
Meadow Jumping 137
Mole .." 134
Northern Pine Vole 134
Pennsylvania Meadow 135
Rafinesque's Deer 131
Red Backed 133
White Footed 128
Woodland Jumping 140
Wood Vole 134
MUSKRAT 146
Opossum, Common 63
Otter 99
Polecat 101
Porcupine 149
Rarrit 151
Eastern Cottontail 151
Southern Cottontail 153
Snowshoe 149
Rat : 141
Allegheny Cave 143
Black 142
Brown 141
Common House 141
Norway 141
Roof 143
Wood 143
■•©-f 162 ><*-
Common JQ
Shrew 70
Long Tailed 70
Marsh 73
Mole 74
Short Tailed 71
Smoky 73
Skuxk 101
Squirrel II5
Flying 1 22
Black 115
Chickaree 1 22
Fox ( Eastern ) 118
Fox (Western) 118
Red (Northern) 119
Red (Southern) 119
Weasel 92
Bonaparte's 97
Common 92
Least 95
Long Tailed 92
Wildcat 108
WOODCHUCK Ill
is>C 163 ><;-
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