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MANUAL

AGKICULTUKE,

FOB

THE SCHOOL, THE FARM,

THE FIRESIDE.

BY GEORGE B. <

t j ,

Author of a " Report on the Trees and Shrubs of Massachusetts, * I ^ \

AND

CHARLES L. FLINT,

SECRETARY OF THE STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE,

Author of a Treatise on " Milch Cows and Dairy Farming," and " Grasses and
Forage Plants," etc., etc.

BOSTON:

SWAN, BREWER & TILESTON,

131 WASHINGTON STREET.

1862.

[Published under the sanction of the State Board of Agriculture.]

Entered according to Act of Congrcs3, in the year 1861,

BY GEORGE B. EMERSON AND CUARLES L. FLINT,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts.

The Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture, after a careful revision of the
work, passed the following Resolution : —

" Resolved, That this Board approve of the Manual of Agriculture, submitted
by its authors, Messrs. George B. Emerson and Charles L. Flint, and recommend
its publication by these gentlemen, as a work well adapted for use in the schools
of Massachusetts."

LETTER FROM HON. MARSHALL P. WILDER.

DORCHESTER, November 22, 1861.

Gentlemen, — The first demand of life is for food, and the only supply is from
the products of the soil. Agriculture is, therefore, of primary importance, not
only as the source from which we derive our daily bread, but as the parent of
all the other great industrial pursuits. Without agriculture there can be no
commerce or manufactures, no population or prosperity. Every one, of whatever
vocation, is interested in its welfare, and every man, woman and child, should
have some knowledge of the fundamental principles of this most useful art.

To accomplish so desirable an object, and especially to implant in the minds
of youth an abiding ^love for this honorable employment, the Massachusetts
Board of Agriculture have caused the Manual of Agriculture for Schools to be
prepared under its own supervision and direction. The task of preparing this
volume was confided to Messrs. George B. Emerson and Charles L. Flint. Wor
thily have the authors performed their duty, and most cordially do I recommend
the "book as being admirably adapted to the use of schools, and equally valuable
to the cultivators of the soil". I take great pleasure in commending it, not only
to the people of Massachusetts, but to the farming community throughout our
country. MARSHALL P. WILDER.

Messrs. SWAN, BKEWER & TILESTON.

OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.

[From the Montreal Transcript.]
One of the most useful books of the kind we have ever met with.

[From the Ohio Farmer.]

The plan of the work is excellent and the matter equal to the plan. Had wo
the power we would have it taught in every school in America.

[From the BarnstuMr Patriot.]

It mav be safely accepted as a standard work upon all that it professes to
tcarh. N\Y recommend it to all our fanners as a most useful hand-book.

[From the Gazette, Montreal.]

Tlir plan of the work ia admirable, and the writing has the merit of being
both clear and concise.

U K .. .

VKK.siTV OF

CALIF* ;;
PREFACE.

This book is intended to supply an important defect in the
instruction of youth. Children should not only receive instruction
in the various studies now pursued in the schools, but they
should be enabled to obtain the rudiments of a correct agricultural
education in the forming period of life. Many of them are
destined to work upon the surface of the earth, and to use the
materials of which it is formed. They are to cooperate with
the great powers of nature and to be able, in many instances,
to control these powers. They instinctively long to become
acquainted with the materials they are to work upon, and the
powers they are to work with. An agricultural education
should, therefore, be commenced in childhood.

Children are always interested in animals and other natural
objects. There is scarcely a fact exhibited in nature which does
not, at once, interest their curiosity and appeal to their imagi
nation. They should, therefore, learn about the earth, the
different kinds of soil, the names of the different kinds of rocks
and their uses. Tell children that, in the soil, the roots of the
grasses dissolve the stones, and carry particles of them up and
leave them, infinitely minute but infinitely numerous, in the stem
and leaves, and that these particles make the grass strong enough
to stand up, and they will be interested in the information.

IV PREFACE.

Children should learn the appearance and properties of every
common metal ; for there is no person to whom the knowledge
would, in any part of life, be useless.

There are seventeen, perhaps nineteen, elementary substances
in all, which enter into the composition of plants and animals.
These, combined, form the numberless objects which are exhibited
by the vegetable and animal kingdom, and children should be
taught the nature, properties and uses of these elements.

We live surrounded by the air, which is composed of two invis
ible gases, oxygen and nitrogen, both essential to the life of
every animal and of every plant. Children do not see air, nor
oxygen, nor nitrogen ; but they are just as able to understand
this mixture, both ingredients of which are invisible, as they are
to understand, what they often see, that salt becomes invisible in
water, and steam and smoke in the air. Show them a piece
of clean, bright iron, and another of rusty iron, and explain to
them that it is the oxygen of the air which has combined with
the iron, and converted it into rust or dirt, and they will be
prepared to comprehend all that you have to teach them about
the combinations of oxygen and other elements with each other.

Plants feed on carbonic acid and ammonia. When children
understand what these are, there is nothing you can tell them more
curious and wonderful than the fact, that the wind which blows
from the habitations of men carries with it these gases, offensive
and poisonous to animals, but that rain dissolves and brings them
down to the roots, and that plants live upon them.

All these facts are perfectly intelligible to children at an age
as early as that at which they are capable of learning grammar
and geography. Every fact to be presented is a simple fact.
There is scarcely one in natural history, or in the sciences on

PREFACE. V

which the knowledge of the principles of agriculture is founded,
which is not as easily comprehended as any of the ideas of
history. Which, for example, is easier for a child to comprehend,
oxygen and its action, or civil government, nitrogen or confed
eration, carbon or a league, phosphorus or the reformation?
Which will a child be most likely to understand and be
interested in, the little root and seed leaves of a plant just
up, and the future plant rising between them, or a convocation
of ambassadors to consider the Edict of Nantes, or a plenipo
tentiary to protest against the Solemn League and Covenant ?

So far is a knowledge of the powers which are in operation in
nature, the action of heat and light, and the causes of wind
and rain, with their effects upon the vegetable kingdom, from
being difficult, it is that which every sensible child instinctively
longs for and delights in ; and as to its being speculative, it is the
only knowledge which is absolutely sure to be useful to every
person who obtains it.

An essential part of good education is admitted to be the dis
cipline of the faculties. The faculties which come earliest into
play, are suited to observe and learn the facts presented in
nature. These facts and objects are, therefore, the proper,
natural study of the earliest years of children.

We would, therefore, gladly make a knowledge of the
principles which underlie an intelligent understanding of the
art of agriculture, the basis of education, especially for all those
who are destined to the happy fortunes of living in the country.
And who is there, that has ever lived in the country, who does
not hope, some day or other, to live on his own farm or among
the farms of his friends, in the midst of the things which God has
made?

1*

VI PREFACE.

The State Board of Agriculture, strongly impressed with the
importance of these views, has caused this volume to be prepared
as a text-book for schools, with the hope that it may do some
thing to lay the foundation of a complete agricultural education,
where it may most effectually be done, in the district school.

In the execution of the work, Mr. Emerson has prepared the
first thirteen chapters and the twenty-first chapter, upon the
Rotation of Crops, and Mr. Flint the remainder, commencing
with the fourteenth chapter. Many of the more important
principles embraced in the topics discussed, have been repeated
in various forms and in different connections, for the purpose
of impressing them more strongly upon the mind, but it is
confidently hoped that this fact will not make the volume
unattractive to the general reader.

The authors do not lay any claim to originality. They have
availed themselves of the information of scientific and practical
men, and have tried to state it in a concise and attractive form, so
far as the subjects treated of seemed to make it practicable to
do so.

BOSTON, November, 1861.

N

Li i> U

UJV J V K!iS!TY OK

CALIFORNIA.

MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE.

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTION.

1. Agriculture is the art of cultivating the earth. It
includes whatever is necessary for finding out the nature
of the soil, clearing up the land, rendering it healthy,
and preparing it for tillage, and ploughing it, and the
sowing, weeding and harvesting the crops.

2. The object of agriculture should be to enrich the
earth, and make it produce the largest crops, of the
greatest value, at the least expense of land, time, and
labor.

3. In order to attain this object, the husbandman must
have capital, — that is, money, for the necessary expen
ditures ; labor, or hands for the operations required ;
knowledge of the best ways of working ; and intelligence,
in order to direct the application of the capital and
labor.

4. A complete farm ought to have woodland, pasture
land, meadow or grass land, arable land, an orchard, a
garden spot, and space for roads.

It should have a farmer's house, a barn or stable for
horses, oxen, sheep, and swine, and for crops, a tool-

2 INTRODUCTION.

house, a dairy, fences, walls or hedges, and wells or
springs.

It would he desirahle to have a stream running through
it or hy it, and to have a pond or swamp connected with or
belonging to it.

5. A husbandman also wants capital to stock his farm
with cattle and other animals, and to furnish it with
carts, wagons, ploughs, and other tools.

6. To carry on a farm successfully, a good deal of
knowledge and a high degree of intelligence are neces
sary, and these are to be obtained partly by study, and
partly by practice.

By study the farmer should find out — 1st, the nature
and mode of growth of the plants and -animals he is to
have to do with ; and 2d, the nature and properties of
the soil and of the atmosphere on and in which they live.

Practice, or experience, is acquired by doing himself
the work on a farm, under the guidance of a skilful
farmer. By means of both study and experience, he
may learn to avail himself of all the means of improving
his farm which are in his reach, or which he can bring
within his reach.

7. The farmer, indeed, should have that exact knowl
edge of facts and principles, of effects and their causes,
which is called Science. For example, if a farmer knows
exactly what a plant is made of, and what nourishment
it requires, and whether a particular soil contains the
substances which will nourish that plant, and, if it do
not, knows exactly what kind of manure does contain
proper nourishment for the plant, that farmer has a
scientific kn<>\\ Inliiv »»!' ilir phial, of the soil, and of the
manure. He has the science necessary to the culture
of that plant. Science is exact knowledge, obtained by

SCIENCE. — USE OF EDUCATION. 3

the observation and experience of many observers, and
its natural fruit is " the substitution of rational practice
for unsound prejudice."

8. You see then what is the use of a scientific knowl
edge of the principles of agriculture. It prepares a
person for the practice of agriculture. A person who has
thoroughly learned the scientific principles, will under
stand, without any difficulty, the reasons for the operations
of agriculture.

9. But science will not be sufficient without practice.
Practice teaches a thousand things which have not got
into the books. But a knowledge of scientific principles
opens one's eyes to observe and see many facts which the
more unenlightened laborer cannot see, and to perceive
the connection between facts which to the ignorant person
seem to have no connection.

10. The farmer, therefore, should have a good educa
tion. For no one is more highly benefited by a good
education. The farmer pursues one of the most impor
tant occupations in the world. Almost all the food of
civilized man is produced on the farm. The quantity
and excellence of the food thus produced depend upon
the skill and intelligence with which the farm is managed.
Nothing can be done so well by an ignorant and careless
person, as by a person of intelligence and knowledge,
and there is no place where knowledge is more impor
tant than it is on a farm.

11. Of the value of exact knowledge to a farmer there
is abundant evidence. Such progress has been made,
within a few years past, in the various arts which belong
to agriculture, that the produce from the farms in many
parts of Europe, particularly of England, is twice as
great, on the same land, and with the same amount of

4 INTRODUCTION.

labor, as it was thirty years ago. Now, the improvements
which have been made on English farms may be made on
American farms, by the use of the same means.

12. Those means are the application of science to the
treatment of soils, manures, modes of tillage, and man
agement of animals ; and improvements in the various
tools and machines used in the work of farming. And
no person can wisely make this application, and avail
himself fully of these improvements, who is not well
educated.

13. Besides, we have evidence nearer home of the
value of knowledge to a farmer. The farms in New
England, which have been conducted with intelligence,
knowledge, forethought and economy, have, in many
instances, made, out of poor men, men well to do in
the world, and rich enough to command all the comforts
and enjoyments of life. Many of the towns in Massa
chusetts which have been always wholly devoted to agri
culture, are among the most thriving towns in the State.

14. But, the question will be asked, suppose a farmer
to be well educated ; will he have time to keep up his
knowledge ?

If a farmer have the good fortune to obtain a good
education in his early years, he will have more time and
stronger inducements .to keep up and add to his knowl
edge, than almost any one else. One peculiar advanln^-
in the occupation of a farmer is that, while it gives full
exercise to the powers of the body, it leaves time, at
Irnst in this country, for a very full exercise of the
power's of the mind. Every operation on the farm calls
into use the i;iriiicr's knowledge and intelligence ; and
the long evenings of one half of the year give him
ample time for reading and thought. Watching the

SCIENCE. — USE OF EDUCATION. 5

nature and action of scientific principles will give a new
interest and pleasure to every operation in which the
farmer engages ; and his success in their application will
furnish a strong motive for new acquisitions.

15. There is no doubt that men of science are liable
to make mistakes, partly because their science is not
thorough enough, and partly because very much of what
is most important can be learned only by one's own
observation. It is the union of science and practice
which alone can make a perfect farmer.

16. It is often supposed that the scientific principles
necessary for intelligent farming are difficult to be under
stood. But this is very far from being the case. What
chemistry teaches about air, water, arable soil, the nature
of plants, manure, and what it is made of, is so easy to
be understood, that every well-informed teacher may, in
a dozen lessons, and with the simplest means of instruc
tion, impart to the commonest farmer's boy an accurate
knowledge of it.

17. The learning these things will make the difference
between ignorance and knowledge, between seeming stu
pidity and real brightness. It will be a great benefit to the
individual and to the country. The boy who has been
taught in school on what the fertility of the soil depends,
and the great danger of the land's being worn out in
consequence of wasting the most valuable kinds of manure,
and who has been told by his teacher that he who wastes
the conditions of fertility is guilty of an offence against
the poor, against himself, and against society, will cer
tainly, when he grows to man's estate, see how important
it is that nothing essential to fertility shall be lost, and
will take the greatest pains to save and to use every thing
which is thus valuable.

6 THE AIR AND THE GASES IN IT.

18. What is chemistry ? It is the science which tells
us what water, air, soil, and all other things are, what
they are made of, and how the elements of which they
are made act upon each other ; and a person who studies
these things, and makes experiments upon them, is called
a chemist.

CHAPTER II.

THE AIR AND THE GASES IN IT.

19. The Air is that which we breathe, and by which
we are constantly surrounded. It is very thin and light,
and yet it has some little weight. We cannot see it, and
yet it is always about us and touching us. The wind is
air in motion. We feel the wind, and we may feel the
still air when we move our hand rapidly in it ; and we
also feel and hear it when we move a stick swiftly
through it.

If I fill a bladder with air, and press it, the bladder
yields ; but as soon as the pressure is withdrawn, it swells
out again to its former size. This is because the air is
springy or elastic. It is essential to burning, or com
bustion. Without air, the candle would be extinguished,
and the fire would go out. It is not less necessary to the
life of man and other animals, and to plants.

20. The air is composed of a thin fluid or gas, called
ori/^'f '/?, (which means, producer of acids,) mixed with
another air or gas called nitrogen, (producer of nitre,)
or azote, (not sustaining life.) The air also contains a
gas called carbonic acid, a small but variable quantity of

OXYGEN FOUND EVERYWHERE. 7

watery vapor, and commonly has floating in it smoke and
dust, and minute portions of various gases which serve as
food to plants, the most important of which are ammonia
and sulphuretted hydrogen.

21. Oxygen is the vital part of the air — that which
is essential to our life, and also to combustion. It is
invisible, and has no taste or smell. Oxygen is thought
to be a simple substance; that is, no person lias ever
succeeded in showing that it is a mixture or compound
of any two substances. It is therefore called an Element,
or elementary substance.

It is one of the most abundant and widely diffused
substances known. It forms eight parts out of nine, by
weight, in the composition of water. It enters into the
composition of nearly all the rocks and different kinds of
earth, and is one of the constituents of all portions of the
bodies of plants and animals.

22. A considerable portion of every known rock is
oxygen, combined with some other element. How it got
into the rocks we do not know. Oxygen has a strong
tendency to penetrate into every thing ; it has a great
attraction for iron, copper, lead, and most of the other
metals, and for nearly all the other substances of which
earths are composed, and combines with them intimately,
and completely changes their appearance and properties.
Iron left for any time in moist air rusts, or is gradually
covered with a dirty reddish substance, which we calf
rust, which is made up of oxygen and particles of the
iron with which it has united. This the chemists call
oxide of iron. The iron has been oxidized.

This oxide of iron is often found in the earth in great
quantities, forming a brownish, heavy dirt or earth ; some
times beautiful rocks or ores. Similar earths or minerals
2

8 THE AIR AND THE GASES IN IT.

are formed by oxygen uniting with other metals. These
compounds are called oxides.

23. Oxygen was called a producer of acids, because it
is an element of many of the most powerful acids ; and
the name acid is given to several substances which are
extremely sour and very corrosive, and produce the effect
of turning vegetable blue colors red.

24. Oxygen, for instance, unites with sulphur, or brim
stone, in two proportions. If there be sixteen parts by
weight of sulphur to sixteen of oxygen, sulphurous acid
is formed ; sixteen of sulphur to twenty-four of oxygen
form sulphuric acid, commonly called oil of vitriol, a
heavy liquid, looking like oil.

25. Eight parts out of nine in the composition of water
are oxygen ; the other part is hydrogen.

26. Hydrogen (water producer) is an invisible air or
gas, elastic, and without color, taste, or smell, and lighter
than any other substance known. One hundred cubic
inches of hydrogen weigh 2T^ grains.

27. Oxygen, which is a little heavier than common air,
is sixteen times heavier than hydrogen.

28. And common air is about 816 times lighter than
pure water.

29. Nitrogen is a gas which alone does not sustain
combustion, nor the breathing or respiration of animals.
A burning candle placed in a vessel full of it goes imme
diately out. An animal placed in it immediately dies.
It is not supposed to be poisonous, but merely inert. It
serves to temper the violent action of oxygen, which,
without it, might consume the lungs which should breathe
it. It enters as an essential element into the structure
of animals and plants. It has neither color, taste, nor
smell.

9

30. But it is" only when alone, or when merely mixed
with oxygen, as in common air, that it is so inert. In
combination it always plays an active part. All sub
stances containing it have a tendency to be decomposed.
Chemically, that is, intimately united with oxygen, it
forms one of the most violent agents known.

31. Oxygen combines with nitrogen in five different,
perfectly definite proportions, by weight, viz. :

Protoxide (first oxide) of nitrogen is 14 parts of nitrogen with 8 of oxygen.
Deutoxide (second oxide) " 14 " " " 16 "

Tritoxide (third oxide) " 14 " " " 24 "

Peroxide (highest oxide) " 14 " " " 32 "

Nitric acid, aquafortis, is 14 " " " 40 "

It seems a very surprising and wonderful thing that
these two gases should always unite in such exact pro
portions ; that 14 parts by weight of nitrogen should
always unite with exactly 8, or twice 8, or three or four
times or five times 8 parts of oxygen. Yet this is always
the case. And not only do nitrogen and oxygen unite in
this exact manner, by this precise law, but all the other
elements unite with each other in perfectly definite, inva
riable proportions. How this happens no one knows.
All we can say is, that the Creator has made things in
this manner, so as to unite according to this law. And
this is called the Law of Definite Proportions. For when
things always happen exactly in one way, we say that
they happen according to a laiv of nature. It is incon
ceivable that they should always come so by accident.

This law is universal. Oxygen always unites in the
proportion, by weight, of 8, or some multiple of 8. Nitro
gen always in the proportion of 14 ; and every other
element has its definite combining number. The com-

10 THE AIR AND THE GASES IN IT.

bining number for hydrogen is 1 ; for 'carbon, 6 ; for
sulphur, 16 ; for iron, 28.

And it is found that 9 pounds of water consist of 8
pounds of oxygen and 1 pound of hydrogen ; and that
28 pounds of iron unite with 8 pounds of oxygen to form
rust or oxide of iron. " Take, for example, 9 pounds of
water, pass its steam over a known weight of pure iron
turnings, heated red-hot in an earthen tube. No steam
escapes from the tube, only air, which may be inflamed
and burned. It is hydrogen gas, one of the constituents
of water. That liquid has been decomposed. What has
become of its oxygen ? It has united with and oxidated
the iron. What proportion of the water did it form?
8-9ths." If the iron be weighed, it will be found 8 poiinds
heavier. Subtracting from the 9 pounds of water, 8 of
oxygen, the balance, 1, is hydrogen.*

If the experiment be very carefully conducted, it will
be found that 28 "pounds of iron have been converted into
iron rust, and that all the rust formed by 8 pounds of
oxygen weighs 36 pounds.

The several elements, or simple, uncompounded sub
stances, are, for convenience, represented by the initial
letters, and the proportions in which they unite by num
bers placed a little above them. Chemists suppose that
it is only the least possible, indivisible particles of matter
01- atoms, that unite, and that the atoms combine, 1 with
1, or 1 with 2, or with 3, or 2 with 3, and so on.

Oxygen is represented by 0 ; Hydrogen by H ; Nitro
gen by N ; Carbon by C ; Sulphur by S. HO is water,
I M -cause one atom of hydrogen is supposed to unite

* Dana's Muck Manual, p. 44. Whoever wants to ^et a vast deal of knowl
edge upon the subject of fertilizers, philosophically stated, in a small compass,
may consult this valuable volume.

NITRIC ACID, CARBONIC ACID. 11

with one of oxygen. N H3 or Am is ammonia, — three
atoms of H and one atom of N. Carbonic acid is C O2,
that is, one atom of carbon with two of oxygen. N 0
is protoxide of nitrogen, one atom of each element ; N O2,
N O3, N O4, N O5, represent the successive oxides of
Art. 31, and nitric acid, in which one atom of nitrogen
is supposed to be united with five of oxygen ; and if each
atom of nitrogen weighs 14, each atom of oxygen must
weigh 8, on the same scale.

32. Nitric Acid, like sulphuric acid, is so excessively cor
rosive as speedily to destroy almost any substance exposed
to its action. It is a liquid, looking somewhat like water.

A flash of lightning, in the air, often causes oxygen
and nitrogen to combine, forming nitric acid, which is
immediately dissolved by the rain, and is sometimes
found in rain water.

33. Carbonic Acid is the gas which rises, in the form
of bubbles, in the fermentation of beer, or when you open
a bottle of beer, or in the effervescence of cider or of
wine. It is the gas which kills a person who remains too
long in a close room where there is a pan of burning
coals. It is formed by the combination of oxygen with
carbon or charcoal.

34. All kinds of wood and other vegetable substances
are made up mostly of carbon or charcoal, united with
water, or with oxygen and hydrogen, in nearly the same
proportions in which they form water. When wood is
kindled, it unites with the oxygen of the air. Burning
or combustion is the uniting of a combustible substance
with oxygen, accompanied with light and heat.

35. The blaze or Flame is formed by the uniting of
oxygen with a combustible gas.

2*

12 THE Am AND THE GASES IN IT.

36. The Light and Heat both come from the wood as it
burns. While a tree is growing, it receives, from the
sunshine, light and heat, and absorbs them, and lays them
up in the wood. There they lie, as in a storehouse, till
they are brought out by burning.'

37. Ammonia. Hydrogen combines with nitrogen to
form ammonia, which is one of the essential articles in
the food of plants.

38. Wherever decay or decomposition of any animal
substance, or almost any vegetable substance, takes place,
there both these gases, hydrogen and nitrogen, are given
out, and, at the very moment they leave the other sub
stances with which they have been combined, they unite
and form ammonia, which 'rises and floats in the air,
and is dissolved rapidly by the moisture in the air, and
is then brought down to the earth in the rain.

39. The little delicate roots absorb it from the earth,
and *it is carried into every part of the plant. Some
power in the plant separates the two again, for both are
always found in the growing parts; and nitrogen and
hydrogen are found in the seeds.

40. Hydrogen unites also with sulphur, and forms a
very offensive gas, called sulphuretted hydrogen ; and
this also enters into the composition of plants, as a part
of their food.

41. In 100 pints of common air, perfectly dry and
pure, there are about 21 of oxygen and 79 of nitrogen ;
that is, not far from one-fifth of oxygon and four-fifths of
nitrogen. In its common state, 100 pints of air contain
from 1 to 2J pints of watery vapor; and 1,500 pints
contain I pint <>t' carbonic acid.

42. In breathing, the air enters into the lungs, and
there the oxygen comes in contact with a portion of the

PURE AIR NECESSARY TO HEALTH. 13

blood, and combines with it, much as oxygen combines
with fuel in burning, and by this combustion sustains the
animal heat, and keeps the body warm. When the air
in the lungs is breathed out, it contains less oxygen than
the air which had entered. In place of this oxygen
which has staid in the body, a portion of carbonic acid is
breathed out, which poisons, to a certain extent, the
surrounding air. In this way the purity of the air would
soon be destroyed, and it would be rendered unfit for
breathing, if pure air were not brought in.

The quantity of air thus rendered unfit for respiration
is known, and we can calculate exactly the space and the
number of cubic feet of air which ought to be provided
in chambers for men, and in stables and other places for
other animals, according to the number and size of the
animals to be shut up in them.

A Man needs from 200 to 350 cubic feet of pure air
every hour. Supposing a person to require only 250 feet
an hour, a close room of 10 feet in each dimension,
having its air rendered more and more impure by his
breathing it, will, in four hours, be foul and very unwhole
some, and wholly unfit to breathe.

43. It is thus plain that every place occupied by a
living being, particularly by night, ought to be ventilated.
That is, it ought to have a communication, by means of
a chimney flue, or in some other way, with the pure,
open air. Neither the body nor the mind of a person
who has to breathe, night after night, the close, foul air
of an ill-ventilated room, can remain healthy.

44. Plants do not breathe as animals do. But air is
just as essential to them, penetrating freely into the
tissues of their green portions, and there playing a part

14 THE AIR AND THE GASES IN IT.

necessary to their existence, and not wholly unlike animal
respiration.

45. By daylight, and especially in the sunshine, plants
absorb carbonic acid, turn the carbon, and water, or the
elements of water, into the substance of the wood, stem,
leaves and the other solid parts, and throw back part
of the oxygen into the air. Growing plants are thus
continually acting to purify the atmosphere, by taking
up the carbonic acid which is poured into it by com
bustion, by decay, and by the breath of animals, and
giving back oxygen suitable for healthy respiration.

We thus see the wise and beautiful Relation which has
been established between animals and plants. The wind
which blows from the habitations of men and animals
carries foul air, no longer fit to be breathed, away to the
woods and fields. There the plants extract from the air
all that is poisonous ; and the wind which blows from the
field and forest brings back only the pure and vital
element of oxygen, mixed with harmless nitrogen.

46. In the night time plants do not exercise this benefi
cent influence. On the contrary, they then exhale carbonic
acid, at least in small quantities. It is this, perhaps,
which renders it unsafe to have plants, especially when
in flower, in a sleeping room.

It would seem that wood or woody fibre is not formed
during the night, but that the presence of the sun's light
is essentially necessary to this action of the life of a plant.

47. The oxides of the metals, and some other com
pounds, arc bases; that is, they unite chemically with
carbonic acid, sitf/i/nirir nritl, nitric r/r/V/, and other acids,
and form salts, called carbonates, sulplialcs, nitrates, and
other ales.

SALTS, HUMUS, DECAY. 15

They have been named Salts, from their resemblance
to common table salt, though their properties are usually
very different.

48. Carbonic acid, for example, intimately combined
with lime, forms a salt called carbonate of lime, which
is chalk or limestone. Sulphuric acid, combined with
lime, forms sulphate of lime, or plaster of Paris. Nitric
acid, chemically combined with potash, forms nitrate of
potash, or saltpetre. All these are salts of great impor
tance in agriculture.

49. Oxygen is also continually combining with wood
and other vegetable substances. The decay of the fallen
leaves is produced by oxygen slowly combining with the
carbon of the leaves. Moisture and warmth are favorable
to this combination, or oxidation, and heat is always pro
duced by it. A heap of leaves, decaying, grows warm
and continues warm till they are all turned into leaf
mould, geine or humus. So the very gradual decay
of trunks of old dead trees, and of every thing made of
wood, is principally owing to the combination of oxygen
with the carbon in the wood.

Nearly all decay is produced by oxygen. It is oxida
tion. During the process of decay of vegetable substances,
not only carbonic acid, but, previously, humic acid, (from
humus, earth,) and ulmic acid, (from ulmus, an elm,)
are formed. Both these are made of carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen, and both are elements of the food of plants.

50. Humus, or geine, in all its states, is a compound
of carbon, with the elements of water, oxygen and hydro
gen. When decay has just begun, the decaying substance
is called ulmin; with a little more oxygen, it becomes
ulmic acid. In both these, there is more hydrogen than
is necessary to form, with the oxygen, water.

16 THE ATMOSPHERE.

51. With the addition of more oxygen, just enough to
form water, humin and then humic acid are formed. By
the addition of still more oxygen, the humus is turned,
successively, into geic acid, crenic acid, (krene, a foun
tain,) and apocrenic acid. Several of these are often
found, at once, in a mass of humus.

52. If nitrogen be present in a moist, decaying mass
of substance, it unites with hydrogen, and forms ammo
nia ; and a part of the ammonia, acted upon by oxygen,
is gradually turned into nitric acid.

CHAPTER III.

THE ATMOSPHERE AND THE FORCES ACTING IN IT.

53. The air forms about the earth a coat which we call
the Atmosphere, (vapor-ball,) and which extends upwards
forty or fifty, perhaps two or three hundred, miles from
the surface of the earth.

54. The atmosphere is the great ocean in which all
animal and vegetable lives exist, and all the influences
and agencies which act upon them are at play. Among
those are light, by which all visible things are made
known to us ; heat, which pervades, and expands, and
moves all things, and is essential to the life both of animals
and of plants ; moisture, alike essential, and by which
nearly nil things are softened or mollified; sound, with
out whiv-li the earth would be a silent desert, and voice
and music, and the pleasure of social life could not
exist; and the wonderful cause of thunder and lightning,
which we call electricity.

FORCES AT WORK IN THE ATMOSPHERE. 17

55. Iii the atmosphere, great operations are going on ;
all things are perpetually mingling, or trying to mingle.
The winds are blowing, in vast circuits, from zone to
zone, bearing heat from the equator and cold from the
poles, moisture from oceans, lakes, and streams, and dry-
ness from the mountains and plains, and scattering dust
and the seeds of plants and the eggs of minute animals.

Into the atmosphere are continually rising- vapors and
exhalations from all moist and all decaying substances ;
poisonous gases from the breath of man and other ani
mals, and from burning volcanoes and the fires which
are kindled by accident, or for the uses of man. All
these are constantly striving to diffuse themselves, and to
penetrate and mingle with each other and with parts of
the solid earth.

56. The sun is continually darting his rays of light
and of heat in every direction, illuminating and warming
every thing within the sphere of their influence. Every
star, every fire, every candle is doing the same. Oxygen
is always tending, with ceaseless effort, to enter into and
combine with other things. Every other gas and vapor
is, by its nature, diffusing itself in like manner. Water
moistens, that is, enters into, every thing with which it
can come in contact — the air, and all things in it, the
earth, and the solid rocks.

57. And this it does by that force by which particles
near each other are drawn nearer. It is this force which
makes the particles of water rise upwards from the ground
into a heap of ashes or fine sand, and penetrate among
the fibres or grain of wood. It is this which draws water
up into a tube of glass with a bore as fine as a hair,
whence it is called Capillary Attraction, (from capillus,
Latin, a hair.)

18 THE ATMOSPHERE.

58. Another cause of the penetration of water is the force
which draws fluids of different densities through a par
tition of thin skin or film placed between them, and
makes them mix. This is called Osmotic Action.

We can easily conceive how this action takes place.
Water spreads itself continually, and enters into what
ever is in contact with it more readily than any other
fluid. Thus it moistens and gets through a film more
rapidly than the fluid on the other side, which also
penetrates, but less readily. Both of them continue to
move on, but the water always more rapidly.

59. Oxygen combines with the particles of metals and
turns them into rusts or oxides; and, aided by moisture
and warmth, it unites with the elements of wood and all
other things made of carbon and hydrogen, and causes
them to decay.

60. Do not the heavy gases, like carbonic acid, sink
to the bottom of the atmosphere, and the light ones, like
hydrogen and carburetted hydrogen, rise to the top ?

No. Each gas spreads or diffuses itself throughout
all the atmosphere. As much carbonic acid is found at
the top of a mountain as in the bottom of a valley. If a
plant has an attraction for ammonia, it draws to itself
the ammonia near it, and combines with it; but the
ammonia at a distance rushes in, comes near, and is
attracted and combined also, and streams of it keep
coming in from all quarters.

61. Heat, too, spreads itself, unceasingly, in every
direction, and that in two ways. If it spreads from par
ticle to particle, as it docs in a piece' of iron, or any other
solid, or as it docs in the earth, it is said to be conducted,
or to spread by conduction. If it darts out, as it docs, in
straight lines, from all things surrounded by air or open

RADIATION. — GRAVITATION. 19

space, it is said to spread by radiation. As it spreads, it
expands every thing ; and as the temperature is every
where continually changing, from winter to summer,
from day to night, and every hour of the day and night,
all solids must be constantly expanding and contracting,
and the particles of which they are composed must be
continually approaching to and receding from each
other.

In liquids, the particles that are warmed expand and
rise, while those that are cooled contract and sink, thus
producing currents upwards and downwards in the liquid.
Particles of other substances, floating or suspended in
the liquid, as they become warmer, rise towards the
surface, and, as they cool again, sink towards the bottom;
or, if one side of a particle expands more rapidly than
another, it turns over, seeming as if it had life and volun
tary motion.

The vapors &nd gases, expanded by heat, become lighter,
rise upwards towards the surface of the atmosphere, and
their place is taken by cooler ones from every side.

62. Why does not this perpetual strife of forces produce
disorder and chaos?

These forces are not lawless forces. They all have
their limits within which they are compelled to abide.
Besides, there are other mighty forces always acting
against them, and constraining them to keep within their
bounds.

63. One of these forces is the Attraction of Gravitation,
which makes a stone fall to the ground, and draws every
particle, every atom, towards every other, and all. towards
the centre of the earth, and the earth itself towards the
sun. This gives them all their weight, and brings them
to rust, and keeps them in their places.

3

20 THE ATMOSPHERE AND THE FORCES IN IT.

Another is the force which binds the particles of a stone
or of any other thing together, and makes it hard or strong
or tough, which force we call the Attraction of Cohesion.
Another is the force by which different tilings stick to
each other, as mortar to a brick, or glue to wood, which
we call the Force of Adhesion. And there are doubtless
other forces which we do not so well understand.

64. One of these unknown forces is the Force of Vegeta
ble Life, which draws into a growing plant the several
substances which are necessary to its growth, and out of
them forms all the parts of the plant. Another is the
Force of Animal Life, which turns its food into the flesh
and bones and other parts of the animal.

A third is the Power which the Light of the Sun exerts
upon all vegetables and animals, upon all colors, perhaps
upon all things within its reach.

A fourth is the power by which electricity draws light
bodies, and perhaps heavy ones, towards an electrified
surface, and again repels them.

65. It is from the influence of the sunlight that the
carbonic acid and water in the sap of growing plants arc,
turned into the substance called woody fibre, which gives
them their hardness and strength. A woody plant,
growing in the dark, lengthens, but forms no true wood,
and so has no hardness.

It is the influence of this light which causes the evapo
ration at the surface of the leaves, which thickens the
juices, and -changes them into nourishing sap. Without
the sunlight, the peculiar odors and tastes are not formed,
nor all the beautiful variety of colors.

66. That the light of the sun has this great power
over plants, is shown by the fact that most of those plants
which naturally grow in places where the sunshine daily

EFFECT OF LIGHT ON PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 21

conies, refuse to grow in the shade. Or, if one grows in
the shade, it has none of the sensible properties, neither
the strength, nor hardness, nor color, nor smell, nor taste,
which it would have had growing in the sunshine.

In the growth of a tree, the stronger and fuller the
light to which it is exposed, the greater the amount of
carbon which is formed into its texture, and the harder
and more compact its wood.

67. A single experiment shows that it is~ light and not
air which gives wood its strength and hardness. Plant
a little tree in a dusky room, with two openings, one
admitting light but no air, the other air but no light,
and all the little branches will soon turn towards the
light.

68. This seems to be because on the side of a branch
towards the light, wood is formed, the growth is checked,
and the branch hardened ; on the other side, growth con
tinues more rapidly, and the parts lengthen, and thus
bend the little branch over towards the harder side.

During very warm, moist nights, plants may grow in
length and in every other dimension. In the sunlight
only do they form wood. Hence it is that in seasons of
unusual sunshine, the wood in a tree fully exposed to the
sun is formed with more than common perfection, as is
also the bark.

69. The power of the sun's light upon animals is not
less striking. The animals, — beasts, birds, fishes and
insects, — of the torrid zone, where light is intense, have
more activity, more vivacity, and more brilliant colors
than animals of the temperate and frozen zones. All
animals suffer from being shut up away from the light.

70. Human Beings, not less than other animals, Suffer
from being kept away from Sunshine.

22 THE ATMOSPHERE AND THE FORCES IN IT.

A child properly managed, and left to spend a good
many hours every day in sunshine, has more color, more
strength, more activity, more health, and better spirits,
in consequence. A child kept away from the sunlight is
pale, weak, dull, delicate, and sad, and is liable, when
this exclusion from the sun's light is long continued, to
many forms of fearful disease.

71. The sun, and, with it, the air, are constantly acting,
with great power, upon the soil.

The heat of the sun swells or expands the particles,
and thus makes room for the entrance of the air ; and the
oxygen of the air and the other gases which float in the
air combine with some of the elements of the soil, and
render them fit to aid in the growth of plants. Other
beneficial effects are produced, of which more will be
said hereafter. All these are increased by the frequent
stirring of the soil.

Hence it is that when trees are to be planted, it is
important to dig the holes some time beforehand, in order
that the fresh earth in the holes may be acted upon by
the sun and the air as long as possible.

72. The atmosphere produces many other different
effects upon animals, upon plants, and upon the soil,
varying with the direction and force of the winds, heat
and cold, the weight and the moisture of the air, rains
and droughts, dews, clouds, and fogs, mists and storms.

73. What is Electricity? We know it only by its
effects. If we rub a rod of amber, or scaling wax, with
a piece of woollen cloth, the amber or wax is immediately
excited, and draws towards itself, or attracts, light bodies,
such as bits of thread, or of elder-pith hung to a thread.
The cause of this attraction was called electricity, from

ELECTRICITY. — OPPOSITE ELECTRICITIES. 23

its being first observed in excited amber, which the Greeks
called electron.

A rod of glass may be excited in the same manner by
rubbing with silk. But in this case the electricity is of a
different kind.

74. Take a smooth piece of iron or brass, or any other
metal, and hang it up by silk threads so .that it shall not
touch or be near to any thing, and fasten to it several
pith balls hung to the end of cotton threads. Rub the*
piece of metal with a rod of excited amber or sealing
wax, and, immediately, electricity is excited, and the pith
balls are repelled, and fly from each other and from the
metal as far as they can go. Bring the rod of amber or
wax near to the balls, and they will be repelled and avoid
it. But if you bring a rod of excited glass near them,
they will be attracted, and will fly towards it. The elec
tricity excited in the glass is of an opposite kind to that
excited in the amber, and the opposite electricities attract
each other.

75. Touch the metal with a finger, and the little balls
immediately fall together again. The electricity is dis
charged through the finger.

76. Something similar is supposed to take place with
vapor. When water is turned into vapor by the sun's
heat, it forms little hollow bubbles or vesicles, which
repel each other in consequence of being electrified by
evaporation. Any thing which draws off the electricity
of a cloud of such vapor causes the little vesicles to
collapse, and rush together, and form drops of rain.

Ll U i-

VNIVKKSITY '.;

-

24 THE ATMOSPHERE.

CHAPTER IY.

CHANGES IN THE ATMOSPHERE. — INSTRUMENTS TO MEASURE
THEM. — CLIMATE.

77. The state of the atmosphere is continually changing,
and several instruments have been contrived for the pur
pose of measuring its changes, and of showing what its
state is. The three most important are, —

(1.) The thermometer, (heat-measurer,) which shows
the changes in the heat of the air ;

(2.) The barometer, (weight-measurer,) which shows
the changes in the weight or pressure of the air ; and,

(3.) The hygrometer, (moisture-measurer,) which
shows the changes in the amount of moisture in the air.

78. The Thermometer is constructed on the principle
that almost every substance known is swelled or expanded
by being heated, and contracted by becoming cooler ; and
that the expansion is in proportion to the degree of heat.

79. This may be proved by various experiments. If a
hole in a plate of iron is just large enough to admit a rod
of iron when cold, it will be found that, when the rod is
heated, it will no longer enter. If the rod be left to cool
down to its former temperature, it will enter as at
first. This shows that the rod has been expanded by
heat, so as to take up more room than it had previously
taken up.

When a wheelwright makes an iron tire for a wagon
wheel, he makes it just long enough to bring the fellies
closely together. In order to do this most effectually, he
makes it a little too short to go on while cold. He there
fore expands it by placing it on a circular fire, and when

THERMOMETER.

25

it is hot, he easily slips it on. Upon cooling, it contracts,
and so draws the fellies firmly and closely together.

80. There are several kinds of thermome
ter. That in common use in this country is
called Fahrenheit's, from the name of the
person who first made it. It is made of a
glass tube (A B fig. 1,) having a small
bore, with a bulb (A) at one end, filled with
quicksilver, and fastened upon a plate of
metal or other substance, which is to be
marked with degrees. When it is to be
marked, or graduated, the bulb and tube are
held in a mixture of melting snow, or of
snow or ice and water. The quicksilver
within the tube contracts and falls to a cer
tain point, where it remains. Just against
this point a line is drawn on the plate of the rig. i.
frame, and the number 32° (thirty-two degrees) is
marked at the end of it. This is called the freezing point.

The thermometer is then held in boiling water. The
quicksilver expands and rises till it reaches a point at
which it remains stationary. Against this point a mark
is drawn on the plate, and the number 212° (two hundred
and twelve degrees) is made. This is called the boiling
point. The space between the freezing and boiling points
is divided into 180 equal parts, called degrees.

The space below the freezing point is divided into parts
of this same length, down to the bulb. A thermometer,
to be used to measure extremes of cold and heat, should
be long enough to extend from 40° or 50° below the
freezing, to a few degrees above the boiling point. But
as this requires a long tube, instruments for common use
are marked up to only 140° or 150°.

26 CHANGES IN THE ATMOSPHERE.

The thermometer is an instrument of great utility to
the farmer, and indeed to every intelligent person.

81. A Barometer is constructed upon the principle, now
a well-known fact, that air has weight. It can be weighed
by a delicate balance, by first filling a flask with air and
weighing it, and then drawing out the air by an instru
ment called an air pump, and weighing the flask without
the air. At the level of the sea, one hundred cubic
inches of air weigh 805 grains, while water weighs 816
times as much.

82. The air seems to be pressed towards the earth by
its weight, just as water is kept in the ocean and in lakes
by its weight. Its pressure is greatest at the level of the
sea, because of all the air in the sky above. As we ascend
a hill or mountain, the pressure becomes less, because
there is less air above us, and because the attraction of
gravitation is diminished. The air is constantly in motion ;
and its pressure upon the surface of water, and upon all
other surfaces, is constantly varying. The purpose of a
barometer is to measure this varying pressure.

83. A barometer is made of a large tube of glass, pre
cisely like that of the thermometer (A B fig. 1,) but much
longer, — not less than 32 or 83 inches long, — with a bag
or bulb at one end, filled with mercury, or quicksilver,
so contrived as to rise to a certain height in the tube,
while it has the air bearing upon it in the bag or bulb.
From the upper end of the tube the air is first completely
withdrawn or exhausted, by the tube's being held upside
down. The tube is then turned back and fastened to a
wooden frame, or enclosed in a case with a graduated
plate behind the upper end of the tube, on which plate
are marked the heights of the column of quicksilver.

BAROMETER. 27

84. There is no pressure upon the top of the mercury
in the tube, and the pressure of the air upon the mercury
in the bag forces up the mercury in the tube till its
weight exactly balances the weight, or downward pres
sure, of the air. The pressure of the air is sometimes
greater, sometimes less, but is commonly sufficient to
balance the downward pressure of a column of mercury
29 or 30 inches long. As the pressure of the air increases,
it causes the mercury to rise higher ; as it diminishes, it
allows the mercury to fall lower ; and these changes are
seen, by observing how high the surface stands as marked
on the graduated scale. Changes in the weather are
sometimes foreshown by changes in the height of the
mercury as indicated by this scale.

85. The downward pressure, or weight, of a column
of mercury 30 inches long, and an inch square at the
bottom, is 15 pounds ; and as this column is sustained
by the pressure of the air, every where near the level of
the sea, we conclude that the pressure of the air, on
every square inch, is 15 pounds.

86. When the mercury in the tube is slowly and gradu
ally rising, it commonly indicates the approach of fine
weather. "When it is regularly and slowly falling, it
indicates foul weather. A rapid and sudden fall of the
mercury threatens a violent wind.

While it is rising, the surface of the mercury is convex,
or swelling upwards ; when falling, concave, or hollowing.

87. A very compact and convenient barometer is made
at Lowell, Mass., of a somewhat different construction.
A short column of mercury, in a glass tube, (c D fig. 1,)
is pressed upon, at the upper surface, by the atmosphere,
with which it has communication. The other end of the

28 CHANGES IN THE ATMOSPHERE.

column of mercury presses upwards upon perfectly dry
air confined in an enlargement (c) of the bent tube.

When the weight of the atmosphere increases, the
mercury is pressed doivnwards in the long arm and rises
in the short arm of the tube, the dry confined air, from
its elasticity, yielding to the pressure. The length of the
column of mercury is marked upon a graduated scale
placed on one side. A movable scale, (E F) called a
vernier, is attached, so contrived as to measure the
height of the column to hundredths of an inch.

88. Careful observation of the winds, and of the barom
eter, with a knowledge how to observe, will often enable
a person to foresee rain for some hours, or a day, or pos
sibly longer, before it comes ; but no person can yet
predict, with any certainty, whether the succeeding month
will be dry or rainy.

It is only of late that careful and continued observa
tions have been carried on, upon a large scale, to discover
the laws of storms. It is found that nearly all storms,
in the Atlantic States, come from the west, and travel
pretty rapidly from west to east. Hereafter we may
know, certainly, the approach of a storm many hours
before it reaches us. Prof. Henry, at the Smithsonian
Institution in Washington, having telegraphic communi
cation with many parts of the country, is usually able to
predict the approach of a rain-storm twelve hours before
it comes.

89. Of what are commonly considered the Signs of Rain,
none are entirely reliable. When the sun sets clear, with
a westerly wind, and the clouds float high and in round,
compact, well-defined masses, we may expect the next
day to be fair. But when the sun sets in a deep mass of

HYGROMETER. 29

cloud, with a southerly wind, rain may be expected, that
night or next day.

When the swallows fly low and often dip their wing's
in the water over which they are flying, when the crow
cries louder and more frequently than common, when
water-fowl are very noisy and active, when dogs appear
unusually dull and sleepy, when pigs run about and look
uneasy, when the croaking of frogs is loud and general,
when earth worms are seen in great numbers on the
surface, some people expect rain.

90. The principle iipon which the Hygrometer is con
structed is the fact that there is always more or less
moisture in the air, and that this moisture is absorbed by
certain substances, making them heavier, and enters into
lines or cords made of other substances, making them
thicker and shorter.

91. A hygrometer may be made of a piece of sponge
filled with a solution of some salt, which has an attraction
for water. This sponge is suspended to one end of a
balance, and, as it grows heavier by the moisture absorbed,
causes the other end to rise, and thus indicates the
quantity of moisture in the atmosphere. Or it may be
made of a cord or string, with a weight attached, placed
over a pully, and showing the moisture by its lengthening
or shortening.

92. A still more delicate hygrometer is formed of two
thermometers on the same frame, the bulb of one of
which is covered with thin gauze, which may be kept
continually moist by a contrivance like a wick, communi
cating with a cylinder kept full of water. The moisture
on the gauze evaporates and cools the bulb within. The
amount of evaporation depends upon the dryness of the

30 CHANGES IN THE ATMOSPHERE.

atmosphere, and is shown by the difference between the
two thermometers.

93. By means of these three instruments, and knowing
how to use them, an intelligent husbandman may select
the moment most favorable or most important for certain
operations ; and can often predict, with an approach to
probability, what changes will take place in the weather
before night or before the next morning.

94. The Variations in the Temperature of the air depend
first, upon the seasons, — from the cold of winter to the
heat of summer ; 2d, upon the direction of the wind, —
some winds always bringing cold, others always bringing
heat; 3d, upon* the clouds, which prevent the sun's light
and heat from falling upon the earth.

95. The atmosphere being in cbntinual motion, like
the waters of the ocean, the column of air over us is
sometimes longer and heavier, and sometimes shorter.

96. Variation in the Moisture of the air depends chiefly
upon the winds, which bring on air more or less abun
dantly charged with moisture, according as they have
passed over seas, lakes, or rivers, or over a continent.
In the Atlantic States gf America, the easterly and
southerly winds, coming from over the ocean, are always
full of moisture. The south and west winds, coming
from warmer regions, arc warm, and, in proportion as
they are more westerly, are dryer winds. The north and
west winds, coming from the mountains and plains of
the continent, arc dry and cold. The coldest and dryest
are the north wind and the north-west wind, and any
wind from a point between the two.

The moisture also depends on the temperature. Heat
dissolves moisture as water dissolves salt. When the air
is warm, it can contain a great deal of moisture ; but as

DEW. 31

the air cools, the moisture in it is condensed into clouds,
fogs, or mists, and finally into rain.

97. There are many other atmospheric appearances or
phenomena which it is important for the husbandman to
be acquainted with, such as dew and hoar frosts, which
take place during the night, when the sky is clear ; snow,
which seems to be frozen mist ; hail, and hurricanes,
which are by some persons attributed to the action of
electricity.

98. The Formation of Dew depends upon a property
which all solid substances have, in a greater or less
degree, according to their nature and outer surface.

When I hold my hand towards the fire, I feel the heat
darting out from the fire to my hand. I feel it darting
out, in the same manner, from a hot stove or from a hot
flat-iron, on whatever side of the stove or iron I hold my
hand. The heat which darts out thus in every direction
from any hot thing is said to radiate from it, because it
comes out straight from it, just as the spokes, (radii, in
Latin,) come out on every side from the hub of a wheel.
If I observe carefully, I find that the heat comes out
more abundantly from a stove the surface of which is
very rough, than from one which is very smooth ;' and I
discover that the reason is, that every little projecting
point radiates a stream of heat.

Now, what I find to be true of the surface of a hot
stove is true of every surface. Every solid body is con
tinually sending out heat in straight lines, — radiating
heat, — from its surface. If several bodies are heated to
the same degree, the one which is roughest will radiate
and consequently cool most rapidly.

When the sun sets, all things which have been exposed
to his heat send it forth by radiation, and grow cool.

32 CHANGES IN THE ATMOSPHERE.

Those things which have the roughest surface, like the
stems and leaves of grass, cool most rapidly. The heat
thus radiated is sent out into the thin air, and, if there
are no clouds, is lost in vast space. The air which is
near to these blades of grass imparts its heat to them and
grows cold. The air thus becomes incapable of holding
in solution all the water it had dissolved, and deposits it,
in minute particles, upon the surface of the grass. The
radiation- goes on, and the moisture continues to be
deposited, till the blades of grass are covered with drops ;
and these drops are drops of dew.

Now, just as, by placing a screen before a fire, we pre
vent the heat from being radiated into the room, and send
it back to the fire, so a screen of clouds stretched over
the earth prevents the heat received from the sun from
being rapidly radiated into the empty air, and thus
prevents the formation of dew. We find, accordingly,
that dew is formed only on clear evenings.

99. Hoar-frost is formed in precisely the same manner
as dew, but at so low a temperature that the moisture
freezes as it collects on the radiating surface, and, instead
of forming round drops, shapes itself into slender needles
of ice.

100. The Climate of a Country is the general effect of
the combined action of all the causes just spoken of, viz.,
heat, moisture, wind, and of others still.* The husband-

* Humboldt says : " Tho expression ' climate ' signifies all those states and
changes of the atmosphere which sensibly affect our organs — temperature,
humidity, variation of barometric pressure, a calm state of the air or the effects
of different winds, the amount of electric tension, the purity of the atmosphere
or its admixture with more or less deleterious exhalations, and, lastly, the degree
of habitual transparency of the air and serenity of the sky, which has an impor
tant influence not only on the organic development of plants and the ripening of
fruits, but also on the feelings and the whole mental disposition of man." —
Cosmos, I. 313.

CLIMATE. 33

man ought to understand the climate of the country in
which he lives, in order that he may accommodate himself
to it in the management of himself and of the animals
and plants he has charge of.

101. Our New England climate is one of extremes.
The heat is very great in summer, and the cold very severe
in winter. The climate of the west of Europe is far
milder. As we go west from the Atlantic the climate
becomes less extreme.

102. So great is the influence of climate that each
country has its own peculiar productions, which it is often
difficult to acclimatize, that is, make to flourish, in any
other ; and, before introducing a new plant or animal
upon his farm, the farmer ought to ascertain whether it
is suited to the climate. But both plants and animals
from distant countries are frequently introduced with
success ; so that, without a fair trial made by himself or
some one else, the farmer ought not to take it for granted
that a new plant or a new animal will not be safely and
successfully introduced.

103. The Diversity of Climate depends on many causes ;
some general and some particular and local. Among
the general causes, the first is latitude, or the distance
from that part of the earth where the sun is at noon
directly, or vertically, overhead. The heat depends, in a
great measure, upon the height above the horizon to
which the sun rises at noon. The higher it rises, the
hotter it is.

The second cause is elevation above the level of the
sea. The higher Ve go above this level, the colder we
find it, till we reach the tops of lofty mountains, where
the snow never melts.

34 OP WATER.

The third cause is distance from the sea. Nearness
to the sea has a tendency to moderate the cold of winter
and the heat of summer ; and islands in the ocean have
usually a more equable climate than any part of a con
tinent.

Another cause, particularly affecting the ripening of
fruits, is the brightness of the sun, from the clearness of
the atmosphere. The heat of clear, uninterrupted sun
shine ripens fruit more rapidly and develops the sweet and
rich juices more effectually than the same amount of heat
under a cloudy sky.

104. Some of the particular and local causes are the
condition of the surface of a country, whether it is
covered with woods, or bare, situated on the mountains,
on a plain, on the side of a river, or at the bottom of
a valley, protected against the prevailing cold or hot
winds, or exposed to them ; and the nature of the soil,
its inclination, and its exposure to the south or north, to
much or to little sunshine.

CHAPTER V.

OF WATER.

105. Though it seems so simple and pure, yet water is,
as has already been said, a compound of the two ele
mentary substances, oxygen and hydrogen. As it is of
vital importance, in the economy of nature, it is found in
the greatest abundance, filling lakes and seas and oceans.

THREE FORMS OF WATER. — LATENT HEAT. 35

It is indispensable to the nourishment both of plants and
of animals ; and it dissolves much of the other food with
which plants are nourished.

106. At the usual temperature of the greater part of
the year, water is a transparent liquid, which, when pure,
has neither color, taste, nor smell. But while water is
the great solvent of vegetable food, it is itself dissolved
by heat, a still more powerful solvent.

107. Water is found in the three forms or conditions
of ice, water, and vapor, according to the amount of heat
with which it is combined.

(1.) With little or no heat, it is solid Ice or snow. If
extremely cold ice be placed in a kettle over a fire, it will
be found, by observing a thermometer with its bulb
placed within it, to rise gradually until it reaches 32°.
It then begins to thaw or turn into water, and if a steady
fire be kept up, under the kettle, it continues to thaw
until all the ice becomes water. During all this time,
though heat from the fire is constantly entering it,
through the kettle, it continues of the same temperature,
just at 32°.

What has become of the heat ? It has been used up
in dissolving the ice and turning it into water. It has
not rendered the water warmer ; it is hidden or latent in
the water ; and is called the Latent Heat of the water.
Ice has been changed by combining with heat, into

(2.) Water. If, now, the same steady fire be continued
under the kettle, the temperature of the water gradually
rises to the boiling point, 212°, and then begins to boil.
With the same steady fire, the water will entirely boil
away, or evaporate, in a certain space of time. And it will
be found that it takes more than five times as much heat
to boil the water all away, as it had taken to raise it 180°,

4*

36 OP WATER.

from the freezing to the boiling point. At the same rate,
the water would have been raised nearly to 1,000°, if it
had not been dissolved by heat and turned into

(3.) Vapor. The vapor thus formed is no hotter than
the boiling water. It does not rise above 212°. What
has become of all the heat? It has been used up in
turning the water into vapor. This heat is not indicated
by the thermometer. It seems to be latent in the vapor ;
and it is called the Latent Heat of the Vapor.

108. The boiling of water is the agitation produced by
the rising of the vapor, formed at the bottom of the
kettle, up through the rest of the water ; and the vapor
is more abundantly formed in proportion as the heat of
the fire is greater. But the water does not change its
temperature in consequence of the violent ebullition.
For common cooking, therefore, the gentlest boiling is
just as effectual as the most violent.

109. At the boiling point, vapor is formed very rapidly.
But water, exposed to the air, is continually evaporating,
at every temperature. Indeed, such is the tendency of
water to take the form of vapor, that even snow and ice.
in the air, are constantly turning into vapor. Wherever
it takes place, evaporation always uses up heat, or causes
it to become latent, and thus cools the air and all sur
rounding objects. Indeed, whenever vapor, or air, or
any other gas, expands, so as to occupy more space, it at
the same time requires more heat and absorbs it from
every thing within its reach capable of furnishing it. Its
capacity for heat is said to be increased.

110. When, 011 the contrary, vapor turns again to the
state of water, it gives out all the latent heat which it had
taken in, while turning from water into vapor. The
same is true of other gases. Whenever they are con-

CLOUDS. — FOGS. — MIST. — RAIN. 37

densed, they give out the heat which had sustained them
in the form of gas.

And, in like manner, when Water Freezes, it gives out
the Heat which it had taken in, while turning from ice
into water. We thus see why it happens that, to protect
vegetables, in a cellar, against freezing, we have only to
place tubs of water there, the warmer the better. The
temperature of the cellar will not fall below the freezing
point, till the water has been converted into ice.

111. The atmosphere always contains moisture ; that
is, water in the state of vapor, which the heat of the sun
has drawn up from the surface of the earth and sea, and
which floats, invisible, in the air. The warmer the air is
the more water it can contain. When the air cools, the
invisible vapor which it contained becomes visible in little
hollow globules or vesicles, like minute soap bubbles, and
forms clouds, fogs and mists.

112. The difference between clouds and fogs or mists
is chiefly their situation. Clouds are at a distance or
high up in the air ; Togs are clouds near the earth ; and
if the fog be thick enough to wet us considerably, without
drops, we call it Mist. When a person, looking at a dis
tant mountain, sees it capped with a cloud, another per
son, standing on the top of the mountain, finds himself
surrounded by fog or mist.

113. Rain. The air itself may be capable of dissolving
water, but the quantity which the air can hold depends
upon its warmth.

Wind which has long been blowing over the sea becomes
completely saturated with moisture in the state of vapor.
If it now blow upon low land warmer than itself, the air
becomes warmer and retains all its moisture ; if upon
land colder and gradually or rapidly higher, it is cooled

38 OF WATER.

and parts with its moisture. The vesicles of vapor are
brought near each other, come together, and form drops
large and heavy enough to fall, and which cfome down as
rain.

If air full of moisture be met by air much colder than
itself, the sudden cooling causes the water to be thrown
down, or precipitated, in torrents of rain.

114. The cause of the fall of rain' in a thunder shower
is thought to be the fact that electricity is always evolved
during evaporation, and that a cloud formed by evapora
tion must be therefore charged full of electricity. When
a cloud so charged meets another, or a mass of air,
charged with the other kind of electricity, the opposite
electricities rush together and unite in a lightning flash,
and the moisture held suspended by the action of elec
tricity is precipitated to the ground.

115. When, during the formation of the rain drops,
the temperature of the air is below the freezing point,
the vesicles of moisture, or their fragments, are frozen
into little icy needles, which unite, at an angle of GO0,
into beautiful, star-like flakes of Snow, and fall to the
ground.

Snow has been called " the poor man's manure." It
always brings down with it fertilizing substances ; and it
performs a most important office in many regions, by cov
ering over and protecting from extreme cold the surface
of the earth with all its clothing of plants, and keeping
in the warmth which had entered the earth during the
previous summer, and preventing its being radiated away
into empty space.

11 C>. How Hail is formed is not perfectly well known.
Hail seems to be drops of rain frozen. Electricity lias
something to do with it, and in some parts of Europe,

SPRINGS. — WATER A SOLVENT. 39

hail storms have been rendered much less frequent by
the use of lightning rods.

117. Springs. The water which falls upon the earth
in rain, sinks into the ground and moistens it ; and, when
very abundant, penetrates deeper, till it meets with beds
of rock, or clay, or of some other impermeable earth, that
is, earth through which it cannot pass. It runs along
the surface of these beds until it meets a natural opening,
out of which it issues as a fountain or spring. Or, it may
remain in a basin, on the surface of the impermeable
bed, and be safe, as in a reservoir, until an artificial
outlet is made by digging a well.

118. From springs run little rivulets, by the union
of many of which are formed brooks, rivers and lakes ;
the waters of all of which commonly flow at last into the
sea. There, the heat of the sun raises it in vapor to
begin again the beneficent circuit, and form mists and
clouds and rain.

119. Water is essential to the life of every plant. Sev
eral of the substances on which plants feed, can penetrate
into their cells and thence through the tissues, only after
being dissolved in water. With it they are sucked in by
the roots, and in it are carried to the very extremities of
the plant.

120. Next to heat, water is the most universal solvent.
The rain, as it descends, absorbs and condenses the
gases which float in the atmosphere, and brings them
down into the earth fit for the use of plants. Of
ammonia it can dissolve 780 times its own bulk ; of car
bonic acid, its own bulk ; and it commonly brings down a
portion of air, rich in oxygen, and sometimes nitric acid.
It also absorbs and brings down all kinds of dirt, and
other impurities, numerous minute seeds of plants, and

40 OP WATER.

invisible eggs of microscopic animals, and thus cleanses
and sweetens the atmosphere.

121. Evaporation from the surface of the earth always
cools it. But, on the condensation of ammonia, and the
other gases, the reverse must take place. The heat which
had held them in a gaseous form, is given to the water in
which they are absorbed and condensed, warms it, and,
sinking into the earth, warms the soil.

122. Plants absorb a large quantity of water through
every part of their surface, but chiefly through their
roots. But by the action of light and heat, they exhale
a good deal of it through the leaves. You have only to
cover a plant exposed to the sun's light with a bell glass,
and you will presently see the inner surface of the glass
covered with dew, and soon after with little drops. The
evaporation which is going on from the surface of
leaves is one of the sources from which the moisture of
the atmosphere is supplied. As we are subject sometimes
to excessive heat and drought, and sometimes to excessive
rains, the object of the farmer should be to guard against
both, and to render his fields, as far as he can, indepen
dent of variations in moisture.

123. We manage to prevent plants from suffering for
want of water by irrigation, that is, watering with little
streams, when these are possible and not too expensive ;
and by other artificial means. We can do something
towards it, often we can do a great deal, by keeping the
tops of the hills in our neighborhood covered with trees.
'l'h« -so attract and impede the clouds, and induce them to
pour down their rain.

1:M. DiM-p ploughing, by rendering the earth to a con-
oV|.ih r:ipahlo of retaining moisture, will also

TO RETAIN MOISTURE. — DRAINAGE. 41

do something ; and fertilizing with substances which
attract moisture, will do still more.

Every thing done to improve the soil makes it retentive
of moisture. Clay, mixed with a sandy soil, converts it
into a retentive loam. The*, remains of vegetable and
animal substances form a spongy matter in the soil,
which acts as a reservoir to retain the moisture and other
food of plants, and yield it only to their roots.

125. The rain, as it falls, always contains carbonic
acid, ammonia, and other elements of plant nourishment.
If it sink into the earth, the soil absorbs all these precious
materials, and allows the superfluous water to escape
only after having left its contribution in the soil. Besides,
if the rain be allowed to run off from the surface, it
forms streams and little torrents, and carries with it
much of the loose and most valuable portions of the soil.

The soil should therefore be kept, for some depth below
the surface, so mellow and penetrable, that the rain,
instead of running off, shall sink into the ground. In
ploughing a side hill, the furrows must run horizontally
along the slope, so that each furrow may detain the water
as it falls, and prevent its forming gullies, which it will
do, if the furrows run up and down the hill.

126. Excess of wet is also sometimes to be feared,
especially when the water has no way of running off, but
remains stagnant, either beneath or above the surface, for
it then causes the plants with which it comes in contact
to mould and decay. We must then have recourse to
ditching and drainage.

127. Drainage is an operation by which we draw off
the superabundant water from the soil and from the earth
lying beneath the soil, where it would not otherwise
escape. It is eilected by placing lines of porous earthen

42 OP WATER.

tubes at a convenient depth, so arranged as to receive the
superfluous moisture and carry it off.

128. The effects of drainage may be explained by a
comparison. Plants which are kept in flower-pots would
soon rot at the root, if the water with which they are
watered were left to stagnate in the bottom of the pot
without any means of escape. For this reason, the bot
tom of the pot has a hole in it, to let the superfluous
water run out. Now drainage does the same service for
the field that the hole in the bottom does for the earth
in the flower-pot.

129. Drainage produces several other effects, three of
which are important.

(1.) The earth being rendered less moist at the surface,
far less evaporation takes place there. Whence, as
evaporation always cools the surface very considerably,
a drained field keeps in the heat better than one not
drained ; and the natural consequence is that the crops
ripen earlier. The grain on a drained field is generally
fit for the sickle some days, often some weeks, earlier
than that on other fields.

(2.) Lands well drained and deeply tilled bear the
drought better than others. The reason of this seems
to be, that the pores are always open in deeply tilled,
well-drained land, to an unusual depth. Evaporation
cannot reach to a great depth, and, in a season of drought,
the open pores allow the moisture which lias been kept
in the deep earth to rise by capillary attraction.

(3.) Tho subterranean pipes laid in the earth, open the
soil to a freer access of air, allowing it, as it were, to
breathe, and receive the benefits of being subjected to the
action of the air. The soil is thus rendered fit to absorb
and retain the nutritious substances brought into it by

ADVANTAGES OF THOROUGH DRAINAGE. 43

the rain water, and keep them laid up for the nourish
ment of plants.

130. Here then are the advantages of deep and thorough
drainage. It deepens the available soil, by removing any
superfluous water from the lower portion, and allowing the
roots of plants to penetrate freely. It warms the land by
diminishing evaporation at the surface. By carrying
the redundant moisture readily away at all seasons, it
gives the opportunity of early cultivation, thus lengthen
ing our short seasons, and of thoroughly mellowing the
soil, which cannot be done if it be too wet ; and it entirely
avoids the danger of losing the plants on the surface by
having them freeze out, as they often do, if water continues
to stand on the surface at the approach of very cold
weather. It moreover guards plants against the evil
consequences of drought.

131. For, in a well-drained soil, the roots will penetrate
to a much greater depth than in an ill-drained soil. By
draining, only the unnecessary and hurtful moisture is
carried away. The soil, if rich, retains very tenaciously all
that is necessary, and parts with it very reluctantly and
only to the roots of plants. Now roots which have pene
trated two or three feet have twice or thrice as large a
store of moisture to draw upon, in case of drought, as
those which have been prevented from going down more
than one foot.

In a well drained field, the spring rains, instead of
being allowed to run away and be lost, are saved, as in
a reservoir, against the heats and drought of summer.

132. A rich soil, rendered deep and mellow by thorough
cultivation, and by a system of unclerdraining, is thus
the best preventive to the consequences of drought which
the farmer can provide, and it is, at the same time, most
effectual against the evils of excessive rain.

44 OF PLANTS.

CHAPTER VI.

OF PLANTS.

133. Though fixed, and incapable of voluntary motion,
and differing from animals in structure and organization,
plants proceed from other parent plants, and live, are
nourished and die, like animals, and, like them, produce
offspring similar to themselves. Plants live and grow.
Animals live, grow and feel. Vegetable life, therefore, is
a very different thing from animal life.

134. The simplest of all plants consist of mere bladders
or little round cells. These little cells imbibe their nour
ishment, in a fluid state, directly through the thin coat
by which they are covered. The fluid within moves
around in little curves, and changes at last take place
in it, by which other smaller cells are formed. These
gradually enlarge and finally burst the covering of the
original cell, and become new plants, similar to their
mother cell, and grow to the same size. Such arc the
simplest of all plants ; and the growth of other plants,
even of the highest perfection of structure, takes place
by the formation, within the cells already existing, or
outside of them, of other cells similar in nature but
sometimes differing in shape.

1 '•}'}. Plants, consisting each of a single cell, are found
in such numbers as sometimes to give a brilliant red
color to whole miles of snow and ice on which they grow.

136. Other plants, almost as simple, are formed of a
thread of single cells, strung together, end to end, like a
string of beads. Of this structure are many delicate
fresh water plants. And it is a plant of this kind which,

ORGANS. — ROOT. — STEM. 45

by growing very rapidly through dough, in which its
seeds have been sown in the form of yeast, causes an
action which makes it swell and form light bread. Other
plants are formed of a single thickness of cells arranged
side by side and end to end. These also are usually
found growing in water.

There are still others which consist of a few, often
only thrfio or six layers of cells, plants having length and
breadth with but little thickness. Such are the lichens
which form a thin crust on the bark of trees and on the
surface of rocks which have been long exposed to the
atmosphere.

137. Most plants are formed of cells growing out of
each other in every direction, upwards, forming the stem,
downwards, forming the root, and on every side, forming
the thickness of root, stem and branches, and leaves and
flowers and fruits.

138. The parts just enumerated, the parts of which the
plant is made up, are called the Organs.

139. The principal organs are 1st, the root ; 2d, the
stem ; 3d, the leaves ; 4th, the flower ; 5th, the fruit.

140. The Root is the part which penetrates from the
light into the earth, and gives the plant foothold, and the
means of obtaining nourishment. It usually divides into
smaller and smaller roots and rootlets, or radicles and
fibres, more and more slender, the cells along the sides
and extremity of which are the real mouths by which
most of the food of the plant enters into its circu
lation. The amount of food which a plant can receive
from the soil depends upon the number and surface of
the fibres of the roots.

141. The Stem is the part of the plant which rises
upwards into the air and light, and supports the branches,

46 OF PLANTS.

leaves, flowers and fruit. The point at or near the sur
face of the earth, where the root and stem join, is called
the collar of the plant.

142. The stem and branches are protected from heat
and cold by the bark.

143. The Leaves are the organs through which the air,
and the light and heat of the sun act upon the sap which
comes up into them through the stem. Through their
surface the superfluous moisture is evaporated, and oxy
gen gas is thrown out into the air, and carbonic acid and
other gases for the nourishment of the plant are absorbed.

The Sap changed by these actions of the elements, is
carried back down into the stem, and converted, by the
vital action of the plant, into wood, bark, new branches
and leaves, fruits and whatever else is produced by the
plant.

144. The Flower is the organ by means of which the
seeds are prepared ; and a great object of the plant is the
production of fruit containing seeds.

145. By carefully examining a rose, you may see the
several parts of which a Flower consists. Outside of the
flower leaves is a flower cup or Calyx, of five green leaves,
called the calyx leaves or sepals, which cover and protect
all the parts of the flower, before they arc ready to open.

146. Inside the calyx are the flower leaves, called
Petals, tender, and of a delicate texture and beautiful
color. All the petals together arc called the Corolla.

147. Next inside the corolla arc the Stamens, slender
threads or filaments, of a pale yellow color, each bearing
at its extremity a little sack called an Anther, full of fine
dust called pollen. This dust or Pollen is essential to the
fecundation of the seeds, that is, !<> their becoming perfect,
fertile seeds, fit to produce a plant.

FLOWER. — OVARY. — FRUIT. 47

148. Inside the stamens, in the middle of the flower,
are the Pistils, each one of which consists of a short column,
called a Style, tipped with a very delicate crest called the
Stigma, which is usually tender and moist when the flower
is in perfection. In a rose the style seems to be nearly
wanting, the stigma appearing to rest almost directly
upon the receptacle or centre of the flower. But if you
cut down directly through the centre of the .flower, you
you will find the style somewhat long and connected at
the bottom with an ovule.

149. The Pollen or fertilizing dust of the anther falls
upon the moist stigma, and penetrates, by means of some
thing which looks like a root, to the interior of the base
of the style to a cavity called the Ovary, containing ovules,
or imperfect, rudimentary seeds. The effect is to fertilize
the ovules and make them become real, proper seeds, by
producing within them an Embryo, or minute, future
plant.

150. "When the seeds are fertilized, the flower begins to
fade. Its corolla falls off, its stamens shrivel up, and its
calyx usually, but not always, falls or shrinks and disap
pears. The ovary swells and becomes the Fruit, which, in
process of time, ripens and falls or dries up or decays,
according to the kind of plant, and leaves the seeds ready
to germinate or sprout, and thus become plants, or to be
gathered and sown at the proper season.

151. Whatever contains the seed is properly called the
Fruit of a plant. In the case of wheat, rye and some
other seeds, each kernel is at the same tune a seed and a
fruit/ Usually, however, a fruit contains several or even
a large number of seeds. A bean pod or pea pod or a
poppy head, is a fruit, as well as an apple, a pear or a
melon. 5*

48 OF PLANTS.

We may now understand what is meant by organic
substances. Plants, as we have just seen, are made up
of organs. So are animals. The lungs are the organs
of breathing, the stomach is the organ of digestion. All
the parts of animals and plants are organized, and the
substances which belong or have belonged to animals or
plants are called organic. Mineral and all other sub
stances aro inorganic.

152. Now observe what happens when the seed is put
into the ground. Every seed contains an embryo or
minute plant. This, called the sprout, you may easily
see in a bean, if you open it carefully. When a seed
is put into the earth, in a favorable state of moisture
and warmth, it presently begins to sprout or germinate.
The sprout breaks through the seed coat, and the future
stem shoots upward into the light and air, and the root
turns downward from them.

153. As soon as the stem rises above the surface it
commonly spreads out two seed leaves, which had been
already formed in the seed. These leaves, or Cotyledons,
may be always seen in a bean, pea, or apple seed, which
has just come up. But none of the grains or grasses
have them. The cotyledons arc quite unlike the succeed
ing leaves of the plant. It is important to remember
this, as we often want to know both cultivated plants and
weeds as soon as they are up.

154. Plants which have two seed leaves or cotyledons
are called Dycoteledonous (from two Greek words, dis
and cotyledon, meaning two-seed-leavcd.) In plants of
this kind there appears, between the seed leaves, as soon
as the plant is up, a little bud of unopened leaves called

155. The Plumule. This soon begins to stretch upwards,
bearing on its summit one or two minute leaves nearly

MONOCOTYLEDONS. — PARTS OP A TREE. 49

of the usual shape. These enlarge and expand, and
from their axil or inner angle, appear one or two other,
ordinary leaves, which, with the new joint of the stem,
rise and expand in like manner.

156. But all plants do not have two seed leaves. A
kernel of maize or of wheat has only one cotyledon.
This is also true of all the grains and grasses and of some
other plants. Such plants are named Monocotyledonous
Plants, (plants with one seed leaf.) A plant of this kind
comes up with one single leaf rolled together, as may be
seen in the case of Indian corn or common wheat. When
this leaf is somewhat expanded, another leaf appears
within it, growing from a second joint in the stem. From
each successive joint grows one leaf, till the corn-stalk or
grass-stem is complete.

157. The stem of a tree has external and internal
organs. The external are the trunk, the boughs, limbs
or arms, the branches, the branchlets, the spray, and the
shoots or twigs.

The trunk is the main body of a tree. It begins at the
collar, and, after rising to a greater or lesser height,
divides into branches or ramifications. All the divisions,
large and small, are called branches or boughs. The
largest are called also limbs or arms. A division of a
branch is called a branchlet ; and all the smallest divis
ions together are called the spray. Shoots or twigs are,
properly, those of not over one year's growth.

158. A shoot begins in the spring to grow from a bud
at the end of a branch called a terminal bud, or from an
axillary bud, or one in the axil of last year's leaf, that is,
the angle above the leaf, between it and the stem.

159. The internal organs are the inner bark, in several
layers, the alburnum or sap-wood, the heart-wood, the
pith, &c.

50 OF PLANTS.

ICO. The usual course with plants is to grow up, bear
leaves and flowers and finally fruits, and then, if they are
plants of a single year, to die ; if plants of two years, to
die down to the ground ; if plants of many years, with
woody stems, to shed their fruit and leaves, after having
formed buds, out of which shall grow the leaves, flowers
and fruit of the next year. Those which die at the end
of one season, like wheat and Indian corn, are called
annual plants. Those that live only two years, like beets,
carrots and most other garden vegetables, are biennial;
those that live many years, like shrubs and trees, are per
ennial plants.

161. It sometimes happens with different kinds of cul
tivated grains, and some other plants, that the plant dies
and falls before the seed is quite ripe. Foreseeing this,
the husbandman reaps or mows grains and grasses before
the seed is ripe, dries them in the sun and air, and leaves
them, in sheaves or stacks, completely to ripen their seeds.
He thus saves many grains and seeds which would other
wise fall upon the ground and be lost.

162. As the kinds of plants are almost innumerable,
they must be arranged in divisions, classes and families,
so that they may be studied and recognized. How are
they classed ? All plants with flowers belong to one or
the other of the two great classes just now mentioned,
Monocotyledonous and Dicotyledonous.

163. Botanists, since the time of Linneus, until recent
ly, have followed him in dividing plants into classes and
orders, made with reference to the number and situation
of the stamens and pistils. This is called the Artificial
system of Linneus.

164. Plants are now best divided into natural families,
according to the resemblance or analogy of all their organs.

NATURAL FAMILIES. — GENUS. — SPECIES. 51

All those which seem to be made upon the same plan,
with similar stems, leaves, flowers and fruit, are said to
belong to the same Natural Family. Thus all the oaks,
chestnuts, beeches, and hazel nuts, belong to the Oak
Family, because, while they resemble each other in gene
ral appearance, in the structure of their flowers and fruit
they are still more strikingly alike.

165. Plants are still farther divided into genera and
species. A genus is a subdivision of a family, and a
species, a subdivision of a genus. The oak family, for
example, is divided into the genera, oak, beech, chestnut,
hornbeam, hop-hornbeam and hazel. The genus oak is
subdivided into white oak, red, black, post, over-cup, live,
willow, and many other species. Speaking of a black oak,
we should say ; it belongs to the Class Dicotyledonous
Plants, to the Oak Family, to the genus Oak or Quercus,
and to the species Black Oak, or Quercus Tinctoria.

166. An example will show of what practical use these
divisions and subdivisions are. I find a grass which I
suspect to be Common Hair Grass ; I wish to know cer
tainly ; and turn to a volume (Gray's Manual of Botany)
which contains a description of every plant in New Eng
land. The first part of the volume is occupied with dico
tyledonous plants. I find the description of monocotyle-
donous plants, to which I know grass belongs, beginning
on the 426th page. Not desiring to read the whole of
158 pages, I look for the Grass Family, and find it to be
the 184th family, and on the 535th page. This family, I
find, contains 65 genera. After some examination of a
table, I find that the 47th genus of grasses is Hair Grass,
(Aira.) Carefully reading the description of the genus,
in six lines, and of the first species, (Aira flexuosa,^) in
four, I find that the plant I have found belongs to it, and

52 OF PLANTS.

is, really, Common Hair Grass. Thus, if I understand
the language of botany, I can find, in a few minutes, by
means of these divisions and subdivisions, what I should
otherwise have to read a volume through to find.

Besides, when I have studied one plant of a family and
know all about it, I find I thereby already know a good
deal about every other plant of the same family.

167. It will be useful to the farmer to know the names
of some of the natural families to which the more impor
tant cultivated plants belong.

All the kinds of pea, bean, tare, vetch, clover, lucerne,
&c., with flowers more or less resembling a butterfly,
(papilionaceous,) belong to the Pulse Family, pod-bearing
or leguminous vegetables. The seeds of all these are
nutritious to man, and, with their leaves and stems, are of
great value to the domestic animals.

168. The cabbage, turnip, radish, mustard, pepper-
grass, water-cress, charlock, &c., belong to the Cress or
Cruciferous, (cross-bearing,) Family, so called because
their flower-leaves form a cross. To the same belong
many plants cultivated for the beauty of their flowers,
stock, wall-flower, rocket, sweet alyssum, candy tuft, &c.

169. Flax belongs to the Flax Family, valuable in the
arts.

170. The roses, peaches, apricots, plums, cherries, haw
thorns, apples, pears, quinces, as well as brambles, straw
berries and many other plants, with flowers which are like
a little rose, belong to the Rose Family. The fruits of all
these plants are wholesome ; many of them, very delicious.

171. Cucumbers, squashes, pumpkins, and melons be
long to the Gourd Family, with some exceptions, an inno
cent and valuable family.

NATURAL FAMILIES. 53

172. Currants and gooseberries, both cultivated and
wild, belong to the Currant Family, whose fruits are
healthy and often medicinal.

173. The carrot, parsnip, caraway, celery, parsley,
coriander and others belong to the Parsley Family, Umbel-
liferw, (umbel or umbrella-bearing,) so valuable for their
roots or their seeds.

174. The sunflower, Jerusalem artichoke, succory, sal
sify, dandelion, lettuce, daisy, mayweed, chamomile, aster,
golden-rod, thistle, everlasting, and many others, belong
to the Sunflower or Composite Family.

175. Sage, mint, sweet basil, lavender, pennyroyal,
balm, catnip, hyssop, summer savory, marjoram, thyme,
motherwort, horse-mint, spear-mint, self-heal, and many
other herbs, belong to the Sage or Mint Family, friendly,
soothing, and pleasant to man.

176. The sweet potato, morning glory, convolvulus, and
others, to the Convolvulus Family, a suspected race, whose
roots are, notwithstanding, sometimes of great value.

177. The tomato, potato, capsicum, petunia, stramo
nium, henbane, tobacco, &c., belong to a very poisonous
family, called the Night-shade Family. The root even of
the useful potato retains some of the characteristic poison.
This poison may always be boiled away. A potato should
therefore be so cooked as to be mealy. The waxy appear
ance shows that some of the poison is still present.

178. The lilac, privet, fringe-tree and ash belong to the
Olive Family.

179. All the whortleberries, blueberries, cranberries,
the checkerberry, May flower, Kalrnias or American laurels,
azaleas, and many others, belong to the Heath Family. Of
these many are wholesome, some doubtful, some poisonous.

54 OP PLANTS.

180. The beet, pigweed, or goosefoot, orache, spinach,
<fcc., to the Goosefoot Family, a useful but sometimes
troublesome tribe.

181. Buckwheat, rhubarb, sorrel, dock, and knotweed,
belong to the Buckwheat Family, Polygonacece, some of
which are pleasant as food or as a salad, but some are
acrid.

182. The black walnut, butternut, English walnut, and
the hickories, belong to the Walnut Family, which fur
nishes us with wholesome and delicious nuts, and wood
of great value.

183. The birches and alders belong to the Birch Family ;

184. The willows and poplars to the Willow Family.

185. The pines, the larch, the fir, cypress, arbor vitas,
juniper, yew, white cedar, red cedar, spruce and hemlock
belong to the Pine Family, of great value to builders.

All the above and many other families belong to the
Dicotyledons.

186. The following belong to the class of Monocotyledons.
The lilies, asparagus, hyacinth, crown-imperial, onion,
garlic, and many others, belong to the Lily Family.

187. Narcissus, amaryllis, tuberose, snowdrop, &e., to
the Amaryllis Family, valued for its beauty, but also
furnishing food.

188. Iris, crocus, cornflag, tiger-flower and blue-eyed
grass, to the Iris 'Family. This and the next family
minister to our love of beauty.

189. Lady's slipper and the orchises belong to the
Orchis Family;

11 10. The rushes to the Rush Family;
101. The sedges to the Sedge Family, good for the
basket maker and the thatcher.

MOSSES. — LICHENS. — TREES. — SHRUBS. 55

192. All the grasses, all kinds of grain of which meal
or flour is made, called the cereal grains, such as wheat,
barley, rye, oats, rice, maize or Indian corn, and also the
sugar-cane, broom-corn and millet, belong to the Grass
Family, the most friendly of all to the family of man.

193. The Mosses are low plants with many leaves and
a peculiar fruit, like bird-wheat.

194. Lichens are the thin crust-like plants which we
see covering the surface of rocks, trunks of old trees, &c.*

195. The difference between a tree, a shrub, and an
undershrub, is not precisely marked. A tree is taller
than a shrub. Most of the oaks are trees ; but two of
those growing in New England arc shrubs. Most shrubs
throw out branches very near the ground, but some, the
sweet fern, for example, usually do not. Undershrubs
are very low shrubs, like the low blueberries, cranberries,
and pigeon plums, checkerberry, and May flower.

196. For the cultivation or planting of perennial
plants, the soil must be stirred as deeply as can well be
done. Annual plants do not throw down their roots so
far into the earth, and therefore do not absolutely require
so deep cultivation. But most of them repay the expense
and trouble of deep ploughing; and annual plants,
having but a short time to grow, must be supplied with
a great abundance of suitable food.

197. Some plants are cultivated on account of the value
of their seeds, roots or fruits, as food for man. These
are called alimentary. Others are cultivated as food for

* For full and exact information upon the whole subject of plants, their
growth, structure, names and properties, study a delightful little book by Prof.
Asa Gray, called How PLANTS GROW. For still fuller information, study Gray's
LESSONS ON BOTANY. For the fullest and most philosophical information to be
found in any one volume in our or any other language, study Gray's STRUCTURAL
and SYSTEMATIC BOTANY.

6

56 OF PLANTS.

other animals, and may be called forage plants ; others,
to yield materials for use in the arts, to furnish oil, sugar,
dyes, &c.

198. Of the origin of some of the cultivated plants
very little is known. Wheat is not now found in a
wild state ; and the same is true of most of the cereal
plants. Indian corn is known to be a native of America,
and is thought to have been first carried hence to the
Eastern continent.

199. Those cultivated plants which are to be found in
a wild state, have been greatly improved by cultivation,
especially by giving them a full supply of all the food
they need. The wild carrot has a hard, slender root,
containing very little nourishment. The cabbage found
wild on the coast of France is a small, sharp-tasted plant,
without any of the excellent qualities possessed by the
different sorts of the cultivated cabbage.

The potato, which is found growing spontaneously in
the mountains of Peru, and in other parts of America,
has there green, bitter, unwholesome tubers, no larger
than a chestnut.

The most striking improvements have been made by
the arts of cultivation, by richness of soil and abundance
of food, in the fruit of the apple tree. The original tree
from which all the others have been derived, is by some
persons supposed to be the crab-apple tree, whose fruit is
very small and very sour.

200. The size, sweetness and other excellent qualities
of most cultivated plants are thus owing in a great degree
to the art and care of the gardener and the husbandman,
and would lose those qualities if they were long suffered
to remain neglected, — left to themselves.

BENEFITS OF CULTIVATION. 57

The same seems to be true of all the animals which
are subject to man. Their most valuable qualities have
been, in a great degree, produced by the intelligent care
of men. The same is true of man himself. Children
suffered to remain uncared for and neglected, — left to
themselves, — are likely to grow up in a condition little
better than that of savages.

CHAPTER VII.

ELEMENTS OF PLANTS.

201. The chemists have found, by careful examination,
with the help of the microscope, that plant-cells are never
formed except in a fluid containing oxygen, carbon,
hydrogen and nitrogen. These then are the elements of
which all parts of all plants are composed.

Of these, oxygen and carbon are obtained from car
bonic acid, and hydrogen and nitrogen from ammonia ;
and both carbonic acid and ammonia are always found
in the atmosphere, and are taken in by the leaves, or are
dissolved by the rain falling through the air, and carried
into the earth, where they are absorbed by the soil, and
hence taken up by the roots.

It may also be tha't the oxygen and hydrogen are
furnished by water, and nitrogen as well as oxygen by
the nitric acid sometimes found in the air, and dissolved
and brought down by rain.

202. The simplest plant, consisting of only a single
cell, must have the power of decomposing carbonic acid,
ammonia, nitric acid, and perhaps water.

58 ELEMENTS OF PLANTS.

203. That which causes water, and, with it, these three
gases, to enter the plant-cell, is called the Osmotic Power.

An experiment which any body can make, shows its
action. Let some sugared water, in a tube closed below
with a film of bladder tied across the end, and open
above, be suspended in a vessel of pure water. The
liquid in the tube is soon seen to increase by the passage
of the pure water upwards through the film. At the
same time, some of the sugared water passes through the
Him downwards into the vessel. The tube will soon be
full and flow over into the vessel, and the double action
will continue till the liquids inside the tube and outside
are of the same sweetness and density.

The passage of the fluid from without inwards is called
cndosmose ; that from within outwards, exosmose.

Two gases, of different density, separated by a film,
will, in the same manner, pass through it and mingle.

It is by this power that the various substances that
enter a plant not only pass into the cells but also from
cell to cell, through all parts of a plant. It is by this,
perhaps, that the gases find entrance through the leaves
and I lie tender bark of recent twigs. It is by the same
power that fluids are thought to pass from cell to cell,
through membrane after membrane, in the bodies of
animals.

204. Every part of a plant, even the solid wood, con
tains Water, not always in a fluid state, but in such a
state that the chemist can separate water, or the elements
of water, even from the dryest wood or bark. Water
must therefore be supplied to growing plants in abun
dance, accordiiiii1 to the nature of the plant and the season
of the year. Without it, iu some form, 110 plant can
grow.

CARBONIC ACID. — AMMONIA. 59

205. Carbonic Acid is the most indispensable and
abundant article in the food of all plants. It enters the
plant dissolved in water, and either remains in that state,
or the vital action of the plant, in the light of the sun,
decomposes the acid, and throws back most of the oxygen
into the atmosphere ; but retains a portion which per
forms important offices ; and also retains the carbon.
This forms the solid parts of every plant. The walls
of the cells, the wood, the frame-work of the leaves and
of every other part, are made of carbon, together with
oxygen and hydrogen in the proportions in which they
form water.

206. Hardly less important to the nourishment of
plants is Ammonia. This is a gas of a very pungent
odor and burning taste, which, when absorbed by water,
forms what is commonly called spirits of hartshorn. It
has a great attraction for carbonic acid, with which it
combines and forms carbonate of ammonia, popularly
called smelling salts.

Ammonia is composed of hydrogen and nitrogen ; and
as both these substances are always found in living plant-
cells, and must be essential to the life and growth of these
cells, not less essential is ammonia, or some other source
of nitrogen, such as nitric acid.

207. Carbonic acid, ammonia, nitric acid and water,
obtained thus from the atmosphere, are the atmospheric
food of plants, and the four simple elements which they
contain, are the only ones always found in every plant,
and therefore considered absolutely essential.

208. From the fact that these essential elements are
derived from the atmosphere may be understood the
possibility of the growth of air-plants, which flourish

6*

>... V.

60 ELEMENTS OP PLANTS.

without any immediate connection with the earth, and
drink in all their food from the air.

209. The charcoal in plants is never found perfectly
pure. Diamond is pure carbon. In plants it is always
combined with something else. By charring, that is,
exposing wood or other vegetable substance to great heat,
out of the reach of the open air, all the atmospheric
portions are consumed, or, to speak more properly, turned
into vapor and gases, and driven off, and a perfect skeleton
of charcoal, showing all the minutest parts of the structure
of the plant, is left.

210. In peat, which is the woody substance often found
under the surface in swamps, and also in anthracite and
bituminous coal, which arc the remains of the vegetation
of former ages, every thing in the structure of the plants,
of which these substances are formed, is often so com
pletely retained, that from them the family, and even the
genus and species of the plant may be ascertained.

211. By the process of charring, every thing except
the carbon is not consumed. Indeed nothing is consumed ;
but those portions capable of assuming a gaseous form
are driven off. By carefully burning, in air, the charcoal
left, the carbon combines with the oxygen of the air and
flies off in the state of invisible carbonic acid, a portion
of water which has still adhered to the charcoal is turned
into vapor, and a greater or less amount of ashes is left.

212. All those elements which thus assume a gaseous
form and fly off into the atmosphere, as smoke, vapor or
gas, in these two kinds of burning or combustion, are
often called for that reason, the combustible, or, more
properly, the atmospheric elements. They are oxygen,
hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen, and their compounds,

ASHES. — SULPHUR. — LIME. — PHOSPHORUS. 61

water in the state of vapor, ammonia, carbonic acid and
some others.

Those that are left in the Ashes arc the incombustible
elements, or the mineral elements. In the ashes of every
plant is found a very considerable number of mineral
constituents. But the ashes of plants of particular families
are often remarkable for the amount of particular elements
contained in them.

213. The ashes of radishes, mustard, and other plants
of the Cruciferous Family, particularly of the seeds,
contain Sulphur, or brimstone, in the state of sulphuric
acid, combined usually with some other substance.

214. In the ashes of pod-bearing or leguminous plants,
such as peas and beans, and other plants of the Pulse
Family, particularly clover, sulphuric acid in composition
with lime, or Sulphate of Lime, is found.

Lime is a compound of a metal called calcium, with
oxygen ; so that sulphate of lime is made up of sulphur,
oxygen and calcium. It is commonly .called gypsum, or
plaster of Paris.

215. In the ashes of kernels of wheat or other grain,
as well as of many other kinds of seed, is found a large
quantity of a salt called phosphate of lime. This is a
compound of lime and phosphoric acid, which is itself
composed of oxygen and a very curious substance called

Phosphorus. This is a soft, translucent, poisonous solid,
looking like wax, turning yellowish when exposed to light,
of a peculiar smell, and called phosphorus, (light bearer,)
from shining in the dark. It has so violent a tendency
to combine with the oxygen of the air, and burn, that it
must be kept under water. A very little of it mixed with
other substances and applied to the end of a bit of wood,
gives that readiness to take fire which belongs to phos-

62 ELEMENTS OF PLANTS.

phorus matches, commonly called lucifer or friction
matches, which a little rubbing produces heat enough to
set on fire.

Phosphate of lime is found not only in the seeds of
very many plants, especially those of which bread is
made, but in all plants, and in the bones of men and
other animals, whence it is called bone-earth.

216. The ashes of all kinds of straw and grass, of the
bamboo cane, and of the scouring rush, consist, in a very
large degree, of silex or silica; and all these plants owe
the stiifness and hardness of their stems to the silica
contained in them.

Silica is oxygen combined with a metal-like substance
called silicon. When perfectly pure, silica is a white,
gritty powder, without taste or smell. It is the substance
of which quartz, rock-crystal and flint are composed.
Though wholly unlike, in appearance, to the other acids,
it is yet an acid, and combines with the oxides of many
of the metals to form silicates, and, in these forms,
constitutes a very large portion of all rocks and soils.

217. In the ashes of trees and other woody plants, as
well as in most other ashes, potash is found. If wood
ashes be leached, that is, if hot water be poured upon
them, it will, in a short time, dissolve the potash in the
ashes. The dark-colorqd, strong lye, thus obtained, boiled
with oil or fat, forms common soft soap.

Lye, boiled away, in a pot, without fat, leaves a dirty
looking substance called potash. This, when somewhat
pimMi'd, is called pcarlash.

218. This common Potash is the carbonate of potassa,
ii compound of carbonic acid and potassa, which is, itself,
a compound of oxyjren with a metal called potassium.
This metal has the lustre of silver, but is soft, and so light

ALKALIES. — POTASH. — SODA. 63

as to float on water. So great is the attraction between
potassium and oxygen, that it decomposes the water on
which it floats, unites with a portion of its oxygen, exhib
iting the singular appearance of a little fire on the water,
and forms potassa.

219. In the ashes of kelp and of other plants growing
in the sea, and of some of those growing near the sea,
instead of potash, Soda is found, in the state of carbonate
of Sodium, a light metal somewhat similar to potassium,
and having nearly the same violent affinity for oxygen,
so as to take fire when placed on hot water.

220. Alkali. The ashes of sea plants have long been of
value in commerce, from being used in the manufacture
of hard soap, and also of glass. These soda ashes are
called, in Spain, alkali, (Arabic al, the, kali, ashes,) which
name has thus been given to soda, and thence to potash
and ammonia, all which are called alkalies ; and all three
have very similar properties. They have a bitter, acrid
and burning taste, and the power of changing vegetable
blue colors to green, and pink to blue.

221. They have also the remarkable property of uniting
with the acids, and thereby losing all their own peculiar
properties, and destroying those of the acids. Sulphuric
acid, for example, has the extreme sourness and corrosive
power with the other properties of the acids. Pure soda
has the alkaline properties just mentioned. But when
sulphuric acid is poured upon soda, it forms a new sub
stance, sulphate of soda, or Glauber's salts, which is called
a neutral salt ; a salt, because it looks very much like
common table salt, and neutral, because it has neither
the properties of an acid nor those of an alkali.

It is in the state of neutral salts that most of the
mineral substances enter into the composition of plants.

64 ELEMENTS OF PLANTS.

222. The ashes of asparagus, and of other plants which
grow naturally near the sea, contain a large portion of
common salt, in very minute, regular, cubical particles,
called crystals. Now salt is composed of a gas called
chlorine, and of the metal sodium, and this salt, — common
table salt, — is called by the chemists Chloride of Sodium.
And it is very remarkable that this pleasant and wholesome
article in our food should be composed of a substance so
ready to take fire as sodium and another like

223. Chlorine. This is a suffocating and poisonous gas,
of a greenish color, whence its name, -(chloros, Greek for
green,) which has a great attraction for foul air and for
coloring substances, and is therefore employed for disin
fecting, or drawing off foul air, and for bleaching, or
making things white.

224. Oxides of two other metals, Magnesium and Iron, are
also found in the ashes of all plants, but commonly
united with some one of the acids.

225. The oxide of magnesium is called Magnesia. It is
a white, bitterish substance, resembling flour in appear
ance, often used in medicine.

226. Plants growing in the sea, called sea-weeds,
such as kelp, oar-weed, rock-weed, <fec., and those growing
on the sea-shore, contain, in their ashes, salts of two sub
stances, called iodine and bromine.

227. Iodine is a solid which looks like black lead.
\Vhen heated, it throws up a violet colored vapor, whence
its name, from a Greek word, (i-o-des,) meaning violet
colored. If a polished silver plate be held over this vapor,
it becomes firs} of a yellowish color, then violet, then deep
bl ii(3, from the combination of the iodine witli the silver.
This compound is powerfully noted upon by light, and
hence its use in the proers.M's of (lie daguerreotype.

IODINE. — BROMINE. — ACIDS. 65

228. Iodine occurs in plants as iodides, or compounds
of iodine with some metal, as, for example, the iodide of
potassium. Bromine is found in a similar state, that is,
as bromides.

229. Bromine is a heavy, brownish liquid, of a suf
focating odor. When scarcely perceived, this odor is not
unpleasant, and this, with the odors of iodine and of
chlorine, forms probably the pleasant smells we perceive
on a sea-beach.

230. These are the principal and the most important
mineral substances found in vegetables.

But a metal called Aluminum, which is the basis of clay,
and also the metals Manganese and Copper are found,
very rarely, in the ashes of some plants.

281. Arc all the substances necessary to the growth of
a plant, of equal value? All are essential. If any one
of the whole number be absent, the plant will not thrive ;
but all are not needed in the same quantities.

232. The Acids most important in the structure of
plants are carbonic acid, sulphuric acid and phosphoric
acid, either by themselves, or united with substances with
which they form salts, such as carbonates, sulphates and
phosphates. These are found in all plants. Silicic acid
combined with the alkalies and with the earths is also
essential to very many plants.

233. But these are not the only acids found in plants.
By a peculiar action of the vital power of particular
plants, the elements of carbonic acid and water form a
variety of acids differing from carbonic acid and from
each other.

The acid which gives to apples their characteristic taste,
is called malic acid (Lat. malum, an apple.) The acid of
oranges and lemons is citric acid, (Lat. citrus, an orange ;)

66 ELEMENTS OF PLANTS.

that of wood sorrel (oxalis,) oxalic ; that of grape vines
and grapes, tartaric acid.

234. All these unite with the oxides of the metals
that have been spoken of, and one or more of the salts
formed by the union are found in the cells or at least in
the ashes of nearly all plants. The salts of potassa, for
example, are always found in the ashes of potatoes, tur
nips, the grape vine and many others ; and none of these
plants can flourish in a soil, however rich in other respects,
which contains no potash. Hence potatoes, turnips, beets,
and Indian corn, are sometimes called Potash Plants.

235. In like manner oats, wheat, barley and rye are
called Silica Plants, because the ashes of the straw of
these plants are more than half made up of silica. And
because tobacco, pea-straw, clover, and potato-tops, leave
ashes of which more than one half is lime, these plants
are called Lime Plants.

236. Phosphates of Lime and Magnesia, in small quan
tities, are found in the ashes of all common plants ; but
they form from one half to three fourths of the ashes of
wheat, and a very large portion of the ashes of other
grains.

237. What then are the most essential elements in the
growth of plants ? All plants, without exception, require
for their subsistence and nutrition, the atmospheric ele
ments, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbon, and the
earthy elements, phosphorus, sulphur, potash, lime, mag
nesia, and iron. Plants of certain families require silica.
Others require common salt, soda, iodides and bromides.

238. Besides these, three metals, aluminum, man
ganese, and copper, arc found very rarely, as oxides, or
us sails, in tin; ashes of a few plants ; and, still more rarely,
Fluorine, a powerful gas, remarkable for its power to

MINERAL FOOD OF PLANTS. — CELLULOSE. 67

corrode glass, is detected in the ashes of some plants. It
occurs in combination, as fluoride of calcium, or fluor
spar, in which form it is also found in the teeth and bones
of animals.

All these earthy substances are called the mineral food
of plants.

'UNI VK'^I.T

CHAPTER VIII. ( A1

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS IN PLANTS.

239. Of the simple, elementary substances spoken of in
the last chapter, and their direct compounds, although they
are all found in plants, none ever appear in particles large
enough to be seen by the naked eye. Of them, however,
are formed the substance and the nutritious and other
useful products of the plants, called the organic com
pounds.

240. They are so called, because they are compounds
formed by the action of the vital power of the organized
being, a plant.

241. Among the most important are, first, those formed
of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen only, viz., Cellulose,
Vegetable Jelly, Starch, Gum, Sugar, and Oil.

242. Cellulose, also called woody fibre, is the cell-mem
brane, or thin covering of the cells. When first formed, it
is tender, flexible and elastic, clear and transparent. It is
expanded by moisture and contracted by drying. It is
permeable to all fluids, which enter on one side and pass
out on the other. It is called woody fibre, because it

68 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS IN PLANTS.

forms the substance of all wood, giving it strength,
hardness and elasticity.

243. Vegetable Jelly is so called, because, while moist,
it looks and feels like common jelly. When dry, it
becomes horny or cartilaginous. Quince jelly and apple
jelly are forms of it, but mixed with the acids and other
compounds which give them their peculiar taste.

244. Every-body is familiar with the appearance of Starch.
When dry, it is somewhat hard, and crumbles between
the fingers. When moist, it is somewhat like jelly. It is
completely soluble in warm water, and, when perfectly
pure, is clear and transparent. As it dries, it is at first
a trembling jelly, but at last becomes brittle as glass.

Starch is found, already formed, in almost every plant
that has been examined, particularly in the grains of all
the cerealia, in beans and pease, and almost all seeds, in
potatoes and all other esculent roots, and in the pith of
many plants, as in the sago palm. In arrow-root it seems
to be purest. Starch, variously compounded, but never
absolutely pure, constitutes the most important, and often
the only food of two thirds of all mankind. It occiirs
in si null quantities in the bark and newly formed wood
of many trees, in winter, whence the inhabitants of the
Polar regions are able to use the bark of trees, when
baked, as bread. It is extracted, for use in the arts, from
potatoes, wheat, and some other substances.

245. Gum is the substance which we often find hardened
in roundish masses on the bark of cherry and peach trees.
It is in all plants; in plants belonging to some families,
it is round very abundantly. Gum Arabic is a well-known
form of it. When pure, it is clear and transparent;
when dry, very brittle. It easily dissolves in water and
in weak acids, but not in alcohol. It is very nourishing,

SUGAR. — VEGETABLE OILS. — WAX. 69

and is sometimes used as food. By the botanists, one
form of it is called dextrine.

246. Loaf sugar is Sugar in a crystalline state. Atten
tively examined, it is found to be made up of little bright
crystals, which reflect the light and give the brilliant white
appearance of loaf sugar. Dissolved in water and allowed
to evaporate and harden, it becomes sugar candy. Brown
or Muscovado sugar is unrefined, and contains other sub
stances which give it its peculiar taste . Sugar is nutrition s ,
and is used, all over the world, as a sweetener. It is found
in every plant; but in the greatest abundance in sugar cane,
Indian corn-stalks, sorgho, beet root and carrot, and in
sweet fruits, as the pear, and apple, and the melon.

247 . Vegetable Oils. The peculiarity of these substances
is their leaving upon paper or- linen a translucent spot,
and their refusal to mix with water. There is perhaps
no plant and no part of a plant which does not contain
oil. From some plants, as from a species of palm in
Africa, it is extracted in vast quantities. From many
seeds it may be pressed, as particularly from the seeds of
flax, when it is called linseed oil, and from those of the
turnip, the poppy and the sunflower. A plant called
colza, which botanists suppose to be the cabbage in its
natural condition, is extensively cultivated in France for
the purpose of yielding oil.

248. Wax is a kind of solid oil which often appears on
the surface of the stem, leaves or fruits of plants, and in
a very remarkable manner upon the fruit of the candle-
berry myrtle. In those parts of plants which have a hoary
appearance, as is the case with many kinds of plum, the
delicate bluish bloom consists of a thin layer of very
small wax granules. Bees-wax is collected, perhaps
formed, by bees. Some chemists think it is formed from
sugar.

70 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS IN PLANTS.

249. All these organic compounds are very nearly
related, and often change from one into another. Cellu
lose may turn into starch, gum or sugar. So may vege
table jelly. Gum or dextrine may be converted into sugar.
These substances appear to go successively through all
these forms, from sugar, the most soluble, to cellulose,
the most insoluble. All these substances, 241, taken into
the animal system, are supposed to aid in the process
of breathing, and keeping up the warmth of the body.

250. There is another class of substances found in
plants, of which the cell-walls are not formed, and which
yet are essential to the simplest processes of vegetation.
They are composed of the elements of water, of carbon,
and also of nitrogen, to which are sometimes added phos
phorus and sulphur. From the nitrogen contained in
them, they are often called Nitrogenous Compounds. In
their simplest form they are composed of the four atmos
pheric elements only, and are found in a fluid, semi-fluid,
or solid state, within the cells ; and without their presence
in a liquid state no new cells can be formed. From their
great variety of appearance, and the readiness with which
they change, these substances have been called Protein,
from the name of an imaginary being, Proteus, who was
fabled to assume every variety of form, to conceal himself.

251. Protein, in combination with sulphur, forms casein,
with still more sulphur and a little phosphorus, albumen,
and with more both of sulphur and phosphorus, Gluten
or Vegetable Fibrinc. These substances are of great
importance, and of the highest interest, from the fact that
though essential to the bodies of animals, constituting
the muscles and giving them strength, they are not,
according to some chemists,* formed in the animal

* * Liebig, and others.

CASEIN. — ALBUMEN. — GLUTEN. — CHLOROPHYL. 71

economy, but must be taken into the system already
formed.

252. Casein is an essential ingredient in milk and in
cheese, whence its name (caseus, Latin, cheese.)

253. Albumen is nearly identical in composition with
the white of an egg (of which albumen is the Latin name)
and is found in many parts of the human body and the
bodies of other animals. It is always found dissolved in
the sap and juices of living plants.

254. "Wheat contains from 8 to 35 per cent, of Gluten,
Indian corn 12, beans 10, rye 9 to 13, barley 3 to 6, oats
2 to 5, potatoes 3 to 4, and a little is found in beets,
turnips and cabbages.

255. The fact that wheat varies so much in the gluten
it contains is one very instructive to the farmer. When
fed with the very richest manures, especially those con
taining animal substances, wheat not only yields more
abundantly, but the grain is richer in this most nourish
ing element. For Animal Fibrine is the essential portion
of the fibrous part or muscle of the flesh of animals.

356. The elements of every thing in the body of a man
or any other animal must have come into the system in
the water or air, or in the vegetable and animal food
which he has consumed. To exist in the body of an
animal, they must have been found in the vegetables on
which it has been nourished, and, before that, in the soil
out of which the vegetables grew, or in the atmosphere
by which all have been surrounded.

257. What it is which gives color to the leaves of Plants.
The green color is owing to a substance called Chlorophyl,
(leaf-green.) This is found in the leaves and in the bark
of the newly formed twigs of nearly all flowering plants.
It is composed of a white, wax-like substance, and a

7*

72 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS IN PLANTS.

peculiar, green, coloring matter. This green coloring
matter is formed under the immediate action of light,
and its depth of color seems to depend upon the inten
sity of the light. Hence the innumerable shades of
green, from the delicate yellowish green of early spring
to the deep greens of midsummer ; and hence the striking
changes in the color of leaves, after some days of cloudy,
warm weather, when succeeded by clear sunshine.

258. The yellow leaves in autumn contain proportion
ally more wax than the green leaves of summer, and the
yellow rinds of ripe fruits more than the green rinds of
unripe fruits. The rich, gorgeous colors of the autumnal
foliage have been attributed to the action upon chlorophyl
of various vegetable acids and alkalies, under the influ
ence of the sun's light. They are not produced by frost.

259. From the roots, wood, bark and leaves of various
plants are extracted very many coloring1 substances used
in the arts. Certain plants, as, for example, the indigo
plant and woad, are cultivated extensively, in some coun
tries, for this very purpose.

260. Tannin. This is the substance with which tan
ners convert the hides of animals into leather. It is
found in the bark of several kinds of oak, and also of
hemlock, spruce and some other trees of the Pine Family,
and in the leaves of tea and of some plants of the Heath
Family. It is of a sourish, astringent taste, and has this
remarkable property of converting the animal gelatine
of the skin into leather. Tannin is found only in the
older wood and bark, and is supposed to be formed by
the commencement of decay in cellulose.

261. How the vital principle in plants, with the agency
of the osmotic power and chemical attraction, forms the

ACTION OP THE VESSELS OF VEGETABLES. 73

various products which have been spoken of, and innu
merable others, we can only conjecture.

Some of the imagined operations are strikingly set
before us in a picturesque passage which may form a fit
conclusion to this chapter.

" The vessels of vegetables have the same wonderful,
and seemingly intelligent power of selection, that exists
in the vessels of animals. They are thus enabled to
select from the compound circulating sap, what each set
of vessels requires, to construct the tissue which each has
in charge. One set selects materials for the alburnum,
another for the bark, another for the leaf and the leaf-
bud ; another forms the fruit-bud, and ultimately builds
up the fruit. One set constructs the woody-fibre, another
set the starch, another the gum, another the jesin, another
the bitter principle, another the sweet and nutritious
juices, another the poisonous elements. One set forms
from the sap, the coloring matter that blushes or glows
in the petals of the flowers, and the coverings of the fruit.
Another selects, atom by atom, the lime that enters into
the composition of the grain of wheat; another set
weaves the covering for this same grain, from the woody
fibre. Another set deposits the fatty elements, and
arranges them in layers, around the starch and sugar
and lime, of which the kernel of corn is built up. Thus
every tissue and every product of vegetable life are
formed by innumerable vessels, from the descending
sap."*

* See a beautiful "Prize Essay" upon Manures, by JOSEPH REYNOLDS,
M. D., of Concord, Mass.

74 THE SOIL.

CHAPTER IX.

THE SOIL.

262. Of the vast interior of the earth nothing is known
with absolute certainty. We are acquainted with the
outer portion, the crust, only; and the geologists and
the chemists have been studying that very attentively for
many years.

By this careful and continuous study, the crust of the
earth, together with the waters resting upon it and the
atmosphere enveloping it, is found to be made up of sixty-
one, perhaps- sixty-two or sixty-three, elements. Several
of these, when pure, are gases ; but all are found, usually
in combination one with another, in a solid state. Several
of them may possibly be hereafter found to be formed of
one and the same substance.

263. All these elements, except twelve or thirteen, are
metals, more or less like iron, copper, lead, tin, mercury,
gold and silver. The greater part of them are found
only as ores, that is, combined usually with oxygen, or
with sulphur, carbon, or something else, and often look
ing like earths, which indeed they are. About thirty-four
of them arc found in very small quantities, and are
seldom seen except by chemists.

264. Only a few, as "gold, silver, copper, mercury, and
platinum, are found in their native state, in the earth,
in the condition of purity. Metallic masses and frag
ments of stone, called meteoric stones, or aerolites, are
sometimes seen to fall, and are always supposed to have

GEOLOGY. — CHEMISTRY. — THE EOCKS. 75

fallen, from the sky. These are often found upon or near
the surface, and consisting of iron and two other pure
metals not oxidized, in the form of a brilliant, malleable
compound. All the rest, whether found at the surface
or deep beneath, are in rocks or the fragments 'of rocks.

265. The study which searches into the structure of
the earth, asks what the rocks are and in what order they
lie, and examines the curious remains of plants and of
animals that are often found in them, is geology ; and a
person who pursues this study is a geologist.

The study which searches into the inner nature of
things, to find out what they are, what they are made of,
and how they act on each other and on animals and
plants, is chemistry. A person who pursues this study,
with experiments, is a chemist ; and the process of search
ing, by experiments, and separating a compound sub
stance into its elements, is chemical analysis.

266. The Soil is that part of the ground which can be
tilled, which can be reached and stirred by agricultural
tools. It is made up of many different kinds of earth. Of
these the three most important are silicious earth or sand,
argillaceous earth or clay, and calcareous earth or that
made of limestone or carbonate of lime ; and, by the
mixture of these three, most of the different kinds of soil
are formed.

267. The soil which covers the surface of the earth
rests upon rocks lying at a greater or less depth beneath,
from the crumbling or disintegration of which the soil
and loose earth have apparently been formed.

The principal and most important of these rocks are
the following : first, Granitic Rocks, including Greenstone
Rocks ; second, Silicious Rocks ; third, Slaty or Argilla-

76 THE SOIL.

ccous Rocks ; fourth, Pudding-stone Rocks ; fifth, Lime
stone or Calcareous Rocks.*

268. (1.) The Granitic Rocks get their name from
Granite, which is a hard rock composed of three minerals
called quartz, felspar and mica. Sienite is like granite,
but is composed of quartz, felspar, and hornblende ; and
Greenstone is composed of felspar and hornblende, with
out quartz. Traprock, another very hard rock which often
forms what seem to be natural walls, sometimes with
steps in their ends, is composed of felspar and horn
blende, with another mineral called augite. Gneiss and
Mica Slate, which look and are exceedingly like granite,
consist chiefly of mica and quartz, with felspar ; and
Porphyry is a very hard rock, made up almost entirely of
felspar.

269. Granitic Rocks, including all those mentioned
above, are extremely hard, and are thought to be among
the oldest rocks. They, or the minerals of which they are
made up, are chiefly composed of 1, silex; 2, alumina;
3, lime; 4, potash; 5, magnesia; and 6, oxide of iron;
and, by their crumbling, or disintegration, form granitic
earths.

270. Far the most abundant of these six is silex or
silica, which, as we have already said, is a metal-like sub
stance, silicon, chemically -united with oxygen. Though
it is not sour, it has other properties of an acid, acts as
one, and is called silicic acid; and the other five sub-

* The teacher should, if possible, be furnished with a small collection of speci
mens of rocks and of the more important minerals found in them. ]>y means
of these his instructions may be made far more interesting and intelligible than
they possibly can be without. For perfect illustration of what is taught in this
chapter not more than twenty specimens will be required; and, by means of
such a collection, the pupils may easily be induced to make collections for them
selves, and to become acquainted with the names and qualities of all the rocks
in their neighborhood.

SILICA. — SILICIOUS ROCKS. 77

stances mentioned above, are usually combined with it as
silicates of potash, silicates of alumina, &c.

When found pure, it is called quartz or flint, and in
that state is used in the making of glass. It is the most
abundant solid constituent of the earth's crust, forming
about five-eighths of the substance of the most important
rocks. Agate, chalcedony and opal, which are hard and
almost precious stones, are nearly pure silica. Though
so very hard, it is rendered soluble, and is dissolved by
the action of the alcalies and their carbonates.

271. Silica usually occurs as coarse or fine sand, and
enters very largely into the composition of the soil of all
granitic regions, such as that of the greater part of the
New England States. Pure silicious sand is seldom found.
It is commonly mixed largely with grains of sand formed
by the crumbling of the other ingredients of the rocks.

272. (2.) Silicious Rocks or sand-stones are composed
of small grains of silex agglomerated or stuck together,
and of various colors, from white to red, according to the
proportion of oxide of iron which they contain. When
crumbled into loose sand they make the poorest possible
soil.

A soil formed principally of the sands coming from
these two sources, is a loose, light, sandy soil, readily pen
etrated by water, but not retaining it long, and therefore
liable to be much affected by drought. It is easily culti
vated, but not fertile, especially when its principal
ingredient is coarse silicious sand. Its fertility and its
readiness to retain moisture and manures depend upon
its fineness and upon the due admixture of other ingre
dients of soil, clay and lime, to be spoken of presently.

273. (3.) 01aty or Argillaceous Rocks are all inore or

78 THE SOIL.

less like slate, and, by their crumbling and decomposition,
seem to have given rise to clay or argillaceous earth.

Clay is silicate of alumina; a chemical compound of
silicic acid, alumina, and water. Clay usually contains
also silicates of potash, of soda, and of lime. It forms a
compact, fatty earth, which is soft to the touch, adheres
somewhat closely to the tongue, and exhales a peculiar
odor, which is perceived when it or clay-slate is breathed
upon.

Pure clay is white ; but clay, as ordinarily found, is
colored blue, brown or red, by oxides of iron. It absorbs
a great deal of water, and parts with it very reluctantly ;
and it has a strong attraction for ammonia and for the
very richest portions of manure.

When completely wet, it becomes a thick paste, almost
impenetrable to water and to air, which it prevents from
percolating or penetrating farther into the earth. Under
the effect of drought, it cracks and becomes excessively
hard. From the action of frost, on the contrary, it swells
and crumbles into powder, from the water's expanding,
as it freezes, and thus breaking up whatever contains it.
Hence the usual humidity of clayey lands, the difficulty
of ploughing them in a very wet or a very dry season,
and the beneficial effects of freezing.

274. There are many kinds of clay, and most of them
are of great value in the plastic arts. All the varieties
of porcelain, pottery, stone ware, earthen ware, tiles and
bricks, arc made wholly or chiefly of clay. The celebrated
kaolin, or pure white porcelain clay of China, is mouldered
felspar ; and the petuntze of the Chinese potter is another
kind of felspar containing potash. Clay is also the mate
rial commonly used by the statuary, in which to shape
the first draught or model of his figures, and often by the

CLAY. — ALUMINUM. — CALCAREOUS ROCKS. 79

architect for the first solid representation of the ornaments
of pillars and other parts of buildings.

275. Most of the slates are more or less aluminous.
The metal aluminum, which is the basis of clay, very
much resembles silver in color, brilliancy and hardness,
though far less beautiful. Alum, from which it derives
its name, is partly made of it.

The oxide, alumina, is one of the most abundant mate
rials of the crust of the earth, forming not less than one
quarter of its substance. Two of the most beautiful of
the precious stones, the sapphire and the ruby, are alumina
tinged with a little oxide of iron. They are inferior only
to the diamond in hardness and brilliancy. Another very
beautiful precious stone, the topaz, is also an aluminous
mineral. When colorless, it possesses a lustre which has
often caused it to be mistaken for the diamond.

276. (4.) Calcareous Rocks arc composed chiefly of
carbonate of lime, that is, lime chemically combined with
carbonic acid. There also enters into their composition
a greater or less proportion of silex or other sand, and of
clay and sometimes other mineral substances. In England
and some other countries, vast quantities of chalk, which
is carbonate of lime, are found, and in some places the
soil is almost wholly made of it.

A soil consisting chiefly of calcareous earth is a very
poor soil. It has more tenacity than sand, but less than
clay, absorbs moisture readily, but easily parts with it,
and is liable to crack, when dry, like clay, and to parch
plants growing in it. Excessive moisture turns it into a
thick mud, and if, in this state, it be exposed to extreme
cold, it swells and cracks, and is apt to wound the roots
of plants and even throw them out of the ground. In its

8

80 THE SOIL.

mechanical properties it is a medium between clay and
sand.

277. (5.) Pudding-stone Rocks, sometimes called gray-
wacke, are made up of materials formed by the mixture
of a great variety of other rocks, -which seem to have
been brought together, in very ancient times, by the action
of floods or streams of water. They have their name
from their resemblance to plum-pudding, the ingredients
being of every variety of lime-stone, clay-slate, and porphy
ry, greenstone, trap, and every other form of granitic rocks.
They are often of a very coarse texture, made up of
pieces of stone of every size, sometimes weighing hun
dreds of pounds, and sometimes of so fine a texture as to
resemble slate.

The materials are held together by a natural mortar of
lime or of rust of iron, or by mere contact. When com
pletely reduced to dust, these rocks make a rich soil, from
its containing all the mineral materials, intimately mixed,
which are necessary to the fertility of soil.

278. All these rocks, differing in hardness and in other
properties, and forming, perhaps, at first, the surface of
the earth, have, in process of time, been crumbled, and
then, or before, transported to various distances.

The sand, coarse or fine, formed by the crumbling of
the granitic rocks, sand-stones, and pudding-stones, con
tain the six substances enumerated, 209. The slate "rocks
form clay; and the chalks and other calcareous rocks,
lime. Altogether they furnish all the mineral materials
which enter into the structure of plants.

279. How have these rocks been changed into soil?
Chiefly by the action of heat, of water, and of cold. The
sun's heat warms and expands all the rocks upon which
it falls. While they are in this state, the rain, descending,

BOCKS CHANGED INTO SOIL. — WEATHERING. 81

penetrates their surface and moistens and softens them.
Frost turns this moisture into innumerable little wedges
of ice, which split the thin outer coat of the rocks into
minute fragments. The hardest rocks are thus gradually
crumbled into dust.

Besides these agencies, oxygen is constantly acting. So
are other gases ; and so are carbonic acid and other acids,
and lime, and the salts of potash, and other salts. These
are dissolving, disintegrating and crumbling the rocks;
and water, in streams and torrents, is constantly rubbing
off and dashing together the fragments.

All these causes are still and constantly acting, not only
upon the surface of the great rocks, but upon the surface
of the particles of the soil in the cultivated or unculti
vated fields. The ceaseless action of all these and of
other forces is called weathering.

280. The important question with the farmer is, Which
is the best soil ? Neither of the three kinds of earth
spoken of forms by itself a good soil. Indeed, each, by
itself, forms a soil absolutely barren. The best natural
soil is one formed by the due mixture of all the three,
the bad qualities of each being corrected by the good
qualities of the others.

The chemical analysis of a vast number of soils shows
that the most fertile arc those into which these three
important classes of elements enter abundantly, but not
in equal quantities ; and that the fertility diminishes just
in proportion as any one of the three comes near to be
exhausted.

281. All the innumerable soils have essentially the
same elements. Clay, lime and sand are the basis of all.
But soils vary as one or another of these prevails, or as
one or another is wanting.

82 THE SOIL.

A soil formed by a mixture of clay and sand, in nearly
equal proportions, is called a clayey sand or a sandy clay,
according as the one or the other predominates. If much
more than one-half is clay, we call it a loamy clay. So
we call a soil a calcareous clay, or a clayey calcareous soil,
as the clay or the lime is the more abundant.

282. It must, however, always be understood, that all
these combined, even in the most favorable proportions, are not
sufficient to form a good soil. There must be superadded
a certain amount of humus, mould or geine. This seems
to be at the same time the reservoir, and often, perhaps,
the source, of those saline matters and of a large portion
of the nitrogenous and carbonaceous substances which
are essential to the growth of plants.

Humus, or Geine, for both words mean the same thing,
is a dark-colored earthy matter, fatty to the feeling,
formed from the remains of vegetable substances, and
sometimes also animal, in different stages of decomposi
tion. It readily attracts and absorbs water and retains it,
not only rain water but the vapor of the air. It is the
perfection of vegetable earth. Land is considered good
arable land, which contains three or four per cent, of it.
Soil containing as much as eight per cent, of it, is good
garden mould, and with ten per cent, it becomes very
rich.

283. It can be very readily ascertained whether there
is any humus present, by burning a quantity of the soil
upon a red-hot fire-shovel. As the humus calcines and
turns into charcoal, it exhales an odor cither like that of
burnt horn or feathers, or like that of burning straw. If
the smell 1)0 strong of burnt feathers, it indicates a soil
rich in the products of decayed animal substance. If the

HUMUS A SOURCE AND RESERVOIR OF CARBONIC ACID. 83

only perceptible smell be that of burnt straw, it indicates
humus formed from decayed, vegetable substances.

284. Humus is always favorable to vegetation, except
when it has been produced by the decay of plants under
water, or has been very long lying under water. This is
often the case with peat, bog earth or marsh mud. These
are almost entirely humus ; but when they have been
long beneath the surface of water, they are considered
cold, and possess acid properties, which render them
unfavorable to the nourishment of plants, until corrected
by long exposure to the influences of the atmosphere, and
to the alternation of the sun's light and of frost.

285. Humus not only acts as a reservoir of carbonic
acid, holding it ready to be given to the roots of plants,
but, as it consists mostly of carbon and water, and has an
attraction for oxygen, it is constantly receiving oxygen
from the air. By the progressive decay thus produced, the
vegetable and animal remains are constantly turning into
carbonic acid and ammonia, and the ammonia into ammo-
niacal salts, thus rendering the soil rich in these precious
elements of vegetable food. In soil abundantly supplied
with humus or other rich manure, the air is sometimes
found to contain four hundred times as much carbonic
acid as an equal quantity of the air in the atmosphere.

286. The carbonic acid formed in vegetable soil by
the oxygen, not only serves directly as food for plants,
but it decomposes the silicates and thus sets the potash
and other salts free to be dissolved by water and taken
up by the roots. Another portion of the oxygen absorbed,
combines with the hydrogen of the humus, and produces
water. This is a very valuable property, especially in
dry seasons, and is one reason why soils abundantly
supplied with humus suffer so little from drought.

8*

84 THE SOIL.

287. Another most important property, and essential to
the fertility of soil, is the power of absorbing moisture from
the atmosphere. During the night, soils which possess
this property in a sufficient degree arc enabled to con
dense a large quantity of water, and thus make up, in a
very considerable measure, for the enormous quantity lost
by evaporation during the day.

These powers of absorbing oxygen, of absorbing and
retaining moisture, and of forming water, are given to a
sandy soil by humus, and also by clay, but far more
effectually by the two mixed together.

288. The richest natural soils are those which contain all
these ingredients, sand, clay, lime and humus in due propor
tions. Such are the alluvial soils found on the low banks
of the Connecticut and many other rivers. These streams,
in their course from their sources in the hills, wash against
and wear away a great variety of rocks, dissolve and carry
along with them portions that have been made soluble by
the processes of weathering, and take up quantities of leaf
and other vegetable mould, and bring them all away in
their current. When, in the winter and spring, they
overflow their banks, they deposit all these mingled
materials upon the intervale or bottom lands, — the low
grounds lying between the river and the hills.

In the lower part of a river's course, these various
materials arc deposited in the state of the finest sand or
clayey mud ; soils so formed are found to possess an almost
inexhaustible fertility. They unite all the materials neces
sary for the growth of plants, clay, sand, lime and humus,
in circumstances the most favorable, all perfectly mixed,
and all reduced to the state of the finest powder.

289. Next in value to these soils, for permanent culti
vation, are the light sandy soils formed by the crumbling

QUARTZ, FELSPAR, MICA, HORNBLENDE, AUGITE. 85

of the granitic rocks. They contain, in inexhaustible
abundance, all the mineral elements necessary to the
growth of a plant, potash, soda, lime, magnesia, iron and
manganese, in the condition of silicates.

290. The following table will show this to be true.
Remember that granite, gneiss and mica slate, are com
posed of mica, quartz, and felspar; syenite, of quartz,
felspar and hornblende ; trap-rock, of augite, felspar and
hornblende ; greenstone, of felspar and hornblende ; and
porphyry, almost entirely of felspar.

In one hundred parts, there arc, in these .different
minerals, about these proportions. For great exactness,
see Dana's Manual.

Silica. Alumina. Potash. Magnesia. Iron. Lime.
In Quartz, . . •- . 100.

Felspar, . \ . 67. 19. 14.

Mica, . ; . 46. 14. 10. 10. 20.

Hornblende, . . 59. 20. 7. 14.

Augite, ... 53. 8. 17. 22.

291. Quartz is silica nearly pure. Felspar is a silicate
of alumina and potash. Mica is a silicate of alumina and
potash, and of magnesia and iron. Hornblende is made
of silicates of magnesia and lime, with iron ; and augite,
of silicates of lime and magnesia, with a larger propor
tion of iron. In some kinds of felspar soda takes the
place of potash.

292. How is a light, sandy soil, possessing the mineral
elements of fertility, to be managed, that it may become
fertile ? The first thing to be done is to render it capable
of absorbing moisture, carbonic acid, oxygen, and ammo
nia, and of retaining them so as to give them out to the
roots of plants as they are wanted. This is done by
mixing with it clay, which has these properties in a very
considerable degree.

86 THE SOIL.

It not unfrequently happens that an abundance of clay
is to be found lying underneath the sand at no great dis
tance below the surface. .When this is the case, clay is
to be dug up and allowed to remain in small ridges, so as
to be exposed to the sunlight, the air, the rain, and the
cold of winter. After having been so exposed, for a year
or longer, it is ready to be scattered upon the surface of
the sandy land, or to be ploughed into it. The good
qualities of the land will thus be permanently improved.
It will be able to absorb and will become retentive of
moisture, carbonic acid, and ammonia, and of all the
manures. Such an addition may be called an amend
ment.

293. Another, and, after the clay, a still more effectual
way of rendering a sandy soil fertile, is the application of
large quantities of marsh mud, peat or swamp muck.
There are often, in the immediate neighborhood of sandy
fields, old mud holes, bogs, or swamps, where vegetable
substance, — humus, — hasbeen accumulating for centuries.
This, by itself, is of no value. But when spread upon
the land, and acted upon by the atmosphere, it immedi
ately begins to act upon the silicates.

" The very act of exposure of this swamp muck has.
caused an evolution of carbonic acid gas. Tliat decom
poses the silicates of potash in the sand ; that potash con
verts the insoluble into soluble manure, and lo ! a crop.
That growing crop adds its power to the geine."

By such processes, repeated from year to year, " it is
not to be doubted, that every inch of every sandy knoll,
on every farm, may be changed into a soil, in thirteen
years, of half that number of inches of good mould. "*

* Dana's Muck Manual.

LAND ENRICHED BY CLOVER. 87

And if this can be done with the barren sandy knolls,
how much more with the plains !

294. Where neither clay nor marsh mud is to be
easily obtained, light, sandy land may sometimes be ren
dered capable of absorbing and retaining the atmospheric
elements of vegetable food and thus becoming fertile, by
scattering plaster upon it and sowing clover seed. When
the crop of clover, together with the weeds which will
spring up with it, is in perfection, that is, nearly or quite
ripe, it may be ploughed in. This process, though seem
ingly a waste of good clover hay, is one by which many
poor lands may be rendered fertile and afterwards kept
so by careful cultivation.

295. If it be objected that all these amendments re
quire a good deal of time and labor, it may be answered,
that there are days in the year when a farmer can spare
both . and that a permanent improvement of land is worth
a good deal of both. There are no gains without pains.
Clay may be brought from a clay pit or muck from a bog
at seasons of the year when no agricultural operation can
go on.

296. A Clayey Soil is to be improved first by the appli-
^ cation of sand, as fine as can be found, in quantities

proportioned to the hardness and closeness of the clay.
The object is to bring it into such a state as shall allow
water to penetrate freely, and that it shall harden and
crack less under the influence of drought. If applied to
the surface, the sand will exert at once a favorable influ
ence there, and will soon find its way down into the clay,
when another layer may be applied. This may be done
as well in the heart of winter as at any other season.
The sand not only improves the texture of the soil, but
the reciprocal action of the clay and the sand, aided as it

88 THE SOIL.

will be by any manure that may be applied and by the
vital power of the growing plants, supplies new materials
for their food.

A clayey soil is always greatly improved by deep drain
ing.

297. A limestone or Calcareous Soil, in which there is a
deficiency of sand or of clay, may be amended by the
application of each, according to the means within reach.
A valuable addition to a calcareous soil is the sandy mud
found in the bed of a stream, which may often be easily
obtained in the dryest part of summer.

298. A fourth kind of soil, naturally unproductive of
valuable plants, is that of marshes and swamps. Unpro
ductive as such soils are, they are mines of vegetable
wealth, as they always contain an abundance of substance
produced by the decay of vegetable and animal matters,
— of the richest humus.

They are to be wisely husbanded. They often contain,
in a single acre, enough of the organic elements of fer
tility to convert forty acres of hungry, barren land into
fertile soil. This mine should not be covered over and
lost, as it often is, by burying it under a coat of sand.
If a farmer has many acres of swamp or marsh, he may
bring a portion of it into immediate fertility by an
exchange with the dry and sandy hills of the neighbor
hood, — a load of sand for the surface of the swamp for a
load of muck for the surface of the hill, — but he ought
to leave always a part of his mine accessible, at every
season of the year, and continue to draw from it as long
as he has an acre of poor sandy land left.

:M»(.i. The soil formed from the swamp, by draining and
cove riii1.!' with sand, may be, greatly benefited by the
application oi' lime, gua.no and other heating manures.

COLD SOILS. — WARM SOILS. — COLOR. 89

300. Soils iii which clay predominates are usually
heavy, stiff, wet and cold, and difficult to cultivate. But,
when well drained, amended by the application of sand
and of humus, and carefully tilled, they produce abun
dantly, and repay the pains and expense which have been
bestowed.

Wet lands are cold because of the continual evapora
tion of the water at the surface. Every one knows that
when a wet hand or face is exposed to the wind, it feels
cool. As the moisture is converted into vapor, it takes
up heat, and gives to the surface a sensation of coolness.
In the same way evaporation renders the surface of a wet
soil constantly cool.

801. But lands commonly dry are on that account
warm. Sandy land retains heat far better than clayey
or peaty land.

Color also has an important influence. Dark-colored
soils absorb heat, while light colored soils readily reflect
it. Most manures arc dark-colored. Rich soils, there
fore, naturally absorb heat, and rich sandy soils retain it,
better than poor ones.

That color has an effect upon the power of absorbing
heat is proved by Dr. Franklin's experiment. Place
black, blue, red and white pieces of cloth on the snow in
the sunshine, and, after some hours, the sun's heat will
have been so abundantly absorbed by the black, that it
will have sunk into the snow before the white has begun
to grow warm, while the red will be just beginning to
sink and the blue will have sunk almost as far as the
black.

302. There are few places in this part of the country
where the soil has been formed by the crumbling of the
rocks just beneath the surface. In most parts of the

90 THE SOIL.

Northern and Middle States, the soil is made up, in a
considerable degree, sometimes wholly, of sands or clays,
drifted from the north. These are often called diluvial
soils, from a belief, once in vogue, that they had been
brought to the places where they are found by the action
of a deluge (diluvium.)

303. When the native forests are cut down, and the
land cleared of the undergrowth, and broken up by the
plough, the soil is almost uniformly found to be fertile.
In most parts of America, this virgin soil will bear large
crops of grain and other valuable plants, for many years
in succession, without manure. This fertility is owing
to the fact that the surface has been occupied by forest
trees and other forest plants for countless centuries. By
the decay of the leaves, fruit, roots and trunks, the
ground has been covered with a coat of humus or forest
mould ; and by weathering, — the long continued action
of the atmosphere, and other great agencies of nature, —
the minerals in the soil have been brought into a state
suitable for the food of plants.

304. To give some instances of this action. The oxygen
of the air, combining with the iron or oxide of iron in a
particle of granite, makes it swell and crumble, and, at
the same time, releases the potash or other element which
had been associated with the iron, and leaves it ready to
be taken up by the roots of a plant. Carbonic acid acts
in a similar way iipon lime and magnesia.

305. But the carbonic acid docs not act alone. Car
bonic acid is always ready to be dissolved or absorbed by
water ; and water, thus charged with it, has not only the
power of dissolving limestone and magnesian rocks, but
exerts a slmv but certain inlluenee by which even granite
and the other hardest rocks are gradually crumbled ; very

ACTION OF CARBONIC ACID. — EXHAUSTED SOILS. 91

few minerals, perhaps none, being able to resist its long-
continued action ; and though its solvent power seems
to be slight, in the lapse of time it produces changes of
great importance and extent.

806. Carbonic acid acts in other ways. It unites with
the ammonia of the atmosphere, forming carbonate of
ammonia, and with the potash and soda in the earth,
forming carbonates of potash and of soda. These three
alkaline carbonates have the power of dissolving silica.
Now it has just been stated that silica enters as an ingre
dient into the composition of nearly all the harder rocks.
Of the three minerals of which granite is composed,
quartz is almost pure silica ; mica is two thirds silica, and
felspar is about one half made up of silica. All these
minerals and many others are thus gradually disinte
grated by the slow action of these carbonates upon the
silica in them.

307. Why does the fertility cease ? The mineral and
atmospheric elements of the food of plants arc gradually
taken up by successive crops, and carried off with them,
the humus grows thin and meagre, and the soil is ex
hausted. The crops obtained from the land are, year
after year, continually smaller, till at last they are not
sufficient to reward the labors of the husbandman.

308. The obvious remedy is to restore to the soil the
elements wanting, as will be shown in the chapter upon
manures.

309. But if a soil be barren for one plant, it is not
necessarily so for every other. A field which, for want
of soluble silica, will not bear a second crop of Indian
corn, may, from having a plenty of potash and lime in it,
bear an excellent crop of clover or of beets or carrots.
There may not be enough of a particular element for one

92 OP THE SUBSOIL.

kind of plant, while a plant of another kind may find a
quantity of food amply sufficient for its perfect develop
ment. A third sort of plant may thrive upon the same
soil, after the second, if the remaining mineral constitu
ents are sufficient for a crop of it. And if, during the
cultivation of these crops, a new quantity of the sub
stance wanting for the first, for instance, of soluble silica
for Indian corn, has been rendered available by weather
ing, then, if the other elements be found in sufficient
quantity, the first crop may be again grown upon the
same land.

CHAPTER X.

OF THE SUBSOIL.

310. Immediately below the soil lies the subsoil. It
may be and often is composed of the same kind of earth
as the proper soil ; or it may be entirely different. A
sandy soil may rest upon a subsoil of clay, or upon cal
careous rock, or rock of any other kind, or upon gravel.

311. The influence of the subsoil upon vegetation is
often very great, especially when the soil is not deep
enough for the free growth of the roots of the plants cul
tivated. In that case, when the subsoil is of such a
nature as to admit of it, the soil should be deepened by
ploughing. This should be done gradually and with
judgment, because, as the subsoil has no mould or loam
in it? turning too much of it up to the surface at once,

AN IMPERMEABLE SUBSOIL. 93

will be very likely to render the soil poorer for some time,
instead of richer. If a farmer is aware that his soil
would be improved by being deeper, he must make the
improvement by adding to its depth a little each year.

312. When a loose sand rests upon clay ; or a clayey
soil upon calcareous marl, or upon sand ; indeed when
ever the subsoil will serve as an amendment to the soil,
the two may be mixed with great advantage.

The evils of a subsoil impermeable to water are the
stagnation of water and the excessive humidity of the
soil. Generally, a very slight declivity is sufficient to
induce the water to trickle along below the soil upon the
surface of the subsoil, until it finds some means of escape.
But even in this case, there is likely to remain in the
soil superfluous moisture, which ought to be carried away
by draining.

313. When the slope is not sufficient to lead the water
to run off, the ground becomes boggy and the evil is
declared by signs intelligible to every-body, by the spring
ing up of rushes, sedges and other bog plants. But
when the slope allows the water to trickle away slowly,
the evil is not so apparent. The most certain sign, per
haps, is the presence of the weeds called horsetail, and
scouring rush, (species of equisetum^) which need a sub
soil always wet for their horizontal roots to run upon.

It may be laid down as a rule that wherever horsetail
appears, the ground needs draining.

\' I J Jit AH i

.\ J V

. A,.

94 OF AMENDMENTS.

CHAPTER XI.

OF AMENDMENTS.

314. The soil plays, in tlic life of plants, a double part.
It serves to give room and foothold to the roots ; and it
furnishes or keeps in store for plants the elements nec
essary for their nourishment.

The qualities a soil ought to have, to give sufficient
foothold, must vary with the plants. The grains need a
somewhat compact soil to give firmness of foothold ; the
different kinds of clover a deeper one. On the whole,
what is best suited to plants is average qualities, a soil
neither too compact nor too mellow, neither too heavy
nor too light, too wet nor too dry.

315. These evils are remedied by Amendments, that is,
operations, or the use of substances, by which the soil
will be improved in its physical qualities. For example,
increasing the humidity of dry soils, diminishing that of
moist soils, increasing the tenacity of light soils, lessen
ing that of heavy soils, or any other changes in the
mechanical or physical properties, would properly be called
amendments.

316. Argillaceous soils niay be improved by the addi
tion, not only of sand, but of gravel, broken brick and
plaster, in short by any thing which will render them
more open, loose and penetrable by air and water. In
England, clayey land is often much improved by burning
over the surface, or by burning a portion of the clay
and scattering it upon the land. By burning, the clay
changes its properties and becomes more like sand, and in
this state loosens the soil.

IRRIGATION. — PLANTING. — COST. 95

317. The amendments suited to light, dry, siliceous
lands, are clay, as already suggested, to give them cohe
sion, and argillaceous marls, whenever they are to be had.
Irrigation not only gives moisture to a dry soil, but
always brings useful additions in the substances which
have been dissolved in the water and are deposited when
the water is at rest.

318. Planting with trees, especially planting dry, barren
hills with forest trees, permanently increases the moisture,
not only of the surface covered by the trees, but of the
neighborhood, and thus improves the climate. Draining
is a valuable amendment.

319. In reference to a proposed amendment, the ex
pense must be calculated, and the question must be
settled whether the increased produce will pay for the
outlay.

When the materials are near at hand and it will cost
little to get them and transport them, the question is
easily settled.

320. The character of the amendment must also be
considered. A sandy soil amended by the addition of
clay becomes permanently better. The clay can never
be exhausted, and will always give to the soil the power
of absorbing and retaining the elements of the food of
plants.

An amendment produced by the introduction of humus
or any form of carbonaceous matter will give value to
the land, as long as it continues to be well cultivated and
manured, but, like manure, the added matter is liable to
be exhausted.

The quantity to be used will vary with the depth of
ploughing.

9*

96 OF FERTILIZERS.

CHAPTER XII.

OF FERTILIZERS.

321. The soil ought to contain all the elements neces
sary to the nourishment of plants. These have already
been spoken of in the chapter upon the various elementary
substances found in plants. They are : 1, oxygen ; 2,
carbon, in the state of carbonic acid ; 3, hydrogen ; 4,
nitrogen, in the shape of ammonia ; 5, silicon ; 6, sulphur,
and 7, phosphorus ; 8, chlorine, and 9, sodium, in the
shape of common salt; 10, calcium; 11, potassium; 12,
magnesium ; 13, iron ; 14, manganesium. It must also
contain 15, aluminum, as the basis of clay, and, though
in minute quantity, 16, fluorine ; and the water or the
soil must contain for certain marine plants, 17, iodine,
and 18, bromine.

322. These, except the first four, atmospheric elements,
are always found in combination, as silicates, sulphates,
nitrates, phosphates, carbonates and fluates, of potash,
soda, lime, magnesia, iron, manganese and alumina, or
in other forms sometimes more complex.

We know that these are all essential to plants, because
we find them all in the ashes of plants.

If any one of these elements were absolutely wanting
in a soil, the plants to which that element was essential
could do little more than sprout there ; and if planted or
sown in such a soil, would starve to death. Plaster, for
example, is essential to clover ; and clover seed, sown in
a soil which contained no plaster, would not coino up. If
there were a very little plaster in the soil, the clover
might come up, but would not flourish.

HUMUS ESSENTIAL AND TO BE SUPPLIED. 97

323. What is the remedy ? Plainly it is, to add to the
soil the element or elements wanting ; that is, to apply
manure to the soil.

324. It might naturally be thought that, inasmuch as
the atmospheric elements are furnished continually by the
atmosphere, it could not be necessary to supply the soil
with substances intended to furnish them. But then it
must be remembered that the atmospheric elements are
furnished very slowly, and it is always desirable to hasten
the processes of vegetation, in our short seasons. It is
therefore reasonable, and the experience of all agricultu
rists, in all temperate countries, shows it to be wise, to
provide an abundant supply of those substances which
are full of these atmospheric elements, or which serve to
attract them and keep them in reserve for the wants of
the growing plants.

325. To the question, therefore, Is nothing ever to be
supplied to the soil but the mineral elements which are
wanting ? the answer is to be given, whenever humus is
not already abundant in the soil, it is to be supplied.
For humus furnishes directly, and also indirectly, by the
changes that are going 011 in it from the action of the
oxygen of the atmosphere and the vital power of plants,
the carbonic acid, ammonia and nitric acid which are
just as essential as the mineral elements.

326. But how arc wild plants supplied with humus ?
By a process vastly too slow to meet the wants of the hus
bandman. The roots and leaves of the plants that have
died, decay and form humus for those which are to suc
ceed. But the supply is usually very scanty, and wild
plants have often a thin, meagre look, in comparison with
those under cultivation ; as, for example, the slender-
rooted wild carrot, when compared with the carrot of the

98 OP FERTILIZERS.

garden. Prof. Nuttall, who brought to this country many
beautiful wild plants from Oregon, often said that when
he saw them in the gardens of those to whom he had sent
them, he could hardly recognize them, so much had they
been improved in size and vigor by cultivation.

827. But humus is slowly prepared by the wild plants
themselves. The lichen which encrusts the surface of a
rock has no humus to begin to live on. It seems to have
the power of eating into the rock itself and of extracting
thence the mineral elements it needs. From the air and
the rain it gets carbonic acid and ammonia, and, when it
dies, deposits on the rock a thin coat of humus fitted for
the partial nourishment of other generations of lichens.
These are succeeded, after many years, by plants some
what more fleshy, like the mosses; and by the grasses and
other slender, longer rooted plants ; and these by plants
still larger ; till, in the slow process of time, substance
enough is gathered to give foothold to shrubs, and finally
to trees.

328. The trees of the forest, by their annual deposit of
leaves and, from time to time, of fruits, and at last by the
fall and decay of their trunks, prepare a deep bed of
humus or forest mould for the use of the husbandman.

Whenever he can, he avails himself of this treasure.
But where it is wanting or scanty, cultivated plants are
to be furnished with the abundant humus which they
need, by placing in the soil, within reach of their roots,
organic, that is to say, vegetable and animal substances,
in the state of decay.

329. How these act has already been shown. They pos
sess themselves and impart to the soil the power of absorb-
in.tr and retaining, for the use of plants, the water and
witli it the carbonic acid, ammonia, oxygen, nitric acid

CLASSIFICATION OF FERTILIZERS. 99

and other elements which come down dissolved in the
rain. These, acting on each other, and quickened in their
action by the air, by the sun's light and heat, and by the
electric and vital influences of the plants, continually
prepare for the use of plants, the food which they need,
in the form best suited to their nourishment.

830. To the question, Which are more important, the
atmospheric elements thus furnished, or the earthy or
mineral ? we answer, Both are equally important. Both
are indispensable. They are necessary to each other. A
soil rich in organic substances, attracts and retains the
atmospheric elements in abundance proportioned to its
richness. Such a soil puts the earthy elements into a
condition suited to the wants of vegetation ; and, the more
readily and abundantly, in proportion to the fulness of the
supply of these earthy elements.

331. Fertilizers may accordingly be divided into two
great classes, viz. : Inorganic or Mineral Fertilizers, and
Organic, or Vegetable and Animal Manures,

OF INORGANIC OR MINERAL FERTILIZERS.

332. In their general character, inorganic fertilizers
are both manures and amendments. They furnish nour
ishment to plants, at the same time that they exert a
mechanical action upon the texture of the soil, upon its
lightness, stiffness, compactness, &c.

333. The principal mineral fertilizers are lime, marl,
plaster, wood ashes, ley, soot, sulphates and other salts
of ammonia, phosphates and super-phosphates of lime,
common salt, carbonates, nitrates, silicates of potash and
soda, sulphates of soda, of lime, and of magnesia, &c.
But all of these are not in common use.

100 OF FERTILIZERS.

334. Quicklime is limestone, chalk, or shells, deprived
of their carbonic acid by heat in a fire or a lime-kiln.
Quicklime amends a soil by decomposing some of its
ingredients, and by setting at liberty the potash and other
alkalies which exist in combination with clay and in par
ticles of granitic sand. It also hastens the decay of
organic substances, and combines with some of the gas
eous products given out during the process. It should be
in a state of powder, before it is scattered upon the soil.
It combines with the carbonic acid which is always in the
air and constantly brought down by rain, and thus
returns to the state of carbonate of lime.

This, by itself, is insoluble in water, but water contain
ing carbonic acid has the power of dissolving carbonate
of lime, and thus the carbonate so formed and that
already in the limestone rocks are dissolved, and the
rocks are disintegrated.

It also acts upon plants by diminishing the evaporation
from their surface, and thus husbands the moisture in the
soil, and makes it last longer than it would without the
lime. This same effect is also produced by gypsum,
nitre, common salt, and most of the other saline manures.

335. An excellent way of using lime is in a compost,
as is practiced in Flanders. Make a layer of lime, and
cover it with a layer of sods, weeds, scrapings of ditches
and roads, river mud, marsh mud, and any thing else rich
in organic substances. Follow with successive layers of
lime and of the organic matter, and cover with a coat of
loam. At the end of a fortnight, it may be worked over,
and this may be repeated, from time to time. The longer
it remains in a heap, the more complete is the mixture,
in id the better the compost.

LIME. — MARL. 101

336. Lime mellows clayey land. It is an essential
element in most plants and is valuable therefore for
itself. It is a very important element in toba,cco, pota
toes, pease, the clovers, and turnips. It corrects the
acidity of soils, particularly of that of bogs and swamps.
An examination of the mineral ingredients of our soils
shows that it is never wanting.

337. Yet, in most parts of New England, it is so diffi
cult to obtain and so dear that it cannot often be largely
applied. In small quantities, it produces, when needed,
most important effects. In England, large quantities are
often applied to land in the shape of chalk.

338. Limestone rocks often contain magnesia, which is
acted upon in a lime-kiln just as lime is. This dimin
ishes the value of the lime, as does the mixture of clay
and of sand, with which it is sometimes adulterated.
Wherever oyster shells or any other shells can be readily
got, they may be burned on heaps of brush, or other fuel
of little value, and will be converted into a lime which is
of greater value for agricultural purposes, than that
formed from limestone rocks, because it contains a small
quantity of phosphoric acid. The having already formed
a part of an organized being seems also to prepare it
for a similar service.

339. Marl is a mixture of lime and clay, or lime and
sand, sometimes, but not often, found in New England,
but abundant in some other States. When exposed to
the atmosphere, it should crumble easily, as its action is
in proportion to its readiness to mix perfectly with the
soil. Though less energetic, it has all the permanent
effects of lime, and is very valuable as an amendment,
clayey marl to sandy soils, and sandy marl to clayey.

102 OF FERTILIZERS.

340. Plaster, or plaster of Paris, as it is often called,
is sulphate of lime : and the valuable effects it produces
upon soils are owing to its supplying them not only with
lime, but with the very important and often essential
element of sulphur.

341. Sulphur, or brimstone, is present in nearly all
parts of vegetables and of animals. Mustard seeds and
the seeds of all other cruciferous plants contain a large
proportion of sulphur. It also exists in the white of
eggs, in the curd of milk, in hair and in wool.

Several very valuable salts are formed by sulphuric acid
or oil of vitriol. By combining with potash, it forms sul
phate of potash ; with soda, sulphate of soda, — Glauber's
salt ; with lime, sulphate of lime, — plaster or gypsum ;
with magnesia, sulphate of magnesia, — Epsom salts ; with
alumina, sulphate of alumina ; with oxide of iron, sul
phate of iron, — copperas. And it is from these and other
similar compounds that plants derive the sulphur found
in them.

342. Plaster produces a striking effect upon the water
in which it is dissolved, " such water, being incapable of
cooking vegetables and of dissolving soap, is called hard
water; but it may be very easily and economically con
verted into soft ivatcr, and rendered fit for domestic and
culinary purposes, by adding to it a small quantity of
ordinary carbonate of soda, in the proportion of about
half an ounce per gallon." — Normandy.

Carbonate of lime is formed, which settles to the bot
tom as a white sediment, from which soft water may be
poured off.

343. Plaster has also the property of being decomposed
by the carbonate of ammonia. It is thus turned into
sulphate of ammonia, which is not volatile at a common

PLASTER OF PARIS. — ITS ACTION. 103

temperature, and so husbands the ammonia for the future
use of plants. This takes place because ammonia and
sulphuric acid have a greater mutual attraction than
ammonia and carbonic acid. The ammonia, therefore,
leaves the carbonic acid with which it has been united,
and unites with sulphuric acid, to form sulphate of
ammonia ; and the lime, deprived of the sulphuric acid,
unites with carbonic acid, to form carbonate of lime.
This is more clearly shown by the following diagram : —

SULPHATE ( Sulphuric Acid, Sulphate of Ammonia.

OF

LIME. (Lime,

CARBONATE ( Ammonia, . . . . •

OF <
AMMONIA. ( Carbonic Acid, Carbonate of Lime.

344. The carbonate of ammonia comes from the air, in
which it is formed by the combination of the carbonic
acid always floating there, with the ammonia always form
ing by the union of hydrogon and nitrogen. Or it may
be formed in the earth.

345. But when and how should plaster be applied?
When a soil does not contain naturally any sulphate of
lime, or when it has been exhausted by cropping, the
addition of that substance may prove of great value in
two ways ; 1st, by furnishing food for the plants men
tioned, and 2d, by fixing the ammonia of the atmosphere
and laying it up in store for the future use of plants by
decomposing, as shown above, the carbonate of ammonia
contained in rain water, and making soluble sulphate of
ammonia and carbonate of lime.

When applied, plaster should be scattered, in the shape
of the finest, impalpable powder, in the spring, just as

vegetation is beginning, while the dew of the morning or
10

104 OF FERTILIZERS.

evening is on the plants, that it may stick, but not in
rainy weather.

346. The other sulphates are also useful. Sulphate of
soda is said to produce good effects upon clover and other
green crops. And so also is sulphate of magnesia good
for these crops and for potatoes.

347. Ashes. In Westphalia there is a proverb that
" he pays double who buys no ashes." It is a fact often
observed that, on strewing wood ashes on a meadow which
has long been mown, thousands of clover plants make
their appearance, where none were visible before.

Ashes are made up of salts, such as silicates, phos
phates, sulphates and carbonates. The carbonates and
sulphates of potash and soda, as found in ashes, are
soluble and are dissolved out by leaching. The silicates,
phosphates and carbonates of lime, magnesia, iron and
manganese, are insoluble and thus remain in leached
ashes. A portion also of silicate of potash remains undis-
solved.

Far the larger part of leached ashes is carbonate of
lime. The next is phosphate of lime or bone dust.

248. Unleached wood ashes are of great value in the
cultivation of many crops, especially Indian corn, turnips,
beets and potatoes, because of the great amount of car
bonate and other salts of potash which they contain, and
so important is potash to these plants that they are often
called potash plants.

349. Leached ashes are of less general value, but still
are a very valuable fertilizer, by reason of the salts which
they contain, which, though not soluble in simple \valrr,
may be rendered soluble by the influence of other salts,
of air, and of the vital power of plants, and may be thus
again taken up into the circulation, and again perform

ASHES. — LEY. — SOOT. 105

the service they had already performed in the plants
from the combustion of which they came. They have
important effects when mixed in compost heaps.

350. The ashes of sea coal and anthracite are not with
out value, and have a good effect upon cold, stiff soils, and
are found an excellent top-dressing for grass, even 011 light
soils. As they absorb water and the gases, they are deo
dorizers, and retain the offensive gases for the food of
plants. They have a slow but good effect, scattered
among trees, and are particularly valuable in the forma
tion of walks and roads.

351. Since ashes lose some of their good qualities by
having ley drawn from them by leaching, Ley itself must
be useful as a manure ; and not only ley, but that which
is left after the ley has been made into soap by combining
with fats and oils, and done its office as soap by taking
dirt from clothes, dishes, faces and hands. Soap suds
and dish water, therefore, are so valuable that they ought
never to be lost or thrown away. They have an excellent
effect if sprinkled upon grass or other growing crops, or
poured upon compost heaps.

352. Soot is a precious manure, since it is made up
of carbon, in the state of the finest powder, and is full of
volatile salts. In Flanders, it is reserved for beds of colza,
which it protects against plant lice. In England, it is
scattered upon meadows, where it promotes, the vegeta
tion of grass, while it destroys moss. Three large crops
of clover have been got in one year by the use of it. The
soot from bituminous coal is still better than that from
wood.

353. As Carbonate of Potash and Carbonate of Soda are
the forms in which potash and soda are found in ashes,

106 OF FERTILIZERS.

they must have the same effects as ashes, only in a more
decided manner.

35-1. The salts of ammonia, especially the nitrate, are
very valuable as manures, and are particularly applicable
to soils already rich in phosphates, or which contain vege
table acids. Sulphate of Ammonia, which may be obtained
at a moderate price at the manufactories of gas, is excel
lent, when applied in small quantities, to fields of meadow
hay or of wheat.

355. Nitrate of Potash, East India saltpetre, is nitric
acid and potash united. As might be expected, botli
nitrate of potash and Nitrate of Soda, South American
saltpetre, yielding not only nitrogen but potash and soda
to plants, are particularly beneficial to wheat and to
barley.

356. And, as the plants grown in the fields must supply
the phosphate of lime which is essential to the growth of
the bones of all animals, and this ingredient in soil is
likely to be exhausted, Phosphate and Super-phosphate of Lime
are of the very greatest value as manures. Phosphate of
lime is usually applied in the shape of ground bones, and
super-phosphate, as bones dissolved by sulphuric acid and
diluted with water, applied either in a liquid state, or
reduced to powder .by drying.

357. All the elements in the salts of ammonia, of potash
and of lime,- here spoken of, are either taken up by plants,
or exert a most important influence upon the humus in
the soil, hastening the process of decay, and converting
insoluble into soluble salts.

358. Common salt is also sometimes of great value as
;L i'ertili/er. For some plants, asparagus, for example, it
is of indisputable importance, and may be employed in
very large quantities. It not only enriches the soil for

COMMON SALT. — OBJECT OF MANURES. 107

asparagus, but it kills nearly all the weeds ; and as weeds
are commonly nothing but valuable plants out of place,
it must be used with discretion, or it may do more harm
than good.

Applied in small quantities, it has the effect of render
ing grass and clover more pleasant to animals, and, in a
small proportion, it is of the greatest value to all cultivated
crops. It is also a valuable addition to the farmyard
and to the compost heap. Salt which has been used in
curing fish or meats is much cheaper and far better than
pure salt.

359. The object of manures is to give to the soil what
ever is wholly or partly wanting to it, whether of a com
bustible or an incombustible nature. The use of organic
manures is to furnish the soil with humus, geine or
mould, which shall serve as a reservoir, to hold in readi
ness, for the use of plants, all the kinds of food necessary
to their growth. And the use of humus is to furnish and
keep a ready supply of carbonic acid, ammonia and water,
which three are the last result of the decomposition of
vegetable substances.

360. Such being the object, organic manures should be
employed in a condition favorable to decomposition, either
in a fermented state or, better still, ready to enter into
fermentation. Manures which should refuse to decom
pose would be of no use. But the decomposition must
not be too far advanced. Ammonia is very volatile, as
its common name indicates, and may readily escape into
the air and be lost. The penetrating, characteristic odor
of ammonia is perceived in stables, near manure heaps,
and wherever else nitrogenous substances, that is, vege
table and animal substances containing nitrogen, are in a
state of decay. Every one who has had occasion to use

10*

108 OF FERTILIZERS.

a smelling bottle, knows the effect of ammonia upon the
organs of smell.

When the manure is immediately covered up, the
ammonia, as it is disengaged, is kept in the soil, espe
cially if there be clay or loam or something else present
which has an attraction for it.

361. Organic Manures are divided into Vegetable Ma
nures, Animal ^lanures, and Mixtures of Vegetable and
Animal.

The principal vegetable manures are green crops, kelp
and rock-weeds, straw, sedge or reeds, leaves, brewer's
grains, &c.

362. Green Manures are standing crops, ploughed in,
if possible, when ripe, for it is then that they contain the
greatest quantity of soluble matter. The best plants for
the purpose are the different kinds of clover, lucerne and
sainfoin, vetches, buckwheat, cabbage-leaves, radishes,
turnip-tops, wild mustard and wild turnip, potato-tops,
Indian corn, rye, <fcc. Yet some of these are better
suited to certain soils than others.

To be suited to this purpose, plants should grow rap
idly, so as not to occupy the land too long ; their seed
should be cheap,, and they should be plants which borrow
most of their elements from the atmosphere. Such plants
bestow upon the soil more than they receive from it.

363. The green crops best suited to. light and sandy
soils are buckwheat, the clovers, cabbages, radishes, wild
mustard, potato and turnip-tops, rye, and Indian corn.
For stiff, clayey soils, beans and pease, the different kinds
of clover, vetches, &c. But green crops are less suited to
clayey than to any other kind of soil. For calcareous
soils they arc exceedingly advantageous, as such soils

GREEN CROPS AS FERTILIZERS. 109

need no lime. For all other soils, especially clayey soils,
lime should be scattered profusely upon the green crop
at the time it is ploughed in. On very dry, sandy soils,
the use of green manures is very beneficial, as they
speedily decay in such soils and supply vegetable mould,
which, being retentive of water, does something to correct
the want of such soils and is very serviceable in time of
drought.

364. Green manuring is particularly applicable to moun
tainous districts, and those remote from the homestead,
where the expense of carriage of other manures would
be too considerable, and also to poor soils deficient in clay,
and which, on that account, imperfectly retain water.

365. For winter wheat, or winter rye, to both of which
green manures are well suited, the land, should be ploughed
deep in spring, and the seed for a green crop be sown so
that it shall be ripe a week or two before the winter grain
is to be sown. The green crop sown with lime or plaster
should be ploughed in to a moderate depth, say two to
four inches, and, just as the decomposition is beginning,
the wheat or rye should be sown. The grain, as it sprouts,
and while it is young, will thus take advantage of the
ammonia and other products of the vegetable decay.

366. Where land is very much infested with weeds, two
green crops may be grown, the same season, and ploughed
in before the weeds are ripe. Most of the seeds of the
early and also of the late weeds will thus be made to come
up, and the plants be turned in, with the green crop, for
the benefit of the soil.

367. The addition to the soil is not the only advantage
of green manures. The mechanical condition of the
ground is remarkably altered by the ploughing in of
plants and their remains. A tenacious soil thereby loses

110 OF FERTILIZERS.

its cohesion ; it becomes more friable and more readily
pulverized than by the most careful ploughing. In a
sandy soil, coherence may be given. Each stem, of the
green plants ploughed in, opens, by its decay, a road by
which the delicate rootlets of the future plant may ramify
in all directions to seek their food.

308. Kelp and rock-weed are very valuable as a ma
nure. They contain a good deal of nitrogen and a
large proportion of alkaline and earthy salts, and, as
they undergo decomposition more rapidly than other
green manures, so their effect upon vegetation is, propor
tionally, much more powerful, but it is also much less
lasting. The slender, grass-like sea-weed, also called eel-
grass, has very little value as a manure, as it has little
substance, and yields very slowly to decay, but is still
valuable for its mechanical effects upon heavy soils.

Kelp and rock-weed may be ploughed in, like other
green manures, but this should be done as' soon as possi
ble, or, if this is not practicable, they should be stratified
with earth and lime, in order to convert them into a com
post, or they may be mixed with ordinary manure.

These sea-weeds act beneficially on all ordinary crops.
If spread upon grass in spring or early summer, they
promote its growth ; and a crop of grain subsequently
obtained from such a soil, is said to be much improved,
at least in quantity, for the quality is thought to be dete
riorated. In the north of Scotland, farmers prefer kelp
and rock-weed to any other manure for cabbages. They
form an excellent manure for fiax and hemp, the flax
obtained being improved thereby, both in quantity and
quality. Rye, oats, turnips and clover are benefited by
that manure. Their action upon vegetables is immediate

GREEN MANURES. — LEAVES. Ill

but docs not last long, showing its effects, however, more
the second year than the first.

369. The straw and leaves of particular vegetables are
the best manure for those vegetables, wheat straw for
wheat, potato-tops for potatoes, and the leaves and prun-
ings of grape vines for those vines.

Straw ploughed into stiff clay soils renders them more
porous and thus lets in the air, and causes decay not only
of the straw but of the organic matter previously existing
there. Wheat and other grain stubble on stiff soils
should be ploughed in soon after the grain is removed,
both for the reason just given, in regard to straw, and
because, the fresher the roots, the more rapidly do they
decompose. This docs not hold true for light sandy land.

For hay land, or land to be laid down to grass, damaged
hay, not fit for animals, is valuable as a manure. Sedge
and the reed-grass of salt marshes are also of use, but
less valuable than the substances just mentioned.

870. The leaves from different trees have very different
degrees of value. Poplar leaves, oak leaves and chestnut,
beech, and maple leaves, are rich in nutritive matters,
while thinner leaves and pine leaves contain very little
nourishment for plants. The leaves of the larch are con
sidered favorable to grasses, from the fact that hills
planted with larches afford better pasturage than they
had furnished when they were bare. But this may be
the consequence of the land being shaded. All leaves
should be ploughed in as soon as possible after they have
fallen. Leaves, grasses, young twigs, and all other green,
vegetable matter, the very element of humus, arc valuable
as manures, and their value is greater in proportion to
their freshness when ploughed in ; and whatever is val
uable in this way is valuable for the compost heap.

112 OF FERTILIZERS.

371. Animal Manures. They are more powerful than
vegetable or mixed manures, on account of the great
quantity of nitrogen which they contain, and the impor
tant salts which exist in them. The nitrogen unites with
hydrogen, and forms ammonia, and this the ammoniacal
salts. These dissolve other mineral substances, and are
absorbed by water, which carries them down to the roots
of plants. The more abundant these elements of plant
food are, the more rapidly will they enter into plants, and
the surer and more abundant will be the crops. The
more completely the soil has been mixed and pulverized,
the more readily will the roots reach their supply of food.

372. The flesh of quadrupeds, fishes and other dead
animals, contains about 50 per cent, of carbon, and from
13 to 17 of nitrogen, besides water, salts of potash and
soda, of lime and of magnesia, and is therefore one of
the very best manures that can be.

These substances, and all offal and animal refuse, should
never be applied directly to the soil, but made into a com
post.

373. The best way of disposing of the carcass of a dead
animal is to place it in a hole one or two feet deep,
sprinkle an abundance of quick-lime upon it, then throw
on a layer of earth, then a layer of plaster, then a layer
of earth mixed with powdered copperas, and then a suffi
cient depth of earth. The plaster and copperas absorb
the ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen, as they are
formed, and prevent all unpleasant effluvia.

In a few weeks, the heap maybe opened, the bones sep
arated, to be used in bone manure, and the remaining
mass turned over and mixed, if necessnry, with additional
earth. This, ivpe;ite<| once or twice, will make the sub
stance retuly for use. {Xunmnuly.) The body of a dead

SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN. — ANIMAL MANURES. Ho

horse can convert twenty tons of peat into a manure
richer and more lasting than stable manure. — Dana.

374. Sulphuretted hydrogen is a nauseously smelling
compound of sulphur and hydrogen. It gives its peculiar
smell to a rotten egg. When dead fish or fish offal is
thrown upon land, it not only diffuses a most offensive
smell to a great distance, but it imparts a very disagree
able flavor to the crops, and also to the milk and to the
butter made from the milk of cows who feed upon such
crops.

375. Hoofs, hair, feathers, skins, wool, and blood, con
tain more than 50 per cent, of carbon, and from 13 to 18
of nitrogen, besides sulphur, and salts of lime, of soda and
of magnesia. They therefore hold the first rank among
manures, and, as a long time is required for their decom
position, their action may last for seven or eight years.
They yield excellent results, made into a compost for
potatoes, turnips, or hops, or for meadow land.

876. Hair, spread upon meadows, augments the crop
threefold ; and, the Chinese, who know its value, collect it
every time they have their head shaved, — and the opera
tion is performed once a fortnight, — and sell it to the
farmers. The crop of hair, from the head of each indi
vidual, amounts, in a year, to about half a pound. Every
million of persons therefore affords two hundred and fifty
tons of hair, that is, of manure of the most valuable kind,
since it represents at least two thousand five hundred
tons of ordinary barnyard manure, and which might be
collected without trouble, but which is now invariably
lost. You may calculate what must be the loss for the
State, and for the whole United States.

377. Blood, besides more than 52 per cent, of carbon
and 17 per cent, of nitrogen, contains soluble salts, such

114 OP FERTILIZERS.

as common salt, phosphates, sulphates and carbonates of
potash, soda, &c., water, and some insoluble salts, namely
phosphate of lime and of magnesia. Like flesh, it should
be made into a compost with other substances, and it thus
becomes a very valuable manure for light soils, while its
effect 011 clayey soils is less obvious.

378. Bones contain more than 53 per cent, of phosphate
of lime, a little phosphate of magnesia, some carbonate of
soda, £c., and more than 7 per cent, of nitrogen. Their
principal value is owing to the quantity of the phosphates
they contain, as these salts are largely removed from a
soil by the feeding of cattle and by successive crops.
These salts remain after the bones have been deprived of
their fatty substance by the soap-boiler, though most of
the nitrogen is lost. Bones should be ground before
being used, and may be applied at the rate of ten or
twelve hundred weight to the acre. Even when ground,
they produce effects which may be seen for several years.

379. The action of bones may be accelerated by con
verting their phosphates into perphosphates or super
phosphates, which is done by mixing the ground bones
with half their weight of sulphuric acid diluted with three
or four times its bulk of water. This is to be thoroughly
mixed and left a day or two at rest. One barrel of the
pasty mass may then be mixed with one hundred barrels
of water and sprinkled upon the field from a water-cart
or by scoops. Or the perphosphate may be mixed with a
large quantity of earth, or sawdust, soot or powdered char
coal, and thus applied to the land.

380. It is easy to see how it conies that animal manures
are so valuable. Animals live almost wholly upon sub
stances de-rived from the vegetable kingdom. These sub
stances, restored to the earth, from which and from the

MIXED MANURES. 115

air they must originally have corne, are naturally, there
fore, the very most important elements of the food of
plants.

381 . Mixed Manures. It is the uniform experience of all
farmers and gardeners in all parts of the world, that barn
manure, that which comes from the stable, the cow-house,
the sheep-fold, the pig-sty and other similar sources, is, on
the whole, the most valuable and the most universal in its
beneficial effects of all known manures. Other manures
have great value for particular purposes. This is useful
for all. It is the only manure which keeps up the fer
tility of all kinds of land. This is just what we should
expect. Many plants are cultivated as food for cattle
and other animals. The concentrated essence of the
nutritious elements of plants goes to form the bodies of
animals ; and we have just seen how extremely valuable
as manure, is every part of those bodies. A portion is
converted into milk. We know how precious, primarily
as food and indirectly as furnishing butter and cheese, the
milk of cows is. In the mountains of Europe, and among
the poorer classes, the milk of goats and of sheep, is not
less precious. In the great plains of Arabia and Tartary,
the same priceless advantages are afforded by the milk of
the camel and the mare.

All these valuable elements of vegetable food, except the
comparatively small portion which is converted into flesh
or milk, are or should be thrown upon the manure heap.

382. Manure is of such primary importance upon every
farm, and there is so much danger that valuable portions
of it should be washed away by rain and lost in the earth,
or dried up by the sun, or wafted away by the winds, that
particular care should be taken to secure it.

The best and most convenient arrangement, when it

can be made, is to have the manure fall into a cellar
11

116 OF FERTILIZERS.

immediately under the stable or cow-house. And care
should be taken that no portion, liquid or solid, should be
lost. If it be left exposed to the open air, and suffered
to be drenched by rain, or parched up by the sun, a great
quantity of the products of its decomposition will be vola
tilized or washed away. There is danger also of its heat
ing, from the process of decomposition which immediately
begins, especially in the cellar under the stable for horses.
The temperature should not be permitted to exceed 100°
of Fahrenheit, and if a smell of ammonia be perceived, it
is a proof that the valuable products of its decomposition
are wasting ; and means must be immediately employed
to fix them, that is, make them combine with something
else, and thus prevent their loss.

383. This can be done by watering the manure heap
with dilute sulphuric acid, or a solution of copperas,
(sulphate of iron,) or by sprinkling plaster over it, when
the odor of ammonia will immediately disappear. In a
cellar, however, where the liquid manure is as carefully
saved as the solid, and into which a stream of water may
be directed by a spout from the gutter under the eaves,
there will seldom be danger of heating, and a little fresh
garden soil or loam thrown in may produce all the most
important effects of the chemical substances.

384. By Decomposition is meant a change among the
elements of a compound substance and their union in
other forms. This takes place in consequence of the
attraction which the elements have for the oxygen of the
air and of water. The vital principle counteracts this
jit inn-lion. In an egg, for example, as long as there is
life in il, the contents remain unchanged and are ready
to be \vaki-d up into a living creature. But as soon as
the life is gone, decomposition begins, the sulphur and

DECOMPOSITION. — FERMENTATION. 117

hydrogen in the egg, warmed a little, attract each other
and form sulphuretted hydrogen, which is ready to fly
off, and oxygen unites with the other ingredients, forming
new compounds.

385. Fermentation. The oxygen of the air is always
ready to unite with other elements. If the juices of
plants containing sugar, such as cider, or wine, for
example, be carefully kept from the air, they remain
sweet. But if the air be admitted, the oxygen immedi
ately unites with the albumen of the juice, and then with
the sugar, and the Vinous Fermentation begins. If this is
allowed to continue, the sugar will be changed into
carbonic acid and alcohol.

Weak wine, cider or beer, exposed to air, at the tem
perature of from 70° to 90°, gradually grows warmer,
and becomes thick by slender threads moving in every
direction through it, with a low hissing noise. When the
noise has ceased, and the threads have attached them
selves to the sides and bottom of the vessel, the liquor,
now become clear, has passed through the Acetous Fer
mentation, and become acetic acid or vinegar.

386. The final products of complete decay are univer
sally the same. The carbon of organic bodies combines
with oxygen and forms carbonic acid. The hydrogen
unites with oxygen and forms water, or with nitrogen
and forms ammonia ; or with sulphur and phosphorus,
forming sulphuretted and phosphuretted hydrogen. The
incombustible matters alone remain. Moisture and
warmth are necessary at the beginning and at every stage
of decomposition. To prevent it, therefore, we have only
to keep the substance cold and dry.

387. It is desirable to keep the stable and cow-house
always clean and sweet ; and this may be effectually done
by sprinkling a little plaster upon the floor once a day.

118 OF FERTILIZERS.

We commonly think that a stable or a cow-house is
necessarily a dirty place. Why ought it to he kept clean
and sweet ? It is almost quite as essential to the health
and comfort of horses or of cows, that they should be kept
clean and allowed to breathe a pure atmosphere, as it is
for the health and comfort of human beings. Besides,
cows are often milked in their stalls ; and if so pene
trating a substance as ammonia fill the air there, it will
necessarily be absorbed by the milk and give it a bad taste
and smell.

The cost of a little plaster is very trifling. Enough to
answer the purpose for a whole winter will not cost a dol
lar ; and the value of the manure will be increased far
more than that, so that you have only to pay a little pains
for the pleasure of being clean and having the animals
clean, with a sweet smelling place for them to live in and
yourself to go to.

388. The products of the stable, of the cow-house, of
the sheep-fold and of the pig-sty, are not of quite the
same composition and value. They are different and
suited to different uses. As a general rule, the contents
of the cellar under the cows and oxen are more fit for
very dry, light soils, and those from the horse-stable for
stiff, clayey soils. The scrapings of the sheep-fold are
better suited to meadow lands, as they often impart a dis
agreeable flavor to culinary vegetables ; and the same is
true of the contents of the pig-sty.

The common practice of throwing every kind of manure
into one cellar, to form one heap, is not a bad one.

When the soil to be cultivated is an average soil, neither
a stiff clay nor a dry sand, but a free, arable soil, the
practice is a very good one. The defects of one kind of
manure are corrected by the qualities of another, and

MIXED MANURES. — CARE OF MANURES. 119

such mixed manure will be neither too cold nor liable to
heat and burn. It is of manures of this kind that the
French proverbs have been made: "A small manure
heap never fills a large corn bin." "It is not he that
sows but he that manures well that gets the crop."
"Less seed and more manure?/ " Without manure there
are no good fields ; with plenty of manure there are no
poor ones."

389. The best materials for litter or bedding for cattle
and horses are straw of every kind, damaged hay, sedge,
reeds, leaves, sawdust. If these cannot conveniently be
had, turf may be used, or loam, or even sand, which has
the advantage of keeping animals free from lice. It
should be something which will help to make them warm
in cold- weather, and dry and clean at all times. Horses
and cattle should be always kept nicely clean. Both look
better, fare better and fatten better, when they are care
fully curried or carded and rubbed every day.

It is an excellent plan to have the cellar floor of clay
firmly rammed and made even, but sloping towards the
middle from the sides, and from the middle towards one
end. There, in a place easily reached, should be a hollow
to receive the liquid from the heap. The manure will be
greatly benefited and prevented from heating, by pouring
this liquid, from time to time, upon the top of the manure
heap. Or, if the heap does not need it, it may be poured,
with great advantage, upon compost heaps. Flemish
manure is a liquid manure formed in a cistern, to which
drains from the bottom of vaults bring the most valuable
of all manures. Into this cistern water is made to run,
which completely dissolves and dilutes whatever is in the
vault. The liquid is sprinkled by a watering cart over
meadows and growing crops, with striking effects.
11*

120 OF FERTILIZERS.

390. A valuable liquid manure is formed by mixing
with the liquid from the manure heap any other rich sub
stances with a large quantity of water, which is to be
poured by means of the sprinkling cart upon growing
crops.

It can be applied, advantageously, to those fields which
are already rich enough in humus or mould, as one great
benefit of the application of manures in a solid form is to
furnish a permanent reservoir for moisture, carbonic acid,
and ammonia, and other elements of the food of plants
capable of being dissolved in water or of being absorbed
by decayed vegetables, and kept ready for the use of
plants.

391. What is the most valuable of all manures, the
statement of a few facts will enable you to judge. The
principal object in view in the cultivation of all cereal
plants, all leguminous vegetables, all fruits and nearly all
roots, is, directly or indirectly, to furnish food for man.
Most of the animals which he has domesticated, the sheep,
the ox, the swine, all kinds of domestic fowls, the birds
shot by the fowler and the fishes caught by the fisherman,
are intended to supply his table. Now, of all these sub
stances, vegetable, fish, flesh and fowl, which enter into
the human system as food or as drink, for the supply of
man's wants or as luxuries, all, except the little which is
used to build up and to renew his body, is thrown away
and is usually lost.

392. Chemical analysis entirely confirms the conclusions
of common sense in this matter. The body itself, as is
well known, is continually changing; its substance is
becoming effete and its elements are constantly renewed.
Chemical analysis shows that all the substances which
have been enumerated as the elements of plants, all the

CARE OF MANURES. 121

gases, the carbon, sulphur and phosphorus, all the alkalies
and all the earths and metals, are not only found in the
substance of the different parts of the human body, in
the bones, the brain, the flesh, the tendons, the skin, and
the delicate humors between them, but they are all found
in those substances which have formed a part of the
human body or have been within it, and have been cast
out, after having performed their necessary and beneficent
offices.

Now all these substances, literally the concentrated
essence of soils, of vegetable and of animal organization,
arc usually thrown away and lost. If restored to the
soil, they would more effectually renew it, and restore its
fertility than all other manures and amendments put
together, and yet they are allowed to escape and to be
utterly wasted. And not only are they wasted and lost.
Substances which, if properly preserved and husbanded,
would render fertile as a garden the neighborhood of all
great towns and cities, and would keep up the fertility of
all the farms throughout the country, are now allowed to
flow away into drains and sewers and to poison the atmos
phere of towns and the waters of the rivers. There is
scarcely any other instance of so enormous a waste.
Chiefly in consequence of this waste, the farms, in all the
older parts of the country, are becoming, or are already
become, far less productive than they originally were.
Even in those parts of New York and of the West that
have been longest settled, though all recently settled, the
fields are already losing their fertility from the same cause.

393. What means ought to be employed to prevent this
waste? Economy, as well' as regard for cleanliness and
health, demands that measures should everywhere be
taken to save all these substances, of every kind, liquid

122 OF FERTILIZERS.

and solid, to mix them with such substances as will ren
der them inoffensive, and afterwards to compost them
with other materials for manure and to restore them to
the soil.

894. Many substances will prevent all disagreeable efflu
via ; plaster, copperas, Glauber's salt, sulphuric acid, or,
better still, Epsom salts, chloride of manganese, sulphate
and chloride of zinc, chloride of lime, all of which sub
stances can be procured at a very low price. Most of
these are completely soluble in water. Plaster is not so,
and should therefore be put into those places only which
are regularly and thoroughly cleared out.

395. If the above mentioned substances and all others
capable of being used as manure, were always carefully
husbanded and used, there would be no necessity for the
use of guano.

Guano, (pronounced gooahno,) is the Peruvian name
for the droppings of sea-fowls, found upon certain unin
habited islands on the coast of Peru and of Africa, in a
climate not subject to rain. Guano has been accumu
lating there for an unknown length of time. It is found
in deposits of great depth and is now dug out and ex
ported to Europe and the United States, as a substitute
for or an adjunct to farm yard manure. Guano consists
principally of alkaline and earthy phosphates, and of
ammonia and ammoniacal salts or compounds capable of
being resolved into ammonia.

Good guano, exposed to a heat of 212°, loses not more
than from 6 to 12 per cent, including a little ammonia.
Poor guano, or that which is in a state of advanced
decomposition, loses as much as 35 or even 40 per cent,
of water.

WELL PREPARED SOIL LOSES NO MANURE. 123

396. Is it not very discouraging that after all the pains
a farmer takes to fill his soil with valuable manure, it
should be all washed away or into the deep earth by the
rain ? It would be very discouraging if it were true, but
fortunately it is not true ; as is made very apparent by
a simple experiment or two. If a funnel be filled with
soil, and a dilute solution of silicate of potash be poured
upon it, there will not be found in the filtered water, as it
runs out of the funnel, a trace of potash, and, only under
certain circumstances, silicic acid.

If a funnel be filled with earth, and water, holding in
solution ammonia, potash, phosphoric acid and silicic acid,
be poured into it, none of these substances will be found
in the water escaping from the funnel. The soil will have
completely withdrawn them and incorporated them with
itself.

397. Or make another experiment. Take a portion of
garden soil full of potash, silicic acid, ammonia, or phos
phoric acid, put it into a funnel and pour water upon it.
The water will not dissolve out a trace of it. The most
continuous rain cannot remove from a field, except
mechanically, that is, unless it carry off soil and all,
any of the essential constituents of its fertility. It is a
common fear that the nourishing substances in liquid
manure and in guano, will, if not immediately taken up
by plants, be lost. But the fear is wholly unfounded.
From liquid manure diluted with much water, or from a
solution of guano, soil, when used in sufficient quantity,
removes the whole of the ammonia, potash, and phos
phoric acid which they contain. Not a trace of these
substances can be found in the water which flows from
the soil.

124 OF FERTILIZERS.

398. It is probable that plants sometimes obtain min
eral elements which they need from the rocks them
selves ; and there are some facts which make it certain
that they do so. We frequently find, in meadows, smooth
lime-stones with their surfaces covered with a net work
of small furrows ; and we find that each furrow corres
ponds to a rootlet, which appears as if it had eaten into
the stone. So, lichens grow upon the surface of bare
rocks ; and forest trees form vast trunks, full of potash
and other salts, on the rocky soils of hills from which all
the loose soil has been washed. It seems probable that
their rootlets have the power of decomposing the rock
and taking potash from the felspar or mica they find in
them. — Liebig.

399. Is it necessary that each particular clement of
plants should be present in the soil ? Or, if one be
wanting, cannot plants be sustained by the others ?

The agriculturist requires eight substances in his soil,
that all the plants may flourish luxuriently, and his fields
produce the largest crops. These eight substances are like
eight links of a chain round a wheel. If one is weak,
the chain is soon broken, and the missing link is always
the most important, without which the machine cannot be
put in motion by the wheel. The strength of the chain
depends on the weakest of the links. — Liebig.

Those eight are phosphoric acid, potash, silicic acid,
sulphuric acid, lime, magnesia, iron, and chloride of sodi
um. All these are essential to the growth of plants.
Still more essential are oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and
carbon ; but these are always supplied by the atmosphere,
in the form of water, ammonia and carbonic acid.

400. If we cannot obtain stable manure or other ani
mal manure, how is the want to be supplied ? Chemists

COMPOSTS. 125

know exactly what substances are contained in stable
manure, and they are able to point out artificial manures
which contain all these substances and may be used
instead of stable manure ; and the most important of
these have already been pointed out under the head of
inorganic fertilizers.

401. Composts. How is the stable manure to be hus
banded so as to go as far as possible ? One way is by
the proper management of the compost heap. Loads of
marsh mud, of swamp muck, of earth from bogs and the
bottom of ponds and rivers, are to be thrown into the
manure cellar or upon the compost heap. The manure
heaps and the compost heaps are to be turned over and
over, till the contents are thoroughly mixed.

So great is the value of muck or swamp mud, for this
purpose, that a farm is hardly to be considered complete
without a swamp, or muck hole. Fresh turf forms a very
valuable addition to the manure cellar and compost heap.
This may be taken from the sides of roads and of walls
and fences.

Peat taken from the sea side, where it has been daily
covered with sea water, and mixed with one seventh its
bulk of slacked lime, heats and ferments, and produces
excellent effects as a manure. Any peat, saturated with
strong brine, and mixed with lime, would be equally
effective . — Dana.

Every farmer should make his own compost heaps,
according to the materials he has for them, always taking
care that no vegetable or animal substance be allowed to
be lost.

Mud from the bottom of lakes, ponds or pools, is always
of much value as a material for composts, especially when
it has been long lying there. In every piece of still water,

126 OP FERTILIZERS.

many animal and vegetable substances will have collected
and been completely decomposed. The mud at the bot
tom will be made up of the remains of these substances
and of earth completely saturated with their elements.
Such mud must be full of fertilizing material. It is
therefore a great and unnecessary waste to allow the
scourings of hills near the homestead, and especially of
streets and roads, to pour themselves directly into brooks
and rivers, and to run off and be lost in the sea. A little
care may prevent this. They may be made to pour upon
low grounds, and a low mound of earth may detain them
and allow them to deposit their mud.

402. A compost for trees to be planted on meagre,
sandy soil, should be prepared of clay well mixed with
muck or marsh mud, and with lime or marl. For clayey
soil one of sandy loam, light muck and lime, with a por
tion of barn manure. Bog earth or peat, with lime, makes
a good compost for almost any land except boggy land.
To each of these a most important addition is ashes, or
potash, or substances containing potash. The leaves of
all trees, indeed all leaves, and weeds, and the small
branches of all shrubs, are rich in potash, and are a
natural manure for trees.

These, prepared long before hand, and thoroughly
mixed with the soil, will have a surprising effect upon the
growth of tfees.

A good compost for any common crop is made of one
cord of barnyard manure, with two or three of muck,
MVMMIJ) mud, or loam, and ashes or potash.

A compost which has been successfully tried by a
careful oltsrrvor is made of farmyard manure, twenty-
five bushels, muck or mud, twenty-five bushels, and six

COMPOSTS. 127

bushels of leached ashes, or, in place of the ashes, one
bushel of lime slaked with salt water.

A practical farmer of great experience and judgment,
says that a good compost for hoed crops is formed of
thirty bushels of swamp muck thoroughly mixed with
one of guano.

Another excellent compost, recommended by the same
person, may be made of the same quantity of muck with
two bushels of good bones.

Another ; dig peat or swamp mud, in the fall. In the
spring, mix eight bushels of ashes with every cord ; or,
with every cord, twenty pounds of soda ash, or thirty of
potash, dissolved and poured carefully upon the pile.

403. Care in the management of the Manure Cellar and the
Compost Heap essential to the health of the farmer's family.

We have seen that ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen
and other gases should not be lost, as they are valuable
as elements of the food of plants. But there are other
and still higher reasons why such gases should be care
fully prevented from coming out into the air.

These gases, while they give life to plants, are death to
men. Sulphuretted hydrogen is not only very disagree
able to the smell, but it is thought, by some persons who
have carefully investigated, so poisonous that, if it float in
the air breathed by human beings, even in the proportion
of one part to 100,000, it sometimes causes death. In
one case, "a strong, healthy man came home from his
work and went to bed. An hour had hardly elapsed when
he was found dead." In another instance, a healthy child
was taken ill in the morning and was a corpse at night.
In both cases, the air breathed was analyzed and found to
contain sulphuretted hydrogen. If breathed, even in
very small quantities, it produces stupor, or causes a low
12

128 OP FERTILIZERS.

fever, which, if the sufferer be not relieved by removal to
perfectly pure air, may end fatally.* Carbonic acid when
breathed in the proportion of 15 to 20 parts in 1,000 of
air, causes immediate distress and feelings of .suffocation,
accompanied often with giddiness and headache. This is
sometimes followed by a slight delirium and then by an
irresistible desire to sleep.* If breathed in still larger
quantities it not unfrequently causes death. The fumes
of smoking charcoal, in a close room, have often been
fatal to people sleeping in the room.

404. The effects, if breathed in smaller proportions, are
dulness, heaviness, difficulty of thought, and apparent
stupidity. The extreme sleepiness and dulness sometimes
observed in children who have remained several hours in
an ill- ventilated school-room, are, doubtless, often caused
by the carbonic acid in the air of the room.

This comes from the breath of the occupants of the room,
and sometimes from the fire-place or stove. Ammonia,
breathed when very strong, immediately takes away the
breath. When weaker, it irritates the lungs, and, even
when very weak, if breathed for a considerable time, it
produces symptoms of typhoid fever.

405. These poisonous gases are generated in drains
and sink-holes, in heaps of dirt of any kind, in dam])
cellars and close rooms, in dirty ditches, in muddy
puddles, swamps and undrained marshes, and wherever
water is allowed to remain stagnant.

These poisons show their presence by rendering the air
disagreeable to the sense of smell. Whatever is offensive
to this sense is more or less dangerous ; and, if foul air,
that is, bad smelling, foetid air, be breathed, it is always

* Dr. Taylor, as quoted bv Dr. John Bell. Third National Sanitary Conven
tion, p. 425.

OFFENSIVE GASES ARE POISONOUS. 129

more or less poisonous. The poison may act slowly, but
not the less surely, and it renders a person who breathes
it liable to fever, cholera, consumption and other fearful
diseases. It is universally found that people living in
damp and dirty places, in houses ill-ventilated, over wet
cellars or on ground badly drained, are the first to be
attacked by cholera, dysentery, and various kinds of fever.

406. What has this to do with agriculture ? Much.
It shows that the farmer who looks everywhere for manure,
and collects it carefully from all dirty places, of all kinds,
secures his own health, and improves the health and com
fort of his family and of his neighbors, at the same time
that he improves his fields and increases his crops. The
sweepings of rooms, the scrapings of cellars, earth that
has been long lying under barns or other buildings having
no cellars, the contents of drains, cess-pools, ditches,
bogs, dirty ponds, morasses and swamps, are all excellent
materials for the compost heap. Collected together and
covered with clay or loam, they become not only harmless
but very valuable.

All kinds of dirt, if allowed to remain near dwelling-
houses, are liable to be dissolved or rendered noisome by
the rain, and to sink into the earth and reach and con
taminate the water in the well. Water thus contaminated
is not only nauseous to the smell and to the taste, but
very unwholesome. On this account the compost heap
should always be made at a distance from the well ; and
beneath every such heap there should be an abundance
of .clay or loam, sufficient to absorb all the valuable
substance that drains from the heap, and to prevent the
moisture from sinking into the earth.

130 OF TILLAGE.

V

CHAPTER XIII.

OF TILLAGE.

407. In what does the preparation of soils consist ? In
various operations, the object of which is to divide and
mellow the soil, in order to render it permeable to air, to
water, and to the roots of cultivated plants, and so to
mingle all the parts of the soil that all the elements of the
nourishment of plants may be so diffused as to be within
the reach of the roots, and also to keep it clean and free
from weeds.

When the land is wet, the first and most indispensable
of operations is draining. The essential operations after
wards are ploughing, digging, spading, harrowing and
rolling.

Ploughing is turning over the soil, so -as to bring a
lower portion to the surface and to place in contact with
the subsoil the portion which had been previously exposed
to the air.

408. The objects of ploughing are to mellow and pul
verize the soil, to mix it, when necessary, with a portion
of the subsoil, to mingle the different portions as fully as
possible, to cover manures, to destroy weeds, and to keep
the surface fresh. All these things except the two last,
can l)u done more effectually with the spade, the shovel
and (lie Cork, than with the plough. Weeds can often be
ltd id- destroyed and the surface be more easily kept fresh
by the horse-hoe or the cultivator.

Why then is the plough preferred? Because it is so
great a labor-saver. The ground may be more easily and

BENEFITS OF DEEP PLOUGHING. 131

better turned over, in long slices, and placed upside down,
by the plough, than by any other instrument which has
been contrived.

409. What is the object in bringing fresh portions of
earth to the surface ? Soils have a remarkable property
.of attracting moisture from the air and condensing it in
their pores. With the moisture, they at the same time
absorb the ammonia, nitric acid and carbonic acid floating
in the air or dissolved in the water. By long contact of
the soil with, the air the surface hardens and acts less
efficiently, and the pores become filled. Hence the advan
tage of bringing a new portion into action.

410. Deep Ploughing extends all the benefits of tillage
to a greater depth. It opens a larger portion of the soil
to the beneficial action of the air and moisture, and affords
a larger space for the food laid up for the use of plants. It
distributes the manure more evenly through the soil. It
has the effects, already mentioned, (Art. 47,) of draining.
It gives you more land to the acre, — a new farm under
the old one. Soil deeply ploughed is less speedily
exhausted. The roots penetrate deeper and take firmer
hold. Grain sown on deep soil is less liable to lodge.

If the food for plants is mixed evenly throughout the
soil to the depth of ten or twelve inches, the roots of most
cultivated plants will penetrate to that depth in search of
it ; and will thus be less liable to injury from drought.

411. Deep ploughing produces a saving of labor as well
as of land. If a farmer who has commonly ploughed his
field six inches deep, will plough, the present year, to the
depth of seven inches, and will put on seven loads of
manure where he had previously put on six, he will,
with the same labor, get seven bushels of roots or of

corn, where he has commonly got only six. If then, the
12*

132 OF TILLAGE.

next year, lie will plough eight inches deep, instead of
seven, and apply eight loads of manure, instead of seven,
he will find his crops increased in that proportion, upon
the same land and with no more labor. The next year, or
at the beginning of the next rotation, he may, on the same
principle, plough to the depth of nine or ten inches.

It is only in this gradual way that the change can bo
safely made. And at each deepening, care must be taken
to have a sufficient portion of manure put into that part of
the earth which is last brought to the surface, in order
that the plants while young may be made to throw out a
great number of rootlets. This number will depend
upon the amount of manure near the surface, in the
immediate neighborhood of the little plant. These root
lets, once formed, will penetrate into the deeper earth
and feed upon the food there prepared for them.

When the soil is too rich in carbonaceous matter, burn
ing over the surface, and thus reducing bushes and weeds
to ashes, is a very useful operation. We commonly get
potash, which is so valuable to all vegetables, from the
ashes of wood ; but the ashes of shrubs and of herbaceous
plants contain more potash than the ashes of the same
weight of timber.

LAND not sufficiently RICH in vegetable remains SHOULD

NEVER BE BURNT OVER.

412. USE OF THOROUGH TILLAGE. The more completely
the particles of a soil are reduced to powder, the more
iv.nlily they act on each other; and the more evenly the
immure is diffused through thfc soil, the more readily and
immediately do the roots of plants come in contact with
them and feed on them. The only difference to be found
between some very rich soils in Ohio and some very poor,
was the fact that, in the rich soils, the same mineral con-

VALUE OP TILLAGE. — SUBSOILING. 133

stituents were in the state of the finest powder. All
mineral substances combine with oxygen and with each
other the more readily in proportion as they are reduced
to more minute particles.

413. Most people are wholly unaware of the value of
tillage. As a general rule, we may say, the more com
pletely and frequently the soil is stirred the better. Far
mers are apt to think that the great advantage of hoeing
and cultivating witli the plough, the harrow and the cul
tivator, between rows of corn or other crop, is the destruc
tion of weeds. This doubtless is indispensable. But in
reality, the improvement of the soil by continually expos
ing fresh portions to the air, by thoroughly mixing it, and
thus preparing for future crops, is of not less value than
the weeding. Though, doubtless, there may be danger
of too frequently turning dry soils in a season of drought.

414. Subsoiling is cultivating with a plough which does
not turn a furrow, but penetrates to some distance below
the furrow already turned and loosens the soil down
there. It sometimes adds one third to the crop raised.
By stirring and loosening the earth to a considerable
depth, it makes it retentive of moisture to that depth,
and, with moisture, of all that accompanies moisture into
the earth, and makes it easy for the roots to penetrate and
reach them.

If the roots of a plant do not penetrate so deeply, their
food, deep in the earth, reaches them by capillary attrac
tion. This draws the moisture, and all that the moisture
contains, up towards the surface. A part of it is taken
up by the plants, and the remainder, as the moisture
evaporates, is left near the surface to be still farther acted
upon by the air.

HUJft; f> i f PREPARATION OF LANDS.

\ I < I F( ) f / v j CHAPTER XIV.

PREPARATION OF LANDS.

415. A texture or mechanical condition of the soil
favorable to plant growth is especially necessary. The
mechanical condition of the soil is its condition in respect
to looseness or compactness, hardness or mellowness,
coarseness or fineness, without reference to the chemical
substances contained in it.

416. Few soils are naturally in the mechanical condition
best suited for cultivation, though different soils vary very
much in this respect. Hence it is as necessary to use the
right means to put the soil into the proper mechanical
condition, as to apply manure to improve the land in the
other modes above referred to.

417. The soil must be mellow, so that the roots of
plants can penetrate freely and the air can circulate
through it, but still firm enough to hold the roots in their
position. It must admit the heat of the sun, and yet
hold moisture enough for the wants of the plant.

418. Most soils require to be well pulverized before
they allow the roots of plants to penetrate and grow
freely, or permit the circulation of the atmospheric air,
and if they arc not so pulverized and mellow, they do
not readily take up and carry off the water which falls in
ruin or comes from other sources. This water often
washes away the surface of the soil, or remains stagnant,
causing much injury to vegetation.

419. The manner in which land must be prepared for
cultivation, differs very much in different cases, varying

CLEARING UP. 135

according to the condition in which it is found when its
improvement is first begun. The processes most fre
quently found necessary are clearing, draining, ploughing,
harrowing and rolling.

420. Clearing is generally required in a new country,
or when new land or woodland is to be cultivated. In
these cases the soil rarely allows even the most ordinary
operations of farming. It is often covered with trees or
forests, or with rocks which would interfere very much
with successful tillage.

421. The term clearing, in a new country, is applied
to the cutting down and burning or removing of all the
timber and brushwood from the lot. This is simple,
though hard work. The trees are felled, if possible, in
June, when in full leaf, and the ground may be burned
over in season to sow in a crop of winter rye upon the
surface. This is the case in remote sections where the
timber has so little value as not to pay for removal, and
where it is usually burned on the ground. But in other
locations, the wood may be cut and removed in winter,
and the work of clearing continued the following summer.
Sometimes on account of its situation, the cleared land
must be devoted to pasturage. In these cases grass seed
is sown along with the rye, and cattle turned upon it the
following season. But generally the sides of steep hills,
or land so rough that it cannot be cleared and prepared
for cultivation except at great expense, should be kept for
woodland.

422. The next step in preparing wild lands for farming,
is to remove the stumps and stones. Several simple
machines have been constructed to do this, by which a
powerful leverage or purchase is gained, so as to raise a
stump or stone of several tons weight from its bed. A

136

PREPARATION OF LANDS.

convenient and cheap form of stump puller is Bates'
patent, shown in figure 2, and one of the best forms of a
stone lifter in figure 3.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

423. It often happens that the surface is completely
matted with roots of hushes, and so hard as to he impcn-

TREATMENT OP COLD SOILS. 137

ctrable to the plough in pasture
or waste lands which it is designed
to clear up. In such cases a stout |
grapple represented in figure 4 is
found extremely useful in remov
ing the surface which may be Fig. 4.
burned previous to ploughing.

424. Much land is so situated as to require thorough
draining before it can be cultivated at all to advantage.
The object of draining is to remove an excess of moisture
from the soil.

425. Water standing stagnant in the soil diminishes
the good effects of manures very much by preventing
decomposition, makes it impossible to work lands early in
the spring, prevents seeds from germinating, or makes
them germinate more slowly, and delays the ripening of
crops, lessening their quantity and making their quality
inferior.

426. An excess of water in the soil also excludes the
air. This is injurious, because the air does much to pro
mote the chemical changes in the mineral parts of the
earth which are necessary to the growth of plants, and
converts the organic materials in the soil into vegetable
acids which give it the name of " sour" or "cold" soil.

427. Drainage is effected either by opening channels
on the surface, or by means of covered drains. Open
drains are sometimes very useful, but are liable to serious
objections. The water which enters them, carries with it
many of the substances which make the soil fertile, which
are thus lost. Besides, such drains arc 'not nearly as
useful as covered ones, while they interfere with a proper
cultivation ; they leave a great deal of water in the soil,
weeds are very apt to grow along their sides, and they

138

PREPARATION OF LANDS.

take up a great deal of ground which might otherwise be
made productive.

428. Underdrains avoid these objections, and are more
economical. They may be constructed either of stones
or of tiles made for the purpose. The tiles are altogether
better, both because they can be laid down at less ex
pense, and because they last longer. They are also less
liable to get stopped up.

429. To lay a stone drain properly, a large trench must
be dug. This requires great labor, and such a drain
should not be made unless there are a great many small
stones on the surface of the land which the farmer wishes
to get rid of, and even then the tile drain costs less and is
more economical in most cases. The different modes
of laying a stone drain are shown in figures 5, 6, and 7.

Fiff. 5.

Fiff. 0.

430. In laying down the tile drain, the trench may be
very narrow, a width of a foot at the top and four inches
at the bottom being sufficient, as in figure 8. It is dug by
n s|»;id«' ;ind hoes made for the purpose, and illustrated in
figures 9 and 10.

THE TILE DRAIN.

139

Fig. 9.

Fig. 10.

431. The tile drain is not only more economical, but it
carries off the water better and lasts longer. If the stones
were picked up and placed at the edge of the trench
without any expense, the drain made of them would be
less economical in the end than one made of tiles which
cost |10 or $12 per thousand.

432. The pipe tile, (Fig. lla,) a simple round
tube, is found to be the best in shape. For
the interior drains which enter into the larger
main drains, a tube of two inches in diameter
is about the right size.

433. The fall should not be less than one inch to the
rod. A drain properly laid in this way may be expected to
last and answer a good purpose for half a century.

434. The sole tiles made in this country, shown in figure
II6, are not so good because they must necessarily be laid
sole down, and if they happen to be warped in burning,
as they often are, it is difficult to get a perfectly straight
and reliable water course.

435. The brush drain is sometimes made by digging a

13

Fig. 11.

140 PREPARATION OF LANDS.

trench and filling up to a certain depth with small brush.
When this is attempted, the sticks should all be laid with

the larger ends down, as
shown in figure 12. The
Fig. 12. brush is then thoroughly

pressed down and covered over with sods
with the turf or grass side down. This
is better than none ; but it is never to
be recommended where good tiles can
be got. The same may be said of log-
drains which are made by laying down
two logs in the trench with a third upon
them, as in figure 13. The earth must
be pressed down solid over a stone, brush
or log drain.

436. The distance apart at which the
drains should be laid will depend on the character of the
soil. In a soil which is stiif and holds water long, it might
not be well to have them more than twenty-five feet apart,
while a more porous soil might be sufficiently drained
if they were thirty or forty feet apart, or even more.

437. The depth of the trench must depend somewhat
on the distance between the drains. Trenches three feet
deep and twenty feet apart, have been found to do as well
as those "five feet deep and eighty feet apart. In general
the depth should be from three to four feet.

438. Thorough draining makes the soil more open and
causes ii more free circulation of air through it, thus
prevent in"- it from drying up so soon. The air is at all
tim^S clmi-M-ed with moisture1, and as it comes in contact
with the particles of soil, this moisture is condensed and
i!ep.»sifiMl there, just as we sot; it deposited on the cold
sides of a pitcher of ice water in a hot day. Drainage

EFFECTS OF DRAINING.

141

also deepens the arable soil and makes it more easy for
plants to extend their roots.

439. The atmosphere is charged with fertilizing ele
ments as well as with moisture, and as it circulates freely
in the soil, these elements are taken up and retained to
serve as plant food.

440. The soil having become more porous by the
removal of water and the admission of air among its
particles, its temperature is raised in consequence, that is
the soil is made warmer and warmed to a greafer depth.

441. A higher temperature in the soil hastens forward
the growth of plants, and thus often makes the ripening
several days earlier.

442. The texture or me
chanical condition of most
stiff soils is improved by
simply draining, and they
are thus made capable of
-being worked earlier in
spring and after long rains,
while the growth of plants
is stronger and more vigor- a~
ous. The difference may be
seen in figures 14 and 15, the
former showing the effect

of draining and warming the surface soil, #, causing the
roots to penetrate even into the moisture below the drained
level at &, the latter, the same species of plant on an
undrained and unsuitable soil.

448. After the land is properly cleared, it must next be
made ready for planting. In the first place the soil must
be mellowed or broken up fine to a proper depth.

444. The spade, the plough, the harrow and the roller,

142

PREPARATION OF LANDS.

arc the implements most often used in effecting this
object.

445. The spade or spading fork is the simplest form of
these implements, and consists of a blade or tines of iron
or steel fixed into a straight handle. It is worked by
hand. Cultivation by its use is the slowest and most
expensive mode of tillage, and is adapted chiefly to the
nice operations of the garden.

446. The com
mon plough,
(Fig. 16,) is the
implement most
commonly used
in breaking up
Fis- 16- the land, and is

the most economical instrument that can be used for the
purpose. Without the plough successful farming would
be impossible in a country where labor is very high and
difficult to obtain.

447. In passing through the soil the plough separates
and cuts off a slice of its surface, cutting it both vertically
and horizontally, and turning it over in such a way as to
leave it exposed to the action of the harrow, which usually
follows the plough to break down and pulverize the soil
completely.

448. The furrow made by the common plough should
be deep, straight, and of such a width that the slice cut
off may be turned entirely over, or left on its edge, as the
ploughman may wish.

1 l!>. The deptli is of the greatest importance, though
experience Iras shown that it is best to deepen the arable
soil gradually, by plotiirliini; about an inch or half an inch
deeper each time, till it is worked deep enough, say from

DEEP PLOUGHING.

143

seven to ten or twelve inches, according to the crops it is
designed to cultivate.

450. If much of a poor subsoil should be brought up
to the surface at once, the farmer would have to wait two,
three, or even four years before he would obtain the
largest results, though after that time the good effects of
deep tillage would be seen.

451. Deep ploughing has much the same effect as
thorough draining, though in a less degree. It enables
the roots of plants to penetrate deeply in search of nour
ishment, carries off more or less of the surface water,
warms the soil, and without doubt makes it more fertile
by allowing the air to circulate through it, and by a
mixture of the soils of different depths. Besides, deep
ploughing makes it much easier to do the other work
which is necessary in preparing the soil for planting, and
increases the effect of all manures which are applied.

452. Deep ploughing is especially needed in the culti
vation of deep or tap-rooted plants like carrots, parsnips,
and ruta-bagas, but it is beneficial to all crops if it is
properly done.

453. The subsoil
plough, (Figs. 17 and
18,) is designed to fol
low in the furrow of
the common plough, to
loosen and break up the
lower layers of the soil
without bringing them
to the surface. With this
implement it is easy to
loosen the subsoil six or
eight inches below the
furrow left by the ordi-

13*

Fig. 18.

144

PREPARATION OP LANDS.

nary plough, making the whole depth to which the land is
stirred, from eighteen to twenty-four inches.

454. The benefits of subsoil ploughing are very similar
to those of deep ploughing. Recent investigations show
that nitrogen and other fertilizing substances exist deep
below the surface. Subsoil ploughing enables the roots of
plants to reach them by loosening the soil to a greater
depth.

455. A very excellent
implement known as
he Michigan, or double
mould-board plough,
(Fig. 19,) is designed to

Fig. 19.

obviate the necessity of
the subsoil plough, to
some extent. The smaller mould-board cuts off a thin
surface and turns it into the last furrow, where it is
completely covered with a finely pulverized soil by the
principal mould-board.

Fig. 20.

456. An implement designed to supersede the use of
the plough in many soils, is known as the digger, (Fig. 20.)

USE Ol-1 THE ROLLER.

145

Fig. 21.

It leaves the ground mellow like the fork, and in good
condition for the cultivation of crops.

457. The harrow, (Fig. 21,) is an
ancient implement, and is most com
monly used after the plough, to
break down and mellow or pulverize
the furrow slice. It should be moved
rapidly over the soil. It has been
very much improved within a few
years.

458. The cultivator, (Pig. 22,) may
properly be regarded as a modified
form of the harrow, but it is much
better than the harrow,

because with its plough

shaped teeth, it lightens

up and ' mellows the

surface soil, instead of

pressing it down hard,

as the harrow is apt to

do every where except Fig. 22.

on new, rough land.

459. The roller is often used to pulverize the surface
soil. It has so large a surface to rest on the soil, that it
crushes and breaks up clods without hardening the lower
strata.

460. In laying down lands to grass, it is often useful
in pressing down small stones, so as to get them out of
the way of the scythe. It is often useful, also, 011 newly
sown grain, and hastens the germination of seeds, by
preserving the moisture around them.

4G1. But clayey soils should never be rolled except
when they are perfectly dry, and for the purpose of

146

breaking the lumps left by the plough. Rolling stiff soils
when wet, would only make them too hard and compact,
and thus do them more harm than good.

CHAPTER XY.

SOWING, PLANTING, ETC.

462. Moisture, warmth, and exposure to the air, to
some extent, are needed to make the seeds of plants
germinate healthfully. Light is not necessary; on the
contrary, it is believed to interfere in some degree with
the process of germination.

468. The seed is buried in a properly prepared soil,
where the moisture soon softens it throughout, and certain
chemical changes take place, by which the mealy parts
are prepared to nourish the swelling germ.

464. A radical shoot or rootlet first bursts its covering,
and invariably grows down, fixing itself in the soil,
while a stalk shoots up towards the air and light in which
it expands its leaves.

465. By means of its leaves, which serve as its lungs,
the plant draws much nourishment from the air. There
arc a great many small openings or pores in the leaves,
which are most numerous on the under side. On a
single square inch of the leaf of the common lilac, there
are no less than, one hundred and twenty thousand of
these little mouths, and on an inch of the white lily
there are sixty thousand. They are found in great

REQUISITES OP PLANT GROWTH. 147

numbers on the leaves of all plants. A
magnified portion of the leaf of the grape
is shown in figure 23.

466. All plants come from seeds, in the
first place, and the farmer usually sows

or plants the seeds of the plants he wishes Fi 23
to have ; but in some cases tubers or bulbs
are placed in the ground and new plants spring from
them. A tuber is a thickened portion of a stalk or stem
under ground, having buds or eyes, as the potato and the
artichoke. A bulb is a collection of fleshy scales formed
under ground by certain kinds of plants, as the tulip, the
onion, and the lily.

467. Generally the seeds are sown where the plant is
to remain. But sometimes they are started in a carefully
prepared seed-bed, from which they are transplanted to
the field, where they can grow up to better advantage.
This is done to bring them forward earlier.

468. For their complete development, all cultivated
plants must have a deep, mellow soil, and care enough
to prevent them from being injured by weeds or insects
while they are growing. The farmer must also attend to
fhe choice of seeds, taking only those which are good and
still have the power of germination, and must consider
how much seed he is to use, how he should prepare it,
the time and manner of sowing, and the depth to which
the seed should be covered.

469. Choice of Seed. An imperfect seed may still be
capable of germination and may produce plants, which
appear to grow well at first, but such plants will have a
sickly and imperfect growth, especially at the time of
flowering, and they will produce little grain and that of
an inferior quality.

148 SOWING, PLANTING, ETC.

470. With the same soil, climate and cultivation, the
most perfect seed will produce the finest crop. No seed
is likely to produce a healthy and vigorous plant, unless
it came from a strong and healthy plant itself, was fully
ripened, and is so fresh that its power of germination is
still uninjured.

471. Good seed may be known by its weight, its size,
its glossy surface, and its freedom from any disagreeable
odor. Plumpness and weight indicate that it was produced
by a vigorous plant ; a glossy covering shows it to be
healthy, and the absence of odor shows that it has been
well preserved.

472. To learn whether the germinating power still
exists, we may take two pieces of thick cloth, moisten
them with water, and place them one above the other hi
the bottom of a saucer. Then take some of the seeds,
spread them out thin upon the cloths, not allowing them
to cover or touch each other. Cover them over with a
third cloth like the others, and moistened in the same
manner. Set the saucer in a moderately warm place, and
moisten the cloths from time to time, taking care not to
use too much water. Good seed, thus treated, will swell
gradually, while old or poor seed which has lost its,
germinating power, will become mouldy and begin to
decay in a very few days.

473. Such a trial enables the farmer to judge whether
old seed is mixed with new. The new germinates much
more quickly than the old. It enables him, also, to judge
of the quantity he must sow, since he can thus tell whether
a hall', three-quarters, or the whole will be likely to
germinate, and will know what allowance to make for
bad seed. Clover seeds, if new and fresh, will show their
genus the third or fourth day.

VITALITY OF SEED. 149

474. The seeds of some plants continue good much
longer than those of others. Those of many wild plants,
for instance, will lie for many years without losing their
goodness, if they happen to be in such a place that they
cannot germinate, and afterwards when they have heat
and moisture, and other conditions necessary for germi
nation, they will produce plants.

475. In digging wells, or in other deep excavations,
species of plants not before known in the place, often spring
up from the earth thrown out. These seeds must have
been lying in the earth many years, unable to grow
because the heat and air could not reach them.

476. The seeds of the turnip, if kept in a dry, cool
place, continue good several years, and will germinate
nearly as well when five years old as when only one or
two. But the seeds of the grasses are comparatively
worthless when two years old, since few of them will then
germinate. Age, heat, moisture and fermentation, are
most injurious to seeds.

477. Change of Seed. Most of our cultivated plants
originally grew wild, and in their natural state were much
less valuable than they now are. They have been brought
up to their present condition, and made far more useful
for the nourishment of men and animals, by careful
cultivation for many years. In all these plants there is a
natural tendency to lose what they have gained, and fall
back to their original condition. This can be prevented
in some degree by constant care in the selection of seed
and high cultivation ; but experience shows that in some
places these plants will gradually lose their best qualities,
however much care may be used to guard against it.

478. To avoid the evils of sowing inferior seed, we may
use that produced in other localities, where special care

150 SOWING, PLANTING, ETC.

is taken to raise it in the highest perfection and purity.
In general, seeds should be preferred which were raised
on a soil poorer than that where they are to bo sown.

479. When both soil and climate are favorable, the
necessity of frequent change may be avoided by good
cultivation, and by taking the seeds from the best and
most vigorous plants, when they are fully ripe, and drying
and preserving them properly. Where this can be done
without danger of deterioration, it is far better, since the
farmer knows better what he is to sow. Where the species
of plants cultivated are very similar to each other, and
liable to hybridization or mixture, care must be taken to
keep them so far separated as to preserve their purity.

480. The maxim that " Like produces like," so well
known among farmers, may be true to some extent in
regard to most of the cultivated plants of the farm, but
we constantly see instances where the fruit of the plant
which grows from a seed, is different from that of the
plant which produced the seed sown ; very common
examples of this change are seen in the apple and other
fruits, and the potato when raised from the seed. In our
common cultivated grains, the difference, if there is any,
is slight.

481. In a large field of wheat, a few specimens might
be found among the millions of plants, which would differ
from the seed planted. By carefully selecting these and
planting them by themselves, new varieties may be
obtained and preserved distinct.

482. So by taking care to select our seed corn from the
cars which ripen earliest, we can get early varieties. If
we choose seeds from the largest ears, and plant them by
themselves, we shall obtain large varieties; and many
persons think that if we take our seeds from those plants

ORIGIN OP VARIETIES. 151

which have several ears on a stalk, we may thus make
very prolific varieties.

483. In these and similar cases, the change or modifi
cation from the original to the new variety is not generally
sudden, and soon accomplished, but is most commonly
slow and gradual. Tl^e seed must be carefully selected
year after year, till the desired change is fixed and firmly
established. New and somewhat permanent varieties may
be thus obtained.

484. But the case is different when we cultivate pota
toes and other tubers, since we do not usually plant the
seed in such cases, the tubers being only an enlargement
of the stem beneath the soil, and when plants grow from
their buds or eyes, — as they do in the ordinary manner
of raising potatoes, the same variety is extended or
increased with no change of character.

485. New and distinct varieties of the potato may be
produced to any extent by sowing the seeds of the plant.
Thus the chenango, the pinkeye, and other varieties, were
first obtained from seed taken from the ripe bolls of other
varieties. After a new variety has been once made in
that way, it may be continued and kept up by planting
the tubers in the usual way.

486. If a vine is produced from a layer of another
vine, the new vine is only a portion of the old one, and
can never become a new and distinct variety ; and so in
budding or grafting, the new growth is only a portion of
the same old tree from which the scion was taken, and
has precisely the same character as the tree from which
the bud or graft came, except so far as it may have been
changed by the difference of soil or locality. But if tho
seeds of the apple or of the grape are sown, new varieties
are obtained at once.

14

152 SOWING, PLANTING, ETC.

487. Quantity of Seed. The plants should cover the
whole ground, each having just room enough to allow
its full and complete development and no more. To
learn how much seed will be necessary for this we
must consider the character of the soil, its preparation,
its fertility and the tune of sowing. The quality of
the seed, the extent to which it is apt to tiller or send
up side shoots, and the manner of sowing must be
taken into account; also the habits of growth of the
plant — whether it is large and rank or otherwise, and
the mode of tillage to be adopted — all these must be
regarded.

488. The richer the soil and the more manure there is
used, the ranker the plant will grow. The ranker the
growth the more space will it require for its full develop
ment. On the other hand, in a poorer soil, the plant will
grow less rankly, so that more seed will be required to
cover the ground with plants on poor and scantily manured
land than on rich land well manured.

489. The better the seed the less will be required. If
the climate and soil are very favorable to the plant, a
smaller quantity of seed will be needed, since a larger
number of plants will grow from the same quantity of
seed. So the earlier the sowing is finished, the less seed
may be used provided the season is favorable.

490. If the soil is perfectly clean and free from weeds
less seed is necessary. Much also depends on the distri
bution of it, and the more uniformly it is spread the less
is required. For this reason hand or broad-cast sowing
requires more seed than machine or drill sowing. In
general, it may be said that winter wheat and rye, and
other winter grains, require less seed than the spring
varieties.

PREPARATION OF SEEDS. 153

491. Other things being equal, thin sown crops ripen
later than thick sown ones. The greater the space allowed
each plant the more vigorous will be its development, and
consequently., the slower its growth. In thick sown crops
the growth is more quickly finished, and though the stalk
may be rank the ear will be smaller, and the number of
grains to a .stalk less than in thin sown crops. By thick
sowing we gain in time, but lose, to some extent, in
quality.

492. Steeping Seeds. Some farmers are in the habit of
soaking the seed in warm water, or in some solution like
carbonate of ammonia, linie water, chloride of sodium or
brine, partly to hasten its germination and partly to supply
the place of manure. When the sowing has been delayed
till after the proper time, this practice may be useful,
but it is better to sow or plant at the right season, and so
avoid the necessity of any thing of the sort to make the
seed germinate more quickly, and as a substitute for manur
ing the land properly, this practice is of very little benefit.

493. The moisture of the soil is best adapted to nourish
the germ, and the growth of the plant through the season
will, generally, be more healthy without the use of any
artificial preparation.

494. Time of Planting. The time of planting varies
according to the season and the nature of the plant.
Some grains, for instance, will endure a great degree of
cold during the early period of their growth. It is gen
erally considered better to sow these in autumn, and
spring sowing would not do well. Others cannot bear
much cold and should not be sown till spring. The con
dition of the soil, also, makes a great difference. A dry,
warm soil is ready for planting much earlier in spring
than a cold, clayey one.

154

495. The time of sowing should be suited to the nature
of the particular plant we wish to cultivate. Indian
corn, barley and buckwheat, for example, should be
planted when the ground is dry and warmed, by the heat
of the sun, while certain kiilds of wheat and oats do
better when sown in a colder soil.

496. Winter grains should be sown earlier on heavy
soils than on sandy ones, and earlier in a cool, moist
climate than in a dry, warm one. There is no general
rule as to the time of sowing which can be applied to all
cases, and ihe farmer must always be governed by the
circumstances of his own case.

497. Depth of Covering. The seed should be covered to
such a depth as to secure the amount of heat, moisture
and air, necessary for its germination. This depth varies
with the kind of plant, the nature of the soil, the climate
and the time of planting.

498. It is evident that on a clay soil which is less easily
penetrated by air and warmth, the seed should be covered
less deeply than on a sandy one. Spring planting ordi
narily requires greater depth than autumn.

499. Very small seeds require only a shallow covering,
and in many cases, a simple rolling without the use of
the harrow, is sufficient to secure perfect germination.
In common farm cultivation great losses often occur from
covering seed too deeply, especially the smaller seeds,
as those of the grasses and the clovers.

500. Modes of Sowing. The broad cast or hand sow ing-
is the most common for the smaller grains. Another and
a better method is by the use of the seed sower or drilling
machine. By the first a greater amount of seed is
required, while it is difficult, even for a skilful workman,
to distribute the seed equally. By the second, the seed

ADVANTAGE OF DRILL SOWING. 155

is not only uniformly distributed, but may be sown in
drills, which has some decided advantages over broad cast
sowing, especially for wheat. Winter wheat sown in the
drill is less likely to be thrown out by the frosts, because
it is more uniformly covered and better rooted.

501. Any concentrated manure may be put into the
ground with the seed, and the growth of the plant may
thus be promoted. A larger yield is secured in propor
tion to the quantity of seed sown, and a larger yield per
acre. Drill sowing, or sowing in rows, also allows culti
vation by a machine admirably adapted to this purpose,
if the crop needs it, during the early part of its growth.

502. When seeds of any kind are sown broad cast by
hand, they may be covered by the plough, the harrow, the
cultivator or the roller. The larger seeds, like Indian
corn, are usually dropped by hand and covered with the
hoe, but they may be dropped and covered by seed sowers
made expressly for the purpose. When a large extent
of land is to be planted the machine is far more economi
cal. Indeed, it is often necessary to use it to save time
and labor. Seed sowers are used only on land properly
prepared by ploughing, manuring and harrowing. They
are made to drop the seed either in hills or in rows,
according to the wish of the farmer.

503. If the machine is not used the ground is first
prepared by ploughing and harrowing, and furrowed three
or four feet apart, according to the kind of corn to be
planted, with a light horse-plough ; the manure is dropped
in the hills at suitable distances, and the seed then dropped
upon it by hand and covered with the hoe.

504. It is generally found best, especially on late lands,
to spread and plough in a part of the manure, and to
drop the remainder in the hills. The manure in the hills

14*

156 SOWING, PLANTING, ETC.

gives the crop a vigorous start at the outset, while that
which is ploughed in, being better distributed in the soil,
has its effect afterwards, and the crop does far better in
the end than it would if the whole were placed in the hill.
The land is also left in a better condition for a future
crop where the manure is spread. Many use some con
centrated manure in the hill, and plough or harrow in
the coarser barnyard manures.

505. Transplanting. Transplanting is the removal of
a plant from the place where it has grown to another.
The seeds of many plants, as those of tobacco, cabbages,
and many varieties of shrubs and trees, are often sown
in a place prepared for the purpose, and the plants spring
ing from them afterwards transplanted to the fields where
they are to grow.

506. This mode of culture has several advantages : it
confines the expense of the early culture to a small space,
while the seed is placed in the best condition for its early
and rapid development ; it also gives more time for the
preparation of the land in which the crops are to be

507. To make transplanting successful, the plants
should be strong and vigorous. They may be made so
by preparing the seed-bed thoroughly and taking care tg
prevent them from being crowded by each other or
injured by weeds, after they have sprung up. They
should be removed very carefully, all injury to the roots
I M -iii" avoided, otherwise they will suffer much from the
removal.

508. While the plants are young there is little danger
in transplanting, and if they are set out in a mellow and
well manured soil at a favorable time, they will continue
to grow with only a slight temporary check.

TRANSPLANTING. 157

509. In removing older plants, like trees and shrubs,
which have been undisturbed for a long time, the utmost
care is required in taking them up, to prevent the loss of
the small fibrous roots which often extend to great
distances from the trunk.

510. The growth of the stem, or that part of the trunk
above ground with its leaves and branches, is in propor
tion to the extent of the roots, and the injury which the
latter sustain in transplanting may be counteracted, in a
measure by trimming off a corresponding portion of the
top.

511. The laceration or breaking of the roots checks
the growth of the top in proportion to the injury or loss
of the root. In the natural condition of the tree there
are only roots enough to absorb the nourishment required
by it, and when a part of the root is cut off, or seriously
injured, the remaining part cannot, of course, furnish sap
enough for the whole tree. In this case, if a part of the
top is removed, less sap is required, the remaining roots
can supply all that is necessary, and the tree may thus be
saved.

512. One method of obtaining good shrubs and trees
for ornamental purposes,. is to sow the seeds in beds prop
erly prepared. The soil used for this purpose should be
deeply trenched and richly manured to promote rapid
growth. It is most convenient to lay out the beds from
three to five feet wide, and to have the rows run across.
Early autumn is generally thought to be the best time for
sowing, though some prefer mid-summer. The seeds of
each species may be sown soon after they have become
fully ripe.

CULTURE OF THE CEREALS.
V

t CHAPTER XYI.

i

CULTURE OF THE CEREALS.

513. The plants generally cultivated by farmers may
be divided into four classes: 1. The cereals or grain
plants, comprising the plants cultivated for their large
farinaceous, or mealy seeds ; 2. Leguminous vegetables ;
3. Forage plants, or plants used principally in the feed
ing of stock ; and 4. Plants used in the industrial arts.

514. The Cereals. The term cereal is derived from
Ceres, the fabled goddess of corn. The cereals embrace
all those annual grasses cultivated for the nourishment of
man, including Indian corn, wheat, rye, barley, oats, rice
and millet. Buckwheat might be added, in a practical
classification, though not properly included among the
cereals, as its seeds have much the same quality and are
used for the same purposes as those of the cereals properly
so called.

515. Indian Corn, or maize, is one of the most important
of the cereals cultivated in this country, both on account
of the numerous uses to which it may be put, and the
great amount of nourishment it contains. It is an
American plant, and was found in cultivation among the-
Indians on the first discovery of the continent.

516. Light and porous loams a little sandy, are most
likely, if well tilled, to yield large crops of Indian corn.
But it easily adapts itself to a variety of soils, and will
flourish on all if well manured, except the strongest
clays.

517. Land should be prepared for Indian corn, in very
much the same way as for other crops, and the preparation

INDIAN CORN. 159

must vary according to the crops for which the piece has
been used and the state it is left in. If the field that is
to be planted with corn has been in grass dfor some years,
it should be well ploughed the autumn before the planting,
and then left till spring, when it will be partially mellowed
and may be cross ploughed, manured, harrowed and
planted.

518. But stiff, undrained soils, and lands lying on the
slopes of hills liable to be washed down by the rains,
should, if possible, be broken up in the spring insteacl
of the fall, as the sward will not rot, and if turned up in.
cross ploughing in spring, will be troublesome during tjie
cultivation, of the crop.

519. The manures used with this crop must be varied
according to the character of the soil. On light, well
worked and mellowed land, old and well decomposed barn
yard manure or compost is best, but if the soil is stiffer
and somewhat clayey the coarser barnyard manures may
be used to advantage, as they improve the texture of the
soil and produce heat by fermentation.

520. It is generally thought best to plough in the coarse
manures in the fall, as they thus become decomposed and
prepare the ground for spring planting. They may be
turned under on the sod or 011 a grain stubble. But if the
ground is level they may be spread upon the furrow, after
fall ploughing, and left over winter to be turned under in
cross ploughing in spring.

521. In cross ploughing, the sod turned under the
autumn before should not be disturbed. If the manure
is ploughed under in the fall, some finer compost should
also be used in spring -to be spread on the furrows after
cross ploughing, and harrowed or cultivated in. If the
soil be stiff and cold, such as is ill adapted to Indian corn,

160 CULTURE OF THE CEREALS.

a portion of the fine manure or compost should be placed
in the hill.

522. The Indian corn plant is a gross feeder, and needs
a great deal of manure unless the land is very rich. If
all this manure is put into the hills, the labor and expense
of application and the care of the crop through its whole
growth will be increased, on account of the hilling up
around the corn made necessary by putting so much in
the hill.

523. Another objection to putting much coarse manure
in the hill is that the plant is more liable to suffer from
drought, and the land is not benefited to so great an
extent as when a part of the manure is spread or evenly
distributed through the soil.

524. Some spread and plough in the coarser manures,
and use some concentrated fertilizer in the hill to give the
crop an early and vigorous start. No doubt a judicious
use of concentrated manures is good economy, and in
some circumstances it may be well to use them more
freely, but they are not to be recommended in all cases,
as their cost is frequently greater than the profit which
may be made from their use.

525. To raise corn profitably the land must be in good
condition ; it may be made so by the use of a sufficient
quantity of manure at the time of planting, or by long-
continued and judicious manuring previously. It is not
worth while to raise poor crops. It requires about as
much labor in ploughing, hoeing and harvesting, to raise
thirty or forty bushels per acre, as to raise from sixty to
seventy-five bushels per acre, and the profit is irn-alcr \\itli
llic bif.ri-r crop.

.">-»'>. In tin1, cull u iv of .Indian corn, as of many other
crops, the one thing <v|><v'mlly important is thorough and

ARRANGEMENT OF THE HILLS. 101

careful ploughing in the first place. There can be no
successful cultivation of this crop without it.

527. The land having been fully prepared by repeated
ploughing, manuring and harrowing, the next step will
be to plant the seed. This may be done by hand or by a
machine. If the grains are to be dropped and covered
by hand, the rows are marked out by furrows made with
a light one-horse plough or some similar implement.

528. The hills should be three or four feet apart in
each direction, the distance between them varying accord
ing to the kind of com which is to be planted ; the smaller
varieties require less space than the larger. If the corn
planter, (Fig. 24,) is used, the labor

of furrowing is avoided, but with

most machines it is difficult to

make the rows straight and set the . • \ u-^i

hills at equal distances apart in ' Fio. 24

each direction, so as to be able to

run the cultivator or horse-hoc both ways, an important

means of saving expensive maimal labor.

529. If the soil has been properly prepared and is in
good condition, it is best to have the plants stand as
closely as they can without interfering with their perfect
development, for it is better that the soil should be well
shaded. The spaces between the hills should, therefore,
be only just enough to allow the necessary cultivation and
the free access of air, light and heat. On poor lands only
a smaller number of plants should be suffered to grow,
but it is better to put fewer in each hill than to increase
the distance between the hills.

530. Many farmers soak the seed some hours before
planting, as a means of preventing the depredations of
insects, squirrels, or birds. There may be cases where it is

162 CULTURE OF THE CEREALS.

necessary, but except in particular cases this seems to be
altogether unnecessary. It may sometimes be useful,
however, by keeping off these various depredators. In
such cases soak the seed in tar water twelve hours, then
coat it with ground plaster, or ashes or lime.

531. Larger crops can generally be obtained by drill
planting instead of planting in hills, but the labor of hoe
ing and cultivating is greater, and except for the smallest
varieties, drill planting is not common.

532. Indian, corn, whether planted by hand or with a
corn planter, should generally be covered about an inch
and a half deep to insure sufficient moisture, and give
the plant a firm hold on the soil. But on a moist or
heavy soil an inch is enough.

533. The first hoeing or dressing may be given when
the plants are about two inches high. At this time a light
plough may be used, running as near one of the rows as
it can without injuring the plants, and then returning
between the same rows and running near the other. A
back furrow will thus be left half way between the rows
which should not at this time be disturbed by the hoe.
The plough will do no injury while the plants are still so
small and before the fibrous roots have extended.

534. In subsequent dress
ings, the horse-hoe, (Fig.
25,) should be used. The
plough would break and in
jure the roots, and should
Firr 25 never be introduced between

the rows after the first hoe-

in#. The horse-hoe will stir the ground as deeply as it is
safe to go. In the second dressing, the cultivator, or what
is far better, the horse-hoe, will partially level the back

MODES OF HARVESTING. 163

furrow made by the plough, and a third dressing will
leave it quite level.

535. Three hoeings are thought by some to be requisite
for Indian corn ; but, in general, the oftcner it is hoed
the better. Should a drought occur, the frequent use of
the horse-hoe is particularly advantageous, especially if
there be a moist subsoil. It gives the soil a useful stirring
and will produce a much more vigorous growth. Great
care should be taken that no weeds be allowed in the

536. While the crop is still standing in the field, just
before the gathering, the farmer should mark the earliest
and best formed ears, so that they may be distinguished
at harvesting and saved for seed the next year. This is
better than to trust to a selection at the time of husking,
or after the corn is put into the bin.

537. Those who make a practice of cutting the top
stalks, do it about the middle of September, or when the
tassel begins to grow dry, after the kernel has hardened.
In some cases it is thought that cutting the stalks hastens
the ripening of the grain, but if the ears are soft at the
time of cutting, they will shrivel and never ripen full and
sound.

538. But the best and most enlightened practice appears
to be to cut up the whole plant from the ground after the
stalk has slightly turned and begun to ripen, and stook
it or set it in a cluster of bundfes bound together at
the top so as to shed the rain, where it will soon ripen
up, when the ears may be taken off as it stands on the
field, or the whole removed to the barn to be husked.

539. By far the quickest and cheapest way to cut and
stook, is to take a pole twelve feet long and fix to one end
two legs or supports four or five feet long. The pole is

15

104

CULTURE OF THE CEREALS.

Fig. 26.

pierced with a hole through which to insert a cross stick
horizontally. Two men take five rows, setting the stooking
pole on the middle row, and cut up enough for a good
sized bundle for each of the four corners made by the

cross stick as
shown in. fig
ure 26. The
binding and a
twist around
the top of the
four bundles,

is the work of a moment, when the cross stick is pulled
out and the pole drawn along for another stook.

540. Wheat. There are many varieties of wheat,
the differences between them being generally the
result of differences of climate, soil and culture ;
but those most commonly raised may be distin
guished by the general terms of winter and spring
wheat. The form of the ear is shown in figure 27.

541. The root of winter wheat is most admirably
fitted to endure the severe colds of a high latitude.
The main seminal root is pushed out at the same
time with the germ, and nourishes the plant in its
early growth. Winter wheat has a larger and

Fig. 27. piumper ear and a harder and more erect stem
than spring wheat. It should be sown early in autumn,
in our latitude as early as September.

542. Wheat requires a stronger and more tenacious soil
than Indian corn, and more moisture; but if water is
found in excess, the tissues of the plant become soft and
watery, nud i! runs to stalk, producing little irniin. Soils
of a moderate degree of stillness are best suited to it, but

SOWING OF WHEAT. 165

it will grow on a light soil far better in a damp climate
than in a dry one.

543. The soil must of course be such as to furnish the
plant with the mineral substances it requires. Lime, for
example, in small quantities, is essential to good wheat
land, and no soil, however good it may be in other
respects, and however favorable the climate, will produce
firgt rate crops of wheat, unless it contain a proper
proportion of lime.

544. Though wheat, like most other plants, thrives best
on a thoroughly tilled soil, deep ploughing is less impor
tant in its cultivation than in that of Indian corn, since
its roots do not strike down so deep, while from the season
of its growth it is not so liable to suffer from droughts.
But thorough cultivation is requisite that the land may
be as clean as possible, that is, perfectly free from weeds
and noxious plants at the time of sowing.

545. The land having been
well manured, ploughed and
harrowed, wheat may be sown
broadcast by hand or by a
broadcast so wing machine, (Fig.
28,) and harrowed in, or it may

be sown in drills by a machine Fig. 28.

admirably adapted to this purpose.

546. Both methods have their advantages, but the drill
sowing is the more economical of the two, as it saves seed
by its more uniform distribution. Wheat properly drilled
in is less liable to be thrown out by the frost and killed.
The yield per acre is also larger, particularly if care be
taken to stir the ground and keep out weeds between the
drills during the growth of the plant.

166 CULTURE OF THE CEREALS.

547. Besides, in drill sowing the crop gets the benefit
of greater light and heat, and a freer circulation of air,
and hence a more thrifty growth. In addition to these
important advantages of the drill over hand sowing, some
concentrated manure may be applied in the drill, and the
wheat feels its influence more directly and quickly than
if all the manure were spread and turned under.

548. From four to six pecks of winter wheat, and from
two to two and a half bushels of spring wheat, should be
sown to the acre. The quantity will vary according to
the fertility of the soil, the smaller quantity being required
on the most fertile soil.

549. The culture of roots forms an excellent prepara
tion for wheat, because they cleanse and mellow the soil.
AY heat should therefore follow a root crop in the rotation
rather than an Indian corn crop, though on an oat stubble
it is often found to succeed well.

550. Unless the ground has been heavily manured for
a previous crop, it should be well manured before sowing
wheat. A strong and vigorous growth in the fall is very
important, as it will enable the roots to store up a large
amount of nourishment for the early spring growth, and
the plant will advance with great rapidity in the early part
of the following season. Spring wheat should be sown
as early in April as the condition of the land will allow.

551. Wheat should be harvested before it gets dead ripe.
It makes more and better flour if cut just after the grain
li;is begun to harden, but while it is still so soft that it
can IK- crushed with ease between the thumb and finger.
Tin- ^traw is then greenish but partially turned yellow.

552. If the wheat is not gathered at this time it changes
very rapidly in favorable weather, and the grain and straw
soon grow less valuable, a part of the starch of which the

CULTIVATION OP RYE. 1G7

grain is composed becoming bran. This should not be
forgotten, and when the wheat reaches the proper dog wo
of ripeness it should be cut at once.

553. Exposure to rains after cutting is very injurious
to wheat. It makes both grain and straw darker in color
and is apt to cause a partial decay on the surface. The
parts thus affected mix with the rest in grinding, and give
the flour a dark hue. Wheat should therefore be stacked,
or housed as soon as possible after reaping.

554. Rye. Rye holds the next rank among
the cereals in its nutritive qualities and its
importance as food for man. The form of an ear
of rye is shown in figure 29. It occupies the same
place in the rotation on light soils that wheat does
on heavy ones.

555. Wheat, as we have seen, is most produc
tive only on a calcareous soil — that is, a soil which
contains more or less lime. Rye accommodates
itself to much lighter and drier soils, and though
it does better where there is some lime in the soil,
it does not require the presence of this substance
as wheat does, and in point of fact it is usually
sown upon the poorest soils of the farm.

556. There are two well-marked varieties of
rye, the winter and spring, which are cultivated
like winter and spring wheat. Rye is much less - lg'
sensitive to the cold than wheat, while its growth is much
more rapid. Hence it is a better staple crop for a high
northern latitude.

557. When sown for its grain, about one bushel of seed
per acre is required. If sown as a green crop for sofling
or feeding out green to cattle, two or three bushels per
acre are usually allowed.

15*

168 CULTURE OF THE CEREALS.

558. On sheep farms winter rye sown the previous fall,
will often furnish a very early and nutritious feed in spring
I M 'fore the pastures are in a condition to graze, and the
more extended use of this crop for this purpose would be
judicious, particularly on dry poor soils near the home
stead.

559. Rye straw cut short and steamed,- is sometimes
mixed with Indian or linseed meal, shorts, or other fine
feed, and contains more nutriment than the straw of
wheat, but it is so tough and coarse that it is not relished
by cattle unless artificially prepared, while its value for
other purposes is such that it is seldom used as food for
stock.

560. The principal disease of this plant is
known under the name of ergot. It is a
kind of spur or morbid growth which takes
the place of the grain. Ergot is not con
fined exclusively to rye, but occasionally
attacks some of the other grasses, though
more common in rye. It is poisonous. Rye
is more liable to it in low damp lands, than
Fi "30 on dry and light uplands. It is illustrated
in figure 30.

561. Barley. Barley (Fig. 81,) grows and ripens with
astonishing rapidity, and hence may be cultivated in
many climates where other cereals cannot. It requires a
light fertile soil well cultivated and free from weeds,
which are more injurious to it than to any other grain.
The manure used should be old and well decomposed.

562. Barley should be made to follow a hoed crop, if
possible, and shoiild be sown as soon after the tenth of
May as practicable. It may be simply harrowed in on
stiff soils, or harrowed and rolled on light ones. After

Till-] YIELD OF OATS.

1G9

coming up it is more likely to be hurt by
the feeding and trampling of sheep and
other stock than cither wheat or rye.

568. It should be harvested before it is
perfectly ripe, as it is soon injured if allowed
to stand too long. If harvested early, the
grain is of better quality and less liable to
shell oif and be wasted.

564. Oats. Oats (Fig. 32,) do best in a
damp climate and a moist soil, with a
moderate summer temperature. As we
seldom find these conditions united in this
country, the crop rarely succeeds so well
here as in some other countries.

565. In the best oat districts of Scotland
and Ireland, the average weight of a bushel
of oats is forty-three or forty-four pounds,
while more than a hundred bushels per acre
are often gathered. In this country crops
of eighty or ninety bushels are regarded as
large, the average yield being much less,
while the weight per bushel is rarely more
than from twenty-eight to thirty-two pounds.

566. After thorough ploughing, oats may
be sown broadcast either by hand or by some
of the admirable broadcast seed sowers, and
covered by means of the common harrow
and the roller. The latter is especially
useful on light lands, as the compression of
the soil affected by it hastens the germina
tion of the seed and causes it to spring up
uniformly. From two to four bushels of
seed per acre should be used, according to

31.

32.

170 CULTURE OF THE CEREALS.

the richness of the soil and the purpose for which the
crop is designed.

567. Oats produce an admirable green crop for feeding
out to milch cows and other stock, on account of the
rapidity and eaiiiness of their growth. When sown for this
purpose a larger quantity of seed is required than if the
design is to produce a crop of grain. In either case the
earlier they are sown in spring the better.

568. The roller is sometimes drawn over the young
plants before they have tillered, or sent up side shoots.
It then checks the upward growth of the main stalk and
multiplies the side shoots, thus increasing the amount of
the product.

569. Oats should be cut before the straw has turned
completely yellow ; if left longer, the amount of nutri
ment both in the grain and the stalk becomes less, and
there is a loss by shelling out in harvesting. They may
be cut with the scythe, and in many cases the mowing
machine or reaper can be used to advantage. They
should be left to dry a day or two before storing in the
barn.

570. In this country oats are used almost exclusively
for feeding horses and other animals, for which purpose
they are very excellent, as they contain a large amount
of nourishment. Oat meal is also extensively used by
young men during their training or preparation for
athletic games and exercises, being admirably adapted to
the formation of muscle and strength. It is used for
human food to a great extent in Scotland and Ireland.
The straw is more valuable for fodder than that of wheat,
rye or barley.

571. Buckwheat. Buckwheat is not properly a cereal
in, but belongs to an entirely different order of plants

RAISING OF BUCKWHEAT. 171

known as hnotweeds. There are three cultivated species
of this genus, the seeds of which when ground, are used
as food for man. Of these only one, buckwheat, is raised
in this country, one in Italy, and the third in China.

572. As it remains in the ground but a short time, it
may be cultivated in high northern latitudes, and it is
seldom found in this country except in the region north
of Tennessee and North Carolina.

573. This plant succeeds best on light soils, but will
do well 011 almost any soil except a heavy clay. It is
frequently sown to plough in green as a manure in
preparing for some other crop. For this purpose it is
less valuable than clover, or a suitable mixture of plants,
but if ploughed in when in blossom, it is beneficial in
all soils which contain but little organic or vegetable
matter.

574. Before sowing buckwheat the land is usually
ploughed once and then lightly harrowed. No other
preparation is necessary. The seed is sown in June, and
harrowed in. About three pecks per acre is enough,
though some farmers sow a bushel, broadcast. Good
crops of buckwheat have sometimes been obtained from
seed sown after a crop of barley has been taken from
the land, and some sow it in August with winter wheat.

575. When ready for harvesting, it may be cut with
the scythe or the cradle ; the latter is better. It is then
raked or gathered into small bundles, which are fastened
by twisting the tops, and allowed to stand and dry on the
field. If mown with the scythe and left in the swath, it
will shell out. It dries slowly, and should be threshed
as soon as it is stored, since there is much danger of its
heating. The yield of this crop is from twenty to forty
bushels per acre.

172 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.

576. Millet. Several plants of different species pass
under the name of millet, and are cultivated, to some
extent, for their seeds. The common millet is best
known in this country. Millet is often sown to cut up
green for stock. If raised for winter fodder, it is cut and
cured like hay.

577. Millet flourishes best in a dry sandy loam, well
and deeply pulverized by the plough and the harrow.
If evenly sown, a peck of seed per acre is enough, if it is
cultivated for the seed. But when it is designed to be
cut to feed out green to cattle, a larger amount of seed
should be used.

578. Millet is regarded as an exhausting crop if
allowed to ripen, but it will do well on land too light for
grass, and deserves to be more extensively cultivated
than it now is. It may be sown from the middle of May
to July, and harvested as the grasses are for hay, but
when cultivated for the seed, it should be allowed to
stand till nearly ripe.

CHAPTER XVII.

LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.

579. This class of plants embraces several different
<JVIHT;I and many species and varieties due to the ad ion
of soil, climate and cultivation. It includes the cultivated
varieties of the bean, the pea, the lentil, the lupine, and
the vetch ; all of which produce seeds composed largely

VARIETIES OF THE BEAN. 173

of a substance known to chemistry as legumine, which is
almost the same as caseine or the cheesy matter of milk,
and in many respects is like the gluten or nitrogenous
compounds of the cereals, although somewhat different.
But the proportion of starch and nitrogenous substances
contained in the leguminous plants is far greater than that
of the albumen and gluten in the cereals. .

580. The Bean. The most important of the legumi
nous plants in our agriculture is the bean. There are
many varieties of the bean, all derived originally from the
same. The kinds most frequently used belong to the
genus Phaseolus, of which three prominent varieties are
commonly cultivated as a field crop. These are the large
white bean, the small white, and the China bean, with a
red or pink eye. As many as thirty or forty sub-varieties
of this genus are found in gardens, some of them known
as climbing, or pole beans, others as busk beans.

5.81. Beans grow well on a variety of soils, from a very
light sand to a strong loam ; but sandy or gravelly soils
are better for them than strong and tenacious clays. On
light soils the plant not only ripens earlier, but is cleaner
and freer from earth, which frequently adheres to the
plant in large quantities, during rains, especially at the
period of ripening.

582. The land should be thoroughly ploughed and
harrowed so as to be well mellowed. The stable manure
applied should be well decomposed or composted, and it
may be placed in the hill or drill. The varieties of the
white bean are usually grown in hills, while bush and
garden beans are more often planted in drills. On dry,
sandy or gravelly lands beans do better if planted thick ;
the rows of the smaller varieties need not be more than
two feet apart, only space enough being left between then;

174 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.

to allow cultivation. In drills six beans may be planted
to the foot, and the quantity of seed to be used per acre
whether sown in hills or drills, will be from one to three
bushels, according to the variety.

583. The proper time for planting beans in the latitude
of New England, is between the 20th of May and the 10th
of June. Generally the best time is about the 1st of
June, but it varies a little, according to the nature of the
soil and the forwardness of the season.

584. When the plants have formed their first full-sized
leaves, generally about the 20th of June, the crop should
be hoed for the first time with the hand-hoe, the horse-
hoe or the cultivator having previously been used between
the rows, if necessary. The best farmers prefer not to stir
the ground* with the plough if the weeds can be kept down
with the hoe.

585. The character of the season makes a great differ
ence in the crop. Too much moisture causes the leaves
to grow with great luxuriance, and a very dry season
often stints the plant and prevents it from growing
vigorously.

586. When the leaves shrivel and the pods turn yellow,
the crop shoidd be harvested, by pulling up the plants and
stacking them in some convenient place on the ground or
on rails. They will soon become dry, and should then be
taken to the barn and threshed out Unless perfectly
ripe and dry, they should be spread out and occasionally
turned till all moisture has passed off, so that there is no
longer any danger of injury from heating.

587. The yield will vary from fifteen to thirty or forty
bushels per acre, according to the land and culture, and
the variety planted. The stalks are valuable as fodder
for sheep and horses.

CULTURE OP THE PEA. 175

588. The Pea. The gray or field pea is most common
as a field crop. Many other varieties of this vegetable
are found in the garden and the market, each of which
is marked by some peculiarity as to time of ripening,
size, &c.

589. The soil best adapted to the pea is a stiff loam,
such as might be called clayey. But it will not do well
on a heavy clay. In general the pea may be successfully
cultivated on all soils which can be deeply tilled and richly
manured, except the stiffest clays and light sands.

590. Fine, well-rotted composts or ashes, plaster or
lime, should be used for this crop, in preference to coarse
barnyard manures.

591. In soils of not more than ordinary stiffness, which
have been well cultivated for some preceding crop, a single
deep ploughing followed by the harrow is sufficient for
pease. They should be sown in drills, from two to four
bushels of seed being used per acre, and covered about
an inch and a half deep. They may follow any farm crop
in the rotation, but should never be raised year after year
on the same land. Many sow pease broadcast with oats,
and harrow them in, and good crops are often obtained in
this way. A thorough rolling with a heavy field roller is
useful.

592. When ready for use pease are picked by hand, or
if sown broadcast mixed with some other crop, they are
cut with the scythe, and then taken to the barn and
threshed with the flail. In some places the pea is
cultivated to some extent to furnish green feed for stock,
and as a green manure crop to be turned under. For
these purposes it is sown broadcast or hoed in among corn
at the last hoeing.

16

176 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.

593. This plant is liable to be attacked by a
1 weevil, the pea bug, magnified in figure 33, which
deposits its eggs in the pod just as the pea is
swelling. This is done at night or in cloudy
Fig. 33. Weather. As soon as hatched the grub penetrates
the young pea and remains there till towards the end
of the following winter, when it bores its way out, after
having changed into a pupa and cast its skin, leaving a
round smooth hole. The germ is left untouched, and
pease injured in this way may therefore be used for seed.

594. Immersing the seed in hot water before planting
will destroy the grub, if it still remain in the pea, but
this remedy would generally be too late, as the grub
usually leaves towards the close of winter.

595. The insect lives in other plants, so that if destroyed
in every pea there would still be enough left to deposit an
egg in every pea of the next crop. Hence there is at
present no known remedy against the weevil for early
sown pease. Those planted late in June are not so liable
to be attacked, and pease might perhaps be obtained free
from these insects by late planting.

596. But this vegetable must have abundant moisture
while in blossom, or its yield will be small, and the droughts
and great heat of July are very injurious to it ; hence it
will often be found that the evils of late sowing are greater
than its advantages.

597. The Lentil in some countries forms an important
article of food. It requires a warm, light soil, but its
yield both of straw and seed is small compared with that
of the bean or pea, and there would, probably, be no
object in introducing it into our agriculture as a field crop.

598. The Vetch would doubtless succeed well here as
a green food for cows in milk, or for horses. It might be

THE POTATO. 177

sown with oats, using two bushels of vetches, of the white
flowered variety, to one of oats per acre, on land in good
condition.

CHAPTER

ESCULENT BOOTS.

599. The Potato, one of the most important plants of the
farm, may be raised from the seed, and it is in this way that
new varieties are obtained, or it will grow from the tuber
or enlarged portion of the stem beneath the ground ; this
contains many eyes or germs, from which spring shoots
or stalks, which reproduce the same species or variety.

600. If the tubers are to be planted, which is the
common mode of propagating the potato, it is desirable
that they should not be allowed to ripen fully. They
grow much more vigorously if dug before ripening than
if the plants stand till they decay in autumn.

601. There are many varieties of the potato, but the
chief practical distinction is known by the terms early
and late. All the varieties without doubt have come from
the wild plants native to South America, whence they
were first brought into use in Europe.

602. The potato contains a large quantity of starch in
combination with water, and a large percentage of potash
which is found in the ash, left after burning. The amount
of starch is different in the different varieties, some having
as much as thirty-two per cent.

178 ESCULENT ROOTS.

603. The quantity of starch is greatest in winter. Ger
mination rapidly decreases it in spring, and hence potatoes
are less mealy and palatable. Since the prevalence of the
potato rot, the amount of starch in most of the varieties
has very much diminished. It is worthy of remark that
the wild potato plant contains but little, if any, nutriment.

004. With good management and in a good season, a
fair crop of potatoes may be obtained from almost any
soil, but they do best on a loose, mellow, virgin soil, or one
newly cleared, and the liability to rot is less in such soils
than on a heavy retentive one, or on peat land which before
the rot first appeared often produced very large crops.
A strong, deep, warm loam with a porous subsoil is
especially fitted for this crop.

605. Very few plants require so little preparation of the
land for cultivation as the potato, and a large yield has
been obtained by merely dropping the tubers along the
side of the furrow on the turned up sod, and back-fur
rowing to cover them.

606. v Strongly heating manures, such as that from the
l>;irnyard while still unfermen ted, which were formerly
much used for potatoes, have been found by experience
to increase the liability to disease, and hence should be
avoided, if possible, and if used at all they should be
ploughed in rather than applied in the hill. Ashes or
plaster of Paris may be used in the hill to advantage.

607. The potato may be cut into pieces before planting,
each piece containing one or more eyes or germs,
and a certain proportion of the body of the potato. The
latter furnishes nourishment to the germ in the first
shirrs of its growth. Cutting is often judicious, and
always so when the potatoes to be used as seed are to be

CULTURE OP THE TURNIP. 179

purchased. The largest potatoes grow from eyes taken
from that part of the tuber nearest the stalk.

608. The crop may require two careful hoeings, and
the weeds should be kept down by further cultivation,
if necessary. At the first hoeing, when the plants are
from one to two inches high, the plough or the cultivator
may be used between the rows, as the workman may
prefer.

609. The crop is harvested in the month of September
or October, according to location and the variety, being
lifted out of the ground by the hoe, or, which is far
better, the eight-tined fork. Some farmers run a furrow
with the common plough through the rows.

610. The Turnip. The turnip is cultivated with the
highest success only in a moist and equable climate. In
this country, on account of the excessive droughts to
which we are subject, the large size of root and luxuriant
growth so frequently found in Scotland and the west
of England, are seldom to be seen. Possibly the
deficiency in weight of the crop may be made up by a
greater amount of nutriment in proportion to weight, as
in the case of grasses and other plants grown in a dryer
climate. But this must be determined by more extended
experiment and accurate analysis.

611. The common turnip is very highly esteemed as a
valuable food for stock, especially for sheep, and its
cultivation is regarded as one of the best methods
of preparing the soil for a succeeding crop of grain.

612. Experience has shown that it is very advantageous
to raise alternately a deep or tap-rooted crop like the
turnip, carrot or parsnip, and a surface-rooted one like
wheat, rye, barley, &c. The form of the root of some
of these plants is shown in figure 34. The root crop is

16*

180

ESCULENT ROOTS.

Fig. 34.

not only valuable in itself,
but it also draws up from
the lower strata of the soil
more or less of the valua
ble plant nourishing sub
stances always present
there, and leaves a portion
of them near the surface,
where they can easily be
reached by surface-rooted
plants.

G13. The varieties of the turnip are very numerous.
Those most commonly cultivated arc the common globe,
the purple-top strap leaf, the hybrid, and the Swede or
ruta-baga. Many others have a local reputation, and are
more or less valuable.

614. The soils best adapted to the turnip are light loams,
loose and open, under full cultivation or thoroughly
ploughed and pulverized. There are few crbps which
require so much preparation of the land before planting.

615. The land designed for the Swede or ruta-baga,
should be very deeply ploughed the preceding autumn,
the deeper the better. Two thorough ploughings should
also be given in the spring, to be followed by a careful
harrowing so as to mellow and completely disintegrate or
break up and pulverize the soil. The flat turnip requires
less depth and thoroughness of cultivation.

616. The soil should be enriched by an abundant supply
of manure. On poor soils the root soon degenerates and
becomes small and acrid. The manures best adapted to
this vegetable are those rich in phosphates, such as
dissolved bones or bone dust, guano and super-phosphate
of lime.

TURNIPS AS FOOD FOR STOCK. 181

617. Manures rich in nitrogen and comparatively poor
in phosphates, promote the growth of the leaf rather than
of the bulb, and their injudicious use will produce an
inferior crop. When the soil is not very rich and soft in
itself, a heavy dressing of farmyard manure may safely
be ploughed in, and home made super-phosphate or bone
dust, mixed with guano, may be applied near the surface
or in the drill.

618. The common round or flat turnip is usually sown
broadcast and harrowed in, but the Swede or ruta-baga is
sown in drills about two and a quarter feet apart, with
the seed sower. Neither should be planted in ridges or
raised drills, except on very thin soils, as the benefit to
the land of a deep-rooted crop is less marked, than if
the ground is kept level.

619. From two to three pounds of seed are allowed per
acre. This quantity will give more plants than can be
grown to advantage, and they should be thinned out so
that there may be a proper distance between them during
the summer.

620. The horse-hoe may be used between the drills
when the first rough leaves have appeared. This is
followed by the hand-hoe to clear out the weeds and stir
the soil around the plants. Subsequent hoeings will be
necessary to prevent the growth of weeds.

621. Turnips may remain in the ground till the hard
frosts begin, without injury. They should then be taken
up and stored in suitable root cellars or in pits on the
field, where they may remain till wanted for use.

622. As has been said, turnips are a valuable article of
food for sheep and all kinds of store cattle. An animal
can easily be fattened on turnips and hay. They should
be cut with the shovel or the turnip-slicer before being

182 ESCULENT ROOTS.

fed out. From seventy-five to one hundred pounds a day,
in addition to hay or straw, may be fed to an animal of a
thousand pounds weight.

623. The kohl-rabi is a hybrid turnip, or turnip-
stemmed cabbage, much used in some countries as food
for man and animals, It is sown early in spring and
cultivated like the cabbage.

624. The cabbage is not very common as a field crop
in this country, but is mostly confined to the home or
market garden. It requires a very rich clayey soil and
high cultivation. The seed is usually sown in beds to be
transplanted into hills, where it is hoed and cultivated
like other garden vegetables.

625. The Beet. There are many varieties of the beet,
but all may be included under the two general designations
of garden and field beets ; these may be again sub-divided
according to their size and color, the shape of the root,
and the purposes to which they are applied. Field beets
comprise those used for feeding cattle and making sugar.

626. The Mangold Wurzel is more esteemed for stock
feeding in this country than any other variety of beet.
It does best on a rich, deep, well-manured soil, with
thorough cultivation, but will accommodate itself to most
soils that are strong, deep, and well tilled.

627. To prepare the land for the beet it should be
deeply ploughed, manured, and harrowed level ; the seed
should then be sown by a machine in rows at the rate of
throe or four pounds per acre, and covered to the depth
of an inch. It is a common practice to steep the seed in
wain1 i<>r twenty-four hours before sowing.

628. Tin; after cultivation consists mainly in the free
use of the cultivator or horse-hoe, and the hand-hoe, so
as to keep the surface fresh and free from weeds. Man-

CULTURE OF THE CARROT. 183

golds may stand a foot apart in the rows. If they are a
foot apart in the rows, the rows being two feet apart,
there will be more than twenty thousand plants to the acre.

629. The Mangold may be harvested in October. If
the root is bruised or injured it is liable to decay, and care
should be taken to guard against the possibility of this.
When well stored in a cool cellar or in pits dug for the
purpose, it will keep through the winter, and cattle of all
kinds are very fond of it.

630. The Carrot. The carrot is very valuable as a
forage crop, and is extensively cultivated and highly
esteemed. No root is more relished by domestic animals.
Weight for weight it is somewhat less nutritive than the
potato ; but its greater yield per acre more than makes
up for the difference in quality.

631. Horses are especially fond of it, and when not
kept at very hard work, should have it as part of their
regular food. It keeps up their condition, and gives them
a fine glossy coat. When fed to cows it increases the
richness of the milk somewhat, and is supposed by some
to give a richer color to the butter, while for sheep and
lambs it is also a valuable article of food.

632. The cultivation of the carrot is generally more
expensive than that of most other root crops. It requires
much slow and toilsome hand labor, unless great care be
taken to avoid sowing the seeds of weeds with the manure.
But on clean land, and with the use of concentrated
manures like ashes, plaster, guano or old and well
decomposed compost, the cost of the crop need not be
much greater than that of other roots.

633. There are several varieties of this root, all of
which probably came from the common wild carrot of
Europe, the Daucus carota. The most valuable for field

184 ESCULENT ROOTS.

culture are the short horn, the long orange, the white
Belgian, and the altringham. The white Belgian will give
the heaviest yield, on the whole, but the long orange sells
better and is somewhat more nutritious. The white
Belgian is often of greater size, but coarser and of less
weight in proportion to its size. But many think the
short horn yields a more valuable crop than either.

634. The carrot grows in almost any variety of climate
found in this country, but it is more especially adapted
to the northern regions, which ordinarily suffer less from
drought. • Excessive dryness stops its growth and materi
ally lessens its product.

635. It is most productive on a deep, light, warm loam,
capable of retaining a moderate degree of moisture in
summer, but with a dry and open subsoil.

636. Deep ploughing and subsoiling are especially
important in the cultivation of this crop. The size and
weight of the root depend very much upon deep tillage.

637. No manures of a coarse or very stimulating
nature should be used. They cause a useless growth
of fibrous roots and leaves to the injury of the main root.
Land enriched by previous high culture, where manure
will be unnecessary, is to be preferred for this crop, but
in any case only old and well-rotted manures, or some
concentrated fertilizer, should be used. These may be
spread on the furrow after deep and thorough ploughing,
and harrowed in when the land is ready for the seed.

638. The seed should be new and fresh. When two
years old it will often fail to germinate. As it does not
start till utter it has been exposed to moisture for some
time, it is often soaked for eight hours or more, and then
spiv;itl oui quite thickly on the floor, where it is left till
it begins to germinate. This will generally be in six or

TIME OP SOWING. — THINNING. 185

eight days. It should then be immediately rolled in
plaster and sown by the seed sower, in drills from fourteen
to eighteen inches apart.

639. If the seed is new and good, two or three pounds
to the acre are quite enough to plant. If its quality is
unknown, four or five pounds may be used and the plant
thinned out while growing. The covering should be but
slight, not more than half an inch in depth.

640. The ground should be fully prepared in the
previous autumn, and the seed put in as soon after the
15th of April as possible. The plant does better if started
while the ground is still quite moist, since it is very slow
in its early growth.

641. When the plants are well up so as to be distinctly
seen, they should be hoed and weeded. It is much easier
to keep the weeds down at the outset, than to get them
out after they have overrun the crop. The number of
hoeings will depend much upon the character of the soil
and the previous culture. If the land is foul or very
weedy, it will require constant and repeated labor, at an
expense greater in some cases than the value of the crop
itself.

642. At the second hoeing, or when the plants are two
or three inches high, they may be thinned out if they
require it, but a greater weight per acre may be obtained
without much thinning, and the smaller roots, though
they do not look quite so well, and will not sell for so
high a price, perhaps, are better for stock than very large
ones grown four or six inches apart.

643. Carrots maybe allowed to stand till the early part
of November without injury from frost. They may be
raised from the earth by the plough or the fork, and stored
for winter use, the tops being fed to stock.

186 ESCULENT ROOTS.

644. The Parsnip. The parsnip is another plant which
has been made valuable by culture, the original wild
parsnip being altogether worthless. It is cultivated both
as a field and a garden crop, and deserves far more atten
tion than it now receives from the farmer.

645. There is little doubt that the parsnip is more
nutritive than the carrot, that it is more hardy, some
what less liable to be injured by diseases or insects, while
it is more easily cultivated and more productive. It is
much liked by all animals, and is thought to give a
richness to the milk of cows which no other root can,
except, perhaps, the carrot. It is claimed that its use
enables the farmers of the islands of Jersey and Guernsey
to make butter in winter, as rich and high-flavored as
they can upon the grasses of June.

646. There are two varieties of this plant, both derived
from the same source. They are the round or garden,
and the long field or large Jersey parsnip. The farmer
will find the latter the most profitable.

647. The parsnip prefers a mild and moist climate for
its early growth, but it endures our severest cold, and
may remain in the ground through the winter to be dug
up fresh in the spring and used for feeding stock.

648. It is most productive on chalky or clayey soils,
and sands rich in mould or humus, but will grow well
wherever carrots will. In some parts of France carrots
;ui(l parsnips are cultivated together.

649. The parsnip being a tap-rooted plant, the soil
must bo prepared for it in the same manner as for
carrots. The seed used should be of the growth of the
preceding year. The sowing and after cultivation arc
like those of the carrot.

THE PARSNIP.— THE ARTICHOKE. 187

650. In a proper climate and soil, the parsnip yields
more than the carrot, but it is, probably, a more
exhausting crop.

651. The Jerusalem Artichoke. The Jerusalem arti
choke is nearly as nutritious as the potato, and its stalks
are almost as valuable as its tubers. It has never been
cultivated to any great extent as a field crop, in this
country, but many cultivators of it in Europe claim that
it has many advantages. Among others, that it grows
well on light sands and tenacious clays, where no other
root crop would succeed. They say it does not exhaust
the soil, but may be grown year after year in the same
place ; that it is free from diseases, and endures alike the
colds of winter and the droughts of summer.

652. Its cultivation is much like that of the potato,
the land being prepared and manured in the same way.
The tubers are planted early in spring, in rows or
drills, the rows being far enough apart to allow working
between them, and the plants about nine inches apart in
the rows.

653. In countries where this plant is cultivated as a
field crop, the stalks are either cut and fed out green,
beginning, in France, about the end of August, or left
to be cut with the sickle, and stocked and dried for
winter fodder. After the stalks are cut and removed,
the tubers are taken up as they are wanted to feed out,
or dug late in the fall and stored for winter use. Most
kinds of farm stock are very fond both of the stalks and
the roots.

17

188 FORAGE PLANTS.

CHAPTER XIX.

THE GRASSES — FORMATION OF MEADOWS OR UPLAND
MOWINGS.

654. The culture of the natural and artificial grasses
and other forage plants arose from the necessity of
providing sustenance through the winter, or inclement
season, for the domestic animals on which the success of
agriculture so much depends. It is evident that this
department of farming is of the highest , importance,
especially when we consider how dependent the raising
of stock must be upon it.

655. The grasses may be classed, for convenience,
un^er two general divisions, the natural and the artificial.
The natural grasses comprise all the true grasses, or
plants with long, simple, narrow leaves, and a long sheath
divided to the base, which seems to clasp the stem, or
through which the stem seems to pass. Each leaf has
many fine veins, or lines running parallel with a central
prominent vein or midrib. The stem is hollow, with very
few exceptions, and closed at the joints.

656. The artificial grasses are mostly leguminous plants,
with a few others which are cultivated and used like the
grasses, though they do not properly belong to that family.
The clovers, lucerne, sainfoin, medic and other similar
j ilants, are included among the artificial grasses.

657. Lands laid down with the natural grasses are
designed as more permanent mowings than those sown
uiih the mtilicial ones alone. They are sown with a
number of species of the true grasses, must of which are

NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL GRASSES. 189

perennial, and are to be used as mowing lands or for
pasturage. The artificial grasses are more frequently
intended to occupy the ground for one or two years only
in the rotation with other crops, and are generally com
posed of only one or two species of plants, and those
annuals, or at most biennials.

658. In this country it is common to sow one or more
species of clover with the natural grasses. The clover
then occupies the ground almost exclusively during the
first and sometimes the second year, but afterwards the
perennial grasses take its place and form a permanent turf.

659. The natural grasses form a close turf or sward,
and when left uncut to be fed off by animals, this turf
makes what is called a pasture or pasturage.

660. There are certain situations which must be
improved as pasturage, if at all. Such are steep slopes
on which cultivation is difficult or expensive, and where
the soil would be washed into the valleys below, if broken
up by the spade or plough ; also lands which lie along
the margins of streams or rivers liable to periodical
overflows, by which growing crops might be endangered
or the soil be washed away, and low marshy lands which
cannot be drained so as to produce annual crops. In
these latter situations, however, the wild grasses frequently
come in so luxuriantly, on account of the richness of the
soil, as to give good crops for hay for many years in
succession, without any cultivation whatever.

661. There are great differences between the different
species of grasses. Some are short lived, others more
permanent ; some mature early, others later ; some
contain much nutriment, others little. The different
species require different kinds of soil also, and withdraw
from it different substances and elements.

190 FORAGE PLANTS.

G62. By the use of many judiciously selected species
together, a greater weight of grass and hay can be
obtained from an acre than if only a few species be used.
Probably this arises from the fact stated above, that the
different species use different kinds of nutriment. On a
certain space, say on a square foot of soil, as many plants
of a particular species of grass will grow as can find there
the kind of nourishment they need ; no more of that
species can grow there, of course ; they would starve as
it were, but other plants of a different species of grass,
which require different substances to support them, may
grow on the same soil, because the plants of the first have
not consumed any of the substances which- they want ; so
as many plants of the second species will grow there as
can obtain the sort of nourishment suited to them; a
third species, and others needing different kinds of
nutriment may be added, and this may go on till the soil
is crowded as thick with the plants as they can grow.

GGo. In selecting a mixture for mowing or for pasturage,
regard should be had to the modes of growth and other
peculiarities of each kind. A grass well adapted to cut
for hay, may be very unsuitable to form a pasture turf.
Timothy, though one of the best of our grasses for
mowing, is not good to sow for pasturage, as it cannot
bear the close cropping of cattle.

664. Among the grasses which may most profitably be
cultivated for mowing, may be mentioned Timothy,
rcdtop, white bent, orchard grass, perennial rye
grass, June grass, rough stalked meadow grass, fowl
meadow grass, meadow fescue, and tall fescue.* Other

* The natural history, culture and economic value of the grasses arc fully
-t.iti-.l in the Tr.-ali.-c on (irassrs and Forage Hants, uhich those who desire to
make themselves mure lam i liar \\ith the bitljeet may cunaulL.

GRASSES FOR PASTURAGE. 191

species might be mentioned as worthy of cultivation
for tills purpose in particular localities, or when the hay
is to he applied to some particular use,- hut the above are
the most valuable.

665. Among the species more particularly fitted to
form pasturage, are meadow foxtail, orchard grass, sweet
scented vernal, June grass, redtop, meadow fescue, and
yellow oat grass.

666. In selecting the species to be sown, the time of
flowering of each species should be regarded. When
seeds of different grasses are mixed for mowing land,
such kinds should be chosen that all will come into flower
at about the same time, otherwise one species will have
begun to spoil before another is ready for cutting.

667. In laying down pasture land 011 the contrary, the
object is quite different. Here we wish a constant
succession of green and succulent herbage from early
spring to late autumn. Hence some species may be
valuable not for their nutritive qualities, but from their
habit of very early or late growth. The sweet scented
vernal, one of our earliest grasses, is an instance of this.

668. The grasses attain their utmost luxuriance only in
a moist and mild climate. Severe heats and long pro
tracted droughts check their growth and make it very
difficult to form a close sward. Generally speaking, our
grasses suffer much more from the droughts of summer
than the colds of winter. It should be added that grasses
grown in a dry climate, or a dry season, contain more
nutriment in proportion to their weight.

669. The best time for sowing the natural grasses, in
the latitude of the northern States, is about the first of
September, since they can then become strongly rooted
before the approach of winter. The practice of sowing

17*

192 FORAGE PLANTS.

in spring with oats or some other grain formerly
prevailed, bnt the droughts of summer very often killed
out the young plants, made tender and weak by the
shade of the grain crop, and great losses were the
consequence.

670. To form a good seed bed it is desirable that the
land should be under cultivation and well manured for
two or more hoed crops. It is then deeply and thoroughly
ploughed and harrowed, so as to leave it in a mellow and
friable condition.

671. The seeds mixed as already recommended, may
then be sown by hand and simply rolled in. They should
not be covered to any considerable depth, and a heavy
harrow will bury many of them too deep. If no roller
is at hand, or if the ground is so wet that it cannot be
used to advantage, its place may be supplied by a bush
harrow.

672. It has been found by experience that in general
the grasses do better when sown in the fall by themselves ;
but on clayey, undrained soils, where fall sowing is
impracticable on account of the great liability to injury
by being thrown out by the frost, it would be better to
sow with wheat or barley in the spring. Such lands will
not be liable to suffer from drought.

673. If clover is to be sown on land laid down to grass
in September, the March following is the best time.
The seed may be strewn on the last light snows of that
month, and will vegetate without any covering, though
if the land be sufficiently dry a roller may be passed over
the surface and will be beneficial.

674. The artificial grasses comprise red, white and
other clovers, lucerne, sainfoin, medic and some others.

THE ARTIFICIAL GRASSES. 193

They may be grown alone or mixed with the natural
grasses.

675. Red clover is one of the most valuable and
economical of forage plants. Its long tap-roots loosen
the soil and let in the air, while by their chemical action
they fix gases which enrich the earth very much. The
decay of them in the ground also fertilizes it, and the
plant shades and protects the surface, and helps to destroy
many annual weeds.

G76. Clover is what may be called a lime plant, and
the soils best adapted to it are clayey or tenacious loams.
It generally does well on good wheat lands. Recent
investigations have shown that lime enters largely, into its
composition.

677. White or Dutch clover is as common as the red,
and often forms a considerable portion of the turf of
pastures of a moist and tenacious soil. It is most
commonly cultivated for pasturage, and many think it to
be as valuable for that purpose as red clover is for hay,
or for soiling or feeding out green to stock ; but cattle
are not so fond of it.

678. Neither lucerne nor sainfoin are cultivated in
this country. The former has been found to be ill-
adapted to our climate, suffering severely in the southern
States from long continued droughts, and as severely in
the northern from the low temperature and the sudden
changes of winter.

194 PLANTS USED IN THE ARTS.

CHAPTER XX.

PLANTS USED IN THE ARTS AND MANUFACTURES.

679. Plants used in the arts are most commonly divided
into three classes: 1. Oleaginous plants, or those raised
especially for their oils ; 2. Textile plants, or those raised
chiefly for their fibre ; and 3. Plants used in the pro
cesses of dyeing, tanning, and various manufactures.

680. The only plant raised to any extent in this country
for its oil is flax, which is also cultivated for its fibre.
The seed is ground and the oil pressed out, leaving what
is called linseed cake, which when ground or broken up
fine is known as linseed meal, a valuable food for stock.
The oil obtained from it is known as linseed oil, exten
sively used in mixing paints and for other purposes, and
always sells readily at a good price.

681. Flax flourishes in a great variety of climates, and
as it grows very rapidly and requires but a short time to
complete its growth, may be cultivated in high northern
latitudes. The soil on which it is sown should be rather
light, or at least not very stiff and heavy. A light loam
inclining to sand, which may be deeply and easily tilled
and kept clean of weeds, is best.

682. But the choice of soil should depend on the
object in view. If flax is raised principally for the seed,
it can hardly be too rich and well-manured. But if the
plant be grown mainly for fibre, a very rich soil is objected
to, as it makes the fibre rank and coarse.

683. Old and well-rotted barn manures may be used
lor this crop, and lime, ashes, or other substances

CULTURE OP FLAX. 195

abounding in lime, are good. A heavy dressing of stable
manures may also be ploughed in deeply-in the fall. In
the cultivation of flax it is very important that the lower
strata of the soil should be in good condition.

684. If the soil be mellow and under good cultivation,
one ploughing followed by a thorough harrowing will be
sufficient, but if it be stiff and ill prepared, two plough-
ings at least will be necessary.

685. The quantity of seed to be sown also depends
upon the object in view. If it be desired to raise the
seed, only two bushels per acre will be enough. If the
fibre, about three bushels is needed. If the less quantity
be used, the plant will grow stalky and branch and
produce much more seed.

686. But if the larger quantity be sown, the plants
force themselves up in a single stem, without branches.
This gives a better fibre, as branching shortens it and
makes it irregular. A long, straight, fine and delicate fibre
is by far the best, and it is found to be more profitable to
cultivate the plant so as to obtain this, than to raise it for
the seed.

687. The seed is sown broadcast and covered with a
light harrow, then rolled. After the plants are up they
should be kept as free as possible from weeds, which
should be pulled up by hand. If the flax has been sown
thick on land well-cleaned by a hoed crop the previous
year, the weeds will not be troublesome unless their seeds
have been sown in the manure.

688. The old method of harvesting flax was to pull it
by hand, tie in small bundles, and stook it. But the
processes of manufacture are now so far perfected that
the crop may be cut with the scythe or the cradle. The
old processes of water rotting, breaking, swingling, &c.,

196 PLANTS USED IN THE ARTS.

are now superseded. For the fibre the plant is cut as
soon as the blossoms begin to fall, but if the object be to
secure both seed and fibre, it should be left till the bolls
have turned yellow.

689. When the flax plant is cultivated for the fibre,
from ten to fifteen bushels of seed may also be expected
per acre, depending on the character of the land and the
thoroughness of culture.

690. Hemp, another textile plant, is cultivated princi
pally for the sake of its fibre, which is used in the
manufacture of ropes and coarse cloths. It belongs to
the same family of plants as the hop and the nettle.

691. The soil best adapted to hemp is a deep rich
mould of loam and vegetable matter, with fine sand and
clay intermixed. The rich alluvial lands of Kentucky,
Missouri, and other western States, are admirably fitted
for it.

692. The seed is sown broadcast early in spring, at the
rate of from one and a half to two and a half bushels
per acre, according to the fineness of the fibre desired.
Thick sowing, as in the case of flax, produces a finer
fibre. When the blossoms begin to fall in July or
August, it is cut up and sorted into different lengths,
and bound up into bundles six or eight inches in diameter,
and put into pools or cisterns of water for rotting. After
being sufficiently rotted, the bundles are taken out, dried
and stacked, till ready for the mechanical processes of
breaking and manufacture which follow.

693. Osier Willows. Among the plants used in various
manufacturing industries, and which form a considerable
item in the agricultural interest of the country, may
be mentioned the Osier willow, broomcorn, and the
hop.

OSIER WILLOWS — BROOMCORN. 197

694. Osier willows are cultivated for the purpose of
basket making. Among the varieties most approved are
those known as the Dutch willow, the purple willow, the
round-leaved, and the long-leaved triandrous willow.

695. Willows will grow in a great variety of soils if
thpy be only moist enough ; but deep, rich, moist intervals
or low alluvial lands, lying on the margin of streams,
especially such as have a southern exposure protected
from high winds, arc most suited to them.

697. The willow grows well on moist soils, but it
should not be too wet, and in many cases draining the
land is advisable, so that it may be ploughed deeply and
prepared as if for corn or any other highly cultivated
farm crop. It is then ready to receive the cuttings.

697. The slips or cuttings are about two feet long, and
should be set perpendicularly in the soil one foot apart, in
rows about three feet apart. They should be kept clean of
weeds the first year or two, either with the hoe or the
cultivator. The osiers may be cut for the first time in
about two years after they are set, and may afterwards be
cut annually early in the spring.

698. Broomcorn does best in a deep, warm, alluvial soil,
such as is best suited to Indian corn. The land should
be ploughed in the fall, if sward land, and cultivated in
spring, or well harrowed and prepared very much as
for Indian, corn. The seed is sown with a seed sower as
early in spring as practicable, in hills about two and a
half or three feet apart. It is hoed and thinned out
soon after coming up, six or eight stalks being left in
each hill, and afterwards cultivated between the rows
once or twice in the season.

699. When the season is sufficiently long, broomcorn is
allowed to grow until the seed is ripe and hard. It is then

198 PLANTS USED IN THE ARTS.

lopped or tabled about two and a half feet from the ground,
and the top or brush end, with about eight inches of the
stalk, are cut off and laid on the tables to dry. It is then
stored on open scaffolds under cover until a convenient
time, when the seed is scraped from the brush by drawing
it through two steel springs. The brush is then bound in
bundles of about ten pounds weight, and is ready for
market. The seed is valuable for feeding stock.

700. The Hop has generally been considered a valuable
crop, profitable in localities where the soil and exposure
favored its growth. The most esteemed varieties are the
golden, the yellow grape, and the Farnham.

701. The hop requires a deep and rich loam, rather
stiff than light, and containing a large proportion of
organic or vegetable matter. A dry porous subsoil is
also desirable. The quality of the hop will depend much
on the soil. It does best in a moist climate.

702. The land devoted to hops should be richly
manured, and the use of large quantities of well-rotted
barnyard compost, bones, woollen rags and other rich
fertilizers, cause it to produce full crops of the best quality.

703. The roots of this plant extend very deep into the
soil, and the land should therefore be very deeply ploughed
and completely pulverized. The hop is propagated by
cuttings or layers, sometimes by sowing the seed.
Cuttings which have been rooted in the form of layers,
grow more rapidly than more fresh ones.

704. The bines are supported on poles set into the
hills. The poles should be from twenty to twenty-five
feet long. It is thought by the best hop growers, to be a
great mistake to use poles of only twelve or fifteen feet
in length as many do, for in general, the yield is much
less, and the quality is not so good, while the labor of

CULTURE OP TOBACCO. 199

hoeing and picking is as great as with the longer poles.
Indeed, it is very seldom that a large crop of first rate
hops is obtained from short poles.

705. Hops should be gathered when fully ripe, in
August or September. The vines are cut off from one
to three feet from the ground, and the poles pulled up
and laid over large boxes. The hops are then to be
picked perfectly free from leaves and stems, dried in kilns,
and pressed into bales.

706. Tobacco is sown in beds made very rich by
manuring, to be transplanted in June, or when the leaves
are two or three inches long. The soil may be prepared
by ploughing in old and well-rotted stable manures,
guano and other stimulating fertilizers.

707. Tobacco
should be planted
early, that it may

be cured while the Fig 35

weather is still

warm and dry. It is only in this way that a fine quality
can be secured. Constant care is necessary to prevent
injury from the tobacco worm, shown in figure 35. For
this purpose the plants must be frequently examined
and the grubs- picked off by hand and destroyed.

708. While still in blossom and before the seed has
formed, the plants should be topped, about two and a
half feet from the ground, leaving twelve or sixteen
leaves to thfe stalk, and all side shoots broken off.

709. When the leaves are thick and spotted, and crack
if pressed between the thumb and finger, they are ready
for gathering. The plant is then cut, left in the row till
the leaves are wilted, and then carried to sheds to be
hung up to dry from five to ten weeks.

18

200 ROTATION OF CROPS.

CHAPTER XXI.

O'P ROTATION OP CROPS.

710. By Rotation of Crops is meant raising a scries of
different crops in regular succession. A farmer turns
up a lot of his pasture land, and raises, this year, a crop
of potatoes ; next year, on the same land, a crop of corn ;
next, a crop of rye ; next, clover and grass. This is a
common four-fold rotation.

The object of rotation in crops is to make a field
or a farm, yield, with a certain amount of labor and of
manure, the greatest possible amount of valuable crops,
with as little exhaustion of the soil as possible.

The reason for a rotation of crops is that no two
plants, of different kinds, require the same substances, in
the same proportion, for their nourishment. The grains
and the grasses may soon exhaust the supply of silica.
They should, therefore, not immediately succeed eacli
other in a rotation. They should be each followed by a
crop which needs less of silica but more of potasli or some
other mineral salts. A field which would not yield a
second good crop of wheat, may, even without manure,
give a very good crop of clover, of turnips or of carrots.

711. The Important Principles in the rotation of crops
are 1st, that though a soil may contain all the mineral
sulislances necessary for the nourishment of every variety
of cultivated plants, there is only a limited supply of the
mineral food necessary for a particular plant ; 2d, some
plants, like the grains, draw their nourishment from
near the surface ; others, like carrots and parsnips, draw

PRINCIPLES OF ROTATION. — ORDER. — SAVING. 201

much of it from a greater depth ; 3d, some plants, those,
namely, which have abundant foliage, draw much of their
food from the atmosphere ; others, like the grains, depend
more upon the materials contained in the soil. 4th, Par
ticular insects live upon certain kinds of plants, certain
flies, for example, on grains and grasses, and continue to
multiply as long as the same crop occupies the soil from
year to year. But when a crop intervenes 011 which these
insects cannot live, as beans or turnips, after wheat or
oats, then they perish for want of proper nourishment for
their young.

712. The order in which crops succeed each other is
often of great importance. Weeds are a great injury
to all crops, and barnyard manure almost always carries
with it the seeds of many pernicious weeds. Such
manure should therefore be put into the ground when a
crop is to be cultivated, like corn or beets, which may be
kept free from weeds by the hoe and the plough or culti
vator. When the weeds have been destroyed or nearly
destroyed, by a hoed crop, a crop may follow of grain or
clover which cannot conveniently be weeded.

713. Much may be saved by rotation. Each crop, in
succession, may find in the soil valuable matters which
were unnecessary to the preceding crops. Time may be
saved, which is more valuable than any crop, for lost time
is never found again. We must ascertain what is the
best succession of crops, and so arrange the different
crops in the different fields, as to occupy all the time of
the husbandman and yet not give him too much to do at
any one time.

With sufficient forecast, this may always be done.
Suppose you can keep under cultivation twenty-eight
acres. You divide them into seven equal portions, and,

202

ROTATION OF CROPS.

if your rotation is one of five years, with grass for two
years, call your several fields A, B, C, D, E, F, Gr. A
natural arrangement may be something like the follow-

Years.

On A.

OnB.

OnC.

OnD.

OnE.

OnF.

OnG.

1st, .

Potatoes.

Corn.

C. T., B.*

Rye.

Clover.

Grass.

Grass.

2d, .

Corn.

C.,T.,B.

Rye.

Clover.

Grass.

Grass.

Potatoes.

;;d, .

C.,T.,B.

Rye.

Clover.

Grass.

Grass.

Potatoes.

Corn.

4th, .

Rye,

Clover.

Grass.

Grass.

Potatoes.

Corn.

C.,T.,B.

5th, .

Clover.

Grass.

Grass.

Potatoes.

Corn.

C.,T.,B.

Rye.

6th, .

Grass.

Grass.

Potatoes.

Corn.

C.,T.,B.

Rye.

Clover.

7th, .

Grass.

Potatoes. ! Corn.

C.,T.,B.

Rye.

Clover.

Grass.

* Carrots, Turnips, Beets.

Iii this way you always have eight acres of grass, four
of corn, four of rye, four of clover, four of potatoes, and
one or more each of beets, of carrots, and of turnips.

714. Or you may have a still longer rotation, intro
ducing, after carrots, parsnips, after beets, cabbages, and
after turnips, pease and beans.

You may save time in the management of the manure.
Tliis may be put in very abundantly before ploughing,
and also in the hills for corn, and before beets, carrots and
turnips, or before cabbages, parsnips, and pease and
beans ; thus being put in once or twice only in the whole
course. If mineral as well as other manures are used,
with the potatoes may be applied plaster, bones and ashes ;
with the corn, barn manure ; with beans; abundant plas
ter ; with the roots, guano, or sea manure, common salt,
plaster, bones dissolved in sulphuric acid, and ashes.

REASONS FOR ROTATION. 203

111 the cultivation of these crops, the ground between
the rows should be turned over and stirred as often as
possible, — six or eight times at least. The ploughing
will then come in this order : earliest, for carrots and
beets, next, for potatoes, next, for corn, next, for turnips.
The grass-field, for potatoes, may be turned over after hay-
harvest ; the ploughing for parsnips may be later and the
seed be sown in the autumn. All the hoed crops should
be cultivated with the cultivator, the horse hoe or the
horse plough, whenever time can be found till the crops
are too far advanced to admit of it.

Good reasons can be given for the seven-years' course
here recommended. Potatoes require large portions of
the alkaline salts and of lime. These are succeeded by
corn, which requires more of silica, together with alka
lies ; then come the roots, which require lime and the
alkalies, with a good deal of nitrogen ; after them rye,
which calls for silica. This is succeeded by clover, which
demands a great deal of lime, and this, by the grasses,
which again demand silica and the alkalies.

715. All plants require, but in different proportions,
carbonic acid, phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, the alka
lies, potash, soda and ammonia, and lime, magnesia and
iron. The acids combine with the other elements of fer
tility, and, while the corn is growing, they are preparing,
from the particles in the soil, carbonates, phosphates and
sulphates of potash, soda, ammonia, lime, magnesia and
iron, for the other crops, and new supplies of silica for the
grasses.

The substances most frequently needed for the restora
tion of fertility are ammonia, phosphoric acid and potash,
and the most valuable manures, next to barn manure,
are accordingly bones and ashes,
is*

204 ROTATION OF CROPS.

716. On a field of clover, gypsum in powder, ashes,
and bones dissolved in sulphuric acid with one hundred
times its quantity of water, always produce gratifying
effects. On grass land similar effects are produced hy the
use of liquid manure which has run from the manure
heap.

A poor gentleman in Maryland, suspecting that land
which had been worn out by long continued cultivation
of tobacco, might be restored by plaster, so as to produce
wheat, tried the experiment, which was completely suc
cessful. He bought many acres of exhausted tobacco
land, and, by fertilizing it with plaster, made himself a
rich man.

This gentleman, not a man of science, was led to make
the experiment by reading Sir Humphrey Davy's Chemi
cal Lectures.

717. A Fallow. A field is said to be fallow for a year,
when no valuable crop is raised upon it. Such a year is
called a year of fallow, and the field itself is sometimes
called a fallow.

It is sometimes well to let a field lie fallow. A field
much infested with weeds may be allowed to lie till the
weeds arc well grown or beginning to blossom, when they
may be turned under with a plough. This is like giving
a coat of manure. When another crop of weeds has
sprung up, they may be ploughed in, and this may be
repeated as often as there arc any weeds to turn under.
These green crops may bo advantageously increased by
harrowing in, after each ploughing except the last of the
season, seed of some rapidly growing plant, like buckwheat.
After a year of such fallow, the field will be likely to be
comparatively free from weeds, as most of the seeds of
weeds will have sprouted and been destroyed.

WEATHERING. — FALLOWS. 205

718. Another benefit comes from the fallow, Weathering.
The soil, often turned up, is exposed to the influences of
the air, and to sunshine, rain, cold, and wind. From the
air it receives oxygen, carbonic acid and ammonia, which
are either employed in rendering soluble the mineral salts
lying in the soil, or are laid up in the geine of the soil for
the use of future crops.

These salts lie concealed in small stones or minute par
ticles of the rocks. In mica and felspar, for example,
which are ingredients in granite, there are potash, alu
mina, magnesia and iron, as well as silica, and sometimes
soda and lime, all essential elements in the food of plants.

719. The old Greeks and Romans often allowed their
fields to lie fallow, and found them thereby rendered
more fertile ; and the same is done, for the same reason,
by many nations in the South of Europe. But the intro
duction of Indian corn, potatoes and other roots, has
rendered it less necessary, and where land is very valu
able, fallows are generally discontinued, the benefits of
weathering being secured by deep ploughing and by fre
quent tillage between the rows of the standing crops.

The same rotation is not suited equally to every kind
of soil. On the sandy soils of New England, abundant in
silica, Indian corn, rye and the grasses naturally occupy
more space than they would in a soil rich in lime. In
such a soil as the last, wheat might take the place of rye
and of Indian corn.

720. The farmer must find out, from the experience of
others or from his own observation, what course is best
for the particular soil he cultivates, and the particular
object he has in view.

One may choose to keep sheep, another, only cattle
for the market, another, cows for the dairy. A farmer

200 ROTATION OF CROPS.

living near a large market would pursue a course very
different from one at a great distance. He would natu
rally make his farm resemble a large market garden.

721. Other Rotations. Usually a field laid down to
grass may be profitably kept for mowing for several years.
This being understood, and also that grass seed may often
be conveniently sown with clover, either of the following
may be an advantageous course : —

I. — 1, corn ; 2, beets ; 3, rye ; 4, clover ; 5, grass.

II. — 1, potatoes ; 2, corn ; 3, carrots ; 4, cabbages ; 5,
beets ; 6, clover and grass.

III. — 1, potatoes ; 2, beets ; 3, beans ; 4, cabbages ; 5,
parsnips ; 6, corn ; 7, clover.

IV. — 1, tomatoes ; 2, squashes ; 3, carrots ; 4, pease or
beans ; 5, cabbages ; 6, clover.

V. — 1, turnips; 2, parsnips ; 3, corn ; 4, potatoes; 5,
rye ; 6, clover ; 7, grass.

For a long course, 1, potatoes ; 2, beets ; 3, squashes or
melons ; 4, carrots ; 5, wheat ; 6, parsnips ; 7, rye ; 8,
turnips ; 9, buckwheat ; 10, corn ; 11, clover ; 12, grass.

It is found by experience that corn does not well follow
turnips.

722? The famous Norfolk, (Eng.,) rotation is 1, tur
nips ; 2, barley ; 3, clover ; 4, wheat. A favorite rotation
in France is for the

1st year, winter wheat, 20 acres.

2d year, beets, carrots, potatoes, 10 acres ; poppy or
flax, 5 acres ; colza, 5 acres.

3d year, oats and spring wheat, 10 acres ; fall wheat,
5 acres ; turnips, 5 acres.

4th year, clover or leguminous vegetables, 20 acres.

Poppies and colza are a special object of cultivation in
France. From the seeds of both oil is made for light and
for culinary use.

THE HAY CROP. 207

On rich clayey soils in England, a course which has
been much used is 1, oats ; 2, rape, for oil ; 3, beans ;
4, wheat sown with clover ; 5 and 6, clover ; 7, wheat ;
8, rape. In rich loams, 1, oats ; 2, turnips ; 3, wheat
or barley ; 4, beans ; 5, wheat ; 6, fallow or turnips ; 7,
wheat or barley «and grass seeds. But it must be remem
bered that the climate of England does not ripen Indian
corn.

723. Rotation of crops is not indispensable. It may
be the best economy, on the whole, of manure, of time
and of labor. But the farmer who knows the precise use
and value of the several mineral and other manures, may
substitute, for a rotation of crops, a rotation of manures,
which will enable him to grow, on the same field, again
and again, the crop which may be most profitable for him
or most in demand in his market.

CHAPTER XXII.

* '•'

THE HARVEST.

724. The hay crop is usually the first of the harvest
that requires attention. Before he can determine the
proper time for mowing, the farmer must consider for
what purposes his hay is to be used — whether he is to feed
cows in milk, horses and working oxen, or young stock
with it.

725. If it be used for feeding milch cows, it should be
cut earlier than if it is intended for some other kinds

208 THE HARVEST.

of stock, and at such a time and in such a manner as to
preserve its juiciness and leave it as much like the green
grass of the pasture as possible.

726. If it is to be fed to cows in milk, and the farmer
wishes to get the greatest quantity of milk, grass should
be cut just before coming into blossom. »It is then most
juicy, and will therefore produce a greater flow of milk
than if allowed to stand longer. If the object is to secure
the best quality of milk, with less regard to quantity, it
may be cut in the blossom.

727. For feeding to store cattle, the grasses may be cut
when in full blossom ; for horses at work and for fattening
cattle, it is better just after it has passed out of Mi'1
blossom, or when the seed is said to be in the milk.

728. Grasses attain their full development at the time
of flowering, and then contain the largest quantity of
soluble materials, such as starch, gum, and sugar ; these,
with the nitrogenous compounds which are also most
abundant at this time, are of the highest value for
supplying nutriment to animals.

729. After flowering, and as the seed forms and
ripens, the starch, sugar, &c., are gradually changed
into woody fibre, which is nearly insoluble and imiutri-
tious.

730. This fact is well established, and shows that
grasses in general should not be allowed to stand after
the time of flowering. There is, indeed, a great deal
of nourishment in the ripe seed ; but not enough to
make up for the loss in the stalk and leaves, if the
mowing is put off till the seed is ripe. Grasses fully ripe
will make hay little better than straw.

731. Grass is cut cither by hand with the common
scythe, or by lliu mowing machine, (Fig. 3G.) With the

THE MOWING MACHINE. 209

former, a good mower will go over an acre a day. With
the latter, 011 smooth land, two horses and one man will
mow at the rate of an acre an hour, or from ten to twelve
acres a day, without over-exertion.

Fig. 36.

732. Besides mowing so much faster, the machine also
spreads the grass evenly, saving the labor of spreading
by hand. It also enables the farmer to cut all his grass
nearer the proper time, and he is not obliged to let a part
of it stand till it is too ripe.

733. After being cut, the grass should be frequently
spread and turned, so as to dry as rapidly and as
uniformly as possible. This may be done by hand with a
common fork, or by a machine called a hay-tedder, a
light revolving cylinder set with tines and drawn by one
horse, by means of which the grass may be constantly
stirred and kept in motion, and much time and labor
may be saved.

734. When grass is partially or wholly cured, it may
be raked by hand, or by a horse-rake, (Fig 37.) Raking

210 THE HARVEST.

by hand is easy but slow,
and thrifty farmers now
generally use the horse-
rake whenever they can.
With the horse-rake, one
man and horse can do

as much work as ten men can in the same time without
it. Hay cut in the forenoon should be raked before night,
that it may not be exposed to the dews.

735. The time required for curing hay depends partly
on its ripeness when cut, and much on the state of the
weather. In good weather, if machinery is used, it may
be cut in the morning after the dew has risen, and dried
so as to be put into light cocks early in the afternoon, or
before the dews of evening. A slight opening to the sun
for an hour or two the next day should dry it enough,
if it was cut while in blossom or before. Hay should be
got in during the heat of the day.

736. Grass cured rapidly and with the least exposure,
is more nutritious than that cured more slowly and longer
exposed to the sun. If dried too much, it contains more
useless woody fibre and less nutriment. The more
succulent and juicy the hay, the more it is relished by
cattle.

737. After the grass has been cut at the proper time,
the true art of haymaking consists in curing it just
enough to make it fit for storing away, and ,110 more.
The loss of the nutritive substances, which make the hay
most valuable, is then stopped at the earliest moment.
It is as great a mistake to dry grass too much, as to let it
stand too long before cutting.

738. If the hay has not been perfectly dried, and there
is danger that it may heat in the mow, it is well to have

CURING OF CLOVER. 211

alternate layers of the new hay and straw or old hay.
In this way the heating may be prevented, and the straw
or old hay will be so far flavored and improved, as to be
relished by stock of all kinds. If there is much reason
for apprehension, four quarts of salt to the ton may be
sprinkled in.

739. Experience has shown that hay properly dried is
not likely to be injured by its own juices alone ; if it has
been exposed to rain, it should never be put into the mow
until it has been thoroughly dried.

740. Clover should be cut immediately after blossoming
and before the seed is formed. It should be cured in
such a manner as to lose as little of its foliage as possible,
and therefore cannot be treated exactly as the natural
grasses are. It should not be long exposed to the scorching
sun, but after being wilted and partially dried, it should
be forked up into cocks and left to cure in this position.
The fourth or fifth day, when the weather is fair and
warm, open and air it an hour or two, and it will then
be fit to cart to the barn.

741. Clover cured in this way without loss of its foliage,
is better for milch cows and for sheep than any other hay.
It may also be fed to horses that are not hard worked, or
to young stock, but it is most valuable for cows in milk.
For other farm stock it is worth from two-thirds to three-
fourths as much as the best hay.

742. If there is reason to fear that it is not sufficiently
cured when stored away, it may be mixed with old
meadow or swale hay or straw, putting first a layer
of hay or straw, and then one of clover. Stored in this
manner, cattle will eat both the hay and clover very greedily.

743. Lucerne should be cut as soon as it begins to
flower, or even earlier. If allowed to stand later, it

19

212

THE HARVEST.

becomes coarse and hard with much woody fibre, and
is less relished by cattle. It is cured and used like
clover.

744. The proper time to cut both wheat and rye is
when the straw begins to whiten and shrink just below
the head. This change will commence a week or more
before they are fully ripe, and shows that the grain has
ceased to receive nourishment from the roots. If taken
in before getting dead ripe, it makes
more and whiter flour, and the
waste from shelling out is avoided.
Wheat may be cut with the sickle,
with the cradle, (Fig. 38,) or by
the reaping machine, very similar in
appearance to the
mowing machine.
A reaper in op» 'ra
tion is shown in
figure 39.

745. All the grain
crops may be cut in
the same manner,
but oats and barley
are most commonly
mown and dried
the other grains are more

Fig. 38.

Fig. 39.

somewhat like hay, while

frequently cradled or cut with the machine.

746. Indian corn should be gathered when the ears arc
trla/.rtl, hut not perfectly hard. It is customary in many
parts of New England, to cut the tops above the ears a
little bd'oiv I his lime, and when the stalks are still rather
green. The corn is afterwards cut up near the ground,
and taken to the barn to be husked. In other sections

TREATMENT OF POTATOES. 213

the practice of cutting up at the ground and stocking,
prevails. This is done after the kernel has become glazed,
yielding but little juice when broken open, and when the
leaves have begun to turn, but are still green. This
practice saves labor, and adds to the quantity of fodder,
and preserves its nutritive qualities better.

747. Potatoes should usually be dug in October. They
may be thrown out by a furrow of the common plough,
or with the spade or hoe, but the eight-pronged manure
fork is better than either. They are liable to be injured
by lying in the sun after they are dug, and if exposed to
its direct rays are apt to lose their mealiness. But if kept
in the shade until they are put into the cellar, they
continue mealy much longer.

748. If the tuber of the potato while growing is exposed
to the light and air by lying near or on the surface, it
becomes disagreeable to the taste, green and waxy, and
sometimes even poisonous, and when cooked will be found
to be soggy. The effect produced on potatoes lying in the
sun after digging is a little like this, though much less in
degree, perhaps, on account of the shorter time they arc
exposed. But seed potatoes may be exposed to the sun
before planting with great benefit.

749. The harvesting of turnips should be commenced
in the early part of November. The Swede or ruta-baga,
may be lifted out of the ground, the tops cut and the roots
stored in a cool, airy cellar. The tap-root may be cut
off to prevent sprouting in the cellar.

750. Carrots may remain in the ground till the late
hard frosts, or till the early part of November. They
may first be topped in the ground by running a sharp
hoe or knife, (Fig. 40,) along the rows, and then may be
raised with the common hand-fork, or a deep furrow may

214 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF GROWING PLANTS.

be made by the plough run
ning as near as practicable to
each row, after which they
F. 40 may be easily thrown out.

After drying sufficiently, they

arc ready to be removed to the cellar. Parsnips may be
taken up in the same way, or a part of the crop may
be left in the ground till they are wanted to use, in
spring.

751. Mangolds should be pulled and stored with as
little bruising as possible. The least injury will some
times cause them to decay. If properly harvested, this
root keeps well till late into spring.

CHAPTER XXIII.

DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF GROWING PLANTS.

752. Disease is the result of deranged vital action. It
is brought about both by predisposing and by exciting
causes.

753. Whatever diminishes the natural vigor of the
plant, but does not of itself produce a specific form of dis
ease, as excessive stimulation, want of proper nourishment,
and the propagation of any species for many years without
mix ing with other varieties of the same species, or in
common Inngusip1, not changing the kind of seed planted,
is a predisposing cause.

7-~il. An exciting cause of disease is one which acts
suddenly upon the previously debilitated plant, and

REMEDY FOR MILDEW. 215

produces such a change in its vital action as to excite a
distinct form of disease, as sudden changes of temperature,
or of the electrical condition of the atmosphere, hot and
damp weather at unusual periods of the season ; also,
sometimes, mechanical violence.

[NOTE. — Fungi and insects have, by some, been con
sidered as exciting causes of disease, while others regard
them as resulting from previously existing disease.]

755. Among the diseases in which parasitic plants
appear, or which are caused by parasitic plants, may be
mentioned mildew, blight or red rust, smut and ergot.

756. The term mildew, or meal dew, is most properly
applied to the mould or fungous growth on the leaves
of trees and some forage plants, in the shape of white
mealy patches.

757. But it is most commonly applied to a disease in
wheat and barley, also called rust. It appears in the
shape of small spots of dingy white, oblong in shape,
showing itself first on the upper side of the leaf, but soon
on the lower side and the stem also. The white mildew
attacks many species of plants, especially roses, peaches,
hops, vines, pease, the maple tree, &c.

758. It is first seen as round white or yellowish mealy
spots, composed of very delicate creeping threads. As the
disease develops, these spots throw off spores or cells,
which attach themselves to other plants and produce
similar fungi or spots on them. There is no other change
in the appearance of this disease, and no change in color.
The oidium of the vine is a kind of white mildew.

759. The simplest and most effectual remedy for this
is to take a lump of stone lime of two or three pounds
weight, and about the same quantity of sulphur. Pour
hot water on them, which, by the slacking of the lime,

19*

216

DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF GROWING PLANTS.

causes both to dissolve readily in water. This is sufficient
for a barrel of water, and when used may be filled up
again. It may be applied with a syringe or sprinkling
pot to the foliage of affected plants. Sulphur vapor is also
a certain remedy for mildew for plants or vines under glass.
760. The wheat mildew is very different in its nature
from that found on trees or vines, which may be called
the white mildew, though its effects are somewhat similar.

761. The white varieties of wheat appear to
be more liable to the mildew than the red or
spring varieties, and the bald more than the
bearded. The most vigorous plants are most
frequently attacked and suffer the most, and
the disease is more destructive to plants which
are headed out than to younger ones. Figure
41 shows the appearance of an car of ripe wheat
covered with mildew.

762. After the spots of wheat mildew have
extended over the whole plant, they assume a
rusty color, and throw off a fine dust which is
yellowish at first, but soon turns brown and

Flg' 41< rusty by exposure. Hence the disease often
goes by the name of rust.

768. Wheat growing on low, undraincd lands, with a
peaty or calcareous soil, is most liable to be attacked by
mildew, but this disease often appears on sandy soils and
on the stiffest clays, especially when a few days of damp,
i'oooy -weather, are followed by a hot sunshine.

7<il. No remedy is known which can be relied on to
protect against this mildew, but the free use of sail or
saline manures, soaking the seed in brine, or sprinkling
the plants with salt dissolved in water at the rate of half
a pound to the gallon, are the most effectual.

SMUT IN OATS. 217

765. Salt or brine thus used should he applied on a
cloudy day, or just at evening. The solution of salt acts
almost instantaneously, where it touches the parts affected
with rust.

766. Smut is a disease which attacks Indian
corn, wheat, harley, oats, millet, and some other
kinds of grasses. It derives its name from the
fact that where it exists the receptacle of the
seed is filled hy a dark, sooty or dusty mass caused
by an internal parasitic fungus. The first stage
of smut in an ear of oats is shown in figure 42.

767. The farina or mealy substance of the
grain affected by this disease is decomposed, and
the whole grain and the husk are covered with
the black powder, and are often swollen to a very

large size. Fis- 42-

768. Smut, like mildew, prevails in every variety of soil
and in all localities and countries. But hot and moist
climates are more favorable to its development than cold
and dry ones.

769. It less frequently attacks wheat, than corn and
oats. Its presence in wheat may be known by the
blackish color of the ear, or before the ear has burst
from its sheath, by yellow spots which appear on the
upper leaf, and the drying up of the point or end of this
leaf. An ear of wheat partly 'sound, and partly covered
with smut, is shown in figure 43, and another wholly
covered with smut, and dried up, in figure 44. In oats
the diseased plants are of a paler green, and generally
smaller than the rest. A head of oats wholly covered
with smut, is shown in figure 45, and an ear of barley
completely smutted and dried up, in 46.

218 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF GROWING PLANTS.

Fig. 43. Fig. 44. Fig. 45. Fig. 46.

770. Quicklime, common salt, blue and white copperas,
and many similar substances, have been used with success
to prevent smut. A sort of solution or pickle is formed
of one or more of these substances, as lime and salt, lime
and Glauber's salt, salt and copperas, the object being to
make a compound corrosive enough to destroy the para
sitic fungus without destroying the grain. Very strong
putrid urine, or the (framings of the stable, are sometimes
sufficient.

771. Before soaking the seed in any pickle or brine
formed of the above-named substances, it should be
thoroughly washed and cleansed in pure wnter, taking
care to remove all floating grains, and to pour off the
\v;iti!r without allowing it to come in contact with other
grain, so as to convey the disease by contagion.

CANKER IN WHEAT. 219

772. There is a disease known by the name of blight,
canker, smut-ball, pepper-brand, &c., which is often
confounded with smut, but really very different. It has
been supposed to be a fungus in the seeds of wheat, by
means of which the farina was replaced by a whitish
substance which finally became a fine powder,

the outside or skin of the seed being untouched,
and giving no signs of the presence of the disease.
Figure 47 shows a section of a cankered grain

f i Fig. 47.

of wheat.

773. But more recent investigations indicate that it is
caused by microscopic animalcules or thread worms, which
possess the remarkable power of remaining perfectly dry
and hard for years, and then regaining life and motion
when moistened.

774. Grain affected by this disease, becomes a hard
shell filled with powder, which is usually white. This
powder has no trace of starch, but is composed entirely
of microscopic threads, which are stiff, dry, hard worms.
When found in new grain, if placed in water, they show
signs of life very quickly. If very old, it requires many
hours or even days to revive them. Several thousand
of these worms may be found in a single kernel.

775. When these diseased grains are sown with sound,
the moisture gradually revives the worms. They break
through the thin shell of their prison, and seek the
young shoots of the wheat which has germinated, are
carried up by the growth of the plant, or, if the
weather be wet, by their own exertions, effect a lodgment
in the young kernel, and lay their eggs there.

776. At the time of the ripening of the grain the
parent worms are dead, the shells of the innumerable
eggs which have produced larvae have been absorbed, and

220 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF GROWING PLANTS.

nothing is seen on breaking through the covering of the
seed, but what appears to be an almost impalpable powder,
each grain of which is a dry, hard, thread-like larva.

777. Threshing very easily breaks the thin shells which
surround this powder, and it rises in the form of dust,
causing severe smarting in the "eyes, and some irritation
of the throat and coughing, as the animalcules are set in
motion by the moisture. No serious results follow,
however, except that more or less of this dust attaches
itself to sound kernels, thus propagating the disease.

778. Where the seed is supposed to be at all effected in
this way, it should be thoroughly washed in clean water,
several times renewed. All the grains that float should
be carefully taken out. The seed may then be soaked in
a brine or pickle much as follows :

779. For every two bushels of seed take three pounds
of caustic lime in lumps, and sixteen pounds of Glauber's
salts. Dissolve the latter in six or eight quarts of water,
and whilst they are dissolving, slack the lime. Put the
grain into a tub and stir well, pouring on the solution of
Glauber's salt at the same time. Now sprinkle in the
slacked lime, constantly stirring the seed until the whole
is covered with lime.

780. The term blight is properly applied to a withering
or blasting of the foliage, by whatever cause produced.
It may be the result of sun-stroke or frost, — a plague of
insects or fungi. It may be caused by drought, heat,
cold, over-manuring or ^insufficient nourishment, or by an
original want of vigor in the seed. Still it is blight.
The term is also often used in this country as including
mildew, nisi, and many other affections of the kind to
which plants arc liable.

ERGOT IN RYE. 221

781. Ergot is a diseased growth which is quite
common in rye and among our grasses. It
appears in the form of a hard, brittle, blackish
spur, of a form represented in figure 30, and
takes the place of the healthy seed, though very
much larger, being sometimes more than an inch
in length. An ear of rye attacked by ergot is
shown in figure 48.

782. Ergot has been supposed to be caused by
a parasitic fungus growth starting from the ovule
or rudimentary seed. Instead of sugar, albumen
and the other substances of which sound grain
is composed, this spur or morbid growth contains
ammonia, considerable nitrogen, and an oily substance.

788. Ergot most frequently prevails on low, damp soils,
in sheltered situations, but often on sandy soils, and some
times on all varieties of soil.

784. There is no remedy for ergot after it has appeared,
but it may be guarded against, to some extent, by thorough
drainage and by carefully cleansing the seed, and, if
necessary, picking it out by hand to avoid planting any
that is diseased. If fed to some animals, it often produces
very bad effects.

785. Trees, especially fruit trees, are often injured by
pruning or grafting done unskilfully, or at the wrong
season, or severe bruises inflicted in careless ploughing
around them, or otherwise.

786. Fruit trees can be pruned with safety at any time
except in March and April. Grafting is usually done in
May or June. Both operations should be performed
carefully.

787. When trees have been severely bruised, or large
branches have been broken off by accident, the wound or

222 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OP GROWING PLANTS.

broken end should be well covered over with clay or with
grafting wax. Many valuable trees might be saved from
permanent injury or destruction in this way.

788. Some of the insects most injurious to vegetation
are cut-worms, apple-tree caterpillars, canker worms,
apple-tree borers, codling-moths, the curculio, the striped
or cucumber-bug, the squash-bug, the onion-fly, the wheat
midge, the chinch-bug and the army worm.

789. The cut-worms destroy many of our garden and
field vegetables by eating off their tender stalks at the
surface of the ground. They are the caterpillars of moths
belonging to the night-flying division, one of which is
represented in figure 49, and the cut-worm in figure 50.

^fl^

Fig. 49. Fig. 50.

790. If holes be made with an iron bar or smooth
round stick near the roots of the plant, the worms will
fall into them, and may be killed ; they may also be
found early in the day close to the roots of the plants
they have cut down during the night.

791. Certain species of ground-beetles, and ichneumon-
flies destroy great numbers of cut-worms, and similar
caterpillars, and hence are very useful to the farmer, and
should be recognized and spared on this account.

792. The ground-beetles arc very active in their
motions, and although varying greatly in size, more or
less resemble in their general outline and conformation,
figure 51, which is one of the largest of its class, and is
commonly called the caterpillar-hunter.

THE APPLE-TREE CATERPILLAR.

223

793. Ichneumon-flies are of various species and dimen
sions, but they all have four wings of membranous
texture, and the general appearance of a wasp. Some
of them pierce the eggs of other insects and deposit
their own within them ; others insert them beneath the
skin of a living caterpillar, where they hatch into little
maggots, which devour its flesh and soon put an end to
its life. Figure 52 represents a species (natural size and
magnified) which deposits its eggs in the body of the
common grape-vine caterpillar. Figure 53 shows the
caterpillar after the maggots of the ichneumon have
finished eating and, returning through the skin of the
caterpillar, have spun their cocoons upon its surface.

Fig. 51. Fig. 53.

794. The apple-tree caterpillar may be guarded
against by carefully removing all the nests as soon
as perceived, and crushing both larva) and nests.
If this practice be well followed up, they may be
eradicated from a whole neighborhood. A round
brush fixed to the end of a long pole is the most
convenient instrument for reaching the nest. The eggs,
(Fig. 54,) which are laid the previous season, may be

20

224 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF GROWING PLANTS.

*|v seen in the form of a small bracelet or broad

ring around the slender twigs when the leaves

have fallen from the trees. With a little

observation these can be readily distinguished,

^B& and by means of a light ladder the twigs

containing them may be reached, when they

t| B should be cut off and burned. This, if done

any time during the winter, will save much

trouble in the spring after they have hatched.

rfl 795. The best means of protecting trees

Fig. 54. against the canker-worm, (Fig. 55,) is by

preventing the deposit of the egg. The wingless female

(Fig. 56,) lays her eggs (Fig. 57, natural size and

Fig. 55. Fig. 5G. Fig. 57.

magnified,) on the bark of the tree, and ascends the tree
for this purpose during the warm days of winter and
spring. A coating of tar on a strip of cloth round
the trunk, frequently renewed during that time, will often
prevent her ascent ; or a little trough may be put round
the tree filled with a mixture of tar and oil, enough
oil being put in to keep it in a liquid state, or with
\ / the "bitter water" obtained in the

t^^^^kA^^Mi manufacturc of salt, which will
^^ have the same effect. This will
(l neither freeze nor evaporate read

ily. The winged male is shown in

Fig. 58. J co

figure 58.

796. The codling moth, (Fig. 59,) produces the small
whitish worms that bore holes into the young unripe

CURCULIO. — APPLE-TREE BORER.

225

Fig. 59.

Fig. 60. Fig. 61.

apple and other fruit, and cause it to fall off.

The windfalls should be picked up often and

given to swine, or if convenient, the swine

may be turned into the orchard to pick them

up. The grub will thus be prevented from

going into the ground. Old cloths may also be tied in

the crotches of the limbs of fruit trees. The worms take

refuge in them and may be killed.

797. The curculio, (Figs. 60 and
61, the small line between them
showing the natural size,) does much
injury, attacking the plum particu
larly. Fruit bitten by it may be
distinguished by a little crescent-
shaped mark, and should be collected
and burned. If sheets be laid under the trees, and the
trees then be shaken, the insects will fall into the sheets
and may be put into hot water. If chickens in coops be
kept under the trees in summer, they will destroy immense
numbers, as do the small birds also ; toads and bats too
do good service in this way.

798. The apple-tree
borer, (Fig. 62,) with
its larva, (Fig. 63,) is
ruining many an orchard
where his presence is not suspected, and
trees should frequently be examined that it
may be discovered as soon as possible.
The borer enters the tree just at the surface of the
ground, and by removing the soil and rubbing the bark
with a coarse cloth after the first of September, the
young insect may easily be destroyed.

Fig. 63.

Fig. 62.

226 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF GROWING PLANTS.

799. The eggs are hatched in July, so that the larvae
will have attained considerable size, and may easily be
seen and dislodged without difficulty. Even later than
this, careful examination will show that they are still
near the surface, and may be reached by a slender piece
of whalebone or wire, run into the new-made hole.

800. The chisel and the hammer must be used only
when all other means fail. Washing with whale-oil soap
will prevent the laying of the eggs, but it will not do to
rely on this alone. If unmolested when still quite
young, the borer continues his depredations from year to
year.

801. The striped beetle, (Fig. 64,) attacks
squashes, cucumbers, melons, and other plants.
To prevent injury from it, the plants should be
sprinkled as soon as they are up, with plaster
of Paris or slacked lime put on in the middle of the day,
or they may be covered over with coarse millinet or lace,
which answers quite as well. If squashes or cucumbers
are not planted till the 10th of June, they will usually
escape the attacks of this insect.

\ / 802. Squash bugs, (Fig. 65,) may be

\\// destroyed by placing shingles on the ground

r-Sjlr~-\ round the vines, and killing the bugs which

^//•l^V will be found in the mornhig collected on

f Wr ] ^1C llll(lor side °f them.

y \ 803. The onion maggot pierces the

Fig. 65. centre of the onion and kills it, the egg

from which the maggot proceeds heing

JW,^ laid near the root by the onion fly, f I'V-
7^V (JO.) The pupa of this insect is shown in
Fi •• 67 Fig GO %urc 67. The use of soot in the drills is
the best preventive known.

WHEAT MIDGE. — LOCUST BORER.

227

Fig. 68.

804. The wheat midge, (Fig. 68,
magnified, the small mark at the
left shows the natural size,) is itself
exposed to the attacks of other
insects. An ichneumon fly deposits
its eggs in the larvae of the midge,
and the larvae hatched from them
prey upon the body on which they
find themselves. Many are thus
destroyed. If the stubble be col
lected and burned, innumerable grubs of the midge will
be consumed, and the good work of the ichneumon be
aided.

805. The dor bug, as it is called, (Fig.
69,) is properly a beetle, and the parent of
those large white grubs which feed upon
the roots of grass and grain, and are so
frequently turned up by the spade or
plough. Domestic fowls devour great
numbers of them in the latter state, and
many of the beetles themselves are eaten
by skunks and weasels.

806. The locust tree borer, (Fig. 70,) which ruins so
many of the finest trees, is the caterpillar of a moth,

Fig. 70.

which deposits its eggs in the deepest clefts of the bark.
They hatch into grubs which commence boring into the
very heart of the tree, piercing 'and mining it with their
burrows for three years before they make their appearance

20*

228 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF GROWING PLANTS.

in the winged form. In this state it is the most easily /
destroyed, by hanging wide-mouthed vials of sweetened
water upon the trees, which attract not only these, but
also many other noxious insects.

807. Figure 71, the rose-bug as it is very
generally but improperly called, is a bectlq be-
longing to the chafer family, and is very destructive
to flowers and foliage. When it occurs in great
numbers upon bushes that can be reached by
hand, it should be shaken off into pans of hot
The larva lives in the ground like the others of
this family, and when turned up by the plough is greedily
devoured by poultry.

808. The common click-beetle or spring-beetle,
(Fig. 72,) is the parent of the wire-worm, and
should be killed whenever met with, as well as
all of this family, which can be readily distin-
guished by their faculty of springing into the
air when laid upon their backs, by means of a
Flg* 72' peculiar joint beneath the thorax.

809. The striped potato-beetle, (Fig. 73,)
is often found eating holes through the
leaves, in both the perfect stage and in the
larva, which is the filthy slug so common
and so injurious in some seasons. Lime or
ashes sprinkled profusely upon the plants,
will often destroy them, and when this fails,
they can be shaken into dishes of boiling water or salt
ju id water.

810. The oak-pruner, (Fig. 74,) is the parent of a white
grub, (Fig. 75,) which bores into the small branches and
twigs of the oak tree, making a cylindrical burrow, and
cutting the branch nearly through ; after which it retires

OAK PRUNER. — MEAL WORM.

229

toward the end and changing into a pupa, (Fig. 76,)
falls to the ground with the branch which is torn off by
the wind, and remains till spring, when it emerges a
perfect beetle, like the parent. To prevent its ravages,
the branches found beneath the trees in the fall and
winder should be collected and burned.

Fig. 74.

Fig. 77.

Fig. 75. Fig. 76. Fig. 78. Fig. 79.

811. The meal-worm, (Fig. 77,) which is found in
meal chests, is hatched from eggs deposited by a common
beetle, (Fig. 78,) which can be attracted in great
numbers by a light in the evening, or moist meal exposed
to the air, and should be killed wherever found. Figure
79 represents the pupa of the same.

812. Apple and' pear trees are
sometimes covered with small scales,
as in figure 80, which represents
those of the apple, natural size and
magnified. A solution of potash,
not too strong, or whale oil soap suds
applied with a stiff brush, will speedily
remove them. These insects belong to

a very numerous class which vary greatly Fig. so.

I

230

DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF GROWING PLANTS.

in their appearance ; some are
covered with a white flocculcnt
matter so as to entirely conceal
their bodies, as in figure 81,

Fig. 81. .--i 1-1

and others are entirely naked,

and of various forms. The application of strong. soap
suds, will be an almost infallible remedy for all these cases.
813. The chinch or chintz-bug, (Fig. 82,)
and the little-lined plant-bug, (Fig. 83,)
are often very injurious to green and tender
plants, of different kinds, by sucking the
sap from them. No effectual remedy has
yet been discovered for them, but it is
recommended to water the crops thoroughly
so as to bring them rapidly forward beyond
the reach of these insects. This is only
/^Hr\ practicable upon a small scale. Wild birds
ium\ and domestic fowls destroy an incredible
amount of these and other similar pests
annually, and we must take especial care
of the former, and allow no person to kill or molest them
upon our premises, if we would have our crops secured
from their numerous insect enemies.

814. The army-worm, as it is
called, (Fig. 84,) is the cater
pillar of a common night-flying
moth, (Fig. 85,) and is found in
meadows, devouring the blades of grass, and occasionally
in corn and grain fields. It has many enemies, in the
form of ichneumon-flies, and other parasites, and is eaten
by many birds. It is rare that so many escape destruction
by these means as to prove seriously dangerous to the
whole crop in any place. But when they make their

Fig. 83.

Fig. 84.

THE ARMY WORM. 231

appearance in unusual num
bers, they can be checked
by digging in their path deep
trenches,with perpendicular
sides, into which they will
fall and may be disposed of.
After they reach their full Fig- 85.

size they suddenly disappear, and may be found an inch
or two below the surface of the ground in the shape of a
mahogany-colored pupa, (Fig. 86.)
After remaining in this state about a
fortnight, they emerge in the moth form,
and may be killed by building fires after dark about the
fields that were injured by them, into which they will fly,
or by suspending on the trees in the vicinity, wide-
inouthed bottles of sweetened water.

815. The plant-lice are a numerous family, and often
very injurious to young shoots, by sucking the sap and
causing the plant to wither. They are found usually in
clusters, with and without wings, and may be distinguished
by their rounded bodies, slender legs, and delicate pointed
beak, which is bent underneath the body when
not in use. Figure 87 is a good representation
of the male of one of the most common
species. In some seasons vast numbers may be found
collected upon the heads of wheat, oats, and other grain
crops, and by depriving the fruit of its requisite amount
of nourishment, they cause it to shrivel and ripen pre
maturely.*

* For the most exact and valuable information upon Insects Injurious to
Vegetation, reference should be made to the superbly illustrated edition of
Dr. Harris' treatise on Insects, just published. No fanner's library is complete
without it, and it ought to be kept for reference in every school-room.

232 MANAGEMENT OF FARM STOCK.

CHAPTER XXIV.

MANAGEMENT OF FARM STOCK.

816. The stock of the farm consists of horned cattle,
horses, sheep, swine and poultry.

817. Horned cattle are kept chiefly for their milk, their
labor, and for the production of beef. They also consume
and thus make useful many products of the farm which
would otherwise be lost, and furnish manure for the
enrichment of the soil.

818. They are divided into certain races, breeds or
families, distinguished by different qualities or character
istics which have been produced or developed by varieties
of climate and soil, and by the manner in which they have
been required to live by man.

819. There are five distinct races or breeds in this
country, known as Ayrshires, Jerseys, Short-horns, Devons
and Herefords. Individuals of other breeds have been
imported from time to time, but their number has been so
small that they have had little effect on the stock of the
country.

820. No one of these breeds unites, in a very high
degree, all desirable qualities. Some are best fitted for
giving milk, others for beef or labor. Cattle should
therefore be selected with regard to the specific object for
which they are wanted, and that object should be had in
view in their keeping.

821. The Ayr. hires take their name from the county
of Ayr, in S-nihmd, where they originated seventy or
eighty years ago. They are kept chiefly for dairy

THE BREEDS OP CATTLE. 283

purposes, for which they are admirably adapted, on
account of the large quantity of milk they give in
proportion to their size and the amount of food consumed.
Their milk is of good quality, though not, usually, so rich
in butter qualities as that of the Jerseys or the Devons.
They are well adapted both for beef and for labor, though
in these qualities they are probably surpassed by the
Devons, or the Herefords.

82*2. The Jerseys are celebrated for the richness of their
milk, and the excellence of butter made from it. They
came from the islands of Jersey and Guernsey, in the
British Channel, where they have been highly valued for
dairy qualities for many years. They are ill-adapted for
labor, and their beef-producing qualities do not compare
very favorably with those of some other breeds, although
they are easily fattened, and their flesh is of good quality.

823. The improved Short-horns are large in size, and, in
a rich and fertile section of country, are well-adapted for
the production of beef. They come to maturity at an
earlier age than any other family of neat cattle, and
attain a greater weight.

824. They first became known in the luxuriant valley
of the river Tees, England, and first really celebrated in
the neighborhood of Durham. Hence they were for many
years called Durhams or Teeswaters. They have been
extensively introduced into this country, and have had a
great influence upon our stock.

825. The North Devons are remarkable for great
uniformity of color and size, and are kept chiefly for beef
and as working cattle. They come from Devonshire, in
the southern part of England. They are small, hardy,
and easily adapt themselves to short pastures. Their milk
is rich in quality, but deficient in quantity.

234 MANAGEMENT OP FARM STOCK.

826. The Herefords, so-called from the county of Here
ford in England, where they originated, have nearly the
same qualities as the North Devons, but their size is
considerably larger. They are kept mainly for their beef,
which is of peculiar excellence.

827. These are the distinct breeds. The common stock
of the country, often called Natives, does not constitute a
fixed breed or race. It consists of a mixture of most of
the established races, and is extremely variable in its
qualities. Animals might be selected as good, or perhaps
better than could be found among the well-marked
families, and as working oxen, they generally excel, but
as a whole, they are not to be depended upon for any
uniformity of qualities.

•828. Only good stock should be kept on the farm. It
costs no more to keep a good animal than an inferior one.
One that will scarcely pay the cost of rearing and feeding,
will require about as much care and food as another which
will pay a large profit.

829« Success in raising stock will depend very much
on its management when young. If it be not then well
cared for, and supplied with sufficient and proper food,
the grown animal will be of poor quality, whatever the
breed may be. '

830. All animals require nutriment in some proportion
to their live weight, those which are still young and
growing, needing more in proportion than those already
arrived at maturity.

831, A full-grown animal requires only food enough* to
supply the daily waste of the system. One that is grow
ing must have enough to supply the daily waste, and to
meet the additional demand for nutriment arising from
its constant increase in size and weight.

YOUNG ANIMALS. — DAIRY COWS. 235

832. For these reasons, young animals should have
greater care, better shelter, and more generous feed than
they commonly do. Yet they should not be overfed ; they
should receive enough to keep them growing thriftily up
to the time of their maturity, and the necessary quantity
must be determined, to some extent, by observation in
each case, though general rules are sometimes laid down,
fixing the proportion of food required at certain ages.

833. Farmers are too apt to consider how they can get
their cows through the winter with the least possible food,
taking no care to prepare them for the giving of milk
abundantly in the spring.

834. In consequence, cows often come out in spring
reduced in flesh and in blood, and have hard work to
make up their loss by means of the food which would
otherwise have gone to the production of milk.

835. The less cows in milk are exposed to the colds of
winter, the better. They eat less, thrive better, and give
more milk, when housed all the time during extreme cold
weather. In stormy weather it is good economy to water
them in the stall, rather than turn them out to seek
water in the yard,

836. In the care of cattle, regularity is of the highest
importance, especially in feeding. A regular system of
feeding, milking and cleansing the stables, should be
strictly adhered to.

837. Cows give a greater quantity of milk in winter, if
fed on moist and succulent food. If hay, cornstalks, straw
and other similar substances fed out to them, are moistened
with warm water and then allowed to stand a few hours
in this condition, they are rendered more nutritive.

838. When the object is to obtain the greatest quantity
of milk, cows should have rich, juicy grass or clover,

21

236 MANAGEMENT OF FARM STOCK.

brewers' grains, warm mashes, turnips, or other roots
containing a great deal of water ; they will also do better
for whey, if at hand, and should have as much water as
they will drink.

839. But if a rich milk be desired, they should be kept
on drier food, such as clover, hay, Indian meal, shorts,
oil cake ground into meal, and some roots. Oats and
barley meal are good, but are generally too expensive.

840. When cheese is to be made from the milk, ground
beans, or pease and clover with some oil meal, are better.
They make the milk very rich in curd, as they contain a
large amount of gluten, which is nearly the same as the
curd of milk.

841. The manner of milking exerts a powerful influence
011 the productiveness of the cow. A slow and careless
milker, or one who treats her harshly, soon dries up the
best of cows. The animal must be approached gently,
never struck or abused, and the operation of milking
begin gradually, steadily increasing in rapidity, until all
is drawn. If the milking is performed in the stall, it is a
good plan to feed at the same time with roots or some
other palatable food.

842. If the object be to raise beef, a close built, round
and compact form, with small bones and round muscles
should be sought. Animals thus shaped require less food
and fatten more easily, than those of heavy, bony frame
and flat muscles.

843. When fattening, animals should be kept quiet
:ii id warm, and fed on fatty or oily food, such as oil meal,
Indian meal, good hay and turnips. A moderately dark
stall conduces to quiet ;md promotes fattening.

844. To ascertain the results of feeding under various
circumstances, the most careful experiments were made

EXPERIMENT IN FEEDING. 237

upon sheep, by selecting those of nearly equal weight,
and feeding for four months under the following condi
tions. One was wholly unsheltered, another in an open
shed, and another in a close shed and in the dark. The
food was alike, one pound of oats each per day, and as
many turnips as they would eat. The first consumed
nineteen hundred and twelve pounds of turnips, the second
thirteen hundred and ninety-four pounds, and the third
eight hundred and eighty-six pounds, or less than half of
those eaten by the first. The first gained twenty-three
and one-half pounds in weight, the second twenty-seven
and one-half pounds, and the third twenty-eight and one-
fourth pounds. For every one hundred pounds of turnips
eaten, the first gained in weight one and one-eighth pounds,
the second two pounds, and the third three and one-six
teenth pounds. The one confined in the dark ate less than
half as much, and gained more than the unsheltered one.

845. If the farmer wish to make as much manure as
possible from a certain quantity of hay, straw or turnips,
the stock should be kept in a cool place Adhere the external
air is not entirely excluded, and allowed . to take a great
deal of exercise. If fed on rich food, like oil or Indian
meal, the manure of the animal is of far greater value.

846. In general it may be stated that food which has
been crushed, ground or cooked, is more easily and com
pletely digested by stock, and furnishes more nourishment.
Three pounds of ground corn are equal to about four of
unground, and three of cooked Indian meal, to about four
of the same meal uncooked. Meal and roots arc usually
cooked by boiling.

847. But where animals are already fattened, it is found
to be better to keep them 011 dry, hard food for a few days
before sending them to the butcher, as the fat is thus

288 MANAGEMENT OF FAEM STOCK.

made harder, and the meat is more readily salted through,
keeps better, and shrinks less in cooking.

848. Aii animal in good condition will usually lose
from thirty-two to forty per cent, of its live weight in
dressing. If very fat and well formed, the loss will be
about one-third, or thirty-three per cent. In a fat sheep,
on an average, it will be from thirty-five to forty-five per
cent.

849. Working cattle should have strength, docility and
quickness of action. Strength lies in the muscles and
tendons. Docility is commonly the result of good training.
Activity is to some extent the result of breeding, and
certain races, like the North Devons, are remarkable for
this quality.

850. In most cases oxen are to be preferred to horses
for common farm labor. They are more easily raised,
become more valuable as they gain in size, weight and
condition, and may be sold for beef when no longer fit for
work. The harness used for them is cheap, and they are
better adapted to slow and heavy work, especially on rough
farms. Horses work faster, and are sometimes more
profitable on easily tilled farms.

851. Horses are classified, according to the uses to
which they are put, into roadsters, or horses of general
utility, farm or draught-horses, and thoroughbreds or
racers, used mostly for sporting purposes.

852. The horse requires a light and well- ventilated
stable. If he stand much in a dark stall, his eyes arc
often so affected as to be irritated when he is brought
into a stnm«r light. In this way horses are frequently
made skittish and unsafe.

853. The horse should, I'mm the first, be treated with
great gentleness, often led about by the halter long before

CARE IN THE STABLE. 289

he is old enough for the harness, and made to feel that
his master is his friend. Kind treatment will do much
to insure docility, and greatly enhance the value of the
animal for all practical purposes.

854. Well-lighted barns and stables do much for the
general health and vigor of the animal system, and a full
supply of pure fresh air is as essential as food. Especially
is this the case for horses.

855. But animals should not be exposed to currents of
air in the stalls. A chimney-shaped box opening near
the floor inside, and carried up and out under the eaves,
is thought to be a good mode of creating an outward
draught and purifying the air.

856. The temperature" of stables should be moderate,
neither very warm nor very cold. Great warmth in
them is unhealthy, and a considerable degree of cold
makes a larger quantity of food necessary to keep up the
natural animal heat.

857. All animals should be treated with constant kind
ness. Nothing is so likely to overcome viciousness. The
horse, especially, is very sensitive, and if always gently
handled, will give his owner far less trouble, and will be
more easily managed and much more useful.

858. There are several breeds of sheep, the best being
the South Downs and Cotswolds, which are generally sold
to the butcher for mutton or lamb, and the Merino which
furnishes the best wool. The Leicester sheep was very
highly prized at one time, and this breed or grades which
are known by the name of Leicesters, is thought well of
still, but the Cotswolds and the Downs have, to a consid
erable extent, taken their place in localities where sheep
are raised for the butcher.

21*

240 MANAGEMENT OF FARM STOCK.

859. Iii the vicinity of large markets, and where pastur
age is expensive, it will be found to be most profitable to
raise sheep for the market, only making wool a secondary
object. But in remote and mountainous regions, where
land is cheap and not suited to cultivation, they may be
profitably kept for the wool. Many, however, think that
even for wool, the larger breeds may be equally profitable,
011 account of the greater weight of their long and coarse
wool, which is well suited for many kinds of fabrics, and
commands a good price in the market.

860. Mutton of a choice quality, usually brings a higher
price in the market than beef, though it costs much less
pound for pound to produce, and the offal or waste is less.
The objection to keeping the smaller breeds or the old
natives, based on the expense of fences, docs not apply so
strongly to the larger or mutton breeds, like the Cotswolds,
which are generally very quiet and easily kept.

861. One of the most important matters to be attended
to in the keeping of sheep, is their shelter in winter.
They require less food, and do better when well protected,
than when exposed. Good ventilation is also very impor
tant, hence it is best to give them sheds open to the south.

862. To ascertain the difference in the cost and gain
of proper shelter, and exposure to the weather, for sheep,
in the milder climate of England, twenty were kept in
the open field, and twenty others of nearly equal weights
were kept under a comfortable shed. They were fed
alike for the three winter months, each having one-half
pound of linseed cake, one-half pint of barley, and a little
hay and salt per day, and as many turnips as they would
eat. The sheep in the field eat all the barley and oil cake,
and about nineteen pounds of turnips each per day, as
long as the trial lasted, and increased in all five hundred

CARE OF SHEEP. 241

and twelve pounds. Those under the shed consumed at
first as much food as the others, but after the third week
they each ate two pounds less of turnips per day, and in
the ninth week two pounds less again or only fifteen
pounds per day. Of the linseed cake they also ate about
one-third less than the other lot, and yet increased in
weight seven hundred and ninety pounds, or two hundred
and seventy-eight pounds more than the others.

863. The winter feed of sheep should include a proper
portion of green and succulent food, in addition to fine
hay or early cut clover. Unless it be of good quality,
much of it is rejected and wasted.

864. Ten fine-woolled or Merino sheep, will eat about
as much as a medium-sized cow. The larger sheep
consume more. The Merinos yield the best wool, the
Cotswolds the most wool and mutton, and the South Downs
mutton of the best quality.

865. It will be found useful to attach bells to several
of the flock. By this means dogs may often be prevented
from attacking them, and if the sheep are molested a
warning is given. This is also a protection against foxes.

866. There are many breeds of swine, as the Suffolk,
the Essex, the Berkshire, the Chester, &c., each of which
has its peculiar excellence, but the more common distinc
tion is into large and small breeds. The choice must
depend much on thriftiness and early maturity, or a
disposition to fatten readily, for on these qualities will
depend largely the profit to be derived from keeping them.

867. The food of swine may be a little sour, without
injury, if it does not stand till a strong fermentation takes
place ; indeed, more pork will be obtained when green
vegetables, meal and potatoes, are boiled and allowed to

242 THE ECONOMY OP THE FARM.

become sour before feeding them out, than if given while,
still sweet.

868. Poultry may be kept to a limited extent about the
farm house, with a large profit on the outlay, if judiciously
managed. The attempts to keep large numbers of fowls
together with an idea that if a few are profitable, a large
number must be profitable in proportion, have generally
failed.

869. To be of any profit in winter, fowls require a
supply of animal food. This they obtain in abundance
in summer in the form of insects. If confined in close
quarters, they must also have access to mineral food, such
as oyster shells or crushed bones, with gravel and sand.

870. Of the many varieties of fowls, the dorkings, the
game and the black Spanish, may be considered as among
the most useful and profitable. As a market fowl, the
dorking is probably unsurpassed, but the choice of the
variety is generally a matter of individual fancy.

CHAPTER XXV.

THE ECONOMY OP THE FARM.

871. The success of the farmer will depend more on
the general management of the farm, than 011 knowledge
or skill in any one particular department. It is evident
from the preceding pages that to make the greatest profit
he must have a greater variety of knowledge, and more
judgment and common sense than are required in any

LOCATION OP BUILDINGS. — FENCES. 243

merely mechanical employment, and without constant
thought in planning and directing, he will constantly fail
to attain the desired result, notwithstanding the most
untiring industry.

872. The choice of a location should be well considered,
and it is especially important whether it be near or remote
from market, since the particular branch of farming to
be 'followed will depend a good deal on market facilities.
The quality of the land should be taken into view. The
best lands will command the highest price, other things
being equal. But it will probably be found to be better
to buy good lands, though the original cost be greater,
than to spend one's time and energies in tilling a poor soil
simply because it is cheaper. The profit to be derived is
far greater in proportion 011 the former, and the original
cost is paid off more speedily and easily.

878. The location of the buildings requires careful
consideration. How much time and strength will be
wasted every year if the buildings be unnecessarily so
placed as to require expensive teaming to and from the
fields, or the barn and outbuildings so situated as to
occasion many unnecessary steps, when a more judicious
location would have avoided all ? These points have a
direct and important bearing on the profit to be derived
from farming.

874. Then as to the fences required, both along the
public ways and along division lines. What are the most
economical ? They should be constructed according to
the purpose for which the land is to be used, whether for
the general culture of farm crops, or for cattle or sheep
husbandry. They can be built when other and more
important labors are not pressing. But it should be
remembered that all useless and unnecessary fences

244

THE ECONOMY OF THE FARM.

involve a positive loss, as they are kept up at a constant
expense, be it more or less, to say nothing of the constant
loss of interest on the original cost, and the loss of the
land they cover, which in many cases is no small item.

875. It is not good economy to use old and worn ont or
otherwise unsuitable implements on the farm, nor should
shovels, hoes, ploughs and other implements requiring
strength for their use, be heavier than is necessary 'to
accomplish the object desired. Good implements save
labor, while those ill-suited to the purpose increase it.

876. But though the best are, on the whole, the cheap
est, even if the first cost be greater, yet it does not follow
that they should be bought beyond the actual wants of the
farm. Expensive implements that are rarely used, increase
the permanent investment, and occasion great inconven
ience, by requiring much space and care. They should not
therefore be accumulated on the farm merely because
they are new and good in themselves. If they are not
wanted, the money paid for them is often worse than lost.

877. Some may be

-

needed but a few
hours in the course
of the year, and yet,
for that time, may bo
of the highest im
portance. In such
cases, where the
farm is not large
enough to make it
necessary to own the
implements, two or

more neighbors can buy and own them in common.

The mowing machine, (Fig. 88,) the reaper, the stump

Fig. 88. — Mowing Machine, in. operation.

WASTES OF THE FARM. 245

puller, the stone lifter and the threshing machine, in a
section of small farms, may be obtained in this way.

878. The storage and preservation of implements
require thought and attention. Exposure to the weather
will often rust and otherwise injure farming tools, while
a little care will preserve them. Some system of manage
ment should be adopted for saving the more expensive
ones from unnecessary injury.

879. The cost of a well-arranged tool room will not
seem great, when we consider its convenience, and the
saving which may be effected by it. " A place for every
thing and every thing in its place," is a maxim nowhere
more important than on the farm. On many farms much
time is wasted in searching for tools left out of place and
ill cared for, which should be saved.

880. A mistake not unfrequently made by farmers, is
that of undertaking more than their capital will warrant.
Profit depends more on thoroughness and quality of
cultivation than on the quantity of land put under tillage.
If a man has a large capital, can employ a strong force, and
has the capacity and industry to direct extensive operations,
he can cultivate a large farm, perhaps, to a profit. But
if he has only a small capital, and is mainly dependent on
his own labor, he should limit his operations accordingly.

881. This error of undertaking too much, often occa
sions the waste of many things, the value of which, in the
aggregate, would amount to a good profit on the whole
capital invested in the farm, if the waste were avoided.
For want of means, the farmer is often obliged to sell at
low prices, and buy at unfavorable times. This, perhaps,
leads to a failure, or at least makes life uncomfortable,
when the same knowledge and energies on a smaller farm
would have obtained complete success.

246 THE ECONOMY OF THE FARM.

882. After expending time and labor, both of which
have a distinct money value, in ploughing and planting,
none can doubt that it is good economy, after the crops
are well started, to guard them carefully against their
various enemies, and to give the additional time and labor
necessary for this purpose.

883. After corn is up, for instance, it is worth while to
protect it from birds and insects. So it is time well spent
to examine every hill once in every three or four days
till it is well grown, to arrest the work of the cut worm,
found at the root of many a plant. If taken in season,
he can do little injury. The plant will give a sure
indication of his presence before it is entirely cut off and
destroyed. It is important also to examine the trees of
the orchard, and dig out the borer.

884. Great losses might be avoided, if a regular system
like this were adopted with regard to every crop. If it
is worth planting, it is surely worth the trouble of pro
tecting.

885. The wastes of the farm are innumerable. Mention
has already been made of losses arising from badly arranged
and ill-constructed farm buildings, but perhaps the want of
economy and skill in the management of fertilizers, is a
source of greater loss than any thing else upon most farms.

886. No matter what particular course of culture may
be adopted, it is only by the application of a sufficient
quantity of fertilizers, of the right quality, that the farmer
can keep up and increase the fertility of his land, and
cause it to produce more abundant crops every year.

887. The utmost knowledge and skill should, therefore,
be directed to the increase and preservation of every thing
that can be turned to good account. Let nothing be
wasted. Draw from the muck bed, or from any retentive

MANURES. — YOUNG STOCK. 247

subsoil, a sufficient quantity of absorbents to mix with
the materials in the barn cellar.

888. A compost may be formed of bones, ashes, old
mortar, dead animal matter, loam, scrapings from the road
side, and many other things worth saving, and if the run
from the sink-spout and the water from the wash tubs,
could be directed upon such a compost, a large amount
of valuable manure might be added in the course of the
year, to that now made on most farms.

889. The most direct method of increasing the fertility
of the farm, is the keeping of a great number of cattle,
feeding them well, and supplying a great deal of litter.
With an abundance of grass, the farmer can keep more
cattle ; with well fed cattle he has more manure, and with
this he can increase his crops. But it should be remem
bered that no more stock ought to be kept than can be
well fed.

890. If a farm is to be stocked to its utmost capacity,
green fodder should be cultivated, and it will be found
advantageous to devote a considerable space to corn, to be
cut up and fed green, and to clover and root crops. If
the stock are kept in the barn or in small lots near at
hand, the manure may be saved and increased by adding
loam and other materials, while the outlands may be kept
in grass and made to produce abundant crops by means
of liberal top dressings.

891. The losses arising from wintering stock poorly,
and from injudicious feeding in general, are vastly greater
than most people suppose. Even where working and
fattening cattle are well sheltered and well fed, young
stock often have but little shelter, with coarse swale hay
or straw to eat, and are left to take care of themselves.
Young animals should be kept growing rapidly, so as to

248 THE ECONOMY OP THE FARM.

develop their muscles and increase their size. They come
to maturity earlier, and yield more profit, when well
taken care of. In their case bad treatment is the worst
possible economy. They must have nutritious food and
enough of it, if any profit is to be derived from them.

892. Among the wastes of the farm may be mentioned
the spaces along division walls, so often grown up with
bushes and entirely lost to cultivation, giving an unsightly
appearance to the lot, and forming a seed-bed for weeds.
Many a load of rich loam might be taken from these head
lands and spread upon the rest of the piece, to great
advantage.

893. Some farmers make a practice of throwing the
small stones on the stubble lands into heaps upon the
grass, and letting them lie there to be mown over year
after year. In many cases they are not removed till the
land is ploughed up again. No man who manages in this
slovenly way deserves to succeed.

894. A garden should be found on every, farm at a
convenient distance from the house. This is too often
neglected, though it pays a greater profit, if its produce
be estimated at its fair market value, than any other
portion of the farm. An abundance of vegetables, of
various kinds, both early and late, does much to keep
down the expenses of the table, and tends to promote the
health of the family. It costs little time, and that little
in the form of odd moments.

895. A hot-bed is a convenient means of starting many
early vegetables, cither for market or for family use. It
may be made at a season of leisure, and costs but little.

896. The loam to be used for this purpose, should, be
selected and thrown into a heap in September. The
construction of a frame may be deferred till winter.

HOW TO FORM A HOT-BED. 249

897. To make the frame, take two-inch stuff and spike
it to corner posts or joists, making the back side twice as
high as the front, so as to give the proper inclination to
the sashes. The frame may be four or five feet wide, and
nine or twelve feet long. If the back and front are
fastened by iron bolts and screws, the frame can easily be
taken to pieces and laid away when not in use.

898. A bed of nine feet long will require three sashes.
Where the sashes meet, a piece of wood three inches wide
and two thick, should be set in from the back to front for
the sashes to run upon, and it may extend back a foot or
two beyond the body of the frame.

899. Select a south-east exposure. Dig down one foot,
making the hole six inches larger every way than the
frame. Drive down joists at the corners, and nail to their
outsides two-inch plank, letting the top come up about to
the top of the ground, the size of this structure corres
ponding to that of the frame, so that the latter will set
firmly upon it. The bed itself should be made about the
middle of March.

900. For the heating material, take coarse fresh manure
from the horse stables, shake it up well and mix thor
oughly, then put it evenly into the bed, beating it down
with the fork, but not treading upon it. Raise it up two
feet or so, the back part higher than the front, and make
the whole about six inches higher than it is intended to
have it stand, to allow for settling.

901. To get a steady and long heat, alternate layers of
tan bark and manure may be used, or a mixture of leaves
with the manure, will do. Something of the kind is
important, to make the heat hold out well.

902. The sashes may be put on after the bed is formed,
and the heat will begin to rise in two or three days, when

250 THE ECONOMY OF THE FARM.

the sash may be slightly raised to let the steam pass off,
and soon after the loam may be lightly spread over the
manure to the depth of six or seven inches.

903. A day or two after the loam has been added, the
bed will be ready for the seed, which is generally sown in
drills across the bed.

904. Sometimes the manure ferments so rapidly as to
give out an amount of hot steam sufficient to destroy the
roots of tender plants. This danger can be avoided by
sowing the seed in small flower pots set into the soil up
to the rims, which may be raised when the heat is too
intense, and lowered again as it moderates.

905. The same object may be effected by thrusting
down a large stick in several places in the bed, and with
drawing it, leaving open holes which will soon lessen the
intensity of the heat.

906. A sharp pointed stick thrust down into the manure
and allowed to remain a few minutes, will show well
enough the degree of heat there.

907. But constant watchfulness is required to secure
such ventilation as will prevent over-heating and a feeble
growth, and the frames should be open at proper times
for this purpose, but the external air must be let in
cautiously, and only when it is not very cold, or the plants
will be injured by the chill.

908. Cucumbers and similar plants may be sown on
pieces of inverted sod in the bed, when they are to be
started early ; they can then be removed to the garden
without injury as soon as the season admits of it.

909. Cabbages, cauliflowers, melons, tomatoes, peppers,
celery, lettuce and many other plants, may be started in
the hot-bed, to be transplanted to the garden as soon as
the season is far enough advanced.

CULTURE OP FRUIT. 251

910. Hot-beds heated by hot water or steam can be more
easily regulated, but the plan described above is the
simplest, cheapest, and often the only practicable method
on the farm. Even with this simple arrangement, how
ever, care and experience are necessary to secure success.

911. The culture of fruit is of itself sufficiently attrac
tive to secure some attention. But too many manage
their orchards as if they thought it enough to set out the
trees, without bestowing any care upon them afterwards.
There is no economy in buying poor or even second-rate
trees. Get the best and set them out in the best manner.
But one or two standard varieties known and esteemed in
the market, are far more profitable than a great many.

912. Young fruit trees pay well for great care and
attention. Enrich the land, therefore, and keep it under
high cultivation for the first few years. After the trees
have come into bearing, no exhausting crops should be
allowed under them, unless manure enough is used for
both. It is not well to starve fruit trees for the sake of a
less valuable crop. But some of the smaller fruits like
currants, raspberries or blackberries, all of which admit
of partial shading, may be tolerated in apple and pear
orchards.

913. If trees are found to be making wood too fast to
bear fruit well in rich and .highly tilled soil, laying down
the land to grass is generally enough to check their too
rapid growth, and bring them into a bearing condition.
If the land be already in grass and a greater growth is
desired, the grass may be spaded up in a circle of ten or
twelve feet from the tree. The rootlets extend out in
every direction as far as the ends of the branches, and
often farther. A foot or two spaded up round the tree
is, therefore, of very little service. But the surface soil

22*

252 THE ECONOMY OF THE FARM.

under fruit trees should not be stirred 1o a depth of
more than four inches. It is better to manure on the
surface.

914. Pruning should begin while the tree is young, but
little being done at a time, and should be continued when
necessary to bring the tree into proper shape. If a young
tree is trimmed, the activity of the sap soon heals up the
wound. Not so an old tree. The best time to prune
fruit trees is late in the fall, or early in winter before the
sap has started, or in midsummer after it has thickened
so as not to flow rapidly. But pruning may be done at
any time during the year except March and April, when
it should be avoided both for fruit and ornamental trees.

915. Apples and pears should be taken from the tree
before the ripening process has advanced far. A summer
pear fully ripened on the tree, is very inferior to one
ripened in a cool, dry place not exposed to the air. The
natural process of ripening on the tree appears to benefit
the seed merely, while woody fibre is rapidly formed in
the fruit, but if the fruit be taken off and laid away just
before beginning to ripen, sugar and juice are elaborated
instead. Pears otherwise inferior may thus be made juicy
and delicious.

916. It is easy to have a constant supply of healthful
fruits through the season. The strawberry deserves more
general and careful attention than it receives. After the
crop has been picked in June and July, let the runners
spread, and give them a deep rich soil to strike into,
merely thinning out the weaker ones. In this way the
vines are easily renewed from year to year.

917. The raspberry and the blackberry may stand
under trees, or along the sides of walls or fences. When
they have done bearing, the old fruit stalks should be cut

SMALL FRUITS. — ORNAMENTAL TREES. 253

out and a few of the weaker canes also. Six canes of the
new growth to the square foot may be allowed to stand,
and perfect themselves for next year's bearing. It is well
to lay them down and cover them over with straw or
earth, as a winter protection.

918. The gooseberry does best in a moist situation,
somewhat shaded. Dry hot weather, if exposed to the
direct rays of the sun, often causes it to mildew. A heavy
mulching of salt or meadow hay around the roots, is
useful to it. A mulching of old hay or straw about the
roots of all trees and shrubs enriches the land, and prevents
the ill effects of a summer drought.

919. Grapes should be set about the twentieth of
October, if convenient, but they do very well if set out
in spring. The best time to prune or cut them in, is in
the month of November. The first year after they are
set out they may be allowed to run at random, to be cut
back to within eighteen inches or two feet of the ground
in November. The object is to get a strong and healthy
growth of wood before they are brought to bearing
freely.

920. Trees planted for ornamental purposes around the
house and along the road-sides, add not only to the beauty
of the homestead and the landscape, but to the real and
permanent value of the estate, and thus pay well for the
labor and care bestowed upon them.

921. The negligence as to cutting grass and grain at
the proper season, and allowing it to get too ripe, is a
source of very serious loss on many farms. The time
of cutting wheat and all the other grains very materially
affects the proportion of flour and bran, or the finer and
coarser parts in the flour or meal. The grain is heavier,
sweeter and whiter when cut ten or twelve days before

254 THE ECONOMY OF THE FARM.

full ripeness, than if allowed to reach perfect maturity.
It also measures more and makes more flour.

922. When the grain is still soft or in the milk, it con
tains hut little woody fihre. Starch, gluten and sugar, in
which the nutritive value consists, are then most abundant.
As the ripening process advances, the woody fibre increases.
The skin or outer covering of the grain rapidly thickens,
and loses its fine color. It assumes a dull and husky
appearance in the bin, if allowed to ripen fully, and is
really worth considerably less than if cut at the proper
season.

923. The same is true of all the small grains. Oats
especially, the straw of which is fed to stock, should be
cut while still green, or when only slightly turned. The
early cut yield as much and as plump grain as those
which get dead ripe, and the straw is far more valuable.

924. The keeping of accurate accounts is indispensable
to complete success in farming. Without them the farmer
can never see just where he stands, or whether he is
making or losing money by this or that course of culture.
It is well to keep a separate debit and credit account for
each lot, charging it with all that is expended upon it
from time to time in labor, manure and seed, and crediting
it with the crops produced. At the end of the year the
balance will show at a glance the gain or loss for the
season.

925. And so let a separate account be kept for each
department, a stock account, an account of household
and personal expenses, &c. In this way a much better
idea can be obtained of the actual state of our affairs at
any particular time, than in any other.

MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY. 255

CHAPTER XXYI.

ECONOMY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.

926. The success and profit of any farming enterprise
will in many cases depend very much upon the thrifty
and judicious management of matters within the house.
The exercise of skill, prudence and good judgment on the
part of the farmer's wife, is called for in a thousand ways.

927. Take the dairy as an example. Costly barns, well-
selected cows and judicious feeding in the butter or
cheese dairy are of little avail, if the products are to be
depreciated in value by imperfect modes of preparing
them for market, where the final judgment is to be pro
nounced upon them, and the price will vary according to
their quality.

928. The care of milk forms so important a part of the
duties of every housekeeper, and it enters so largely into
many processes of cooking in every household, that its
character and properties should be well understood.

929. Milk is an opaque fluid of a whitish color with a
sweet and agreeable taste, and is composed chiefly of
casein e or curd, which gives it its strength, and from
which cheese is made ; an oily substance which gives it
richness, and which is separated in the form of cream and
butter ; a sugar of milk which gives it sweetness, and a
watery substance which makes it refreshing as a beverage,
and which is separated from the other constituents in
cheese making, and known as whey.

930. The fatty matter in pure milk varies from two
and a half to six and a half per cent., the caseous or

256 ECONOMY OP THE HOUSEHOLD.

cheesy matter from three to ten per cent., and the serous
matter or whey from eighty to ninety per cent., the pro
portions of these several substances varying according
to the kind of animal, the food used and other circum
stances.

931. Though to the naked eye it appears to be of the
same character throughout, under the microscope a
myriad of little round or oval globules, of unequal sizes,
are seen floating in the watery matter. These globules
arc particles of butter enclosed in a thin film of cheesy
matter. They are so minute that they filter through the
finest paper.

932. Milk weighs about four per cent, more than water.
Cold condenses while heat liquefies it. The elements of
which it is composed, being different in character and
specific gravity, undergo rapid changes when at rest.
The oily or butter particles being lighter than the rest,
soon begin to rise, to the surface in the form of a yellowish
semi-liquid cream, while the greater specific gravity of
the whey carries it down.

933. The butter particles in rising to the surface, bring
up with them many cheesy particles, which mechanically
adhere to their external surfaces, thus giving the cream
more or less of a white instead of a yellow color, as well
as many watery particles which make it thinner than it
would otherwise be.

934. If the globules rose up free from the adhesion of
other substances, they would appear in the form of pure
liu tter, and the process of churning would bo unnecessary.
The collection, or coagulation of the cheesy particles, by
which the curd Incomes separated from the whey, some-
limes lakes jilacc so rapidly, (Vom llic effect of great heat
and sudden changes in the atmosphere, that there is not

MILK AND CREAM. 257

time for the butter particles to rise to the surface, and
they remain mixed up with the curd.

935. When exposed to a warm atmosphere, milk readily
becomes sour, its sugar of milk becoming what is called
lactic acid. It is this sugar and the chemical changes to
which it gives rise, that make milk susceptible of under
going all degrees of fermentation, and of being made into
a fermented and palatable but intoxicating liquor, which
on distillation produces pure alcohol.

936. Milk will generally yield from ten to fifteen per
cent, of its own volume of cream, the average being
about twelve and a half per cent. Eight quarts of milk
of average richness, will therefore give about one quart
of cream. But the milk of some cows fed on rich food,
will far exceed this, sometimes furnishing twenty per cent,
of cream, and in very rare instances, twenty-live and
twenty-six per cent. The quantity of cream to be obtained
from milk is much more uniform than the quantity of
butter from cream. Rich milk is lighter in weight than
poor.

937. The temperature of milk as it comes from the
cow is about blood heat, or ninety-eight degrees of Fahren
heit, and it should be cooled as little as possible before
coming to rest in the pan. The depth of milk in the pan
should be shallow, not greater than two or three inches.
A moderate warmth and shallow depth facilitate the rising
of the cream. The temperature of the dairy room should
not vary much from fifty-eight degrees.

938. Milk is extremely sensitive to external influences,
and hence the utmost cleanliness is necessary to preserve
it for any length of time. The pails, strainers and pans,
the milk room, and in short all the surroundings, must

258 ECONOMY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.

be kept neat and clean, to an extent which only the best
dairy women can appreciate.

939. The largest butter globules being comparatively
the lightest, begin to rise first after the milk comes to rest
in the pan, and form the first layer of cream, which is the
best, since it is less filled with cheesy particles. The next
largest rise a little more slowly, are more entangled with
other substances and bring more of them to the surface.
The smallest rise the most slowly of all, are loaded with
caseous matter and produce inferior cream and butter.
The most delicate cream, and the sweetest and most
fragrant butter are obtained by skimming only a few
hours after the milk is set.

940. On large dairy farms, a building is generally
erected as a dairy house. This should be at a distance
from low damp places, from which disagreeable exhalations
may rise, and should be well-ventilated and kept constantly
clean and sweet by the free use of pure water.

941. But in smaller dairies economy dictates the use
of a room in the house. This should be, if possible, 011
the north side, and used exclusively for this purpose.
Most cellars are unsuitable for setting milk, but where a
large and airy room is partitioned off from the rest of the
cellar, and can be thoroughly ventilated by windows, a
greater uniformity of temperature can be secured there
than on the floor above. Such a room may be used to
advantage, but it should have a floor of gravel or loam,
dry and porous, and without cement.

942. Carbonic acid, a heavy and noxious gas, is apt to
ii ilect the atmosphere near the bottom of a cellar, and a
j torous floor acts as an absorbent. It is evident that cream
will not MM' so «|iiidvly or so well when the milk pans are
set on the collar bottom. The air is less pure, and the

THE MILK STAND.

259

cream is liable to become acrid. When the object is to
obtain the most cream in the shortest time, the milk
should stand on shelves from four to six feet from the
floor, around which a free circulation of air can be had
from the windows.

948. A very convenient
milk stand is represented
in figure 88. It is made
of light seasoned wood in
an octagonal form, and
will hold one hundred
and seventy-six pans of
the ordinary form and
size. It is simple and
easily constructed, econo
mizes space, and may be
adapted to a room of any
size used for this or a
similar purpose. If a
stream of pure water be
near at hand, it may be Fis- 88-

brought in under the stand by one channel and taken out
by another, thus keeping up a constant circulation under
the milk stand. This is regarded as highly important by
many dairymen.

944. Milk pans are generally made of tin, this having
been found to be the best on the whole. After the milk
has stood from eighteen to twenty-four hours in a favorable
place, the cream may be removed and placed in stone jars
where it is kept till the churning. It is always best to
churn as often as possible ; in large dairies every day, in
smaller ones every other day. But where this is not
practicable, put the cream into a stone jar and sprinkle

23

260 ECONOMY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.

over a little pure fine salt. When more cream is added,
stir up the whole together and sprinkle over it a little
more salt, and so on till there is enough to churn.

945. Butter may be got from cream when at a temper
ature ranging from forty-five to seventy-five degrees
Fahrenheit, but it is a matter of the utmost nicety to
regulate the temperature so as to get the best quality of
butter from it. Careful experiments have seemed to show
that the cream being at about fifty-one degrees at the
beginning of the churning, the best quality of butter may
be obtained from it. The temperature rises during the
operation several degrees, depending much on the time it
takes. If it were fifty-one or fifty-two degrees at the
beginning, it would be about fifty-five degrees at the close.
But if the object be to obtain the greatest quantity of
butter from cream, the churning may be commenced with
the cream at fifty-six degrees, and the temperature will
gradually rise to about sixty. The greatest quantity of
butter of the best quality, is got from cream standing .at
about fifty-three degrees. To bring the cream to a proper
temperature it may be lowered into the water in a well
and remain over night in hot weather, or receive the
addition of a little warm water in winter.

946. The operation of churning should not be hurried.
The butter from cream churned from a half to three-
quarters of an hour, is of for better quality and consist
ency than that churned in five or ten minutes, in which
time it may be brought with a higher temperature of the
cream.

947. A simple square box turning on an axle is one
of the best forms of the churn. It is the concussion
rather than the motion which brings the butter, and this
form of churn gives it as well as the dasher. The cream

THE BUTTER WORKER.

261

takes a compound motion, and the concussion against
the sides and right angled corners is very great.

948. After
the butter has
come, it must
be thoroughly
worked till the
buttermilk is
removed. The
best way of
doing this is
011 the butter
worker, (Fig.
89.) After roll
ing, it may be Fis- 89-

slightly salted. A large sponge covered with a clean cloth is
a most useful article for removing the milk from the surface
of the butter, where it will be found to stand in little round
globules after it has been pressed or worked. With the
sponge nearly every particle of milk may be taken off. In
warm weather have a pan of ice water at hand, and after
using the sponge soak it in the water, and rinse and press
it out dry to use again. Butter made in this careful way
will keep better than any other, as the buttermilk, often
imperfectly worked out, does more to destroy its sweet
ness and solidity than any thing else.

949. Another simple
form of the butter work
er is shown in figure 90.
A plain apple tree slab
is better than marble for
the butter to lie on. It

would not be either ' Fis- 90-

262 ECONOMY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.

difficult or expensive to fix this upon a common table.
The attachment of one end of the roller, as shown in
figure 89, by a lever, is not necessary, but saves strength
in working. The hands should never come in direct
contact with the butter if it can be avoided, as it may be
by either form of the butter worker.

950. After completely removing the buttermilk, the
butter may be formed into pound lumps, or put down
into firkins made of white oak, which should first be well
cleansed. When thus made, it will keep a long time with
little salting. Over-salted butter is not only less agreeable
to the taste, but less healthy than that which is fresh and
sweet. In general, much salt is needed only when butter
is badly worked over, and to prevent the ill effects of
neglect.

951. It is sometimes necessary to pack butter in new
boxes, and the dairy woman should know how to prevent
an unpleasant flavor from being imparted to the butter by
the fresh wood. For this purpose use common or bi-car-
bonate of soda, putting about a pound into each thirty-two
pound box, and pouring boiling water upon it. If the
solution be allowed to stand in the box over night, the
box may be safely used the next day. The adoption of
this simple precaution would often prevent great losses.

952. *In medium-sized dairies the nicest quality of
butter might be made from cream taken off after standing
in a favorable position for twelve or eighteen hours, when
the skimmed milk would still make a fine quality of
cheese.

953. Cheese is made from the cascine in the milk. If
allowed to Urome sour, milk will curdle, when the
A\hey may be separated from it. J*u(, in practice the curd
is produced by the addition of an acid in the form of

CHEESE MAKING. 263

rennet, which is the stomach of the young calf prepared
by washing, salting, drying and preservation.

954. Cheese may be made entirely of cream, from whole
or unskimmed milk with the cream of other milk added,
from milk from which a part of the cream has been taken,
from ordinary skim milk, from milk that has been skimmed
three or four times so as to remove nearly every particle
of cream, or even from buttermilk. The acid used to
curdle the milk acts only on the caseine and not on the
butter particles. The latter may remain imbedded in the
curd as it hardens, and will increase the richness and
flavor of the cheese, but they do not add at all to its
firmness, which is due to the caseine alone.

955. The process of cheese making is both chemical
and mechanical. The milk is heated to about ninety-five
degrees, when the rennet is added, the chemical action
being thus hastened, and the separation of the whey
facilitated. If the rennet be strong and good, enough
may be used to curd the milk in about half an hour. It
is then allowed to stand for half an hour or an hour,
when it is cut across in different directions, to allow the
whey to work out more freely.

956. The preparation of the rennet requires great
care ; indeed, every process in cheese making calls for
the exercise of much judgment and experience. . Many
fail in consequence of hurrying the pressing. The cheese
is usually allowed to stand in the press only one day,
though a longer time would make a much better cheese.
A self-acting cheese press is shown in figure 91.

957. A very small advance in the price of dairy pro
ducts from improved quality, would add very largely to
the profits of many a farm. These articles are generally
the last on which purchasers are disposed to economize,

23*

264

ECONOMY OP THE HOUSEHOLD.

it is the quality of
the articles they look at.
Every thing depends on
quality.*

958. There is no more
important branch of do
mestic economy than that
which relates to the use
of the great staples of
human food, especially
the articles employed in
making bread. A large
part of the ill health and
unhappiness of families
arises from bad or defec
tive cooking. The really
good and healthy bread
made in this country
bears but a very small
proportion to that of decidedly poor quality.

959. Undoubtedly this may in part be ascribed to the
flour which the housekeeper is obliged to use. Its quality
varies exceedingly in different samples, and we cannot
always obtain what is really good.

960. Every hundred pounds of wheat contain from
fifty-five to sixty-eight pounds of starch, from ten to
twenty pounds of gluten, and from one to five pounds of
fatty matter. The relative quantities of these substances
vary considerably in different climates and soils. Thus
the proportion of gluten is largest in wheat grown in

*Thc management of the dairy is stated in greater detail in the Treatise on
"Milch Cows and Dairy Farming," to which aiiy who wish to pursue the subject
farther can refer.

- 91-

COMPOSITION OP GRAINS. 265

quite warm countries. It is larger in Virginia or Mary
land wheat than in that of Michigan or the Canadas.

961. Starch, as we have seen, is a white powder which
forms a large part of the substance of most of the grains,
as also of the potato. A general idea of the proportion
in which it appears in the

grains, may be obtained
from figure 92, in which the
grains are magnified, and
where a represents the posi
tion and comparative quan- Fig. 92.
tity of the oily portions of

a kernel of Indian corn, wheat and barley, the oil being
in minute drops enclosed in six-sided cells, which consist
chiefly of gluten ; &, the proportion and position of the
starch, and c, the germ or chit, which is mainly composed
of gluten.

962. .Gluten, as well as starch, exists in most plants,
though the proportion in some is far greater than in others.
It may be washed out of dough made of wheat flour, by
placing it upon a sieve or a porous cloth tied over a deep
dish, and pouring on water as long as it continues to run
through of a whitish or milky color. The starch is carried
through the clotfi with the water, and the gluten is left
on the cloth. The starch will soon settle to the bottom
of the dish.

963. The grinding of the wheat does not wholly crush
the outside covering of the grain, which is harder than
the rest. This is usually sifted out from the finer portions
in the form of bran, and may be fed to horses or other
animals. It is often known as shorts.

964. On mixing water enough to moisten the whole
mass of flour, the particles stick to each other and form

266 ECONOMY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.

a smooth and clastic dough. This dough consists of
gluten, so called from its sticky or glutinous character,
and starch. These two substances, as we have seen, may
be readily separated.

965. If we add a little yeast to the flour while mixing
with water to form dough, and let it stand some hours in
a moderately warm place, the dough begins to ferment
and rise, increasing considerably in bulk.

966. In rising, little bubbles of carbonic acid gas are
set free throughout the mass of dough, and this it is
which makes the bread porous and light, by the stretching
or expansion of the tenacious gluten. Set the dough in
a hot oven, and the fermentation and rising are first
hastened by the elevated temperature. But when the
whole is heated up to the point of boiling water, the
process is suddenly stopped, and the mass is fixed by the
baking in the form it had taken when the rising was
suddenly arrested by the heat.

967. But why is the rising so suddenly checked in the
oven ? The yeast we have added to the dough is in
reality a living plant, which grows or increases with great
activity when it comes in contact with the moisture of the
dough, producing what we call fermentation or rising.

968. During this process, a part or the starch in the
flour is changed into sugar, and this sugar into alcohol
and carbonic acid gas. This gas cannot escape from the
dough as the elastic gluten expands, but it remains in the
shape of bubbles. At last the heat becomes great enough
to destroy the yeast plant, and the process of rising ceases.
The alcohol mostly escapes in the baking.

969. After the loaf is sufficiently baked, if we cut it
through we find it is spongy and full of little cavities,
made by the gas bubbles during the rising. It is then

QUALITIES OP FLOUR. 267

soft and agreeable. But in the course of a day or two
the peculiar softness disappears, and the bread seems to
be drier and crumbles readily. This apparent dryness is
not caused by a loss of water. Stale bread contains very
nearly the same amount of water as that newly baked.
Both contain on an average from thirty-five to forty-five
pounds of water in every hundred pounds. Stale bread,
though not generally so agreeable to the taste, is very
properly regarded as more wholesome than new.

970. The more gluten any variety of flour contains,
the more water will it hold. When wet, the gluten does
not dry up readily, but forms a close and tenacious coating
around the little cells formed in rising, which neither
allows the gas enclosed in them to escape nor the water
to dry up and pass off in vapor, but both are retained.

971. Now we see why flour made of wheat grown in a
warmer climate and containing a larger per cent, of
gluten, is sold at a higher price in the market. It is
intrinsically more valuable. The larger amount of gluten
not only increases its nutritive value, but its economic
value also. It has a greater power of holding the car
bonic acid gas produced in the fermentation, and this
gives it the spongy lightness always characteristic of good
bread. It also absorbs more water, and its weight is
greater.

972. In an experiment said to have been carefully and
accurately made, with two pounds of Cincinnati and two
pounds of Alabama flour, each being mixed with a quarter
of a pound of yeast, made into a loaf, and both baked in
the same oven, the loaf made from the first was found to
weigh three pounds, that from the second three and a half.
The difference was thus about fifteen per cent, in favor
of the southern or more glutinous flour. If the same

268 ECONOMY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.

proportion were found to hold generally, six barrels of
southern flour would be about equal to seven of northern.

973. Flour in its natural state contains from twelve "to
sixteen per cent, of water, but it will take up about half
its own weight of water in addition, so that a hundred
pounds of good flour make about a hundred and fifty
pounds of bread.

974. It is an important fact, that the bran which is
generally so carefully sifted out of the flour, is rather
more nutritious than the fine flour itself. The oily parts
of the grain lie mostly near the surface. The less finely
bolted flour is undoubtedly more nutritious and whole
some than the finest and whitest samples.

975. Rye flour, though it does not differ materially
from wheat flour in composition, is yet unlike it in some
respects. Its color is not white, but a grayish brown ; the
bread made of it is not so porous as that made of wheat flour,
nor the dough so tough. Its starch cannot be washed out
like that of wheat flour. Rye bread may be kept fresh and
moist much longer than wheat, perhaps on account of
the peculiarity of its gluten.

976. The preference of wheat to rye arises from taste
or prejudice merely. They have nearly the same nutritive
value. Barley also contains about the same proportion
of nutritive matter. Rye flour when mixed with an equal
quantity of Indian meal, will make a very palatable and
healthy bread.

977. The general principles of bread making apply
alike to all kinds of flour or meal, but Indian meal, though
in composition and nutritive properties not differing much
from wheat flour, does not make equally spongy bread.

978. The most common modes of cooking the meats
we set upon the table, are simple boiling, roasting and

COOKING OF MEATS. 269

baking. Out of every four pounds, beef loses one in
boiling, one pound and three ounces iii roasting, and one
pound and five ounces in baking. The same weight of
mutton loses in boiling fourteen ounces, in roasting one
pound and four ounces, and in baking one pound and six
ounces.

979. Fresh lean beef contains about seventy-eight per
cent, of water, including the blood. Wheat flour bread,
as we have seen, contains only forty-five per cent, of
water. But the gluten of wheat has its corresponding
element in beef in the fibrin, as it is called, and beef
contains nineteen per cent, of this, while wheat flour
bread has only six per cent, of gluten. Again, beef
contains more or less fat, generally over three per cent,
in lean beef, while we found but about one per cent, of it
in the flour. The chief difference is, then, in the starch,
which is not found in beef, while in bread it forms more
than forty-eight per cent., or about one-half of the whole.

980. What is the fibrin of the meat ? A thin piece of
lean beef may be washed in clean water until its color is
entirely lost, the blood being washed out, and only a white
mass of fibres being left, which constitutes the muscle of
the living animal. This is called fibrin. It takes its name
from its fibrous nature. It contains in mixture part of
the fat of the animal, and with it constitutes the main
substance of the meat. Meat is therefore composed of
water colored by the blood, fibrin and fat. In highly fed
animals, we find the fat often collected by itself in various
parts of the body, as in the suet in and around the bones,
or it is deposited in large masses under the skin, instead
of being evenly distributed through the fibrous mass of
muscular tissue, so as to produce, in the case of beef,
what is called well marbled beef.

270 ECONOMY OF THE HOUSEHOLD,

981. The loss in cooking meat is mainly in the evapora
tion of water, and in the fat which melts out in roasting
and baking. But this water mixed as it is with the blood?
and holding more or less of various saline substances in
solution, constitutes what is called the juice of the meat,
and if this were all extracted the meat would become a
mere tasteless mass.

982. It is very important, therefore, in cooking meats,
to preserve their rich juices as much as possible. This is
done in -boiling and some other modes of cooking, by
subjecting them to great heat when first put over the fire.
By this means the fibres near the surface are contracted,
the escape T)f the juice is prevented, and the piece is to a
great extent, cooked in its own moisture.

983. Hence, if meats are to be boiled, they are usually
put at once into boiling water ; if to be roasted, they are
exposed to a quick fire at once, either of which retains
the liquid contents within, in the manner explained. If
exposed to a slow fire or to cold, or only warm water, very
much of the richness of meat, as well as of its nutritive
quality, is lost, and the piece will become hard and dry.

984. But in the preparation of soups, broths, beef tea,
&c., the object is to extract the juices; hence they are
put into cold water and either simmered over a slow fire,
or gradually but quickly brought to a boil. For these
purposes soft water is best, because it has a greater
solvent power than hard, which holds in solution more
or less mineral matters, especially lime. In ordinary
boiling, however, where we only wish to cook the meat,
and not extract the juices in which its flavor and richness
consist, hard water is better.

985. The uso and manufacture of soap also form an
important part of domestic economy. When oily or fatty

CLEANSING PROPERTIES OP SOAP. 271

substances come in contact with an alkali, in solution at
an elevated temperature, they undergo an entire change,
and on this change the whole process of soap making
depends.

986. The soap made in the farm-house is that known
as soft soap, and is formed by the union of potash with
more or less fatty matter. Hard soaps are made by the
use of soda, with which potash is sometimes mixed.
Potash will not harden when water is present, as it
always is in considerable quantities in soft soap. But
soap made with soda will absorb more than its own weight
of water without losing its consistency.

987. The soft soaps are generally made of soft fats,
while the hard soaps are more frequently made from
tallow. In making castile soap, olive oil and soda are
used, and its peculiar marbled appearance is produced by
the mixture of iron rust. Rosin is very often added in
the manufacture of common or yellow soaps.

988. Rosin soaps dissolve or form lather so readily,
that they are generally believed to be very effective, but
they are by no means so economical as the soda soaps,
their cleansing properties being inferior.

989. The cleansing properties of soap depend mainly
on its alkaline ingredients. When brought in contact
with the impurities of clothing, or of the skin, which are
made up of a greater or less quantity of oily matter
derived from the exhalations of the body, together with
dust and other foreign substances, the alkali of the soap
readily seizes hold of the oily matters and dissolves or
removes them.

990. If water is used without soap, it often fails to
cleanse thoroughly, as it has no affinity for oily
substances, and therefore leaves them and whatever has

24

272 ECONOMY OF THE HOUSEHOLD.

adhered to them, in the cloth or on the skin. An alkali
might be used alone, but it would be so powerful as to
injure or destroy whatever it came in contact with.
Washing fluids are simple solutions of caustic alkali.

991. In the life of the farmer, as in that of every other
man, it is of the utmost importance to make homo
attractive to all the family. It is unnecessary to say that
the strictest neatness and good order in all domestic
arrangements, is more conducive than any thing else to
this end. Without them no dwelling can have an air of
cheerfulness and comfort.

992. The cultivation of flowers in the house and
the garden, is well calculated to aid the skilful house
keeper in adorning and beautifying home, while it affords
a pleasant occupation for leisure hours. Who does not
feel the influence of flowers blooming in the window, and
in the neat beds of the garden or the front yard.
Graceful vines trailing over the door-way, give a charm
to the poorest- dwelling, and make the humblest cottage
attractive.

993. The judicious, thrifty and economical manage
ment of even the smallest household, is worthy of the
highest praise that man can bestow, and duties well
performed, whatever they may be, give the greatest of
all consolations, an approving conscience and a cheerful
heart!

QUESTIONS.

[NOTE TO THE TEACHER. — The questions here given are not intended
for skilful and experienced teachers. They are helps, to make up for the want
of skill and experience. They are to be used cautiously. They do not contain
all the points in regard to which the pupil should make thoughtful inquiry and
be ready to give answers ; and there is always danger that, by the use of them,
important things will be omitted, and mere verbal answers be given, instead of
intelligent answers. Often, a single question will lead a faithful pupil to give,
in his own language, the substance of a paragraph. In such a case, the partic
ular questions may be addressed to other pupils.

For the sake of conciseness, the beginning of the questions, such as, What is ?
or What are?, What does? or What do?, How does? or How do?, and How
is ? or How are ? — are often omitted, as unnecessary.]

CHAPTER!.— 1. Agriculture? Itinclude?— 2. Object?— 3. With this
object, what must the husbandman have? Capital? — 4. What should
a complete farm have ? What would be desirable? — 5. Why capital? —
6. Indispensably necessary to carry on a farm well? What will the
farmer find by study? By practice? — 7. Science? Why should a
farmer have it ? Whence comes science ? [Note. — This is not all that
is necessary to success. The effects of the vital action of plants, spoken
of hereafter, are also to be known and considered]. — 8. Use of scien
tific knowledge ? — 9. Practice ? Knowledge of scientific principles ? —
10. Why should a farmer have a good education ? — 11. Whatevidence? —
12. What are the means by which the best modern improvements may
be introduced upon American farms? — 13. What evidence, nearer
home, of the value of knowledge? — 14. Advantages of a farmer's occu
pation ? — 15. Why do men of science make mistakes ? What alone
makes a perfect farmer? — 16. Are the necessary scientific principles
difficult to be understood? — 17. What will be the effect of learning
these principles well? Give an illustration. — 18. Chemistry? A
chemist? What are the objects of Chapter I. ? How many objects ?
What does it show to be very important for a farmer ? What are the
two sources of the knowledge he needs ? What does it show to be a
noble pursuit ? State what you think most worthy to be thought of
and remembered.

274 QUESTIONS.

[It is an excellent practice to call for a complete analysis of a chap
ter, when the pupil is capable of giving it ; or to call upon one to give
the several heads, and others to give an account of what is included
under these heads. It is well, whenever it is possible, to get up a
conversation upon the subject of the lesson. It takes time, but it cul
tivates the power of expression, and the valuable art of conversation;
it excites an interest in the subject, and it gives the teacher opportuni
ties to correct faults in the language of his pupils. The time it takes
is not lost, but saved to the best purposes.]

CHAPTER II. — 19. The air? The wind? Give an example of what
is meant by elastic. Combustion ? What is it necessary to ? — 20. Air
composed of? What else? What does oxygen mean? Nitrogen?
Azote? Ammonia? [Art. 32, &c. See Index.] Sulphuretted hydro
gen? [Art. 40. See Index.]— 21. Oxygen? An element? How
abundant is oxygen ? — 22. Whence cloes oxygen come ? Its tendency ?
Its attraction ? Meant by iron's rusting ? Oxide of iron ? What lias
happened to the iron ? Where is oxide of iron found ? Oxides ? — 23.
Why is oxygen called producer of acids ? Acid ? — 24. Sulphurous acid ?
Sulphuric acid ? — 25. Water composed of? — 26. Hydrogen? How heavy
is it? Meant by elastic? — 27. How heavy is oxygen? — 28. Common
air? — 29. Nitrogen? Is it poisonous ? What properties has it ? — 30.
Is nitrogen always inert? — 31. Protoxide of nitrogen? Deutoxide?
Tritoxide? Peroxide? Nitric acid? Wonderful about this? How
does this happen ? The law of definite proportions ? A law of nature ?
Can it be accidental ? How general is this law ? The combining num
ber for hydrogen? Carbon? Oxygen? Nitrogen? Sulphur? Iron?
Nine pounds of water inacle of? How many pounds of iron combine
witli eight pounds of oxygen ? Give an example. Meant by decomposed ?
What lias been decomposed? How much iron has been turned into
rust? Atoms? How. do atoms combine? How arc the elementary
substances represented? What is HO? Nil3? CO2? NO?
NO2? NO3? NO4? NO5?— 32. Properties of nitric acid?
Where is it sometimes formed?— 33. Carbonic acid? — 34. Wood made
of? Combustion ?— 35. Flame?— 3G. Whence do the light and heat
come ? — 37. Ammonia ? — 38. Where is it formed ? — 39. Where do roots
get it? — 40. Sulphuretted hydrogen ? — 41. What is pure air composed
of? How much watery vapor does common air contain ? How much
carbonic add ? — 42. What happens in breathing? What, in place- of
oxyuiii, is breathed out? Respiration? Is the quantity of air ren
dered unfit for respiration known? How much pure air does a man
need ? How many cubic feet does a room, ten feet in each dimension,

QUESTIONS. 275

contain ? How soon will the air in a close room of that size be ren
dered unfit to breathe ? — 43. What is meant by ventilated ? How
important is ventilation ? — 44. Do plants breathe ? Is air necessary to
them ? — 45. By daylight what do growing plants do ? What is done
with it ? How do plants purify the atmosphere ? What relation do we
see in this ? State it distinctly. — 46. What action do plants Have in
the night ? When is wood formed ? — 47. An oxide ? [See 22.] Bases ?
What do they do ? Why are the compounds of acids and bases called
salts ? — 48. What docs carbonic acid and lime form ? Sulphuric acid
and lime ? Nitric acid and potash ? — 49. Oxygen combining with ?
Decay of fallen leaves ? What are favorable ? How is humus formed ?
Nearly all decay ? What are formed during decay ? — 50. Humus ?
Ulmin ? Ulmic acid ? Humin ? Humic acid ? — 51. Geic acid ? Crenic
acid ? Apocrenic acid ? — 52. Action of nitrogen ?

CHAPTER III. — 53. What is meant by atmosphere ? How high ? —
54. The atmosphere ? What are acting in it ? — 55. What operations
are going on in it ? What are rising into it ? What are all striving to
do ? — 56. What is the sun doing ? Every star ? Oxygen ? Water ? —
57. By what force does water penetrate ? Capillary attraction ? — 58.
Osmotic action? How? — 59. How does -oxygen act? — 60. Each gas
do ? Give proof. — 61. How does heat act ? Conduction ? Radiation ?
What effect does heat produce in solids ? In liquids ? In gases ? — 63.
Attraction of gravitation ? Attraction of cohesion ? Force of adhe
sion ? — 64. Force of vegetable life ? Force of animal life ? A third
force ? A fourth ? — 65. Under what influence is woody fibre formed ?
What other effects has the sun's light? — 66. What facts prove the
influence of the sun's light ? — 67. What experiment shows that light
gives wood its strength ? * — 68. Why is this ? What is the difference
in the growth by day and by night ? — 69. What power has the sun's
light upon animals ? — 70. How important is sunshine to human beings ?
Point out the difference between two children, otherwise like each
other, one kept much in the sunshine, the other much in the shade. —
71. How does the sun act upon the soil ? What precaution is desirable
when trees are to be ^planted ? — 72. What other effects are produced by
the atmosphere? — 73. What appearance does amber or wax exhibit
when rubbed ? What is the cause ? How is glass excited ? — 74.
Explain what the opposite electricities are ?— 75. Meant by discharged ?

* This is also strikingly shown in the growth of forests. Trees standing near
an opening in the woods make the greatest growth of foliage and limbs, on the
side towards the light.

24*

276 QUESTIONS.

— 7G. What takes place when vapor is formed ? How is rain supposed
to be brought on ?

CHAPTER IV. — 77. What instruments measure the changes which
take place in the atmosphere ? — 78. On what principle is the thermom
eter constructed ? — 79. By what experiment is this proved ? But what
other ? — 80. Describe Fahrenheit's thermometer. What is meant by
graduated? What is the freezing point? Goon. The boiling point ?
Degrees? How far need a thermometer be graduated? — 81. On what
principle is a barometer constructed? How can it be weighed? How
heavy is air ? Water ? — 82. The effects of the weight of the air ? The'
purpose of a barometer ? — 83 How is a barometer constructed ? — 84.
Why does the mercury rise in the barometer ? How are changes in the
weather foreshown ? — 85. What is the pressure of the air on a square
inch ? — 80. How is fair weather foreshown ? How foul weather ? How
a violent wind? — 87. A Lowell barometer ? Describe it. A vernier ? —
88. How far may change of weather be predicted ? What has been
done to discover the laws of storms ? — 89. Signs of rain ? — 90. The
principle of the hygrometer? — 91. How is a hygrometer made? — 92.
A still more delicate one ? — 93. The use of these three instruments ? —
94. What do variations in the temperature of the air depend on ? — 95.
What changes take place in the column of air above us ? — 9G. What do
variations in the moisture depend on ? Which winds are moist winds ?
Which dry and cold ? On what else does the moisture depend ? How
does heat act ? — 97. Other atmospheric phenomena ? — 98. On what docs
the formation of dew depend ? Radiation of heat ? What kind of sur
face radiates most abundantly ? Why? What happens when the sun
sets ? What "becomes of the heat ? How is dew formed ? Why is it
not formed in a cloudy night ? — 99. How is hoar-frost formed ? — 100.
Climate of a country? — 101. New England climate? — 102. Influence
of climate? Acclimatize? — 103. Causes of diversity of climate? Gen
eral? Second? Third? Another? — 104. Some of the local causes?
After a rain in summer, if the clouds disperse at night, why is it com
monly cool ? If it continues cloudy at night, why does the heat com
monly continue ?

CHAPTER V. — 105. Water? How abundant is it? How important
to plants ?— 10G. A still more powerful solvent ?— 107. Three forms of
water ? On what do they depend ? First form ? Describe the change
which takes place from the action of heat? The freezing point?
Latent heat? Second form? Describe the effect of heat upon it.
What is meant by evaporate? How much heat is required to boil

QUESTIONS. 277

water away? Third form? Latent heat of vapor? — 108. Boiling?
What fact is it important for a cook to know ? — 109. When is vapor
formed? What does it, when expanding, always use up? — 110. What
happens when vapor turns to water? When gases are condensed?
When water freezes ? How can you guard vegetables from freezing ? —

111. Vapor in the air depend on ? What happens when the air cools ? —

112. Clouds? Fogs? Mist? — 113. The quantity of moisture in the
air depend on ? When the wind blows from the sea upon the land, in
what case does it not rain ? In what case does it rain ? How is rain
formed ? In what other way ? — 114. Cause of rain in a thunder storm ?
— 115. How is snow formed? Uses of snow ? — 116. How is hail
formed ? Hail ? — 1 17. How are springs formed ? — 118. Rivulets, brooks,
rivers ? — 119. How is water important ? — 120. How, as a solvent? How
much ammonia can it dissolve ? How much carbonic acid ? What
else does it bring down? — 121. Effect of evaporation? Of condensa
tion? — 122. Why do plants need much water? What becomes of it?
Describe the experiment which proves exhalation from the leaves.
What should be an object of the farmer ? — 123. Irrigation ? Of what
use is it? — to cover the hills with trees ? — 124. What will guard against
the effects of drought ? What makes soil retentive of moisture ? — 125.
Why should the rain be allowed to penetrate the soil ? What harm
does it do if allowed to run off? Why should the soil be kept mellow ?
How should a hill-side be ploughed ? — 126. What are the remedies for
excessive wet? — 127. Drainage? How is it effected? — 128. Explain
the effects of drainage.— 129. What others ? The first ? The second ?
The third? — 130. Enumerate several important effects of thorough
drainage. — 131. How is deep drainage a resource against drought? —
132. The best preventive ?

CHAPTER VI. — 133. How do plants resemble animals ? How differ
from them? — 134. The simplest plant? These nourished? New plants
formed ? The most perfect plants increase ? — 135. How numerous are
the simplest plants ? — 136. Plants next in simplicity of structure ?
Others? Still others? Lichens? (pronounced lyekens). 137. Most
plants formed ?— 138. Organs ?— 139. The principal organs ?— 140. The
root? It usually divide? Amount of food depend on? — 141. The
stem? The collar?— 142. The bark?— 143. The leaves'? Opposite
actions through their surface ? The sap become ? — 144. The flower ?
— 145. How do you learn the several parts of a flower ? The calyx ?
Sepals?— 146. The petals? The corolla ?— 147. The stamens? The
anther? Pollen? — 148. Pistils? Style? Stigma? Receptacle? The
style of a rose ? — 149. Use of pollen ? Ovary ? Ovules ? Meant by

278 QUESTIONS.

fertilize? Embryo? — 150. What commonly happens when the seeds
are fertilized? Ovary become? Meant by germinate? — 151. The
fruit? Organs? Instances? Organic substances? Inorganic? — 152.
What happens when the seed is put into the ground ? — 153. Cotyledons ?
What are they unlike ?— 154. Dicotyledonous plants ?— 155. The
Plumule? How does it grow? — 15G. Monocotyledonous plants?
Describe the growth of one. — 157. The organs of the stem of u tree ?
External? The trunk? Branches? Limbs? Branchlct? Spray?
Twigs ? — 158. A shoot grow ? Terminal bud ? Axillary bud ? The
axil? — 159. The internal organs ? — 1GO. The usual course of plants?
Annual? Biennial? Perennial ?— 161. Why should grain be ever
cut before the seed is quite ripe ? — 162. The necessity of classification ?
— 103. The artificial system? — 164. How are plants now divided? A
natural family? Give an example. — 165. A genus (plural, genera) ?
A species ? Give an example showing the meaning of class, family,
genus and species. — 166. How does the practical use of classification
appear ? It will be well for the teacher to consider whether the names
of the families ought to be learnt. If so, let them be learnt thoroughly.
— 167. Some of the plants which belong to the Pulse Family ? Use ?
—168. Cress Family, character, &c., of all the rest ?— 169. Flax Fam
ily?— 170. Hose? What kind of flowers? Fruits ?— 171. Gourd?—
172. Currant?— 173. Parsley? Sunflower? Sage or Mint? Convolvu
lus? Nightshade? Character? Give an instance. Olive? Heath?
Goose-foot? Buckwheat? Walnut? Birch? Willow? Pine?
Class of those that have been mentioned ? Of those to be mentioned ?
Lily Family? Amaryllis? Iris? Orchis? Rush? Sedge?— 192. Cereal
grains? Character of the Grass Family? — 193. Mosses? — 194. Li
chens ? — 195. Difference between a tree, a shrub and an undershrub ?
Undershrubs ? Preparation for planting of perennial plants ? — 197.
Alimentary plants ? Forage ? — 198. Origin of cultivated plants ? Of
Indian, corn ? — 199. How have they been improved ? Give examples.
The most striking ? — 200. Whence come the good qualities of most
cultivated plants ? Of animals subject to man ? What is likely to
happen to children left to themselves ?

CHAPTER VII. — 201. Essential to the- formation, of plant-cells ?
What como from carbonic acid ? — from ammonia ? The history of
CO2 and Nil3? Whence may O and II come? N and 0 ?— 202.
What power must the simplest plant have ?— 203. The osmotic power ?
Experiment shows its action ? Endosmose ? Exosmose ? Effects are
produced by this power in plants ? — in animals ? — 204. Why must water
be abundantly supplied to growing plants ? — 205. The most indispensa-

QUESTIONS. 279

ble article in the food of plants ? What does it do ? Of what are the
solid parts of plants formed ? — 20G. Describe ammonia. What is it ?
How essential is it to plants ? — 207. Atmospheric food of plants ? The
four essential elements ? — 208. Is it possible for plants to grow without
any connection with the earth ? — 209. Is the C in plants pure ? Char
ring ? What is done by charring ? — 210. Peat ? Anthracite and bitu
minous coal ? What may be seen in them? — 211. What happens in
charring ? What is consumed ? What happens when charcoal is
burnt in air ? — 212. Combustion ? The combustible or atmospheric
elements ? The incombustible or mineral elements ? How many aro
found in the ashes of every plant ? The ashes of plants of particular
families remarkable for ? — 213. The ashes of plants of the Cruciferous
Family contain ? Cruciferous Family ? — 214. The ashes of plants of
the Pulse Family ? Sulphate of lime ? Lime ? — 215. What is found in
the ashes of wheat and other grain ? Phosphate of lime ? Phosphoric
acid ? Phosphorus ? What tendency has it to combine with O ? What
use is made of it ? Why is phosphate of lime called bone earth ? — 216.
In what plants is silica found ? What properties does it give ? Silica ?
Describe it. Why is it considered an acid ? [See, also, art. 270. J —
217. Where is potash found ? How is it obtained ? Soft soap formed ?
Pearlash ?— 218. Common potash ? Potassa ? Potassium r— 219. Soda ?
Where is it found ? Sodium ? — 220. For what have the ashes of sea-
plants been valued ? Whence comes the name alkali ? The alkalies ?
Their properties ? — 221. How are they acted on by acids ? Give an
example. Why is the salt formed called a neutral salt ? In what state
do most mineral substances enter plants ? — 222. Some plants growing
near them contain ? Common salt ? Chlorine ? Very remarkable ? —
224. What other oxides are found in the ashes of plants ? — 225. Mag
nesia ? — 226. The ashes of plants growing in the sea or on the sea
shore contain ? — 227. Iodine ? Why is it used in the processes of the
daguerreotype ? — 228. In what state does iodine occur ? — 229. Bromine ?
— 230. What other metals are found in plants ? — 231. The acids most
important in the structure of plants ? What other acid is essential to
some plants ? — 233. Are these the only acids found in plants ? Malic-
acid ? Citric acid ? Oxalic acid ? Tartaric acid ?— 234. In what form
are they found in plants ? Potash plants ? Why are they so called ? —
235. Silica plants ? Why so called ? Lime plants ? Why ? — 236.
What phosphates are found in all plants ? In what particularly ? What
is a phosphate ? — 237. Why are the atmospheric elements so called ?
Why the earthy ? — 238. What else are found in plants ? Fluorine ?
Fluoride of calcium ? Mineral food of plants ?

280 QUESTIONS.

CHAPTER VIII. — 239. How large are the particles of tho elements
of plants ? Organic compounds ? — 240. What is meant by organized ? —
241. The most important organic compounds ? — 242. Cellulose? Why
is it called woody fibre ?— 243. Vegetable Jelly ?— 244. Starch ? Where
is it found ? How important is it as an article of food ? Whence is it
obtained for use in the arts ? What use is made of it? — 245. Gum?
Dextrine ? — 246. Sugar ? Sugar candy ? Muscovado sugar ? What
plants yield it most abundantly ? — 247. Vegetable oil ? From what is
it extracted ? Linseed oil ? Colza ? — 248. Wax ? Beeswax ? — 249.
What relation exists between these compounds ? Effect in the animal
system ? — 250. Nitrogenous Compounds ? Why so called ? What are
they in their simplest form ? Why called protein ? — 251. Protein form ?
Effect in the bodies of animals ? — 252. Casein ? — 253. Albumen ? — 254.
Gluten ? What plants contain it abundantly ? — 255. Importance of
this fact ? — 256. Whence must every thing in the body of an animal
have come ? Whence, previously ? — 257. Chlorophyl ? — 258. Whence
the yellow colors ? The rich autumnal colors ? — 259. Whence coloring
substances ? — 260. Tannin ? Properties ? — 261. What powers seem to
be acting in plants ? How ?

CHAPTER IX. — 262. What is known of the interior of the earth?
The crust ? An element ? How many have been found ? — 263. How
many of them are metals ? Some of the more common metals ?
Describe such as you know. In what state are most of the metals
found ? Ores ? — 264. Found pure ? Aerolites ? — 265. Geology ? A
geologist ? Chemistry ? A chemist ? Chemical analysis ? — 266. The
soil ? The three most important earths ? — 267. From what has the
soil been formed ? The principal rocks ? — 268. Granite ? Sienite ?
Greenstone ? Trap-rock ? Gneiss ? (pronounced nice.} Mica Slate ?
Porphyry? The Granitic rocks ?— 269. Their qualities? Composed
of? — 270. Silex or Silica ? Why is it called silicic acid? When pure,
called ? How abundant is it ? Beautiful stones are silica ? How, in
the processes of nature, is it dissolved? — 271. Its usual form? — 272.
Silicious Rocks ? Soil is formed of these two kinds of sand ? — 273.
Slaty or Argillaceous Rocks ? Clay ? What kind of earth does it
form? Colors? Properties? — 274. Kinds of clay? Made of clay?
Plastic arts? Kaolin? Petuntze ? Uses? — 275. Aluminum? Alu
mina? The Sttpphire and the ruby? The topaz? The diamond? —

276. Calcareous Rocks ? Chalk? Sort of soil is a calcareous soil ? —

277. Pudding-stone Hocks? What holds tin.1 materials together: Soil
is formed of them? — 278. What has happened to all these rocks?
What six substances does the sand formed from granitic rocks contain ?

QUESTIONS. 281

Whence clay? Lime? — 270. "Weathering? How does heat ac-t? —
rain ? — frost ? What else are acting ? What action has water ? — 280.
The best natural soil ? Most fertile soils ? — 281. Basis of all soils ? A
clayey sand ? A sandy clay ? Loamy clay ? — 282. What must be
added to all these to form a good soil ? How does humus .act ? Hu
mus ? What is land which contains four per cent, of it ? — eight ? — ten ? —
283. How may it be found whether humus is present in a soil ? — 284.
When, only, is humus unfavorable to useful vegetation ? How must
they be corrected ? — 285. How does humus act ? What are succes
sively produced ? — 286. What action has the carbonic acid ? The oxy-
gvn ? — 287. What other important property ought a soil to have?
What will give this property ? — 288. The richest natural soils ? Where
are such soils found ? Describe the formation of these soils ? In
what parts are the most fertile of such soils found? — 289. The soils
next in value ? Why ? — 290. Of what are granite, gneiss, and mica
slate, composed ? Syenite ? Trap-rock ? Greenstone ? Porphyry ?
Examine the table and give it on the black-board. — 291. Quartz? Fel
spar ? Mica ? Hornblende ? Augite ? — 292. What is to be done when
clay can easily be had ? An amendment ? — i$3. A more effectual way
of rendering sandy soil fertile? Where is this to be found? How
does it act ? Describe it. What will be the effect of this process
repeated ? — 294. What substitute can be found for clay and marsh
mud ? — 295. What do these amendments require ? — 296. How is a
clayey soil to be improved ? When may this be done ? Effect of the
sand ? How else ? — 297. How may a calcareous soil be amended ? A
fourth kind of soil ? They really ? How are they to be managed ? —
299. What manures are good for such a soil ? — 300. Heavy, cold soils ?
Why are wet lands cold? — 301. Effect has color? Dr. Franklin's
experiment ? — 302. Is our soil formed by the crumbling of rocks just
beneath the surface ? Diluvial soils ? When the forests are cut down
what kind of soil is usually found ? How fertile ? How has this soil
been formed ? — 304. Give instances of the effect of weathering. Of
oxygen ; carbonic acid ; in water. How powerful is its action ?— 306.
How else does CO2 act? How do the alkaline carbonates act? — 308.
The remedy for the loss of fertility ? — 309. Is a soil barren for one
plant also barren for every other ?

CHAPTER X. — 310. Subsoil ?— 311. Its influence? What is to be
done? Why should it be done gradually? — 312. When should the
subsoil be mixed with the soil ? Evils of a subsoil impermeable
to water? The remedy? — 313. Indications of this evil? Remedy?
Kule?

282 QUESTIONS.

CHAPTER XI. — 314. Double part does a soil play? Qualities do
different plants require ? — 315. How are these evils remedied ? Amend
ments ? Give examples. — 316. Amendments for argillaceous soils ? —
317. For silicious soils ? Irrigation ? Its effects ? — 318. Effects of
planting ? Draining ? — 319. As to the advisableness of an amendment,
what question is to be settled? — 320. A permanent amendment? One
not necessarily permanent?

CHAPTER XII. — 321. What elements must a soil contain? For
marine plants, what are necessary ? — 322. In what state are the ele
ments found ? A silicate ? Sulphate ? Nitrate ? Phosphate ? Carbo
nate ? A sulphate of lime, &c. ? How are these known to be essential
to plants ? The effect if one were entirely wanting ? Give an example.
— 324. Why should the elements derived from the atmosphere be arti
ficially furnished ?— 326. What was often said by Prof. Nuttall ?— 327.
Describe the slow process by which wild plants are furnished with
humus. — 328. How is forest mould formed ? When it is quite wanting
how is humus to be furnished ? Organic substances ? — 329. How do
they act? — 330. How do they act on each other? — 331. Fertilizers
divided ? — 332. What double character have mineral fertilizers ? — 333.
The principal m. f. ? — 334. Quicklime ? Its effects ? What state
should it be in ? Power has water containing CO2? Act upon plants ?
— 335. Describe a Flemish compost. — 336. Valuable properties in
lime?— 337. Its effects in small quantities ?— 338. To be done with
shells ?— 339. Marl ? Its value ?— 340. Plaster ? Why is it valuable ?
Sulphate of lime ? — 341. Where is sulphur found ? Sulphuric acid ?
What salts does it form ? — 342. Hard water ? How made soft water ? —
343. Write upon the black-board and explain the diagram showing the
mutual action of sulphate of lime and carbonate of ammonia. — 344.
Whence comes the carb. of Am. ? — 345. How should plaster be
applied? — 346. Effects of sulphate? — 347. The Westphalian proverb
about ashes ? Ashes ? Character of these salts ? — 348. Unlenched
ashes good for ? — 349. Leached ashes ? — 350. Value of coal ashes ? —
351. Ley ? (This word, in common dictionaries, is spelled lie, — in
books of chemistry and agriculture, Icy and lye.} Its i-fft-ets ? What
else? — 352. Value of soot?— 353. Of carbonates of potash and of
soda ?— 354. Of salts of Am. ?— 355. Of nitrates ?— 356. Phosphate of
lime ? To what is it essential ? Value of phosphates ? — 357. How an-
these valuable ? — 358. The uses of common salt ? — 359. The object of
manures? Of organic manures? Of humus? The last result of
il.'c;iv of regetablea ^— 860. In what state are organic manures to be
employed? Why: Nature of Am. ? How can it be saved? — 301.

QUESTIONS. 283

Organic manures divided ? The principal vegetable ?— 362. Green
manures? What plants are best for the purpose? — 3G3. For sandy
soils? — clayey ?— calcareous ? — 364. For what districts ? — 365. Green
crops for winter grain to be treated ? — 366. How weedy land to be ? —
367. Farther advantages of green manures ? — 368. Value of sea ma
nures ? Value of eel-grass ? Management of sea manures ? For
what crops valuable ?— 369. What best for each vegetable ? Effects of
straw ? Stubble to be managed ? Good for hay land ? — 370. Said of
leaves ? Of different kinds ?— 371. Why are animal manures valuable?
How do they act?— 372. Flesh contain? How to be applied ?— 373.
Best to do with a carcass ? How valuable ? — 374. Sulphuretted hydro
gen ? How does it act ? — 375. Rank is to be given to hair, &c. ? Why ?
— 376. Effect of hair ? State the loss from its being thrown away. — 377.
Value of blood as manure ? How to be managed ? — 378. Of bones ?
How prepared and applied? — 379. Action be accelerated? — 380.
Whence the value of animal manures ?— 381. Best of manures ? Why ?
Value of milk ? Different kinds ? — 382. Why is particular care to be
taken of manure ? To be saved? The dangers of loss ? — 383. Loss
be prevented ? — 384. Decomposition ? Cause ? Vital principle act ? —
385. Brings on vinous fermentation ? Its products ? How is vinegar
made?— 386. Final products of decay? Essential to it? Prevents it?
— 387. The stable to be kept sweet ? Cost ? — 388. Different value of
different manures? Should all be thrown together? — 390. Liquid
manure formed? For what fields to be used? — 391. Best of all? —
392. Says chemical analysis ? How lost ? Consequences ? — 393-394.
Prevent disagreeable effects ? — 395. Guano ? Where found ? Consist
of?— 396. Experiment. Another. — 397. Another. Common fear?
Well founded ? — 398. Where may plants get their mineral elements ?
Evidence ?— 399. Those eight? Still more essential ?— 400-401. How
valuable is muck ? Substitutes ? From ponds and pools ? How save
the scourings of hills ? — 402. Good compost for trees ? Clayey soil ?
Common crop ? Another ? How is health affected by the management
of manure ? Effect of these gases on health? Give instances. Of
carbonic acid ? — 404. In small quantities ? Effects in the school room ?
Of ammonia ? — 405. Where are they generated ? How show them
selves ? Who are particularly subject to fever and other disease ? —
406. How may the well be affected ? Consequence ? Preventive ?

CHAPTER XIII. — 407. When is draining indispensable ? The other

essential operations ? Ploughing? — 408. Objects of ploughing ? How.

can most of these be done most effectually ? — 410. Advantages of deep

ploughing? Effects of deep ploughing upon the roots ? — 411. Saving

25

284 QUESTIONS.

docs it produce ? How ? How must the change be made ? On what
will the number of rootlets depend ? When is burning useful ? What
ashes contain most potash ? The rule ? — 412. Use of thorough tillage ?
What seems to show this ? The reason ?— 413. Value of tillage ? The
most important use? When may there be danger of overdoing ? — 414.
Subs oiling ? Effects ? What may draw up the moisture in loosened
earth ?

CHAPTER XIV. — 415. What is requisite for plant growth ? What is
understood by the mechanical condition of the soil ? — 416. Are soils
naturally fitted for cultivation ? — 417. What condition of the soil is
necessary? — 418. What do most soils require? Why do they require
this ? What harm does standing water do ? — 419. Do all soils require
the same preparation ? What are the processes most necessary ? — 420.
Where is clearing generally required ? — 421. To what process is
the term clearing applied ? When is it begun ? How is it where the
wood is valuable ? How may cleared land be got into pasturage ? To
what should steep and inaccessible places be devoted ? — 422. What is
next to be done? How may stumps and stones be removed ?— +423.
How may the surface overrun with bushes be cleared ? — 424. How may
wet lands be improved ? The object of drainage? — 425. What effect
has stagnant water ? — 426. How docs exclusion of the air affect soils ?
— 427. How is drainage effected ? Objection to open drains ? Are
they as useful as covered ones ? — 428. How are the objections to open
drains avoided ? How are underdrains made ? The advantage of
tiles ? — 429. How must a stone drain be laid ? Is it ever good econo
my? — 430. How is it with a tile drain? — 431. Economy of the tile
drain ?— 432. What is the pipe tile ?— 433. What fall is necessary ?
—434. What is the sole tile? The objection to it?— 435. What is a
brush drain? How is it laid? Is it efficient ?— 436. What distance
apart may drains be laid ? How do stiff and porous soils affect the
distance of the drains ?— 437. What depth is required ?— 438. What is
the effect of thorough draining ? How does the air affect the soil ? —
439. With what is the atmosphere charged ?— 440. What effect lias
draining on the temperature of the soil? — 441. What is the result of
increasing the temperature ?— 442. How does draining affect the texture
of the soil? — 443. How is land got ready for planting? — 444. What
implements are used ? — 445. What is the spade ? — 446. The implement
in most common use ? — 447. How does the plough operate on the soil ?
— 448. How should the furrow be turned ? — 449. What about the depth ?
— 450. What is the Hli-rt «>!' bringing up tin- subsoil ? — 151. Adv;m:
of deep ploughing? — 452. Whore is it especially necessary? — 453.

QUESTIONS. 285

What is the design of the subsoil plough ? — 454. Benefits of subsoil
ploughing ? What do recent investigations show ? — 455. What is the
Michigan plough ? — 456. What is the digger ? — 457. How is the harrow
used ? — 458. How does the cultivator compare with the harrow ? — 459.
How is the roller used ? — 460. How is it useful in laying down land ? —
461. What caution is needed ? Effect of rolling stiff soils ?

CHAPTER XV. — 462. What conditions are requisite to germination ?
How does light affect germination ? — 463. What is the first process ? —
464. How does the plant grow ? — 465. How does it draw food from the
air ? What office do the leaves fulfil ? How numerous are the breath
ing pores of the leaves ? — 466. What do plants usually spring from ?
What is a tuber ? What is a bulb ?— 467. What is a seed bed ?— 468.
What do all plants require for their complete development? What
points is it necessary to attend ? — 469. Can an imperfect seed grow ? —
470. What is the advantage of perfect seed? — 471. How may good
seed be known ? — 472. How may the germinating power of seed be
ascertained ? — 473. What advantage is there in learning the quality of
the seed ? — 474. How does the vitality of seeds differ ?-'-475. How can
the appearance of plants on new soil be explained ? — 476. How is it
with seeds of the turnip and the grasses ? — 477. What change takes
place in seeds? How can deterioration be prevented? — 478. Why is
change of seed necessary ? — 479. When may a change be avoided ?
What care is requisite to preserve the purity of seeds ? — 480. What
common examples can be given of seeds producing fruits different
from those which produced them? — 481. How may varieties be
obtained ?— 482. Plow may varieties of Indian corn be produced ? — 483.
Is a modification of the original fixed at once ? — 484. How is it in cul
tivating potatoes ? — 485. How may new varieties of the potato be pro
duced ? — 486. Is any new variety obtained from layers, or in grafting
or budding ? — 487. How may we judge of the quantity of seed required ?
— 488. How is the seetl required influenced by the soil ? — 489. What
other conditions affect the quantity of seed required ? — 490. How does
the mode of sowing affect it? — 491. How is it with thin and thick sown
crops ? — 492. When may steeping seeds be practiced ? — 493. What is
best adapted to nourish the germ of plants ? — 494. What circumstances
affect the time of planting ? — 495. How does the condition of the soil
affect the time of sowing ? — 496. la there any general rule applicable
to all crops ? — 497. To what depth should seeds be covered ? — 498.
The depth of clay and sandy soils ? — 499. How does the size of seeds
affect the depth of covering? — 500. What are some of the modes ot'

286 QUESTIONS.

drill sowing? — 502. How arc seeds covered? — 503. How is Indian
corn planted ? — 501. How is the manure applied ? — 505. What is
transplanting ? — 506. What advantages has this mode of culture ? — 507.
What is needed to transplant successfully? — 508. At what stage of
growth is transplanting to bo performed ? — 509. What care is required
in transplanting older trees ? — 510. How may injury to the roots be
remedied? — 511. How does the removal of part of the top affect the
tree ? — 512. How may trees and shrubs be grown ?

CHAPTER XVI.— 513. How are cultivated plants divided ?— 514.
What do the cereals include ? Is buckwheat a cereal plant ? — 515.
What is one of the most important of cereals ? — 516. What soils does
Indian corn require ?— 517. How is the land prepared ? — 518. How is it
with stiff soils ? — 519. What manures should be used for this crop ?-*-
520. How are they to be applied? — 521. Manure having been applied
in the fall, what course is adopted in spring ? — 522. What is the objec
tion to putting all the manure in the hill ? — 523. Another objection ? —
524. How may concentrate! manures be used to advantage ? — 525. How
may the land be put into good condition ? Why is it poor economy to
raise poor crops ? — 526. What is of special importance r— 527. What is
the next step ? — 528. Distance of the hills for corn ? Advantage of
.using the corn-planter ? — 529. Why should the plants stand closely ? —
530. When may soaking the seed be resorted to ? What is the best
substance to soak seed corn in ? — 531. Is drill planting recommended ?
— 532. How deep is it covered ? — 533. When is the crop first hoed ?
What implement is used between the rows, and how? — 534. What
implement is used in subsequent hoeings, and why ? — 535. How many
hoeings are necessary for corn ? — 536. How is the seed to be selected ?
— 537. When are the top stalks cut? Effect of cutting too early? —
538. What is the better practice ? — 539. The cheapest way of stocking ?
— 540. What are the varieties of wheat? — 541. How does winter differ
from spring wheat ? — 512. What soil is adapted ft wheat ? — 543. What
is requisite in the soil? — 544. What preparation of land is needed? —
545. How is it sown ? — 546. What are the advantages of drill sowing ?
— 547. Are there any other advantages ? — 548. What quantity of seed
is sown per acre ? — 549. Where does wheat come in the rotation ? —
550. What is important? — 551. When is it harvested? — 552. What
takes place if harvesting is neglected ? — 553. Effect of exposure to
rain ? — 554. What is said of rye ? — 555. Soils adapted to rye ? — 556.
The varieties? How does its range of culture compare with wheat? —
557. Quantity of seed per acre ? — 558. Its use on sheep farms ? — 559.
What of its straw ?— 500. What disease attacks rye?— 561. Peculiarity

QUESTIONS. 287

of barley ? What soils does it require ?— 5G2. When is it to be sown ?
—563. When is it harvested ? — 564. What climate is best adapted to
oats ? — 565. How does the yield differ in different circumstances ? — 566.
How may they be sown ? Quantity of seed per acre ? — 567. How are
oats for a green crop ? — 568. Effect of the roller on them? — 569. When
should they be cut, and how? — 570. How are oats used? — 571. What
is said of buckwheat ? — 572. Where is it cultivated ? — 573. What soils
does it do best on ? How is it often used ? — 574. How is the land pre
pared for it ? When is it sown ? Quantity of seed per acre ? — 575.
How is it cut and gathered ? — 576. How is millet used ? — 577. Soils
best adapted to millet ? — 578. When is millet sown ?

CHAPTER XVII. — 579. What does the class of leguminous plants
include ? Why so called ? — 580. The most important of the legumi
nous plants ? What are the varieties of the bean ? — 581. Soils best
adapted to beans ? — 582. How is the land prepared ? How thick should
they be planted ? — 583. When are they to be planted ? — 584. When
hoed and how ? — 585. How does the season affect the crop ? — 586.
When is the crop to be harvested and how ? — 587. What yield may be
expected ? — 588. The varieties of the pea ? — 589. The soil best adapted
to pease ? — 590. What manures are used for them ? — 591. What cultiva
tion is required ? How are they sown ? — 592. How are they harvested ?
For what purpose is the pea often sown ? — 593. By what is it attacked ? —
594. What remedy is there ? — 595. What is the objection to late plant
ing ?— 596. What is said of the lentil ?— 597. What soils does the lentil
require ? — 598. What is said of the vetch ?

CHAPTER XVIII. — 599. How may the potato be raised ? — 600. When
should seed potatoes be gathered? — 601. The varieties of this plant?
602. What is a prominent constituent of the potato ? — 603. When is
starch the most abundant ? — 604. What soils are best for potatoes ? —
605. What cultivation is required ? — 606. What manures ? — 607. What
of the practice of cutting ? — 608. What after-culture is necessary ? —
609. When is the crop harvested and how ? — 610. What is the climate
for the turnip? How do droughts affect it? — 611. Advantages of its
culture ? — 612. How should crops alternate ? Effect of the root crop
on the soil ? — 613. Varieties of the turnip ? — 614. Soils best adapted
to it? — 615. What preparation of land is necessary? — 616. Effect of
poor soils on the quality of the turnip ? Manures best adapted to the
turnip ? — 617. Effect of nitrogenous manures on the turnip ? — 618.
How is the turnip sown? Objection to ridge culture ? — 619. Quantity
of seed per acre ?— 620. What is the after-culture ?— 621. When are
25*

288 QUESTIONS.

turnips harvested and how? — 022. How are they used? What quantity
may be given to an animal ? — G23. What is the kohl-rabi and how is it
cultivated? — 624. Soils adapted to the cabbage ? — 625. Varieties of the
beet ? — 626. What of the mangold ? — 627. How is land prepared for
beets? How is the seed sown ? — 628. What does the after-culture con
sist in ? — 629. When is it harvested ? What care is required ? — 630.
What is said of the carrot? — 631. How is the carrot used? — 632. How
is the carrot cultivated ? — 633. What are the varieties of it and the
qualities of each ? — 634. The climate best suited to it ? Effect of
droughts upon it ?— 635. Soils best adapted to it ?— 636. What cultiva
tion is of importance ? — 637. Effect of stimulating manures on it ? —
638. What of the seed ? — 639. Quantity of seed per acre ? Depth of
covering? — 640. Preparation of land ? Time of sowing ? — 641. When
is it to be hoed ? Number of hoeings required ? — 642. What about
thinning out ? — 643. When is the carrot harvested ? — 544. What is said
of the parsnip ? — 645. How does it compare with the carrot ? — 646.
Varieties of the parsnip ? — 647. Climate best suited to it ? — 648. Soils ?
— 649. Preparation of the land? — 650. Its yield compared with the
carrot ? — 651. What of the artichoke ? Advantages of its culture ?
— 652. Cultivation ? — 653. How is it harvested and used ?

CHAPTER XIX. — 654. Origin of the culture of grasses? — 655.
Classification of grasses ? What are the natural grasses ? — 656. What
are artificial grasses ? — 657. Design of laying down lands with the
natural grasses ? — 658. What is the common practice ? — 659. How do
the natural grasses grow ? — 660. Where is pasturage the only improve
ment practicable ? — 661. What differences are found in the grasses ? —
662. Advantages of using several species together? — 663. How is a
selection made ?— 664. What are some of the best grasses for mowing
lands ? — 665. What species are best adapted for pastures ? — 666. What
point is of importance in the selection for mowings ? — 667. How does
the time of blossoming affect the mixture for pasture grasses ? — 668.
Climate best adapted to bring the grasses to perfection ? How do the
grasses of a dry climate or dry season compare with those of a moist
one ? — 669. Best time to sow grass seed ? Objection to spring sowing ?
— 670. Preparation of the land? — 671. How is the seed sown ? Deptli
of covering? — 672. Time of sowing on a clp.yey soil? — 673. When is
clover seed sown ? — 674. What are the artificial grasses ? — 675. The
most valuable of the artificial grasses ? Effect of clover roots on the
soil ?— 676. Soils best adapted to clover ?— 677- What is said of the
white or Dutch clover ?— 678. How is lucerne affected by the climate
of this country ?

QUESTIONS. 289

CHAPTER XX. — 679. How arc plants used in the arts divided ? — 680.
What is the only plant cultivated for its oil in this country ? — 681. In
what climates does flax succeed best ? The soils best suited to it ? —

682. How does the object of raising flax determine the soil for it ? —

683. What manures are good for it ? — 684. What preparation of the
land ? — 685. The quantity of seed to be sown ? — 686. Effect of quantity
of seed on the fibre ? Kind of fibre most valuable ? — 687. How is the
seed sown ? What care is needed after the flax is up ? — 688. How is
the plant gathered ?— 689. If allowed to ripen seed how much may be
expected per acre ?— 690. What is said of hemp?— 691. The soil
best adapted to hemp ? — 692. How is it sown ? When and how is it
harvested ? — 693. What other plants are used in our manufacturing
industries ?— 694. What are the varieties of osier willows ?— 695. What
soils are adapted to the willow ? — 696. How is the land prepared ? —
697. How are the cuttings set ? What attention is needed ?— 698. The
soil best suited to broomcorn ? How is the seed sown ? — 699. When
and how is it harvested ? — 700. What are the varieties of the hop ? —
701. The soil best adapted to it? — 702. What manures maybe used?
— 703. How is the hop propagated ? — 704. What is said of the poles to
be used ? — 705. When are hops gathered and how ? — 706. How is
tobacco cultivated ? — 707. By what is the plant attacked ? — 708. When
is it topped ? — 709. When gathered and how ?

CHAPTER XXI. — 710. Rotation of crops ? Give an example. Object
of rotation ? The reason for rotation ? First important principle in
the rotation of crops ? The second? The third ? Fourth? — 711. Is
the order of rotation important ? — 712. What may be saved by rotation ?
How must the succession be arranged ? Show, by an example on the
black-board, how this may be done. — 713. How may the rotation be
made still longer ? How may time be saved ? How often should the
ground be moved ? Order of ploughing ? Give reasons for the seven
years' course ? Substances most needed for the restoration of fertility ?
Best manures ? — 714. On clover ? Give an example of successful use
of gypsum ? — 715. A fallow ? When may a field lie fallow ? Show
how it should be managed ? — 716. Weathering ? Its uses ? Where
are these salts ? — 717. Who have allowed thoir fields to be fallow ?
What has rendered it less necessary ? What substitute ? Why should
the rotation vary with the soil ? — 718. How is a farmer to know the
best course of rotation ? Should it vary with the object the farmer has
in view ? — 719. Give, upon the black-board, the 1st course laid down,
with the reasons. 2d. 3d. 4th. 5th. Give a longer course, and the
reasons. — 720. Norfolk rotation? Give the favorite French course,

290 QUESTIONS.

with the reasons. Give an English course for clayey soils. For rich
loams. What fact should essentially vary these courses when adopted
in America ? — 721. What may sometimes be substituted for a rotation
of crops ?

CHAPTER XXII.— 724. What is the first of the harvest? What
determines the proper time for cutting grass ? — 725. When should it be
cut for feeding to milch cows ? — 726. When to obtain the greatest
quantity and the best quality of milk ? — 727. When to feed to store
cattle ? — 728. When do grasses attain their full development ? What
constituents of grass are of the highest value ? — 729. What change
takes place after flowering ? — 730. Why not let the seed ripen ? — 731.
How is grass cut? What is the advantage of the mowing machine- r
— 732. What further advantage is there ? How is grass treated after
being cut ? What is the hay tedder ?— 734. How is it gathered ? What
is the advantage of the hors.e-rake ? — 735. On what does the time
required to cure grass depend ? When may it be got in ? — 736. What
is the effect of over-drying ? — 737. In what does the true art of hay
making consist ? — 738. How may injury in the mow be prevented? —
739. What is the result of experience in drying hay ? — 740. When
should clover be cut and how cured ? When may it be put in ? — 741.
How does clover compare with other hay ? For what is it most
valuable ? — 742. How may it be saved from injury ? — 743. When
should lucerne be cut and why ? — 744. When is the proper time to cut
wheat and rye ? When then ? How are they cut ? — 745. How are oats
and barley cut ? — 746. When should Indian corn be gathered ? What
is the custom ? — 747. When should potatoes be dug and how ? What
is the result of exposure to the sun ? — 748. What is the effect of expo
sure to the sun on the surface while growing ? — 749. When are turnips
harvested and how ? — 750. When should carrots be taken out of the
ground and how ? — 751. .What is said of mangolds ?

CHAPTER XXIII. — 752. What is disease ? How is it brought about ?
— 753. What is a predisposing cause of disease? — 754. What is an
exciting cause ? — 755. What are some of the diseases often ascribed to
parasites ? — 756. What is mildew ? — 757. What is the appearance of
wheat mildew ? What plants does the white mildew attack ? — 758.
How does white mildew first appear? How does it extend? — 759.
What is the remedy ? — 760. Is wheat mildew the same as that of the
vine? — 761. What varieties of wheat are most affected with it? — 762.
What gives it the name of rust ? — 763. On what soils is wheat most
liable to be attacked t — 764. What is the remedy ? — 765. When may

QUESTIONS. 291

salt 436 applied? — 766. What is the disease called smut? — 767. How
does it affect the grain ? — 768. On what soils is smut most common ? —
769. How may its presence in wheat be known ? — 770. What are the
remedies ? — 771. How may the seed be prepared ? — 772. What is the
disease called canker ? — 773. What is this disease caused by ? — 774.
What is its peculiarity ? — 775. How is it propagated ? — 776. What is
the condition of the diseased grain at the time of ripening ? — 777. How
does it appear in threshing ? — 778. How may it be guarded against? —
779. How may awash be prepared for the seed ? — 780. What is blight ?
—781. What is ergot?— 782. What is it caused by ?— 783. Where does
it prevail ? — 784. What is the remedy ? — 785. How are trees often
injured? — 786. When may fruit trees be pruned? — 787. How should
wounds on trees be treated ? — 788. What are some of the mos£ injurious
insects ? — 789. What are cut worms ? — 790. How may they be
destroyed ? — 791. What other insects destroy them ? — 792. What is
said of ground beetles ? — 793. What of ichneumon flies ? — 794. How
may the apple-tree caterpillar be guarded against ? When are the eggs
laid and how do they appear ? — 795. How may trees be protected from
the canker worm ? — 796. What about the codling moth ? Remedy ? —
797. What does the curculio attack ? How may the bitten fruit be
known ? What prevention is named ? — 798. What of the apple-tree
borer ? How does it enter the tree ? — 799. When are the eggs hatched ?
How is it checked ?— 800. What are the remedies ?— 801. What does
the striped beetle attack ? How may its ravages be prevented ? — 802.
How may squash bugs be destroyed ? — 803. What of the onion maggot ?
—804. Of the wheat midge ?— 805. The dor bug ?— 806. Of the locust-
tree borer? How is it destroyed ? — 807. Of the rose bug ? — 808. How
may the spring beetle be recognized ? Of what is it the parent ? — 809
What of the striped potato beetle ? Remedy ? — 810. The oak pruner ?
How prevented?— 811. Of the mealworm? — 812. Of scale insects on
the bark? Remedy? — 813. Of the chinch bug? How destroyed? —
814. The army worm ? Its enemies ? How checked ? Their history ?
—815. What of plant lice ? On wheat ?

CHAPTER XXIV.— 816. Of what does the stock of the farm consist?
— 817. Objects of keeping horned cattle ? — 818. How divided ?— 819.
How many distinct breeds in this country ? — 820. Their qualities ? —
821. Of the Ayrshires ? Why kept? Their milk?— 822. Of the Jer
seys ? — 823. What of the Short-horns ? — 824. Where did they origi
nate ?— 325. What of the Devons ?— 826. Of the Herefords ?— 827.
What of the common stock ? — 828. Why should only good stock be
kept on the farm ?— 829. On what does success depend ?— 830. Nutri-

292 QUESTIONS.

ment animals require ? — 831. Difference in a full grown and a growing
animal ? — 832. Treatment of young stock ? — 833. Common mistake ? —
834. Consequence ?— 835. Treatment of cows ?— 836. What is of most
importance ?— 837. What of moist food in winter ? — 838. How fed to
produce the greatest quantity ? — 831). For the best quality ? — 840. How
to feed for cheese making? — 841. What of the manner of milking? —
842. What is the best form of the animal to fat ?— 843. How should
fattening animals be treated ? — 844. State an experiment on sheep. —
845. How may the greatest quantity of manure be made ? — i>4(>.
Difference in ground and unground food ? — 847. How is a fat animal
prepared for the butcher ? — 848. What is the average loss or offal ? —
849. Qualities of working cattle ? — 850. Comparison of ox and horse
labor ? — 851. How are horses classified ? — 852. Effect of standing in
dark stables ?— 853. How treated ?— 854. What of barns and stables ?—
855. How is good ventilation secured ? — 85G. Of the temperature of
stables ?— 857. What is said of treatment of animals ?— 858. What of
the breeds of sheep ? — 859. Most profitable for special localities ?—
860. Comparative profit of raising mutton? Of cost of fences ? — 861.
Of shelter ?— 862. State an experiment in keeping sheep ?— 863. What
is said of feeding ? — 864. Amount of food consumed ? — 865. How may
sheep be protected ? — 866. Of the breeds ? On what will the choice
depend ?— 867. What of the food of swine ?— 868. What of poultry ?—
869. What of their food in winter ?— 870. What of the varieties of
fowls ?

CHAPTER XXV.— 871. On what will success depend ?— 872. What
of choice of location ? Advantage of good land ? — 873. What is said
of the location of buildings ? — 874. Of the construction of fences ? —
875. Of the economy of implements ? — 876. Of buying too many ? —
877. Of the more expensive ones ? How may they be'owned ? — 878.
How are farm tools injured ? — 879. What is said of the tool room ? —
880. What mistake is often made ? On what does profit depend ? — 881.
What is the result of trying to do too much ? — 882. What is said of
protecting crops ?— 883. Of the care of growing corn ? — 884. What is
true of every crop ? — 885. A source of great loss ? — 886. How is the
farmer to keep up the fertility of his land ? — 887. How are knowledge
and skill required ? — 888. How is a compost formed ? — 889. The most
direct way of increasing fertility ? — 890. Economy of green fodder ?
Of manure ?— 891. Of losses from badly wintering stock?— 892. What
of waste land along walls ?— 893. Of allowing stones to lie in piles on
the lot ?— 894. What is said of a garden ? Economy of it ?— 895. Of a
hot-bed ?— 896. When is it made ?— 897. How is the frame constructed?

QUESTIONS. 293

— 898. How are the sashes put on ? — 899. What exposure is best ?
When is the bed started ? — 900. Best heating material ? How put in ?
—901. How may the heat be protracted? — 902. Management ?— 903.
How is the seed sown ?— 904. How may too great heat «be avoided ? —
905. How else ? — 906. How may the temperature be determined ? — 907.
What caution is required? — 908. How may cucumbers, &c., be planted?
— 909. What plants may be started in the hot-bed ? — 910. What hot
beds are most easily regulated ? — 911. What is said of fruit culture ? —
912. Of young trees ? Of other crops ? — 913. How is a too thrifty
growth chocked? How is the growth promoted ? What of spading up
around trees? — 914. What of pruning? Best time? — 915. When
should apples and pears be gathered ? Effect of ripening on the fruit ?
— 91(J. What is said of the strawberry? — 917. Of the raspberry and
blackberry ? — 918. Of the gooseberry ? Value of mulching ?— 919.
When should grapes be set? When pruned? Object the first year
or two ?— 920. Effect of ornamental trees ?— 921. When should wheat
and other grains be harvested ? — 922. Effect of ripening ?— 923. What
is said of oats? — 924. Of keeping correct accounts? — 925. What
accounts should be kept ? Result ?

CHAPTER XXVL— 926. What of the importance of good manage
ment in the house ?— 927. Of the dairy ?— 928. Of the care of milk ?—
929. What is milk ? Its composition ?— 930. The proportions of the
various constituents ? — 931. How does it appear under the microscope ?
What are the globules ? Their size ? — 932. Weight of milk ? Effect of
heat and cold ? What change takes place when at rest ? — 933. What is
the cause of a whitish appearance in cream ? — 934. Why is churning
necessary ? What sometimes takes place ? — 935. Effect of heat on
milk ? — 936. What is the percentage of cream ? Which is lighter, rich
or poor milk ? — 937. Temperature of new milk ? Depth in the pan)
Temperature of the dairy-room ? — 938. Why is the strictest cleanliness
necessary ? — 939. What of the first cream that rises ? How may the
best cream and butter be obtained? — 940. Of the dairy house? — 941.
How should the room be located in the house ? What of cellars ? —
942. Of the atmosphere near cellar bottoms? Where should milk
stand to facilitate the rising of cream ? — 943. Describe a convenient
form of milk stand.— 944. How long should milk stand for cream ?
What of churning ? How may cream be kept ? — 945. What is said of
butter ? At what temperature of the cream is the best quality of butter
procured ? How much does the temperature rise in churning ? How
may the cream be brought to the proper temperature ? — 946. What of
churning ? — 947. What form of churn is mentioned ? What is it that

294 QUESTIONS.

brings the butter ? — 948. What is the best way of working butter ?
What of the sponge and cloth ? What of butter made in this way ? —
949. How might a simple butter-worker be made ? — 950. How is butter
prepared for market? Effect of over-salting? — 951. How may new
boxes be prepared so as not to taint butter ?— 952. How might both
nice butter and cheese be made ? — 953. What is cheese made from ? —
954. From what substances may it be made ? How does the acid act ?
— 955. What is the process of making cheese ?--956. What is said of
the rennet ? What of the pressing ? — 957. What of the quality of
dairy produce? — 958. What is said of bread making?— 959. Of the
flour ? — 960. Composition of wheat ? — 961. What is starch ?— 962.
What of gluten ? How may it be washed from dough ? — 963. What is
bran ?— 964. Effect of water on flour ? What is dough ?— 965. Effect
of yeast on dough ? — 966. What makes bread light and spongy ? What
takes place when dough is put into the oven ? — 967. What is yeast ? —
968. What changes does it produce ? What checks rising in the oven ?
— 969. What change takes place in the bread ? Is stale bread actually
drier than new ? Which is the more healthful ? — 970. How does the
gluten retain water ? — 971. How does the value of flour depend on the
amount of gluten ? — 972. State an experiment with different flour ? —
973. How much water does flour in its natural state contain ? How
much bread will a hundred pounds of flour make? — 974. How does the
bran compare with flour ? — 975. What of rye flour ? Rye bread ? —
976. Why is wheat flour preferred to rye ?— 977. Of Indian meal ?— 978.
The most common modes of cooking meats ? What does beef lose in
boiling? Mutton? — 979. What per cent, of water in beef? What in
beef corresponds with the gluten of bread ? In what does the differ
ence consist? — 980. What is fibrin? How is fat deposited? — 981. To
what is the loss in cooking due ? What is the juice of meat ? — 982.
How is it preserved ? — 983. How would much of the richness of meats
be lost ? — 984. How does the case differ in preparing broths and beef
tea ? — 985. On what does the process of soap making depend ? — 986.
The difference between soft and hard soaps ? — 987. How is castile soap
made ? — 988. What of rosin or yellow soaps ? — 989. On what do the
cleansing properties of soap depend ? — 990. Why does water without
soap often fail to cleanse ? — 991. How is home to be made attractive ?—
992. What is calculated to secure this end ?

INDEX.

Page.

Acclimation often difficult, 33

Accounts, importance of keeping, 254

Acetous fermentation, 117

Acids, combinations of, 62, 65, G6

Adhesion, force of, 19,20

Agriculture, definition of, •

Air, moisture in the, 37, 140

Air, weight of the, 6, 26, 27, 28

Albumen in the body, 71

Alkali, properties of, 63,271,272

Alimentary plants, 55, 56

Alumina, abundance of, 78, 79

Aluminum, basis of clay, 65, 79

Amaryllis family, the, 54

Amendments for special soils, . • 94, 95

Ammonia essential to food of plants, . . .11, 12, 39, 59, 63, 103, 107
Animal heat sustained by combustion, . . . ; . . 13

Animal life, force of, . . • . . V . . . 20

Animal fibrin essential part of muscle, 71, 269

Animals, treatment of, 239, 247

Apples, ripening of, 252

Apple-tree caterpillar, mode of destroying, 223, 224

Apple-tree borer, protecting trees from the, 225, 226

Argillaceous or clay soils, 75, 78, 94

Army worm, ravages of the, 230, 231

Arrow-root, starch in, , 68

Artichoke, culture and qualities of the, 187

Artificial system, ......... . 50

Ashes of plants, 61,104,105,203

Atmosphere, elements of the, 37, 39, 87, 96, 97, 141

Atmosphere, phenomena of the, 31

Attraction of gravitation, 19

Ayrshires, origin and characteristics of the, ...... 232, 233

Barley, soils adapted to, 168, 169

Barometer, use of the, 24, 26, 28

26

296 INDEX.

Page.

Bases, oxides of metals, 14

Beans, culture and varieties of, . . . . . . . . 179, 174

Bedding for cattle, 119

Beef, loss of, in cooking, 269, 270

Beet, culture and varieties of the, » . . 182, 183

Biennials, . .,'.,. . . 50

Blackberry, cultivation of the, • . . • • •• . . . 252

Blight in plants, . . \ 219, 220

Blood, vitalizing the, 12

Blood, composition of, . 114

Boiling of water, . . ... . . •. . . . 25, 36

Bones, composition of, . . . • . . . . . . . 114

Bran, nutritive qualities of, . .. . 268

Bread making, principles of, .... . •. . . . 264, 265, 268

Breathing, process of, . . . v. . . v . . . . 12,13

Broomcorn, cultivation of, ......... 197, 198

Brush drains, construction of, . . ... . . ... . 139, 140

Buck-wheat family, the, . . . . 54

Buckwheat, culture of, . . ^ . . . .- . . .158,171

Bulbs, planting of, . .'..". 147,151

Burning over lands, . , . . . 132, 135, 137

Butter, making and qualities of, . . . . . . . 260, 261, 262

Butter packing, . ...... . . . . . 262

Butter worker, form of the, . .... .. '. . . . . 261

Cabbage and its culture, .• 52,182,250

Calcareous rocks and soils, 75, 76, 79, 88

Calyx of the flower, . ... . ' . . • . . . 46

Canker-worm, protection against the, . . . . . . . 224

Capillary attraction, . ... . ...... , ' . 17, 42, 133

Capital, necessity for, . . . . . . . . . -1) 245

Carbon and carbonates, . . . * « . 14,60,65,102,103,105
Carbonic acid, combinations and action of, . . 11, 15, 20, 39, 59, 90, 128

Carrots and their culture, 53, 183, 184, 185, 213

Caseine or cheesy matter in milk, . .... . . 71, 255, 256, 262, 263

Cells of the plant, 57

Cellulose or woody fibre, 67, 208, 254

Cellar, bottom of the, . . , 119, 258, 259

Cereals and their culture, , .55, 158, 162, 164, 167, 169

Changes in the atmosphere, . . • 30, 35, 37

Changes of plants in maturing, . , . . . . .166,253,254

Charcoal or carbon, 15, 60

Cheese, process of making, 263, 264

< 'In niir.-il analysis, .....6, 75

Chemistry, what it teaches, 6, 75

INDEX. 297

Page.

Chinch-bug destroyed by birds, 230

Chloride of sodium, 64

Chlorine, poisonous qualities of, 64

Chlorophyl, color of plants due to, . • « • . • • . . 71

Churning, process of, ..•••••... 260

Citric acid, taste of oranges due to, ....... 65

Classification of plants, .......... 50

Clay and clay soils, . . ... . 41, 78, 79, 87, 145, 154, 159, 193

Cleanliness, importance of, . . 117, 118

Clearing, process of, „ 135, 137, 141

Climate, influence of, 32, 33

Clouds, definition of, . . 37

Clover and its culture, . .... 52, 87, 188, 189, 192, 193, 211

Coal the remains of vegetation, . 60

Codling-moth, ravages of the, . ' . 224, 225

Cohesion, attraction of, 20

Color of leaves, 71, 72

Color of the soil, effect of, . 89

Colza, cultivation of, 69, 206

Combustible elements, . . . . . Y .... 60

Combustion due to oxygen, .'.. . .. . . . . 7

Composite family of plants, . . . 53

Composts, formation of, . . . ... . 125, 126, 127, 246, 247

Conduction of heat, 18

Copper in the ashes of plants, '."•'.' 65

Copperas a disinfectant, 102

Cotyledonous plants, . . ... • . . . . 48, 49

Crops, protection of, 245, 246

Cruciferous or cress family, the, . 52

Crust of the earth, formation of the, 74

Culinary roots, culture of, 177, 180, 182, 187

Cultivation, benefits of, . 56, 57

Cultivator, use of the, 145, 155

Curculio, ravages of the, 225

Currants and their cultivation, 53, 251

Cut-worm, ravages of the, . 222, 246

Dairy, management of the, \. . . . 255, 263

Decay, how produced, 15, 117

Decomposition, process of, 10, 116, 117

Deep ploughing, effect of, 40, 131, 132, 143

Deepening the soil, 142, 143, 157, 184

Definite proportions, law of, 9

Devon cattle, characteristics of the, . . . . .*. . 233
Dew, formation of, . 31, 32

298 INDEX.

Page.

Dicotyledonous plants, . 48, 54

Diseases of plants, . 214,215

Digging, process of, . ..,..;. . * • . .130,144

Diluvial soils, . . ...... . . . . . 89, 90

Disinfectants, the most common, 122

Diversity of climate, . ... • »*t. . . • . • 33, 34

Drainage, objects and<effect of, ... 41, 42, 43, 93, 95, 130, 137, 140, 141
Drains, construction of, . . .' . . . . 42,43,137,139,140

Drill sowing, advantages of, . ..... ... 155, 162, 1G5, 197

Drought, mode of guarding against, . . . . . 40, 43, 140, 191

Earth, elements of the, . . ... • . . . .74,75,96,99

Eight elements in the soil, . ..... ..... . . 124

Electricity and its manifestations, . ..... . 16, 20, 22, 23, 38

Elements of plants and soils, . . . . . . .- . 67,96,124

Embryo of the plant, . . . . ... ... . 47, 48

Endosmose, definition of, .......... 58

Ergot found in rye and grasses, -. .. . . '..-.. .168,215,221

Essential elements in the soil and plant, .... . . . 124, 203

Evaporation, effect of, . ........ . . . 20, 40

Excess of water in the soil, . . . . ...» 40, 41, 43, 137, 141

Exhaustion of the soil, . . .. ..' .. .... . . .91,204

Exosmose, . •' . • ..... ..•.. . • • 58

Expansion by heat, . ... ...... . . . 24

Fahrenheit's thermometer, '....... . . . . 25

Fallow, object of, . . . . * 204, 205

Farm, location of the, . . ... . ._'.-'. . . 243

Farm buildings, location of, . . . • . . . . 243

Farm stock, management of, '. . '. . . IT. . .232,235,247

Fanning, profits of, . .242,245,255

Families of plants, . . . . . . ... . . 51

Feeding, for special purposes, . ... . . 181, 235, 236, 237, 240, 241

Fee. ling, experiments in, . .. .• . . ." . . .236,240,241

Fences, economy of, ........... 243, 244

Fermentation, process of, . 117

Fertility of the soil, 90,91,160,247

Fertilizers, economy of, . . . . 96, 99, 104, 106, 109, 115, 125, 246

Fibrin in the system, . . . . . . . . . . . . 70, 71, 269

Flax and its culture, . ........ . .52, 194, 195, 196

Flesh, composition and uses of, " ...... • . . • • 112

Flour, variations in quality of, . . . -. 264,267,268

Flower, organs of the, .......... 46

Fluorine, corrosive power of, 66, 67

Fogs and clouds, . 37

INDEX. 299

Page.

Food, in proportion to weight, 234, 235, 237, 241

Forage plants, culture of, 56, 188, 190, 193, 247

Forest, soil of the, 90

Forest trees, effect of, 95, 98

Freezing, process of, 25, 37, 81

Fruit and its culture, 47, 251

Furrow slice, turning of the, * . .142,143,145

Garden mould, richness of, 82

Gases of the air, * 6, 8, 11, 18

Geine or humus, ........... 15

Genus and its divisions, 51

Germination of the plant, .... 47, 48, 146, 148, 149, 153,- 154

Geology, objects of, 75

Glauber's salt, formation of, . 63

Gluten and its composition, . . . „ . . 70, 71, 264, 265, 267, 268
Gneiss, composition of, .......... 76

Gooseberry, cultivation of the, . 253

Grains, time of harvesting the, 169, 170, 253, 254

Granite, composition of, . . • . • . . . . . . 76, 77

Grapes, time of setting and pruning, , 253

Grasses and their culture, . . . . .55, 188, 192, 207

Grasses, curing of the, 210, 211

Grasses, time of cutting, .-...-... 207,208

Grasses, species of in mixture, . . . . . . .189,190,191

Gravitation, attraction of, •.-....... . . . . 19, 20

Greenness of leaves, to what due, . 71

Green manures, plants best fo'r, 108, 109, 111

Greenstone rocks, disintegration of, 75, 76

Guano, origin and uses of, 122, 180

Gum, varieties of, 68

Gypsum or plaster, 15, 96, 102, 117

Hail, formation of, 38

Hair, use of as a manure, . . . . . . • • . . . 113

Hard water, how to make soft, ........ 102

Harrow, use of the, 142, 145, 155

Harvest, time of the, 166, 169, 170, 207, 209, 211, 213

Hay crop, uses of the, 207,208

Hay, curing of, 209, 210, 211

Health, effect of noxious vapors on, ....... 127

Heat, diffusive nature of, 12, 16, 18, 24, 25, 31

Hemp, soils adapted to, 196

Hereford cattle, characteristics of, 234

Hoar frost, formation of, 32

26*

300 INDEX.

Page.

Hoofs, value of for manure, . . . - 113

Hop, varieties and culture of the, . • . • . . . . 198, 199

Horse-hoe, use of the, . - ;. . • . . . . . .162,163

Horses, treatment of, . .. . . . .. . * . . 183,238,239

Hot-bed, construction of a, . . . ... . 248, 249, 250

Humic acid, . . 15, l(i

Humus, . . * . . . • . .'•;*.. .15, 10, DT, 98

Hydrogen, properties of, 8

Hygrometer, use of, . . . ^ ... . . . 24, 29

Ice, properties and use of, 35

Ichneumon-flies attack other insects, . ... . . . 222, 22-3

Implements used on the farm, . . . .... .130,141,181,244

Indian corn and its culture, . * . . ; .55, 158, 161, 163, 212, 24G
Indian corn, planting of, . . . . .... . 155,159,160,1(12

Indian corn, selection of seed of, .... . . . . 150,1(53

Inorganic fertilizers, enumeration of, ....... 48, 99

Insects injurious to certain crops, . . . ... • 201, 222, 225, 229

Iris family of plants, ........... 54

Iron, attraction of oxygen, . . . 7, 64

Irrigation, uses of, . . . . . * * . . . . 40, 95

Jelly of vegetables, . 68

Jersey cattle, characteristics of, ... : ..... 233

Kaolin, or porcelain clay, .". .. • • • • • 78

Kelp, manuring properties of, . . 63, 110

Kohl-rabi, culture of, . . . . .. '» . . .' 182

Lands, preparation of, ..,..'. 134,141,155,158,161,165,178
Latent heat in water, . . . . . .... . • 35

Law of nature, ...',. . . . 9

Leached ashes, value of,. . . . • • • • • . • 104

Leaf, structure and functions of the, .. . . . . 46,71,146,147

Leaves, as fertilizers, ...»••••••

Leguminous plants, cultivation of, 172, 173, 175

Lentil, soils adapted to the, . , . .' . . . . • • 176
Lichens, growth of, . . . . . '. . . . . 45, 55, 98, 124

Light, agency of, . . . . . . 16,20,21,22,146

Light soils, formation of, ....... ».*..*« .84,85

Lime in plants and soil, . • . • • . . • .61, 66, 99, 101, 1(55
Limestone rocks and soils, ..'•'•'. , . . . 75,79,88

Liquid manures, economy of, 119, 120, 204

Litter, best materials for, 119

Liquids, effect of warming, 19

INDEX. 301

Page.

Loss of manures, 123, 246

Lucerne, failure of, 193

Lye, mode of obtaining, .......... 62, 271

Magnesia, proportion of in wheat, 64, 66

Manganese in the ashes of plants, ........ 65

Mangolds, soils adapted to, * . 182

Mangolds, harvesting of, 182, 214

Manures, application and effect of, . . . 107, 152, 159, 178, 181, 184, 246
Manures, animal and vegetable, .... 96, 99, 112, 114, 115, 118

Manures, care of, . . ' . • 119, 121

Manures, mineral, . . . . . . . 100, 102, 104, 406, 108

Marl, effects of, . . . 101

Marsh mud, use of, . . . 88

Meats, cooking of, . . . . . '. 269, 270

Mica found in granite, . ..'..... . . . 91

Mica slate, structure of, , . . * ^ 76

Michigan plough, operation of the, 144

Mildew on plants, . . . .."... . .215,216,217
Milk, composition and treatment of, ..-.-. . . 115, 255, 256, 257

Milk stand, form of the, . . \ . . . . 259

Millet, varieties and culture of, 172

Mineral elements taken up by plants, "V--^. 66, 124

Mineral manures, . . . . . ^v ..... 99

Mist in the atmosphere, . . . . . % . . . . 37

Mixed manures, . . 115

Mixture of grasses for mowing and pasturage, .... 190, 191, 193

Moisture in the air, 16,24,29,37,141

Monocotyledonous plants, . 49, 54

Mould, formation of, 15

Mowing machine, economy of the, 209, 244

Muck, value of as an absorbent, 125, 127, 246

Natural families of plants, 50,51

Natural formation of soils, 80, 81

Neutral salts, form in which minerals enter plants, .... 63

Night, growth of plants in the, 21

Night shade family, 53

Nitrates of potash and soda, 106

Nitric acid, corrosive nature of, 11

Nitrogen, properties of, 6, 8, 9

Nitrogen in the soil, 144

Nitrogenous compounds of plants, 70, 208

Norfolk rotation, the famous, 206

Nourishment of plants, 96

302 . INDEX.

Page.
Oak family of plants, ....... . . . . 50, 51

Oats, climate and soils for, . • . - 169, 170

Oats, cultivation of, .. . '. 169, 170, 254

Oil of vitriol, formation of, .-. » ••• • • . . . 8

Onion maggot and fly, 226

Open drains, objections to, . • . • • • • • . . 137

Opposite electricities, . . ...... . . . 74

Orchis family of plants, .......... 54

Ores, elements in form of, . . . • • . . . . 74

Organic manures, division of, . 107, 108

Organs of plants, 45, 46, 47

Original types, modification of, 150, 151

Osiers, cultivation of, '•••'. . . . 196, 197

Osmotic action, . : . 18, 58, 72

Ox and horse labor, ........ .' . 238

Oxalic acid in sorrel, . . . . 66

Oxidation or rusting, . ...-._*• . . . 7

Oxides, how formed, ...... .~ ... 7

Oxygen, action of, • 90

Oyster-shells, value of, . • ' . • • . • • • . ' • .. . 101

Parsnips, deep ploughing for, . . 143, 186, 214

Pasturage, mixture of grasses for, 135, 189, 190, 191

Pea culture and varieties of the, 175, 176

Pea weevil, remedy against the, • . . . 176

Pears, time to gather, . • «•• ... . . 252

Peat, mode of using, . . . . . . . • • • V . 125, 126

Petal of the flower, . . . . . . .;.'.. . ' - 46

Phenomena of the atmosphere, • • . . . . . . 31

Phosphate of lime, ........... 61

Phosphates in plants, . . . . * . . . . . 65

Phosphorus, appearance of, . • • • • . . . 61

Pine family of plants, ......... . 54

Plaster of Paris, ......... 15,96,102,117

Planting, depth of, . . . . 154, 162

Planting, time of, 153, 162

Planting trees, effect on climate of, 95

Plant lice on wheat, . ,• '. . . . . • . . . 231

Plants, absorption and exhalation of, 40,146

Plants, d«-v«-l<,i,inent of, £. - . . 50,147,177,213

Plants, origin of, . . • . .... . . . 147, 149, 150

Plough, use of the, . • 142, 155, 159, 162

Plough the subsoil, 143, 144

Ploughing, operation of, 130, 131, 132, 143, 144, 159, 184

Plumule of the plant 48, 49

INDEX. 303

Page.

Poisonous gases, 127, 128, 129

Pollen of the flower, 46, 47

Porphyry, hardness of, .......... 76

Potato, the wild, 56

Potato, mode of raising the, . . . .'.-.. . 177, 178, 179, 213

Potash in ashes, . . 15, 62

Potash plants, ' 66

Poultry, profits of, . . . - 242

Protean substances, . . . . . • . . ... . 70

Pruning, best time for, ........ 221,251,252,253

Pudding stone rocks, ........... 76

Purifiers, use of, 122

Quality of manures, . . . . . . .v . %. . 118

Quartz, composition of, . . . . . . . . . . 91

Quicklime, action of, .......... 100

Radiation of heat, . . . . . . . . .19,31

Rain, cause of, . . . . 37, 38

Raspberry, cultivation of the, . *• ., • • • • • • • • 252

Reaper, use of the, . . . . . .... . . . 212

Remedy for exhaustion, 97

Rennet, preparation of, .......... 263

Richest soils contain all ingredients, . » i. . . 84

Rocks, decomposition of, • .__ '• .; . . - . . 124

Rockweed as a manure, . ...... . . . . . 110

Roller, use of the, . . . . . .... 145, 146, 155, 170, 192

Root of the plant, . . . . . . ... . . 44, 157

Roots, culture of, as preparation of land, 166

Rotation of manures, 207

Rotation, principles of, 200, 201

Rotation, the Norfolk, .......... 206

Rush family of plants, .....,- 54

Rye, varieties and uses of, 167, 168, 212, 268

Sago palm, starch in the, 68

Salt as a fertilizer, 107,108

Saltpetre, importance of, in agriculture, 15

Salts, union with acids, 14, 15, 63

Sandstone, composition of, 77

Sandy soils, origin of, 77, 84, 85, 86

Sap, changes of, 46

Sowing, time of, 201, 202

Sea plants, manuring qualities of, 110

Seed-bed, preparation of the, 156, 157, 192, 199

304 INDEX.

Page.

Seed, fertility of the, 47

Seed, depth of covering, .......... 192

Seed, quantity of, 152,166,167,170,181

Seed, selection of, . . . . . . .147, 149, 150, 151, 163, 190

Seed sower, use of the, . . . .> „ i . . 154,155,165,169,197

Seeds, change of, . . . * . ". . . . . .149,150

Seeds, choice of, . . . . ... 147, 149, 150, 151, 163, 190

Seeds, germination of, ........ 145, 147, 148, 153

Seeds, steeping of, ....... . 153, 161, 182, 184. 218

Seeds, vitality of, 149, 184

Seven fold rotation, ........... 201, 202

Sheep, breeds of, ....... m . . , . 239, 240, 241

Sheep, feeding and management of, . . . . » * .18, 240, 241

Sheep, feeding of turnips to, . 181

Shell lime from the oyster, » *. . . 101

Short-horn cattle, characteristics of, ........ 233

Shrubs, characteristics of, . . ». ». . * . .• ... 55

Sienite, composition of, . . . . . . . . . . 70

Signs of rain, . . , „ • . . 28, 29

Silex in the straw of grains, ......... 62

Silica plants, why so called, . . . . • . * . . 66

Silicious soils and rocks, . . . . ... • . . 75

Simplest plant, power of the, . . . . J* . . . . . 57

Smut in plants, cure for, . 217, 218

Snow, protection afforded by, . .. . . . .. . 38

Soap, manufacture and cleansing properties of, .... 62, 271, 272

Soda found in ashes of sea plants, ........ 63

Soil, absorptive power of the, . . . ... •'.. . 41

Soil, fertility of the, . . . »'.'.. . . 90,91,152

Soil, best quality of, . . . . . ... . . - • . • »^ . 84

Soil, mechanical condition of the, . . . . 134,140, 141, 143, 145, 164

Soil, moisture in the, . , 137, 141, 153

Soil, nitrogen in the, ...» ». • » 144

Soil, temperature of the, .. • 141,144

Soot as a manure, ............ 105

Sowing, early and late, 153, 157, 171, 176

Solving, modes of, 154, 165, 169

Sowing, thin and thick, 152, 156, 166, 172

Spade, use of the, 142

Species, division of genera into, ........ 51

Springs, sources of, • •'!•'

Sprout, bursting of the, .......... 48

S'|u:i^li Im^, destruction of, 220

Starch, peculiarities of, .......... 07, us

Stable, cleanliness of the, 13, 117, 118

INDEX.

Page.
Stem of the plant, 45, 49

Stock, object of keeping, 232,233,235,247

Stock, breeds of, 232,233

Stock, loss in slaughtering, • • 238

Stooking of corn, . . . x i. ^ ( * 103, 104

Stones, removal of, . , •"- 136, 145, 248

Stone drains, mode of laying, . • • » . . . . .138,139
Strawberry, culture of the, ..•••«<••• 252
Streams, origin of, ....«.•*«... 39

StriK-ture of the earth, ..«••«.... 74

Stumps, n-inoval of, '.. 135,136

Subsoil ploughing, . . ... « -*• - "* • - .133,143,144

Subsoil, influence of, on vegetation, 92, 93, 143

Substitutes for stable manure, . -• 124,125

Sulphate of potash and soda, . '., .. • '• . . . . 102

Sugar, characteristics of, . 69

Sulphuretted hydrogen, offensive odor of, .'..". . . 12, 113, 127
Sulphur, common, in vegetables, . . . . . . 8, 61, 102

Sulphuric acid in plants, . . . . • ... . . 8, 63, 65, 102

Sun, light of the, . . . . . '."„•'* . . 17,20,22

Super-phosphate of lime, . . '• • * '*"'! . • • 106
Swamps, soil of, . . .-.-.,'«»•> i," . . 86, 88
Swede's, preparation of land for. . • '•"«'.* . . . 180
Swine, food for, . . ... . ... . . 241

Tannin, where found, . . . • • • • - . ... . 72

Temperature of the air, . . , . . . •-•'.•. 24,25,30
Temperature of cream, . . • . . • . . . . 260

Temperature of stables, ........ . . 239

Temperature of the dairy room, 257, 258, 260

Temperature of the soil, 141, 153, 154

Thermometer, construction of the, . « • _• ... . . 24, 25
Thunder storms, cause of, . • • * . . . . . . 38

Tile drains, % .'. •." . . . .138,139

Tillage, effect of, , . . . . .132,133

Tobacco, cultivation of, . . . • •". .. . . 199

Tool-room, importance of a, 245

Trap rock, composition of, 76

Transplanting, advantages of, 156, 157, 253

Trees, organs of, 49

Trees, pruning of, 221, 251, 252

Trees, transplanting of, 156, 157, 253

Trees, trunks of, 49

Tubi-rs. planting of, 147,177,213

Turnip, climate and soil adapted to the, 179, 180

306 INDEX.

Page.

Turnip, cultivation of the, 180, 181

Turnip, varieties of the, . 180, 181

Underdrains, construction of, 138

Undershrubs, what they are, 55

Unleached ashes, value of as a manure, . ..... . . 104

Vapor in the air, . . . . . . . . . . 6, 7, 36

Varieties, obtaining new, ...'.. 150, 151

Variations in temperature, . . . . . ... . . 30

Vegetable jelly, . . ... . . . . . . 67,68

Vegetable life, ...... 20

Vegetable manures, . . • • 108, 110, 111

Vegetable oils, peculiarity of, ......... 69

Ventilation, necessity of, . * . • . . 12, 13

Vetch sown with oats, . -. ....'. 177

Vinous fermentation, . . . . . . . . . 117

Warm soils, dryness of, . . • . • • • ... . . 89

Water, absorptive power of, 39

Water, effect of on soil, "... 137, 141

Water, removal of, . , . : . ... . . .... . 117, 139, 141

Water, three forms of, . .. . . . : -. • . . . . 35,36

Wastes of the farm, . . .. '.. . . .. . .245,246,248,253

Watering the manure heap, . . . • . . . . . 116, 119

Wax on plants, . . .-....,.. 69

Weather, changes of the, . . . • 24, 28, 29

Weathering, process of, . . , . 81

Weight of the air, ..... . ... . * . . . 8, 26

Weeds, use of as a manure, . .. .. ... . . . . 204

Wet lands, coldness of, . ....... . . .* . . 89

Wheat, composition of, .. ... .. ..'... . . 71,264,267

Wheat, cultivation of, . .. .. .. .. .. .165,166,212,216,253

Wheat, soils for, . -t ; . . . . . . . . . ... 164,216

Wheat sown in drills, . ..,...,... . . .155,165,166

Wheat, varieties of, . . 164, 216

Wheat midge, injury by the, 227

Willows and their culture, 54, 196, 197

Wind, indications of the, 6, 28, 30

Yeast, effect of, 266

Young stock, management ot, 234, 235, 247

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